University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Differentiated culturally relevant curriculum to affirm identity for gifted African American students

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Differentiated culturally relevant curriculum to affirm identity for gifted African American students

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Content GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 1

Differentiated Culturally Relevant Curriculum

to Affirm Identity for Gifted African American Students

by
Pamela D. Lovett

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2019

Copyright 2019 Pamela D. Lovett
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 2

Acknowledgements

I was blessed to have strong women as models who impressed upon my siblings and me,
the significance of education for Black people and its necessity for African American women.
My love for learning about African Americans and history were fueled by my passionately
political grandmother, Vasthia Rainey, who modeled for “us” that education was a political act
for Black people long before I read it in any text. My dearest mama always worked diligently to
provide us with opportunities, in and outside of school, to extend our learning and develop in the
arts. She took great pride in sharing that education was a priority for the Lovett children.
I would not have been able to complete the dissertation process without the support of
family and dear friends. Karla, big sister, thank you for funding my education and allowing me
to complete the degree. Glenn, I appreciate you taking care of things to provide me with time to
research and write. Brittaney, Carter, and Uyi, thank you for the hugs, calls and kisses, which
helped Auntie make it through. Daddy, always asking about my day and how school was going
helped keep me grounded in the work.
Dearest Kim, thanks for always keeping my spirits up and lending me your ear when I
needed it most. Heather, thank you for our lunch meetings and phone calls to offer your insight
and expertise on the process. Liz, I don’t know what I would have done without you! Your
kindness and support helped me care for Mama, manage at work, and prioritize what I needed to
do to get the dissertation done. And, last but not least, Dr. Jill Baker, your mentoring has always
been right on time! I learned so much from you about classroom organization as a brand new
teacher and now you are providing me lessons on what it means to show kindness and care as a
leader. Our meetings, your emails and your texts of support helped me make it through the final
stages of this process. I needed a kick-start to finish the last few chapters after Mama died and
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 3

knowing you were there, if I needed you, made the difference in my ability to complete my
chapters in preparation for my defense.
I would like to thank my committee members, Dr. Eugenia Mora-Flores and Dr. Angela
Hasan, for their suggestions, questions and support. But most importantly, I’d like to thank Dr.
Sandra Kaplan. My world changed my second year of teaching when I was sent to a training with
her on differentiating for advanced learners. My growth as an educator is a result of her teaching
and mentorship. Her recommendation to study the origins of Black education, along with gifted
education, has sparked a new passion to learn more about the history of African American
intellectualism and has expanded my understanding of ways to increase African American
student achievement. I am forever grateful.

GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 4

Dedication

All for Mama.

Pharella C. Lovett

April 20, 1934 – August 13, 2017

GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 5

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements ..........................................................................................................................2

Dedication ........................................................................................................................................4

List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………………….12
List of Figures……………………………………………………………………………………13
Abstract ..........................................................................................................................................14

Chapter One: The Problem ............................................................................................................15
Statement of the Problem ...................................................................................................18
Purpose of the Study ..........................................................................................................20
Significance of the Study ...................................................................................................21
Research Questions ............................................................................................................22
Conceptual Framework ......................................................................................................22
Methodology ......................................................................................................................26
Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations ....................................................................27
Organization of the Study ..................................................................................................27
Definition of Terms............................................................................................................28
Chapter Two: Literature Review ...................................................................................................30

Historical Framework ........................................................................................................30
Galton and the Beginnings of Eugenics .................................................................30
Terman and the Beginnings of Gifted Education ..................................................31
Literacy and Black Liberation ...............................................................................34
Schooling Versus Education ..................................................................................35
African American Intellectual Leadership .............................................................37
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 6

Dr. Anna Julia Cooper ...............................................................................38

W.E.B. Du Bois .........................................................................................40

Dr. Charles H. Thompson ..........................................................................42

Summary ................................................................................................................44
Intelligence Testing: Rebuttals and Research ....................................................................44
The Atlanta Conference of 1909 ............................................................................45
The Work of Dr. Horace Mann Bond ....................................................................47
The Work Witty and Jenkins .................................................................................48
Summary ................................................................................................................52
Expanding Opportunities for African American Gifted Students ......................................52
The Talent Search for Negro Youth .......................................................................52
Socio-Political Changes in the 1950s and 1960s ...................................................54
The Educational Policies Commission ......................................................54

Sputnik .......................................................................................................54

Conceptions of Giftedness .....................................................................................56
Multi-Dimensional Intelligence .................................................................57

Giftedness and Creativity ...........................................................................57

Renzulli’s Three-Ring Conception of Giftedness ......................................59

The Impact of Civil Rights Legislation .....................................................60

From Cultural Deficits to Cultural Assets ............................................................62
Summary ................................................................................................................64
Contemporary Issues in Educating African American Gifted Students ............................66
Institutional Factors ...............................................................................................66
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 7

Identification Procedures .......................................................................................67
Teacher Referral.....................................................................................................68
GATE Program Curriculum ...................................................................................69
Summary ................................................................................................................73
Psycho-social Influences ....................................................................................................74
Ogbu’s Ecological Theory .....................................................................................75
Stereotype Threat ...................................................................................................80
Racelessness ...........................................................................................................81
Acting White ..........................................................................................................82
Summary ................................................................................................................84
High Achieving African American Gifted Students ..........................................................85
College Students ....................................................................................................86
Male College Students ...........................................................................................87
Meyerhoff Scholars Program .................................................................................90
K-12 Students.........................................................................................................91
Summary ................................................................................................................96
Suggested Curriculum for African American Gifted Students ..........................................98
Culturally Relevant and Responsive Pedagogy .....................................................99
California’s GATE Standards ..............................................................................102
Depth and Complexity .........................................................................................103
Universal Concepts and Big Ideas ...........................................................105

Summary ..............................................................................................................107
Summary of Literature Review ........................................................................................107
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 8

Chapter Three: Methodology .......................................................................................................110

Statement of the Problem ...................................................................................................112
Purpose of the Study ...........................................................................................................113
Research Questions.............................................................................................................114
Conceptual Framework .......................................................................................................115
Research Design .................................................................................................................116
Rationale for a Case Study Methodology ............................................................117
Site Selection ......................................................................................................................119
Sample and Population .......................................................................................................119
Research Procedures ...........................................................................................................120
Instrumentation ...................................................................................................................121
Student Survey .....................................................................................................121
Curriculum Vignettes ...........................................................................................122
Data Collection ...................................................................................................................124
Data Analysis ......................................................................................................................125
Triangulation of Data ...........................................................................................126
Limitation and Delimitations ...........................................................................................126
Summary ..........................................................................................................................127
Chapter Four: Findings ................................................................................................................129

Methodology ....................................................................................................................131
Overview of the School District and Research Site .........................................................132
The BCUSD GATE Program...............................................................................133
Participant Demographics ................................................................................................134
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 9

Instrumentation ................................................................................................................135
Depth and Complexity .........................................................................................135
Findings for Research Question #1: What Are the Perceptions of African American
Gifted Students Regarding Their Participation in the GATE Program?..........................138

Student Perceptions of Program Participation .....................................................138
Student Perceptions of Peer Participation and Social Supports ...........................140
Student Perceptions of Identity and Racialized Peer Pressure.............................141
Perceptions About Culturally Relevant Content ..................................................143
Findings for Research Question #2: How do African American Gifted
Students Perceive the Use of Depth and Complexity in the Critical Analysis
of Culturally Relevant Text Material? .............................................................................144

Quantitative Data Analysis ..................................................................................145
Qualitative Data Analysis ....................................................................................146
Pre-Assessment Responses ......................................................................146
After-school Curriculum Sessions ...........................................................147
Use of prompts of Depth and Complexity ...............................................148
Themes Relating to Depth and Complexity .........................................................151
Theme 1: Drawing Conclusions About Power Relationships ..................151
Theme 2: Depth and Complexity Facilitated Student Discourse .............153
Theme 3: Reframing Their View .............................................................155
Analysis of Open-Ended Student Survey Questions ...........................................157

Question 30. How Does Depth and Complexity Support
You in Critically Analyzing Culturally Relevant Text? ..........................157

Question 31: How Does Using Depth and Complexity Influence
Your Understanding of African American Intellectuals? ........................160

Analysis of Assessment Results for the Curriculum Vignette .............................160
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 10

Research Question #3: How do African American gifted students
perceive their experiences with culturally relevant material in relationship to
creating and sustaining their identities as African American scholars? .............................165

Question 32: How Does Learning About African American
Intellectualism Influence Your Development as a Student Scholar in the
Accelerated Program? ..........................................................................................165

Identity Development...........................................................................................169

Summary of Findings .......................................................................................................171
Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations........................................................................175
Statement of the Problem .................................................................................................176
Key Findings ....................................................................................................................176
Research Question #1: What Are the Perceptions of African American
Gifted Students Regarding Their Participation in the GATE Program?..............176

Discussion ................................................................................................177

Research Question #2: How do African American Gifted
Students Perceive the Use of Depth and Complexity in the Critical Analysis
of Culturally Relevant Text Material? .................................................................178

Discussion ................................................................................................179

Research Question #3: How Do Gifted African American Students Perceive
Their Experiences With Culturally Relevant Material in Relationship to Creating
and Sustaining Their Identities as African American Gifted Scholars? ..............181

Discussion ................................................................................................182

Implications and Recommendations ................................................................................183
Teacher Preparation and Supports for Learning ..................................................184
Practice Recommendation .......................................................................185
Providing Culturally Relevant Experiences .........................................................186
Practice Recommendation .......................................................................186
Student Access to Depth and Complexity ...........................................................187
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 11

Practice Recommendation .......................................................................187
Research Recommendations ....................................................................188
Racialized Perspectives, Masculinity, and Academics ........................................189
Practice Recommendation .......................................................................189
Research Recommendation ......................................................................189
Conclusions ......................................................................................................................190
References………………………………………………………………………………………193
Appendix A. IRB Approvals........................................................................................................206

Appendix B. Introductory Letter..................................................................................................207

Appendix C. Student Survey........................................................................................................208

Appendix D. Curriculum Vignette .............................................................................................212

Appendix E. Lessons for After-school Curriculum Sessions ......................................................213

GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 12

List of Tables
Table 1. The California GATE Standards and Culturally Relevant Teaching ............................104
Table 2. The Prompts of Depth and Complexity .........................................................................106
Table 3. The Relationship Between Literature, Research Questions, and Instrumentation ........123
Table 4. Data Collection Procedures ...........................................................................................125
Table 5. Student Demographics ...................................................................................................135
Table 6. Student Perceptions of Program Participation ...............................................................139
Table 7. Student Perceptions of Peer Participation and Social Supports .....................................141
Table 8. Student Perceptions of Identity and Racialized Peer Pressure ......................................142
Table 9. Student Perceptions of Culturally Relevant Content .....................................................144
Table 10. Student Perceptions of Depth and Complexity ............................................................145
Table 11. Description of After-School Curriculum Sessions ......................................................148
Table 12. The Prompts of Depth and Complexity Utilized by Students During Curriculum
Sessions ........................................................................................................................150

Table 13. Use of the Prompts of Depth and Complexity on Student Survey Question 30 ..........157
Table 14. Student Responses to Student Survey Question 30 .....................................................158
Table 15. Use of Depth and Complexity on Student Survey Question 31 ..................................160
Table 16. Student Responses to Student Survey Question 31 .....................................................161
Table 17. Student Use of the Prompts of Depth and Complexity on the Curriculum Vignette ...163
Table 18. Student Responses to Student Survey Question 32 .....................................................166
Table 19. Student Responses to Curriculum Vignette Question 4 ...............................................168

GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 13

List of Figures
Figure A. A Conceptual Framework for Understanding Influences on African American
Gifted Students’ Self-Perceptions .................................................................................25

Figure B. Curriculum Vignette: Student Performance Task ........................................................162

GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 14

Abstract
This study explored and described African American gifted students’ perceptions of their
participation in a gifted program as well as their views of a differentiated, culturally relevant
curriculum and its relationship to their identities as gifted African American scholars. It
examined students’ views and experiences with racialized perceptions and peer pressure, and
also how curriculum can be utilized to support positive racial and academic identity
development. A mixed methods approach included a quantitative survey methodology and a
qualitative case study methodology.
Research revealed four themes: (1) the application of Depth and Complexity to African
American history supported students in drawing conclusions about power relationships, (2) the
use of Depth and Complexity facilitated student discourse and understanding, (3) opportunities
to engage in texts about African American intellectuals and historical events allowed students to
re-frame and expand their view of African American history, and (4) students learned about and
saw beneficial relationships between the lives of African American intellectuals and themselves.
The integration of gifted education and culturally relevant pedagogy provided differentiated
learning opportunities for African American gifted students, including: (a) the ability to increase
their understanding and use of the prompts of Depth and Complexity to analyze text; (b)
opportunities for engaging in critical thinking, argumentation, and the construction and re-
interpretation of knowledge; and (c) the development of multiple perspectives and critical
consciousness. The integration of gifted education and culturally relevant pedagogy supported
the academic and social-emotional development of this group of African American, gifted
middle school learners.
Keywords: African American, Black, gifted, achievement, identity development, perceptions,
middle school, differentiated, culturally relevant curriculum, Depth and Complexity
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 15

Chapter One: The Problem
With decades of research focused on identifying and serving gifted and talented African
American students, they continue to be significantly underrepresented in gifted programs (Davis
& Rimm, 1997; Ford, 1994; Ford & Grantham, 2003; Ford & Harris, 1996; Ford & Webb, 1994;
Morris, 2001). Factors that impact positive academic outcomes for these students are varied and
longstanding. Beginning in the early half of the 20th

century, research focused on the education
of African American gifted students was conducted in relation to broader social and historical
issues in the field of education and society.
Research on African American gifted students began in the 1920s with studies related to
intelligence testing and demonstrating giftedness among African Americans (Bond, 1924: Witty
& Jenkins, 1936). Later, research was influenced by studies focusing on African American
deficiencies (Moynihan, Rainwater, & Yancey, 1967; Jensen, 1969; Herrnstein & Murray, 2010);
this research was later framed in the context of cultural differences (Baldwin, 1987; Ford, 1994;
Frasier, Garcia, & Passow, 1994; Torrance, 1977b). After the passage of the Civil Rights Act of
1964, which influenced desegregation in schools, research turned to the role that educational
institutions played in creating barriers for African American gifted students (Borland, 2004;
Ford, 1994; Ford, Harris, Tyson, & Trotman, 2001; Frasier et al., 1995; Moore, Ford, & Milner,
2005). Research also explored the influence of race and culture on students’ academic
participation and achievement (Ford & Harris, 1996; Ford et al., 2001; Fordham & Ogbu, 1986;
Harmon, 2001; Henfield, Moore & Wood, 2008; Morris, 2001). Although structural and
institutional factors were given as reasons for these students' underrepresentation in gifted
programs, in the last forty years there has been an emphasis on the disconnect between students’
home and school cultures (Baldwin, 1987; Ford, 1994). Other researchers have focused on the
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 16

challenge for African American students to shift between their racial, ethnic and academic
identities to perform successfully at school. This body of research has focused on 1) their
inability to shift (McWhorter, 2000; Ogbu, 1992a, 1992b) and 2) their resistance to shifting
(Ford, 1994; Fordham & Ogbu, 1986; Kunjufu, 1988; Ogbu & Simons, 1998).
The most often cited research has emphasized conflicts students face based on perceptions
of a dichotomous relationship between being African American and academically achieving
(Fordham & Ogbu, 1986; Ogbu, 1978, 1992a, 2003; Ogbu & Simons, 1998). Although their
theories on academic disengagement and poor performance among African American students
are controversial, these researchers have found evidence to support ecological theories of
development and the impact of acting White.
Ogbu (1992a) explained that the lack of academic success for Black students was rooted in
their racial group’s caste-like status in the United States. He contended that, over time, the
African American community’s collective experiences resulted in the development of secondary
cultural characteristics, which make it more difficult and less desirable for the group to adapt to
the broader society. According to Ogbu (1992a), African Americans experienced discrimination
in the United States, especially in educational systems, and do not perceive that mainstream
systems are designed for or work to promote their growth and success. Therefore, there is a
distrust of public institutions and their leadership. As a result, Blacks disengage from schools,
believing that they are there to teach them to maintain their place in American political,
economic, and social systems (Du Bois, 1903b; Shujaa, 1994; Watkins, 2001; Woodson, 1933).
Over time, this oppositional stance has disrupted African Americans’ desire to engage and
participate in school, resulting in a deficit of academic skills and successful, same-raced
achievement models. Moreover, Ogbu (1992a) argued that the lack of exposure to successful,
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 17

same-race, ethnic role models who receive awards for their academic efforts has left African
Americans questioning the purpose of education. Consequently, African Americans began to see
school, and any behaviors related to academic rigor or achievement, as a realm that produces
success mainly for White Americans.
In addition, researchers have suggested a cultural factor in the underrepresentation of
gifted African Americans, stemming from their need to maintain ethnic and cultural
relationships; these relationships are more important than becoming academically proficient or
achieving in schools (Ford, 1996; Ford et al., 2001; Reis, Colbert, & Hébert, 2004). Rather than
assimilate or act White, researchers argue that gifted African American students may choose
their social peer group rather than risking social and cultural isolation by participating in
educational programs (Ford, Grantham & Whiting, 2008a; Fordham, 1988; Fordham & Ogbu,
1986). African American students will eschew participation in gifted programming to counter
charges of “acting White” and to show their affinity for their own culture as a sign of solidarity
with their same-raced peers (Ford, 1994; Fordham & Ogbu, 1986; Morris, 2001). McWhorter
(2000) argued that this resistance to education has led to a lack of knowledge and skills needed
to function academically, increasing levels of anti-intellectualism in Black communities.
McWhorter (2000) argued, “The anti-intellectual current is often thought to be primarily an
inner-city problem…but it is in fact a tremendous impediment to Black culture as a
whole…these defeatist thought patterns have become part of the bedrock of Black identity” (pg.
xiv).
According to theorists, another major issue that impacts African American gifted students
is the belief that one must choose race or achievement. Fordham (1988) showed that when
African American students were high achieving, they believed that they must become raceless in
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 18

order to achieve academically. Students expressed beliefs that they could not be African
American and do well in classes; academic behaviors were not characterized as African
American behaviors. Students believed that they had to distance themselves from African
Americans and African American culture in order to attain academic success and social mobility.
Fordham (1988) reported that becoming raceless included personal and social conflicts students
felt were a necessary step towards achieving in rigorous academic programs in their high
schools. Fordham (1988) described racelessness as a strategy for school achievement that could
be viewed as “a pragmatic strategy or pyrrhic victory,” a choice that can only be made by
African American community members (p. 55).
Statement of the Problem
Zand and Thomson (2005) stated that Ogbu’s work cannot be discounted; but, they
argued that “other scholars have contended that more than one response to racism exists within
the African American community, with entirely different educational outcomes” (p. 353). Ogbu
discussed the impact of community forces that inhibit African American achievement in
education and in the broader society as a whole. However, Foster (2004) criticized Ogbu’s work:
There is no room in his [Ogbu’s] analysis for the existence of involuntary minority high-
achievers whose motivations to strive and succeed are rooted in their experiences as
community participants. Nowhere…is there an analysis of racial uplift, a talented tenth or
racial responsibility as community-based concepts which facilitate academic success
among African-Americans, despite the fact that these are deeply rooted community forces
in the African-American community…somehow in his work and analysis, Ogbu missed
key aspects of the involuntary minority experience and reality. (pg. 377)
There is evidence that Ogbu and Simon’s Ecological Theory (1998) and Fordham and
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 19

Ogbu’s Acting White Theory (1986) have affected African American student achievement.
However, these theories do not explain the varied responses of Black students across age,
gender, and educational contexts. In the field of gifted education, there are many researchers who
have conducted studies on academically successful African American gifted students that do not
provide evidence of oppositional identities or theories of acting White. Issues in the education of
these students are longstanding, complex, and influenced by macro- and micro-level factors that
affect collective and individual perceptions, student identity, and behavior.
Thus, educators and policy makers must continue to work to meet the needs of both types
of students who participate in gifted programs: 1) those who are negatively affected by racial
stereotypes and peer pressure and 2) those who resist stereotypes through their academic
achievements. There is heterogeneity among the African American response to education, but
what is common is the need for support in the development of students’ academic and ethnic
identities to counter the notion that the two are paradoxical and cannot coexist (Ford & Harris,
1996; Moore et al. 2005; Reis et al., 2004). So, whether students are disengaged,
underperforming, or high achieving, race, identity, and perception are influential factors for these
students and should be addressed in their educational programming.
Advocates for African American gifted students have long argued for the integration of
culturally relevant teaching and gifted curriculum to increase inclusiveness in order to support
the academic and social-emotional needs of historically underrepresented students in gifted
programs. Key ideas of culturally relevant curriculum include using students’ prior experiences
and cultural histories to promote academic success and instruction that supports the development
of cultural competence and critical consciousness to challenge problems that arise as a result of
the status quo (Ladson-Billings, 1995). African American gifted students require access to
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 20

academically rigorous and enriching learning experiences, but they also must have their affective
needs met to ensure their sense of belonging, strengthen their cultural knowledge, promote
cultural flexibility, and enhance their ability to question and challenge perceptions of racialized
ability within academics. Culturally relevant curricula allow for students to “see themselves
reflected, so as to affirm who they and their communities are…and learn about the world”
(Botelho & Rudman, 2009, p. 1). Students who are taught to engage in the world critically are
prepared to question and critique stereotypes and norms, these stereotypes and norms place them
at a disadvantage by positioning them against their own self-interest, possible future selves, and
varied ways of being. Although scholars have advocated for teachers of the gifted to integrate the
two curricular approaches, there have been no studies exploring the perceptions of African
American gifted students on their experiences with culturally relevant curriculum in the context
of a gifted program.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to explore and describe African American gifted students’
perceptions of their participation in a gifted program as well as their views of differentiated,
culturally relevant curriculum and its relationship to their identities as gifted African American
scholars. Advocates for African American gifted students have argued for the integration of
gifted and talented (GATE) curricula and culturally relevant curricula to increase the interest and
sense of belonging for historically underrepresented gifted students. Therefore, the curriculum in
this study utilized content that highlighted historical and contemporary examples of the African
American intellectual tradition of cultural critique and counter-narrative coupled with GATE
strategies. An examination of student perspectives will assist educators and curriculum
developers in determining if culturally relevant curricula are beneficial to enhance learning by
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 21

African American gifted students. It will explore how the use of the GATE strategy, Depth, and
Complexity facilitates a critical analysis of textual materials. The current research study aims to
address the need to explore students’ views and experiences with racialized perceptions and peer
pressure, and also how curriculum can be utilized to support positive racial and academic
identity development.
Significance of the Study
Race, identity, and perceptions influence the participation and performance of African
American students in gifted programs. The effects of racialized perceptions of academics
become more influential in adolescence. Dixon and Moon (2005) posited that gifted adolescents
want to become more involved socially as they grow older, noting that “social relationships
become increasingly important facilitators or inhibitors of talent development during the
adolescent period” (p. 26). Ford and Moore (2006) argued that gifted adolescents of color
experienced more negative peer pressure when doing well academically and participating in
gifted programs. Thus, more research must be conducted to understand which aspects of
schooling negatively impact African American adolescents’ participation and achievement in
gifted programs. Research must identify how schools and/or community-based organizations can
work to mediate barriers for students as they progress from primary through secondary
education.
Culturally relevant learning opportunities that highlight the educational and intellectual
traditions of African Americans can emphasize that rigorous academics and gifted programming
are, and have always been, within the realm of experience for Black people. Curricula can serve
as a recruitment and retention tool for African American students by providing students with
opportunities to see themselves reflected in content that is presented to reinforce the integration
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 22

of academic and ethnic identities. Documenting the perceptions of students engaged with this
type of curriculum will inform key stakeholders about how policies and practices may need to be
established or modified to enhance the use of culturally relevant curricula with African American
students participating in gifted programs. Racialized perceptions of academic ability must be
addressed in order to alter the belief that high academic achievement is the property of certain
groups of students and not others.
Research Questions
The purpose of this study was to examine African American gifted students’ perceptions
of their participation in a gifted program. Three research questions guided the research:
1. What are the perceptions of African American gifted students regarding their
participation in the GATE program?
2. How do African American gifted students perceive the use of Depth and Complexity in
the critical analysis of culturally relevant text material?
3. How do African American gifted students perceive their experiences with culturally
relevant material in relationship to creating and sustaining their identities as African
American scholars?
Conceptual Framework
In his most famous work, The Souls of Black Folk, W.E.B. Du Bois (1903a) wrote about
African American’s awareness of their outsider status, with restricted access to and opportunity
in mainstream America. He asked:
Why did God make me an outcast and a stranger in mine own house? The shades of the
prison-house closed round about us all: walls strait and stubborn to the Whitest, but
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 23

relentlessly narrow, tall, and unscalable to sons of night who must plod darkly on in
resignation. (p. 8)
Black culture developed uniquely within this context, evolving and requiring knowledge
of the dominant culture’s perspective for survival. Therefore, African Americans were aware of
the deficit views of the broader society, knew their power, and were expected to adapt. Du Bois
(1903a) described having to constantly perceive and measure oneself against the perspectives
and expectations of the dominant society as being integral to the experience of being Black in
America. Du Bois described this as “double-consciousness” and remarked on the tension, which
resulted from the knowledge that having “second-sight” brings:
The Negro is a sort of seventh son, born with a veil, and gifted with second-sight in this
American world, —a world which yields him no true self-consciousness, but only lets him
see himself through the revelation of the other world. It is a peculiar sensation, this double-
consciousness, this sense of always looking at one’s self through the eyes of others...One
ever feels his twoness,—an American, a Negro; two souls, two thoughts, two unreconciled
strivings; two warring ideals in one dark body, whose dogged strength alone keeps it from
being torn asunder. (1903a, p. 3)
In this passage, Du Bois speaks to the power of the dominant culture’s influence on Black
life. African Americans have had to develop multiple and, at times perceived as opposing,
identities with different characteristics and expectations attached to being American or White
and Black. Du Bois commented on the longstanding effort, determination and strength needed to
attain acceptance in mainstream America while holding on to one’s own ethnic identity. He
discussed the benefits of developing and maintaining both types of identities without the
limitations of racialized stereotypes:
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 24

The history of the American Negro is the history of this strife—this longing to attain self-
conscious manhood, to merge his double self into a better and truer self. In this merging
he wishes neither of the older selves to be lost. He does not wish to Africanize America,
for America has too much to teach the world and Africa. He wouldn’t bleach his Negro
blood in a flood of White Americanism, for he knows that Negro blood has a message for
the world. He simply wishes to make it possible for a man to be both a Negro and an
American without being cursed and spit upon by his fellows, without having the doors of
opportunity closed roughly in his face. (1903a, p. 2-3)
Du Bois (1903a) described how identities in America are historically situated and
informed by context. History has influenced the associations made between certain types of
identities with certain characteristics, places, and activities. In addition, context informs the type
of identity or identities that are acceptable or desired in a particular place. Thus, double-
consciousness or two-ness is the ability to adopt multiple perspectives based on mainstream
ways of knowing and also one’s own unique vantage point as a historically marginalized group
member. It influences an understanding of whether ethnic ways of being are deemed acceptable
in a particular setting as well as if and how an individual may choose to navigate within and
across various contexts.
Conceptual frameworks “explain, either graphically or in narrative form, the main things
to be studied…and the presumed relationships among them” (Miles & Huberman, 1994, p. 18).
Du Bois’ (1903a) concept of double-consciousness is helpful in exploring why students who
identify as African American or Black may experience psychosocial conflicts as participants in
gifted programs. It has been theorized that African Americans are influenced by negative,
historically rooted perceptions of their cultural group as intellectually inferior and/or low
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 25

achieving. Some researchers theorize that Black gifted students may eschew participation in
gifted programs due to psychological, social, and cultural conflicts. However, other researchers
posit that African American gifted students’ awareness of their socio-historical status can support
their decision to participate in gifted programs, rejecting deficit messages and working to achieve
in academic settings.
Double-consciousness allows for the acknowledgement that participating in gifted
programs has been a complicated issue for African American students due to a confluence of
macro- and micro-level factors that affect perceptions and decision-making related to education.
Double-consciousness was utilized to explore and describe students’ perceptions of the GATE
program, their participation, and views of curriculum. A visual of the conceptual framework for
this study (see Figure A, below) shows the relationship between Du Bois’s (1903a) concepts of
the veil, twoness, and second sight as influencing the self-perceptions of African American
gifted students on education and achievement.

Figure A. A conceptual framework for understanding influences on African American gifted
students’ self-perceptions.
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 26

Methodology
A mixed methods approach was used to conduct a case study describing African
American gifted student’s 1) perceptions of a GATE program, 2) their perceptions and
experiences with culturally relevant curriculum, and 3) the ways curricula may support an
African American scholar identity. Quantitative survey methods were used to gather data on
student perceptions related to their participation in a gifted program. Qualitative methods were
used to describe how students utilize GATE strategies with culturally relevant texts and their
experiences with curricula in relation to their identities.
Purposeful sampling was used to identify African American gifted students age 10 to 14
participating in a Gifted and Talented program in the Big City Unified School District (BCUSD),
an urban school district in California. This age group was used for the study as research indicated
that peer pressure was more prevalent among adolescents (Dixon & Moon, 2005). Study
participants were students who had participated in a gifted program for at least two consecutive
years to ensure that they had experience with the GATE strategies of Depth and Complexity, a
core strategy used by GATE program teachers in the BCUSD that was integrated into the
curriculum used in the study.
The study was conducted in three phases. First, a five-point Likert response survey and a
performance task were distributed to students. The survey consisted of questions that focused on
student participation in gifted programs, the social environment, and the curriculum. The
performance task required students to apply the prompts of Depth and Complexity to critically
analyze a text. The survey results and performance task were gathered and analyzed before
proceeding to the second phase of the study. The second phase focused on exploring the
experiences of students who participated in a series of lessons implemented by the researcher
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 27

utilizing the GATE strategy, Depth and Complexity, with culturally relevant text material.
Student work was analyzed to determine how students perceived the use of Depth and
Complexity in their analysis of text and the influence of the learning on their self-perceptions.
Finally, open-ended survey questions and a performance task were re-administered to students
for comparison with the results from the initial survey.
Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations
The current research study was founded on five assumptions established by the researcher.
The assumptions focused on the students and their teachers:
 Students’ teachers have attended professional development on ways to effectively
implement Depth and Complexity in their classroom programs.
 Students participate in GATE programs where teachers consistently utilize Depth and
Complexity in their classroom programs.
 Students know the elements of Depth and Complexity, and how to apply them to content.
 Students would respond truthfully on questionnaires and in discussion.
 Students who elected to participate in the lessons designed for the study would participate
in each lesson.
The study was limited by pragmatic considerations of time and financial resources. The
study was limited to gifted identified, African American students age 10 to 14 participating in
gifted programs offered in the BCUSD. The small sample size for the study limited the
generalizability of the results to the larger population of African American gifted students.
Organization of the Study
This research study is composed of five chapters. Chapter One provides an overview of the
study: the purpose, the significance, research questions, theoretical framework, and methodology.
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 28

Chapter Two reviews the literature relevant to the research questions and explores gaps in the
literature which this study aims to address. Chapter Three describes the methodology and data
collection methods. Chapter Four analyzes the quantitative and qualitative data collecting. Finally,
Chapter Five provides key findings, implications for research, and recommendations for practice.
Definition of Terms
African American or Black
A person with African ancestry living in the United States who 1) identifies as African
American or Black and 2) claims this ethnic and/or racial designation based on their cultural
heritage.
Culture
Culture is defined as “beliefs, values, dispositions, traditions, customs, and habits that are
shared among a group of people.” (Ford & Moore, 2006)
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy
Teaching practices and curricular content that “empowers students intellectually, socially,
emotionally, and politically by using cultural referents to impart knowledge, skills, and attitudes”
(Ladson-Billings, 1995). It also promotes the eradication of deficit-based ideologies, critical
consciousness, a holistic view of student well-being, and recognition of the complexity of culture
(Howard & Terry, 2011).
Culturally Relevant Text
Text that “includes information about the histories, cultures, contributions, experiences,
perspectives, and issues of… ethnic groups.” (Gay, 2002, p. 2013)

GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 29

Deficit Thinking
Holding negative, stereotypical, and prejudicial beliefs about culturally and linguistically
different groups that can result in discriminatory policies and behaviors or actions. (Ford,
Grantham, & Whiting, 2008b).
Double Consciousness
Double-consciousness, or second-sight, is the ability to adopt multiple perspectives based
on mainstream ways of knowing and an individual’s unique vantage point as a historically
marginalized group member.
Gifted Students
Students identified by the school district as gifted in general intellectual ability and/or
high achievement.
Racial Identity
The perception that one shares a common racial heritage with a group and the extent to
which that group serves as a salient reference group. (Harris & Marsh, 2010)
Racialized Identities
Identities made racial through social interaction, positioning, and discourses that are
continually reinforced and reinvented.
Racialized Perceptions
Perceptions of an individual or ethnic group informed by stereotypes

GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 30

Chapter Two: Literature Review
Chapter Two is divided into three sections. The first section provides a historical
framework for the study, relating the foundations of gifted education and contextual influences to
African Americans and educational opportunity. Profiles of academic excellence and early
advocacy efforts for gifted Black students are discussed. The second section focuses on
expanding opportunities for academically talented Black students through the work of private
foundations, broadening conceptions of intelligence and giftedness, and civil rights legislation.
The third section discusses more contemporary research on gifted African American students,
focusing on the factors that contribute to underrepresentation, underachievement, and retention.
Historical Framework
The lack of Black students participating and achieving in gifted education programs has
been a pervasive and controversial issue (Ford et al., 2008b; Henfield et al., 2008). The research
that has attempted to explore, explain, and ameliorate the problem is illuminated by viewing the
factors that contribute to the underrepresentation of African Americans in gifted programs
through a socio-historical contextual lens. The social, psychological, and institutional barriers
given as reasons for the underrepresentation of these students are rooted in perceptions of race,
identity, and measures of intelligence.
Galton and the Beginnings of Eugenics
In the last half of the 19th century, there was increased interest in understanding
intellectual ability. Sir Francis Galton, a cousin of Darwin, began conducting research on innate
or natural ability because he was interested in learning about the characteristics that produce
eminent individuals (Robinson & Clinkenbeard, 2008). He studied the family histories of 400
men from prestigious families and determined that genius or talents were found in individuals
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 31

from the same family, thus produced genetically. He concluded that intelligence was hereditary
(Robinson & Clinkenbeard, 2008). He also coined the term eugenics, which focused on bettering
society through selective breeding—perpetuating certain traits and eliminating others—and
recommended that there should be restrictions placed on breeding (Plucker, 2013).
These ideas influenced the classification and ranking of different groups of people based
on their physical traits and presumed natural abilities. These rankings were then used to
determine and justify a particular group's place in society. An example of a ranking would be
Galton’s view of African people. He estimated that on a distribution of ability, Africans ranked
“two grades” below Anglo Saxons because of racial comparisons and perceptions based on his
travels to Africa (Plucker, 2013). This belief supported the prevailing ideology in Europe and the
United States of White intellectual superiority and Black intellectual inferiority. Robinson and
Clinkenbeard (2008) explained, “Galton has been roundly and soundly pilloried for holding
views on class and racial differences distasteful to modern thinkers. Nevertheless, Galton
understood the importance of collecting data to investigate his theory of genius—one that
assumed a biological and genetic etiology of giftedness” (p. 14). Galton is lauded for making
contributions to psychology and scientific research, beginning the study of nature vs. nurture, the
idea of correlation, and the use of surveys to gather data. However, his eugenics theories would
influence research that validated racial differences in intelligence for decades and framed social
practices, scientific research and political policies in the United States well into the 20th century.
Terman and the Beginnings of Gifted Education
Lewis Terman is considered “the father of American gifted education” and was
influenced by Galton (Robinson & Clinkenbeard, 2008). He is best known for the development
of the Stanford-Binet individual intelligence test in 1916 and one of the longest running
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 32

longitudinal studies on intelligence. According to Plucker (2013), the Stanford-Binet testwas to
be used for diagnosis, to identify slower students in need of special classes as well as to allow
schools to identify and meet the needs of students with exceptional abilities. Terman used a
formula, the ratio between chronological age and mental age multiplied by 100, to obtain a single
measure of intelligence called the intelligence quotient or IQ score (Plucker, 2013). Using the
Stanford-Binet, Terman identified approximately 1000 students who scored at least a 140 for his
study and then published the results from his research in Genetic Studies of Genius in 1925. At
the time, it was believed that children should not be put ahead academically because they would
peak and then fail. Through his research, Terman dispelled the myth of “early ripe-early rot” and
proposed that gifted children were healthier, physically and mentally, and better adjusted and
higher achieving than non-high IQ children (Robinson & Clinkenbeard, 2008). His work also
countered earlier beliefs about the close links between genius and insanity.
Terman contended that gifted children should be seen as a natural resource and identified
early in order to cultivate their talents and develop their leadership capabilities (Leslie, 2000).
However, Terman held beliefs, similar to most of mainstream America and the academic world
of the early 1900’s, about the inherent division of the races due to the superiority of some and the
inferiority of others. He espoused beliefs in racial hierarchies and the inferiority of certain racial
and ethnic groups (Leslie, 2000; Plucker, 2013). When describing students with lower IQ’s,
Terman (1916) characterized them as being “uneducable and beyond being helped by school
instruction…psychologically considered not normal” (p. 91). Further, he added, “Spanish-Indian,
Mexican, and Negroes consistently seemed to be of this type” (p. 91). Like Galton, Terman held
hereditarian views, a belief that genetics primarily determined intelligence and behavior, which
explained differences in the intellect of racial or ethnic groups. His sample of over 1000 students
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 33

were mostly White, male, urban, and middle to upper class; Mexican and Asian children were
underrepresented in his study (Borland, 2004), which also included few African Americans
(Leslie, 2000). Participants in his longitudinal study lacked ethnic, racial and socio-economic
diversity. Some researchers argue that his beliefs about racial and social hierarchies affected the
selection of his sample, his objectivity, and the interpretation of his findings (Borland, 2004;
Ladson-Billings, 2012). Although some argue that Terman’s findings about high IQ children
were more about socio-economic status than giftedness (Borland, 2004), his findings about the
characteristics of gifted children and the use of intelligence tests became foundational in the field
of psychology and gifted education. Furthermore, his conclusions, along with other prominent
psychologists and sociologists, regarding the mental capabilities of minorities were troublesome
to social justice advocates of the period, who were concerned about how conclusions drawn from
theories of intelligence and intelligence testing could be used to justify unequal treatment for
African Americans and other historically marginalized groups.
Terman’s views on race and intelligence were in line with the times. Myths about racial
differences were promoted to justify slavery continued and permeated society post-
Reconstruction. The ideology of White intellectual superiority framed the political, social and
economic systems of the early 1900’s. These beliefs influenced the racialization of American
public education by stigmatizing African Americans as intellectually inferior and justifying
segregationist policies and social practices. At the time, W.E.B Du Bois (1920), Horace Mann
Bond (1924), and other African American leaders were concerned about the legitimization of
African American intellectual inferiority through the study, use of intelligence tests, the
deleterious effects on Black education, and their positioning in society. By the early 1900’s, two
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 34

ideologies had formed around Black education: a mainstream educational ideology and an
African American centered ideology.
Literacy and Black Liberation
The mainstream ideology on Black education was grounded in a belief in African
American intellectual inferiority, promoting limited educational opportunities for Blacks to
maintain political, economic, and social power relations established during slavery. Contrary to
these beliefs, an African American educational ideology had evolved within Black communities
that placed great significance on acquiring literacy and education as a path to empowerment and
a symbol of freedom (Anderson, 1988; Perry, 2003b). Being denied the right to literacy, Black
Americans understood its importance as a tool for liberation (Perry, 2003b). They equated
literacy with full citizenship and racial uplift (Perry, 2003b). Racial uplift was any activity
(political, cultural, social, and economic) focused on improving conditions for Black people by
developing cultural capital and utilizing the social capital of Black community members.
Literacy was a core component of racial uplift necessary to raise critical consciousness for
individual and community development.
In Black communities, whether promoting industrial education (basic literacy with a
focus on learning trades) or classical education (liberal arts education), literacy was viewed as
paramount to developing autonomy, leadership and advocacy, and opportunities for social and
economic mobility. Due to the significant impact of literacy and education, African American
intellectuals, activists, and allies worked against prevailing beliefs in the broader society that
narrowly defined Black education as cultivating behaviors and looks pleasing to dominant group
members and acquiring basic literacy and technical skills for employment (Collins, 2009). Social
justice advocates were concerned that an education focused on basic literacy and trades would
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 35

not provide the freedmen with the broad knowledge, skills, and critical consciousness needed to
move the race forward. Some believed it was necessary for African Americans to have the
opportunity to study liberal arts to have a better understanding of the world, U.S. systems, and
their role in the maintenance of those systems (Bond, 1950; Du Bois, 1903b; Woodson, 1933).
Schooling versus Education
Famed historian Carter G. Woodson questioned the quality and purpose of education for
African Americans in his seminal work The Miseducation of the Negro (Woodson, 1933). He
argued against an education for Blacks that would create literate individuals with shackled
minds: literate Blacks who unquestioningly acquired the cultural capital of the dominant class,
along with negative views associated with African Americans, their culture, and capabilities
(Collins, 2009). Woodson (1933) was concerned about the influence of mainstream education or
“mis-education” of African Americans and the effects on shaping self-perception and worldview.
Shujaa (1994) illuminated these concerns and differences in ideology on education for Blacks by
describing the process of schooling versus education. According to Shujaa (1994), in this
climate, some African American intellectuals, activists, and community members were
concerned about Black people becoming “schooled.” “Schooling” was described as a process
necessary when a nation is comprised by diverse cultural groups (Shujaa, 1994). Shujaa (1994),
along with others (Bowles & Gintis, 1976; Bourdieu & Passeron, 1977), contended that
schooling occurs when the dominant class utilizes schools to “perpetuate and maintain the
society’s existing power relations and the institutional structures” that support them (Shujaa,
1994, p. 15). In this context, schools impart and support the dominant groups' values and beliefs
over time. Shujaa (1994) argued that with “schooling,” the cultural orientation of the dominant
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 36

class is privileged, so all cultural groups, especially marginalized groups, must work to ensure
that their cultural knowledge and beliefs are passed on.
By becoming literate within this context, African Americans were working against
“schooling” and striving to become “educated,” with the ability to acquire knowledge to critique
and resist the images and roles established for them by the broader society. Woodson (1933)
believed in the importance of African Americans knowing the contributions of their forebears.
He concluded that the absence of African and African American perspectives and
accomplishments in history were purposeful. He argued this created a void that allowed for the
misinterpretation that African Americans had made no intellectual contributions to the world and
were incapable of doing so. He believed that these ideas reinforced the notion of African
American inferiority, allowing for the subsequent positioning and treatment of people of African
descent in America and around the world. Woodson deemed it imperative that a more objective
framing of African and African American history was needed for African Americans to envision
themselves differently from how they were perceived and portrayed by mainstream society.
African Americans required education, not schooling.
In contrast to schooling, education is the “process of teaching the knowledge of the
values, aesthetics, spiritual beliefs, and all things that give particular cultural orientation its
uniqueness” (Shujaa, 1994, p. 15). The goal of education is to provide the most objective
presentation of what is known; it provides individuals with knowledge of self, culture, and the
world, including an awareness and understanding of the implications of the power dynamics that
exist. Education for African Americans includes “historical overviews of the nation, the
continent, and the world which accurately represent the contributions of all ethnic groups to the
storehouse of human knowledge” (p. 15). Education would allow Blacks to acquire the skills,
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 37

knowledge, and key understandings necessary to challenge prevailing dominant beliefs related to
their misrepresentation and subjugation. Shujaa’s concept of education would support African
Americans in a desire and belief that they could initiate change to improve their conditions.
In the classic Black feminist text, A Voice from the South, scholar, activist, and educator Anna
Julia Cooper (1892) described the reason Blacks could have hope in a young America, stating
that, “satisfaction in American institutions rests not on the fruition we now enjoy, but springs
rather from the possibilities and promise that are inherent in the system, though as yet, perhaps,
far in the future” (p. 12). African Americans increasingly began advocating for “education”
rather than “schooling” because they understood their potential and were asserting themselves as
human beings, fighting to secure their rights as full citizens and working to create a better future
for their children (Perry, 2003b).
African American Intellectual Leadership
A diverse group of Black Americans resisted the narrow educational pathways delineated
for them by prevailing societal beliefs about race and intelligence. The highly educated African
American intellectual elite fought for increased and varied educational opportunities for African
Americans. Dr. Anna Julia Cooper, Dr. W.E.B. Du Bois, Dr. Charles H. Thompson, Dr. Carter
G. Woodson, and Dr. Horace Mann Bond were members of this Black intellectual elite. These
scholar activists were able to pursue higher education, which provided them different and
broadened perspectives on the type of academic experiences needed for racial uplift.
In part due to their own experiences, these intellectuals believed that there were gifted
African Americans who were capable of, desired, and required rigorous liberal arts or “classical
education” but were limited by prevailing views on race and intellectual ability. The ideological
climate defined industrial education as the most appropriate system of education for Blacks
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 38

(Watkins, 2001). In line with Shujaa’s (1994) concept of “schooling,” these programs focused on
teaching students the basic skills needed to acquire employment in menial service positions that
required low skills and paid low wages, positions that maintained the hierarchical social, political
and economic systems of the day. These African American intellectuals believed that vocational
training was necessary to develop Black communities but should not be the sole form of
education offered to all Black students. They advocated for African American students,
especially students identified as having great academic potential, to be provided with a
“classical” education, the type of education traditionally offered to the elite classes in
mainstream society. In turn, gifted Blacks who received more advanced education could become
leaders and work to uplift the race. This view, and subsequent activism, was reflected in the lives
and work of a number of gifted Black scholars.
Dr. Anna Julia Cooper. Anna Julia Cooper challenged prevailing views of racial and
gender inferiority by becoming a scholar and providing advanced academic opportunities to
Black students as a school administrator (Cooper, 1892). Cooper was born a slave and later,
while raising five children, attained a PhD at the University of Paris in 1924. She began her
educational career in 1868, at the age of nine, at St. Augustine’s Normal School and Collegiate
Institute for African Americans. There, she protested against the inherent bias in the gender-
based educational courses offered. As a teenager, she successfully petitioned to take the more
academically rigorous “gentlemen’s” courses, focusing on philosophy and the classics, courses
slated for males interested in studying theology. Cooper followed the same pattern after enrolling
at Oberlin, refusing to take inferior academic courses designed for women and again petitioning
to enroll in the “gentlemen’s” courses. She obtained two degrees from Oberlin: a B.A. in 1884
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 39

and a M.A. in 1887. After completing her degree programs at Oberlin, she became a teacher and
then principal of the only Black high school in Washington D.C., the renowned M Street School.
As the leader of M Street, Cooper resisted notions of African American intellectual
inferiority by refusing the demands to provide industrial education and instead provided a
curriculum that would prepare students for advanced liberal arts studies. Under Cooper’s
leadership, M Street’s academic program became well established because of its level of rigor.
The school eventually received accreditation from Harvard, which allowed students to finish at
M Street and gain admittance to prominent universities such as Harvard, Yale, Oberlin, Brown,
Dartmouth, Radcliffe, and Amherst (Cooper, 1892). This accomplishment led to difficulties for
Cooper since M street was intended to offer vocational training. The academic success of her
students flew in the face of prevailing beliefs about African American intelligence. Her work at
M street provided evidence that Black students had as much intellectual ability and academic
promise as White students when provided with the appropriate educational opportunities.
Additionally, Cooper was concerned for academically talented students and Black
women because their abilities were underestimated and undervalued. Dr. Cooper was resolute in
the belief that the education of Black women and their agency were essential to their
advancement, and ultimately the progress of Black people. African American women were core
to racial uplift efforts as they were responsible for the rearing and education of Black children.
Cooper (1892) argued, “Only the BLACK WOMAN can say when and where I enter, in the
quiet, undisputed dignity of my womanhood, without violence and without suing or special
patronage, then and there the whole Negro race enters with me” (p. 31). Cooper believed in
nurturing academic talent in Black students, especially female students, who showed the
potential for advanced studies. At this time, her goal was for academically gifted African
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 40

Americans to be provided liberal arts education with the opportunity to complete high school and
continue on to higher education. However, Cooper (1892) expressed her concerns about gender
equity in education and advocated for the cultivation of academically talented females,
advocating:
Let our girls feel that we expect something more of them than that they merely look
pretty and appear well in society. Teach them that there is a race with special needs
which they and only they can help; that the world needs and is already asking for their
trained, efficient forces. Finally, if there is an ambitious girl with pluck and brain to take
the higher education, encourage her to make the most of it. Let there be the same flourish
of trumpets and clapping of hands as when a boy announces his determination to enter
the lists…Let her know that your heart is following her, that your hand, though she sees it
not, is ready to support her. To be plain, I mean let money be raised and scholarships be
founded in our colleges and universities for self-supporting, worthy young women. (p.
78-79)
In A Voice from the South (1892), Cooper discussed the importance of identifying and
supporting academically talented Black youth, regardless of gender, and providing them with
educational opportunities commensurate with their abilities. She discussed the significance of
supporting academically talented Black students, and through her work, highlighted their
intellectual capabilities (Cooper, 1892). Anna Julia Cooper was an early Black feminist, scholar,
and staunch advocate for liberal arts education and advanced studies for academically talented,
female and male, Black students.
W.E.B. Du Bois. William Edward Burghardt Du Bois was a contemporary of Cooper and
the first African American to earn a PhD from Harvard in 1895. He was a renowned educator
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 41

and scholar who conducted sociological studies on African American life. Similar to Cooper, Du
Bois’ life experiences and educational attainment provided him with a deep understanding of the
significance of education, its role in African American racial uplift and the need for advanced
study opportunities for academically talented Black students.
Born and raised in a White community in Massachusetts, he was a gifted student known
for outperforming his classmates. Young Du Bois planned to attend Harvard after high school;
instead, town leaders provided him funds to attend Fisk University, one of the Black liberal arts
colleges in the south. Due to Fisk’s location, for the first time Du Bois experienced the harsh
realities of discrimination and segregation. He saw firsthand the effects of slavery on African
Americans and its caste-like social structure, poor living and working conditions, and limited
educational opportunities that impeded social and economic mobility. During his time at Fisk,
Du Bois began to see himself as a leader for racial uplift and began theorizing how to improve
the lives of his people. In line with his goals and interests, he continued his education at Harvard
and attained a B.A. in 1890 and a M.A. in 1892 before studying at the University of Berlin and
earning the PhD from Harvard in 1895. His liberal arts training, international travel, and
education provided Du Bois with a more sophisticated understanding of the social problems in
America, along with more methods for envisioning solutions.
Du Bois’ educational background and life experiences influenced his perspectives on the
type of education that was fundamental for the advancement of Black people. Du Bois argued
that African Americans should not “forgo a broad liberal arts education for the purpose of
gaining practical work skills to make a living” (Alridge, 2008, p. 26). He concluded that a “broad
liberal arts education and practical education for making a living were not mutually exclusive”
(Alridge, 2008, p. 26). The Black community needed both types to survive and progress.
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 42

Du Bois also saw liberal arts as the most appropriate education for training Black
leadership. It was essential that the brightest and most talented, the group he called “the Talented
Tenth,” be provided with broad educational experiences centered on liberal arts, which would
enhance their abilities to face societal problems and lead multiple levels of reform. In his 1903
essay titled “The Talented Tenth,” Du Bois shared his vision for the most academically able
stating, “The Negro race…is going to be saved by its exceptional men. The problem of
education, then, among Negroes must…deal with the Talented Tenth; it is the problem of
developing the Best of this race that they may guide the Mass away…from the Worst, in their
own and other races.” (Du bois, 1903b, p. 102).
Du Bois envisioned the unique roles and responsibilities of gifted and talented African
Americans. He believed they should be identified and provided a broad liberal arts education and
training to educate and uplift Black communities and, in doing so, counter negative mainstream
images and messages that supported their oppression and notions of inferiority. Through the 20th
century, Du Bois used research, activism and counter-narratives to question and oppose negative
views of African Americans in order to increase educational opportunity and social mobility,
acknowledge academic talent and intellectual ability, and reinforce the concept of Black
humanity and citizenship.
Dr. Charles H. Thompson. Dr. Charles H. Thompson also believed that opportunities
should be made available to educate the most academically talented African American students.
Thompson, born in 1896 to educators, was a gifted student who went on to become the first
African American to earn a doctorate in education from the University of Chicago in 1925 (Ray,
2012). Thompson knew the importance of racial uplift within the African American community
and felt that gifted African American leaders were needed to guide necessary change. He later
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 43

became Dean of Howard University’s College of Liberal Arts where he advocated for
programming to draw African American gifted students to Howard University. Thompson
believed that gifted African American students should obtain at least a bachelor’s degree in order
to provide effective leadership (Ray, 2012). In order to accomplish this, Thompson proposed
three ideas to recruit gifted students to Howard University:
1. provide scholarships to the most able students,
2. decrease tuition at Howard by 30% to compete with state universities that accepted
African American students, and
3. reduce class size to provide optimal support. (Ray, 2012).
Thompson’s proposal sat unapproved, but when he was later re-assigned as Dean of the
graduate school, he worked to implement policies and practices to nurture academically talented
students.
Thompson believed talent was not necessarily identified through testing but was “found
in its expression in solving problems or creating new opportunities in real world settings” (Ray,
2012, p. 195). Thompson founded the Journal of Negro Education at Howard and used the
journal as a vehicle to cultivate leadership and scholarship among talented male and female
graduate students and junior faculty. Thompson used networking among African American
educational organizations and academic institutions to identify young scholars whose work could
be highlighted in the journal (Ray, 2012). Thompson was a dedicated mentor who recognized
that the students whom he served dealt with “inferiority feelings, devaluations of self,
and…denigrations of self and race” (Ray, 2012, p. 194). He served as a model for students by
teaching research methods, skills for success in the academy, and disciplinary approaches to
advocacy for ending racial injustice.
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 44

Summary
The origins of gifted education in the United States occurred during a time when beliefs
about racial hierarchies and race-based levels of intelligence supported political and social
practices designed to exclude African Americans from citizenship. Longstanding perceptions of
African American inferiority, rooted in slavery, continued to permeate society. Blacks were not
meant to be part of the mainstream and were left on the margins of American life.
This ideology influenced academic research as well as the type of education deemed
appropriate for Black Americans. African American leaders and scholars challenged notions of
intellectual inferiority and the resulting limited educational opportunities for Black Americans.
They fought to expand educational opportunities for African Americans with the goal of classical
education for the most able students to cultivate talent, leadership, and racial uplift. This effort
was successful at the more progressive African American educational institutions, such as M
Street/Dunbar High School, Fisk University, Howard University, and Atlanta University, among
others. Due to their own experiences, gifted scholars such as Bond, Cooper, Du Bois, Thompson,
and Woodson knew the importance of cultivating the intellect and raising the consciousness of
African American gifted students to enable them to one-day address the social, political, and
economic problems faced by African American communities. They also understood the
significance of countering beliefs about African American inferiority because of the social and
psychological effects on Black community members.
Intelligence Testing: Rebuttals and Research
Black intellectuals knew that in order for African Americans to receive equitable
educational opportunities, and fair treatment in society, they must question conclusions drawn
from research that claimed that intelligence was determined by race and genetics to the exclusion
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 45

of other factors (Thomas, 1984). African American administrators and professors of Historically
Black Colleges and Universities (HBCU’s) pursued this work in the earlier part of the 20th
century. Renowned African American scholar Horace Mann Bond advocated that Black scholars
work as a collective to fight against misrepresentations about Black people presented as fact by
some mainstream researchers. Bond argued that every Black intellectual needed to “equip
himself as an active agent against the insidious propaganda which, like its prototypes, seeks to
demonstrate that the Negro is intellectually and physically incapable of assuming the dignities,
rights and duties which devolve upon him as a member of modern society” (Thomas 1984, p.
477).
These scholars did not have access to mainstream media or academic journals, but they
published critiques in Black-owned newspapers and through publications of civil rights
organizations like the NAACP’s The Crisis, The Urban League’s Opportunity, The Journal of
Negro History, and The Journal of Negro Education. These scholars organized to discuss,
promote, and pursue scholarship to address concerns related to empirically unsound and
subjective research that negatively impacted the lives of Black people. As a result of their efforts,
African American educational journals were established, and academic organizations formed to
ensure that African American perspectives were expressed.
The Atlanta Conference of 1909
Beginning in 1896, W.E.B. Du Bois led the Atlanta University Conference for Study of
Negro Problems to explore issues in the lives of Black Americans (Alridge, 2008). In 1915, the
conference focused specifically on research that supported theories of racial inferiority. By then,
scholars at HCBUs had begun partnering with scholars at mainstream universities to increase
opportunities to learn research methods and refine practice. This added credibility to the work,
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 46

increasing the number of rebuttals, critiques, and research in mainstream publications and
institutions. This, in turn, fostered a change in ideology (Thomas, 1984). Prominent White
professors participated in Du Bois’ conference at Atlanta University in 1915, including
renowned cultural anthropologist Franz Boas, of Columbia University, and Alexander F.
Chamberlain, of Clark University, who were at the forefront of questioning prevailing views of
the genetic basis of superiority of certain groups over others (Alridge, 2008).
John Dewey joined Du Bois in questioning educational ideas that limited opportunities
for African Americans. Dewey believed that African Americans should be provided with
education—whether vocational or highly academic—grounded in the humanities that would
meet the needs of a wide range of learners. At the request of Du Bois, Dewey delivered a speech
in 1909 at the National Negro Conference, the organization that evolved into the NAACP,
focusing on the need to provide Blacks with educational experiences that furthered democracy
by allowing students educational experiences that prompted them to “reach their highest
potential” (Alridge, 2008, p. 41). In Dewey’s speech, he argued:
All points of skill are represented in every race, from the inferior individual to the
superior individual, and a society that does not furnish the environment and education
and the opportunity of all kinds which will bring out and make effective the superior
ability wherever it is born, is not merely doing an injustice to that particular race and to
those particular individuals, but it is doing an injustice to itself for it is depriving itself of
just that much of social capital. (Alridge, 2008, p. 41).
African American intellectuals and their allies approached the task of challenging
theories of race-based inferiority in a number of ways. Some conducted research and/or wrote
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 47

articles to address the propagandist intent of research that supported racial inferiority by
highlighting bias, illogical reasoning, and flaws in research design (Thomas, 1984).
The Work of Dr. Horace Mann Bond
Horace Mann Bond was a leading scholar, school administrator, teacher and prominent
Black leader interested in the effects of testing on African American communities. Similar to
Cooper and Du Bois, Bond showed academic aptitude at an early age. According to the Bond
Papers (Bond, 2013), he was raised in Nashville, Tennessee, in a middle-class Black family.
Both of his parents were graduates of Oberlin College and provided their children with an
intellectually stimulating learning environment. The Bonds’ taught all of their children to express
and discuss their ideas freely from an early age. All of the children were encouraged to design
and build their own toys. Bond was educated primarily in private schools before entering Lincoln
University, a HBCU in Pennsylvania, at the age of 14. After graduating from Lincoln, Bond
became the Director of Education at Langston University in 1924. He left Langston in 1926 to
earn a MA at the University of Chicago and eventually earned a PhD in 1936. During this time,
Bond held positions as an administrator, instructor, and researcher at Alabama State College,
Fisk University, the Rosenwald Fund, Dillard University, and Atlanta University. He eventually
became president of Fort Valley State College and his alma mater, Lincoln University, in
Pennsylvania.
Bond was interested in the socio-political context of the time and its implications on
Black education. Bonds' first article, “Intelligence Tests and Propaganda,” was printed in the
NAACP publication The Crisis (Kearney & LeBlanc, 1993). In it, he described his concerns
about the methods used to conduct IQ tests and how the conclusions reinforced negative
stereotypes about African Americans. Bond argued that the results of intelligence tests could be
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 48

better explained by environmental differences rather than solely genetic causes. In another article
published in 1927, “Some Exceptional Negro Children,” Bond described the results of his study
of IQ with 30 African American children. Bond used the Stanford-Binet to determine the IQ of
the children but used African American test examiners, also taking into account the socio-
economic status of participating students. He found that he was able to identify 26% of the
children with IQ’s of 130, with one child scoring a 142. Although Bond’s was one of the first
studies focusing on exceptional Black students, his study was criticized for its weak
methodology, lack of information on the sample, and methods for sample selection. Throughout
Bond's career, he remained interested in issues related to the identification of talented students
and the intersections of race, ethnicity, and social class.
The Work of Witty and Jenkins
Other scholars conducted research with African American students utilizing the same
intellectual tests and methods used in research with White gifted students to produce their own
data and analysis of findings (Jenkins, 1936; Witty & Jenkins, 1934, 1935). By the 1930s,
scholars increasingly began using empirical research to combat the use of hereditarian views of
intelligence that limited political, social, and educational prospects for Black Americans. These
social justice issues sparked growing interest in the study of IQ and giftedness in the Black
population, which led to research being conducted at historically White universities. Work at
Northwestern University provided the field of gifted education with some of the first empirical
studies focusing on Black gifted children. Paul A. Witty, a professor at Northwestern, studied
high-IQ children with one of his research assistants. According to Robinson and Clinkenbeard
(2008), Witty replicated Terman’s longitudinal study with a smaller sample size, but was also
interested in “non-intellective traits” of the students in his studies. He gathered data on students’
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 49

social and moral character, environment, extra-curricular activities, interests and future goals.
Witty was interested in learning more about domain-specific talent within this population and
was the first to use the term "creative-production."
Dr. Witty believed that giftedness was innate but also influenced by a confluence of
factors: environment, opportunity, and motivation (Robinson & Clinkenbeard, 2008). Witty and
Lehman (1927) argued, “There must be, in addition to ability, the desire to achieve and a
favorable environment. High IQ does not necessarily mean high creative productivity” (p. 41).
Witty’s views were contrary to the prevailing views of the period with regard to the causes of
giftedness. He was “critical of extremism from the hereditarian and environmental camps and
published accordingly, taking to task both Terman’s hereditarian position…while he makes use
of intelligence tests in his own research, he clearly believes that giftedness is a broader construct
which includes drive and opportunity as well as ability” (Robinson & Clinkenbeard, 2008).
Witty’s views on giftedness and his willingness to work with African American doctoral students
put him ahead of his time.
Witty’s contribution to the understanding of giftedness in diverse populations included
his mentorship of Martin D. Jenkins, an African American doctoral student interested in studying
African American gifted children. Witty provided support to Jenkins in conducting research on
African American gifted children. Initially, they used Terman’s work as a foundation, adopting
similar screening methods and using the Stanford-Binet to identify 26 African American children
with IQ’s of at least 140 (Witty & Jenkins, 1934). They found all of these students to be from
better homes and also academically high-achieving. In the study, they also identified a nine-year-
old girl with an IQ of over 200 known as “B.” She began speaking as a toddler, learned to read
by 4 years of age, had an advanced vocabulary, and was interested in science. Moreover, in
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 50

comparison to studies completed by Terman and Hollingsworth (Jenkins, 1936), Witty and
Jenkins had identified a child with a higher IQ than the students in either of their samples, which
did not include African American children (Robinson & Clinkenbeard, 2008). Witty and Jenkins
were excited about their discovery of “B,” which they believed to be their greatest contribution
because she, along with the other high-IQ Black children, provided evidence of giftedness in the
African American population. Another contribution of these researchers was challenging the
mainstream belief that Blacks with high IQ must have White ancestry (Jenkins 1936; Witty &
Jenkins 1936). A review of the literature of the time period, as well as their own research,
allowed them to conclude that no logical correlations could be made between the superior mental
ability of Black children and White ancestry. It was noted that the superior student they
identified as “B” had no known White ancestry. Together, Witty and Jenkins debunked myths
about African American aptitude, intelligence, and race.
Jenkins' doctoral dissertation focused on 103 African American children with IQ’s of at
least 120. He studied whether these students had similar characteristics to the students studied by
Terman and Hollingsworth (Jenkins, 1936). Jenkins' findings were similar but he found more
girls in his sample than Terman (1916), which supported Cooper’s (1892) advocacy for
educating gifted African American girls. Jenkins (1936) concluded, “Negro children of high IQ
are not an anomaly and have the same characteristics as other children of superior intelligence.”
Witty and Jenkins' (1936) work was significant for the time period and contributed to the
understanding of high IQ gifted African American children today. Their most significant
conclusions include the following (Witty & Jenkins, 1936):
 High IQ and aptitude in Black children were not due to White racial admixture.
 High IQ among African American children provided evidence of intellectual variability
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 51

among the Black population, including giftedness.
 African American children of high IQ were not anomalies.
 Black children of high IQ had similar characteristics to other high IQ children from
different ethnic/racial backgrounds.
 Case study was a valuable method in studying extreme aptitude.
 Extremely high IQ was in part due to biology, the environment, and the opportunity to
develop abilities.
 African American children dealt with a set of unique factors that impacted the
development of their giftedness. Assumptions about racial inferiority impacted their
lives, affecting levels of achievement and motivation.
 Black gifted children responded to the ideological climate and conditions in different
ways; some disengaged and underachieved, while others became creative-producers.
With the work of Witty and Jenkins (1934, 1935), a number of myths were dispelled about
African American intellectual capability. Research that had focused on genetic-based notions of
intelligence gave way to research that acknowledged that giftedness was found in diverse
populations, proposed giftedness as a broader construct, and introduced the notion that
intelligence can be influenced by multiple factors that may manifest differently according to the
population. This marked a shift away from research grounded in assumptions about racial
stereotypes to more empirically grounded research and methods.
The research conducted by Witty and Jenkins (1934, 1935), Jenkins (1936, 1943), and
Theman and Witty (1943) helped to validate the earlier work of African American intellectuals
and other social justice advocates who fought for the recognition that giftedness could be found
in the African American population. Their work established that high IQ Black children existed
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 52

in the school population and had traits similar to their White counterparts. However, these
children also had a unique set of influences that could negatively impact their development of
these gifts (Jenkins, 1936, 1950). Focusing on a balance between nature and nurture, it was
shown that the ideological and political environment around the turn of the century, along with
the oppressive social and economic conditions experienced by most African Americans, were
influential in the academic outcomes of African Americans and could impact the development
and manifestation of giftedness.
Summary
Mainstream views about African American intellectual inferiority that were deemed
appropriate at the time were challenged, re-interpreted, and re-theorized by African American
scholars and their allies. The research and writings that focused on highlighting the problems of
overt racial bias in hereditarian research also worked to address the implications for theory,
policy, and practice. With the study of intelligence and giftedness came a tradition of questioning
research about African Americans in order to refute deficit views and increase objectivity,
validity, knowledge, and understanding. This historical research pattern illuminates differing
perspectives on research about African Americans between dominant group members, scholars
of color, and their allies. A research pattern, or paradigm, developed where claims about African
Americans—especially those relating to deficiencies or differences—were countered and made
more complex by offering different perspectives that included the effects of structural forces,
institutional policies, and social practices.
Expanding Opportunities for African American Gifted Students
The Talent Search for Negro Youth
Although interest in research and opportunities for gifted education declined after the
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 53

1930s, a talent search for African American youth expanded beyond the Black community
during 1940s. Beginning in the 1940s, continuing through the 1960s, there was a group outside
of historically Black colleges and communities that focused their work on providing educational
opportunities for exceptional African American students. A private educational organization had
begun a search for “talented Negro students” (Perkins, 2012). The National Scholarship Service
and Fund for Negro Students (NSSFNS) was established in 1947 to identify superior Negro
students for placement in top New England preparatory schools and colleges (Perkins, 2012).
Felice Nierenberg Schwartz founded the organization in 1947, after graduating from Smith
College, to integrate the Seven Sister Colleges: Barnard, Bryn Mawr, Mount Holyoke, Smith,
Vassar, Wellesley, and Radcliffe College. As a college student, Schwartz had been disturbed by
the lack of Black students attending her campus and the other private colleges. She made it her
goal to increase the number of students applying to these institutions, along with some private
northern preparatory academies, by providing them with a large pool of qualified Black
applicants.
The NSSFNS established an office in Harlem; it partnered with prominent African
Americans and a number of university presidents to strengthen the organization. Using the
Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), the organization recruited students from the top 10% of southern
and northern Black high schools. Within the first few years, approximately 500 students enrolled
in White colleges. However, a larger number of students qualified but chose not to attend due to
concerns about their ability to meet the academic challenge, the possibility of facing racism
within the institutions, high tuition and fees, and the desire for a traditional Black college
experience. Although some students feared not being able to meet the academic challenge, a
study was done to determine the level of achievement of students who enrolled in these elite
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 54

institutions. Renowned psychologist, Kenneth B. Clark, conducted the study and found that, once
enrolled, the Black talent search students were academically successful. The NSSFNS began
increasing opportunities for academically talented students in private schools. Decades later,
concerns about national security, global competitiveness, and civil rights legislation made it the
focus of public schools as a whole to appropriately identify and place African American students
of high academic ability in advanced level courses and/or gifted programs.
Sociopolitical Changes in the 1950s and 1960s
Although there was great interest and funding support for the study of giftedness in the
1920s and 1930s, gifted education for all students declined through 1950. However, throughout
the 1950s a number of events influenced educational reform, including identifying and providing
special services for gifted students.
The Educational Policies Commission. In 1950, the Educational Policies Commission
(EPC) advocated for the provision of services for gifted and talented students. The commission,
which was sponsored by the National Education Association and the American Association of
School Administrators, consisted of scholars and administrators who worked to influence
educational policy and reform. In their 1950 report, they advocated, “The educational needs of
individuals who have superior intellectual capacity and of those who possess special talents in
high degree differ in some important respects from the needs of other individuals” and they
“constitute a minority which is too largely neglected” (Frasier et al., 1994).
Sputnik. Although educational leaders had been promoting reform to improve the quality
of education provided in public schools, the political climate made discussions about academic
rigor and quality for all a reality. Provisions to provide services for gifted students became
desirable as the United States realized that it lagged behind other countries technologically. The
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 55

experience of fighting World War II highlighted how the U.S. lacked the mathematical and
scientific talent and innovation as enemy countries. Concerns for national security and global
competitiveness spurred a need to identify and foster the talents of those who could become
future leaders in science and mathematics.
These concerns grew when the Soviets launched Sputnik on October 4, 1957. The
Soviets' victory over the United States in launching a space satellite made the need for
educational reform a priority, necessitating programs for the gifted (Jolly, 2009). In response,
Congress passed the National Defense Education Act (NDEA), which linked quality education
for gifted and advanced learners with the country’s national interest and allocated $1 billion
dollars to support educational reform efforts. The money was provided in the form of
scholarships and loans to support highly capable, low-SES students in furthering their education.
It also distributed funds to states to improve K-12 education by training teachers to provide more
academically rigorous courses for the gifted. And, it specifically assigned monies for the
“guidance, counseling, testing, and identification…of gifted students” (Jolly, 2009, p. 41).
The 1950s were a time of considerable change for gifted education. The political and
economic climate provided a need to formalize support for gifted education programs by the
federal government. Gifted students were again viewed as a possible resource in improving
society and the country’s national standing. However, “separate but equal” continued to be legal
policy and practice in the United States. African American students, and other marginalized
groups, were not considered a part of this monetary search and support for academic talent. The
renewed interest in developing giftedness did not include students historically underserved due to
hegemonic forces. In 1950, the Educational Policies Commission remarked on the untapped
talent being wasted by excluding groups of students. In 1958, the Educational Policies
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 56

Commission specifically highlighted the need for inclusion of poor and minority students in the
NDEA’S reform efforts. In 1958, the commission stated:
Missing from the benefits of increased programming were students from low
socioeconomic backgrounds, rural groups, and minorities. These students remained either
unidentified or special programming did not extend to their schools. These groups
represented a loss of talent development as illustrated in “Follow-up studies of highly
gifted young Negros; for instance, reveal a shocking waste of talent—a waste that adds
an incalculable amount to the price of prejudice in this country” (Jolly, 2009).
Although Black students were excluded from these funding sources and more favorable
educational conditions for highly capable students, theoretical shifts in the field of psychology
during the 1950s would assist in expanding opportunities for the identification of African
American students, particularly after the passing of Brown vs. Board of Education in 1954 and
The Civil Rights Act of 1964.
Conceptions of Giftedness
Since the earlier part of the 20th century, IQ defined giftedness, with Terman and
Hollingsworth (Jenkins, 1936) recommending IQ scores at or above 130 as indicators of
giftedness. Theoretical shifts in the field of psychology further challenged unitary concepts of
giftedness during the 1950s. According to Robinson and Clinkenbeard (2008), Hollingsworth
and Witty later acknowledged that giftedness may be comprised of and influenced by factors
other just innate ability. Hollingsworth (1926) discussed the impact of environment and Witty’s
definition of giftedness included a focus on the integration of biological, psychological, and
environmental opportunity as factors (Robinson and Clinkenbeard, 2008). Although Witty used
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 57

IQ scores in his work, he defined an individual as gifted if their “performance, in a valuable line
of human activity, is consistently or repeatedly remarkable” (Renzulli, 1978, p. 2).
Multi-Dimensional intelligence. During this same decade, J. P. Guilford, a professor of
psychology at the University of Southern California, became one of the first to propose a multi-
dimensional theory of intelligence. Guilford believed that intelligence was not a unitary concept.
He studied the factors that comprised intelligence, focusing on different mental abilities
including cognition, memory, convergent and divergent thinking, and evaluation.
Guilford organized his research on thinking abilities in the Structure of the Intellect (SOI)
Theory. He posited that an individual could have up to 150 different intellectual abilities that
were interrelated. He believed that traditional intelligence tests were limited in assessing various
mental abilities, especially creativity. In an address for the American Psychological Association,
Guilford discussed the difficulty of studying highly creative individuals in traditional lab settings
but proposed the use of paper and pencil tasks to learn more about divergent thinking or the
ability to generate large numbers of ideas (Sternberg, Jarvin, & Grigorenko, 2010). Guilford
believed that these tests of divergent thinking could be used to compare the level of creativity
among individuals (Sternberg et al., 2010). Guilford’s work helped to open the door for “greater
systematic research on the multi-faceted nature of giftedness,” specifically the study of creativity
(Jolly, 2009).
Giftedness and creativity. Torrance (1977a) was also interested in creativity, its role in
people’s lives, and its cultivation. In studying the lives of the highly gifted, Torrance found their
accomplishments to be attributed to high degrees of creativity. He continued the work of
Guilford and created the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking. Torrance designed test tasks to
measure an individual’s ability to be flexible, fluent, original, and elaborative in their thinking in
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 58

relation to everyday objects or ideas. The test tasks were designed to be objective and
independent of prior academic knowledge, a test for any person in any context.
Torrance (1977a) was aware of the issues of using intelligence tests and achievement
tests in identifying gifted and talented minority students. He believed that his tests, focused on
the identification of creative potential, could be used for this purpose. Minority students did not,
and still do not, perform at the same level as Asian or White students on intelligence tests or
other measures of achievement (Worrell, 2007). Torrance (1977b) believed it was necessary to
move away from the deficit models prevalent in describing achievement of minority or low-
socio-economic students. He advocated that differences in minority students, when compared to
majority students, should not be viewed as deficits but benefits to society (Torrance, 1977b). He
stated, “My proposed solution has been that in searching for giftedness among the culturally
different, we seek by whatever means possible to identify their creative positives and, then, use
these characteristics as positives in educational programs and in career development.”
Although he did not believe that all culturally diverse gifted students exhibited these
characteristics, Torrance identified a list of “creative positives” to be used in the identification
and programming planning for gifted African American, Latino, and low-income students. The
creative positives included (Torrance, 1977a):
 Ability to express feelings and emotion
 Ability to improvise with commonplace materials and objects
 Articulateness in role-playing, socio-drama, and story telling
 Enjoyment of and ability in visual arts, such as drawing, painting, and sculpture
 Enjoyment of and ability in creative movement, dance, dramatics, and so forth
 Enjoyment of and ability in music, rhythm, and so forth
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 59

 Use of expressive speech
 Fluency and flexibility in figural media
 Enjoyment of and skills in group activities and problem-solving
 Responsiveness to the concrete
 Responsiveness to the kinesthetic
 Expressiveness of gestures, body language, and so forth, and ability to interpret body
language
 Humor
 Richness of imagery in informal language
 Originality of ideas in problem-solving
 Problem-centeredness or persistence in problem-solving
 Emotional responsiveness
 Quickness of warm-up
In using the Torrance Tests of Creativity with African American, Latino, and low-socio-
economic students, Torrance (1977b) also found that these students performed better in informal,
creative testing environments. They did better when allowed to use their own language or dialect.
They had better outcomes when test directions were simplified by examiners. Torrance’s work
expanded understanding of the multi-faceted nature of giftedness, specifically in the area of
creativity.
Renzulli’s Three-Ring Conception of giftedness. Renzulli’s (1978) Three-Ring
Conception of Giftedness posits a multi-componential theory that emphasizes the interaction of
three interlocking traits that explain creative productive giftedness. Renzulli (1978) believed that
individuals who have been recognized for their contributions exhibit three traits: “above-average,
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 60

though not necessarily superior ability, task commitment, and creativity” (p. 3). The interactions
of these three traits are necessary in producing creative productive giftedness; no single trait
produces giftedness.
Renzulli and Delcourt (2013) argued that there are a number of factors that explain why
some individuals “display gifted behaviors at certain times and under certain circumstances” (p.
43). Renzulli (1978) differentiated between two types of giftedness: creative productive and
schoolhouse. Personality factors and environmental factors are pivotal in determining if
giftedness becomes manifest, even when an individual has a high IQ. Personality factors include
“perceptions of self, character, energy, need for achievement, courage, intuition, charm, ego
strength, attractiveness, and courage” (Renzulli & Delcourt, 2013, p. 43). Environmental factors
include “socio-economic status, education of parents, parental personalities, stimulation of
interests, family position, formal education, role-model availability, physical illness and/or well-
being, chance factors, and Zeitgeist” (p. 43).
In his theory, above-average ability is a stable trait, but creativity and task commitment
will fluctuate as a result of varying situations and contexts. Personality and environmental
factors, coupled with the interaction of creativity, above average ability, and task commitment,
are integral to the development of gifted behaviors. Renzulli and Delcourt (2013) described the
importance of acknowledging that there are potentially gifted individuals whose talents have not
yet emerged, and this approach is needed to support the identification of students from special
populations that would not be identified through traditional testing.
The impact of civil rights legislation. The Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and
1960s forced the government and society as a whole to address questions of equity, fairness, and
justice for African Americans. A core issue addressed by civil rights activists was the inherent
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 61

inequity of the United States Supreme Court decision of the 1896 Plessy vs. Ferguson case. The
ruling, which stated that racial segregation in public facilities was constitutional as long as they
were equal, permeated society. The “separate but equal” policy was an empty promise, with
African Americans receiving inferior facilities, goods and services. Black schools received less
funding than White schools, which resulted in poor facilities, fewer and/or outdated books, and
less learning time with teachers and administrators who garnered much smaller salaries.
African Americans had consistently fought for increased and varied educational
opportunities. Civil rights advocates continued this educational activist tradition by working to
achieve equity in the funding and services provided to Black students. Almost 60 years after the
Plessy vs. Ferguson decision, the Supreme Court delivered a unanimous ruling in Brown v.
Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, that segregation of public schools was a violation of the
14th amendment and therefore unconstitutional. States were to begin desegregation plans “with
all deliberate speed.” Despite vague wording by the Supreme Court and considerable resistance
to the Brown decision, civil rights activists knew the decision legalized the notion of improved
educational opportunities for Black students and, in doing so, gave credence to advocacy efforts.
Another major piece of legislation that expanded educational opportunity for African
Americans was The Civil Rights Act of 1964. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits
discrimination based on race, color, or national origin in programs that receive funding from the
federal government. Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 specifically focuses on educational
systems, which includes state educational agencies, school districts, colleges and universities,
vocational rehabilitation agencies, libraries, and museums. The law states that institutions
receiving federal funds must operate in a non-discriminatory manner in the areas of:
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 62

Admission, recruitment, financial aid, academic programs, student treatment and
services, counseling and guidance, discipline, classroom assignment, grading, vocational
education, recreation, physical education, athletics, housing and employment, if it affects
those who are intended to benefit from the Federal funds (Civil Rights Act of 1964).
The Brown decision of 1954 and the Civil Rights Act of 1964 were expansive in that they
eventually led to inquiries into the policies, practices, and environments most conducive to
educating African American students in integrated settings. Research topics continue to be
investigated by researchers. These topics include but are not limited to the impact of culture on
learning (Boykin, 1986; Hale-Benson, 1986; Shade, 1982), the effects of teacher perception
(Ladson-Billings, 2009), identification and retention in advanced programs (Ford, 1986; Frasier
& Passow, 1994; Frasier et al., 1995), and the over-representation of students in special
education (Donovan & Cross, 2002).
The convergence of civil rights legislation and Lyndon B. Johnson’s war on poverty
focused attention on the plight and promise of African American students. These events created a
need for understanding the influences on Black students’ academic performance. Earlier research
focused on race as a basis for determining levels of intelligence, academic aptitude, explaining
poor outcomes, and rationalizing limited educational opportunities. During the 1950s and 1960’s,
the political context influenced a shift in research on African Americans' education from racial to
socio-cultural.
From Cultural Deficits to Cultural Assets
Mainstream culture and performance were used as the standard for measure, which led to
research that identified attributes of Black culture as deficient or pathological in comparison to
White culture (Moynihan et al., 1967). According to Frazier et al. (1995), school desegregation-
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 63

focused research emphasized Black students’ deficits due to cultural deprivation. Research
policy and practice centered on addressing student deficiencies and cultural differences to
increase achievement. These authors argued that, “The focus on deficits made recognition of the
strengths of minority children difficult and… detracted from needed structural changes in
schools and the manner in which they are organized and operated” (Frazier et al., 1995, p. ix).
The deficit-based research paradigm was problematic because of the assumption that
differences from mainstream culture were synonymous with deficiency (Ford, 1994; Torrance,
1977b), which reinforced beliefs in racial and cultural inferiority. In this line of thinking, there is
a correct culture that is privileged and should be aspired to and replicated. The attributes of this
correct culture define cultural capital as the “certain cultural signals (such as attitudes,
preferences, tastes, and styles)” that provide one access to “high status social groups,
organizations, or institutions” needed for social mobility (Carter, 2003, p. 136-137). Educational
programming for African Americans and other minorities emphasized ameliorating student
deficits instead of simultaneously acknowledging and building upon students’ strengths.
As a result of the historical pattern of research that emphasized the deficits of African
Americans in explaining poor outcomes, the theories of cultural deprivation that were used to
guide educational programming were questioned. As in the 1920s and 1930s, researchers sought
to complicate research paradigms grounded in deficit thinking because of the impact on
educational policy and programming for Black Americans. The Black vs. White binary, where
White Americans are deemed the standard for all other groups to be measured against,
normalized investigating problems and solutions to poor academic achievement by focusing
solely on perceived deficiencies of African Americans and other marginalized groups. This focus
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 64

in research has defined or created a paradigm which lends itself to framing non-mainstream
groups as deficient or not normal. Perea (1997) defined a paradigm as:
A shared set of understandings or premises which permits the definition, elaboration, and
solution of a set of problems defined within the paradigm…Thus, a paradigm is the set of
shared understandings that permits us to distinguish those facts that matter in the solution
of a problem from those facts that do not.” (p. 130 ).
In this line of thinking, a research paradigm based on deficit thinking does not work to
identify and then build on students’ strengths or successes; it does not investigate educational
environments where these students are high achieving (Frasier & Passow, 1994). In response to
this paradigm, according to Frasier and colleagues (1995), in the 1970s, scholars countered
cultural deprivation theories by producing research that emphasized that cultural difference did
not equate to deficits (Torrance, 1977b). Cultural Deprivation Theory led to the development of
cultural difference theories that described the unique attributes of African American culture that
differed from school culture, including expression styles, learning styles, and use of language
(Frasier et al., 1995). Cultural difference theories influenced the review of gifted identification
procedures and alternative identification tools, such as emphasizing creativity and cultural
characteristics to focus identification on the strengths of underrepresented minority students.
Summary
Interest and support for African American gifted students were fueled by private
organizations, legislation, and expanded views of giftedness. Talent search opportunities were
made available to top Black students in southern schools to attend prestigious White institutions
in the North. However, as Jenkins (1950) noted in his research, African American gifted students
have unique structural and social factors that influence their performance. The results of these
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 65

barriers were evident, as some of the Black Talent Search students refused the opportunity to
attend prominent White schools due to concerns over possible poor performance and/or of
leaving the safety of their communities. Sputnik sparked a need for providing educational
opportunities to gifted student; however, even though mainstream educational organizations
criticized the norm of not including African American schools in funding for gifted programs,
their critiques went largely ignored.
During this same time period, groundbreaking work on conceptions of giftedness
expanded the notion of giftedness beyond IQ scores. Researchers posited theories that defined
giftedness as multi-faceted and multi-dimensional, influenced by biology, environment, and
personal differences. Questions of whether individuals or behaviors should be labeled gifted and
discussions around varying types of giftedness were controversial. However, these new theories
opened up access to non-traditional students by identifying different sets of traits and interactions
related to giftedness that could be identified and fostered in classrooms. Eventually the
broadened conceptions of giftedness allowed for a review of policies and practices in the
identification of gifted students that included more students than Terman’s (1916) top 1%.
Finally, civil rights legislation sparked the movement towards the need for the equitable
treatment of African Americans and other students of color in public schools. Comparative
research was done to determine the needs of African American students in contrast to majority
students. Researchers worked to determine characteristics of these students to inform best
practices and identify environments conducive to students’ success. Critics were concerned with
the emphasis on deficits of African Americans, which led to a shift from deficit-oriented research
to highlighting differences among students and highlighting the strengths that these students
bring to educational environments.
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 66

Contemporary Issues in Educating African American Gifted Students
Although historical events, expanded conceptions of giftedness, identification procedures, and
human agency have created greater access to gifted programming for African American students,
they have remained largely underrepresented in gifted programs. Barriers to African American
student achievement continue to be best understood by framing issues within a socio-historical
context, as many different types of factors converge to contribute to this longstanding problem
(Ford, 1996; Worrell, 2007, 2012a). Earlier research on African American gifted students
(Jenkins, 1950) and the impact of views from the broader society continue to influence research.
Subsequent understanding emerged around the structural, institutional, social, and psychological
factors impacting African American student participation and achievement in gifted programs. In
addition, the role of effort is now included as a major factor that impacts these students’
academic engagement and performance. According to Worrell (2012) understanding the impact
of context on African Americans over time is foundational in determining how relationships
between perceptions and beliefs influence African American achievement. These factors come
together, are manifest in the achievement gap, and influence underrepresentation in gifted
programs (Ford, Grantham & Whiting, 2008; Worrell, 2009) and disproportionality of African
American students in special education (Donovan & Cross, 2000; Ford & Webb, 1994; Frasier &
Passow, 1994).
Institutional Factors
Cultural deficiency theories, which led to cultural difference theories, influenced a review
of policies and practices used to identify and serve African Americans and other historically
underrepresented students in gifted programs. The earlier research that focused on the
deficiencies of students shifted to viewing the deficits of institutions in identifying and meeting
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 67

the needs of these students in gifted programs. The procedures and instruments used for gifted
identification (Frasier et al., 1995) and school curricula (Ford, 1994; Ford & Grantham, 2003;
Milner & Ford, 2005) are described as representing the norms, knowledge, and values of the
dominant culture, which limits participation by non-dominant students. Teacher referral remains
an issue, especially when teachers have had no training in working with diverse student
populations. When underrepresented students are referred to gifted programs, researchers have
found that bias and narrow identification procedures continue to contribute to the low
participation of Black students in gifted programs (Ford & Webb, 1994; Frasier et al., 1995).
They recommend that non-verbal tests (Ford, 2005) and multiple criteria (Davis & Rimm, 2004;
Ford, 1996; Frasier et al. 1995) should be utilized with underrepresented minorities and low-
socioeconomic status students to increase their representation.
Test bias continues to be controversial, as some researchers believe that “bias may stem
from the test’s content and format, performance differences among groups, and the purposes for
which the tests results are used” (Frasier et al., 1995, p. 3). To the contrary, others believe there
is no evidence to support bias against African American students in test development, explaining
that lower test scores in general for the group are manifestations of the achievement gap
(Worrell, 2009). Perceptions around test bias vary since some view bias as specific to test
construction, whereas others move beyond the format and content of the tests to describe
structural and cultural implications of test performance and subsequent identification and
placement.
Identification Procedures
GATE identification procedures inhibit African American student access to gifted
programs when they are based on single measures of IQ. Identification procedures should be
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 68

aligned with on or more conceptions of giftedness. Contemporary theories of giftedness are more
comprehensive and nuanced than in the past; however, school districts may still utilize outmoded
models and protocols for gifted identification focused solely on cognitive assessments or
advanced achievement scores. The use of test scores simplifies identification procedures.
However, Worrell (2012b) argues that when relying on IQ or achievement scores for GATE
identification, African American students will consistently remain underrepresented. He argued
that, in comparison to their White and Asian peers, African Americans “obtain lower scores, on
cognitive tests and tests of achievement, across all domains” Worrell, 2012b, (p. 388). Due to
these differences in scores, advocates of historically underrepresented minorities have advocated
for multiple measures to be used in identifying African American students for gifted programs.
From the beginning of the 20th century, there have been questions regarding the fairness
and appropriateness of using standardized tests to determine educational opportunities for these
students. With regard to fairness, researchers have questioned the “norms used for test
interpretation, the language demands of the test items, possible item bias, and the purpose for
which the tests results are used” (Johnsen, 2012, p. 64). To stem underrepresentation issues,
Johnsen (2012) recommended that identification for African Americans include the use of
multiple measures, including cognition, achievement, interests, and behaviors.
Teacher Referral
Teacher referral of students to gifted programs has also been flagged as problematic
when teachers hold deficit views of African American students. According to Valencia (2010),
this occurs when student deficits are attributed to a student’s race, culture, socio-economic status,
and/or family practices. When a deficit framework is applied to a particular group of students,
academic difficulties are ascribed to the group’s “limited intellectual abilities, linguistic
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 69

shortcomings, lack of motivation…and immoral behavior.” Students stereotyped as deficient are
not believed to have the ability to perform successfully in gifted programs or the appropriate
cultural experiences that support achievement.
Deficit thinking results in low expectations for African American students and few
nominations for gifted programming (Ford, 1998). Steele (1997) contends that beliefs about low
intelligence among African Americans are longstanding in the United States. Evidence of deficit
thinking are reflected in the low percentages of Black students participating in gifted programs
and, conversely, the high number of Black students referred for and participating in special
education programs (Donovan & Cross, 2002). Disparate discipline rates and higher expulsion
rates for Black students are also attributed to deficit thinking. Deficit thinking is influential in
causing lower teacher referrals for GATE programs and inhibiting African American student
participation.
GATE Program Curriculum
School curriculum has also been identified as a barrier to African American student
participation and achievement in gifted programs when the materials do not reflect the students
participating in the program (Ford, 1994; Ford and Grantham, 2003; Milner and Ford, 2005).
Critics point out that GATE programs do not provide multicultural or culturally relevant
curriculum for African American students and other minorities, which hampers student
“achievement…sense of belonging and validation as scholars” (Olszewski-Kubilius & Thomson,
2010). According to Ford (1994, 005), pre-service and in-service programs for teaching gifted
students often lack adequate preparation in the use of multicultural curriculum or culturally
relevant learning practices to meet the needs of non-dominant students. This is crucial to
achievement for all students since students are more engaged when they are more interested in
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 70

the curriculum (Dewey, 1916). Learning improves when teachers build on student’s prior
knowledge when teaching new content. Curriculum theorists have long advocated for curricula
that are relevant and of interest to students (Dewey, 1916; Tyler, 1949). When students are not
represented in school programming or curricula, this may influence social and psychological
factors that contribute to academic disengagement and lower achievement among African
American gifted students. To counter notions of racialized belonging, Fordham and Ogbu (1986)
recommended that school personnel work to understand unique aspects of African American
culture, such as fictive kinship or collective identity, to promote the idea that school success is
not relegated to one ethnic group.
Ford (1994) and Moore et al. (2005) argued that the lack of multicultural preparation of
teachers limits their ability to provide appropriate curricula and instructional experiences for
African American students. Moore et al. (2005) argued that African American students want to
interact with content that addresses diversity and examines problems and solutions related to
inequities. Banks (1995) and others (Gay, 2002; Ladson-Billings, 1995) advocate for culturally
inclusive curricula that require teachers to modify and re-interpret core content to make it more
appropriate for diverse learners. This entails developing an understanding of students’ cultural
backgrounds and examining beliefs regarding students of color. Students must see themselves
reflected in the curriculum being taught in order to feel accepted and empowered. To foster
teachers’ cultural competence Ford and Grantham (2003, p. 221) recommend that teachers:
 Engage in critical self-examination that explores their attitudes and perceptions
concerning cultural diversity
 Examine the influence of attitudes and perceptions on minority students’ achievement
and educational opportunities
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 71

 Acquire accurate information about various cultural groups (e.g., histories, historical and
contemporary contributions, and preferred learning styles)
 Learn how to infuse multicultural perspectives and materials into curriculum and
instruction to maximize the academic, cognitive, social-emotional, psychological, and
cultural development of students
 Learn ways of advocating and negotiating for diverse students
 Build partnerships with diverse families, communities, and organizations
Ladson-Billings (1995) argued that culturally relevant teaching promotes learning by
utilizing students’ culture as a means to engage in content and learn new skills. Harmon (2001)
contended that African American students see culturally responsive teachers as more engaging
and effective. Ford (1994) noted that African American students will not want to participate in
gifted programming if they believe their culture and ways of knowing are excluded, not
acknowledged, or not integrated into curriculum and instruction.
Delpit (1998) took a different stance on institutional programming or practices that
impede minority student achievement. Delpit (1998) argued that minority and impoverished
students are more successful when schools explicitly teach these students the “culture of power.”
There are five elements related to power that influence the level of learning that takes place in
schools (p. 282):
1. Issues of power are enacted in the classroom
2. There are codes or rules for participating in power; that is, there is a “culture of
power.”
3. The rules of the culture of power reflect the rules of the culture of those who have
power.
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 72

4. If you are not already a participant in the culture of power, being told explicitly the
rules of that culture makes acquiring power easier.
5. Those with power are frequently least aware of—or least willing to acknowledge—its
existence. Those with less power are often most aware of its existence.
Delpit (1998) argued that a “culture of power” exists in society and also in schools. Those
who are familiar with or participate in this culture of power have the “cultural capital” to be
successful in mainstream, middle-class environments. Groups that do not function within this
“culture of power” must be taught the “discourse patterns, interactional styles, and spoken and
written language codes that will allow them success in the larger society” (Delpit, 1998, p. 285).
Teachers of diverse gifted students must be aware of their interaction style—implicit vs.
explicit—and provide students clear instruction in core areas, if needed, to increase their
potential to acquire cultural capital (Bourdieu & Passeron, 1977). Delpit (1998) described this as
teaching according to how things really are, not how they should be. The author clearly stated
that the goal was not to replace a student’s culture or language style but to allow them to
understand the value in knowing the knowledge and skill set that is needed for success in the
broader society. There is power in knowing how to navigate mainstream culture, and teachers
should take responsibility for ensuring that impoverished students and students of color are
provided with the appropriate tools to effect change from within the “culture of power.”
Teachers are normally the first step in the process of gifted identification, and if they are
biased against students of color or misconstrue behaviors of these students as not aligned with
giftedness, these students will not be referred for identification (Ford, 1996). Banks (1995) and
Ladson-Billings, (1995) advocated for more cognitively, culturally, and linguistically appropriate
instructional methods and curriculum for minority students. Moore et al. (2005) advocated
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 73

specifically for Black gifted students by arguing for increased emphasis on cultural competence
for pre-service and in-service teachers to better meet these students' unique cognitive, cultural,
and social-emotional needs. Delpit (1998) also argued that teachers are responsible for
addressing the differential power relations that exist within society by providing marginalized
students with appropriate learning experiences that will raise their critical consciousness and
increase their cultural capital.
Teachers have been labeled as gatekeepers in the GATE identification referral process
due to their limited understanding and deficit views of Black students. Some theorists argue that
an increase in teachers’ awareness of diversity and use of culturally inclusive teaching practices
would improve the number of African American students identified and retained in gifted
programs (Moore et al., 2005). Others contend that it is equally important to teach students the
knowledge and skill set needed to negotiate success in the broader society. In other words, it is
not enough to include African American culture into gifted school programming. It is equally
important to ensure that these gifted students are taught the value of participating in gifted
programs and, then, if there are academic gaps, to provide them with knowledge and meaningful
instruction that will allow them to develop the skills needed to achieve in gifted programs and
the broader society. Therefore, cognitive and affective factors relating to teaching and learning
are salient in retaining and improving the success of African American students in gifted
programming.
Summary
Civil rights legislation influenced research attempting to understand and explain ways to
meet the needs of African American and other students of color. Cultural difference theories led
to studies that emphasized the role of schools in limiting access and engagement for non-
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 74

dominant students in gifted or accelerated programs. Identification procedures were examined in
light of expanded conceptions of giftedness, with questions surrounding the use of outmoded
protocols that may disadvantage African American students. Testing bias remains controversial,
as some researchers now argue that IQ and achievement tests are not biased against African
American students but reflect the racial achievement gap.
Teacher practices were examined to understand the ways that teachers may hinder or
facilitate student identification and retention. Limited teacher training, pre-service and in-service,
are described as one of the major reasons that teachers, who are mainly White and middle class,
may not know how to provide culturally relevant learning experiences for students from diverse
backgrounds. Researchers examining Black student achievement warn against infusing
multicultural content without ensuring that students are also learning the knowledge and skills
they need for success in the broader society. Academic and cultural competencies should be
emphasized. Instead of solely focusing on the deficiencies of students, schools should be
evaluated for their policies and practices that limit identification and retention of African
American students in gifted programs.
Psycho-social Influences
Social and psychological underpinnings for academic achievement are prevalent in the
research literature (Fordham, 1988; Fordham & Ogbu, 1986; Steele, 1997; Steele & Aronson,
1995) and in the media (Cosby & Poussaint, 2007; McWhorter, 2000). They are used in defining
and describing academic disengagement and poor performance of Black students. A number of
researchers attribute underrepresentation and attrition of African Americans in gifted programs
to racialized perceptions of rigorous academics as a White domain (Ford et al., 2008b; Fordham
& Ogbu, 1986). Fordham and Ogbu (1986) and others (Ford, 1994; Ford et al., 2008b) have
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 75

argued that African American students lack support from same-raced peers for academic
pursuits; this causes African American gifted students to be disinclined to participate in
intellectual and academic endeavors, which are perceived as a White activity. Due to these
perceptions, Black students disengage because they have adapted to oppression, do not see the
relevance in schooling for minorities, and, therefore, lack the social support for academic
achievement from their own communities (Ogbu, 1978; Fordham & Ogbu, 1986).
Ogbu’s Ecological Theory
Many researchers in the field of gifted education have cited the work of anthropologist
John Ogbu in explaining poor academic outcomes for African American gifted students
(Borland, 2004; Ford, 1994; Ford & Harris, 1996; Ford et al., 2008a; Henfield et al., 2008;
Morris, 2004). Ogbu’s Cultural Ecological Theory (Ogbu, 2003; Ogbu & Simons, 1998)
described how interacting systems and community factors influence how a particular cultural
group interprets the world. He posited that these systems influence perceptions of schools and
affects minority students’ school performance. According to his theory, African American
students choose not to achieve in school and perceive academic achievement and participation in
advanced programs as activities for students from other racial or ethnic backgrounds (Ford,
1994; Fordham & Ogbu, 1986). This literature portrays gifted African American students as
being forced to choose between identifying with African American culture or identifying with
the culture of the school. Ogbu (1986) explained that an “oppositional identity” formed within
Black culture as a response to the long history of racial discrimination and oppression has
endured in the United States.
Ogbu (1992a) theorized that academic opposition and underachievement are adaptations
to the limited opportunities available to marginalized groups in the United States. In Shujaa’s
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 76

(1994) words, African Americans are resisting the process of “schooling,” which ensures their
relegation to low caste-like status in the United States. Ogbu’s research on successful and
unsuccessful minorities, in different countries and U.S. communities, provided him with a theory
that explains African American school disengagement and low performance. Ogbu (1992a)
described “the tendency for minority children… to perform poorly in comparison with…
dominant groups worldwide” (p. 287). He describes minority student motivation, learning, and
achievement as being impacted by the way that an ethnic or racial group was incorporated into
the overall society. The method of incorporation, or the way the group became members of
society, influenced the way they viewed the world and their ability to achieve success. In Ogbu’s
theory, historical factors influenced the mindset in African American communities and guided
the actions of group members.
Ogbu (1992a) argued that to understand the persistent academic problems faced by
African Americans, it was essential to understand four factors that encompassed the community
forces that inhibited their ability to adapt to mainstream American society. Ogbu (1992a, p. 289)
defined these factors as:
1. Cultural models, or how a group interprets and understands the world.
2. Cultural frames of reference describe a cultural group's way of behaving and
speaking, which could be oppositional or non-oppositional based on their history in
the U.S. In Ogbu’s theory, African Americans have an oppositional frame of
reference due to slavery. Their ways of being were defined in opposition to being
White, so adapting to White ways of being are viewed negatively. In contrast,
voluntary minorities develop non-oppositional frames because their primary cultural
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 77

reference developed before they came to the U.S. They do not see adapting to
mainstream culture as losing their identity or negative.
3. Degree of trust describes the level of trust that a group has for White-controlled or
mainstream institutions. African Americans are described as having low trust due to
their treatment in the U.S. over time.
4. Educational strategies are the integration of the other three factors, which will
determine how group members perceive and are influenced to pursue education .
The convergence of these four factors explains the community forces that influence
minority group relations. According to Ogbu (1992b), the effect of community forces on a
particular minority group is based on their history within the country and how they have been
defined in relation to the dominant class. Minorities can be classified based on how they are
affected by community forces.
Ogbu (1992b) and Ogbu and Simons (1998) classified minorities into three distinct
categories: autonomous, voluntary, or involuntary. They described the differences among the
different types of minorities and how they responded to life in America. Autonomous minorities
can be identified based on language or cultural practices that differ from the dominant group.
These minorities are allowed a certain level of economic, social, and political freedom. Although
dominant group members consider them “other,” autonomous minorities have experienced
academic and economic success in the U.S. as a result of the level of autonomy and freedoms
granted.
Voluntary minorities, or immigrants, left their country of origin willingly and moved to
the United States for greater mobility and political freedom. These minorities believed that they
would have greater opportunity once in the United States. Initially, they experienced subjugation
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 78

due to differences in culture, language, and/or economic circumstance. However, they viewed
these poor conditions or treatment as temporary. However, they accepted mainstream views of
achievement and adopted the cultural characteristics of dominant group members to increase
their likelihood of success. They did not fear changes in language, dialect, or cultural practices,
which were viewed as desirable or appropriate. The establishment of culture in their homeland
allowed these groups to see American norms as stepping-stones to achievement. U.S. schools
were viewed as the vehicle for upward mobility; they were a means to an end. Immigrant
minorities expected great effort exerted in school to translate into academic achievement as well
as social and economic advancement.
The involuntary minority’s achievement patterns are most impacted by the historical and
political history of the country. Colonialism of North America established a dominant class and
an underclass comprised of the descendants of the enslaved and the colonized. Involuntary
minorities became members of U.S. society through “slavery, conquest, or colonization, rather
than by choice because of expectations of a better future” (Ogbu, 1992a, pg. 290). Ogbu argued
that, unlike voluntary minorities, non-immigrant minorities had no immediate homeland to
compare to their current conditions. An understanding of their circumstances has been derived
from comparisons to the dominant class of society. These comparisons led involuntary minorities
to understand that no matter how hard they tried, they would not be allowed to achieve the same
status as White Americans. Therefore, involuntary minorities consciously or subconsciously
forego adapting to mainstream behaviors deemed necessary for school success because they
perceive that they are required to shed their cultural identity to achieve in school. Also, due to
the collective experiences of the group, involuntary minorities believe adapting to the culture of
the school will not necessarily produce benefits for them later in life in mainstream society.
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 79

Whereas voluntary minority students will adapt to achieve success at school, involuntary
minorities will choose their culture and collective identity over participating in advanced level
courses or gifted programs in schools.
Ogbu (1992a) argued that secondary cultural differences may lead African Americans to
perceive certain types of behavior, activities, or symbols as characteristic of White America, and
therefore things to be avoided. Fordham and Ogbu (1986) also contended that African American
students underperformed in school because they saw the attitudes and behaviors associated with
school success as being White behavior or “acting White.” These students endure the “burden of
acting White” (Ogbu, 1986, p. 201); they see school as diminishment since they must adopt the
White American frame of reference while giving up their culture as a minority group member.
African American students perceive they must choose between academic achievement or
minority group membership.
In their study at Capital High in Washington, D.C., Fordham and Ogbu (1986) found that
students chose collective racial identity over “acting White” or behaving in academically
successful ways. Thus, Black students chose not to speak Standard English, actively participate
in class, complete work, or participate in advanced level courses. To protect themselves socially
and to show loyalty, these students mainly associated with other African Americans and
eschewed activities that were deemed White. Ogbu and Fordham (1986) saw these behaviors
with students in Washington, D.C. and with more affluent Black students in their Shaker Heights
Study (Ogbu, 2003), where students reported the use of these strategies. Ford (1994) argued that
this was also problematic with high-achieving and underachieving gifted Black students. Peer
pressure and concerns about being ostracized kept Black students from engaging academically
and participating in gifted education.
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According to Ogbu’s theories, African American students chose underperformance and
underrepresentation in gifted programs. Historical and community forces influenced their
choices. However, Ogbu (1992a) suggested that the African Americans must also be held
accountable for their low achievement. Low effort and parenting practices also contributed to
poor performance. He also argued that African Americans are more concerned with having
caring relationships with teachers than viewing school for what it is, a system for improving the
likelihood of social and economic mobility in the broader society.
Stereotype Threat
Stereotype Threat Theory has been posited as influencing the underrepresentation of
minority students in advanced level courses and gifted programs (Ford, Grantham, & Whiting,
2008b). Stereotype threat is situational and occurs when a person has concerns that they will be
judged and treated according to prevailing stereotypes, or that their behavior or performance will
confirm negative stereotypes (Steele, Spencer & Aronson, 2002).
Steele (1995) suggested that African American students are vulnerable to this
phenomenon due to negative stereotypes conflating African Americans and low intelligence.
Steele and Aronson (1995) conducted research that showed that African American college
students performed more poorly on tests than White students when their race was highlighted
before testing. If race was not made salient, African American students performed better or equal
to White students. In a Stanford study, “Black students performed a full standard deviation lower
than Whites under stereotype threat…yet matched the performance of Whites when the same
tests were presented as non-diagnostic” (Steele et al., 2002 p. 382). When completing
demographic data, these students also tried to respond in ways to disassociate themselves from
Black culture by showing little interest in activities or ideas associated with the Black
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 81

experience. Studies of stereotype threat affecting the performance of African Americans have
been replicated in higher education (Steele & Aronson, 1995) and at the middle school level
(Steele et al., 2002).
Situations that increase an awareness of being a member of a stereotyped group make one
vulnerable. So, if race is made salient for African American students in academic settings, the
threat of reinforcing negative stereotypes about African American intellectual ability may
influence underperformance or lack of participation. As Steele et al. (2002) found, the more one
identifies with a stereotyped group, the greater the stereotype threat in “situations where the
stereotype applies” (Steele et al., 2002, p. 391). The degree to which one is affected by the
stereotype could influence attachment to a domain or task over time.
Stereotype threat has been found to have immediate and long-term effects (Steele &
Aronson, 1995). African Americans are more susceptible to stereotype threat. There is increased
likelihood that this phenomenon leads to poor performance in gifted programs and
disengagement over time when students experience the threat of reinforcing negative stereotypes
simply by their presence in academic settings.
Racelessness
In a study conducted by Fordham (1988), high achieving African American students
believed that distancing themselves from African American culture would better enable them to
achieve success in school. Although researchers reported that becoming “raceless” included
personal and social conflict, students felt that it was a prerequisite to achieving in rigorous
academic programs in their high school. In Fordham’s study, students described believing that
you could not “be African American” and do well in class. Academic behaviors were not
characterized as African American behaviors. To maintain their achievements, these students
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 82

believed they had to choose between staying connected to Black culture or achieve academic
success and social mobility. Fordham stated that racelessness as a strategy for school
achievement could be viewed as “a pragmatic strategy or pyrrhic victory” for African American
community members (Fordham, 1988).
Acting White
The phenomenon of high ability African American students being charged with
“acting White” by other Black students is commonly described as reason for poor achievement
and underrepresentation in advanced academic programs (Ford et al. 2008a, 2008b; Fordham,
1991; Fordham & Ogbu, 1986). The theory of acting White is most known from Fordham and
Ogbu’s (1986) study of 33 high achieving and underachieving African American students in an
impoverished area of Washington D.C. conducted during the 1980s. The study highlighted the
ecological effects of oppressive living conditions experienced by African Americans over time,
which resulted in an awareness of inopportunity in mainstream America and White controlled
domains. The students at Capital High associated certain activities and behaviors, including
academic achievement, with White Americans. Students labeled a number of activities as White,
such as “speaking standard English, listening to White music…going to the opera or ballet,
spending a lot of time in the library, working hard to get good grades…getting good
grades…being a “braniac,” going to the Smithsonian…doing volunteer work…listening to
classical music, reading and writing poetry and putting on airs” (Fordham & Ogbu, 1986, p. 4).
The high achieving students in the study were described as suffering from a “burden of acting
White,” which manifested differently across gender (Fordham, 1991). Both groups described the
negative connotations associated with being perceived as “braniacs.” For male students, the
perception of acting White was coupled with concerns about masculinity. Males who
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 83

participated in Advanced Placement (AP) classes or performed well at school were thought of as
homosexual. To cope, males adopted an appearance of not working hard and developed a clown-
like persona to avoid their sexuality being questioned. Although females were more likely to
pursue academics, they also developed strategies to maintain relationships with their peers.
Female coping strategies for eschewing the White label included being funny, playing down
academic achievement, and seeking ways to avoid being seen as intellectual. Although high
achieving students’ families were supportive, a few students did not like receiving attention for
academic achievement. The theory of acting White has been identified in a number of research
studies.
In a study of Black, gifted 5
th
to 12th grade students, Ford et al. (2008a) reported on the
negative aspects of racialized identities manifested in students’ perceptions of “acting White”
and “acting Black.” These students used negative academic terms to describe being Black, while
academic achievement was seen as a defining descriptor for White students only. Acting White
meant “getting good grades, being intelligent, and speaking Standard English” (Ford et al.,
2008a, p. 223). Acting Black was interpreted as having low intelligence and poor grades; being
highly aggressive, anti-social, and oppositional; and liking urban clothes and hip-hop music
(Ford et al., 2008a). Nearly half of the students in the study reported being teased for acting
White. In addition, to escape taunts and accusations, students reported underperforming or
choosing not to participate in gifted programs or other academically rigorous programs in order
to show their allegiance to Black culture and their same-raced peers. Problems gifted African
American students have with reconciling their ethnic identity with social networks and
academics have consistently been reported (Ford et al. 2001; Ford et al. 2008a; Fordham, 1991;
Tatum, 1997).
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 84

In a research study conducted by Henfield et al. (2008), Black students reported
differential school experiences from those of their Black peers who were not enrolled in gifted
and talented programs. These students often described being put in a position to defend their
identities as authentically African American by peers who were not enrolled in gifted and
talented programs, simply because they were participating in advanced courses. Many of the
participants in the study reported that being Black and gifted was something of an anomaly in
their schools. They had been told or knew someone who had been accused of “acting White”
because they were Black and intellectual. Some participants in this study seemed to be more
adept at managing their discomfort with racial stereotypes when they attended majority Black
schools and participated in their respective gifted program for an extended period of time.
In another study of 148 gifted, potentially gifted, and regular program 5th and 6th
grade African American students, Ford and Harris (1996) found that one-third of the students
had been accused of acting White by their peers for receiving good grades. Moreover, research
has shown that as African American students’ G.P.A’s rise above 3.3, their social status among
their same-raced peers decreases (Fryer & Torelli, 2005). This is further evidence to support that
high achieving, Black gifted students are more likely to lack friends of similar ethnic and racial
backgrounds. A great deal of research exploring social factors that hinder Black gifted students
has focused largely on concerns with identity, ethnic and cultural authenticity, the maintenance
of same-racedpeer networks, and ties to communities. Emphasis on the social aspects of these
issues frame the problem as cultural, rooted in opposition, with resistance to the mainstream
norms and values needed for academic success.
Summary
Ogbu’s Ecological Theory (Ogbu, 2003; Ogbu & Simons, 1998) and Fordham and
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 85

Ogbu’s (1986) Acting White Theory are prominent theories in contemporary research that
describe and explain disengagement and poor academic performance for African American
students. Their oft-cited theories highlight the ways that race and ethnicity affect students’ school
success. Race, identity, and ability continue to arise as core issues that negatively impact
students, whether consciously or subconsciously, when race is salient for students. Ogbu and
Fordham (1986) asserted that these students were required to choose between an academic or a
racial identity. The two identities run parallel and were unable to merge into a unified whole.
Fordham (1988) also described how some students choose a raceless persona to navigate in
academic settings. These students disassociated themselves from same-raced peers and African
American culture in order to maintain their academic records. Fordham (1988) noted that
students who choose to become raceless experienced more identity conflicts and depression.
Although Ogbu (2003) argued that Ecological Theory focuses on the influence of macro-
level structures in explaining student performance. It can be argued that his theory emphasizes
deficiencies in African American culture by placing blame for poor student achievement on
student choice. African American students are expected to change, without broader reflections
needed on changes that are also necessary to improve society and school systems.
High Achieving African American Gifted Students
Perry (2003a, b) theorized that the phenomena of “acting White” and resistance to
academics was in direct opposition to the long history of African Americans’ belief in acquiring
education to express their citizenship, humanity, and desire for upward mobility. Perry posited
that many Black students do not resist education; what they resist are the stereotypes and deficit
frames placed on them by mainstream institutions and the broader society. Following this line of
thinking, academic achievement is a significant form of resistance. Several studies have reported
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 86

findings that run counter to Ogbu’s Cultural Ecological Theory and Fordham’s notion that
African American students must become raceless or “act White” in order to achieve in schools.
The literature that focuses on high achieving, African American gifted students describes
mostly college students (Bonner, 2001; Fries-Britt & Griffin, 2007; Griffin, 2006; Harper, 2005;
Hébert , 2002; Maton & Hrabowski, 2004) and high school students (Fordham, 1988; Grantham,
2004; Hébert, 2001; Worrell, 2007). A few studies have focused on middle and elementary
school students (Ford & Harris, 1996).
College Students
Fries-Britt (1994), Bonner (2001), and Hébert (2005) conducted case studies of high
achieving, gifted and talented African American college students. They found that these students
were successful due to supportive families and teachers (Fries-Britt, 1994; Hébert, 2005),
programs that supported these students’ academic and affective needs (Bonner, 2001), a positive
self-concept, opportunities for talent development, a critical consciousness, and positive
experiences with integrated peer networks (Hébert, 2005). Some of these students were aware of
and experienced racism but did not let negative social experiences sway them from their
academic goals.
Griffin (2006) studied the effects of a predominantly White university setting on nine
socio-economically diverse Black honors program students. Griffin used a case study
methodology to identify factors that contributed to student motivation and to learn how students
responded to academic challenges. As with Bonner (2001) and Hébert’s (2002) work, the
students in Griffin’s study reported that their families motivated them to achieve academically.
The participants also felt motivated by their racial background. They worked to disprove
negative stereotypes held by professors and students about the academic abilities of Black
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 87

students and racial intellectual hierarchies (Fries-Britt & Griffin, 2007; Griffin, 2006). One of the
students stated, “They think that …we’re a subdivision of human folks and we’re lower than they
are. So, it’s important for me to prove that…I can do everything that you can ...There’s no
difference between you and I except our skin color” (p. 393).
Fries-Britt & Griffin (2007) discussed how Black high achievers resisted being placed in
a “Black box” where their racial/ethnic background restricted how others viewed them.
Academic challenges were not seen as barriers but issues remedied with school services and
individual effort. Finally, the students in Griffin’s study also described their future aspirations as
a major driving force that motivated them to achieve academically. Some of the low-income
students described wanting to have professional careers and a different type of lifestyle than what
they experienced growing up. The students described having internal and external motivators for
achievement. The different types of motivation they experienced were not in opposition but
worked together to focus students according to task and context. The author concluded that
student motivation was multidimensional; a combination of internal and external factors was
integral to the maintenance of academic achievement for these students.
Male College Students
The work on high achieving gifted African American college students focused on
identifying their attributes and the factors that influenced their achievement. Bonner (2001)
conducted a comparative phenomenological study of a gifted African American male student
attending a HBCU and a Black gifted male student attending a predominantly White institution.
Bonner (2001) wanted to learn about the impact of the institutions on the continued development
of each student’s giftedness. Bonner (2001) identified six themes that were influential in
supporting each student’s academic development, which included (p. 11):
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 88

1. Supportive relationships with faculty members
2. Peer relationships (mostly same-raced peer relationships)
3. Family influence and support
4. Self-perception (strong academic identity)
5. Institutional environment (achievement as resistance to stereotypes along with
collaboration)
6. Factors that influenced college selection (small class size or family alumni)
Overall, Bonner noted that the six themes were integral to the academic success of both students;
however, the student attending the HBCU reported developing relationships with faculty
members that extended beyond the classroom and generally a more collaborative learning
environment on campus.
Harper’s (2005) work focused on high achieving African American males at
predominantly White universities. He studied the extra-curricular and social aspects of thirty-two
African American students attending six large research institutions in the Midwest to identify
influences on their development as leaders. Student interviews revealed that these high achievers
had been involved in extra-curricular activities throughout high school and had recognized the
benefits of being involved in clubs and athletics at the secondary and post-secondary level. As
freshman or sophomores, these young men either joined or were recruited into campus
organizations and mentored by older African American students. As older mentors graduated, the
high achievers chose to fill leadership positions to address issues plaguing minority students on
campus and to increase retention and graduation rates of African Americans. These young men
wanted to ensure the Black perspective was well-represented on campus and also worked to
“debunk stereotypes that faculty and administrators may have held about Black men” (Harper,
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 89

2005, p. 4). It was important for them to counter negative images of African Americans by
contributing a positive one. These young men were also aware of the growth opportunities made
available to them by leading organizations on campus. Their organizations were safe spaces
where they could learn and refine skills that were necessary to participate in mainstream
activities across campus and in the broader society. These achievers were able to list
competencies they had acquired in their leadership positions such as working with others from
diverse backgrounds, learning time management skills, working productively as a team member,
effectively communicating to a variety of audiences, and successful politicking to achieve
personal and organizational goals.
Hébert (2002) conducted a case study to examine the factors that supported the
achievement of five gifted African American college males attending a predominantly White
university. The goal of the study was to determine how attending school on a predominantly
White campus impacted these student’s lives. The factors derived from the data revealed
psychological and social influences on their achievement. Hébert found that students were
internally motivated with a strong belief in their abilities. They also had strong maternal support
for their academic abilities; they received recognition and support for being intelligent from
extended family members and mentors. These young men also developed their talent outside of
the classroom. They were involved in extra-curricular activities and had developed a racially-
integrated peer group. Finally, these young men had learned to ignore the racism they
experienced on their college campus. Each described experiencing overt racism but did not allow
these instances to stifle their continued development. Hébert contended that research on high-
achieving gifted Black males was needed to increase understanding of how stakeholders can
support these students in their academic, leadership, and life achievement.
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 90

Meyerhoff Scholars Program
Rather than investigating student attributes, other studies have highlighted programming
designed to foster achievement in students with gifted potential. The Meyerhoff Scholars
program at the University of Maryland was implemented in 1988 to help African American
gifted college students contend with the social, psychological, and institutional factors that
traditionally impede their achievement in science, engineering, and mathematics (SEM).
Knowing that skill development for Black SEM students was not the sole reason for
underperformance, the Meyerhoff Scholars Program was designed to support students in four
core areas (Maton & Hrabowski, 2004, p. 548-549):
1. Academic and Social Integration: Black students are more likely to become isolated on
majority White campuses, so the program facilitates relationships between students and
faculty, including faculty of color, and same-raced academic peer relationships.
2. Knowledge and Skill Development: The program emphasizes the use of resources and the
development of academic peer groups in the development of academic skills.
3. Support and Motivation: Students receive financial support to enhance their ability to
know and understand science concepts, which includes opportunities to conduct hands-on
research with faculty, participate in internships, develop academic networks, and receive
tutoring and socio-emotional counseling.
4. Monitoring and Advisement: Students receive counseling in the selection of coursework
leading to a PhD or M.D., support for applying to graduate school, and feedback and
support regarding meeting academic requirements
The University of Maryland, Baltimore County, implemented the Meyerhoff Scholars
Program to support the success of gifted African American students interested in studying in
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 91

SEM fields. The program was designed to ameliorate barriers that these students faced and
increased the numbers of SEM students in “course performance, completion of major, and
entrance into SEM graduate programs” (p. 632).
Maton & Hrabowski (2004) conducted a study to determine program effectiveness for the
first three cohorts of Meyerhoff students. The mix-method study compared Meyerhoff Scholars
to non-Meyerhoff African American SEM students at the University of Maryland and to students
who did not accept the Meyerhoff scholarship and attended school elsewhere. The study
examined recruitment, retention, GPA, graduation rates, graduate and professional school
admission rates, and performance. The authors found that Meyerhoff Scholars earned
competitive GPAs and were more likely to obtain a bachelor’s degree in a SEM field and attend
a SEM graduate program. Maton & Hrabowski (2004) highlighted the importance of
comprehensive programming that focused on skill development (social and academic),
constructive feedback, social-emotional counseling, and mentoring when designing programs to
facilitate the success of gifted Black SEM college students.
K-12 Students
There are also studies of academically successful gifted and talented Black students in K–
12 schools that run counter to Ogbu’s ecological theories and the “burden of acting White.” Reis
et al. (2004) studied 35 academically talented, economically disadvantaged high school students.
The three-year comparative case study analyzed the implications of risk factors and protective
factors on student achievement.
Risk factors for underachieving students included not having developed coping strategies
to effectively deal with family problems, negative peer pressure, negative interactions with
teachers, culturally irrelevant curriculum, absence of academic challenge, living in impoverished
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 92

surroundings, and having poor early academic experiences that did not require the development
of effective study habits. In the study, resilience was defined as the “likelihood of success in
school and other life accomplishments despite environmental adversities brought about by early
traits, conditions, and experiences” (Reis et al., 2004).
High achieving students had acquired success through building relationships with
supportive adults and other achievers, took rigorous classes, participated in extracurricular
activities, participated in middle school gifted programs and summer programs for the gifted,
and, unlike underachievers, had developed ways to deal with the negativity in their local context
(home, school, and community). High achieving students were also found to have strong self-
concepts. The authors of this study advocated for comprehensive counseling services to increase
the protective factors found to support student achievement.
Grantham (2004) conducted a case study to understand the motivation of a high-
achieving African American male high school student, known as “Rocky,” participating in gifted
classes. The researcher used the Participation Motivation Expectancy-Value Model as a
framework to understand and explain why the student chose to participate in the gifted program.
The case study revealed that early experiences in the gifted program allowed him the opportunity
and practice to compete academically with other gifted students; it gave him confidence in his
abilities. Rocky’s self-efficacy was due in part to comparing his academic performance with that
of other students in the gifted program. Students and teachers had recognized Rocky as a high
performing student. White students in the gifted class respected him for his academic abilities
and teachers provided encouragement and constructive feedback to support his achievement. He
believed that teachers had high expectations for him, but they also taught him needed skills that
would support him in his achievement. He understood the benefits of participating in the gifted
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 93

program, enjoying opportunities provided to gifted students that were not made available to
students in other classes.
Rocky was socially successful; he was also able to develop relationships with the White
students in his gifted class while maintaining relationships with his Black peers. He described
traversing both communities, stating, “I’ve always eaten lunch with Black people in school, and
I’ve always been in the classes with the White people. So, I’m close with both communities” (p.
5). The overall climate of the school was positive and supported his academic and social-
emotional development. Rocky felt acknowledged and admired by the school, faculty, and peers
for his intelligence and academic achievement, which influenced his continued participation in
the gifted program.
Worrell (2007) empirically studied the ethnic identity and group orientation of a diverse
pool of academically talented middle and high school students participating in a gifted summer
program. The Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure was used to measure ethnic identity attitudes
and other group orientation attitudes; a second scale, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, was used
to assess self-esteem or global self-concept. Worrell (2007) found that assumptions should not be
made about diverse, high achieving students losing their ethnic identities and choosing to
assimilate into the dominant culture. Students in the study were concerned about maintaining a
connection to their heritage. A significant number of the minority students reported participating
in ethnic and cultural clubs, unlike their White counterparts. However, Worrell (2007) found
support for Ogbu and Simons' (1998) research on involuntary minority status affecting academic
achievement due to differences in these students’ summer program ranking and GPA. Their
summer program ranking predicted their GPAs, but their school ranking did not predict their
GPAs. Worrell (2007) argued that was evidence that highly academic and competitive
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 94

environments do not necessarily produce stereotype threat or poor self-concept. He found that
academically rigorous environments could affirm ethnic identity for African American students.
Conversely, Arroyo and Zigler (Worrell, 2007) found that Black students who used a “raceless”
strategy had higher achievement scores but reported higher incidents of depression. This finding
supports the work of Fordham (1988) that high achieving African American students may use a
raceless strategy to maintain high achievement but illuminates the sacrifice these students make
in having to choose between culture and schooling. Worrell (2007) found a positive relationship
between ethnic identity and self-esteem, further supporting the importance of affirming ethnic
identity in academic settings.
Ford and Harris (1996) conducted a study to learn the attitudes of 148 low-
socioeconomic status fifth and sixth graders on peer relationships, social issues, parents’
achievement orientation, teachers, and school. The sample included fifty regular education
students, fifty potentially gifted students, and forty-eight gifted students. Ninety-eight of the
students in the study were designated either potentially gifted or gifted within their school
district. Ford and Harris (1996) found that the gifted students had the most positive attitudes
about gifted students followed by the potentially gifted students. Half of the students in the study
stated that they knew of students being teased for their academic success, and about a third of the
students reported being teased. Few students in the study reported being rejected by other
students for making good grades or having fewer friends. The authors found that most students
reported that they believed in the American achievement ideology but there was discrepancy
between students’ beliefs and the amount of effort they put forth to achieve in school, an attitude
achievement paradox (Mickelson, 1990). Overall, the students had positive attitudes toward
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 95

school with some of the high-achieving students experiencing social problems due to their
academic achievements.
In their study of secondary students in rigorous academic programs, Tyson, Darity, and
Castellino (2005) found that the majority of high achieving, African American students believed
that rigorous academics were positive with only two of the forty interviewees reporting
experiences of racialized peer pressure. Overall, these students did not equate rigorous academics
with being White. At the elementary school level, Tyson (2002) found that the third and fourth
graders in the two predominantly Black schools studied strove for high achievement, cried when
they did not perform well, and admired their same-raced peers who achieved academically.
Tyson (2002) reported observing academically talented and low-performing students being
teased for their grades, but only when they received poor marks.
Tyson et al. (2005) believed that Black students related acting White not specifically to
academics but to ways of speaking, dressing, and participating in extra-curricular activities
mainly populated by White students. They found that in cases where perceptions of high
academic achievement had become racialized, causes were attributed to the racial make-up
schools (Fryer & Torelli, 2005; Tatum, 2003; Tyson et al., 2005), the social class of students, and
demographic patterns evident in student placements by academic program—not directly to
students’ culture (Tyson et al., 2005). Frasier and Passow (1994) asserted that there was
heterogeneity within diverse populations of the gifted program and that researchers should not
pigeonhole students. Frasier and Passow (1994) pointed out:
When students are Black, red, or brown, are culturally different, are non- or limited-
English speaking, have non-standard dialects, or are poor, those who are gifted or
talented among them are especially disadvantaged because of the attitudes and
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 96

expectations toward the population of which they are a part. We must first discard group
stereotypes and view each child in terms of his or her individuality as part of a cultural
group. We need to understand how cultural differences impact both positively and
negatively on the cognitive and affective development of individuals. (pg. xv.):
Although there is evidence that the theory of “acting White” affects African American
student achievement, it does not explain the behavior of Black gifted students across age, grade
level, genders, or context. The issue of underrepresentation in gifted programs is a longstanding,
complex, and nuanced problem influenced by macro- and micro-level factors that affect
institutions, collective and individual perceptions, student identity, and behavior. Thus,
perceptions of ability, identity and effort continue to be integral to issues of academic
engagement and achievement for Black gifted students, but may be experienced differently
among students based on a number of factors.
Summary
Perry (2003c) questioned the readiness of the academy, schools, and the mainstream
media to accept theories that focus on binaries—“acting White” or “acting Black”, being African
American or academically achieving— and/or emphasize the role of culture and student choice
in explaining poor student performance without exploring these issues across time and context.
Perry (2003c) believed that explaining African American student performance must be couched
within the context of Black education in the United States, which suggests that these phenomena
are more recent and not experienced by all African Americans. The eagerness of some to
emphasize the deficits of certain racial and ethnic groups, without discussing influences of the
broader society, are a result of the longstanding, entrenched negative views associated with
marginalized groups. Frazier et al. (1995) argued for the need to move beyond deficit frames to
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 97

better understand the realities of students and the reasons for their underperformance or high
achievement.
Instead of researching to determine the characteristics and conditions that produce poor
performance, researchers shifted towards exploring the characteristics and conditions that
produce high achievement, across different contexts, in order to foster these characteristics and
environments. In doing so, researchers found evidence to support that some students suffered
from a “burden of acting White.” But, there was more evidence that many high achieving
students did not view academic achievement as White and did not disengage from school.
Elementary students reported having fewer issues with race-based peer pressure. High achieving
secondary students did experience pressures but learned to cope with negative aspects of their
home-life and communities. African American gifted college students also discussed having to
learn to cope with experiencing racism but were aided in achieving their goals by programs that
worked to meet their affective needs, supportive family members and peers, and their own
academic achievements. Overall, the older students had strong self-concepts, built relationships,
desired ethnic affiliation, and were motivated to achieve academically to create a counter-
narrative of Black student success.
The literature on high achieving gifted African American students complicates Ecological
Theory, the Acting White Theory, and the notion of racelessness as a viable coping strategy for
African American gifted students since high achievers seemed to learn to mediate these potential
barriers. This literature provided characteristics of these students and of some of the educational
contexts that support effective relationship building. However, beyond being provided rigorous
academic experiences, it was unclear how curriculum may have influenced students to develop
the belief that they could be African American, gifted, and high achieving.
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 98

Scholars posited that culturally relevant curricula were needed to support the academic
achievements of African Americans gifted students and other students of color. Ladson-Billings
(1995) argued that culturally responsive curricula empowers students by using their own culture
to teach academic skills and knowledge. The self-knowledge students acquire supports students’
self-concept and academic engagement. There were case studies on the experiences of African
American gifted students in academically advanced programs and in diverse environments.
However, there were no studies that explored how these students experienced culturally relevant
curricula and how it may influence their perspectives on academics and participating in gifted
programs.
There are African American gifted students who thrive in gifted programs, while others
succumb to social and psychological factors that influence disengagement. Since GATE
programs serve both types of students, there is a need to continue to investigate African
American students’ perceptions related to their involvement in gifted programs. This would
allow for better curriculum design, programming to promote their achievement, countering
racialized perceptions of rigorous academics, and promoting positive identity development.
Increasing understanding of African American gifted students’ perceptions of academics and
gifted programming can inform key stakeholders. But, more specifically it will help curriculum
developers who can work to address these issues by designing learning experiences that foster
students’ racial and academic identities as part of the regular school day or as part of an after-
school or community-based program.
Suggested Curriculum for African American Gifted Students
The purpose of curriculum is to allow students to build upon and pursue interests, support
and expand their knowledge and capabilities, and prepare them to contribute to their
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 99

communities and the larger society (Renzulli, 2002; Tyler, 1949). In School and Society, Dewey
(1916) argued that curriculum should be relevant to students’ lives, promote service, and foster
independence. Relevance then is the relationship between students’ experiences, interests and the
issues, and the needs of their communities and the larger society.
Researchers who have explored the achievement issues of gifted underrepresented
minorities have advocated for a more pluralistic approach to curriculum design; they recommend
integrating gifted education pedagogy with culturally responsive teaching (Davis, 2010; Ford &
Harmon, 200a; Tomlinson & Strickland, 2004). Ladson-Billing’s (1995) asset-based research
focused on the successful teachers of African American students in order to create a profile of
best practices for these students. She identified their approach as “culturally relevant teaching,”
noting themes of high expectations, academic achievement, cultural competence, critical
consciousness, and opposition to deficit thinking (Ladson-Billings, 1995).
Culturally Relevant and Responsive Pedagogy
In Toward a Theory of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy, Ladson-Billings (1995) described
her approach as combining 1) the research on macro- and micro-level influences on poor
academic outcomes for African American students with 2) work by scholars who have analyzed
academic success among these students to identify the most effective learning environments and
teaching practices. She further explained how the cultural ecological perspective focuses on the
impact of structural forces in describing poor school performance for African American students
as part of the American social system. The ecological perspective asserts that caste-like
minorities are aware of their status and will behave accordingly, by not working hard to achieve
at school. To broaden understanding and determine ways to mediate structural problems,
Ladson-Billings (1995) and others (Gay, 2002; Howard & Terry, 2011) argued that it is
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 100

important to study local relationships and interactions to determine influences on African
American students’ motivation, agency, and achievement.
Ladson-Billings (1995) emphasized work by scholars who studied the African American
educational experience over time; these scholars believed the ecological “caste-like” descriptions
were “ahistorical and limited in explaining student success” (Ladson-Billings, 1995). Moreover,
some researchers question the absolute and deterministic cultural ecological perspective when
examining what schools have actually done (Morris, 1995; Siddle-Walker, 1993), are doing, and
could be doing to increase achievement for African American students in schools (Boykin &
Noguera, 2011; Ladson-Billings, 1995; Morris, 2004, 2008, 2009).
With an understanding of historical and contemporary factors that influence academic
outcomes, Ladson-Billings (1995) posited that effective pedagogical practices for African
American students “not only addresses student achievement but also helps students to accept and
affirm their cultural identity while developing critical perspectives that challenge inequities that
schools (and other institutions) perpetuate” (p. 469). Ladson-Billings (1995, p. 476-477),
provided criteria for culturally relevant pedagogy, which requires that:
 Students experience academic success
 Students develop and maintain cultural competence
 Students recognize, understand, and critique social inequities
Similarly, Gay (2002) believed that culture should be core in determining ways to
improve academic performance for diverse students. She defined culturally responsive pedagogy
as “using the cultural characteristics, experiences, and perspectives of ethnically diverse students
as conduits for teaching” (Gay, 2002, p. 106). Culturally responsive teaching also includes the
use of content that reflects the heritage of students. Gay asserted that ethnic content can stimulate
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students’ interest and curiosity; however, it must also be combined with instruction that moves
away from memorization towards analysis and criticism.
Delpit (1988) argued that it is not enough to modify curriculum to suit student’s culture;
teachers also need to teach the rules for successfully participating in the culture of power, or
mainstream institutions. Culturally relevant teaching focuses on building bridges between home
and school cultures to support students in learning academic content. As an example, Delpit
(1988) argued, “All students deserve the right to develop the linguistic skills they bring to the
classroom and to add to their repertoires” (p. 67 – 68). However, Yosso (2005) challenged
traditional conceptions of cultural capital and advocated for the acknowledgement of the
“cultural knowledge, skills, abilities…possessed by socially marginalized groups” (p. 69).
Yosso’s (2005) question of “Whose culture has capital?” demanded that educators revisit their
views of cultural capital to acknowledge and expand understanding of the strengths of diverse
student populations.
Additionally, Howard and Terry (2011) emphasized the importance of teachers utilizing
students’ cultural capital to design responsive, affirming, and meaningful learning to promote
achievement. Howard and Terry (2011, p. 5) summarized the research on culturally relevant
pedagogy and provided a set of principles that frames this view of teaching:
 The eradication of deficit-based ideologies of culturally diverse students.
 Disrupting the idea that Eurocentric or middle-class forms of discourse, knowledge,
language, culture, and historical interpretations are normative.
 A critical consciousness and socio-political awareness that reflects an ongoing
commitment to challenging injustice and disrupting inequities and oppression of any
groups of people.
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 An authentic and culturally informed notion of care for students, wherein their
academic, social, emotional, psychological, and cultural well-being are promoted.
 Recognition of the complexity of culture, in which educators allow students to use
their personal culture as an enhancement in their quest for educational excellence.
Both the phrase “culturally relevant” (Ladson-Billings, 1995) and “culturally responsive”
(Gay, 2002; Howard & Terry, 2011) describe how culture and pedagogy come together to reflect
a mindset, teaching practices, and choice of curricular content. The aim of both is focused on
improving educational outcomes for diverse students by recognizing and utilizing students’
culture as the starting point to foster academic excellence.
California’s GATE Standards
Advocates for African American gifted students have argued for pedagogy that builds upon
the cultural background, knowledge, and abilities of students. Leaders in general education
(Dewey, 1916; Gay, 2002; Howard & Terry, 2011; Ladson-Billings, 1995; Tyler, 1949;
Woodson, 1933) and leaders in gifted education (Baldwin, 1987; Moore et al., 2005; Reis et al.,
2004; Tomlinson & Strickland, 2005) have also argued for educational opportunities that are
relevant and of interest to students.
Cultural relevance should be infused into the curriculum to provide a bridge to facilitate
academic achievement. Blending culturally relevant pedagogy with curricular and instructional
practices from gifted education enhances gifted programs for culturally diverse students. Gay
(2002) described the need for culturally responsive pedagogy to include learning focused on
developing the skills of analysis, critique, and inquiry. Tomlinson & Strickland (2004) stated that
culturally diverse gifted students need curriculum and instruction that is highly relevant, inquiry-
based, and incorporates critical skills and independent studies. These ideas are reflected in the
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California Department of Education’s (CDE) Recommended Standards for Gifted and Talented
Students (CDE, 2005), which outlines curriculum responsive to the cognitive and affective needs
of gifted learners, including:
 Critical thinking, creative thinking and problem-solving
 Depth and Complexity of content
 Abstract thought and big ideas
 Students’ interests
 Varied modes of learning: inquiry, self-directed learning, discussion, debate, and
metacognition
 The development of ethical standards
 The development of a positive self-concept
 Sensitivity and responsibility to others to improve society
The GATE standards and culturally relevant and responsive teaching require students to
engage in critical and creative thinking, abstract concepts big ideas, personal interests, and
reflection with an emphasis on positive development of self and community. Alignment between
the California GATE standards (CDE, 1995) and culturally relevant teaching, as defined by
Ladson-Billings (1995), are described in Table 1.
Depth and Complexity
The California GATE Standards guide teacher training for the gifted and emphasize four
areas for differentiation: depth, complexity, novelty, and acceleration. These four areas comprise
core ways to modify curriculum to make it more appropriate for gifted and high-ability students.
Depth and Complexity as curricular concepts were defined by work done in a U.S.
Department of Education Javits Grant awarded to the California Department of Education (CDE)
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Table 1

The California GATE Standards and Culturally Relevant Teaching
______________________________________________________________________________
Criteria for Culturally Relevant
Teaching (Ladson-Billings, 1995)
Alignment to California GATE
Standards
Academic
Success
“Students need literacy,
numeracy,
technological, social, and
political skills in order to be
active participants in a
democracy.” Students are
supported in choosing academic
excellence.”
 Critical thinking, creative thinking
and problem-solving
 Depth and Complexity
 Abstract concepts and big ideas
 Students’ interests
 The development of a positive
self-concept
 Metacognition
 Supported by technology
 Sensitivity and responsibility to
others to improve society
Cultural
Competence
Culture is used as a vehicle for
learning. The concept of “acting
White” is challenged as students’
prior knowledge, experiences,
heritage and culture are valued at
school as they are taught skills for
academic excellence. Students
develop an understanding of their
racial/ethnic identity, maintain
their cultural integrity and learn
that it is relevant and appropriate
for all students to pursue
academic excellence.”
 The development of a positive
self-concept
 Inquiry
 Metacognition
 Critical, creative thinking and
problem-solving thinking
 Depth and Complexity
 Abstract concepts and big ideas
 Students’ interests

Critical
Consciousness
“Students develop a broader
sociopolitical consciousness that
allows them to critique norms,
values, mores, and institutions
that produce and maintain
inequities. Students are taught to
engage with the world critically.
They must be socially conscious
to identify factors that influence
inequities in order to change
them. If school is about preparing
students for active citizenship,
what better citizenship tool than
the ability to critically analyze
society in order to transform it.”
 Critical thinking, creative thinking
and problem-solving
 Metacognition
 Depth and Complexity
 Abstract thought and big ideas
 Sensitivity and responsibility to
others to improve society.
 The development of a positive
self-concept
 Intellectualism
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in 1994. The subsequent work by the CDE, in conjunction with the California Association for the
Gifted (CAG) and the University of Southern California, became the Depth and Complexity
prompts that are utilized in California classrooms today. According to Kaplan (2013), the
prompts of Depth and Complexity were “derived from an analysis of the demands of recognized
advanced courses, standardized discipline-specific tests, literature on the development of
expertise, and collective goals for gifted students (p. 241). Depth requires an understanding of
“content from concrete to abstract and simple to complex” (Kaplan, 2013, p. 278). Complexity
allows for learners to “examine content in multiple dimensions in order to comprehend it”
(Kaplan, 2013, p. 278). These key words or prompts are represented by a graphic that highlights
aspects of topics examined in the current research study (Kaplan, 2005). The prompts can be
used in isolation or integrated to increase the level of sophistication of teacher questioning,
student tasks, or independent inquiries. The use of Depth and Complexity can facilitate a shift in
learning that moves students from gathering facts to more concept-based learning.
Universal concepts and big ideas. Depth and Complexity can be used to explore
universal concepts and big ideas, which have meanings unique to a specific discipline and also
relevance across all disciplines, as well as to support meaningful and authentic learning. Kaplan
(2009) argued that the use of a universal concept or theme acts as an organizing element within a
curriculum. In addition, themes and universal concepts broaden “the options for teaching and
learning, and promotes making connections within, between, and among the disciplines” (p.
240). Kaplan (2009) recommended that the selection of a universal theme or concept should be
based on it being “significant to study, not be age or time dependent, and influence the
connections of information across ALL disciplines” (p. 240). Examples of universal concepts
include change, patterns, structure, power, systems, and relationships. Big ideas can be studied
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within and across disciplines and, “explain and give specificity to the abstract meaning of the
universal concept” (p. 240). Big ideas represent the generalizations, principles, and theories that
promote inquiry into the core content areas.
Due to the adoption of the Common Core State Standards (CCSS), the California
Association for Gifted (CAG) conducted an analysis to determine the relationships between the
CCSS and the components of a differentiated curriculum (CAG, 2013, p. 6). This review resulted
in the addition of new elements to define depth, complexity, novelty, and acceleration. The
purpose of the additions was to “advance the concept of differentiation…to both reinforce and
extend the new CCSS and assure that gifted education meets contemporary academic demands”
(p. 6). Table 2, below, shows the current elements of Depth and Complexity.
Table 2
The Prompts of Depth and Complexity
Depth Complexity
Language of the Discipline Over Time
Details Points of View
Patterns Interdisciplinary Connections
Trends Context
Unanswered Questions Translate
Rules Original
Ethics Judgment
Big Ideas
Impact
Process
Motive
Proof

The prompts of Depth and Complexity coupled with the study of universal concepts and
big ideas allow for the exploration of real-world problems and issues.

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Summary
Tyler (1949) advocated that curriculum development should begin with an understanding
of a school’s purpose but that it should also study the learner, including their interests and
experiences, contemporary society, and specialized knowledge. He further argued that in
studying the learner there would be characteristics common to all children, yet some attributes
would be specific to certain groups within the school (Tyler, 1949). Advocates of African
American gifted students suggest that these students have unique social, psychological, and
academic needs that must be addressed to ensure their participation and retention in gifted
programs. They require access to academically rigorous and enriching learning experiences.
And, they must have their affective needs met to ensure their sense of belonging, strengthen their
cultural knowledge, and enhance their ability to challenge perceptions of racialized ability. These
students must be taught to engage in the world critically; they must be prepared to question and
critique stereotypes and norms that place them at a disadvantage by positioning them against
their own interests and/or possible selves. The integration of Depth and Complexity, universal
concepts, and big ideas to explore culturally relevant content will enable these students to
acquire the critical content and skills needed to better understand the need for transformation, for
themselves and society as a whole.
Summary of Literature Review
The origins of gifted education in the United States occurred during a time when beliefs
about racial hierarchies and race-based levels of intelligence supported political and social
practices designed to exclude African Americans from citizenship. Longstanding perceptions of
African American inferiority, rooted in slavery, continued to permeate society. Blacks were not
meant to be part of the mainstream, or gifted education, and were left on the margins of
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American life. This ideology influenced academic research to ultimately address inequities in the
educational system. Scholars like Bond, Cooper, Du Bois, Thompson, and Woodson knew the
importance of cultivating the intellect and raising the consciousness of African American gifted
students to enable them to one-day address the social, political, and economic problems faced by
African American communities.
With the study of intelligence and giftedness came a tradition of questioning research
about African Americans in order to refute deficit views and increase objectivity, validity,
knowledge, and understanding. A research pattern, or paradigm, developed where claims about
African Americans—especially those relating to deficiencies or differences—were countered and
made more complex by offering different perspectives that included the effects of structural
forces, institutional policies, and social practices.
Interest and support for African American gifted students were fostered in the Black
community and fueled by private organizations, legislation, and expanded views of giftedness in
the 1950s and 1960s. Talent search opportunities were made available to top Black students in
southern schools to attend prestigious White institutions in the North. During this same time
period, groundbreaking work on conceptions of giftedness expanded the notion of giftedness
beyond IQ scores. Researchers defined giftedness as multi-faceted and multi-dimensional,
influenced by biology, environment, and personal differences. Finally, civil rights legislation
sparked the movement towards the need for the equitable treatment of African Americans and
other students of color in public schools.
Cultural difference theories led to studies that emphasized the role of schools in limiting
access and engagement for non-dominant students in gifted or accelerated programs. Teacher
practices were examined to understand the ways that teachers may hinder or facilitate student
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identification and retention in gifted programs. Ogbu’s Ecological Theory and Fordham and
Ogbu’s Acting White Theory were prominent theories in contemporary research that described
and explained disengagement and poor academic performance for African American students.
Instead of researching to determine the characteristics and conditions that produce poor
performance, researchers shifted towards exploring the characteristics and conditions that
produce high achievement, across different contexts, in order to foster these characteristics and
environments. African American gifted students were aided in achieving their goals by programs
that worked to meet their affective needs, support from family members and peers, having a
strong self-concept, building healthy relationships, and experiencing academic achievements.
Scholars posited that culturally relevant curricula were needed to support the academic
achievements of African Americans gifted students and other students of color. Advocates of
African American gifted students suggest that these students have unique social, psychological,
and academic needs that must be addressed to ensure their participation and retention in gifted
programs. They require access to academically rigorous and enriching learning experiences.
And, they must strengthen their cultural knowledge to challenge perceptions of racialized ability.
These students must be taught to engage in the world critically by questioning and critiquing
longstanding stereotypes.
There is a need to continue to investigate African American students’ perceptions related
to their involvement in gifted programs. This would allow for better curriculum design,
programming to promote their achievement, countering racialized perceptions of rigorous
academics, and promoting positive identity development.

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Chapter Three: Methodology
African American students have historically been underrepresented in gifted and talented
programs (Borland, 2004; Frasier & Passow, 1994; Frasier et al., 1995; Ford, 1994; Van-Tassel
Baska, 2003; Worrell, 2012). Scholars in this area contend that schooling and academic
achievement among African Americans must be viewed from a social-historical perspective as
many different types of factors converge to contribute to the problem (Ford, 2006; Worrell,
2012). Structural, institutional, social and psychological reasons are described as impacting
African American student participation and achievement. These factors come together, are
manifest in the achievement gap and influence underrepresentation in gifted programs (Ford,
Grantham & Whiting, 2008; Worrell, 2007) and disproportionality of African American students
in special education (Donovan and Cross, 2000; Ford & Webb, 1994; Frasier & Passow, 1994).
Social and psychological reasons for academic outcomes are common in research
(Fordham, 1988; Fordham & Ogbu, 1986; Steele, 1997; Steele & Aronson, 1995) and presented
through the media (McWhorter, 2000; Kunjufu, 1988; Cosby & Poussaint, 2007) as cause for
academic disengagement and poor performance of Black students. A number of researchers
attribute underrepresentation and attrition of these students to racialized perceptions of rigorous
academics as a White domain (Fordham & Ogbu, 1986; Ford et. al, 2008). Fordham and Ogbu
(1986) and others (Ford, 1994; Ford et. al, 2008) stated that African American students lack
support from same-raced peers for participating in intellectual and academic endeavors since
they are perceived as white activities. Due to these perceptions, Black students disengage
because they have adapted to oppression, do not see the relevance in schooling for minorities,
and therefore, lack the social support for academic achievement from their own communities
(Ogbu, 1978; Fordham & Ogbu, 1986).
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The phenomenon of high ability Black students being charged with acting white by other
Black students is also described as reason for poor achievement and underrepresentation in
advanced academic programs (Fordham, 1991; Ford et. al 2008). However, theories of acting
white are limited in their explanation of high and low achievement among African American
students. Although there is evidence that these theories affect African American student
achievement, they do not explain the behavior of all Black gifted students of all ages and
genders, across all contexts. The issue of underrepresentation in the gifted program is a
longstanding, complex problem influenced by macro and micro level factors that affect
institutions, collective and individual perceptions, student identity and behavior. What is
common are issues surrounding perceptions of ability and identity in the academic engagement
and achievement of African American gifted students.
When African American students are not represented in advanced programming or
curriculum, this reinforces the idea that these students, and their culture, are on the margins of
rigorous academics and education. Critics state that GATE programs do not provide
multicultural or culturally relevant curriculum for African American students, and other
minorities, which hampers student “achievement…sense of belonging and validation as
scholars” (Ford, Howard, Harris, & Tyson, 2000 as cited in Olszewski-Kubilius, P. & Thomson,
D., 2010). According to researchers (Ford, 1994; Ford et. al 2005) pre-service and in-service
programs for teaching gifted students lack adequate preparation in the use of multicultural
curriculum or culturally relevant learning practices to meet the needs of non-dominant students.
Students will be more interested and engaged in learning (Dewey, 1916) and achievement will
improve when prior knowledge and experience are used as a bridge to new knowledge (Bruner,
1960). Moreover, curriculum should be of interest and relevance to students’ lives (Dewey,
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1916; Tyler, 1949). Therefore, curriculum could be a barrier to African American student
participation and achievement if it is perceived as irrelevant (Ford, 1994; Ford and Grantham,
2003; Milner and Ford, 2005).
Statement of the Problem
Ford et. al (2005) stated that gifted programs should provide culturally relevant learning
opportunities for diverse gifted students to affirm student identities and increase student
participation and performance. In Ford’s (1995) study of 43 African American, gifted students in
grades 6 through 9, she found that the majority of students expressed a desire to learn more about
their own cultural backgrounds as part of the gifted program. One of the respondents in the
study shared their views about his interests in the school curricula by stating:
You get tired of learning about the same white people and the same things. We need to
broaden our horizons and learn about other people…I feel like being in the class more
when I learn about Blacks and my heritage. It gives me encouragement and lets me know
that I have rights. It helps me to improve my grades. Learning about white people doesn’t
help me learn about myself…I want to feel good about who I am. Why shouldn’t I want to
learn more about Black people? (Ford, 1995b, p. 12).
This student’s comments reflect a lack of cultural pluralism, supports for diversity or relevance
in the GATE curriculum. Researchers that have explored achievement issues of gifted
underrepresented minorities have advocated for a more pluralistic approach to curriculum in
gifted programs to increase inclusiveness (Ford, Moore and Harmon, 2005). To this end, Joy
Davis (2010) wrote, “gifted education should learn from the field of cultural diversity education
to promote cultural sensitivity and pedagogical adjustments to teaching and learning for all
diverse populations” (pg. 2).
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There is a need to further investigate African American students’ perceptions related to
their involvement in gifted programs, in various contexts, to better design programming to
promote their achievement, counter deficit thinking and stereotypes stemming from racialized
perceptions of rigorous academics and school performance. Increasing understanding of African
American gifted students’ perceptions of GATE programs can inform key stakeholders,
specifically curriculum developers, who can address issues by designing learning experiences
that foster students’ racial and academic identities as part of the regular school day or as part of
an after school or community-based program.
Purpose of the Study
This study explored African American gifted students' perceptions of their participation in
a gifted program with a differentiated, culturally relevant curriculum designed to develop their
academic identities by cultivating positive, racialized perceptions of African American
intellectualism and academic achievement. Although researchers have advocated for a blending
of culturally relevant pedagogy and gifted pedagogy as a way to stem the factors that influence
underrepresentation, there are no studies that describe African American gifted students’
experiences with differentiated, culturally relevant curriculum. The curriculum developed for this
study was culturally relevant in its use of history content focusing on the African American
intellectual tradition of critical consciousness, cultural critique, and counter-narrative to allow
students the opportunity to learn about scholars who challenged and transformed deficit thinking
and promoted social justice for African Americans.
In Differentiating the Common Core Standards for the Gifted (2013) it defines
intellectualism as an area of emphasis within a differentiated curriculum. Marable (2000)
described the African American intellectual tradition as being descriptive, corrective and
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 114

prescriptive. He states that Black intellectuals have had to question and look beyond what was
presented as truth about African Americans to provide a comprehensive and nuanced description
of Black people that validated their humanity and demands for structural transformation and
liberation. Through discussion and inquiry, these scholars also had to provide accurate
information about African Americans to counter false truths that were used as reason for their
subjugation. Moreover, African American intellectuals used their research and organizing to
generate and prescribe solutions to political, social and economic issues that have plagued Black
communities. The curriculum designed for this study will emphasize this tradition and its impact
on perceptions of excellence, identity, leadership and transformation for African Americans.
Historical content and current events was utilized for participants to research the causes
and consequences of the educational strivings of African Americans. Lessons integrated gifted
education and culturally relevant content by requiring students to use Depth and Complexity to
analyze and interpret content that incorporated key features of African American intellectualism;
this was achieved by presenting accounts that promoted critical consciousness, challenged deficit
thinking and incorporated creative problem solving by college trained academics and
community-based intellectuals who acquired their expertise through their own inquiries and
experiences as Black group members. The curriculum emphasized the ways that the African
American intellectual tradition has enabled scholars to pursue personal and collective interests,
advocate for truth by promoting multiple perspectives, and work towards the betterment of their
communities and the larger society.
Research Questions
This study sought to explore and describe the ways African American gifted students
utilized Depth and Complexity to critically analyze culturally relevant text. The lessons
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developed for the study were guided by the integration of GATE strategies, as defined by the
California GATE Standards (CDE, 2005), and the characteristics of culturally relevant
pedagogical practices (Ladson-Billings, 1995; Gay, 2002; Howard & Terry, 2011). Student
perceptions of their participation in the lessons and their role as GATE students were also
examined. The current research study was guided by three research questions:
1. What are the perceptions of African American gifted students regarding their
participation in the GATE program?
2. How do African American gifted students perceive the use of Depth and Complexity in
the critical analysis of culturally relevant text material?
3. How do gifted African American students perceive their experiences with culturally
relevant material in relationship to creating and sustaining their identities as African
American scholars?
This chapter also includes a description and rationale of the research design, sampling,
population, instrumentation, data collection, data analysis, and lists of the limitations and
delimitations of the study.
Conceptual Framework
W.E.B. Du Bois (1903a) wrote about African American’s awareness of their outsider
status, with restricted access to and opportunity in mainstream America. Du Bois (1903a)
described a “double-consciousness,” having to constantly perceive and measure oneself against
the perspectives and expectations of the dominant society as being integral to the experience of
being Black in America. African Americans have had to develop multiple and, at times,
opposing identities with different characteristics and expectations attached to being American or
White and Black.
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Du Bois’ (1903a) concept of double-consciousness is helpful in exploring why students
who identify as African American or Black may experience psychosocial conflicts as participants
in gifted programs. It has been theorized that African Americans are influenced by negative,
historically rooted perceptions of their cultural group as intellectually inferior and/or low
achieving. Some researchers theorize that Black gifted students may eschew participation in
gifted programs due to these psychological, social, and cultural conflicts. However, other
researchers posit that African American gifted students’ awareness of their socio-historical status
can support their decision to participate in gifted programs, rejecting deficit messages and
working to achieve in academic settings.
Double-consciousness allows for the acknowledgement that participating in gifted
programs has been a complicated issue for African American students due to a confluence of
macro- and micro-level factors that affect perceptions and decision-making related to education.
Double-consciousness was utilized to explore and describe students’ perceptions of the GATE
program, their participation, and views of curriculum.
Research Design
A mixed methods approach was used to describe African American gifted students'
perceptions of the GATE program as well as their perceptions and experiences with culturally
relevant text. Quantitative methods were used to gather survey data on student perceptions
related to participation in the gifted program. However, quantitative methods alone were
insufficient in providing students with the opportunity to voice their ideas regarding the
importance of curricular content and its relationship to their identity. A mixed methods approach
was, therefore, best suited to gain insight from the quantitative data in this study and explore
student perceptions. This approach allowed the researcher to tell “the story behind the numbers”
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 117

(Mayan, 2009, p. 10), which involved exploring students’ experiences with curriculum and
meaning-making in context.
Glesne (2006) wrote that qualitative researchers work to “understand some social
phenomena from the perspectives of those involved, to contextualize issues in their particular
socio-cultural-political milieu, and sometime to transform or change social conditions” (p. 4).
Lichtman (2012) argued that qualitative research is needed when answers to questions must be
obtained through examining “humans in their natural settings rather than in experimental
environments” and when observation of “verbal and visual communication is needed” (p. 4).
Qualitative methods were used to describe how students utilized GATE strategies, experienced
culturally relevant curriculum, and perceived the relationship between their experience with the
curriculum and their identities as African American gifted students. A qualitative approach was
needed to describe how students experience curricula that fostered critical consciousness through
the critical analysis of culturally relevant text. These methods were useful in exploring how
students understand the relationship between reading the word and the world (Freire, 1970).
Rationale for a Case Study Methodology
According to Merriam (1998), descriptive case study is used in areas of education where
little research has been done to provide detailed accounts of innovative programs or practices.
Yin (2009) described a case study as “an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary
phenomenon in depth and within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between
phenomenon and context are not clearly evident” (p. 18). Yin (2009) provided a rationale for
using single-case designs to extend, challenge, or confirm theories. Studying the perspectives of
African American gifted students’ experiences with differentiated, culturally relevant curriculum
provided a critical account of these approaches as possible interventions and supports. Case
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study methodology was used to describe gifted African American students’ perceptions of the
GATE program and their experiences with culturally relevant curriculum.
Case studies can focus on describing a characteristic, behavior, or process of an
individual or group in a specific setting (Lichtman, 2013). Dyson and Genishi (2005) described
how case studies “use particular methods of observation and analysis to understand others’
understandings…and the processes through which they enact language and literacy” (p. 12).
Case study was used to understand the phenomenon of African American gifted students’
perceptions associated with their participation in the gifted program and with culturally relevant
curricular content. This approach allowed for an examination of how African American gifted
students constructed meaning as they critically analyzed culturally relevant text and reflected on
their identities in the context of the gifted program.
Miller and Goodnow (Dyson & Genishi, 2005) discussed how everyday actions, or
practices include “values about what is natural, mature, morally right, or aesthetically pleasing.”
(p. 6). Dyson and Genishi (2005, p. 8) further describe these layers of context and how they
influence everyday practices or actions:
The concept of a practice, with its explicit emphasis on identity and ideologies
(assumptions about values, ideas and relationships between people), is a link to another
conception of context. In addition to the physical setting, an invoked and co-constructed
event or practice, there is also the “extra-situational context” (Goodwin & Duranti, 1992,
p. 8). That context is the larger ethnographic one, including the historical, economic and
cultural forces that intersect in any local space (Gupta & Ferguson, 1997). The powerful
forces are articulated in the unfolding interaction as well, as they inform who speaks,
what gets said, and the sort of public meaning that gets established (Bakhtin, 1981).
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A case study approach also acknowledged the significance of context and its influence on “the
interpretive frames” (Dyson & Genishi, 2005, p. 12) that students brought to their learning
experiences. A case study approach allowed for the close examination of African American
gifted students in the local context of the gifted program, but also included the broader social and
structural influences on students’ perceptions and frames for constructing meaning.
Site Selection
This case study took place in the Big City Unified School District (BCUSD). BCUSD was
located in a very ethnically, linguistically, and socio-economically diverse city in California
inhabited by approximately half a million residents. The BCUSD served approximately 76,000
students from kindergarten through twelfth grade at the time of this research. The student
population consisted of 57% Hispanic, 12% White, 12% African American, 7% Asian, 4%
multiple races, 3% Filipino, 1% Pacific Islander and 4% unidentified (CDE, 2017). English
Language Learners comprised 23% of the student population and 60% of students lived at or
below the Federal poverty line (CDE, 2017). The site was chosen due to its proximity to the
researcher and the researcher’s ability to obtain permission to conduct the study in the school
district.
Sample and Population
According to Patton (2002), purposeful sampling “focuses on selecting information-rich
cases…that will illuminate the questions under study” (p. 238). Purposeful sampling was used to
identify African American gifted students age 10 to 14 participating in the Gifted and Talented
program at one school in the Big City Unified School District (BCUSD), an urban school district
in California. The sample was purposeful in choosing African American students who were in
gifted programs, which were requirements for answering the research questions. The age group
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 120

used for the study was chosen in because research indicated that racialized peer pressure and
taunts of “acting White” were more prevalent among adolescents.
Students selected for the study self-identified as African American; they were identified as
gifted or high potential through the school district’s nomination and identification process for
participation in one of the gifted and talented programs. Study participants had participated in the
gifted program for at least two years consecutively to ensure that they had experience with the
GATE strategies of Depth and Complexity, a core strategy used by GATE program teachers in
BCUSD, which was integrated into the curriculum used in the current research study.
Research Procedures
In order to conduct this study in the Big City USD, a request to conduct research was
submitted to the University of Southern California’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) and the
BCUSD’S research department, which handles IRB requests. Permission was granted to
complete the study in Spring 2017. (See Appendix A.)
Once permission was granted, a query was completed to identify a school site with a large
percentage of 14-year-old African American students currently participating in gifted programs.
Once possible schools were identified, site administrators were contacted to inform them of the
research study. One site was selected to participate in the study. At the selected site, each
potential participant’s parent or guardian was contacted by a site administrator to request
permission for their child to participate in the study. An introductory letter was distributed to
each potential participant, describing the rationale, purpose, and expectations for the study (see
Appendix B). Students were assured that their identities would be protected through the use of
pseudonyms. The researcher also conducted an information session at the school for parents who
had questions about the research study. After the information session, parent consent forms were
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 121

signed and submitted to a site administrator before students were allowed to participate in the
study. Finally, the school district’s student information system was accessed to gather
demographic data and achievement levels on approved study participants.
Instrumentation
Instrumentation for the study included a student survey and curricular materials. A review
of the instruments was conducted in Fall 2016 to determine the content validity of the survey and
lesson materials that would be used in the study. A panel of experts was chosen to review the
instruments based on their knowledge and experience with the GATE strategy of Depth and
Complexity, culturally relevant pedagogy, and underrepresented gifted minority students. Each
tool was created by the researcher based on a review of the literature in each of these areas.
Student Survey
The five-point Likert scale survey distributed to students had four parts (see Appendix C).
The first cluster of questions focused on student perceptions of their GATE program
participation. The second cluster of questions focused on social and psychological aspects of
their participation; these questions related to how students believed they were perceived by
others along with implications of their perceptions. Concepts of racialized peer pressure and
diversity were a focus. The last set of open-ended questions focused on student’s use of Depth
and Complexity.
During the first after-school session, students were asked to complete the survey. On the
survey, students were asked to choose the degree to which they believed the statements relating
to their participation in gifted program participation were true. The five-point Likert scale ranged
from including not at all true to always true: (a) not at all true, (b) a little bit true, (c) sometimes
true, (d) often true and (e) always true.
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 122

Curriculum Vignettes
Curriculum vignettes were used to determine how students utilized Depth and Complexity
to critically analyze text (see Appendix D). Vignettes were utilized to “discuss potentially
sensitive topics” (Barter &Renold, 1999; Renold, 2002, p. 4) with young people by providing
prior knowledge on the experiences of others rather than divulge personal information. Renold
(2002) wrote that “vignettes are short scenarios in written or pictorial form which participants
can comment” with “characters in specified circumstances” (p. 3). Renold (2002), citing Hughes,
described vignettes as “stories about individuals, situations, and structures which can make
reference to important points in the study of perceptions, beliefs, and attitudes” (p. 3). Using
vignettes in quantitative research, with a Likert-scale response format, allowed for the collection
of general information but may be problematic if respondent’s ideas differed from the choices
offered (Finch, 1987). The vignettes for this study were designed with a “non-directional
application” format (Barter &Renold, 1999; Renold, 2002, p. 4) for participants to interpret the
situations presented and then describe issues and actions along with their responses. The
curriculum vignettes were integrated into the survey and lessons to determine the ways that
students utilized Depth and Complexity to critically analyze culturally relevant learning material.
Finally, students took the open-ended portions of the survey to investigate student
perceptions of the lessons and how they related to students’ perceptions of their roles as African
American gifted students. The relationships between the research questions and the methodology
are outlined in Table 3, below.

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Table 3
The Relationship Between Literature, Research Questions, and Instrumentation
Research Question Instrumentation
Concepts and
Theories
Relevant Literature
How do African
American gifted students
perceive their
participation in the
gifted program?
Student Survey Significance of
Race
Ecological Theory
Double
Consciousness
Affiliation vs.
Achievement
Oppositional
Identity
“Acting White” and
“Acting Black”
Within Group
Differences
Bronfrenbrenner
(1979)
Du Bois (1903)
Ford & Harris (1994)
Frasier & Passow
(1994)
Jenkins (1935)
Fordham (1991)
Fordham & Obgu
(1986)
Morris (2003)
Tatum (1997)
Tyson (2003)

How do African
American gifted students
perceive the use of
Depth and Complexity
in the critical analysis of
culturally relevant text
material?
Student Work
Samples

Survey
Depth and
Complexity
Culturally Relevant
Pedagogy
Critical
Consciousness
Baldwin (1978 1987)
Darling-Hammond
(1995)
Delpit (1995)
Ford & Grantham
(2003)
Gay (2002)
Howard & Terry
(2011)
Kaplan (2005)
Milner & Ford (2005)
Sisk & Torrance
(2002)
Woodson (1933)

How do gifted African
American students
perceive their
experiences with
culturally relevant
material in relationship
to creating and
sustaining their identities
as African American
scholars?

Student Work
Samples

Survey
Bibliotherapy
Culturally Relevant
Pedagogy
Depth and
Complexity
Baldwin (1978)
Darling-Hammond
(1995)
Du Bois (1903)
Ford (1994)
Gay (2002)
Howard & Terry
(2011)
Kaplan (2005)
Sims Bishop (2007)
Woodson (1933)
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 124

Data Collection
Once content validity of the instruments was determined by panel review and the study
met IRB approval, a schedule was created to begin working with students in the fall of 2017. The
study was conducted in three phases. The quantitative phase began with the distribution of a
student survey to African American gifted students ranging in age from 10 to 14 years old.
Survey results were gathered and analyzed to report frequencies and percentages of student
responses to explain their motivation for participation in GATE, their perceptions of the social
and academic climate, and current interest in the curriculum.
The curriculum phase of the study focused on gathering data on student perceptions of
culturally relevant learning experiences. The researcher met with students after-school twice a
week for 6 weeks to conduct lessons (see Appendix E). The curriculum was created by the
researcher and focused on students applying a critical lens to social studies texts emphasizing the
African American intellectual tradition. Curriculum vignettes were integrated into lessons to
determine the ways that students critically analyzed content and utilized Depth and Complexity
in their analyses.
Lessons integrated gifted education and culturally relevant content by requiring students to
use Depth and Complexity to analyze and interpret content that incorporated key features of
African American intellectualism. This was achieved by presenting accounts that promoted
critical consciousness, challenged deficit thinking, and incorporated creative problem-solving.
These accounts were created by college-trained academics and community-based intellectuals
who acquired their expertise through their own inquiries and experiences as Black group
members. The curriculum emphasized the ways that the African American intellectual tradition
has enabled scholars to pursue personal and collective interests, advocate for truth by promoting
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 125

multiple perspectives, and work towards the betterment of communities and the larger society.
Student work samples were analyzed for patterns to determine themes of how students
analyzed texts and interpreted lesson content. After the lessons were completed, the final portion
of the study consisted of having students re-take the open-ended portion of the survey. A
description of the data collection is provided in Table 4, below:
Table 4

Data Collection Procedures

Phase Description
Survey Survey students to gather details regarding their participation in the
gifted program, including factors influencing participation, social
elements, perceptions related to identity, views and use of
curriculum.

Curriculum
Implementation
Provide students with differentiated, culturally relevant curriculum.
Incorporate the use of curriculum vignettes to determine students’
use of Depth and Complexity as they critically analyze culturally
relevant text material.

Post-survey Re-administer open-ended questions and vignette to gather
information on use of Depth and Complexity in learning lesson
content, perceptions of curricular content, and the relationship
between the curriculum and their role as African American students
in a gifted program.

Data Analysis

Descriptive statistics were used to gather and analyze the data in this mixed method
study. Using a five-point Likert scale, frequencies and percentages were used to describe student
perceptions related to their participation in the GATE program. After completing the analyses on
the student surveys, student work samples were analyzed to determine patterns and themes to
describe the ways that students utilized Depth and Complexity in their critical analysis of text
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 126

materials. Finally, students re-took the initial open-ended survey questions asking student to
describe their views on participating in culturally relevant lessons and the relationship to their
identities as African American gifted students.
Triangulation of Data
In qualitative case study and mixed methods research, the use of triangulation for validity
is a necessity. Triangulation is the relating of data, looking for patterns that support the research
conclusions. Especially in mixed methods research, it allows the researcher to create a more
complete picture of the data, ensuring both quality and validity. Yin (2009) suggested the
collection of different forms of evidence to shed light on cases; this which could include
reviewing documents, making observations, and interviewing participants.
To understand African American gifted students’ perceptions in the context of a gifted
program, this study included collection of survey data, observations, and student artifacts from a
group of 10 to 20 African American gifted students at one school site. The data from student
surveys and vignettes, participant observations, lesson artifacts, student reflections, anecdotal
records, and field notes were analyzed to address the questions guiding the study. A rich and
detailed description of how these students perceived their experiences was anticipated as an
outcome of the study.
Limitation and Delimitations
The focus of this study was to understand African American gifted students’ perspectives
of their experiences in the gifted program and of curriculum in one middle school. The need for
in-depth understanding of students’ views influenced the need for qualitative method, and the
selection of a small sample size. Although the sample size made it difficult to generalize this
knowledge to other student populations, it did allow for the transfer of these students’
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 127

experiences as evidence to support theories on African American gifted students’ perceptions
and program needs. In addition, due to the sensitive nature of the topic for some adolescents,
some of the respondents may not have felt comfortable expressing their honest opinions on the
survey or while participating in the lessons. To address these limitations, the researcher worked
to develop a comfortable environment for the curriculum implementation portion of the study
and developed a positive rapport with student participants. The researcher also ensured
participant confidentiality and anonymity in reporting information related to the research project;
she allowed participants to review their work samples to clarify information before submission.
Summary
This study explored African American gifted students' perceptions of their participation in
a gifted program with a differentiated, culturally relevant curriculum designed to develop their
academic identities by cultivating positive, racialized perceptions of African American
intellectualism and academic achievement.
A mixed methods approach was used to describe African American gifted students'
perceptions of the GATE program as well as their perceptions and experiences with culturally
relevant text. This case study took place in the Big City Unified School District (BCUSD). a
very ethnically, linguistically, and socio-economically diverse city in California. Purposeful
sampling was used to identify African American gifted students age 10 to 14 participating in the
Gifted and Talented program at one school in BCUSD.
Instrumentation for the study included a student survey and curricular materials. The
quantitative phase used a survey exploring student motivation for participation in GATE, their
perceptions of the social and academic climate, and current interest in the curriculum. The
curriculum phase of the study focused on gathering data on student perceptions of culturally
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 128

relevant learning experiences through participating in after-school lessons.
Descriptive statistics were used to gather and analyze the student surveys. Student work
samples were analyzed to determine patterns and themes to describe the ways that students
utilized Depth and Complexity in their critical analysis of text materials. Data was triangulated to
maximize validity.

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Chapter Four: Findings

Research on African American gifted students has detailed problems related to racialized
perceptions of ability, peer pressure, and the lack of cultural relevance in gifted program
curriculum. The purpose of this study was to address student perceptions of gifted programs as a
White domain by exploring how African American gifted students perceived their participation
in GATE and of differentiated culturally relevant curriculum focused on African American
intellectualism and history.
Differentiating the Common Core State Standards for Gifted Students (CAG, 2013) defined
the elements of a differentiated curriculum as critical thinking, intellectualism, Depth and
Complexity, questioning skills, and the development of potential and expertise. Marable (2000)
stated that Black intellectuals had to question and look beyond what was presented as truth about
African Americans to provide a comprehensive and nuanced description of Black people that
validated their humanity and demands for structural transformation and liberation. Moreover,
W.E.B Du Bois believed an education steeped in African American history and culture could
provide Black people with a unique perspective from which they could counter notions of Black
inferiority and ignorance (Alridge, 2008).
W.E.B Du Bois discussed concepts that provide insight into understanding impacts on
African American student identity and achievement: the veil, twoness and second sight
(Itzigsohn & Brown, 2015). The veil is a metaphor, which Du Bois used to describe how Blacks
have a different perspective on the world than Whites due to racism creating a veil that shaped
their experiences and interactions with the larger society. The veil can also be used to describe
how the varied assets of African Americans are veiled or hidden from dominant society since the
physical appearance of Black people evokes stereotypes of racial and intellectual inferiority. So
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 130

African Americans are not perceived accurately because they are defined by the negative
constructions of dominant group members; they are racialized.
Du Bois believed the veil influences the development of a dual identity, or twoness, among
African Americans. A Black identity develops behind the veil, which involves learning about
the range of assets, creativity and contributions of African Americans and African American
culture. In addition, Black people are American and aware of being an essential part of the
fabric of this country, who collectively have been denied access to the American identity since it
is so closely aligned with being White and middle class. Du Bois describes this awareness of
both perspectives as having second sight. He stated that having second sight allows African
Americans to see themselves through the constructions of the larger society, which for some,
allows an awareness of deficit perceptions without accepting these negative messages as truth.
African Americans' ability to see beyond the veil increases an awareness of denied
opportunities and can spark questioning and action against the status quo and deficit framing.
As a result, having double consciousness has enabled African Americans to critique dominant
culture and justify the desire to claim their place as Americans, forcing the country to live up to
its ideals by working to transform mainstream society to improve life for themselves and others.
Double consciousness is manifest in the research which details African American high achievers
working to counter stereotypes (Harper, 2005), while others describe academic achievement and
participation in gifted programs as acting White (Ford et al., 2008), and/or believing that African
Americans must become raceless to achieve academically (Fordham, 1988). Du Bois purported
that double consciousness among African Americans was an inevitable result of being Black in
White America and that this duality could only be reconciled by learning African American
history and culture starting from an early age (Alridge, 2008; Du Bois, 1935).
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 131

Although researchers have advocated for a blending of culturally relevant pedagogy and
gifted pedagogy as a way to stem the factors that influence underrepresentation (Ford et al.,
2005), there have been no studies on African American gifted students’ experiences with
differentiated, culturally relevant curriculum focused on African American heritage and
intellectualism. Therefore, the curriculum designed for this study emphasized the African
American intellectual tradition and its impact on perceptions of excellence, identity, leadership
and transformation for African Americans. Student use of the prompts of Depth and Complexity
were investigated to determine the ways these tools were used to support the critical analysis of
culturally relevant text material and support a scholar identity.
Du Bois’s Double Consciousness theory was used to analyze the data to understand and
better describe students’ perceptions of their participation in the GATE program, use of Depth
and Complexity to analyze text, and the development of a scholar identity. Data collection and
analysis for this study were guided by the following questions:
1. What are the perceptions of African American gifted students regarding their
participation in the GATE program?
2. How do African American gifted students perceive the use of Depth and Complexity in
the critical analysis of culturally relevant text material?
3. How do African American gifted students perceive their experiences with culturally
relevant material in relationship to creating and sustaining their identities as African
American scholars?
Methodology
To explore the research questions, a single case study was utilized. Case study was
appropriate since it involves studying a bounded system (Stake, 2000). In this particular study,
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 132

the case was comprised of nine African American gifted 7
th
graders participating in after school
curriculum sessions focused on the implementation of differentiated lessons utilizing Depth and
Complexity to analyze and understand African American history and intellectualism. Purposeful
sampling was used to identify participants for the study. According to Patton (2002), purposeful
sampling “focuses on selecting information-rich cases…that will illuminate the questions under
study” (p.238). Therefore, one K-8 school was selected for the study because of the large
number of African American students participating in the gifted program, the strong support
from the school site administration, and students’ willingness to participate in the curriculum
sessions that took place after school.
Overview of the School District and Research Site
The Big City Unified School District (BCUSD) is a large, urban school district in
southern California that serves a culturally, linguistically and economically diverse student
population. The school district served approximately 72,000 students from pre-K to high school
at the time of this research study. The racial make-up at the time of this research was 57%
Hispanic, 12% White, 12% African American, 7% Asian, 4% multiple races, 3% Filipino, 1%
Pacific Islander and 4% unidentified (CDE, 2017). Sixty-five percent of the student population
was deemed socioeconomically disadvantaged and 15% of students were identified as English
language learners.
The school site selected for the study served approximately 1300 students at the time of
this research study; it was comprised of 69.1 % Hispanic, 21.1 % African American, 2.3 %
Asian, 4.1% Pacific Islander, 0.6 % Filipino, 0.7% White, 0.1 % Native American, and 1.5% two
or more races (BCUSD, 2018). English Language Learners comprised 43% of the student
population and 92% of students lived at or below the Federal poverty line. (BCUSD, 2018).
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 133

The BCUSD GATE Program
Approximately 12% of the school district population was identified as gifted. BCUSD
offered a gifted and talented program at most of its elementary schools and all of its middle
schools. The majority of GATE elementary schools utilized achievement data to offer gifted
services to students beginning in first grade, but formal gifted identification began with universal
screening of all second graders in the school district for GATE placement beginning in third
grade.
Students performing in the high-average range on the cognitive abilities’ assessment screen
proceeded to take the full assessment of the cognitive abilities test. Student scores on the
cognitive assessment were coupled with their achievement scores and teacher observation data to
determine gifted identification. Student socio-economic status, English language learner level,
and foster youth/homeless status were given special consideration in the GATE identification
process. Students who did not perform well on the cognitive abilities assessment but showed
advanced academic ability well beyond their grade level peers were sometimes identified for
gifted services. Non-identified gifted students had a second opportunity to be screened for gifted
identification in fourth grade.
The GATE Office also identified a talent pool of students at schools that served large
numbers of low-income students. The highest performing students at these schools were also
selected for GATE services and placed in the GATE class with identified gifted students. The
goal of placing the selected students in the GATE class was to nurture the potential they had
exhibited in preparation for participation in gifted programs at the middle school level. These
selected students were given an academic review and formally identified for gifted services in
the fifth grade for continued placement in programming in middle school. Students were offered
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 134

gifted services through cluster class placements. Gifted students were placed with the gifted
service teacher and then the class was filled with a range of students.
All gifted identified and selected students were placed with a teacher who would
participate in professional development focused on gifted and talented students, attend GATE
site meetings, and implement the BCUSD gifted education curricular model. BCUSD gifted
service teachers utilized Kaplan’s approach to differentiating curriculum to implement gifted
services. The model includes the study of universal concepts, big ideas, Depth and Complexity,
classical ideas, current events, and learning to learn skills through varied models of teaching and
learning. Teachers applied these elements to the core curriculum to make learning more
appropriate for their advanced learners.
Participant Demographics
For this study, the parents of all eligible study participants were contacted by the school
site counselor to inform them of the research project and after-school curriculum sessions. The
school site counselor distributed and collected the student assent and parent consent forms and
delivered them to the researcher. Nine students received permission to participate in the study.
The researcher then accessed the District’s student information system to gather achievement
data. Characteristics of participating African American gifted students are listed in Table 5.
All students had above average grades at the time of the research project. Students who had
obtained all A’s or a majority of A’s and a few B’s the last two reporting periods were
designated high achieving. The rest of the group had a balanced combination of A’s and B’s the
last two reporting periods and were designated as performing above average.

GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 135

Table 5

Student Demographics

Student
Code
Grade Gender Classroom
Performance
State Test Scores
English/Mathematics
S1 7 Male High Achieving Exceeded/Exceeded
S2 7 Male Above Average Nearly Met/Exceeded
S3 7 Female Above Average Exceeded/Met
S4 7 Female Above Average Met/Met
S5 7 Female High Achieving Exceeded/Exceeded
S6 7 Female Above Average Exceeded/Met
S7 7 Female Above Average Not Available
S8 7 Female High Achieving Exceeded/Met
S9 7 Female High Achieving Exceeded/Exceeded

Instrumentation
Instrumentation for the study included data from a survey, vignettes and lesson materials.
Each tool was created by the researcher based on a review of the literature on African American
gifted minorities and culturally relevant pedagogy. A review of the instruments was conducted
by gifted coordinators in neighboring school districts in the fall of 2016 to determine the content
validity of the survey and lesson materials that were used in the study. Each of these gifted
coordinators had doctoral degrees in teaching and learning diverse student populations with
emphasis in gifted education. They also worked in large urban districts that served student
populations similar to BCUSD. These experts were chosen to review the instruments based on
their knowledge and experience with the California GATE Standards, Depth and Complexity,
culturally relevant pedagogy and underrepresented gifted minority students.
Depth and Complexity
The student survey and lesson materials utilized the prompts of Depth and Complexity.
Depth and Complexity as curricular concepts were defined by work done in a U.S. Department
of Education Javits Grant awarded to the California Department of Education (CDE) in 1994.
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 136

The subsequent work by the CDE, in collaboration with the California Association for the Gifted
and the University of Southern California, became the Depth and Complexity prompts that were
utilized in this study. According to Kaplan (2013), the prompts of Depth and Complexity were
“derived from an analysis of the demands of recognized advanced courses, standardized
discipline-specific tests, literature on the development of expertise, and collective goals for gifted
students” (p. 241). Depth requires an understanding of content material “from concrete to
abstract and simple to complex”, whereas the prompts of Complexity allow for learners to
“examine content in multiple dimensions in order to comprehend it” (Kaplan, 2013, p. 278).
Depth supports students in developing conceptual understanding of the content under study.
Complexity supports students in seeing relationships and making connections across concepts
within and across disciplines. According to Dodds (2010), the prompts of Complexity allows
students to understand how context impacts cause and effect relationships among people, places
and the events that occur. Both sets of prompts are represented by a graphic that are to be used
to highlight aspects of topics under study (Kaplan, 2009). The prompts can be used in isolation
or integrated to increase the level of sophistication of teacher questioning, student tasks or
independent inquiries. The use of Depth and Complexity can facilitate a shift in learning that
moves from gathering facts to a more sophisticated, conceptual understanding of information and
ideas. Gathering student perceptions of the prompts in this study provided a description of their
use and whether students regard the tools as supports in their learning.
The five-point Likert student survey utilized in the study had five parts and was developed
based on research on factors that affect the participation and achievement of African American
students in gifted programs (Ford, 1994). The first cluster of questions focused on student
perceptions of GATE program participation. The second set of questions gathered information
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 137

on perceptions of program content. The third cluster of questions focused on perceptions of peer
participation and social supports. The fourth set of questions elicited information about student
perceptions of identity and racialized peer pressure. The fifth set of questions focused on student
perceptions of culturally relevant content and the last set of questions on student use of Depth
and Complexity. The goal of the survey was to gather more information on African American
student perceptions on gifted program participation due to reports in the literature of students
eschewing program participation due to African American students’ inability (Ogbu, 1992;) or
resistance to shifting between their racial, ethnic and academic identities to perform successfully
at school (Ford, 1994; Fordham & Ogbu, 1986; Kunjufu, 1988; Ogbu & Simons, 1998),
racialized peer pressure and charges of “acting White” (Fordham & Ogbu, 1986; Ford et. al,
2008), lack of social supports (Ogbu, 1978; Fordham & Ogbu, 1986), the desire for more
culturally relevant content (Ford, 1994; Ford and Grantham, 2003; Ford, Howard, Harris, &
Tyson, 2000 as cited in Olszewski-Kubilius, P. & Thomson, D., 2010; Ford, Moore & Milner,
2005) and to determine student’s perceptions of Depth and Complexity, a core strategy outlined
in the California Department of Education’s Recommended Standards for Programs For Gifted
and Talented Students (2005), which is an integral part of the gifted programming in the school
district where the study took place.
At the beginning of the study, participants completed the student survey and curriculum
vignette, short scenarios or stories designed to allow young people to learn about and comment
on sensitive topics (Barter &Renold, 1999; Renold, 2002). After the curriculum sessions were
completed, the open-ended portions of the survey and vignette were re-taken to investigate and
describe student perceptions of the culturally relevant curriculum, their use of Depth and
Complexity, and the relationship between perceptions of the content and their role as African
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 138

American, gifted students. The data from student surveys and vignettes, participant
observations, lesson artifacts, student reflections, anecdotal records, and field notes were
analyzed to address the questions guiding the study. This chapter presents an analysis of the data
organized by research question.
Findings for Research Question #1: What Are the Perceptions of African American
Gifted Students Regarding Their Participation in the GATE Program?
The student survey had four sections. The first cluster of questions focused on student
perceptions of their GATE program participation. The second cluster of questions focused on
social and psychological aspects of their participation; these questions related to how students
believed they were perceived by others along with implications of their perceptions. Concepts of
racialized peer pressure and diversity were a focus.
Student Perceptions of Program Participation
The first section of the student survey consisted of eight questions specific to program
participation (see Table 6). On this portion of the survey, 7 students (78%) always believed that
it was true that they belonged in the GATE program with 6 students (67%) always believing the
GATE program was the right program for them. The majority believed they could be successful
in the program with 8 students (89%) believing they were always prepared to do advanced-level
work. Five students (56%) reported that it was always true that they were comfortable asking for
help if they needed assistance. Moreover, all students perceived that they worked hard for their
grades and wanted to get good grades.
There are a number of studies that have described African American students’ perceptions
that they do not belong in gifted programs or cannot achieve in advanced academics programs.
Stereotype threat, minority status, cultural identity, and the need for affiliation over achievement
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 139

are reasons given for lack of perceived fit and issues with retention. In the context of this study,
Table 6

Student Perceptions of Program Participation
Not at all
true
N (%)
A little
bit true
N (%)
Sometimes
true
N (%)
Often
true
N (%)
Always
true
N (%)
I believe that I belong in
GATE/EXCEL.
0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 2 (22%) 7 (78%)
I am able to be successful
in GATE/EXCEL
0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 4 (44%) 5 (56%)
I work hard to succeed in
GATE/EXCEL classes.
0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 9 (100%)
I enjoy participating in
GATE/EXCEL
0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 2 (22%) 7 (78%)
I am prepared to do
the work in GATE/EXCEL
1 (11%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 8 (89%)
I am comfortable asking
for help if I don’t
understand
0 (0%) 0 (0%) 1 (11%) 5 (56%) 3 (33%)
GATE/EXCEL is the right
program for me.
0 (0%) 0 (0%) 2 (22%) 1 (11%) 6 (67%)
I want to get good grades
in my GATE/EXCEL
classes.
0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 9 (100%)

however, students chose to participate in the GATE program, perceived that they belonged in the
gifted program, and believed that they could achieve success and were academically successful.
In previous studies, African American students have been a minority on campus and/or in
gifted programs, which provided the conditions for an awareness of being underrepresented,
increasing vulnerability to stereotype threat with the possibility of decreased achievement and
participation. However, at the school where the current study took place, African Americans
made up at least a third of the student population, with similar percentages represented in the
gifted program. These students were accustomed to seeing African American students, as well as
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 140

other students from historically underrepresented groups, in gifted programs and achieving
academic success.
Tyson et al. (2005) showed that school structures, rather than culture, may explain why
some African American students may not see themselves as material for the gifted program. So,
messages, unintended or otherwise, students receive from the school environment about
demographics and classroom placement may impact their ideas about their ability to participate
and find success in the gifted program. The ample representation of African American students
in the gifted program delivered a positive, if unintended, message about the abilities of African
American students.
Student Perceptions of Peer Participation and Social Supports
All students (100%) believed that their families wanted them to be successful in the GATE
program (see Table 7). Seven students (78%) believed it was always true that their teachers
supported their success in GATE classes. The majority of students (66%) believed that their
friends wanted them to get good grades. Seven students (78%) reported that most of their friends
were also GATE program participants.
The students’ survey responses were not consistent with the research on African American
students’ selecting racial/ethnic affiliation over academic achievement or participation in gifted
programs. In the current study, participants were high performing students who stated that they
believed that the gifted program was the “right” program for them, they were prepared for the
advanced level, and that they could achieve doing the work in the program. Unlike the students
in Fordham & Ogbu’s (1986) oft-cited study at Capital High, current study participants reported
that their friends participated in the gifted program and wanted them to do well academically.
These student’s perceptions about their peers were similar to Tyson’s (2002) research on two
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 141

predominantly Black schools where high academic achievement was viewed positively and
supported by peers.
Table 7
Student Perceptions of Peer Participation and Social Supports

Not at all
true
N (%)
A little
bit true
N (%)
Sometimes
true
N (%)
Often
true
N (%)
Always
true
N (%)
My teachers want me to get
good grades in my
GATE/EXCEL classes.
0 (0%) 1 (11%) 0 (0%) 1 (11%) 7 (78%)
My family wants me to get
good grades in my
GATE/EXCEL classes.
0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 9 (100%)
My friends want me to get
good grades in my
GATE/EXCEL classes.
1 (11%) 1 (11%) 1 (11%) 3 (33%) 3 (33%)
Most of my friends at
school are in the
GATE/EXCEL program.
0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 2 (22%) 7 (78%)
Most of my friends at
school are NOT in the
GATE/EXCEL program.
6 (67%) 3 (33%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%)

It is important to note that the students in the current study who believed that it was only
partially true that their friends wanted them to get good grades or did not believe that their
friends wanted them to achieve academically were both male. This provides support for the
notion that Black males may experience less support for achievement from their peers due to
perceptions that advanced academics and high academic achievement is not aligned with the
concept of masculinity (Ogbu and Fordham, 1986).
Student Perceptions of Identity and Racialized Peer Pressure
The majority of participants believed that being African American influenced how they
perceive themselves as GATE/EXCEL students and also how they were perceived by others (see
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 142

Table 8, below). Seven students (78%) believed that being African American influenced how
they saw themselves as GATE/EXCEL students. The majority of participants, 5 students (56%),
Table 8

Student Perceptions of Identity and Racialized Peer Pressure

Not at all
true
N (%)
A little
bit true
N (%)
Sometimes
true
N (%)
Often
true
N (%)
Always
true
N (%)
Being African American
influences how I see
myself as a GATE/EXCEL
student.
0 (0%) 0 (0%) 1 (11%) 1 (11%) 7 (78%)
Being African American
influences how others see
me as a GATE/EXCEL
Student.
0 (0%) 1 (11%) 1 (11%) 2 (22%) 5 (56%)
People like me have been
teased for getting good
grades.
5 (56%) 0 (0%) 2 (22%) 0 (0%) 2 (22%)
I have heard of the term
“acting White.”
3 (33%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 1 (11%) 5 (56%)
African American
GATE/EXCEL students
have been teased for
“acting White.”
4 (44%) 3 (33%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 2 (22%)
I have been teased for
“acting White” for being in
GATE/EXCEL.
6 (67% 1 (11%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 2 (22%)
African American
GATE/Excel students who
get good grades have been
teased for “acting White.”
6 (67% 1 (11%) 2 (22%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%)
People’s perception of me
as an African American
GATE/EXCEL student
help me to achieve at
school.
1 (11%) 2 (22%) 1 (11%) 0 (0%) 6 (67%
People’s perceptions of me
as an African American
GATE/EXCEL student
make it difficult for me to
achieve at school.
6 (67%) 0 (0%) 3 (33%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%)

GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 143

reported they believed that being African American influenced how they were perceived by
others. Six (67%) students believed that people’s perceptions of them as African American gifted
students helped them achieve at school. Although 6 students (67%) believed that people’s
perceptions of them did not make it difficult to achieve at school, 33% of students believed that
people’s perceptions of them as African American sometimes made it difficult for them to
achieve at school.
Although the majority of students (56%) had heard of the term “acting White,” most
students (67%) reported that it was not true that African American GATE/EXCEL students who
got good grades were teased for acting White. Just 2 students (22%) reported that they had
personally been teased for acting White. Just over half, 5 students (56%), reported that they had
not been teased for getting good grades.
Again, it is important to note that the two students who perceived that it was always true
that Black gifted students were teased for acting White and who reported having been teased for
getting good grades were male students. This is further evidence that gender may impact the
degree to which African American gifted students receive racialized peer pressure in relation to
academics.
Perceptions About Culturally Relevant Content
In regard to GATE program content, students reported that they were more interested when
learning content that reflected their own heritage (see Table 9). All students (100%) reported that
it was always or often true that they were more interested in learning in class when they were
learning about African American history. Nine students (89%) rejected the statement that it did
not matter if they learned about African American history in their GATE/EXCEL classes. Just
over half, 5 students (56%), believed that the information learned in class connected with their
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 144

culture little.
Curriculum theorists advocated for curriculum that is relevant and of interest to students,
arguing that students are more engaged in learning when they are more interested in the content
under study (Dewey, 1916). The current research study supports this. Participant’s responses also
align with Ford’s (1995) research which showed that the majority of students expressed a desire
to learn more about their own cultural backgrounds in school.
Table 9

Student Perceptions of Culturally Relevant Content

Not at all
true
N (%)
A little
bit true
N (%)
Sometimes
true
N (%)
Often
true
N (%)
Always
true
N (%)
The information learned in
class is connected to my
culture.
0 (0%) 5 (56%) 2 (22%) 2 (22%) 0 (0%)
The information learned in
class is NOT connected to
my culture.
2 (22%) 4 (44%) 2 (22%) 1 (11%) 0 (0%)
I am more interested in
class when I learn about
African American history.
0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 3 (33%) 6 (67%)
It does not matter if I learn
about African American
history in my
GATE/EXCEL classes.
8 (89%) 1 (11%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%)

Findings for Research Question #2: How do African American
Gifted Students Perceive the Use of Depth and Complexity
in the Critical Analysis of Culturally Relevant Text Material?
The second research question focused on understanding student perceptions about the use
of Depth and Complexity in the analysis of culturally relevant texts. Data collection for this
research question consisted of student responses to close-ended questions on the student survey,
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 145

open response questions on the student survey, student performance on a curriculum vignette,
student observations, and artifacts from the after-school curriculum sessions. An analysis of the
quantitative data from the student survey will be presented first, followed by an analysis of the
student data taken from the after-school curriculum sessions and the open-ended student survey
questions.
Quantitative Data Analysis
According to the survey, the majority of students had favorable views of using the
prompts of Depth and Complexity in class (see Table 10). Students believed that Depth and
Complexity always or often helped them understand what they were learning in class. Eight
students (89%) believed that the prompts of Depth and Complexity help them analyze text.
(77%) believed Depth and Complexity always or often helped them to explain what they learned
in class. Two students responded that the prompts help them explain sometimes.

Table 10

Student Perceptions of Depth and Complexity

Not at all
true
N (%)
A little
bit true
N (%)
Sometimes
true
N (%)
Often
true
N (%)
Always
true
N (%)
Depth and Complexity help
me understand what I am
learning in class.

0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 5 (56%) 4 (44%)
Depth and Complexity help
me analyze text.

0 (0%) 0 (0%) 1 (11%) 5 (56%) 3 (33%)
Depth and Complexity help
me explain what I have
learned in class.
0 (0%) 0 (0%) 2 (22%) 3 (33%) 4 (44%)

GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 146

According to Dodd (2010), “Prompts have been found to activate and build on prior
knowledge, engage students in meaningful learning tasks, increase knowledge acquisition and
ultimately elicit increased student learning and understanding.” Participants clearly saw the
prompts as tools that enhanced their ability to understand material at school.
Qualitative Data Analysis
The student survey consisted of two open-ended questions focused on gathering data on the
how students perceived using Depth and Complexity to critically analyze text. On the pre-
assessment, students were asked to respond to the first open-ended response question: How does
Depth and Complexity support you in critically analyzing text material?
Pre-assessment responses. Most students provided a general response without elaboration
or detail of how the prompts supported critical analysis.
 S1: The prompts tell me what to look for.
 S2: It helps me use knowledge to think.
 S3: It helps me understand better.
 S4: Supports me in the text by knowing what helps me in class and also in future
 S5: Supports me in critically analyzing text material by giving me a better understanding
and helping me visualize

 S6: I am able to understand what the author is referring to.
 S7: The icons help me annotate the material better. By this I mean that by using the icons it
helps me break down the story for me and it helps me explain the text better.

 S8: Go deeper into what we are learning

 S9: By showing what I am reading and the text structure

Similarly, responses were given to the second open-ended question: How does using Depth
and Complexity influence your understanding of African American intellectuals? Some students
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 147

left the question unanswered or most responses were general with no direct connection to the
prompts of Depth and Complexity:
 Student 1: “Not sure”
 Student 2: “Don’t know”
 Student 3: “It shows me that all people no matter what race should all be treated equal”
 Student 4: “By helping me with focusing and learning in class”
 Student 5: “I don’t know”
 Student 6: “I don’t know”
 Student 7: “Don’t know”
 Student 8: “By deeply analyzing the text about African American intellectual”
 Student 9: “I can learn about why the author stated slaves and segregation. Why would
authors teach us about this?”
After-school curriculum sessions. After completing the survey, students participated in a
series of after-school curriculum sessions for several weeks; these sessions focused on lessons
emphasizing the integration of African American history, African American intellectualism and
the prompts of Depth and Complexity. The lessons took place in the school library or in a school
conference room. Students engaged in lessons led by the researcher, reflecting on the content
learned and their use of Depth and Complexity in the analysis of the lesson content. A
description of the lesson series is included in Table 11, below.
Before the lessons began the researcher provided students with folders to house their lesson
materials, which included a copy of the prompts of Depth and Complexity. Before the initial
lesson, the researcher asked students if they had any questions about the prompts of Depth and
Complexity. The researcher also told students that they could seek clarification or ask questions
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 148

about anything at any time during curriculum sessions. After the lesson sessions began, students
worked individually and collectively to make meaning from a variety of texts, including
Table 11

Description of After-School Curriculum Sessions

Lessons Topic Guiding Question
Literacy for Freedom Phillis Wheatley and
Frederick Douglas

What does it mean to read?
Civil Rights by Copyright
part I: Proof and Publication
W.E.B Du Bois, Carter G.
Woodson, Anna Julia Cooper,
Charles Hamilton Houston

How can research promote
freedom and influence
identity?
Civil Rights by Copyright
part II: Representation and
Expression

Harlem Renaissance How do texts shape collective
perceptions?
Questioning the Accepted and
Expected, Part I

African American
Intellectuals
How do texts shape
individual perceptions?
Questioning the Accepted and
Expected, Part II

African American
Intellectuals
How do texts shape
individual perceptions?
Literacy and Legacy Woodson, Du Bois, Cooper
and Me!
What is our intellectual
legacy and what legacy will
we leave behind?”

paintings, photographs, articles, excerpts, and letters. Initially, students were hesitant to respond
and share insights or interpretations; but, they soon became comfortable sharing perspectives,
critiques, and elaborating on their peers' ideas and use of the prompts.
Use of prompts of depth and complexity. During each curriculum session, students used
and discussed the prompts that supported their analysis and interpretation of the text material. At
the beginning of the work sessions, students collected their resource folder and pulled out their
Depth and Complexity and universal concepts resource lists. Throughout the lessons, students
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 149

used Post-Its to draw the prompts that best related to the lessons and also to annotate directly on
their lesson materials. Students used single applications, intersecting prompts, and prompts in
sequence or pathways in their annotations to support their understanding and discussion of the
text. Some students sequenced out their prompts in a pathway, like a flow-map, to show their
understanding. Others layered the prompts on top of each other, creating clusters to show how
they were making meaning. During the second session, most students annotated their text with
the prompts; some drew a Depth and Complexity pathway, or learning sequence, to describe
their understanding of Du Bois’s work for the Paris Exposition. Student 1 drew the context
symbol and then layered in rules, perspectives intersected with ethics, and motives. He shared
with the group:
I think that context is the foundation for everything. Context automatically includes what
the rules and laws were and how people thought about them—if they were good or bad.
Some people are going to think that the way things were was ok, but some are going to
think there are ethical issues. Then you can understand what motivated people to do the
things they did. So, it could be using this each time to understand what is really happening
and why it’s happening when we learn about Black History.
Students shared their annotations, which included single applications of a prompt,
intersecting prompts, prompts in a sequence or pathway, or creating prompt clusters during
small-group and whole-group discussion to make meaning and show their understanding of
various texts. At times, students revised their Depth and Complexity pathways or clusters, re-
arranging their Post-Its or changing the prompts used during group discussion or at the close of
lessons to reflect a change in thinking. At the close of each session, students also shared which
prompts seemed to enhance their understanding of content. Table 12 describes the prompts that
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 150

Table 12

The Prompts of Depth and Complexity Utilized by Students During Curriculum Sessions

Lessons Prompts of Depth and Complexity Utilized by Students
Corresponding to Segments of the Curriculum Sessions
Literacy for Freedom Big Ideas: Power & Order
Context
Ethics
Language of the Discipline
Motive
Patterns
Perspectives
Rules
Civil Rights by Copyright part I:
Proof and Publication
Context
Ethics
Language of the Discipline
Motive
Perspectives
Proof
Rules
Civil Rights by Copyright part II:
Representation and Expression
Big Ideas
Ethics
Motives
Perspectives
Relate over time
Translation
Questioning the Accepted and
Expected, Part I

Context
Ethics
Patterns
Perspectives
Proof
Questioning the Accepted and
Expected, Part II
Ethics
Language of the Discipline
Motive
Perspectives
Translation
Literacy and Legacy Big Ideas
Context
Motives
Perspectives
Proof
Process
Rules

GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 151

students utilized to organize their ideas, make meaning of the text, use as discussion starters, and
ask clarifying questions of the text and/or their peers throughout the curriculum sessions.
During each curriculum session, the researcher took notes on individual and group
responses and interactions, use of Depth and Complexity, and student understanding of material.
As a matter of procedure, student artifacts, group charts, and anecdotal records were reflected
upon and analyzed after each session to have a better understanding of the student experience.
The additional notes and reflections taken after each curriculum session led to the identification
of patterns and categories from the data. The researcher categorized data, developed codes, and
then refined and renamed the codes as new data was integrated after each curriculum session,
which eventually led to emerging themes.
Themes Relating to Depth and Complexity
Theme 1: Drawing conclusions about power relationships. Educational theorist Carter
Woodson believed that education for African Americans must emphasize their ability to think
critically about their own history and experiences to raise awareness of needed change for
liberation (Givens, 2016). Ladson-Billings (1995) advocated for students to learn the skills
necessary to engage in the world critically by developing a broader sociopolitical consciousness
that would allow for a critique of rules, processes, and perspectives that support and produce
injustice. Developing social consciousness would allow students to identify factors that influence
inequities in order to work to change them and prepare for active citizenship (Ladson-Billings,
1995). Critical thinking, the act of analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating information to
question, seek truth, and guide action is part of the process of thinking critically to identify issues
of power and injustice.
During curriculum sessions, students utilized the prompts of Depth and Complexity to
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 152

analyze, infer meaning, and make critical interpretations with regard to Black history. During
lessons, students utilized the prompts to discuss the lives of African American scholars and
significant events, identified underlying causes and implications of oppression. They came to
understand subsequent treatment and perceptions about African Americans resulting from
unequal power relationships. Whether discussing the autobiography of Frederick Douglass,
Phillis Wheatley’s life and poetry, or Charles Hamilton Houston’s fight for civil rights in
education, participants identified subtext and made interpretations. They connected factors
beyond the page to understand the interactions and issues under study.
Student 2 noted, “It was important for them to read between the lines. It means they have
to figure things out even when the writing says something else.” Student 4 shared a similar
reflection, “Words mean different things based on other things happening in the context.” Study
participants used the prompts of Depth and Complexity to make connections and infer influences
about economic and social ideas to identify and understand varied meanings in text. Excerpts
from student artifacts and anecdotal records highlight this point:
 (Language of the discipline drawn) Nigger was used by Mr. Auld to refer to the slaves to
show he could say it and they were less than him. Using the N word to refer to Douglass
& other slaves shows that there is not respect and you can do whatever you want. The
word is used to show they are less than him. It’s a bad word now...my brothers were
using it and my Mother told them to stop because she didn’t want me repeating it. So, it
shows that no one should be using the word—it’s bad/disrespectful. (Student 3)

 The beliefs (perspectives drawn) at the time were that White men could talk to wives
however they wanted and also masters had to treat slaves a certain way (rules drawn)—
limiting how much they could learn because they wanted to keep them only good enough
to listen to the master’s directions and do as they were told and work. (Students 5 & 6)

 Mr. Auld knew that keeping learning from the slaves kept them not having better lives
and working for others. Could see how masters had a better life because they could read
and they kept information from slaves. That’s how they had order (Big idea drawn—
order and power). (Student 4)

GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 153

 If slaves learned to read then they would be unfit to be a slave. (Beliefs & rules drawn).
(Student 2)

 Knowledge means that they (slaves) were more equal to Whites (translation drawn) and
they (slave owners) couldn’t have that because they (slaves) might start asking questions
or think they are just as good. Reading showed you were somebody not just a slave—you
were human (Big idea drawn—power). (Student 1)

 Phillis showed that she was just as good as the men and that Blacks were just as good as
Whites by what they could learn but they weren’t allowed. (Perspectives drawn).
(Students 5 & 9)

 He (Charles Houston) came back from World War I and was treated bad (ethics drawn)
and became a lawyer to get rights. He also wanted to show that Black kid’s schools were
bad not the kids (perspective drawn). So they couldn’t learn equal if the schools weren’t
the same as White schools. (Student 8)

 He (Houston) took pictures for evidence to show that schools were not equal. He traveled
a lot across the south to get the pictures so he could show a pattern. (Student 8)

 He (Houston) showed that schools were the problem and that Black kids could do better
but their schools were bad...like shacks (ethics drawn). How could they learn the same if
their schools were raggedy and they didn’t have books? (Student 4)

 We know how hard it was to prove that schools weren’t equal...he (Charles Houston) had
to gather a lot of evidence and show a compare and contrast. (Student 8)

 Anna read the context and knew that students could get a better education if they could
really read between the lines and not just learn trades. (Student 1)

 She (Anna Julia Cooper) showed evidence to by going to school that was evidence that
Black people could earn higher degrees and do well in college. (Student 3)

Theme 2: Depth and complexity facilitated student discourse. Marable (2000) described
the African American intellectual tradition as corrective by challenging and critiquing deficit
views from dominant society and descriptive in the way that knowledge is to be presented from
the perspective of Black people. CDE (2013) posited that the development of intellectualism and
the art of argumentation should be elements of a differentiated curriculum for gifted students.
Through observations, anecdotal records, and student work samples the researcher found that the
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 154

prompts of Depth and Complexity helped facilitate student discourse about African American
history.
Students used the prompts of Depth and Complexity to identify concepts within texts and
then used the prompts to initiate and guide discussions with their peers. Students used their
Depth and Complexity resource sheet and annotations from the readings to share their
interpretations of text. Before or after speaking, students identified the prompt(s) they used to
make meaning during lessons. Students used single prompts, pathways, and clusters to help
explain their ideas or to show that their thinking was different from their peers. During a
discussion about the significance of reading in different ways, students compared current events
to historical topics, in this case the controversial image of Colin Kapernick kneeling and other
NFL players protesting during the national anthem. Students shared interpretations of the issue
from different points of view; the prompts supported students in seeing different layers of
meaning from the concrete to the abstract, incorporating issues of race and societal status.
Different points of view were evident in student comments:
 “I see relationships between teammates—togetherness. I see a natural order because all
teammates are kneeling—big ideas.”(Student 3)

 “They are not all kneeling.”(Student 4)

 “I don’t see a natural order; I think it is constructed. Kapernick is showing that the “order”
was not fair for African Americans. Someone else made the rule that you stand even if your
perspective is different—that’s not natural. It’s natural for him to stand up for his
ethics.”(Student 1)

 “It’s like…the Kapernick picture …if you can read and not read between the lines you
might think that players are just hurt on the field. You have to know the context to know
how to figure what it means.”—Students 1, 2 and 7

 “They—the Black leaders—worked to make change and it’s better now. We have more
power and equality.”— Student 3

GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 155

 “It’s better? I don’t know if we have equality because then why is Kapernick still
kneelin’ then? It’s not all the way better …we are killed more by police than White
people. We still need equal rights.”(Student 4)

 “He’s fighting for racial justice by not standing during the anthem to protest against Blacks
being killed. He’s kneeling to show protest against Black people being killed unfairly by
police—that’s ethics and power.”(Student 1)

 “I’m thinking of details…The more knowledge you have by reading you can read
between the lines to figure out what is really happening not just what people are
saying...what they mean.”(Student 7)

Theme 3: Reframing their view. Marable (2000) described the Black intellectual tradition
as being prescriptive, with African American intellectuals researching and theorizing to provide
guidance to the Black community, promoting empowerment and social transformation. He
described the need for “a practical connection between scholarship and struggle, between social
analysis and social transformation” (Marable, 2000 p. 18).
Students gained new insights on the breadth of African American history and
achievements. The use of Depth and Complexity supported students in developing an awareness
and understanding of the long history and impact of research and activism by African Americans
to address injustice and the significance of varied representation in the Black community.
All participants were concerned about not learning African American history prior to the
after-school curriculum sessions. During the 4
th
curriculum session, Student 5 commented, “Why
haven’t we learned about any of this before in school?” Except for Student 7, the participants
stated they had never heard of any of the individuals or topics discussed before participating in
the curriculum sessions and wondered why. Student 2 commented, “We should know these
people and how to use the prompts better…we should be studying all of this, too, and using the
prompts more at school. I feel like I’m not going to be prepared for high school.”
The students’ statements reflected perceived gaps in learning and ways the prompts of
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 156

Depth and Complexity supported a more sophisticated thought process and complex
understanding of text. These ideas were also mirrored in students’ reflections on the purpose and
impact of various scholars attaining higher education and conducting research to address issues
that faced the Black community:
 He (Du Bois) showed that we are smart and a beautiful community. (Student 6)
 He (Du Bois) researched to show what was real and gave proof or evidence. He used
different types of evidence at the Paris exhibit...pictures, books, charts and graphs
showing positive things about different parts of the Black community...like schools,
businesses and churches too. (Student 4)

 They think we are not beautiful, but we are...Du Bois showed a perspective that we are
together in our community and we work hard...not what they say about us. (Student 7)

 She (Anna Julia Cooper) showed evidence, too, by going to school. That was evidence that
Black people could earn higher degrees and do well in college. (Student 3)

 That Black people were hard working and built schools, churches and had businesses…He
(Du Bois) also showed that Black people looked nice and liked nice things, too, and that
they accomplished a lot. He was political. My family is political. I’m very politically
minded...we like to learn about things like this because they think we are not supposed to
have nice things. (Student 7)

 They (African American intellectuals) studied what they were really excited about. They
also wanted to improve the lives of Black people. They used their intelligence to make
changes to help how Black people were thought about. (Students 1, 2, & 4)

 Their proof and actions showed that what people thought about Black people was wrong.
(Student 1)

 They showed how we are beautiful and showed our pride. (Student 7)

 This from Dr. King is like Frederick Douglass wondering why his master doesn’t want him
to learn to read… People cannot remain oppressed forever. The urge for freedom will
come. This is what has happened to the American Negro. Something within has reminded
him of his birthright of freedom; something outside has reminded him that he can get it
(translation drawn). (Student 1)

 They (African American Scholars) are very hard working in finding out the truth about
Black people and sharing it. I agree with S2...they have to figure out what is really
happening a lot by looking underneath things...like the bad things people say about us to
uncover what is good and correct. (Student 7)
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 157

 Being disillusioned/disappointed led to a focus on themselves and having race pride.
(Student 5)

 You can focus on yourself and your culture for inspiration. (Student 4)

Analysis of Open-Ended Student Survey Questions

Question 30. How does depth and complexity support you in critically analyzing
culturally relevant text? After participating in the curriculum sessions, students were given the
open-ended questions on the survey to complete. Table 13 shows the use of specific prompts by
students, reflected in responses to Question 30. Before the curriculum sessions, students made
limited use of prompts. After the curriculum sessions, students described how the prompts
helped them to make meaning by supporting their ability to infer and make connections to
understand the text.

Table 13

Use of the Prompts of Depth and Complexity on Student Survey Question 30

Depth and Complexity Pre-Assessment Post- Assessment
Context 0 (0%) 5 (56%)
Motive 0 (0%) 4 (44%)
Perspective 0 (0%) 4 (44%)
Ethics 0 (0%) 4 (44%)
Details 0 (0%) 2 (22%)
Patterns 0 (0%) 1 (11%)
Rules 0 (0%) 1 (11%)
Judgment 0 (0%) 1 (11%)

Table 14 shows the change in student responses to Question 30. There is a pattern of
students describing how identifying ethics and perspectives allowed them to see motives and
underlying relationships. In addition, students referenced that the prompts helped them to make
connections to “broader ideas and issues” that occurred outside of the text that helped them
understand motives and events happening within the text. Understanding the elements that
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 158

Table 14
Student Responses to Student Survey Question 30

Student
Codes
Question 30
How does Depth and Complexity support you in critically analyzing text material?
Pre- Assessment Post- Assessment
S1

“The prompts tell me what to
look for”

“The prompts help me connect the reading to bigger
ideas that I haven’t thought of. The prompts help me
connect the pieces, especially details in a context. The
details are the perspectives & motive that are inside it
and help you know why things are happening.”
S2

“It helps me use knowledge to
think.”

“The prompts help you think of the context first so
you can make a inference of what is really happening.
Like Frederick Douglass, you can’t just read the
words you have to think of the perspectives, ethics
and motives of the people to really understand what is
happening.”
S3

“I understand better” “The prompts helps me understand the text better
than when I don’t use it”
S4

“Depth and Complexity
supports me in the text by
knowing what help me in class
and also in future”
“Helps give me a better understanding of what the
paper means...not just what it says by studying the
ethics, perspectives and the rules”
S5

“Depth and Complexity
supports me in critically
analyzing text material by
giving me a better
understanding and helping me
visualize”
“It helps me think more thoroughly and to find key
details that help me understand like the parts of the
context”
S6

“I am able to understand what
the author is referring to”
“Because I can better understand the text and morals
because I know to look for ethics”
S7

“The icons help me annotate the
material better. By this I mean
that by using the icons it helps
me break down the story for me
and it helps me explain the text
better”
“When I read a text certain icons can help me break
down the text and understand it better, like context,
patterns, motives and judgment.”
S8

“Go deeper into what we are
learning”

“Depth and Complexity support my analyzing text
because then I can understand what the author’s point
of view is. I can go deeper than the author stating “I
was Upset” I will use context to see why the author
states, I was upset—their motives”
S9

“By showing what I am reading
and the text structure”
“By helping me understand the text and it helps me
think deeper about the real problems (ethics drawn)
that you don’t realize”

GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 159

comprised the context were significant for students. Overall, students described how the
integration of multiple prompts aided their understanding of text material.

Throughout their time participating in the curriculum sessions, students were asked how
using Depth and Complexity and learning the content influenced their understanding of African
American intellectuals. Students shared orally and also wrote their responses on Post-its, adding
them to their resource folders and a group chart, where they gathered details to determine the
characteristics of African American intellectuals. Their collective responses included:
 They studied the context to figure out what to do. They thought about other perspectives
and thought of the motives—was it true or good for African Americans? If it wasn’t they
did something.

 They had to figure out what was real and not just accept what society thought (judgment
drawn).

 They worked to show what African Americans thought about things (perspectives drawn)

 They didn’t believe what others thought was true about African Americans.

 They worked to make changes for a better future (ethics drawn)

 They seem to like what they did because they worked at it their whole lives. They like to
study and make life better

 Scholars have to be good at figuring things out. You can’t just read or hear words and
believe them.

Culturally relevant texts allowed students to practice the use of Depth and Complexity in
their analyses but also provided mentor texts for students to see how intellectualism, academics,
and passion have positively influenced the Black community over time. Study participants
commented that African Americans were critical thinkers who cared about the Black community
and researched a lot because they did not believe what others believed to be true about African
Americans. A new insight for a number of participants was that African American intellectuals
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 160

were not accepting of the norms and perspectives of society about Black people, which fueled
their efforts and actions.
Question 31: How does using depth and complexity influence your understanding of
African American intellectuals? After participating in the curriculum sessions, students were
given Question 30 to complete again. Table 15 shows the use of specific prompts by students,
reflected in responses to Question 31. Table 16, below, shows the pre-assessment and post-
assessment results from students completing Question 31. Students believed that using Depth
and Complexity enhanced their understanding of African American intellectuals by allowing
them to see the connection between context, motives, and actions. Students commented on how
African American intellectuals’ understanding and use of the prompts were themes in their work
for addressing injustice. They also noted how the prompts provided them with a process for
understanding the impact of context on the African Americans intellectuals under study.

Table 15

Use of Depth and Complexity on Student Survey Question 31

Depth and Complexity Pre- Assessment Post- Assessment
Motive 0 (0%) 5 (56%)
Context 0 (0%) 4 (44%)
Ethics 0 (0%) 4 (44%)
Perspectives 0 (0%) 4 (44%)
Impact 0 (0%) 3 (33%)
Process 0 (0%) 3 (33%)

Analysis of Assessment Results for the Curriculum Vignette
When students initially completed the survey and curriculum vignette at the beginning of
the study, they answered questions by copying statements directly from the text; some students

GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 161

Table 16

Student Responses to Student Survey Question 31

Student
Codes
Question 31
How does using Depth and Complexity influence your understanding
of African American intellectuals?
Pre- Assessment Post- Assessment
S1

“Not sure”

“Depth and Complexity influences my
understanding of them it helps me think
more of ethics and perspectives. The
intellectuals used those to figure out what
was wrong, they researched to fight: ethics,
motive and context symbols were used”
S2

“Don’t know”

“They show how different minds work.
They help me think more about them
(perspectives/process/motive drawn)”
S3

“It shows me that all people no matter
what race should all be treated equal”

“The prompts help me understand African
American intellectuals by not just thinking
that they are just a Black person it helps me
see who they actually are...that they can
think and accomplish things with how they
think (perspectives & process drawn)”
S4

“Depth and Complexity influence my
understanding of African American
by helping me with focusing and
learning in class”
“They help me categorize and make groups
with the prompts to learn about what I am
reading/the scholars—process”

S5

“I don’t know”

“Because using icons such as ethics, motive,
impact etc. help me understand why (motive
drawn) these intellectuals did the things that
they did. It also helps me understand how
they impacted African Americans”
S6

“I don’t know”

“Because I am able to dig deeper into their
past and experiences to see motives for the
actions”
S7

“Don’t know”

“By giving me something to connect their
ideas to”
S8

“By deeply analyzing the text about
African American intellectual”

“By showing context—everything around
you—of what’s happening and the different
perspectives of everyone at the time
context) which affected them/the
intellectuals (ethics/impact drawn)”
S9

“I can learn about why the author
stated slaves and segregation. Why
would author’s teach us about this”
“Depth and Complexity helped me
especially context...I get to see why people
did what they did (motive drawn)”

GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 162

were not able to respond to the questions, leaving them blank. The curriculum vignette is
reproduced in Figure B, below.

Figure B. Curriculum vignette: Student performance task.

The first question, which required students to read the text and describe what was
happening, was answered by most students (67%) by copying directly the first line from the text.
Question 2 required students to describe how Depth and Complexity helped them read critically
for multiple meanings and hidden messages. Question 3 asked students to describe implications
of the text’s messages. The majority of students (67%) left questions 2 and 3 blank on the
curriculum vignette, stating that they did not know how to answer the questions. Table 17,
below, shows the changes in the student use of the prompts of Depth and Complexity on the
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 163

curriculum vignette.
Table 17

Student Use of the Prompts of Depth and Complexity on the Curriculum Vignette

Question
#
Prompts of Depth and
Complexity
Pre- Assessment Post- Assessment
1 Motives 0 (0%) 4 (44%)
Ethics 0 (0%) 3 (33%)
Context 0 (0%) 1 (11%)
Judgment 0 (0%) 1 (11%)
Impact 0 (0%) 1 (11%)
Patterns 0 (0%) 1 (11%)
2 Ethics 0 (0%) 5 (56%)
Impact 0 (0%) 4 (44%)
Patterns 0 (0%) 4 (44%)
Perspectives 0 (0%) 3 (33%)
Motives 0 (0%) 2 (22%)
Context 0 (0%) 1 (11%)
Big Idea 0 (0%) 1 (11%)
Relate Over Time 0 (0%) 1 (11%)
3 Motives 0 (0%) 4 (44%)
Impact 0 (0%) 3 (33%)
Translation 0 (0%) 3 (33%)
Ethics 0 (0%) 2 (22%)
Rules 0 (0%) 1 (11%)

After participating in the curriculum sessions, students were able to synthesize
information and respond to questions on the vignette in their own words. When students
responded to the first question (What is happening in the text?) they synthesized the text and
described how scholars were motivated to make changes due to negative perceptions, inequitable
opportunities, and poor treatment of African Americans, along with a personal interest or passion
in the research and learning. Some students commented on the female scholar protesting against
gender-based discrimination:
 Cooper is fighting against racism to make sure that she and other Black students can get a
higher education than just working with their hands, which is why she got fired ‘cause
she showed the opposite of what people think and wanted for Black students. (Student 1)

GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 164

 Cooper is fighting to do what she is interested in and wants to help other students have a
better education and not be told what to do because they are Black. (Student 3)

 Ana Julia Cooper believed that she had the right to take any type of intellectual classes
that anyone else that wasn’t like her was able to take because she did this she made an
impact on the lives of other people that followed behind her. (Student 7)

When students responded with language directly from the text, they also elaborated by giving
additional details to better explain their thinking. Student 2 responded, “Cooper is protesting the
preferential treatment given to men as candidates for the ministry. She was trying to change this
treatment so that all men and woman can have it the same.”
When asked to explain how Depth and Complexity aided in reading for hidden messages
and multiple meanings in text, students were able to provide responses to this question after
participating in the after-school curriculum sessions. Most students described that ethics,
motives, and impact—along with a few other prompts—helped them read for hidden
messages/and or multiple meanings. Students inferred meaning from unequal power
relationships to identify implicit messages:
 If you know the context you know a lot. It shows why people think the way they do why
there are the patterns there. And then you know the impact of the patterns and problems
in that place. So, there was a pattern of not wanting Blacks to get an education so they
(the Whites) can have better things...this is the same as when we read about Frederick
Douglass. He figured out he wasn’t supposed to learn ‘cause he wouldn’t be a good
worker. (Student 1)

 d/c helped me read the text because it showed she didn’t like what she had to do because
she was a woman this relates to ethics and big ideas about power. (Student 2)

 Helped me figure out the meaning by helping me deeply understand and scan the text for:
o impact: because of Anna Julia Cooper’s refusion to teach others students
trades she trained them for college. Even though it meant to becoming fired
she still did so for the sake of other’s learning and education. Basically,
because she taught students to prepare for college and got fired for it. She
showed they could be just as good that’s why she was fired.
o Perspectives: Anna Julia Cooper had a different perspective than the White
supervisors and colleagues that also worked with her. They believed that
Africans that attended school should only know trades. Anna Cooper believed
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 165

to prepare them for college. So that is all that they thought the students could
do because they were Black. (Student 8)

 Patterns helped me read the text for multiple meanings/hidden messages by helping me
find out that she didn’t care about if her gender was boy or girl she was still going to
learn at higher levels than Blacks were supposed to learn too. (Student 7)

Research Question #3: How Do African American Gifted Students

Perceive Their Experiences With Culturally Relevant Material in Relationship to
Creating and Sustaining Their Identities as African American Scholars?
The third research question focused on understanding student perceptions about how
culturally relevant texts facilitated students’ development of a scholar identity. The research
question was: How do African American gifted students perceive their experiences with
culturally relevant material in relationship to creating and sustaining their identities as African
American scholars? Data collection for this research question consisted of student responses to
open-ended questions on the student survey, student observations, and artifacts from after-school
curriculum sessions.
Question 32: How Does Learning About African American Intellectualism Influence Your
Development as a Student Scholar in the Accelerated Program?
When students initially completed the last open-ended survey question, Question 32, a
few of the students responded that learning about African American intellectuals provided them
with inspiration or models for success. After completing the curriculum sessions, all students
were able to provide responses that related to how their learning supported their development in
the gifted program. Student responses described the use of the prompts of Depth and
Complexity, the ability to identify underlying meaning or truth, work based on personal interests,
feeling more “welcome” in the gifted programming, and the need to work hard to honor the
sacrifices and work of early African American scholars. (See Table 18.)
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 166

Table 18

Student Responses to Student Survey Question 32

Student
Codes

Question 32
How does learning about African American intellectualism influence your
development as a student scholar in the Accelerated Program?
Pre- Assessment Post- Assessment
S1

“I see that I should know how
to use these prompts better
and know about these
people.”

“The prompts help me understand what I am
learning better because they’re connected to
what we learn at school but also help me
understand Black history and things happening
today how some things are the same. I can learn
so I can explain Black History, and the truth of
what’s happening... like Douglass and Du Bois”

S2

“Not sure”

“You have to read around words to figure out
the world not just listen to what people say. It
helps me too because I learned about people who
inspire me—to achieve”
S3

“It teaches me about where I
come from what it was like
for people of my race back
then. It also shows me how
my race has moved up in
life.”
“It helps me see the struggle of education of
African Americans before me and how they
were treated...it helped me see through their
perspectives and how researchers can make
change”
S4

“African American
intellectualism for me is
knowing I can be in an
Accelerated program and pass
all my classes”
“It has influence my development as a 7
th
grader
in Accelerated by knowing a deeper
understanding of others who lived before me
because the people before were great and we
will show that we are too.”

S5

“when I learn about them it
shows me that if they can do
this than I should be able to
do it to”

“because when I see people that are my race
doing these great things, it inspires me to try and
do things that I love. Anna Julia Cooper did
what she loved. Learning about this also teaches
me to work hard and keep trying even if it
(context symbol) is not good.”

GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 167

Table 18, continued

Student
Codes

Question 32
How does learning about African American intellectualism influence your
development as a student scholar in the Accelerated Program?
S6

“I want to be an African
American intellectual”
“by working hard in school and not taking things
for granted. Because Frederick Douglass had a
quote, and it said some know the value of
education by having it. I know by not have it.
This means he knows education was important
by not have it because it was kept from him, so
we have to get it”

S7

“Learning about African
American intellectualism
influences my development as
a student”

“Helping me strive to learn for my own
knowledge like they did and helping me feel
more welcome and like I belong in accelerated”

S8

“reading about other people’s
achievements help inspire me
to work hard and to put my
effort into achievement goals
just like them”
“because what they have gone through to get
degrees, to help others, and more was
challenging. They help me understand that if
they can achieve at the harshest of times, I can
achieve too by working hard and giving it my all
with effort”

S9

“I see how all these African
Americans changed the world.
This makes me believe, I can
be independent, intelligent
and anything”
“My teacher did not know what the signs
context, original, and judgment meant. Now I
know, it will help me when I read to go deeper
because you have to use them together to learn
like the scholars did”

When students completed the curriculum vignettes prior to the after-school curriculum
sessions, the majority of students were not able to provide a response when asked how the
information related to them (see Table 19, below). After completing the curriculum sessions and
re-taking the vignette students, were able to express how a scholar’s life related to their own.
Students described connections to working for justice; doing the work you love, being resilient
when facing adversity; and, as an African American, having to determine bias in order to make
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 168

good choices. In addition, students understood the implications of a scholar’s work and how their
legacy has implications for their efforts in and outside of school.

Table 19

Student Responses to Curriculum Vignette Question 4

Student
Codes
How does this information relate to you?
Pre- Assessment Post- Assessment
S1 “Don’t know” “This information relates to me because
this makes me believe that I can be an
intellectual too”
S2 No response “to me because it shows me to never let
people stop me. I should keep working
towards what I want to do”
S3 No response “to me because I am also driven to
succeed in school”
S4 No response

“This relates to me because I am not
going to let someone tell me what I am
and am not capable of... just because I
am a Black girl”
S5 “She was one of the 4
th
Black women
in the US to receive a doctorate
degree.”

“It relates to me because they made life
easier for us”
S6 “Some of the struggles Ana had are
still in this world like unfairness to
women and racism during job
choosing”
“I should do what is right because there
is still unfairness and do what I love”
S7 “It relates to me because I am a
African American child”

“There is an idea that we are not
supposed to have things as good as other
people. So this lets me know I need to
look underneath to see what is really
happening to make good choices.”
S8 No response “The information relates to me because I
think women and men should have the
same rights”
S9 No response “This information relates to me because
just because she was “Defeated” she was
motivated to “set off again.’ Whenever I
make a mistake I can learn from it and
can do better.”

GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 169

Identity Development

W.E.B. Du Bois (1935) argued that African American students should “study
intelligently and from their own point of view, the slave trade, slavery, emancipation,
Reconstruction, and present economic development.” In addition, Carter G. Woodson believed in
the importance of Black students learning about the contributions of African Americans to
mediate biased information about Blacks in the broader society. If not learned, “distorted
narratives about African American history would continue to shape the reality of Black students”
(Givens, p. 47, 2016), negatively impacting their ability to be self-efficacious in relation to
academic subjects. Therefore, learning about Black cultural achievement offers counter-
narratives to a history of subjugation and its effects and provides opportunities for
transformation. Focusing on African American achievement frames the discussion from the
perspective of African Americans having power and agency rather than being subjects who lack
the intellect to envision and execute plans for change.
There is evidence in the literature that supports the need for African American students to
have opportunities to learn about their own heritage, which should include prominent individuals
who overcame great barriers in their quest for individual and collective success for affirmation
(Bishop, 2007; Du Bois, 1935; Gay, 2002; Ladson-Billings 1995; Woodson, 1933). These
individuals can act as “mentors in print” (Hébert , 2001). Their stories can help to dispel
inaccuracies and to clarify distortions about the race and culture (Banks, 1995; Du Bois, 1935;
Gay, 2002; Perry, 2003a, 2003c; Woodson, 1933). During one of the after-school curriculum
sessions, one of the students asked why they had not learned about these African American
scholars at school before. The researcher then asked if any of the other students had previously
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 170

studied the scholars introduced during the after-school curriculum sessions. Students stated they
had not.
After a lesson involving Frederick Douglass, students noticed a picture of him on one of
the Black History posters in the library and then proceeded to review all of the Black history
posters. The students stated that they were not familiar with any of the African Americans whose
pictures were on the posters displayed in the library, except Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Students
described knowing about Dr. King prior to the curriculum sessions but not really knowing much
about him other than he gave the “I Have a Dream speech.” After reviewing the posters, a few of
the students were very upset that they had not learned about the inventors, scientists, and other
“African American firsts…” pictured on the posters in the library at school. Student 7 stated,
“We don’t get to learn Black History at school. It’s, like, it’s not okay. If it’s Mexican-American
history, it seems okay. But, when it comes time to talk about us, it’s not okay. It’s like it’s not
important.” The students discussed how it was important that they, and other Black students,
learn about Black history and Black intellectuals. They discussed how they had not learned
Black history at school and planned to continue studying after-school or on Saturdays by creating
a Black history book club, where they could debate and continue learning about Black history
and Black intellectuals. The study participants also believed they should continue to learn Back
History to teach the younger students at the school. Student 7 advocated, “This is important, and
we should all know.”
The development of intellectualism is a goal for programs for gifted and talented students
(CAG, 2013). Marable described the unique features of African American intellectualism which
provide African American-centered descriptions of history and culture, along with critiques and
re-interpretations to correct biased information and ways of knowledge that devalue and
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 171

marginalize the history and accomplishments of Black people. He stated that African American
intellectuals should connect their work to addressing the effects of racism and bias, which
requires viewing information with a critical lens to identify the epistemological basis of the
information (Marable, 2000).
The after-school curriculum sessions provided African American gifted students an
opportunity to develop in the African American intellectual tradition by describing the
experiences of Black people from their own point of view, identifying biased information that
frames African American history and culture from a deficit perspective, re-interpreting and re-
telling that information by noting the effects of unequal power relationships, seeing the power
and promise of Black intellectual thought, and proposing solutions to problems identified at their
school site.
Summary of Findings
Scholars have described issues of access and retention for African American students in
programs for the gifted. This is often the result of these students’ perceptions around gifted
programs and a belief that high achievement is for Whites, as evidenced by Black gifted students
being criticized for lacking authenticity or “acting White” by their same-raced peers. Due to
structural inequality in the U.S., racialization in education has resulted in connections between
low academic achievement and being Black and between high achievement and being White.
In essence, this is Du Bois’s concept of a veil that draws a line between what is acceptable,
appropriate, and attainable based on race. Historically, success in education, especially in
programs for the gifted, has been defined as White by nature of the types of students who have
participated, and the curriculum covered. The veil applies to the notion that African American
students are not seen by the broader society, or at times see themselves, as having the capacity to
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 172

achieve academically.
Researchers have demonstrated that African American gifted students want to learn about
their heritage at school and in gifted programs, content that provides them with opportunities to
learn about themselves. To address the perceptions of gifted program participation, program
content, and high achievement as being for White people, scholars have recommended that gifted
programs offer culturally relevant learning opportunities to support the identification and
retention of African American students in these programs (Ford et al., 2005).
The purpose of the study was to explore and describe African American gifted students’
perceptions of their participation in the gifted program and of a curriculum that integrated gifted
standards and culturally relevant content. The goal was to better understand students’ use of
strategies, implications for learning, and identity development. More specifically, this study
investigated the impact in a series of curriculum sessions focused on the use of the prompts of
Depth and Complexity in the critical analysis of text about the lives of African American
intellectuals. It explored how this influenced students’ understanding and use of the strategy and
their perceptions of themselves as African American gifted students and scholars. Finally, the
study also sought to develop a greater understanding of how Black gifted students’ perceptions
are shaped by culturally relevant content.
Research Question 1 asked, “What are the perceptions of African American gifted students
regarding their participation in the GATE program?” Overall, students perceived that the gifted
program was the right program for them. They believed they could achieve in the program and
were prepared for the advanced-level work. In general, most students believed that their families,
teachers, and peers supported their participation and achievement in the gifted program.
However, the males in the study perceived that they received less support for participation and
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 173

good grades from their peers. Students believed that the prompts of Depth and Complexity
enhanced their understanding and analysis of text, but less so when explaining their
understanding. Students saw themselves as African American gifted students, believed that was
how they were perceived, and thought that it was important for them to learn Black history
content at school.
Research Question 2 asked, “How do African American gifted students perceive the use of
Depth and Complexity to critically analyze culturally relevant text material?” Research Question
2 asked, “How do gifted African American students perceive their experiences with culturally
relevant material in relationship to creating and sustaining their identities as African American
gifted scholars?” The researcher discovered the following themes: (1) the application of Depth
and Complexity to African American history supported students in drawing conclusions about
power relationships, (2) the use of Depth and Complexity facilitated student discourse and
understanding, (3) opportunities to engage in texts about African American intellectuals and
historical events allowed students to re-frame and expand their view of African American
history, and (4) students learned about and saw beneficial relationships between the lives of
African American intellectuals and themselves. These four themes provide insight into the
contexts in which African American gifted students learn to expand their capacity for engaging
with in-depth, complex learning. They provide models to support racial and academic identity
development.
As supported by the findings, the integration of gifted education and culturally relevant
pedagogy provides differentiated learning opportunities for African American gifted students
that include: (a) the ability to increase their understanding and use of the prompts of Depth and
Complexity to analyze text; (b) opportunities for engaging in critical thinking, argumentation,
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 174

and the construction and re-interpretation of knowledge; and (c) the development of multiple
perspectives and critical consciousness. In sum, the integration of gifted education and culturally
relevant pedagogy supported the academic and social-emotional development of this group of
African American, gifted middle school learners.

GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 175

Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations
African American students have been historically underrepresented in gifted and talented
programs (Borland, 2004; Frasier & Passow, 1994; Frasier et al., 1995; Ford, 1994; Van-Tassel
Baska, 2003; Worrell, 2012a). There are two main areas of research that address and explain this
long-standing problem.
Researchers argue that historical, social, and psychological effects of racial oppression
have caused African Americans to disengage from schooling and develop oppositional stances,
which in turn has created barriers to achievement and support from same-raced peers for
intellectual pursuits or academics. These researchers also report that there is a perception among
African American youth that academic achievement aligns with acting White, which causes
these students to disengage from advanced academics to maintain cultural membership with their
same-raced peers.
Other researchers take issue with theories of acting White, racelessness as a strategy for
achievement and blaming aspects of African American culture for underrepresentation in gifted
programs. This research focuses on the long history of African American struggles for
education.as evidence that counters beliefs that African Americans do not believe that seeking
and participating in advanced academics is not beneficial or integral to the culture. These
theorists point to societal, structural, and social issues that impact Black students, such as the
organization of schools, teacher bias, stereotype threat, and the lack of support for educators to
learn ways to address the needs of diverse gifted learners. The current research study describes
theories of acting White as limited in their explanation of high and low achievement among
African American students.

GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 176

Statement of the Problem
Although there is evidence that theories of acting White affect African American student
achievement and engagement, many argue that they do not explain the behavior of all African
American gifted students across varied contexts. What is common among the research in this
area are questions around perceptions of ability and identity in the academic engagement and
achievement of African American gifted students. To address student identification and
retention in gifted programs, researchers state that GATE programs should provide multicultural
or culturally relevant curriculum for African American students for affirmation and to clarify that
gifted programs are spaces for learning where these students belong, can learn and achieve. Ford
& Grantham (2003) stated that gifted programs should provide culturally relevant learning
opportunities for diverse gifted students to affirm student identities and increase student
participation and performance.
There is a need to further investigate African American students’ perceptions related to
their involvement in gifted programs in order to better design programming to promote their
achievement, and counter deficit thinking and stereotypes stemming from racialized perceptions
of rigorous academics and school performance. Increasing understanding of African American
gifted students’ perceptions of GATE programs can inform key stakeholders, specifically
curriculum developers, who can promote the development of learning experiences that foster
students’ identities as part of gifted services.
Key Findings
Research Question #1: What Are the Perceptions of African American Gifted Students
Regarding Their Participation in the GATE Program?
The majority of students believed that they belonged in the GATE program, were
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 177

prepared to do the advanced level work, and worked hard to achieve at school. Participants saw
themselves as African American and believed that others viewed them as such, which most
perceived as enhancing their ability to achieve at school. Although most students believed that
perceptions of them as African American helped them to achieve, a third of the participants
believed these perceptions made it difficult for them to achieve at school.
All of the students in the study believed that their families wanted them to be successful
in the GATE program, with the majority believing that their teachers and peers also supported
their success. Most students reported that their friends were part of the GATE program and
wanted them to achieve good grades. However, male participants perceived that they received
little to no support from their peers with regard to getting good grades. The majority of students
stated that program content was connected to their culture. They reported that they were more
interested in school when learning reflected their own heritage.
Discussion. Although there was an awareness of Du Bois’s veil, as evidenced by students’
comments about, “how they think we are not supposed to be smart,” this veil did not impact their
decision to participate in the gifted program. Contrary to Fordham and Ogbu’s (1986) study,
where Black high schoolers eschewed participation in advanced classes to maintain group
affiliation and ethnic authenticity, the students in the current study believed advanced program
participation was appropriate, academic success was attainable, and high achievement was
supported. It must be noted that the context of Fordham and Ogbu’s (1986) study was a high
school populated by Black and White students (Hébert, 2001). In their study at Capitol High
School, a lack of diversity in advanced classes, at the school, and very visible disproportionality
may have exacerbated racialized perceptions of achievement among Black and White students.

GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 178

Research Question #2: How do African American Gifted Students Perceive the Use of
Depth and Complexity in the Critical Analysis of Culturally Relevant Text Material?
According to the survey, the majority of students had favorable views of using the
prompts of Depth and Complexity in class. Most believed that the prompts of Depth and
Complexity helped them analyze and understand text. Although a majority of students perceived
that the prompts helped them to explain their learning; a smaller percentage perceived this to be
always or often true and a small number perceived prompts help sometimes.
Students demonstrated overall improvement in their use of the prompts as a result of the
after-school curriculum sessions, as measured by between pre- and post-assessment results. The
findings from participation in the curriculum sessions illustrated that Depth and Complexity
assisted students with analyzing, understanding, and explaining textual material. Students
believed the prompts aided them in analysis and provided them a process for understanding
African American history.
Throughout the curriculum sessions, students utilized the prompts to organize their ideas,
make meaning of the text, and ask clarifying questions of the text and their peers. Students
described how the prompts helped them to make meaning by supporting their ability to infer and
make connections to understand the text. There was a pattern of using ethics, perspectives,
motives, and contexts to see underlying relationships. Understanding the elements that
comprised the context was also described as significant when studying history. In addition,
students’ physical manipulations and integration of multiple prompts aided their discussion and
analysis of text material.
These students’ comments reflected their understanding of the ways African American
intellectuals, and they as student scholars, could use the prompts for analysis to better understand
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 179

texts. Students shared the following reflections that echo these conclusions:
 “Depth and Complexity influences my understanding of them; it helps me think more
of ethics and perspectives. The intellectuals used those to figure out what was wrong. They
researched to fight; ethics, motive, and context symbols were used.” (Student 1)
 “The prompts help me understand African American intellectuals by not just thinking
that they are just a Black person. It helps me see who they actually are. . .that they can think
and accomplish things with how they think (perspectives & process drawn).” (Student 3)
 “By showing context—everything around you—of what’s happening and the
different perspectives of everyone at the time (context drawn) which affected them/the
intellectuals (ethics/impact drawn).” (Student 8)
Discussion. The use of critical thinking in the in-depth study and analysis of broad-based
issues and global concepts are characteristic of programs for the gifted (CAG, 2013) and are
aligned with the practices of culturally relevant pedagogy (Ladson-Billings, 1995). Ford et al.
(2001) argued that African American students want to interact with content that addresses
diversity and examines problems and solutions related to inequities. Banks (1995) and others
(Gay, 2002; Ladson-Billings, 1995) advocated for culturally inclusive curriculum that requires
teachers to modify and re-interpret core content to make it more appropriate for diverse learners,
which includes infusing cultural backgrounds so that students see themselves reflected in the
curriculum to promote empowerment. Ladson-Billings (1995) described the goals of culturally
relevant pedagogy as promoting students’ academic success, critical consciousness, and cultural
competence. She described cultural competence as mastering knowledge of your own culture as
well as learning about others and developing critical consciousness by learning to identify,
critique, and act against forms of injustice.
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 180

Providing students with the opportunity to utilize Depth and Complexity to engage in the
study of African Americans intellectuals met the goals of both educational approaches and
followed recommendations of scholars concerned about meeting the academic and social-
emotional needs of African American gifted students. The study of African American
intellectuals provided students in this study with opportunities to see how these scholars utilized
Du Bois’s notion of double consciousness to identify underlying problems facing Black
communities. They were able to address issues with their research, providing a re-interpretation
of mainstream ideas and producing counter-narratives. Students explored the problems that these
scholars faced utilizing the prompts of Depth and Complexity to analyze and interpret historical
information. This allowed them to determine the impact of understanding hidden messages and
multiple meanings on ideas, events, people and power relationships.
Kaplan (2005) described the element of Depth as focusing students’ attention on
“increasingly more difficult, divergent, and abstract qualities of knowing a discipline or area of
study” (p. 116). He defined complexity as an element that “affords …students with opportunities
to identify the associations: connections, relationships and links exist within between, and among
areas or disciplines of study” (p. 116). Providing students with the opportunity to utilize the tools
of Depth and Complexity in analyzing the lives and work of African American intellectuals
enabled them to develop in the African American intellectual tradition. They were able to
explore difficult and abstract concepts related to Black History, which necessitates the ability to
connect ideas to provide more objective accounts and give voice to varied understandings and
perspectives.
Taking all of this together, students were provided tools to practice in the African
American intellectual tradition defined by Marable (2000). Students provided African American
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 181

centered descriptions of problems and events. After analyzing texts, they provided a more
accurate accounting of events by critiquing information, determining the effects of racism and
bias, providing re-interpretations, and identifying social justice issues and hypothesized
solutions.
Research Question #3: How do Gifted African American Students Perceive Their
Experiences with Culturally Relevant Material in Relationship to Creating and Sustaining
Their Identities as African American Scholars?
Students identified cause and effect relationships between the work of African American
intellectuals, themselves as African Americans, and their academic work as students. They
determined that scholars had passion for their work and realized that it was important to “study
what you love” and not be deterred by the effects of bias or racism. Students learned that African
American intellectuals sought a more objective truth to solve problems faced by Black people
due to deficit framing and misinformation based on race. Study participants discussed parallels
between their own learning and the work of scholars. They discussed the importance of not just
reading words, and believing knowledge that is expressed as truth, but working to understand
hidden meanings within text and situations.
Students were inspired by African American intellectuals and recognized how their work
impacted their lives. Due to this legacy, students believed they should be accountable by working
hard and succeeding. Students discussed having a better understanding of hard work and
sacrifice; they questioned their own level of effort and work as student scholars.
Overwhelmingly, students were disappointed—and a few angry—about their limited exposure to
Black history at school. They argued that knowledge of African American history and
intellectuals could serve as lessons to Black students in how to think, problem-solve, and be
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 182

resilient during the harshest of times.
Ford, et al. (2004) argued that African American students wanted interaction with content
that addresses diversity and examines problems and solutions related to inequities. The current
study illustrated the importance of allowing students access to African American history and
culturally relevant models, as evidenced by these students' comments:
 “because when I see people that are my race doing these great things, it inspires me to try
and do things that I love. Anna Julia Cooper did what she loved. Learning about this also
teaches me to work hard and keep trying even if it (context drawn) is not good.” (Student
5)
 “Helping me strive to learn for my own knowledge like they did and helping me feel more
welcome and like I belong in accelerated.” (Student 7)
 “It helps me see the struggle of education of African Americans before me and how they
were treated...it helped me see through their perspectives and how researchers can make
change.” (Student 3)
 “Because what they have gone through to get degrees, to help others, and more, was
challenging. They help me understand that if they can achieve at the harshest of times, I
can achieve too by working hard and giving it my all with effort.” (Student 8)
Discussion. W.E.B Du Bois believed that African American life in the United States was
lived under the “veil” of duality of identity. They were American and, also, uniquely African
American, with different expectations and ideas aligned to each identity. This splitting of the
“self” resulted in African Americans having an awareness of how their identities were
constructed by the dominant society as deficit-based, which is different from the identity they
developed behind the veil as a minority group member. Living behind the veil allowed for
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 183

racialized groups to question and see behind the falsehoods projected upon them; they did this
through better understanding the historical, economic, and political motives that fueled deficit
framing.
The ability to see that perspectives beyond the veil produced deficit thinking and biased
information about life within the veil; with the ability to understand, critique, and re-interpret
those messages—and instead share the range of assets and contributions of racialized groups—
was crucial in the education of African American youth. Du Bois believed that double
consciousness, one’s ability to understand and cope with the constraints, tensions, and
possibilities of both identities could only be reconciled by learning African American history and
culture starting from an early age (Alridge, 2008; Bishop, 2007; Du Bois, 1935).
In addition, Woodson (1933) believed in the significance of African Americans knowing
the contributions of their forebears. He concluded that the absence of representations of African
and African American perspectives and accomplishments in history created a void; this void
allowed for the misinterpretation that African Americans had made no intellectual contributions
to the world and were incapable of doing so. Woodson deemed it imperative that a more
objective framing of African and African American history was needed for African Americans to
envision themselves differently from how they were perceived and portrayed by mainstream
society.
Implications and Recommendations
This study sought to determine African American gifted students’ perceptions of their
participation in the gifted program and their perceptions of differentiated, culturally relevant
curriculum. The results of this study have implications for middle schools regarding appropriate
curriculum, instruction, and intervention experiences designed to address underachievement and
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 184

retention issues for Black youth in gifted programs. These services may be included during the
regular school day or as part of extra-curricular experiences.
In contrast to oppositional theories (Ogbu & Simons, 1998), the nineAfrican American
gifted middle schoolers in this study saw themselves as African American, believed they
belonged in the gifted program, worked hard for their grades, were high performing, and had
social support for their participation and achievement. Students expressed that the content
learned in the GATE program was connected to their culture; however, they also perceived that it
was important that they learn about their heritage at school and were more engaged when they
did so.
Scholars of Black education (Du Bois, 1935; Gay, 2002; Ladson-Billings, 1995;
Woodson, 1933) and gifted education (Davis, 2010; Ford, 1994; Ford & Grantham, 2003; Milner
& Ford, 2005) have long-advocated for curriculum that includes the heritage of African
Americans for Black students, so they are provided with affirming mirrors. From the analysis of
data, the current research study found that the curriculum sessions that integrated the GATE
standards with African American intellectualism and history provided African American gifted
students with opportunities for (a) learning about their heritage; (b) practicing and refining their
use of Depth and Complexity in the analyzing and understanding text; (c) adopting a critical
stance to support the development of critical thinking and critical consciousness; (d) re-framing
deficit perspectives about racialized groups; and (e) engaging in dialogue to express a point of
view, learn multiple perspectives, and practice argumentation.
Teacher Preparation and Supports for Learning
Ford (1994) and Ford et al. (2001) argued that the lack of multicultural preparation of
teachers limits their ability to provide appropriate curriculum and instructional experiences for
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 185

African American students. Incorporating African American history as part of the school day or
as extra-curricular experiences will require teachers, specialists, and curriculum developers to
have knowledge of African American history and culture. This will empower them to infuse the
content into lessons, extensions or interventions. Pre-service and in-service teacher education
programs, gifted certificate programs, and professional learning opportunities in gifted education
should include training in how to learn and integrate culturally relevant content with gifted
standards. This will develop teachers who have knowledge of designing experiences that provide
space for diverse gifted students to learn about their heritage.
Practice recommendation. Davis (2010) stated that gifted education should learn from
higher education’s efforts to diversify content in schools and programs. To develop the content
knowledge of administrators, counselors, and teachers, partnerships between Black Studies
departments and school districts could result in professional learning focused on developing
content knowledge about African and/or African American history. School districts can adopt a
common practice in colleges and universities by offering a speaker series or hosting professors
who would provide seminars on topics and events in African American history to increase
awareness and knowledge for school faculty. As a follow-up to the seminars, school districts
could provide space and time for participating schools and/or teachers to design in-class
experiences, extra-curricular options, and interventions that incorporate Black history.
To build on this idea, districts could even expand these learning opportunities to parents,
who may have limited experiences and interest in understanding Black history but would like to
support in-school or extra-curricular programming to address this knowledge gap. The
development of partnerships among families, schools, community organizations, and universities
would be beneficial for all stake-holders.
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 186

Providing Culturally Relevant Experiences
Du Bois (1903b) describes the importance of African Americans learning about their
heritage and history to value the legacy they received from their ancestors. He believed that the
goal for Blacks in America was not to assimilate but to develop identities and critical
perspectives in order to see the assets of one’s own race and ethnicity instead of believing in the
superiority of others. To this end, Du Bois (1903b) stated:
The history of the American Negro is the history of this strife- this longing to attain self-
conscious manhood, to merge his double self into a better and truer self. In this merging
he wishes neither of the older selves to be lost. He does not wish to Africanize America,
for America has too much to teach the world and Africa. He wouldn’t bleach his Negro
blood in a flood of White Americanism, for he knows that Negro blood has a message for
the world.
Du Bois believed that positive racial identity development acts as a buffer to the effects of racism
and prejudice. In addition, he knew the significance of representation and the need for positive
images for African Americans.
Practice recommendation. In schools, students learn what is valued based on what is
taught. Therefore, African American students need opportunities to engage in content about
themselves to promote positive racial identity development and mindsets for achievement. The
findings of the current research study supported the integration of culturally relevant pedagogy
with the gifted standards to promote the academic success, cultural competence and critical
consciousness of African American gifted students. The study of African American
intellectualism and history provided African American students with the type of content that
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 187

allowed for the investigation of real-word problems and provided significant models for students
to learn ways to cope with the effects of Du Bois’s “veil.”
Opportunities for differentiated, culturally relevant learning experiences should be
offered during the school day through teacher-designed, whole-class learning experiences; group
investigations; and extension activities or student-led independent studies. These types of
learning experiences could also be used to structure extra-curricular learning experiences offered
after-school or on weekends; these could be offered at schools, through community-based
partnerships with local organizations, or at universities that offer space for clubs or programs.
Student Access to Depth and Complexity
Student need access to the prompts of Depth and Complexity, the supported analysis of
text and fostered dialogue among students. Each study participant was provided with a
description of the prompts. Students referenced their prompt sheet to annotate texts and make
moveable prompt cards to create varied combinations, clusters, and sequences in analyzing texts,
discussing their understanding of texts, and re-organizing their thinking. Their time spent
annotating with Depth and Complexity, and using the prompts to engage in dialogue, increased
students’ ability to express their ideas, analyze, and understand texts. Student access to their own
set of prompts enhanced their learning.
Practice recommendation. After participating in the curriculum sessions, Student 9
reflected, “My teacher did not know what the signs context, original, and judgment meant. Now I
know. It will help me when I read to go deeper…” In this context, students needed clarification
on some of the prompts and were provided with consistent practice and application by attending
the after-school curriculum sessions. A recommendation for practice would be to ensure that
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 188

there is continuity in student access to the prompts and the application of strategies across
classrooms.
The findings from this study suggest that student’s personal access to the prompts of
Depth and Complexity were useful to African American gifted students in making meaning of
text material, dialoguing with their peers and explaining their understanding of text. Students
should be provided with Post-its or index cards to create their own copy of the prompts to use in
support of text and academic discourse analysis. The use of the personal prompt cards could be
useful for students whose learning would be more efficient and effective by physically
manipulating the prompts to aid their thinking and organization of ideas. This finding raises the
question of the efficacy of using them to enhance learning for students in non-gifted classrooms.
Research recommendations. A recommendation for research, would be to study middle
school teachers’ perceptions of the prompts, their level of understanding of the prompts, the
ways they provide students’ access, and the degree they incorporate the prompts of Depth and
Complexity into curriculum and instruction. Research comparing teachers’ perceptions and level
of use of the prompts with student perceptions and use would provide information on the
connections between teacher presentation and use of the prompts with student use and
achievement. Research on teacher perspectives would shed light on barriers and supports to
classroom implementation.
Additionally, future research should investigate the implementation of the differentiated,
culturally relevant curriculum used in this study with African American students in regular (non-
GATE) classrooms to determine how Depth and Complexity influences regular students’
analysis and understanding of social studies content focused on African American intellectualism
and history.
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 189

Racialized Perspectives, Masculinity, and Academics
The male participants in the study perceived that they had less support from peers for
achieving good grades and experienced racialized peer pressure. This evidence aligns with the
literature that some African American students grapple with accusations of “acting White;” avoid
participation in advanced programs; and, for Black males, associate high achievement with being
less masculine (Fordham, 1991; Fordham & Ogbu, 1986).
Advocates of culturally relevant pedagogy would argue that if the male participants had
learned about African American intellectual history from an early age, they would be better
prepared to manage race and gender-based peer pressure related to academics (Du Bois, 1935;
Shujaa, 1994; Woodson, 1933). Tatum (2006) echoed this idea, discussing how literacy was
central to racial uplift work and the fight for justice by early Black scholars. He described the
great awakening experienced by Frederick Douglass after reading a text in early adolescence that
helped him understand his place within the system of slavery, which motivated him to fight
against it.
Practice recommendation. A recommendation for practice to address racialized and
gendered perspectives would be to design literacy experiences centered on Black male
perspectives and experiences, such as those of Frederick Douglass. In doing so, students could
learn to explore and challenge notions of academics as White and female through the use of
textual material.
Practice recommendation. A recommendation for research to address the peer pressure
of gifted males includes an exploration of perceptions of GATE participation and achievement of
African American gifted students by gender. How does gender impact how African American
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 190

gifted middle school students perceive their participation in the GATE program? How do
racialized perceptions, peer support, and achievement vary across gender?
Conclusions
This research study explored the perceptions of African American gifted middle school
students to better understand impacts on their participation and achievement. Much of the
literature addressing African American gifted students references Ogbu’s (1986) work on
oppositional identities and racialized peer pressure as barriers to achievement. In contrast, this
study examined high achieving African American gifted students and found they held strong
beliefs in their ability to be successful and maintained positive relationships with same-raced
peers. School structures and student demographics made African American gifted students
visible in advanced classrooms, which provided a counter-narrative to perceptions of
achievement in gifted programs as being for White students only.
Perry (2003a, b, c) argued that oppositional identities and acting White theories cannot
explain the achievement or underachievement of gifted Black youth across varied contexts. Perry
also posited that student opposition may be a response to the lack of program diversity or having
to negotiate racially difficult contexts, which may motivate students to participate and achieve
(Perry, 2003a, 2003b, 2003c). Researchers in the field of gifted education have stated that it is
important to recognize that there is diversity within racial and ethnic groups. This diversity
should be explored so as not to paint groups with broad brush strokes but to understand nuanced
influences on achievement (Frasier & Passow, 1994).
African American educational theorists have long advocated for schools to address the
impact of racism and prejudice on the academic and social-emotional development of Black
youth (Du Bois, 1903b; Du Bois, 1935; Woodson, 1933). The teaching of African American
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 191

history, with an emphasis on the intelligence, strength, resilience, and creativity of African
American intellectuals, has long been argued as essential in the education of African American
students. This type of inclusive education supports positive racial identity development, critical
consciousness, and a desire for activism (Bishop, 2007).
W.E.B Du Bois knew that Black life under the veil could lead to anger and despair, but
children could also earn to cope with the stresses of life in a racialized society through positive
role models (Du Bois, 1935). Du Bois stated, “To seek to raise them in ignorance of their racial
identity and peculiar situation is inadvisable—impossible” (Bishop, 2007, pg. 22). As early as
1919, Du Bois developed a magazine for “the children of the sun” to foster positive identity
development with the goals of teaching children that 1) being Black is normal and beautiful, 2)
Black children have great potential, and 3) African Americans have made great contributions to
society (Bishop, 2007).
To address the retention of African American students in gifted programs, contemporary
researchers have advocated for the same type of self-affirming educational content that Du Bois
believed was necessary for children to develop a belief in their potential and ability to achieve in
school and society. The African American gifted middle school students in this study engaged in
African American history content, focusing on prominent intellectuals. They were given the
opportunity to learn from individuals who utilized their intellect and courage to take a critical
stance on society and reflect on the implications of the scholar’s work in relationship to social,
political, and economic improvements. When these gifted students were given the opportunity to
apply the prompts of Depth and Complexity to discuss text and share interpretations, they were
able to delve deeper into the text’s meaning to identify issues of power.
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 192

Students saw the power of taking a critical stance, which enhanced their understanding of
how the study of context aided them in understanding power dynamics. They could explore who
had power, who had been silenced or controlled, and how individuals resisted oppression by
reading and producing texts. These students also engaged in activism by discussing plans to meet
after-school to continue learning about Black history, to practice debate, and to teach Black
history to the younger students at the school. The elements of culturally relevant learning and
gifted pedagogy were merged during the after-school curriculum sessions, providing high
achieving African American gifted middle schoolers with a differentiated leaning context that
met their academic and affective needs.

GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 193

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GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 206

Appendix A: IRB Approvals

USC IRB Approval

BCUSD IRB Approval

The researcher obtained all necessary permissions from the BCUSD. This documentation is not
included here in order to maintain confidentiality. The IRB approval is available for review by
contacting the researcher, Pamela Lovett, at PLovett@lbschools.net.

GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 207

Appendix B: Introductory Letter

GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 208

Appendix C: Student Survey

GATE/EXCEL Student Survey

Identification Code________________________________________________________

Directions: Read each statement and mark an “X” in the box that BEST describes your answer.

Not at all
true
A little
bit true
Sometimes
true
Often
true
Always
true
1. I believe that I belong
in GATE/EXCEL

2. I am able to be
successful in
GATE/EXCEL

3. I work hard to
succeed in
GATE/EXCEL
classes.

4. I enjoy participating
in GATE/EXCEL

5. I am prepared to do
the work in
GATE/EXCEL

6. I am comfortable
asking for help if I
don’t understand in
class.

7. GATE/EXCEL is the
right program for me.

8. My teachers want me
to get good grades in
my GATE/EXCEL
classes

9. My family wants me
to get good grades in
my GATE/EXCEL
classes.

10. I want to get good
grades in my
GATE/EXCEL
classes.

11. My friends want me to
get good grades in my

GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 209

GATE/EXCEL
classes.
12. Most of my friends at
school are in the
GATE/EXCEL
program.

13. Most of my friends at
school are NOT in the
GATE/EXCEL
program.

14. Being African
American influences
how I see myself as a
GATE/EXCEL
student.

15. Being African
American influences
how others see me as a
GATE/EXCEL
student.

16. People like me have
been teased for getting
good grades.

17. I have heard of the
term “acting White.”

18. African American
GATE/EXCEL
students have been
teased for “acting
White”

19. I have been teased for
“acting White” for
being in
GATE/EXCEL

20. African American
GATE/EXCEL
students who get good
grades have been
teased for “acting
White.”

GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 210

21. People’s perceptions
of me as an African
American
GATE/EXCEL
student help me to
achieve at school.

22. People’s perceptions
of me as an African
American
GATE/EXCEL
student make it
difficult for me to
achieve at school.

23. Depth and Complexity
help me understand
what I am learning in
class.

24. Depth and Complexity
help me analyze text.

25. Depth and Complexity
help me explain what
I have learned in class.

26. The information
learned in class is
connected to my
culture.

27. The information
learned in class is not
connected to my
culture.

28. I am more interested
in class when I learn
about African
American history.

29. It does not matter if I
learn about African
American history in
my GATE/EXCEL
classes.

GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 211

30. How does Depth and Complexity support you in critically analyzing text material?

31. How does using Depth and Complexity influence your understanding of African American
intellectuals?

32. How does learning about African American intellectualism influence your development as
a student scholar in the Accelerated Program?

GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 212

Appendix D: Curriculum Vignette

GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 213

Appendix E: Lessons for After-school Curriculum Sessions

Overarching Essential Questions:
 What does it mean to be an African American intellectual?
 What are the features of African American intellectualism?
 How does the work of African American scholars relate to me?

Lesson 1—Deductive Reasoning

Motivation

 Tell me the meaning of these…. The banjo lesson, Sunflowers at Arles, advertisement,
album cover

Present Generalization

 “Some know the value of education by having it. I know its value by not having it.”
--Frederick Douglass

 Everything we see hides another thing, we always want to see what is hidden by what we
see.
--Renee Magritte

Gather Questions and Assumptions

 What does Douglass’/ Renee Magritte words mean to you?

Research

 We will investigate these ideas by exploring the works from the lives of Douglass and
also Philis Wheatley…Our core question is related to the pictures that we discussed
earlier. As we learn about these two individuals, I want you to think of what it truly
means to read and understand something.

What does it mean to read? Frederick Douglass Phillis Wheatley
What was the context:
common beliefs, rules,
language and social
practices? How did the
environment shape or affect
what was happening?

GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 214

What were common beliefs
or perspectives in this
context? How was language
(dialogue, commands,
posters, images, laws) or
rules used to support and
reinforce perspectives?

What were alternative
perspectives? What
influenced these differing
perspectives?

Why was the ability to read
significant in this context?

How was questioning the
context related to literacy or
reading?

Share and Summarize

How did reading, or literacy, impact the
lives of these individuals and others?

What is the relationship between reading
and context? How does context inform
literacy? How does literacy inform context?

For these individuals, what did it mean to
“read” or be literate?

Verify Questions and Assumptions

 How does this information relate to Douglass’s quote? Let’s go back and review your
assumptions.

Recycle

 How does our current context influence our ideas related to literacy or reading? How is
the connection between context and literacy today similar for you as it was for Douglass
and Wheatley?

GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 215

Lesson 2—Deductive Reasoning

Motivation

 Let’s take a gallery walk…We will examine these pictures and then discuss our thoughts
(pictures from Du Bois’ exhibit at the Paris Exposition, 1900)

Present generalization

 “The world changes according to the way people see it, and if you alter, even by a
millimeter, the way a person looks at reality, then you can change it.”
― James Baldwin

Gather Question & Assumptions

 Baldwin was a famous novelist and civil rights activist…what do his words mean to you?

Research

 Resources: Du Bois study of the Negro life, the Paris exposition, and the creation of the
Brownie Book; Woodson’s work on Africa, which influenced the development of Black
History Month; Anna Julia Cooper’s work at M. Street where she sent students to Ivy
league schools; and Houston researching and documenting segregated schools in the
south to prepare for civil rights cases:
o One More River to Cross DVD
o http://childlit.unl.edu/topics/edi.brownies.html
o http://www.webdubois.org/dbANParis.html
o http://www.naacp.org/pages/naacp-history-w.e.b.-dubois
o http://asalh.org/woodsonbiosketch.html
o http://cooperproject.org/about-anna-julia-cooper/

Dr. W.E.B Du
Bois
Dr. Anna Julia
Cooper
Dr. Carter G.
Woodson
Charles H.
Houston
What
assumptions or
messages
motivated the
scholars to act?

What was their
process in
achieving their
goals?

How did these
scholars
differentiate fact

GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 216

from fiction?
How was
evidence used to
support their
argument or
beliefs?
How did their
work change
what was viewed
as “real or
factual” at the
time?

Why should we
know this scholar
today?

Share and Summarize

What did we learn about common details or perspectives from the work of these scholars? How
did their research disrupt common assumptions and offer alternative perspectives?

Verify Questions and Assumptions

How does their work support the big idea?

Recycle

What are key characteristics of African American intellectuals/scholars? How does this
information relate to you?

GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 217

Lesson 3—Concept Formation

Question: Compare the two sets of paintings. What do you notice?

Set 1
 Black Hole, Little Miami River (1851) Robert Scott Duncanson
 Forever Free (1887) Edmonia Lewis

Set 2
 Douglass’s panels Into Bondage (1936) and Song of the Towers (1934)
 Augusta Savage –Leonore (1935)
 Hurston: Novelist and Cultural Anthropologist
 Hughes: Poem--My People (1923) and the Negro Speaks of Rivers (1921)

Data Sets

Question: What influenced this shift in African American art?
 http://www.pbs.org/wnet/aaworld/arts/duncanson.html
 African American Intellectuals (Du Bois & Locke): “We must develop our own unique
artistic traditions and knowledge base”
 Artists: Hurston, Hughes, Ellington, Douglas, Savage, William H. Johnson
 Great Migration: impact of movement and mingling of culture
 Desire for Respect and Freedom: WWI soldiers and every day citizens

Group and Support

 How would you group the information that you learned? How are the ideas connected?

Label

 What would you call this/these group/s? Which idea or ideas best describe the
information within the group/s? Why?

Generalize

 What changes influenced this shift in African American art and identity after 1919? How
is this related to power—short and long term? What additional details have we learned
about African American intellectuals across the disciplines—what’s common and/or
different?

Lesson 4—Deductive Reasoning
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 218

Motivation

 What do you think of when you see this picture?

Present Generalization

 African American leaders have questioned the accepted and challenged the expected.

Research

o Purpose of an Education
o Ch. 3 of King’s Autobiography
o Excerpts from letter from a Birmingham Jail

King’s Works What were the accepted
norms, laws or beliefs
within this context—
implicit or explicit? What
were common expectations
and actions?
How did King question?
What motivated his
questions?
Purpose of an Education
Ch. 3 of King’s
Autobiography

Excerpts from Letter from a
Birmingham Jail

Share and Summarize

 What did we learn about King as a leader from the three texts? What were influences on
his ability to take a leadership role?

Verify Questions and Assumptions
GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 219

 How does this information support or disprove the big idea? How did King question the
accepted and challenge the expected? How do you know?

Recycle

 As we look across the information that we’ve learned from various African American
leaders from different fields, what patterns emerge? What do they have in common?
What supported their abilities to lead or make changes? How was this related to
“reading” the world?

GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 220

Lesson 5--Concept Formation

Question

 How might studying the disciplines influence one’s motivation and perception of the
world?

Data Sets

 Misty Copeland, Neil de Grasse Tyson, Stephen Stafford, Carolina Chocolate Drops, Dr.
Rose, Kadir Nelson, Ivory Toldson, Melissa Harris Perry

Group and Support

 How would you group the information that you learned? How are the ideas connected?

Label

 Which word or phrase best represents all of the information within your groups? What
would you call this?

Re-group and Support

 What are unique and common attributes of these intellectuals and artists?

Label

 Let’s think about re-organizing this information in a different way. How could these
groups be re-organized? Which new word or phrase best represents all of the information
within your groups?

Generalize

 How might the disciplines influence one’s motivation and perception of the world?

GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 221

Lesson 6—Socratic Seminar

Motivation

 Repost pictures of Douglass, Wheatley, Tyson, Locke, Du Bois, Cooper, Woodson,
Tricia Rose, Ivory Toldson, Melissa Harris Perry

Core Question

 How did “reading”/literacy and education influence the lives of those we’ve studied?

Follow-up Question

 What is the impact of context?
 What can be learned from their motivation, process and/or contributions?
 What skills and knowledge were most important in the work of those we’ve studied?
 What are the most important ideas from the achievement of these scholars?
 What intellectual legacy did these scholars leave us?

Closing Question

 How could you utilize the same skills and knowledge to accomplish your goals or solve
problems? How do their lives relate to yours?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study explored and described African American gifted students’ perceptions of their participation in a gifted program as well as their views of a differentiated, culturally relevant curriculum and its relationship to their identities as African American scholars. It examined students’ views and experiences with racialized perceptions and peer pressure, and also how curriculum can be utilized to support positive racial and academic identity development. A mixed methods approach included a quantitative survey methodology and a qualitative case study methodology. Research revealed four themes: (1) the application of Depth and Complexity to African American history supported students in drawing conclusions about power relationships, (2) the use of Depth and Complexity facilitated student discourse and understanding, (3) opportunities to engage in texts about African American intellectuals and historical events allowed students to re-frame and expand their view of African American history, and (4) students learned about and saw beneficial relationships between the lives of African American intellectuals and themselves. The integration of gifted education and culturally relevant pedagogy provided differentiated learning opportunities for African American gifted students, including: (a) the ability to increase their understanding and use of the prompts of Depth and Complexity to analyze text

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Asset Metadata

Creator Lovett, Pamela Dawn (author)

Core Title Differentiated culturally relevant curriculum to affirm identity for gifted African American students

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 05/07/2019

Defense Date 05/07/2019

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag achievement,African American,Black,culturally relevant curriculum,depth and complexity,differentiation,gifted,identity development,middle school,OAI-PMH Harvest,perceptions

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Kaplan, Sandra (committee chair), Hasan, Angela Laila (committee member), Mora-Flores, Eugenia (committee member)

Creator Email bemsaunt@gmail.com,plovett@lbschools.net

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-168672

Unique identifier UC11660354

Identifier etd-LovettPame-7418.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-168672 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-LovettPame-7418.pdf

Dmrecord 168672

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Lovett, Pamela Dawn

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

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