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K-12 college and career readiness guidance: an improvement study

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K-12 college and career readiness guidance: an improvement study

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Content Running head: K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 1 K-12 College and Career Readiness Guidance: An Improvement Study by Curt Baker A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF EDUCATION May 2019 Copyright 2019 Curt Baker K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 2 Dedication In the middle of winter I at last discovered that there was in me an invincible summer. Albert Camus Return to Tipasa (1954) To my wife, Debbie, I am grateful on so many levels it defies explanation. After nearly 35 years of marriage, Deb knows me so well that she can offer commentary on the quality of my work without saying a word. A simple sigh or pregnant pause is often sufficient. That said, her “you will work it out, you always do” encouragement always kept me going. I fear, however, that Debbie has mixed feelings about the completion of my Ed.D. since it probably marks the end of her binge watching of Grey’s Anatomy or The Crown on class nights. To my sons, Joe and Chris, your continuing support has meant a great deal to me. Our afternoon together working on survey design stands out as particularly special. The earnestness and intensity of our debates over the wording of questions told me, above all else, that you cared about my work and that you viewed it as important. I cherish that day because I know that it is one of those wonderful moments that will be frozen in time for me, like a picture postcard. To my parents, I hope the work instills pride. I wish Mom were here to join in the joy of graduation, and it means the world to me that Dad will see me walk the stage. I love you both. Finally, this dedication would be incomplete without offering a remembrance of our cat, Twilight, who was my constant companion through most of my work toward the doctorate. Blatantly ignoring the rules of online etiquette, Twilight attended nearly every class session. Typos in Chapters One, Two, and Three are largely her contribution, the remnants of her strolls across my computer keyboard. I had hoped that Twilight would join me in wearing USC’s regalia on graduation day. Sadly, age caught up with her this winter and she left us with but one semester to go. Somewhere in kitty heaven, however, I know that she is curled up and cozy, wearing a cardinal and gold three-chevron robe and a tasseled, bright red poofy hat. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 3 Acknowledgements I wish to acknowledge those who were vital to the completion of this dissertation:  The members of my dissertation committee: Dr. Frederick Freking (Chair), Dr. Alan Green, and Dr. Darlene Robles;  The instructors for my coursework in the Organizational Change and Leadership program: Dr. Melanie Brady, Dr. Deanna Campbell, Dr. Eric Canny, Dr. Monique Datta, Dr. Sourena Haj-Mohamadi, Dr. Kim Hirabayashi, Dr. Esther Kim, Professor Doug Lynch (twice), Dr. Don Murphy, Dr. Lauren Murphy Yeoman, Dr. Mark Pearson, Dr. Raquel Sanchez, and Dr. Alexandra Wilcox;  Hobsons-Naviance, Phi Delta Kappa International (PDK), and the Potomac and Chesapeake Association for College Admission Counseling (PCACAC) for using their communication channels to encourage participation in the survey effort; and  Melissa O’Gara, Debbie Yarosh, and Kim Sheeler for their good work in creating a Spanish language version of the survey instrument. Two special expressions of gratitude:  To Dr. Freking, who, as Chair of my committee, encouraged me to do the dissertation that I dreamed of doing. The freedom to explore a topic of passionate interest elevated my doctoral program from “terrific” to “everything I hoped it would be.” I should also note that when I encountered difficulty, Dr. Freking immediately jumped in to help. I could not have asked for more from a committee Chair.  To Regina Morlino, who, despite her love of the Pittsburgh Steelers, has become a dear friend and treasured colleague. Her wisdom, wit, candor, character, faith, and drive have been an inspiration to the entire cohort. Her encouragement at the finish line was the push I needed to get the dissertation done. The world needs more Regina Morlinos. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 4 ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to determine if K-12 public school students are receiving adequate college and career readiness guidance (CCR Guidance), and, if not, to characterize the nature, extent, and cause of the shortfall. Adequacy is defined as the ability of students to meet with a CCR Guidance counselor; the counselor’s willingness to get to know students individually; the counselor having the skills and resources necessary to assist students; and the counselor having the information necessary to provide useful advice to students and their families about postsecondary education, the military, and entering the workforce. In addition to a review of the pertinent literature, a census survey of high school counselors, as well as district- and school-level administrators, was conducted in Pennsylvania, Virginia, and the District of Columbia (Study Area). The study concluded that students in the Study Area are not receiving adequate college and career readiness guidance in large part due to high counselor caseloads; limited counselor training in CCR Guidance; poorly defined counselor responsibilities; and limited organizational support, especially in the areas of goal setting, evaluation, and constructive feedback. Little variation was found when the survey data were disaggregated by- state and by-district type (urban, suburban, or rural), suggesting that the identified issues are pervasive. Further study to determine the generalizability of the findings beyond the Study Area is recommended. A fundamental redefinition of the role, oversight, and training of counselors, as well as caseload relief, is recommended. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... 2 Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... 3 ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... 4 LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................................... 8 LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................ 9 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 10 Introduction of the Problem of Practice .................................................................................... 10 Related Literature ...................................................................................................................... 10 Importance of Addressing the Problem ..................................................................................... 12 Purpose of the Project and Questions ........................................................................................ 14 Methodological Framework ...................................................................................................... 15 Definition of College and Career Readiness ............................................................................. 16 Description of Stakeholder Groups ........................................................................................... 19 Organization of the Project ....................................................................................................... 20 CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ............................................................... 21 Review of Relevant Literature .................................................................................................. 21 Causes of Performance Gaps .................................................................................................... 33 Knowledge and Skills ....................................................................................................... 34 Motivation ......................................................................................................................... 43 Organizational Influences ................................................................................................. 48 Conceptual Framework: Interaction of Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences ................................................................................................................................................... 57 Summary ................................................................................................................................... 62 CHAPTER THREE: METHODS ................................................................................................ 63 Purpose of the Project and Questions ........................................................................................ 63 Methodological Approach and Rationale .................................................................................. 64 Participating Groups ......................................................................................................... 66 Survey Development: Informal Interviews ...................................................................... 67 Data Collection and Analysis: Survey Sampling Criteria and Rationale ........................ 68 K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 6 Explanation for Choices .................................................................................................... 71 Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 72 Reliability and Validity ............................................................................................................. 73 Ethics ......................................................................................................................................... 74 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS ........................................................................ 77 Purpose of the Project and Questions ........................................................................................ 77 Participating Stakeholders ......................................................................................................... 78 Results ....................................................................................................................................... 81 General Results ................................................................................................................. 81 Knowledge Results ........................................................................................................... 84 Motivation Results ............................................................................................................ 87 Organizational Results ...................................................................................................... 90 Student Demographics Results ......................................................................................... 95 Findings ..................................................................................................................................... 97 Overarching Research Question ....................................................................................... 97 Sub-Question 1: To what extent do school counselors possess the skill set and market knowledge necessary to provide effective CCR Guidance services? ............................. 101 Sub-Question 2: Do the scope of school counselor job responsibilities, case load, and methods of delivery support the delivery of CCR Guidance services to students? ........ 101 Sub-Question 3: Do school counselors perceive CCR Guidance to be their primary role, or is their focus on other duties or responsibilities? ....................................................... 102 Sub-Question 4: Are school counselors motivated to do a good job in providing CCR Guidance? ....................................................................................................................... 102 Sub-Question 5: Are school districts providing appropriate goals, resources, and support for the CCR Guidance work of school counselors? ........................................................ 103 Sub-Question 6: Does the adequacy of CCR Guidance provided by school counselors vary by ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and/or the educational attainment of students’ families? .......................................................................................................................... 103 CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................... 105 Model for Implementing Change .................................................................................... 108 Knowledge Influences .................................................................................................... 112 Motivation Influences ..................................................................................................... 116 Organizational Influences ............................................................................................... 119 K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 7 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................... 129 APPENDIX A: COUNSELOR SURVEY INSTRUMENT ....................................................... 147 APPENDIX B: ADMINISTRATOR SURVEY INSTRUMENT .............................................. 163 APPENDIX C: SURVEY RECRUITMENT CORRESPONDENCE ........................................ 170 Letter to Superintendents ........................................................................................................ 170 Recruitment Letter #1.............................................................................................................. 174 Recruitment Letter #2.............................................................................................................. 177 Recruitment Letter #3.............................................................................................................. 180 APPENDIX D: COUNSELOR SURVEY RESULTS ............................................................... 182 APPENDIX E: ADMINISTRATOR SURVEY RESULTS ....................................................... 196 K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 8 LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1 Comparison of Revenues, Employment, and Capitalization 13 Table 2.1 ASCA List of Appropriate and Inappropriate Counseling Activities 37 Table 2.2 Knowledge Influences 42 Table 2.3 Motivation Influences 47 Table 2.4 Organizational Influences 58 Table 3.1 Counselor Population in the Study Area 69 Table 3.2 Administrator Population in the Study Area 69 Table 4.1 Counselor and Administrator Survey Response Rates 79 Table 4.2 Demographics of Survey Respondents as a Percentage of the Sample 80 Table 4.3 Formal Training of Counselors 82 Table 4.4 Formal Training of Counselors 85 Table 4.5 Counselor Actual and Preferred Frequency of Completing Each Element of CCR Guidance Work 88 Table 4.6 Average Allocation of Counselor Time Between Activities 89 Table 4.7 Goals for and Evaluation of CCR Guidance Work 92 Table 4.8 RAMP vs. Non-RAMP Goals for and Evaluation of CCR Guidance Work 94 Table 4.9 Tailoring CCR Guidance Advice to Demographic Characteristics of Individual Student 96 Table 4.10 Performance and Importance Matrix for Sixteen Elements Influencing the Adequacy of CCR Guidance Services 99 Table 5.1 Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 112 Table 5.2 Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations 116-117 Table 5.3 Summary of Organizational Influences and Recommendations 119-120 K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 9 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1 Definition of college and career readiness in Iowa 18 Figure 1.2 CCR Guidance stakeholders and their interaction 19 Figure 2.1 U.S. Labor force data by race/ethnicity 27 Figure 2.2 Results from 2007 nationwide survey of parents of high school students 30 Figure 2.3 Cultural Continuum 50 Figure 2.4 Student-to-School-Counselor Ratio, 2014-2015 55 Figure 2.5 Graphic Depiction of Conceptual Framework 60 Figure 3.1 Visual Model 65 Figure 4.1 Survey responses to availability and relationship questions 83 Figure 4.2 Responses to survey questions regarding market knowledge 86 Figure 4.3 Counselor caseload 90 Figure 4.4 Responses to survey questions regarding organizational support 91 Figure 4.5 Responses to survey questions regarding student demographics 95 Figure 4.6 Administrator responses to questions regarding delivery of CCR Guidance counseling 97 Figure 4.7 Counselor performance vs. importance matrix 100 Figure 4.8 Administrator performance vs. importance matrix 100 Figure 5.1 Composite model for implementing change 109 K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 10 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION Introduction of the Problem of Practice In most public school systems across the United States, college and career readiness guidance for K-12 students (hereafter referred to as CCR Guidance) is inadequate. “Adequacy” of CCR Guidance services includes:  Access, which is the ability of students to meet with a guidance counselor;  Relationship building, which is the counselor’s willingness to get to know students individually;  Guidance skill set, which is the counselor having appropriate tools and methods to help students plan for their future; and  Market knowledge, which is the counselor having, or having access to, the information necessary to provide specific advice to each student about college, the military, and career opportunities for high school graduates (Bryan, Moore-Thomas, Day-Vines, & Holcomb-McCoy, 2011; Johnson, Rochkind, Ott, & Dupont, 2010). Related Literature The role of school counselors is poorly defined in most public schools, a problem resulting from more than 50 years of constant evolution. In the 1960s, the high school counselor’s role was clear: to determine which students would go to college and which students would not, a process called gatekeeping (McKillip, Rawls, & Barry, 2012). During the 1970s, however, counselors began taking on additional duties to provide job security at a time when school boards were looking to cut positions in response to a weak economy. In addition to their gatekeeping responsibilities, counselors began to provide services to assist students with mental and emotional health issues, as well as to perform a wide range of administrative tasks (McKillip K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 11 et al., 2012). This jack-of-all-trades approach led to increasing confusion amongst parents, students, administrators, and the counselors themselves about what constitutes school counseling and its value to a school system (Burnham & Jackson, 2000). In 2003, in response to this confusion, the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) created the “ASCA National Model: A Framework for School Counseling Programs” which, according to ASCA, sought to offer clarity regarding how every student will benefit from counseling (known as foundation), the delivery system (which includes teaching a guidance curriculum, as well as offering college and career counseling), management systems (including time management guidelines and expanded use of data), and accountability in the form of results reporting and program audits (ASCA, 2003). The ASCA National Model also included an indicative list showing what, in ASCA’s view, “is” and “is not” counseling work. More than a decade after the introduction of the ASCA National Model, Hatch, Poynton, and Pérusse (2015) conducted a study which showed that most counselors are still overworked, operating in an environment where time encroachment from social and emotional counseling requirements, as well as other non-counseling tasks, restricts the time available for school counselors to provide college and career counseling services. English (2015) conducted a study of 24 school districts in Pennsylvania showing that the statewide average student-to-counselor ratio was approximately 450:1; however, the top performing schools in Pennsylvania had a ratio of only 250:1. The lower ratio was achieved by carving off social and emotional work from counseling and reassigning it to social workers, school psychologists, emotional support teachers, and full-time staff designated to support at risk students. Lighter caseloads improve the ability of counselors to customize their advice to the individual student level, which, in the case of college and career guidance, is critical to its utility. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 12 The Joyce Ivy Foundation (2015) reports that, over the past six years, counselor caseloads in Ohio have increased, the percentage of counselor time spent on post-secondary planning has declined from 29% to 24%, and only 25% of counselors feel that students receive adequate counseling regarding post-secondary plans, down from 30% in 2009. Johnson, Duffett, and Ott (2005), reporting the results of a survey conducted for Public Agenda, showed that about half of the high school graduates who participated in the study said they were treated as just another face in the crowd by their counselor(s). The same study also found that 53% of respondents indicated that school counselors were so overextended that they were unable to provide effective college and career counseling. Importance of Addressing the Problem The problem is important to address because labor markets have grown more complex, with many longstanding assumptions now being called into question. Frey and Osborne (2015) indicate that the rapid introduction of technology into the workplace since the late 1980s has created a discontinuity which has broken longstanding relationships that drive hiring practices. Perhaps most significant among these broken relationships is the so-called Kaldor Constant, which holds that the growth in capital is always equal to the rate of growth in income (Kaldor, 1957). The Kaldor Constant has been and continues to be a central assumption in most models of wage and employment forecasting 1 . The work of Manyika and Chui (2014) suggests that Kaldor’s findings may no longer be 1 In a seminal piece published more than 60 years ago, Nicholas Kaldor theorized that capitalist economies grow through two stages (Kaldor, 1957). The first is a period of industrialization where initial capital investments are made, moving the economy to some extent away from an agrarian existence. During this period, there is no or limited return on capital, so there are few, if any, profits to be shared with shareholders or laborers, so real wages have no impetus for upward movement. This period comes to an end when a so-called desired level of capital is achieved. Once the desired level of capital is achieved, real wages begin to rise with continued capital growth. Kaldor wrote: “Since the system will tend to settle down to an equilibrium where the rate of growth of capital is equal to the rate of growth in income, the capital/output ratio, and the rate of profit in capital, will also tend to remain constant over time” (p. 620). K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 13 true. Their study compares the revenues, number of employees, and market capitalization of the top three companies in Detroit in 1990 with the top three companies in Silicon Valley in 2014. Table 1.1 summarizes the results. Table 1.1 Comparison of Revenues, Employment, and Capitalization Location Year Revenues of top three companies Number of employees of top three companies Market capitalization of top three companies Detroit 1990 $250 billion 1,200,000 $ 36 billion Silicon Valley 2014 $247 billion 137,000 $ 1.09 trillion Frey and Osborne (2015) argue that the growth of technology has broken Kaldor’s equilibrium since growth in market capitalization no longer correlates with growth in employment. Symonds, Schwarts, and Ferguson (2011) and Fleming (2013) argue that the “college for all” philosophy that has prevailed since the Cold War may no longer be appropriate and may be responsible for a large number of market entrants who are not well-matched to available career opportunities. These researchers indicate that the educational background and skills necessary for success in the new economy have changed. Symonds et al. (2011) indicate that, compared with 1973, the number of jobs that require at least some college or post-secondary technical education has grown dramatically while, at the same time, the number of jobs available to those with a high school degree or less has diminished. Fleming (2013) notes that 66% high school graduates currently enroll in higher education right out of high school, yet only 25% of those who enroll will finish their bachelor’s degree. Fleming reports that of those who successfully finish a four-year degree program or more, many find that their degree did not prepare them for the workplace. The preponderance of these individuals find themselves underemployed in what Fleming calls grey-collar jobs, which are positions that require less education than has been K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 14 attained and pay less than the position holder can afford given the level of debt incurred while in college. Even for those high school students for whom pursuit of a four-year or greater degree is the aspiration, the options, alternatives, and strategies for getting admitted to and paying for college are changing, increasing the importance of CCR Guidance advice. For example, Handel (2015), a University of California admissions officer who returned to work in 2015 after a ten year hiatus, identified several significant changes in the college admissions process since he was last on the job. These include: (a) many colleges are moving away from a “grades and scores” selection methodology to a “comprehensive review” approach, which takes into account many more factors than has historically been the case; (b) community colleges are now increasingly being seen as a good interim step to become fully prepared for a four-year college; (c) the number of international applicants is 33 percent higher than 10 years ago, increasing competition for available spots; and (d) top tier schools have grown more selective, resulting in most college applicants finding it prudent to increase the number of schools to which they apply. Purpose of the Project and Questions The purpose of this study is to determine whether the CCR Guidance services being provided to public school students is adequate. The overarching research question of this study, which is part of a field-based dissertation examining a problem of practice within the field, is: Are K-12 public school students receiving adequate CCR Guidance, and, if not, what is the nature, extent, and cause of the shortfall? To uncover information pertinent to answering the overall question, the research study will look at the question from the perspective of CCR Guidance counselors, as well as district- and school-level administrators (Administrators). The following sub-questions are intended to K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 15 uncover additional information pertinent to answering the overarching research question: 1. To what extent do school counselors possess the skill set and market knowledge necessary to provide effective CCR Guidance services? 2. Do the scope of school counselor job responsibilities, case load, and methods of delivery support the delivery of CCR Guidance services to students? 3. Do school counselors perceive CCR Guidance to be their primary role, or is their focus on other duties or responsibilities? 4. Are school counselors motivated to do a good job in providing CCR Guidance? 5. Are school districts providing appropriate goals, resources, and support for the CCR Guidance work of school counselors? 6. Does the adequacy of CCR Guidance provided by school counselors vary by ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and/or the educational attainment of students’ families? Methodological Framework The work of Clark and Estes (2008) will provide the methodological foundation for this study. The authors present an organizational improvement model that emphasizes the use of research as the principal driver of change. The premise is that performance improvement in organizations starts with the creation of goals. Goals must be clearly stated, understandable, and measurable (concrete); attainable, but only with great difficulty (challenging); and cover a short enough period to be motivating (current). In the aggregate, the authors refer to concrete, challenging, and current goals as C 3 Goals. Change driven by C 3 Goals is facilitated by four steps: (i) identifying gaps between the objective to be achieved and the current as-is, (ii) diagnosing the causes of gaps, (iii) determining and implementing solutions, and (iv) measuring K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 16 the impact of the intervention, which starts the cycle anew. The most significant causes of performance gaps, Clark and Estes (2008) indicate, are:  The knowledge and skill (K) of those who affect achievement of an organizational goal;  The motivation (M) of relevant individuals to achieve a particular goal, especially relative to other goals that need to be met; and  Organizational barriers (O), including culture and provision of adequate resources, that impede goal attainment. Rueda (2011), who migrates the work of Clark and Estes (2008) into the realm of education, notes that in many cases, new programs or approaches are implemented without adequate attention being given to the causes of the problem being addressed. Rueda (2011) proffers that most educational problems are sufficiently complex to require analysis of K, M, and O influences; C 3 Goal setting; and development and implementation of comprehensive, as opposed to fragmented, solutions. Definition of College and Career Readiness There is no current consensus regarding a definition of college and career readiness (CCR). Malin, Bragg, and Hackmann (2017) indicate that many policy makers and scholars break CCR into two parts indicating the readiness standards have been met when one or the other of the parts has been achieved: college readiness, defined as being academically prepared for postsecondary education; or career readiness, which is defined as have the skills necessary to succeed in the workforce. Other scholars suggest that CCR requires a student to achieve both college readiness standards and career readiness standards. A good example is the Educational Policy Improvement Center’s definition of CCR (Conley, 2012) which is built around student mastery of “Four Keys”: key cognitive strategies, key content knowledge, key learning skills and K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 17 techniques, and key transition knowledge and skills. A recent review of CCR definitions and associated success indicators (Welch, Feygin, & English, 2018) found wide variability from state-to-state, with many states having no definition of CCR whatsoever. An earlier study by the National Conference of State Legislatures (Webster, 2015) found that 33 states had adopted definitions of CCR. Of these states, 26 had definitions that included both college readiness and career readiness standards. The remaining seven states adopted separate definitions for college readiness and career readiness consistent with a separate paths philosophy. Florida’s Department of Education adopted a narrow definition of CCR: “Students are considered college and career ready when they have the knowledge, skills, and academic preparation needed to enroll and succeed in introductory college credit-bearing courses within an associate or baccalaureate degree program without the need for remediation” (Mokher, Rosenbaum, Gable, Ahearn, & Jacobson, 2018, p. 41). For purposes of this dissertation, the term “CCR” will mean the Iowa Department of Education’s definition of CCR (Iowa Department of Education, 2019), including its supporting measures of success. Iowa indicates that students who are college and career ready have successfully:  Achieved proficiency in essential content knowledge,  Acquired practical transition skills,  Developed key learning skills and cognitive strategies, and  Built a strong foundation of self-understanding and engagement strategies. Further description of each of the four Iowa outcome categories is set forth in Figure 1.1. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 18 Figure 1.1. Definition of college and career readiness in Iowa. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 19 Description of Stakeholder Groups Stakeholders are defined as individuals or entities that have an interest in the success of CCR Guidance. Five stakeholder groupings are identified:  CCR Guidance providers, which includes school counselors as well as school- and district-level administrators;  Influencers, which includes entities that have an impact on CCR Guidance goals, financing, and/or processes, which includes federal and state governmental entities, professional organizations, think tanks and experts, and advocacy groups like unions;  Trainers, which include entities the colleges and universities that deliver school counselor certification programs and entities which provide ongoing counselor professional development;  Guidance recipients, which includes students and their families; and  Student destinations, which includes postsecondary educational institutions, the military, and workforce employers. The dissertation focuses on CCR Guidance providers. Figure 1.2 provides a visual depiction of the interaction between CCR Guidance providers and each of the other stakeholder groupings. Figure 1.2. CCR Guidance stakeholders and their interaction. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 20 Organization of the Project Five chapters are used to organize this study. This chapter provided the reader with the key concepts and terminology commonly found in a discussion about CCR Guidance. The methodological model was also introduced. Chapter Two provides a review of relevant literature surrounding the scope of the study. Topics addressed include the customization and duration of CCR Guidance services; issues regarding student college and career readiness, equity and diversity issues, and career planning; and the causes of CCR Guidance performance gaps. Chapter Three details the assumed interfering elements as well as methodology when it comes to choice of participants, data collection, and analysis. In Chapter Four, the data and results are assessed and analyzed. Chapter Five provides recommended solutions for closing the perceived gaps, based on data and literature. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 21 CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE This dissertation discusses the problem of inadequate college and career readiness guidance (CCR Guidance) currently available to public high school students in most K-12 school systems across the United States. “Adequacy” of college and career guidance services includes the ability of students to meet with a guidance counselor (access), the counselor’s willingness to get to know students individually (relationship building), the counselor having appropriate tools and methods to help students plan for their future (guidance skill set), and the counselor having, or having access to, the information necessary to provide specific advice to each student about college, the military, and immediate career opportunities for high school graduates (market knowledge). The problem is important because labor markets have grown more complex; the “college-for-all” approach that has prevailed in the United States since the 1960s may now be responsible for a large number of market entrants who are not well-matched to available career opportunities (Fleming, 2013; Symonds, Schwartz, & Ferguson, 2011). Review of Relevant Literature This review of literature discusses: (a) issues relating to the college and career readiness curriculum, the need for students to receive customized advice, and the importance of starting CCR Guidance services early in the K-12 cycle; (b) issues relating to the college readiness of students; (b) equity and diversity issues in the provision of CCR Guidance services; (c) issues relating to career planning guidance; and (d) student and family perceptions of the adequacy of CCR Guidance services. This literature review will then focus on the causes of identified performance gaps. Issues Relating to Curriculum, Customization, and Duration of CCR Guidance Services College and Career Readiness Curriculum. For purposes of this dissertation, the K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 22 benchmark for a college preparatory course of study is the University of California Admissions standards, which are sometimes also called the “A to G” requirements (University of California, n.d.). In general, these requirements are: • 15 year-long high school courses, as follows: 2 in history/social science, 4 in English, 3 in mathematics, 2 in laboratory science, 2 in language other than English, 1 in visual or performing arts, and 1 college-prep elective. • All require a grade of C or better. • Students also may meet the requirements by completing college courses or earning certain scores on SAT, Advanced Placement or International Baccalaureate exams. For purposes of this dissertation, the Association for Career and Technical Education’s (ACTE, 2010) recommendations for career preparedness will be the benchmark for a career-ready preparatory course of study. ACTE’s recommendations are skills based and include:  Core academic skills and the ability to apply those skills to concrete situations in order to function in the workplace and in routine daily activities;  Employability skills (such as critical thinking and responsibility) that are essential in any career area; and  Technical, job-specific skills related to a specific career pathway. Castellano, Richardson, Sundell, and Stone (2017) found that a blended program of study that includes the standards-based A-G courses, along with career and technical education (CTE) courses, and work-based learning opportunities, improved students’ probability of graduation by 11.3% and that each additional CTE credit earned increased a student’s probability of graduation by 4%. The addition of CTE coursework and work-based learning had no effect on high school GPA, suggesting that a blended course of study that includes CTE benefits high school students K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 23 in terms of retention at no cost to their achievement. Customized Advice. In order to be of value to students and their families, college and career advice needs to be customized to the specific aspirations, needs, and capabilities of each student and his or her family. The College Board’s National Office for School Counselor Advocacy (NOSCA, 2010), for example, emphasizes that counselors have a unique obligation to “[e]nsure that students and families have an early and ongoing understanding of the college and career application and admission processes so they can find the postsecondary options that are the best fit with their aspirations and interests” (p. 3). Lapan, Poynton, Marcotte, Marland, and Milam (2017a) found that the success of college and career readiness initiatives is closely related to the quality of the guidance services delivered in the public schools. The researchers emphasize that helpful and personalized relationships are a critical success factor. Lapan et al. (2017a) also found that counselors play a particularly important role in securing college access for low-income students. Johnson et al. (2010) found that students require assistance that is relevant to their personal search when choosing a college or university to attend. Parents need assistance in understanding the kinds of scholarships, loans, and other financing programs that might be available to help finance their child’s college education. The exchanges must be specific and personal. Johnson et al. (2005) found that approximately half of the students who chose not to attend college indicated that their decisions were the result of unaddressed financial concerns. All of these researchers emphasize the importance of a strong relationship between the counselor, the student, and the student’s family. Morgan, Greenwaldt, and Gosselin (2014) found that technology may assist the process. College and career planning software, accessible to the counselor, student, and parents, can provide a common platform for frequent interaction at a level of specificity that is valuable to all involved. Technology, however, is most effective K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 24 when it is used as a supplement to well-developed counseling relationships, suggesting that CCR Guidance needs to start early in the high school experience, if not before. Starting early. College and career counseling services to students should commence no later than ninth grade, and preferably earlier. Dandino (2013) found that students who met with their counselor by their sophomore year were twice as likely to apply to one school (vs. none) and 3.5 times more likely to apply to two or more schools (vs. none). Gibbons, Borders, Wiles, Stephan, and Davis (2006) noted a discrepancy between students’ plans for college and actual enrollment. The researchers found that nearly all high school students indicate in ninth grade that they plan to attend college, yet only about half of those same high school students actually enroll in college directly after high school. The researchers also found that ninth graders need more information about careers and college planning to convert their aspirations into reality. If the void is left unfilled, the researchers found, many students and their families will eliminate college as a post-high school option, generally because they do not understand the cost of college and how to access financial aid. Bryan et al. (2011) found that as students of low income families move through high school, parents become increasingly unable to offer informational assistance to their children. The researchers also found that low-income students who commenced a relationship with a college and career counselor by tenth grade were twice as likely to apply to college as low-income students who commence a later relationship or do not commence a relationship at all. Bell, Rowan-Kenyon, and Perna (2009), in a study of ninth and eleventh graders, found that most ninth graders rely entirely on family and friends for college and career information. Eleventh graders, however, begin to turn their attention to school-based resources, especially teachers and guidance counselors for advice. Bell et al. (2009) found that at schools where a counselor is specifically designated for college guidance, that counselor is K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 25 frequently described by students as “savior-like.” The researchers concluded that by beginning interventions earlier, counselors can expand their support for families and build a stronger impetus for college attendance. Issues Relating to College Readiness, Equity and Diversity, and Career Planning College Readiness. Although most high school students express a desire to go to college, many fail to take the steps necessary to succeed in this aspiration; the availability and quality of CCR Guidance plays a significant role in determining outcomes. A recent study of the college readiness of high school students (Santelises, 2017) found that only 8% of high school graduates complete a full college-prep course of study, resulting in low levels of mastery of core skills in English and/or math by the preponderance of high school graduates. In California, for example, 80% of students who enroll in community colleges and more than one-third of students who enroll in the California State University system require at least one remedial course in math, English, or both (McPhate, 2017; Mejia, Rodriguez, & Johnson, 2016). The issue extends well beyond California. Data from 2014-15 shows that in New Jersey, 46% of first-time students in higher education were placed in remedial courses; in Arkansas, 41%; and in Oklahoma, 39% (Butrymowicz, 2017). In Maryland, Baltimore City Community College reported that 96% of students from Baltimore City Public Schools who enrolled immediately after high school in 2011 required remedial math; 67% required help with basic writing skills (Connolly, Olson, Durham, & Plank, 2014). Mejia et al. (2016) indicate that nationally, only 27% of students who take a remedial math course successfully pass a college-level math course; 44% who remediate in English subsequently pass a college-level English course. In 2017, the California State University system, in response to the poor success rate of students taking remedial courses opted to eliminate offering remedial courses altogether, directing the various universities in the system to find ways other than remediation to raise the skill set of incoming students (McPhate, 2017). K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 26 Effective college and career counseling is strongly correlated with achievement after high school (Johnson et al., 2010). McKillip et al. (2012) found that high school counselors are uniquely positioned to positively affect, at the individual student level, the decision to enroll in college and the student’s subsequent post-secondary success. The researchers found that a student’s pursuit of a rigorous high school curriculum is closely related to persistence to graduation at the collegiate level and that CCR Guidance counselors are able to help students make appropriate course selections in high school to improve college readiness; however, interactions between students and CCR Guidance counselors tend not to focus on college preparedness. The researchers indicate that individualized services are vital, especially CCR Guidance counselors taking the time to identify the academic strengths and weaknesses of individual students, then developing course selection plans that appropriately prepare the student for subsequent success. Dandino (2013) found that there was no correlation between students’ discussions with their school counselors and the same students’ feelings of preparedness for life after high school. The absence of influence of school counselors is closely linked with a lack of access and availability of meetings to discuss post-high school plans. A series of student commentaries published by The Heckenger Report (Roman, 2017) support Dandino’s (2013) finding. Roman, a Cal State Northridge student, indicated in her piece: “When I started college, I did not have a clear roadmap of what I wanted to do or how to get there. As a result, I changed my major twice and took time off from school.” Equity and diversity issues. A structural imbalance exists in the United States’ labor force in the level of educational attainment of various ethnicities. Evidence of this issue can be seen in Figure 2.1 which shows the composition of the United States labor force in 2013 by K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 27 Data source: (NCES, 2016, pages 789-790) 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% White Black Hispanic Asian Indian U.S. Labor Force Educational Attainment (2013) By Race/Ethnicity % of total workforce Less than HS completion Some college, No degree High School completion Associate’s Degree Bachelor’s or Higher degree 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 <HS Completion HS Completion Some College Associate's degree Bachelor's or higher <HS Completion HS Completion Some College Associate's degree Bachelor's or higher <HS Completion HS Completion Some College Associate's degree Bachelor's or higher <HS Completion HS Completion Some College Associate's degree Bachelor's or higher <HS Completion HS Completion Some College Associate's degree Bachelor's or higher White Black Hispanic Asian Indian U.S. Labor Force Employment, Unemployment, and Non-Participation By Educational Attainment and Race/Ethnicity (2013) Employed Unemployed Not employed or seeking employment Workforce members (million) ethnicity and educational attainment. The percentage of Black (20%) and Hispanic (4%) workers whose highest attained degree is a Bachelor’s degree or greater is well below that of White (35%) and Asian (55%) workers. Conversely, percentage of Black (45%) and Hispanic (55%) workers with no training beyond high school far exceed the percentage of White (33%) and Asian (25%) workers with no training beyond high school. Santelises (2017) found that fewer Black, Hispanic, socioeconomically disadvantaged and first-generation college students (together, Underserved Students) succeeded in courses that are part of a college-ready curriculum than their peers. For example, 82% of White high school graduates had a 2.5 GPA or higher in their academic courses, compared with just 51% of Black graduates and 63% of Latino graduates. Santelises also found that students from low socioeconomic backgrounds were 14% less likely to complete a college-preparatory course of study than students from higher income households. Figure 2.1. U.S. Labor force data by race/ethnicity (NCES,2016, pages 789-790). K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 28 Researchers have found that Underserved Students have unequal access to CCR Guidance services. Howard and Navarro (2016), indicate that personalized dialogue is crucial to college and career counseling success when working with Underserved Students. The researchers report that while there has been improvement in instructional outcomes across racial lines, many historical disparities remain unchanged. The researchers report that members of Underserved Students have and continue to seek education as the pathway to economic mobility, political voice, and social transformation. Standardizing CCR Guidance services, or delivering such services in multi-cultural group settings, Howard and Navarro conclude, reduces the effectiveness of CCR Guidance services by diminishing the ability of counselors and teachers to use more racially and culturally inclusive approaches. Dorsainvil (2015), in a qualitative study of a suburban New York school district, asked students: to describe whether their counselors were aware of their cultural differences; to discuss whether their counselors showed interest in and demonstrated understanding of their cultural backgrounds; and to describe whether they felt their counselors offered career advice based on cultural backgrounds. The students interviewed indicated that they never had a discussion with counselors about their cultural background, and that the career advice offered was based entirely on their expressed career interest without regard to cultural background. Hutchison (2011) found that while CCR Guidance counselors generally like working with students from socioeconomically disadvantaged backgrounds, CCR Guidance counselors are more attracted to working with high achieving students. Since socioeconomically disadvantaged students are more likely to underperform academically, the availability and quality of CCR Guidance services to socioeconomically disadvantaged students may be inferior to the services provided to other students. Hutchison recommends that counselor preparation include the study of social class, K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 29 development of personal awareness of the counselor’s own biases, and techniques for limiting the impact of bias in counseling relationships. Stern (2009), in a study of Chicago Public Schools, found that Latino students face unique challenges in gaining access to four‑year colleges, since applying to college involves a complex set of skills, which many Latina/o students lack. This issue is particularly prevalent for students who would be first generation college goers, Stern found, since the parents and neighbors of these students often do not have the experience or knowledge to help. Gonzalez (2013), in a study of south Texas Latino high school seniors found that, although students typically visited an academic counselor three times each academic year, the CCR Guidance services provided did not include career or post-secondary planning. Instead, the sessions focused on schedule changes and course selection with a focus on graduating from high school. The students did not receive information regarding the college admission process. Kimura-Walsh, Yamamura, Griffin, and Allen (2009) found that Latina/o students relied almost exclusively on school resources to navigate their college preparation process. The researchers found that two-thirds of Latino/a students who pursue post-secondary education enroll at community colleges; the remaining third enroll at four-year institutions. The reverse is true for White students, who enroll more frequently at four-year institutions. Ortiz, Valerio, and Lopez (2012) found the same trend, indicating that community college is seen by Hispanic families “as a means of success in gaining social capital on the journey of earning a bachelor’s degree” (p. 144). Community colleges are attractive because they have a low tuition cost, flexible schedules, proximity, and class sizes that are often smaller than at four-year institutions. The researchers found that this trend does not extend to high schools that emphasize four-year college or university attendance and provide extensive, culturally-appropriate support to families. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 30 7C Auerbach (2004) found that the most important barrier to college access for Latino students in California is a lack of knowledge about the steps needed to go to college. “In the absence of appropriate information and support, many parents unfamiliar with college life and concerned about the opportunity costs of college for their families may construe college as a threat and resist the best laid plans of qualified students” (p. 126). Auerbach found that bilingual outreach programs for parents at diverse high schools narrowed the information gap about college, enhanced family social networks, helped families develop the skills necessary for navigating the college application process, and assisted parents when communicating with their children about post-secondary education. Researchers have identified a high prevalence of misunderstanding and/or disbelief in Underserved Students about the availability of educational and career opportunities. For example, Immerwahr, Johnson, Gasbarra, Ott, and Rochkind (2007), in a nationwide survey of parents with children in high school, found high levels of anxiety about higher education among African-American and Hispanic parents and students, especially regarding the ability to find financial aid. Figure 2.2 shows indicative results from the Immerwahr et al. (2007) survey. Figure 2.2. Results from 2007 nationwide survey of parents of high school students. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 31 Kimura-Walsh et al. (2009) found that although CCR Guidance counselors are well- positioned to address the fears and misunderstandings of parents in Underserved Students, the counselor-to-student ratio in California public schools is highest in high poverty, multi-ethinic schools, limiting the ability of CCR Guidance counselors to provide needed services. The researchers indicate that Latina/o students rely almost exclusively on counselors to navigate the college preparation process; however, counselors actually provided limited assistance and failed to address barriers. The researchers indicate that this may be a partial explanation for a disproportionately large percentage of college-bound Latina/o students entering two-year colleges. Johnson et al. (2010), in a nationwide survey of 22 to 30 year olds conducted for Public Agenda and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, found that parents often look to high school guidance counselors for advice on college options, information about loans and scholarships, and help with the college application process. In those instances where parents themselves have not gone to college, discussions with school counselors are often the only source of information. For Underserved Students that choose to go to college, undermatching is a frequent issue. Undermatching is defined as enrolling in a college or university with selectivity below the qualification level of the student. Roderick, Coca, and Nagaoka (2011) found that undermatching is prevalent among low-income students in urban school systems where counselors fail to guide students effectively through the college application process. The researchers also found that students from urban schools with a history of high student enrollment in four-year colleges and high levels of counselor support for parents in securing financial aid are more likely to apply to, be accepted at, and enroll in four-year colleges and universities that are aligned with student qualifications. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 32 Rodriguez (2015) found that Underserved Students who choose to pursue post-secondary education are more likely to undermatch than other students, and that undermatched students are less likely to graduate with a four-year degree than appropriately matched students. Rodriguez indicates that undermatching is particularly prevalent in the Latino/a community, where many students are qualified to attend selective four-year colleges and universities but choose instead to attend community colleges. Underserved Students have a higher enlistment rate in the military than other students. Enlistment in the military is viewed by many Underserved Students and their families as a way to help fund a future college education (Ayers, 2006; Castro, 2015). Barr (2015), for example, found that recruits disproportionately come from the second and third lowest income quintiles, which are just above the poverty level, but below the threshold for need-based financial aid at many colleges and universities. Barr indicates that education benefits are consistently among the top two reasons given by new recruits for joining the military. Issues associated with career-bound and undecided students. Most students who enter the workforce right out of high school do so without a plan; CCR Guidance can help to prepare students for this course of action. Johnson et al. (2005) found that students who enter the workforce immediately after high school or after dropping out of college generally are in their jobs by chance, not by specific choice, and typically do not perceive their current job as offering opportunities for future career growth. Gordon and Steele (2015) indicate that many high school and college students are not developmentally ready to make life decisions. The researchers find that a critical role of CCR Guidance counselors is to develop career maturity, a process that includes making students aware of the tasks and skills that are a part of career decision-making. The researchers emphasize the importance of individualized advising, especially for undecided K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 33 students. Turner and Lapan (2013) find that, for most adolescents, the most important sources of career information are parents and relatives, school personnel, and friends. The researchers indicate that CCR Guidance counselors play an important role in developing career awareness in students by providing developmentally appropriate career information and assisting each student in understanding the planning and educational attainment required for careers of interest. Turner and Conkel (2011), in a study of students in urban school settings, found that CCR Guidance counselors can play an important role in helping students understand that early career choices are not final career choices, and that managing one’s career path is an ongoing undertaking. Perceptions of the Adequacy of CCR Guidance Services. In general, students are dissatisfied with the availability and quality of the CCR Guidance services they receive in high school. Johnson et al. (2010) found that after graduation, most high school students rate the performance of their guidance counselors as fair or poor. Teachers are generally seen as a better source of valuable advice than CCR Guidance counselors. In an earlier study, Johnson et al. (2005) found that, across all ethnicities and socioeconomic groups, students indicate that there are not enough counselors in their school, limiting the individualized guidance they received. Corwin et al. (2004), in a study of 12 California high schools, found high levels of student frustration with the CCR Guidance services received. Many reported that they considered their CCR Guidance counselor an impediment to college access. Causes of Performance Gaps To this point, the literature review has focused entirely on characterization of the general state of CCR Guidance services. The remainder of this chapter will examine literature that seeks to address the causes of current performance gaps. Consistent with the “Big Three” causes of K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 34 performance gaps set forth in the work of Clark and Estes (2008), attention will be focused on the knowledge and skills of CCR Guidance counselors; the motivation of CCR Guidance counselors to provide effective CCR Guidance services; and organizational barriers that impede counselors from meeting the CCR Guidance needs of students and their families. Knowledge and Skills In this section, a review of literature is presented that focuses on knowledge influences pertinent to achieving the goal of resolving the problem of practice in the field that is the focus of this dissertation. In most public school systems across the United States, CCR Guidance is inadequate. Effective knowledge management is a critical success factor for improved organizational performance. Knowledge management creates increased capacity for organizational learning and innovation (Liao & Wu, 2010) and is a central factor in the achievement of organizational goals (Birasnav, 2014). Nam Nguyen and Mohamed (2011) indicate that transformational leaders can only be successful in effecting positive change if they focus on knowledge creation and sharing across the organization. Krathwohl (2002) defines four types of knowledge, each more complex than the prior. Each element of knowledge is necessary, but not sufficient, to build the kind of genuine mastery needed to achieve positive performance outcomes.  Factual knowledge, which is command of the terminology, details, and/or elements necessary to be conversant about or to be able to solve problems within a given discipline;  Conceptual knowledge, which, like a blueprint or model, demonstrates an understanding of interrelationships between classifications, categories, principles, K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 35 theories, and/or structures in a given content area;  Procedural knowledge, which is knowledge of the techniques and methods that describe how to do something, including the criteria for when to use each technique or method; and  Metacognitive knowledge, which includes strategic awareness, contextual understanding, and self-knowledge. Rueda (2011) indicates that it is metacognitive knowledge that enables individuals to know when and why something should be done, and to determine which strategies should be used to solve complex issues. Metacognitive practices increase an individual’s ability to adapt to new contexts, approach new tasks, and handle new learning situations (Chick, n.d.). Chick indicates that if a problem of practice is to be resolved, knowing just the “what,” factual and conceptual knowledge, and the “how,” procedural knowledge, is not sufficient. Mastery of the strategic, contextual, and conditional issues, metacognitive knowledge, associated with the problem of practice is vital. CCR Guidance counselors need to know the scope of their responsibilities and how to allocate time between those responsibilities. The role of school counselors is poorly defined in most public schools, a problem resulting from more than 50 years of constant evolution. In the 1960s, the high school counselor’s role was clear: to determine which students would go to college and which students would not, a process called gatekeeping (McKillip et al., 2012). During the 1970s, however, counselors began taking on additional duties to provide job security at a time when school boards were looking to cut positions in response to a weak economy. In addition to their gatekeeping responsibilities, counselors began to provide services to assist students with mental and emotional health issues, as well as to perform a wide range of K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 36 administrative tasks (McKillip et al., 2012). This jack-of-all-trades approach led to increasing confusion amongst parents, students, administrators, and the counselors themselves about what constitutes school counseling and its value to a school system (Burnham & Jackson, 2000). When their article was published, the researchers noted that, despite the publication of more than 34 articles in the previous two decades on the topic of counselor roles, further research was still necessary to document the work that counselors were actually doing. In order to help resolve misunderstandings, the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) introduced The ASCA National Model (ASCA, 2003) which recommends a delivery system comprised of four elements: (a) Guidance Curriculum (15% to 25% of time at high school level), which contains lessons taught by counselors in classrooms and group activities; (b) Individual Student Planning (25% to 35%), which includes assisting students individually in establishing personal goals and setting future plans; (c) Responsive Services (25% to 35%), which include activities that meet individual student immediate needs usually necessitated by life events; and (d) System Support (15% to 20%), which is time dedicated to administration and management. The ASCA National Model included a list of what the organization considers to be appropriate and inappropriate counseling activities (2003). ASCA’s list is shown in Table 2.1. At the time of issuance, ASCA (2003) indicated that it sought to offer clarity in four areas: how every student will benefit from counseling (known as “foundation”), the delivery system (which includes teaching a guidance curriculum, as well as offering college and career counseling), management systems (including time management guidelines and expanded use of data), and accountability in the form of results reporting and program audits. ASCA (2003) indicates that it issued its appropriate responsibilities list because counselors cannot be fully effective when they are foregoing essential counseling tasks to perform non-counseling activities. ASCA’s list, K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 37 Table 2.1 ASCA List of Appropriate and Inappropriate Counseling Activities Appropriate (counseling) responsibilities Inappropriate (non-counseling) responsibilities Designing individual student academic programs Registering and scheduling new students Interpreting cognitive, aptitude and achievement tests Administering cognitive, aptitude, and achievement tests Counseling students with excessive tardiness or absenteeism Signing excuses for students who are tardy or absent Counseling students with disciplinary problems Performing disciplinary actions Counseling students about appropriate school dress Sending hom students who are not appropriately dressed Collaborating with teachers to present guidance curriculum lessons Teaching classes when teachers are absent Analyzing grade point averages in relationship to achievement Computing grade point averages Interpreting student records Managing student records Providing teachers with suggestions for better study hall management Supervising study halls Ensuring student records are maintained in accordance with state and federal regulations Clerical record keeping Assisting the school principal with identifying and resolving student issues, needs and problems Assisting with duties in the principal's office however, fails to include a focus on college and career readiness counseling and, as a result, has had the effect of further muddying the waters. The implication of this ongoing confusion can be seen in the work of Johnson, Rochkind, Ott, and Dupont (2010), who indicate that, in the guidance system as it operates in public schools today, counselors are frequently overworked and unprepared to help students who are making decisions about life after high school. A big part of the problem, the researchers say, is continuing role confusion: a large proportion of counselor time is still devoted to non-counseling responsibilities such as resolving discipline issues, sorting K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 38 out scheduling errors, performing the clerical duties of a school secretary, and filling in as a substitute teacher when other classroom coverage for absent teachers cannot be arranged. In a study by Hatch, Poynton, and Pérusse (2015), the researchers note that in the decade since The ASCA National Model was introduced the perceptions of counselors about their work have not shifted. The researchers note, for example, that counselors believe that the most important work they can do today is: (1) to develop goals for the counseling program and (2) to write a mission statement or philosophy. These counselor responses are consistent with a condition of overwork, where there is so much to be done that priorities are difficult to discern and time allocation is an ongoing challenge. Time encroachment from social and emotional counseling requirements, as well as other non-counseling tasks, restricts the time available for school counselors to provide college and career counseling services. Numerous studies characterize the issue. Johnson et al. (2010) found that, in addition to social and emotional counseling work, many school counselors also handle discipline issues, sort out scheduling conflicts, supervise testing, and substitute teach. The Joyce Ivy Foundation (2015) found that counselors in Ohio were spending less than 30% of their time on college and career planning with students; many counselors report that they have no more than 15 minutes of individual time with non-crisis students each semester. The Joyce Ivy Foundation (2015) reports that, over the past six years, counselor caseloads in Ohio have increased, the percentage of counselor time spent on post-secondary planning has declined from 29% to 24%, and only 25% of counselors feel that students receive adequate counseling regarding post-secondary plans, down from 30% in 2009. Another study (Johnson et al., 2005), which included more than 1,300 students in California, New Jersey, Texas, and Wisconsin, found that 53% of respondents indicated that school counselors were so overextended that they K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 39 were unable to provide effective college and career counseling. English (2015) conducted a study of 24 school districts in Pennsylvania and found that school counselors spent 71% of their time on social and emotional counseling and 29% on college and career counseling. Assuming a 2,000 hour work year and a 30% time allocation for college and career guidance, the average student would receive a maximum of 1-1/3 hours of guidance per year, less guidance-related clerical time (e.g., packaging college applications) which is substantial. The study also found that the average student-to-counselor ratio, statewide, was approximately 450:1; however, the top performing schools in Pennsylvania had a ratio of only 250:1. The lower ratio was achieved by carving off social and emotional work from counseling and reassigning it to social workers, school psychologists, emotional support teachers, and full time staff designated to support at risk students. In general, heavy caseloads make it difficult for counselors to customize their advice to the individual student level, which, in the case of college and career guidance, is often critical to its utility. CCR Guidance counselors need to know the new and important concepts, vital processes, and current theories/principles relevant to CCR Guidance. Most colleges and universities that offer education counseling programs do not offer courses focused on CCR Guidance (Morgan et al., 2014), creating “the possibility that school counselors may be placed in positions with less than adequate training” (p. 493). As a first step in filling the void, the American School Counselor Association (ASCA, 2014) published a set of 35 research based standards intended to “describe the knowledge, skills and attitudes students need to achieve academic success, college and career readiness and social/emotional development” (p. 1). Although the standards do not specifically address CCR Guidance practices, ASCA indicates that the purpose of the standards is to provide a general framework regarding student mindsets K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 40 (e.g., self-confidence, awareness that continued learning is vital to career success) and student behaviors (e.g., goal setting, engaging challenging coursework) that counselors should emphasize when providing CCR Guidance and other counseling services. When delivering CCR Guidance services, counselors need to be mindful that their relationship with individual students and the effectiveness of the CCR Guidance services provided is materially affected by gender, ethnicity, and socio-economic status (Bryan, Holcomb-McCoy, Moore-Thomas, & Day-Vines, 2009). Additionally, in light of research that shows the primacy of family members in influencing the college and career decisions of high school students, counselors must understand and be responsive to the importance of developing strong parent-counselor relationships (Bryan et al., 2011). The National Center for Public Policy and Higher Education in a national study of trends in higher education (Immerwahr et al., 2007), found that minority parents, even those with high incomes, are disproportionately concerned about a lack of opportunity in post-secondary education. Numerous studies show that the number of school counselors and student contacts are significant predictors of college application rates, especially for Black and Latino students (Bryan et al., 2011). High school counselors who serve minority students, however, are typically less-well-trained than counselors serving White students and are more likely to be pulled away for non-counseling tasks (Hutchison, 2011; Lee & Ekstrom, 1987; McKillip et al., 2012). CCR Guidance counselors need to know how to anticipate and solve novel challenges. The College Board National Office for School Counselor Advocacy (NOSCA) has published a list of eight components of CCR counseling that the organization believes should be a part of all K-12 counseling programs (NOSCA, 2010). These components are: 1. College aspirations, with the goal of setting high expectations and building confidence in K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 41 students that they can succeed in college; 2. Academic planning for college and career readiness; 3. Enrichment and extracurricular engagement for the purpose of developing leadership skills students and nurturing a wide range talents and interests; 4. College and career exploration and selection that must include early and ongoing exposure to a wide range of options and alternatives that help develop future aspirations; 5. High student participation rates in college and career assessments; 6. College affordability planning for families; 7. College and career admission assistance targeted at ensuring that students and families understand application and admission processes; and 8. Transition planning from high school to college or career. A follow up study found that CCR Guidance counselors are implementing NOSCA’s eight components in “somewhat of a piece-meal fashion according to their own beliefs as to what is ‘most important’” (Perusse, Poynton, Parzych, Goodnough, & Pérusse, 2015, p. 36). Implementation of a program that contains all eight components requires that equity-based services, customized to each child’s specific needs, be offered. An Education Trust report, (Hines & Lemons, 2011), comes to a similar conclusion, recommending that all counselors receive school-specific training to enable them to deliver individualized CCR Guidance services. Table 2.2 summarizes the several knowledge influences that affect delivery of CCR Guidance services to students. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 42 Table 2.2 Knowledge Influences Knowledge Worksheet Dissertation Model: __Evaluation _X_Improvement __Innovation __Promising Practice Goal for Problem of Practice in the Field To resolve the following problem of practice in the field: In most public school systems across the United States, the availability of college and career readiness guidance for K-12 students (CCR Guidance) is inadequate. Availability of CCR Guidance includes:  access, which is the ability of students to meet with a CCR Guidance counselor;  relationship building, which is the CCR Guidance counselor’s willingness to get to know students individually;  guidance skill set, which is the CCR Guidance counselor having appropriate tools and methods to help students plan for their future; and  market knowledge, which is the CCR Guidance counselor having, or having access to, the information necessary to provide specific advice to each student about college, the military, and career opportunities Knowledge Influence Knowledge Type (i.e., declarative (factual or conceptual), procedural, or metacognitive) Knowledge Influence Assessment CCR Guidance counselors need to know the scope of their responsibilities and how to allocate time between those responsibilities Elements of declarative conceptual (knowledge of structures) and metacognitive (appropriate contextual and conditional knowledge) Surveys of CCR Guidance counselors and of school district administrators supported by subsequent targeted interviews (individual and/or focus group) that are informed by survey results CCR Guidance counselors need to know the new and important concepts, vital processes, and current theories/principles relevant to CCR Guidance Elements of procedural (subject-specific techniques and criteria for determining appropriate procedures) and metacognitive (appropriate contextual and conditional knowledge) Survey of CCR Guidance counselors supported by subsequent targeted interviews (individual and/or focus group) that are informed by survey results CCR Guidance counselors need to know how to anticipate and solve novel challenges Metacognitive (strategic knowledge, knowledge about cognitive tasks) Surveys of CCR Guidance counselors and school district administrators supported by subsequent targeted interviews (individual and/or focus group) that are informed by survey results K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 43 Motivation This section is a review of literature that focuses on motivation influences pertinent to the goal of improving the adequacy of college and career readiness guidance for K-12 students. Three different motivational theories are presented: Expectancy Value Theory, Collective- Efficacy Theory, and Goal Orientation Theory. Expectancy Value Theory. Over the 25 year period from 1980 to 2005, Eccles (2006) developed a model that linked achievement with two sets of belief: (a) the individual’s expectations for success and (b) the importance the individual places on succeeding. Essentially, the model boils down to two critical questions: “Can I do the task?” and “Do I want to do the task?” The first question is a function of the individual’s confidence in his or her abilities. The second question goes to perceptions of value. Eccles (2006) presents four categories of task value:  Attainment value, which asks whether achieving the objective is important to the individual in terms of personal image, ambition, values;  Intrinsic value, which asks whether achieving the objective is of interest to the individual;  Utility value, which asks whether achieving the objective will enable the individual to achieve other goals in the future that he or she considers important; and  Cost belief, which asks whether achieving the objective is worthwhile when the level of effort, emotional investment, anxiety, and time commitment are considered. Collective-Efficacy Theory. Collective-efficacy theory (Pajares, 2006) focuses on the individual’s belief in his or her ability to succeed in specific situations or to accomplish a task. Pajares (2006) indicates that self-efficacy often plays a significant role in how an individual K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 44 approaches goals, tasks, and challenges. Moreover, since individuals often operate in groups, the group’s shared belief in its ability to succeed in situations or tasks, known as collective-efficacy, is also important. Pajares (2006) indicates that studies of efficacy have found that individuals and/or groups with high self-efficacy work harder, persist longer, persevere in the face of adversity, have greater optimism and lower anxiety, and achieve more. Goal Orientation Theory. Yough and Anderman (2006) focus on motivation for achieving goals. Goals fall into two categories: (a) mastery-oriented goals, where the objective is to truly understand a problem, concept, or task; and (b) performance-oriented goals, where the objective is to demonstrate one’s ability when compared with others. CCR Guidance counselors need to demonstrate all three facets of motivated performance – active choice, persistence, and mental effort – in their efforts to deliver CCR Guidance goals. Clark and Estes (2008) indicate that motivation in the workplace is driven by three distinct elements:  Active choice, which is an individual’s decision whether to actively pursue a goal;  Persistence, which is an individual’s decision to see a goal through to completion, despite competing priorities and other distractions; and  Mental effort, which is an individual’s willingness to invest the emotional and intellectual energy necessary to develop novel solutions or to overcome unexpected challenges in the pursuit of a goal. A substantial body of qualitative research suggests that motivated performance is an issue for CCR Guidance providers. Alger and Luke (2015), for example, reporting results from a grounded theory study of counselors in a New York public school, found that work other than CCR Guidance is a significant distraction for counselors. The researchers noted the comments K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 45 of one counselor that “In terms of what takes up most of our time, I would say the social- emotional piece just really drives a lot of what we’re doing” (p. 23). The researchers also cited another counselor, who said that his priority is “whatever the issue is at that moment in time,” and that “[i]f we are scheduling or if I got a group on guidance type…I will always [attend to] the social-emotional piece before the regular routine…my priority is the needs of the kids” (p. 23). A similar study by Stone-Johnson (2015) had similar findings. The researcher highlighted the comments of a counselor who indicated: “So a lot of times there’s days that I can’t be with students about careers because something comes up and we have to attend to that, and without a social worker who used to take some of those kids or some of our very needy students and work with them individually” (p. 34). CCR Guidance counselors need to demonstrate genuine interest in CCR Guidance work. A seminal nationwide study published by Public Agenda and funded by the Gates Foundation (Johnson et al., 2010) found that 48% of young adults, aged 22 to 30, when asked to look back upon their experience with their high school counselor, indicated that their counselor saw them as “just another face in the crowd” (p. 6); another 2% indicated that they never met with a counselor in high school. In the same survey, the researchers also found that more than half of respondents felt that the CCR Guidance they received was poor or fair (p. 6). The researchers further reported that in focus groups convened to dig deeper into survey results, participants frequently discussed their interactions with high school counselors as “dispiriting” and “unhelpful” (p. 7). One focus group participant was quoted as follows: “[My guidance counselors] didn’t care [about me]. You could see other kids getting called in and being [asked]: ‘What are you going to do [after high school]?’ Those kids would come [for college day] with suits and ties and their parents would come with them. Then there was everybody else” (p. 7). K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 46 In a qualitative study of high school counselors in two Midwestern states (Morgan et al., 2014), half of the interviewees expressed a level of dread and feelings of incompetence associated with providing CCR Guidance services. The researchers cited the remarks of one counselor who indicated: “A kid would come in and I would think, please, let’s talk about suicide or something because I am not so hot in this [career counseling] area” (p. 485). CCR Guidance counselors need to believe in the utility value of CCR Guidance. A recent study of 12 th grade students (Lapan, Poynton, Marcotte, Marland, & Milam, 2017b) showed that both the frequency and helpfulness of meetings with counselors were positively correlated with achievement in high school and with postsecondary success as far as 18 months after graduation from high school. Additionally, Auerbach (2004) indicates that there are a number of strategies available to CCR Guidance counselors that can improve the quality of services delivered to minority communities. Stone-Johnson (2015) found that counselors would like to be more involved in college and career readiness activities and that counselors would prefer to make sense of college and career readiness issues using their own professional skills. Instead counselors often find themselves responding to or correcting the perceptions of others. Furlonger, Papadopoulous, Chow, Zhu, and Ping (2015), for example, found that the portrayal of high school counselors on television and on YouTube is editorially mixed; however, a frequent characterization is that counselors are “controlling, bungling incompetents” (p. 19). The researchers noted that portrayals of this sort have an adverse effect on public perception of counselors and their work. Table 2.3 summarizes the three motivation influences discussed above and lists the various assessment methods by which each motivational influence will be measured. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 47 Table 2.3 Motivation Influences Motivation Worksheet Dissertation Model: __Evaluation _X_Improvement __Innovation __Promising Practice Goal for Problem of Practice in the Field To resolve the following problem of practice in the field: In most public school systems across the United States, the availability of college and career readiness guidance for K-12 students (CCR Guidance) is inadequate. Availability of CCR Guidance includes:  access, which is the ability of students to meet with a CCR Guidance counselor;  relationship building, which is the CCR Guidance counselor’s willingness to get to know students individually;  guidance skill set, which is the CCR Guidance counselor having appropriate tools and methods to help students plan for their future; and  market knowledge, which is the CCR Guidance counselor having, or having access to, the information necessary to provide specific advice to each student about college, the military, and career opportunities Motivational Indicator(s) Self-efficacy Interest Goals and goal orientation Value Attributions Emotions Assumed Motivation Influences Motivational Influence Assessment CCR Guidance counselors need to demonstrate all three facets of motivated performance – active choice, persistence, and mental effort – in their efforts to deliver CCR Guidance goals Survey of CCR Guidance counselors supported by subsequent targeted interviews (individual and/or focus group) that are informed by survey results CCR Guidance counselors need to demonstrate genuine interest in CCR Guidance work Surveys of CCR Guidance counselors, school district administrators, and service recipients (students and families) supported by subsequent targeted interviews (individual and/or focus group) that are informed by survey results CCR Guidance counselors need to believe in the utility value of CCR Guidance Survey of CCR Guidance counselors supported by subsequent targeted interviews (individual and/or focus group) that are informed by survey results K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 48 Organizational Influences In this section, a review of literature is presented that focuses on organizational factors that affect the adequacy of college and career readiness guidance for K-12 students (CCR Guidance) in most public school systems across the United States. Clark and Estes (2008) identify three main areas where organizational influences affect an entity’s performance levels and ability to make improvements:  Work processes and procedures, which are defined as how people, equipment, and materials interact to achieve articulated goals or other desired outcomes 2 ;  Material resources, which are the tangible supplies, equipment, and other resources necessary to achieve goals or other desired outcomes; and  Organizational culture, which includes the core values, beliefs, emotions, and expected behaviors that are shared across an organization. Organizational culture is akin to the personality and character of an individual (Schein, 2017), in that it regulates and shapes the general approach taken to achieving goals. Schein (2017) notes that culture is a source of organizational stability that is comprised of four interconnected characteristics:  Structural stability. Since culture is the basis for a group’s identity (sometimes called the Cultural DNA), it provides meaning and predictability, and is therefore difficult to change.  Depth. Since Cultural DNA is so deeply engrained in group members, their nonnegotiable values and behavioral assumptions are rarely articulated and are 2 Clark and Estes (2008) note that even if individuals are appropriately motivated and possess the knowledge and skills necessary to achieve organizational goals, missing or inadequate work processes, procedures, and material resources will likely impede or preclude success. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 49 frequently invisible.  Breadth. Culture is pervasive and influences every aspect of organizational activity.  Integration. Culture ties together the values, behaviors, and actions of a group into an over-arching paradigm that is embraced by all of the group’s members. To render this concept more concrete, Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) introduce the concept of cultural models which are comprised of shared interpretations of: (i) what is valued and what is ideal, (ii) ideas and actions that should or should not be implemented, (iii) who should or should not be involved in certain activities, (iv) the rules by which people interact with one another; and (v) the conditions under which people should or should not interact with one another. Cultural models, Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) note, are often unnoticed by those who hold them because they are so familiar that they are often taken-for-granted. Kotter and Heskett (1992) indicate that organizational culture actually operates along a continuum, with shared values at one extreme and group behavioral norms at the other. As is illustrated in Figure 2.3, it is extremely difficult to change shared values since they are deeply held and often invisible. Group behavioral norms, however, are generally more visible and not necessarily as deeply held. As a result, behavioral norms, though still firmly entrenched, are susceptible to change. Kotter and Heskett (1992) suggest that efforts to implement organizational change should focus on changing behavioral norms within the context of existing shared values. Efforts to change shared values are almost always difficult to implement, meet with significant organizational opposition, and take a very long time to realize results, if ever. Hence, most such efforts fail. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 50 Figure 2.3. Cultural Continuum (Kotter & Heskett, 1992, p. 5). Clark and Estes (2008) indicate that successful initiatives to address performance gaps require leadership support in the following six areas:  There must be a clear vision, goals, and a measurement process;  The structures and processes of the organization must be aligned with the vision and goals of the change effort;  There must be constant and candid communication with those involved in the change process;  The organization’s leaders must be involved and visible in the change process;  The organization must provide the resources, knowledge, and motivational support necessary for the change effort to be successful; and  The change effort must be clearly identified as a distinct undertaking so as to avoid the confusion that can be caused by competing or contradictory efforts in the K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 51 organization. Rueda (2011) notes that, in school settings, there are numerous examples of innovation programs being ignored, only partially implemented, or distorted into mutations that are harmful to the organization. In order to mitigate this risk, it is important that performance gaps be clearly articulated and that the desired new approach or outcome be broadly understood. School Districts need to provide continual support, from both the district- and building-levels, for CCR Guidance. In a mixed methods study involving 1,000 school counselors, Bardhoshi, Schweinle, and Duncan (2014) found that counselor perceptions of the value of their counseling work to the organization as well as the level of organizational support for that work are important factors in determining the level of job satisfaction and job-related stress felt by counselors. In this regard, the support of school principals was found by the researchers to be especially important. Bardhoshi et al. (2014) also found that the performance of non-counseling tasks negatively affects counselor job satisfaction and increases stress. Although accepted by many as a reality of the job, most school counselors perceive that non- counseling duties can or should be done by other school employees, and that such duties are a reflection of counselor role ambiguity. Additionally, Bardhoshi et al. (2014) found that, while some survey respondents indicated that non-counseling work should be seen as fair share duties associated with working in a school environment or part of being on the school team, the preponderance indicated that such duties detract from the performance of their counseling work and adversely affect their personal and professional lives. A nationwide survey of school counselors (Bridgeland & Bruce, 2011) found that counselors perceive a disconnect between their commitment to promoting college and career readiness and the commitment of their administrators. For example, 92 percent of counselors K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 52 indicated that the mission of their work should be to “inspire students to reach their potential / achieve goals” (p. 16), yet only 49 percent of counselors felt that this was the case in reality. A recent dissertation by Polishchuk (2018) found that many principals are not confident in their knowledge of CCR Guidance and, as a result, are reluctant to support a broadening of programs. School Districts need to develop concrete, challenging, and current (C3) goals for CCR Guidance. In a review of major studies of school counseling in the United States over the period 2000 to 2014, Carey and Martin (2015) found that counselor time is typically divided between four goals: improving academic achievement, facilitating planning for postsecondary education, assisting with the personal growth and development of students, and helping students plan for work immediately after high school. The researchers conclude that most school counselors are doing so many things that there is inadequate time to do any one thing well. There appear to be exceptions, however. Bruce and Bridgeland (2012), for example, point to the Chicago Public Schools as an example of a promising practice. At the time of the study, Chicago Public Schools was the third largest public school system in the United States, a predominantly urban, highly diverse district with an 87% poverty rate. By establishing specific, challenging goals intended to improve college access for students, Chicago Public Schools achieved significant improvements in CCR Guidance service levels and service quality. Specifically, the district: (i) gathered and reviewed relevant data disaggregated to the individual school level, (b) developed school-by-school metrics and targets that helped to focus counseling activities on what mattered most to achieving district goals, (c) restructured professional development so that it was targeted toward improving performance in the highest need areas, and (d) leveraged partnerships to expand service delivery capabilities. As discussed earlier, to assist with providing focused goals for CCR Guidance K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 53 counselors, The College Board National Office for School Counselor Advocacy (NOSCA, 2010) published a list of what it considers to be the eight most important components of college and career readiness counseling (Eight Components). Bruce and Bridgeland (2012) conducted a survey of that included more than 2,800 school counselors from all 50 states to assess the impact of introduction of the Eight Components on counselors. The study’s findings include:  63% of counselors indicate they are committed to the Eight Components  50% of counselors said they have the training and knowledge necessary to implement the Eight Components  48% of counselors know how to remove barriers to implementing the Eight Components  47% of counselors indicated that they know how to keep student’s parents and families involved in the CCR Guidance process  41% of counselors said they feel that teachers support their work  31% of counselors indicate that they collaborate with outside groups to expand the scope of services they can offer students and families Bruce and Bridgeland (2012) also found that measures to assess the effectiveness of school counselors, in general, are nonexistent, inconsistent, or promote outcomes contrary to the Eight Components. For example, nearly 20% of counselors reported that there is no accountability system in place at all at their schools. Additionally, many counselors feel that the use of specific measures to assess counselor effectiveness is unfair. School Districts need to provide the material resources necessary to achieve C3 goals for CCR Guidance. A recent study by Poyton and Lapan (2017) found that students are more likely to aspire to, enroll in, and succeed in postsecondary education if three conditions are K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 54 met: (i) their college and career planning starts early, (ii) they achieve academic success in high school, and (iii) they meet frequently with their school counselors for CCR Guidance support. The workload of most counselors is seen as limiting the ability of providing effective CCR Guidance services to students (The Joyce Ivy Foundation, 2015). The researchers quoted an Ohio School Counselor who said: What Ohio needs is greater advocacy in supporting the value and role of the school counselor. We need to work with state leaders to implement mandates and ratios for school counseling services to ensure all students have access to quality, trained school counselors. We also need greater guidance from the state in the form of school counseling standards that will help guide what we do and create a consistent system of delivery. Standards will also help us justify removing ourselves from traditional roles that deter us from working with students (p. 2). The researchers noted that fewer counselors believe they have adequate resources for post- secondary counseling. The study attributes this perception to increases in counselor workloads, especially in schools where workloads are already high, and time encroachments from responsive services. The American School Counselor Association (ASCA) recommends a student-to-school counselor ratio of 250-to-1 (ASCA, 2003). Based on data from the U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, ASCA indicates that the nationwide student- to-school counselor ratio in 2014-2015 3 was 482-to-1, ranging from a high of 924-to-1 in Arizona and a low of 202-to-1 in Vermont, with only three states meeting ASCA’s 250-to-1 target (ASCA, n.d.-b; ASCA and NACAC, n.d.). An analysis by the Carsey School of Public 3 ASCA indicates that 2014-2015 is the most recent year for which data are currently available. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 55 Policy at the University of New Hampshire (Gagnon & Mattingly, 2016) finds that, nationally, 17.8 percent of school districts meet the 250-to-1 ASCA target; only 4.2 percent of urban school districts meet the ASCA target. (See Figure 2.4 which shows the ratio for all states.) Figure 2.4. Student-to-School-Counselor Ratio, 2014-2015. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 56 Using a nationally representative dataset, Engberg and Gilbert (2014) found: (i) a positive, statistically significant relationship between counselor caseloads and four-year college- going rates, (ii) that the percentage of counselor time spent on CCR Guidance is positively correlated with college-going rates, and (iii) that schools with counseling departments that offer financial aid advice to families have higher enrollment rates in four- year colleges than schools that do not offer such assistance. Analysis by researchers at the University of New Hampshire’s Carsey School (Gagnon & Mattingly, 2016) indicates that student-to-counselor ratios have worsened over the past decade, in part because school boards have frequently opted to eliminate counselor positions when faced with budgetary challenges. The researchers indicate that state-level mandates may be needed to assure that students have access to counselors and that those counselors are adequately trained. To this end, Cary and Martin (2017), in an extensive study of recent literature pertaining to CCR Guidance counseling, set forth the following findings and recommendations:  The role of school counselors is too broad and should be narrowed  A comprehensive developmental model, built around the ASCA National Model (ASCA, 2003) should be widely adopted as a model to guide state-level legislation  Low student-to-counselor ratios are associated with improvements in attendance, increased graduation rates, and reductions in disciplinary problems  Well-designed CCR Guidance initiatives focusing on promoting preparation for college can have a strong impact on college transitions for Underserved Students  Rigorous studies to identify effective school counseling practices are needed  Implementation of effective counseling models at the school district level is unlikely unless states also provide the supports necessary for model implementation, K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 57 including: (i) identifying a leader at the state department of education with oversight responsibility for the implementation of state-adopted counseling goals and targets; (ii) transparent analysis of the linkages between model implementation and achieving the state’s educational policy objectives; (iii) enactment of legislation establishing standards and mandating service levels required for success, including the scope of counselor job responsibilities, curricular requirements for counselor education programs, and maximum student-to-counselor ratios; and (iv) ongoing state monitoring of compliance and progress. One recent example of the approach recommended by Carey and Martin (2017) occurred in Michigan, where, in November 2017, legislation was enacted that requires each school counselor to spend at least 50 of his or her state mandated 150 hours of professional development on CCR Guidance training (House Fiscal Agency, 2017; O’Connor, 2018). The Michigan School Counselor Association was neutral on the bill (McVicar, 2017). Table 2.4 summarizes the organizational influences that affect delivery of CCR Guidance services to students. Conceptual Framework: Interaction of Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences The conceptual framework of a study encompasses the concepts, assumptions, beliefs, and theories that inform the research design of a study (Maxwell, 2013). Also called a theoretical framework, the conceptual framework provides structure to a study and is often referred to as the scaffolding upon which the investigation of the problem of practice is built (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Creswell (2014) points out that the nature of the conceptual framework varies, based upon the type of research that is to be conducted. For quantitative K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 58 Organizational Influences Worksheet Dissertation Model: __Evaluation _X_Improvement __Innovation __Promising Practice Goal for Problem of Practice in the Field To resolve the following problem of practice in the field: In most public school systems across the United States, the availability of college and career readiness guidance for K-12 students (CCR Guidance) is inadequate. Availability of CCR Guidance includes:  access, which is the ability of students to meet with a CCR Guidance counselor;  relationship building, which is the CCR Guidance counselor’s willingness to get to know students individually;  guidance skill set, which is the CCR Guidance counselor having appropriate tools and methods to help students plan for their future; and  market knowledge, which is the CCR Guidance counselor having, or having access to, the information necessary to provide specific advice to each student about college, the military, and career opportunities Assumed Organizational Influences Organization Influence Assessment Cultural Model Influence 1: School Districts need to provide continual support, from both the district- and building-levels, for CCR Guidance Surveys of CCR Guidance counselors and of school district administrators supported by subsequent targeted interviews (individual and/or focus group) that are informed by survey results Cultural Setting Influence 1: School Districts need to develop concrete, challenging, and current (C3) goals for CCR Guidance Surveys of CCR Guidance counselors and of school district administrators supported by subsequent targeted interviews (individual and/or focus group) that are informed by survey results Cultural Setting Influence 2: School Districts need to provide the material resources necessary to achieve C3 goals for CCR Guidance Surveys of CCR Guidance counselors and of school district administrators supported by subsequent targeted interviews (individual and/or focus group) that are informed by survey results studies, Creswell indicates that the conceptual framework should be deductive in nature, serving as an organizing structure for the hypotheses to be tested or verified. Qualitative studies, in contrast, are frequently inductive in nature, with the conceptual framework presenting broad Table 2.4 Organizational Influences K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 59 themes that are rendered more precise from the learnings derived from the research effort. Creswell further indicates that the theoretical framework in mixed methods research can be deductive, inductive, or an integrated combination of the two. Greene, Caracelli, and Graham (1989), for example, introduce five distinct mixed methods designs and indicate that the conceptual framework should inform the selected approach: triangulation, which validates results through corroboration from different research methods; complementarity, which leverages the strengths of different methods to eliminate possible bias in results; development, which uses the results of a second method to assist interpretation of the first; initiation, which utilizes different methods to bring different world views to the inquiry process; and expansion, which uses different methods to broaden the scope of the research. The conceptual framework can be presented graphically, in narrative form, or, as is the case in this study, both. (Creswell, 2014; Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In the literature review above, an overview of the gap analytic approach of Clark and Estes (2008) was presented. This approach indicates that the most significant causes of performance gaps are the knowledge and skills of relevant personnel (K), the motivation of these individuals (M), and organizational barriers (O). Specific K, M, and O influences relevant to the problem of practice that is the focus of this study were identified individually, independent of one another. It is important to note that interdependencies and interrelationships among and between the identified K, M, and O influences exist. The conceptual model presented graphically and in narrative form in Figure 2.5 identifies and describes several of these interdependencies. Figure 2.5 reiterates that the goal being addressed in this improvement study is to resolve a problem of practice in the field, specifically, that in most public school systems in the United K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 60 School Districts - School Districts need to develop concrete, challenging, and current (C 3 ) goals for CCR Guidance - School Districts need to provide the material resources necessary to achieve C 3 goals for CCR Guidance - School Districts need to assure continual support at both the district- and building-levels for CCR Guidance - CCR Guidance counselors need to know the scope of their responsibilities and how to allocate time between those responsibilities - CCR Guidance counselors need to know the new and important concepts, vital processes, and current theories/principles relevant to CCR Guidance - CCR Guidance counselors need to know how to anticipate and solve novel challenges CCR Guidance Counselors Knowledge & Skills - CCR Guidance counselors need to demonstrate all three facets of motivated performance – active choice, persistence, and mental effort – in their efforts to deliver CCR Guidance goals - CCR Guidance counselors need to demonstrate genuine interest in CCR Guidance work - CCR Guidance counselors need to believe in the utility value of CCR Guidance Motivation Goal To resolve the following problem of practice in the field: In most public school systems across the United States, the availability of college and career readiness guidance for K-12 students (CCR Guidance) is inadequate. Availability of CCR Guidance services includes: - access, which is the ability of students to meet with a CCR Guidance counselor; - relationship building, which is the CCR Guidance counselor’s willingness to get to know students individually; - guidance skill set, which is the CCR Guidance counselor having appropriate tools and methods to help students plan for their future; and - market knowledge, which is the CCR Guidance counselor having, or having access to, the information necessary to provide specific advice to each student about college, the military, and career opportunities Organization States, college and career readiness guidance for K-12 students is inadequate. The square-edged rectangle that enumerates the Goal is placed at the top of the graphic because, as a problem of practice in the field, it is larger than any one school system. CCR Guidance Counselors are the primary providers of CCR Guidance services to students and their families, as depicted by the arrow from the rounded rectangular CCR Guidance Counselor box to the Goal box. The success of counselors in providing such services is affected by their knowledge, skills, and motivation. It is anticipated that the research effort will identify interrelationships between the K and M influences within the CCR Guidance Figure 2.5. Graphic Depiction of Conceptual Framework. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 61 rounded rectangle. For example, since most colleges and universities that offer education counseling programs do not offer courses focused on CCR Guidance (Morgan et al., 2014), it is possible that CCR Guidance Counselors do not know the important concepts, vital processes, and current theories relating to CCR Guidance. This K influence deficiency may, in turn, adversely affect CCR Guidance counselor motivation to demonstrate genuine interest in CCR Guidance work. Conversely, if CCR Guidance counselors view social-emotional counseling as more important than CCR Guidance work (Alger & Luke, 2015), which is an M influence, then they may struggle with the K influence of knowing how to allocate time between CCR Guidance work and other responsibilities. School Districts are the primary organizational body within which the work of CCR Guidance counselors is carried out. The actions and decisions of School Districts, therefore, constitute the O influences that will be studied. It is hypothesized that these O influences affect both the work of CCR Guidance counselors (as indicated by the arrow from the School District circle to the CCR Guidance Counselor rounded rectangle) and achievement of the overarching Goal (as indicated by the arrow from the School District circle to the Goal rectangle). For example, if School Districts fail to provide concrete, challenging, and current goals to CCR Guidance counselors (ASCA, 2003), this failure is likely to impact negatively the ability of CCR counselors to allocate time between responsibilities (a K influence) and may reduce the mental effort invested by counselors when providing CCR Guidance services (an M influence). Additionally, if School Districts do not provide the material resources necessary to achieve goals (Johnson et al., 2010; The Joyce Ivy Foundation, 2015), then the overarching goal of resolving the problem of practice may be rendered impossible to achieve, even if issues relating to the K and M influences are fully addressed. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 62 The reader should note that CCR Guidance counselors may influence the actions of School Districts; however, it is hypothesized that these influences are small and unlikely to influence Goal success. Consequently, CCR Guidance counselor-to-School District influences will not be a focus of this study. For this reason, Figure 1 does not show an arrow depicting influence from the CCR Guidance Counselor rounded rectangle to the circle for School Districts. Summary The purpose of this study is to examine the causes, issues, and barriers to improvement of inadequately available CCR Guidance. Chapter Two presented a review of general literature which indicates that (i) although most high school students express a desire to go to college, many fail to take the steps necessary to succeed in this aspiration; (ii) the availability and quality of CCR Guidance plays a significant role in determining the decisions students make regarding their post-secondary plans; (iii) for those who choose to go to college, undermatching, especially as it relates to minority, socioeconomically challenged, and first-generation college students, is an important issue that CCR Guidance can help to address; (iv) many students who choose to enter the military immediately after high school do so to help fund a future college education; (v) most students who choose to enter the workforce immediately after high school do so without a plan; (vi) in general, students are dissatisfied with the CCR Guidance services they receive; and (vii) parents most frequently turn to CCR Guidance providers for financial planning advice regarding the funding of their child’s college education. Additionally, using a model of organizational change developed by Clark and Estes (2008), Chapter Two also examined literature characterizing issues relating the knowledge, skills and motivation of CCR Guidance providers, as well as school district organizational issues that affect CCR Guidance services. Additionally, a conceptual framework for this study was introduced. Chapter Three will present the methodological approach for this study. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 63 CHAPTER THREE: METHODS Purpose of the Project and Questions The purpose of this study is to determine whether college and career readiness guidance services for K-12 public school students (CCR Guidance) are adequate. Adequacy includes: access, which is defined as the ability of students to meet individually, and build relationships with, a CCR Guidance counselor; skill set, which is defined as the CCR Guidance counselor having appropriate knowledge, methods, and tools to help students plan for their future; and market knowledge, which is defined as the CCR Guidance counselor having, or having ready access to, the information necessary to provide specific advice, tailored to the needs of each student, about college, the military, and/or career opportunities. The overarching research question of this study, which is part of a field-based dissertation that focuses on a problem of practice within the field, is: Are K-12 public school students receiving adequate college and career readiness guidance, and, if not, what is the nature, extent, and cause of the shortfall? To uncover information pertinent to answering the overall question, the research study examined the question from the perspective of CCR Guidance counselors and school district administrators. The following sub-questions helped to uncover additional information pertinent to answering the overarching research question: 1. To what extent do school counselors possess the skill set and market knowledge necessary to provide effective CCR Guidance services? 2. Do the scope of school counselor job responsibilities, case load, and methods of delivery support the delivery of CCR Guidance services to students? 3. Do school counselors perceive CCR Guidance to be their primary role, or is their K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 64 focus on other duties or responsibilities? 4. Are school counselors motivated to do a good job in providing CCR Guidance? 5. Are school districts providing appropriate goals, resources, and support for the CCR Guidance work of school counselors? 6. Does the adequacy of CCR Guidance provided by school counselors vary by ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and/or the educational attainment of students’ families? Methodological Approach and Rationale At the highest level, this project was conducted as the first, second, and third steps of the Clark and Estes (2008) five-step improvement model, which are: (i) identifying gaps between current and desired future performance levels; (ii) examining the causes of the gaps identified; and (iii) identifying the areas of improvement necessary to achieve the desired future performance levels. Steps four and five of the Clark and Estes model, which are outside the scope of this project, are: (iv) developing and implementing a comprehensive plan of action; and (v) creating and constantly using evaluation tools to measure continuing performance and to detect new gaps as conditions change. Consistent with this model, special attention was paid to diagnosing performance gaps in the areas of knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational alignment and culture. Utilizing the general methodological principles set forth by Creswell (2014), Merriam and Tisdell (2016), and McEwan and McEwan (2003), this study featured a quantitative methods study design. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 65 Skill Set Market Knowledge Level of Interest Work prioritization Knowledge Influences Motivation Influences COUNSELOR Student demographics Ethnicity Socioeconomic status Family educational history Diversity Influences STUDENT Case Load District / division support Organizational Influences DISTRICT K 1 K 2 M 2 O 2 D 1 O 1 M 1 D 1a D 1b D 1c INDEPENDENT VARIABLES Adequacy of CCR Guidance Services A 1 DEPENDENT VARIABLE - - + + + + + Survey information was collected from CCR Guidance counselors and school district/division administrators. This work tested the hypothesis that the adequacy of CCR Guidance services is influenced by: (i) counselor skill set; (ii) the market knowledge of counselors; (iii) the level of interest of counselors in CCR Guidance work; (iv) the priority given by the counselor to CCR Guidance work; (v) school district/division support for CCR Guidance work; (vi) the case load of counselors; and (vii) the demographics of the students being served, including ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and family educational history. A visual model of this hypothesis is presented in Figure 3.1. The corresponding null hypothesis is that there is no relationship between (i) through (vii) above and the adequacy of CCR Guidance services. Figure 3.1. Visual Model. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 66 In the model, arrows indicate the relationship between each independent variable and the dependent variable. Valence signs postulate whether increases in the independent variable will positively or negatively affect the dependent variable. Participating Groups In order to render the research effort manageable in size, all research activities were conducted in Pennsylvania, Virginia, and the District of Columbia (Study Area). Public school divisions in Virginia serve more than 1.2 million students, 48% of whom are minority (Public School Review, n.d.-b). Public school districts in Pennsylvania serve approximately 1.7 million students, 32% of whom are minority (Public School Review, n.d.-a). District of Columbia public schools serve approximately 49,000 students, 86% of whom are minority (DCPS, n.d.; Public School Review, n.d.-c). Pennsylvania, Virginia, and the District of Columbia were selected (i) because of their diverse student populations which allow for analysis of multiple subgroups, including rural/suburban/urban status; and (ii) because differences in each state’s governance model and level of unionization enable control of these extraneous variables.  Governance. School division boundaries in Virginia (Ballotpedia, n.d.-b; CTE Resource Center, n.d.) are aligned with a city or county, as the case may be. Budget authority and ownership of assets resides with the municipality, which is why school systems in Virginia are referred to as “divisions” as opposed to “districts.” Most day- to-day operating authority is delegated to local school boards, the members of which are sometimes elected, sometimes appointed, depending on the school division. In contrast, school districts in Pennsylvania are governed by locally elected School Boards that are overseen by the Pennsylvania Department of Education (Ballotpedia, K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 67 n.d.-a; Pennsylvania School Boards Association, n.d.). With the notable exception of Philadelphia, municipalities in Pennsylvania have no oversight responsibility of any kind for schools nor any fiscal relationship. The District of Columbia offers a third governance approach. A complicated model is in place under which the schools ultimately report to the Mayor of the District of Columbia (District of Columbia Public Schools, n.d.-b).  Unionization. Virginia is a right to work state. As a result, there are no collective bargaining agreements (CBAs) in Virginia school systems (Workman, 2011). In contrast, nearly all teachers in Pennsylvania are unionized, with most CCR Guidance counselors covered under each district’s CBA with the teachers’ union (Commonwealth Foundation, n.d.; Workman, 2011). Teachers in the District of Columbia are also unionized (District of Columbia Public Schools, n.d.-a) Survey Development: Informal Interviews Prior to commencing the quantitative phase of the work, qualitative information was gathered from CCR Guidance practitioners, families with students in high school, academicians with expertise in the area of CCR Guidance, and survey development experts with the purpose of using the perspectives gathered to develop and refine the survey instruments that were ultimately used in the survey effort. This approach is consistent with the recommendation of Creswell (2014), who indicates that the gathering of input in this manner is appropriate in circumstances where the researcher hopes to develop better measurement tools by securing input from a few individuals, analyzing that input, and then using that input to strengthen the instruments that will be used with a larger population. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 68 Data Collection and Analysis: Survey Sampling Criteria and Rationale The objective the survey effort was to gather and analyze quantitative information through two different but related survey instruments to test the theory that seven independent variables are correlated with and have an impact on the quality and service levels of CCR Guidance services provided. The seven independent variables are: (i) counselor skill set, (ii) market knowledge, (iii) counselor case load, (iv) priority given by counselors to CCR Guidance work, (v) student ethnicity, (vi) student socioeconomic status, and (vii) whether the student would be the first in his or her extended family to attend college. In light of the large number of prospective survey respondents and the widely dispersed geography of the survey population, it was determined that use of a web-based survey approach was appropriate. After a thorough review of five different online survey providers, Survey Gizmo was selected. A key differentiating factor of Survey Gizmo was the ability to incorporate logic into the respondent’s survey experience 4 . For example, if a respondent was a district-level administrator in Pennsylvania, then the survey software presented questions using the wording “school district.” If, however, the district-level administrator worked in Virginia, the survey software presented questions using the wording “school division.” For school-level administrators, the survey presented questions using the wording “school.” This sort of differentiation in survey language was driven by the user’s responses to demographic questions presented at the start of the survey. Screen shots of the survey instrument used with counselors is shown in Appendix A. Screen shots of the survey instrument used with district- and school- level administrators is shown in Appendix B. 4 Two other factors influenced the decision to proceed with Survey Gizmo. First, in the design phase of the survey instruments, Survey Gizmo provided automated feedback on probable time to complete, which was useful in crafting instruments that minimize respondent fatigue. Second, Survey Gizmo provides a test mode for surveys, which was useful for collecting feedback on the survey instruments before they went live. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 69 Survey Sampling Criteria and Rationale Criterion 1. CCR Guidance counselors must work in a public school division or district in the Study Area. A census sample that includes all known school counselors who interact with public high school students in the Study Area was taken. A comprehensive roster of high school counselors was developed by harvesting email addresses from school district websites. Table 3.1 shows the size of the counselor population surveyed, by state: Criterion 2. District administrators must (i) work in a public school district or division in the Study Area and (ii) have direct or indirect counselor oversight responsibility at the school- or district/division-level. A census sample that includes all administrators meeting these criteria in the Study Area was taken. A comprehensive roster of administrators was developed by harvesting email addresses from school district websites. Table 3.2 shows the size of the administrator population that was surveyed, by state: Table 3.1 Table 3.2 Counselor Population in the Study Area Administrator Population in the Study Area State Number of counselors identified Virginia 1,355 Pennsylvania 1,788 District of Columbia 104 Total Survey Area 3,247 State Number of administrators identified Virginia 1,467 Pennsylvania 2,090 District of Columbia 85 Total Survey Area 3,642 Survey Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale Recruitment strategy for each of the populations being surveyed during the 90 day survey period was similar:  At the opening of the survey period window in September 2018, an email was sent to all Superintendents in the Survey Area, informing them of the survey effort, K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 70 providing a link to the survey instrument, and requesting that they complete the survey instrument and encourage others in their organization to do so as well. These emails were sent individually and were personally addressed.  Also at or near the commencement of the survey period, Hobsons-Naviance 5 , Phi Delta Kappa International (PDK), and the Potomac and Chesapeake Association for College Admission Counseling (PCACAC) sent announcements of the survey effort to their members and subscribers, encouraging participation.  In the first weeks of the survey period, emails were sent to all identified counselors and administrators in the Survey Area, informing them of the survey effort, providing a link to the survey instrument, and requesting that they complete the survey instrument. These emails were sent individually, not in bulk, both to reduce spam filtering and to increase the likelihood that the recipient actually opens the email. Emails to counselors were sent first, followed by emails to administrators.  Approximately half way through the survey period, a second email was sent to all identified counselors and administrators. These emails contained a message thanking those who participated in the survey for doing so, encouraging those who had not yet responded to participate in the survey, and providing a link to the survey instrument. The same sequencing as in the initial email was used, so that the time between the first and second contact was close to the same for all individuals.  One week before the end of the survey period, a final email was sent to all identified counselors and administrators in the Survey Area. These emails will contained a message thanking once again those who had already participated in the survey, 5 Hobsons owns Naviance, a software product used in more than 12,000 schools that provides clerical tools to CCR Guidance counselors and information to students and families that helps students align their strengths and interests with their postsecondary goals (Hobsons, n.d.). K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 71 reminding those who have not yet responded that the survey period was about to close, and providing a link to the online survey site. Appendix C includes the templates used for all broadly distributed correspondence relating to the survey effort. Explanation for Choices An explanatory sequential mixed methods approach was originally contemplated for this study. Explanatory sequential studies commence with quantitative research, then use qualitative techniques to help explain the results of the quantitative work (Creswell, 2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Rueda, 2011). The decision to conclude the study after the quantitative phase was driven by several considerations, the two most important of which are discussed below. First, as will be discussed more completely in Chapter Four, the survey results were generally consistent across the entire survey population, suggesting universal, as opposed to subgroup-specific, findings. The original plan was to use focus groups, populated with purposefully selected survey respondents who volunteered to participate, to help explain differences between subgroup responses. The original plan was not designed to explain sameness between subgroup results, nor was it designed to explore nuanced differences between seemingly similar subgroup results. The conclusion was that the survey results and findings suggest a program of research subsequent to this study that would not be meaningfully advanced by conducting the limited qualitative effort that was originally contemplated. Technology challenges associated with the original qualitative study design were also a concern. The original plan was to use the Zoom video conferencing platform to enable focus group sessions that included participants from widely dispersed locations. Trial runs with novice users suggested that participant learning curve issues were highly likely to disrupt focus group K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 72 discussions. It should also be noted that data collection through observation was never included in the research plan. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) and Creswell (2014) offer a number of reasons why researchers often choose to include observation as part of their research efforts. These include, but are not limited to: (i) to help the researcher to understand the context of certain behaviors, (ii) to triangulate with data gathered through other research approaches to validate emerging findings or to explain differences in observed and reported behaviors, (iii) to improve the quality of subsequent interviews by deepening the knowledge foundation of the researcher, (iv) to provide a way to characterize ill-defined phenomena, and (v) to help the researcher understand behaviors that respondents might not be comfortable discussing. Creswell (2014), however, also offers weaknesses of the observation approach, which include: (i) the researcher’s presence may be seen as intrusive, (ii) private information may be observed that cannot be reported, and (iii) certain participants, especially children, may be uncomfortable with the presence of the researcher or behave differently. In the case of this study, while the strengths of data collection through observation are acknowledged, it must be noted that the preponderance of the work of CCR Guidance counselors is conducted with children. Additionally, the subject matter of the work of counselors is frequently private in nature, and could never be reported. As a result, I have concluded that for the purposes of my research, observation not a viable option. Data Analysis A descriptive analysis of the survey responses was conducted for both the counselor and administrator surveys using the three-step process prescribed by Creswell (2014). In Step 1 of the process, the number of prospective participants who did and did not commence or complete a K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 73 survey was calculated. In Step 2, response bias is to be examined. In the case of the two surveys, a wave analysis was completed for each. Wave analyses look at responses to specific questions to determine if they change over time (Creswell, 2014). In the case of the counselor and administrator surveys, responses for randomly selected survey questions were organized sequentially, then analyzed. For each question analyzed in this manner, no material changes in average responses were detected. Also, since partially completed surveys were included in the analysis, the scores of partial completers were compared with the scores of completers using the same methodology as in the wave analysis. No material changes in average responses were detected. In Step 3, a descriptive analysis of the data for all variables in the study is prepared. In the case of the counselor and administrator surveys, the analysis of each question included, as appropriate, the number of responses, means, medians, frequencies, distributions, and ranges. Reliability and Validity In quantitative research, concerns about validity are addressed through the design of the study and controls regarding its execution, including control of extraneous variables, sampling methodology, and the framing of hypotheses before data is collected (Maxwell, 2013). Reliability is an assessment of whether a measurement tool, such as a survey, measures what it is intended to measure, and measures consistently (Creswell, 2014; Salkind, 2017). Relevant strategies that were used to assure reliability and validity included the following:  Advice and piloting. The two survey instruments, individually and collectively, received considerable scrutiny prior to their deployment. First, during the development phase, peers and content experts were asked to review and provide feedback about the survey instruments. Once in draft form, the instruments were K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 74 loaded onto Survey Gizmo for piloting, with feedback requested of those who participated in the dry runs. As Creswell (2014) indicates, “testing is important to establish the content validity of scores on an instrument and to improve questions, format, and scales” (p. 161).  Triangulation. As Merriam and Tisdell (2016) indicate, triangulation is the use of multiple sources of data or data collection methods, to provide credence to emerging findings. By examining the research question from two different perspectives (i.e., counselors and administrators), and by using two different survey instruments, triangulation was achieved. Triangulation, however, does not increase validity if the various populations or methods that are triangulated have the same biases or other sources of invalidity (Maxwell, 2013). To mitigate this validity concern, the survey results were also compared to the results of other published research relevant to the research questions, both qualitative and quantitative.  Sampling. Census sampling was the selection methodology for the participants in both surveys. As Creswell (2014) notes, census sampling reduces the risk of sampling bias from the survey effort. Ethics Merriam and Tisdell (2016) note that “[t]o a large extent, the validity and reliability of a study depend upon the ethics of the investigator” (p. 260). With this in mind, prior to conducting this study, I secured the approval of the University of Southern California’s Institutional Review Board (IRB). IRB approval, Glesne (2011) indicates, is based on a number of guiding principles: (i) research subjects must have sufficient information to make informed decisions about K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 75 participating in a study; (ii) research subjects must be able to withdraw, without penalty, from a study at any point; (iii) all unnecessary risks to a research subject must be eliminated; (iv) benefits to the subject or society, preferably both, must outweigh all potential risks; and (v) experiments should be conducted only by qualified investigators. For both the counselor and administrator survey instruments, prior to commencing the survey, respondents were electronically presented an information sheet that contained, as Creswell (2014) recommends, identification of the researcher and sponsoring / participating institutions, the purpose of the study, the level and type of participant involvement, a guarantee of confidentiality to each participant, assurance that the participant can withdraw at any time, and contact information for whom to contact if questions arise. In order to protect the privacy and avoid exploitation of participants, survey responses did not contain any identifying information about the respondent, save for demographic information used in aggregated analysis. Survey respondents were permitted to volunteer to participate in possible follow-up member checking interviews; however, the identifying information provided (i.e., an email address, but not the name of the individual) was separated from their survey responses. The steps taken to protect the confidentiality of responses and participant identity greatly reduced any risks for participants. Since this study examines a problem of practice in the field, as opposed to an assessment of a single organization, the likelihood that I had any current relationship with survey respondents was low. Even if I had a relationship with a respondent, the absence of identifying information on completed surveys precludes me from knowing how an individual responded or if they responded at all. This is important, because the primary method of solicitation was direct emails to individuals harvested from district websites. I know who I invited to participate, but I K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 76 do not know who were the actual respondents. Consequently, there appear to have been no issues associated with power and control (Glesne, 2011). Since this is an improvement study, my work assumes that significant issues exist in the adequacy of CCR Guidance services in public schools. Additionally, it should be noted that, when serving as a K-12 District Superintendent, I invested significant time, effort, and political capital in restructuring counseling departments with the goal of improving the delivery of CCR Guidance services. In a strategic plan that was issued under my signature, one of the key objectives for CCR Guidance was to enable every student to pursue, and have a reasonable chance of achieving, his or her dreams and aspirations, no matter how ambitious. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 77 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS Purpose of the Project and Questions As discussed in Chapter One, the purpose of this study is to determine whether college and career readiness guidance services for K-12 public school students (CCR Guidance) are adequate. Adequacy includes: access, which is defined as the ability of students to meet individually, and build relationships with, a CCR Guidance counselor; skill set, which is defined as the CCR Guidance counselor having appropriate knowledge, methods, and tools to help students plan for their future; and market knowledge, which is defined as the CCR Guidance counselor having, or having ready access to, the information necessary to provide specific advice, tailored to the needs of each student, about college, the military, and/or career opportunities. The overarching research question of this study, which is part of a field-based dissertation that focused on a problem of practice within the field, is: Are K-12 public school students receiving adequate college and career readiness guidance (CCR Guidance), and, if not, what is the nature, extent, and cause of the shortfall? The following sub-questions are intended to uncover additional information pertinent to answering the overarching research question: 1. To what extent do school counselors possess the skill set and market knowledge necessary to provide effective CCR Guidance services? 2. Do the scope of school counselor job responsibilities, case load, and methods of delivery support the delivery of CCR Guidance services to students? K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 78 3. Do school counselors perceive CCR Guidance to be their primary role, or is their focus on other duties or responsibilities? 4. Are school counselors motivated to do a good job in providing CCR Guidance? 5. Are school districts providing appropriate goals, resources, and support for the CCR Guidance work of school counselors? 6. Does the adequacy of CCR Guidance provided by school counselors vary by ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and/or the educational attainment of students’ families? To uncover pertinent information, quantitative surveys of district- and school-level administrators (Administrators) and counselors were conducted. Participating Stakeholders A total of 492 high school counselors and 262 Administrators in Pennsylvania, Virginia, and the District of Columbia (Survey Area) either partially or fully completed the survey instrument. As shown in Table 4.1, this represents a 15.9 percent response rate for counselors (492 of 3,102 counselors directly invited to participate) and a 7.8 percent response rate for Administrators (262 of 3,341 Administrators directly invited to participate). Of the surveys started, 62.8 percent of high school counselors and 68.7 percent of Administrators completed the entire instrument. 6 All high school counselors, school principals, other school-level administrators, district- level administrators with direct responsibility for counseling, and Superintendents in the Survey Area for whom email addresses could be found received at least one and as many as three email 6 Completion indicates that the respondent progressed through the entire survey instrument. Completion does not indicate that the survey-taker responded to every question. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 79 invitations to participate in the survey. Two school divisions in Virginia requested that invitations not be sent to their high school counselors or Administrators. The requests were honored. This resulted in 192 high school counselors and 230 Administrators not receiving email invitations to participate in the survey. These counselors and Administrators are not included in the response rate calculations. Table 4.1 Counselor and Administrator Survey Responses Counselor Administrator Email invitations sent 8,945 8,025 Unique email addresses identified 3,155 3,412 Average number of emails sent per address 2.84 2.35 Bad Addresses 53 71 Email addresses reached at least once 3,102 3,341 Total surveys started 492 262 Partially Completed Surveys 183 82 Completed Surveys 309 180 Surveys Started Response Rate 15.9% 7.8% Completed Surveys Response Rate 10.0% 5.4% Survey Note: Data from partially completed surveys was captured and is included in survey results. "Completed survey" indicates that the respondent did not abandon the survey prior to completion. Completed surveys may contain unanswered questions. Data from 43 counselor surveys and 12 administrator surveys are not included in the results due to respondent disqualification. Reasons for disqualification were: respondent not a counselor or administrator; respondent does not work in Pennsylvania, Virginia, or the District of Columbia; or respondent does not work in public education. Demographic data for the respondent populations is shown in Table 4.2. Approximately two-thirds of survey respondents for both surveys work in Pennsylvania school districts, with the K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 80 remainder primarily working in Virginia. 7 Responding counselors were 79 percent female; responding Administrators were 68 percent male. Respondents from urban districts/divisions comprised about 20 percent of the total, with the remainder split nearly evenly between suburban and rural districts/divisions. Table 4.2 Demographics of Survey Respondents as a Percentage of the Sample n Percent n Percent Work location 449 250 Pennsylvania 69 68 Virginia 30 31 District of Columbia 0 1 Gender 448 245 Female 79 41 Male 19 58 Prefer not to say 1 0 Ethnicity 445 248 Asian/Pacific Islander 1 0 Black or African American 8 12 Hispanic or Latino 1 1 Native American or American Indian 0 0 White 85 85 Other 2 1 Prefer not to say 2 1 District Type 447 250 Large Urban 11 9 Smaller Urban 6 12 Suburban 43 39 Rural 39 40 Note: Percentages may not total to 100 percent due to rounding. Counselor Administrator Survey 7 Responses from high school counselors and Administrators from the District of Columbia totaled less than one percent of the survey population. District of Columbia responses are included in all reported survey results, with the exception of “by location” data where District of Columbia responses are not shown. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 81 Results This section presents a descriptive analysis (Creswell, 2014) of the data collected in the counselor and Administrator surveys. Detailed results for each survey question in the counselor and Administrator survey instruments appear in Appendix C and Appendix D, respectively. Taken together, the two surveys were conducted to test the hypothesis that the adequacy of CCR Guidance services is influenced by: (i) counselor skill set; (ii) the market knowledge of counselors; (iii) the level of interest of counselors in CCR Guidance work; (iv) the priority given by the counselor to CCR Guidance work; (v) school district/division support for CCR Guidance work; (vi) the case load of counselors; and (vii) the demographics of the students being served, including ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and family educational history. Figure 3.1 in Chapter Three of this dissertation presents a visual model of this hypothesis. General Results Nearly two-thirds of all survey respondents, both counselors and Administrators, agree or strongly agree with the assertion that, all things considered, counselors are meeting the CCR Guidance needs of the students they serve. As Table 4.3 shows, the results are consistent across multiple subgroupings, including by-state, by-district type, and by-Recognized ASCA Model Program (RAMP) status 8 . 8 The American School Counselor Program (ASCA) describes their Recognized ASCA Model Program as a recognition program that “helps schools evaluate their school counseling program, discover areas for improvement and enhance the program's efforts to contribute to student success” (ASCA, n.d.-a). K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 82 Table 4.3 Formal Training of Counselors (Responses expressed in percent) n Agree and Strongly Agree Somewhat Agree and Somewhat Disagree Disagree and Strongly Disagree n Agree and Strongly Agree Somewhat Agree and Somewhat Disagree Disagree and Strongly Disagree All Counselors 344 65 31 4 184 65 30 5 By Location Pennsylvania 241 63 33 4 131 64 32 4 Virginia 102 69 29 3 50 66 26 8 By Type of District Large Urban 37 65 32 3 11 27 64 9 Smaller Urban 25 68 20 12 20 60 35 5 Suburban 145 62 36 3 72 65 33 1 Rural 135 68 28 3 81 70 22 7 By RAMP Status RAMP 60 85 15 0 29 59 37 3 Non-RAMP 235 59 36 5 56 61 32 7 Level of Agreement All things considered, I am meeting the CCR Guidance needs of the students for whom I am responsible Note: Statement worded as presented in the Counselor version of the survey. In the Administrator survey "I am" is reworded as "counselors in my [school district, school division, or school] are". Totals may not round to 100 percent due to rounding. Counselors Administrators A central component of the adequacy of CCR Guidance services, as defined in this study, is access, which is the ability of students to meet individually, and build relationships with, a CCR Guidance counselor. Both the counselor and Administrator survey instruments contained five response items relating to counselor availability and relationship building. Figure 4.1 presents the results 9 . The preponderance of counselors and Administrators who responded to the surveys agreed with all five statements shown in Figure 4.1. For example, 94 percent of counselors and 93 percent of Administrators indicated that students can meet with a counselor when they need to. The responses, however, were not uniform. For example, 25 9 Note: The statements shown Figure 4.1 and all subsequent figures in this chapter are worded as presented in the Counselor version of the survey. In the Administrator survey “I am” is reworded as “counselors in my [school district, school division, or school] are”. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 83 percent of counselors do not agree that they get to know students individually, and 33 percent of counselors do not know the life aspirations of the students they serve. Similarly, 21 percent of Administrators do not agree that counselors regularly discuss the value of developing employable skills with students. Only 10 percent of counselors responded similarly. Figure 4.1. Survey responses to availability and relationship questions. All bars in the chart sum to 100 percent. The percentage of respondents who answer “Strongly disagree,” “Disagree,” and “Somewhat Disagree” is counted as a negative value. The percentage of respondents who answer “Strongly agree,” “Agree,” or “Somewhat agree” are counted as a positive value. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 84 Knowledge Results This section presents survey results relating to the skill set and market knowledge of counselors. To garner insight into skill sets, the counselor survey instrument included questions pertaining to training in a number of areas of CCR Guidance counseling. To address market knowledge, counselors and Administrators were asked to indicate their perceptions about the ability of counselors to provide advice to students regarding post-secondary education, enlistment in the military, vocational training, and entry into the workforce immediately after leaving high school. Skill sets. As was discussed more extensively in Chapter Two, the College Board National Office for School Counselor Advocacy (NOSCA) has published a list of eight components of CCR Counseling that the organization believes should be a part of all K-12 counseling programs (NOSCA, 2010). In the counselor survey, respondents were asked whether, in each of NOSCA’s eight components, they have received training (i) as part of their counselor certification program and (ii) as part of their ongoing program of professional development. Results are presented in Table 4.4. For each and every one of NOSCA’s eight components, more than half of survey respondents indicated that they had received no training as part of their counselor certification course of study. For example, 83 percent of counselors reported that they had not received certification program training in the area of college affordability planning. The professional development results were more varied. For example, 65 percent of respondents indicated they have received professional development in the area college aspirations, while 25 percent said they received professional development in enrichment and extracurricular engagement. NOSCA component areas where respondents reported that they received neither certification training nor K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 85 professional development ranged from 25 percent (college aspirations) to 74 percent (enrichment and extracurricular engagement), with an average of 43 percent across all eight NOSCA components. Table 4.4 Formal Training of Counselors (Responses expressed in percent) Combined n Yes No n Yes No No to both College Aspirations 312 39 61 316 65 35 25 Academic Planning For College and Career Readiness 305 41 59 307 56 44 35 Enrichment and Extracurricular Engagement 297 14 86 299 25 75 74 College and Career Exploration and Selection Processes 293 43 57 295 60 40 32 College and Career Assessments 287 44 56 290 57 43 31 College Affordability Planning 288 17 83 290 52 48 45 College and Career Admissions Processes 288 23 77 287 55 45 41 Transition from High School to College Enrollment 282 21 79 287 39 61 58 Certification Training Coursework Ongoing Professional Development Note: Percentages may not total to 100 percent due to rounding. Survey Question: Did you receive FORMAL TRAINING as part of your … ? K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 86 Market knowledge. In order to assess counselor market knowledge, counselors and Administrators were asked to indicate their perceptions about the ability of counselors to provide advice to students regarding post-secondary education, enlistment in the military, vocational training, and entry into the workforce immediately after leaving high school. A visual summary of the results is presented in Figure 4.2. Figure 4.2. Responses to survey questions regarding market knowledge. All bars in the chart sum to 100 percent. The percentage of respondents who answer “Strongly disagree,” “Disagree,” and “Somewhat Disagree” is counted as a negative value. The percentage of respondents who answer “Strongly agree,” “Agree,” or “Somewhat agree” are counted as a positive value. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 87 More than 90 percent of counselors and Administrators indicated that counselors are able to develop well-matched lists of colleges for students to consider, as well as to provide individualized advice to students about community colleges. More than 85 percent of counselors and Administrators felt that counselors are capable of providing advice to students regarding vocational training and enlistment in the military. Less certainty was expressed regarding the ability of counselors to identify employers who might be a good fit for students who choose to enter the workforce straight out of high school; 34 percent of counselors and 33 percent of Administrators felt that counselors could not provide advice in this area. Motivation Results This section presents survey results relating to the level of interest of counselors in CCR Guidance work and the work prioritization decisions of counselors. Level of counselor interest in CCR Guidance work. Counselors were asked to indicate, for each of NOSCA’s eight components of CCR Guidance, (i) how often they actually do work related to the component and (ii) how often they would prefer to do work related to the component. The difference between the two responses is used as a proxy for the level of counselor interest in work related to the component. The actual and preferred frequencies of doing work in each NOSCA component were also rank ordered. Results are presented in Table 4.5. Counselors expressed a preference for increasing the frequency of doing work in all eight NOSCA components of CCR Guidance, suggesting a positive predilection for CCR Guidance work. The NOSCA components with the greatest difference between actual and preferred frequency of doing work were enrichment and extracurricular engagement (+27 percent) and transition from high school to college enrollment (+20 percent). Although counselors indicated a K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 88 preference to increase the frequency of their work in college affordability planning, the increase was small relative to other NOSCA components, resulting in a rank order decline from seventh to eighth position. Table 4.5 Counselor Actual and Preferred Frequency of Completing Each Element of CCR Guidance Work CCR Guidance Element Average Rank Order Average Rank Order Average G Percent G College Aspirations 2.42 3rd 2.63 3rd + 0.21 + 9 Academic Planning For College and Career Readiness 2.60 1st 2.74 1st + 0.14 + 5 Enrichment and Extracurricular Engagement 1.77 8th 2.25 7th + 0.48 + 27 College and Career Exploration and Selection Processes 2.46 2nd 2.71 2nd + 0.25 + 10 College and Career Assessments 2.14 5th 2.33 5th + 0.18 + 9 College Affordability Planning 1.91 7th 2.04 8th + 0.13 + 7 College and Career Admissions Processes 2.34 4th 2.50 4th + 0.17 + 7 Transition from High School to College Enrollment 1.93 6th 2.32 6th + 0.39 + 20 Actually Do Would Prefer to Do Difference Note: Scale for calculation of averages is: Never (0), Rarely (1), Occasionally (2), Frequently (3) K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 89 Work prioritization of counselors. Counselors were asked to indicate how, on average over the course of a school year, they allocate their time for all counseling and non-counseling work. Six work categories were provided, as follows:  Guidance curriculum, which includes lesson preparation, teacher consultation, and classroom delivery;  Student planning, which includes assisting students in establishing personal goals, as well as college and career planning;  Responsive services, which includes counseling activities that meet immediate needs, often necessitated by life events;  Student advocacy, which includes individual education plan meetings, student study teams, and school attendance review boards;  Other counseling-related activities, including administrative work; and  Non-counseling work. Table 4.6 summarizes counselor responses. In addition to the subgroup of all, data are presented by state, by type of district, and by RAMP status. Table 4.6 Average Allocation of Counselor Time Between Activities (Values shown are percentage of total) All Penna Virginia Large Urban Small Urban Suburban Rural RAMP Non- RAMP Guidance Curriculum 11.5 11.7 10.8 10.9 13.8 11.7 11.0 13.1 11.0 Student Planning 26.1 26.3 25.7 24.6 22.5 28.0 25.2 28.2 24.5 Responsive Services 26.1 26.2 25.8 26.1 23.5 26.7 25.6 25.6 26.8 Student Advocacy 13.0 13.5 11.9 12.6 13.7 13.3 12.9 11.8 13.6 Other Counseling 15.3 14.6 17.1 17.9 16.1 13.5 16.4 15.1 15.4 Non-Counseling Work 8.0 7.7 8.6 7.8 10.4 6.7 9.0 6.1 8.8 By location By type of district By RAMP status Note: Totals may not round to 100 percent due to rounding. All values are the mean of all counselor respondents in the relevant demographic grouping. RAMP analysis omits all respondents who answered "Don't Know." K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 90 2% 1% 2% 10% 23% 22% 22% 8% 4% 2% 1% 1% 4% 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% Percent of Total Respondents Students per Counselor Counselor Caseload The survey responses indicate that counselors spend, on average, just over 25 percent of their time on student planning, which includes CCR Readiness Guidance. Another 25 percent of counselor time is dedicated to responsive services. The remainder of counselor time is divided between the remaining categories. The results do not meaningfully vary by state, by type of district, or by RAMP status. Organizational Results This section presents survey results relating to organizational influences on the work of counselors. Four areas were examined: counselor caseload, constructive management support, sufficiency of resources, goal setting, and evaluation. Counselor caseload. The median 10 counselor caseload for the survey population was 310-to-1. As Figure 4.3 shows, 85 percent of counselors reported caseloads of 250-to-1 or higher. For reference, the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) recommends a student-to-counselor ratio of 250-to-1 (ASCA and NACAC, n.d.). 10 Several counselors indicated that they were the only counselor in schools with student populations greater than 1,000. These large caseloads disproportionately affected the mean. The median is reported instead. Figure 4.3. Counselor caseload. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 91 Constructive management support and sufficiency of resources. As Figure 4.4 shows, 55 percent of counselors agreed and 45 percent of counselors disagreed with the statement “I regularly receive constructive feedback about my counseling work from building and/or district leaders.” In contrast, 72 percent of Administrators agreed and 28 percent of Administrators disagreed with the statement “In my [school district, school division, or school], counselors regularly receive constructive feedback about their counseling work from building and/or district leaders.” Figure 4.4. Responses to survey questions regarding organizational support. All bars in the chart sum to 100 percent. The percentage of respondents who answer “Strongly disagree,” “Disagree,” and “Somewhat Disagree” is counted as a negative value. The percentage of respondents who answer “Strongly agree,” “Agree,” or “Somewhat agree” are counted as a positive value. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 92 When asked whether the school district provides the resources necessary for counselors to do their job, 71 percent of counselors and 78 percent of Administrators agreed. Conversely, 28 percent of counselors and 22 percent of Administrators disagreed. Goal setting and evaluations. Counselors were asked whether measurable goals were established for their work in each of NOSCA’s eight components of CCR Guidance. Table 4.7 presents the results. Table 4.7 Goals for and Evaluation of CCR Guidance Work (Percent of responding counselors) n Yes No n Yes No College Aspirations 320 43 58 319 44 56 Academic Planning For College and Career Readiness 308 47 53 307 49 51 Enrichment and Extracurricular Engagement 296 18 82 299 24 76 College and Career Exploration and Selection Processes 296 45 55 295 44 56 College and Career Assessments 293 39 61 291 38 62 College Affordability Planning 289 18 82 286 17 83 College and Career Admissions Processes 290 28 72 290 31 69 Transition from High School to College Enrollment 289 20 80 286 23 77 Measurable Goals Established? Performance Evaluated? Note: Percentages may not total to 100 percent due to rounding. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 93 In each of the eight NOSCA components of CCR Guidance, a majority of counselors indicated that measurable goals were not established for their work. Academic planning for college and career readiness (47 percent yes, 53 percent no) and college and career exploration and selection processes (45 percent yes, 55 percent no) were the two NOSCA components with the highest reported level of goal setting. College affordability planning (18 percent yes, 82 percent no) and enrichment and extracurricular engagement (18 percent yes, 82 percent no) were the two NOSCA components with the lowest reported level of goal setting. Similarly, in each of the eight NOSCA components of CCR Guidance, a majority of counselors indicated that their performance is not evaluated. Academic planning for college and career readiness (49 percent yes, 51 percent no), college aspirations (44 percent yes, 56 percent no), and college and career exploration and selection processes (44 percent yes, 56 percent no) were the three NOSCA components with the highest reported level of performance evaluation. College affordability planning (17 percent yes, 83 percent no) and transition from high school to college enrollment (23 percent yes, 77 percent no) were the two NOSCA components with the lowest reported level of performance evaluation. As shown in Table 4.8, there were significant differences in the responses from counselors regarding goal setting and performance evaluation in RAMP and non-RAMP schools. In every NOSCA component area, a higher percentage of counselors in RAMP schools reported that goals were set and performance was evaluated than their non-RAMP counterparts. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 94 Table 4.8 RAMP vs. Non-RAMP Goals for and Evaluation of CCR Guidance Work (Percent of responding counselors) n Yes No n Yes No n Yes No n Yes No College Aspirations 55 51 49 219 41 59 55 62 38 218 38 62 Academic Planning For College and Career Readiness 54 57 43 211 45 55 53 64 36 211 45 55 Enrichment and Extracurricular Engagement 52 37 63 204 13 87 53 47 53 206 18 82 College and Career Exploration and Selection Processes 54 69 31 202 39 61 53 72 28 203 38 62 College and Career Assessments 54 57 43 200 34 66 54 61 39 199 32 68 College Affordability Planning 52 33 67 198 12 88 54 46 54 193 8 92 College and Career Admissions Processes 53 43 57 198 20 80 54 52 48 197 24 76 Transition from High School to College Enrollment 53 36 64 197 16 84 51 45 55 196 19 81 Measurable Goals Established? Note: Percentages may not total to 100 percent due to rounding. RAMP Non-RAMP RAMP Non-RAMP Performance Evaluated? ASCA’s rubric for RAMP recognition (ASCA, 2019) includes an expectation that an annual agreement be established with each school counselor, using a template provided by ASCA(American School Counselor Association, n.d.). This agreement includes articulation of the school’s counseling program goals for the year. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 95 Student Demographics Results This section presents survey results from questions about the extent to which CCR Guidance counselors tailor their approach to the specific needs of students based on cultural heritage, socioeconomic status, and family educational history. Figure 4.5 presents the results. Figure 4.5. Responses to survey questions regarding student demographics. All bars in the chart sum to 100 percent. The percentage of respondents who answer “Strongly disagree,” “Disagree,” and “Somewhat Disagree” is counted as a negative value. The percentage of respondents who answer “Strongly agree,” “Agree,” or “Somewhat agree” are counted as a positive value. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 96 When asked whether counselors tailor their approach to assure that college-bound students from low-income families apply to schools whose selectivity is consistent with their academic credentials, 87 percent of counselors and 82 percent of Administrators indicate that they do. When asked whether counselors modify their counseling approach with students who would be the first in their family to attend college, 86 percent of counselors and 75 percent of Administrators said they do. When asked if counselors modify their counseling approach to incorporate the cultural heritage of the student with whom they are interacting, 86 percent of counselors and 67 percent of Administrators said they do. Counselor and Administrator responses were similar when sorted by location and district type, with the exception of counselors in large urban districts. As shown in Table 4.9, a smaller percentage of counselors in large urban districts than the survey population as a whole indicated that they tailor their CCR Guidance based on a student’s socioeconomic status, cultural heritage, and/or family educational history. Table 4.9 Tailoring CCR Guidance Advice to Demographic Characteristics of Individual Student (Percent of Respondents Affirming Such Tailoring) n Yes n Yes n Yes n Yes Assure college selectivity of low income students 385 87 39 64 197 82 12 83 Tailor approach for first in family to attend college 386 86 40 71 194 75 11 72 Tailor approach to reflect student's cultural heritage 342 86 37 79 181 67 11 63 Note: The columns labeled "Yes" in this table present is the sum of "Somewhat Agree," "Agree," and "Strongly Agree" responses. Counselors Administrators All Large Urban All Large Urban K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 97 Findings In this section, the survey results presented above will be mapped to the overarching research question and to each of the six supporting questions. Implications of the findings will be discussed in Chapter Five. Overarching Research Question The overarching research question for this study is: Are K-12 public school students receiving adequate CCR Guidance, and, if not, what is the nature, extent, and cause of the shortfall? Finding #1. On average, 38 percent of administrators view the delivery of CCR Guidance counseling in their school, district, or division as excellent; 47 percent view it as adequate, and 15 percent view it as weak. Figure 4.6 shows summary results of Administrator responses to the question: “How well does your [school district, school division, or school] deliver each component of college and career readiness guidance counseling?” Figure 4.6. Administrator responses to questions regarding delivery of CCR Guidance counseling. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 98 Finding #2. Counselors and Administrators both indicate that the most important contributors to counselor success that are being done well are (i) meeting the college and career readiness guidance needs of students; (ii) the ability of students to meet with a counselor when they need to; (iii) helping students who have not yet developed a plan for their future; (iv) providing information about vocational educational opportunities; and (v) discussing with students the value of developing employable skills. Finding #3. Counselors and Administrators both indicate that the most important contributors to counselor success that are being done less well are (i) knowing the life aspirations of each student; and (ii) school districts/divisions providing adequate resources for counselors to do their jobs. Both the counselor and Administrator surveys asked respondents to indicate their level of agreement with each of 16 different statements 11 and, for each statement, to share their opinion as to how important the statement is to counselor success 12 . The level of agreement statements are a proxy for performance, since all are worded in the same direction (i.e., higher levels of agreement indicate better performance). The mean score for the level of agreement (performance) with all 16 statements was calculated, as was the mean for all importance responses. These calculations were used to create a four quadrant matrix: (i) Quadrant 1 shows statements with above-average performance and above-average importance; (ii) Quadrant 2 shows statements with above-average performance and below-average importance; (iii) Quadrant 3 shows statement with below-average performance and below-average importance; and (iv) Quadrant 4 shows statements with below- 11 Response scale for expressing agreement with each statement ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree). 12 Response scale for indicating the perceived importance of each statement ranged from 0 (no importance) to 3 (high importance). K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 99 average performance and above-average importance. Table 4.10 shows the results for all 16 statements and quadrant placement for all 16 statements. Counselor and Administrator survey results were calculated separately. Figures 4.7 and 4.8 plot the results. Table 4.10 # Description Peformance Importance Quandrant Performance Importance Quadrant 1 Ability to meet when needed 5.01 2.93 1 5.05 2.86 1 2 Get to know students individually 4.21 2.80 4 4.59 2.82 1 3 Know student life aspirations 3.81 2.55 4 4.20 2.63 4 4 Advice about college matching 4.88 2.44 2 4.95 2.54 1 5 Advice about Community College 5.03 2.45 2 5.04 2.53 1 6 College selectivity for low income students 4.70 2.35 2 4.50 2.51 4 7 Advice about enlisting in the military 4.50 2.22 2 4.77 2.39 2 8 Tailor approach to family educational history 4.65 2.38 2 4.30 2.32 3 9 Help students create plan for the future 4.72 2.77 1 4.56 2.74 1 10 Assist students entering workforce 3.86 2.22 3 3.96 2.42 3 11 Advice on vocational education 4.83 2.59 1 4.80 2.70 1 12 Share value of employable skills 4.85 2.63 1 4.51 2.61 1 13 Tailor approach to student's cultural heritage 4.54 2.43 2 3.98 2.32 3 14 Receive regular constructive feedback 3.64 2.29 3 4.15 2.59 4 15 District provides needed resources 4.05 2.80 4 4.36 2.77 4 16 Meeting CCR Guidance needs of students 4.75 2.85 1 4.76 2.79 1 Performance and Importance Matrix for Sixteen Elements Influencing the Adequacy of CCR Guidance services (Average scores for all survey responses) Counselors Administrators Note: Survey respondents were asked to indicate their level of agreement with 16 different statements regarding CCR Guidance. These statements serve as a proxy for performance, since all are worded in the same direction (i.e., higher levels of agreement indicate better performance). Level of agreement scores for individual surveys range from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 6 (Strongly Agree). Importance scores range from 0 (No importance) to 3 (High Importance). Quadrant placement for each of the 16 items listed above is determined by the mean score of all survey responses for that item. Quadrant placement is completed separately for the Counselor survey instrument and the Administrator Survey Instrument. Quadrant 1 includes items where the mean score for Performance is greater than 4.50 and the mean score for Importance is greater than 2.50. Quadrant 2 includes items where the mean score for Performance is greater than 4.50 and the mean score for Importance is less than or equal to 2.50. Quadrant 3 includes items where the mean score for Performance is less than or equal to 4.50 and the mean score for Importance is less than or equal to 2.50. Quadrant 4 includes items where the mean score for Performance is less than or equal to 4.50 and the mean score for Importance is greater than 2.50. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 100 Figure 4.7. Counselor performance vs. importance matrix. Figure 4.8. Administrator performance vs. importance matrix. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 101 Sub-Question 1: To what extent do school counselors possess the skill set and market knowledge necessary to provide effective CCR Guidance services? Finding #4. For each NOSCA component of CCR Guidance, more than half of all counselors report that they received no training as part of their counselor certification program. Finding #5. For each NOSCA component of CCR Guidance, between 35 percent and 75 percent of all counselors, depending on the component, indicate that they have received no training as part of their ongoing professional development program. Finding #6. For each NOSCA component of CCR Guidance, between 25 percent and 74 percent of all counselors, depending on the component, indicate that they have received no training at all. Finding #7. More than 85 percent of counselors and Administrators consider counselors to be proficient in helping students with college matching, as well as providing individualized advice regarding enrollment in community college, opportunities for vocational education, and enlisting in the military. Finding #8. More than one-third of counselors indicate that they are unable to identify specific employers who might be a good fit for a student who has decided to go to work immediately after high school. More than 30 percent of Administrators agree. Sub-Question 2: Do the scope of school counselor job responsibilities, case load, and methods of delivery support the delivery of CCR Guidance services to students? Finding #9. For 89 percent of responding counselors, the time available to provide CCR Guidance services is between 31 and 78 minutes per student per school year. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 102 The standard school year in Pennsylvania and Virginia is 180 days or 990 instructional hours (Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, n.d.; Commonwealth of Virginia, n.d.). In the District of Columbia, the standard school year is 180 days (NCES, 2018) Based on the survey results collected for this study, counselors spend 26.1 percent of their time, on average, on CCR Guidance related work, suggesting a total of 260 hours per school year spent on CCR Guidance related work. 13 The survey results also indicate a median counselor case load of 310 students, with 89 percent of counselors having a case load between 200 and 500 students. This suggests that, for nearly 90 percent of all counselors, the time available for CCR Guidance is between 31 and 78 minutes per year per student, with a median of 50 minutes per year per student 14 . Sub-Question 3: Do school counselors perceive CCR Guidance to be their primary role, or is their focus on other duties or responsibilities? Finding #10. On average, over the course of a year, counselors spend approximately 25 percent of their time on CCR Guidance work. This level of time commitment does not meaningfully vary when the survey results are disaggregated on a by-location, by district-type, and by-RAMP status basis. Sub-Question 4: Are school counselors motivated to do a good job in providing CCR Guidance? Finding #11. Counselors wish to increase the frequency with which they do work in each of the eight NOSCA components of CCR Guidance. Finding #12. For counselors, college affordability planning is the least preferred component of CCR Guidance. Academic planning is the most preferred. 13 Calculation: 990 hours x 26.1% = 258.4 hours. For purposes of this analysis, the result is rounded up to 260 hours. 14 Calculation formula: (260 hours x 60 minutes) / case load. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 103 Sub-Question 5: Are school districts providing appropriate goals, resources, and support for the CCR Guidance work of school counselors? Finding #13. For each NOSCA component of CCR Guidance, between 53 percent and 80 percent of all counselors, depending on the component, indicate that measurable goals for their work in the component are not regularly established. Finding #14. For each NOSCA component of CCR Guidance, between 51 percent and 83 percent of all counselors, depending on the component, indicate that their work in the component is not specifically addressed in their performance evaluations. Finding #15. Seventy-one percent of counselors and 78 percent of Administrators feel that the school district/division provides adequate resources for counselors to do their jobs. Sub-Question 6: Does the adequacy of CCR Guidance provided by school counselors vary by ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and/or the educational attainment of students’ families? Finding #16. Counselors (87 percent) and Administrators (82 percent) indicate that counselors tailor their CCR Guidance work to assure that college-bound students from low- income families apply to schools whose selectivity is consistent with their academic credentials. Finding #17. Counselors (86 percent) and Administrators (75 percent) indicate that counselors modify their counseling approach if the student would be the first in their family to attend college. Finding #18. Counselors (86 percent) and Administrators (67 percent) indicate that counselors modify their counseling approach to incorporate the cultural heritage of the student with whom they are interacting. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 104 Finding #19. Fewer counselors in large urban school districts than in the general counselor population modify their counseling approach to take into account the socioeconomic status (64 percent versus 87 percent), family educational history (71 percent versus 86 percent), and cultural heritage (79 percent versus 86 percent) of the students with whom they are interacting. Concluding General Observation Finding #20. As the detailed survey results set forth in Appendix 3 (counselor survey data) and Appendix 4 (Administrator survey data) show, the survey results remain fundamentally the same across subgroups. Except as noted in this chapter, results for Pennsylvania are very similar to results from Virginia. The same is true when the data are disaggregated by district type and RAMP status. Chapter Five will address the implications of these findings and proffer a number of recommendations. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 105 CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS As has been discussed in the previous chapters, the purpose of this study is to determine whether college and career readiness guidance services for K-12 public school students (CCR Guidance) are adequate. Adequacy includes: access, which is defined as the ability of students to meet individually, and build relationships with, a CCR Guidance counselor; skill set, which is defined as the CCR Guidance counselor having appropriate knowledge, methods, and tools to help students plan for their future; and market knowledge, which is defined as the CCR Guidance counselor having, or having ready access to, the information necessary to provide specific advice, tailored to the needs of each student, about college, the military, and/or career opportunities. The overarching research question of this study is: Are K-12 public school students receiving adequate college and career readiness guidance (CCR Guidance), and, if not, what is the nature, extent, and cause of the shortfall? The following sub-questions are intended to uncover additional information pertinent to answering the overarching research question: 1. To what extent do school counselors possess the skill set and market knowledge necessary to provide effective CCR Guidance services? 2. Do the scope of school counselor job responsibilities, case load, and methods of delivery support the delivery of CCR Guidance services to students? 3. Do school counselors perceive CCR Guidance to be their primary role, or is their focus on other duties or responsibilities? 4. Are school counselors motivated to do a good job in providing CCR Guidance? K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 106 5. Are school districts providing appropriate goals, resources, and support for the CCR Guidance work of school counselors? 6. Does the adequacy of CCR Guidance provided by school counselors vary by ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and/or the educational attainment of students’ families? To uncover pertinent information, quantitative surveys of district- and school-level administrators (Administrators) and counselors were conducted. This work tested the hypothesis that the adequacy of CCR Guidance services is influenced by: (i) counselor skill set; (ii) the market knowledge of counselors; (iii) the level of interest of counselors in CCR Guidance work; (iv) the priority given by the counselor to CCR Guidance work; (v) school district/division support for CCR Guidance work; (vi) the case load of counselors; and (vii) the demographics of the students being served, including ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and family educational history. As was discussed in Chapter One and Chapter Two, since the 1960s, changes in CCR Guidance counseling have been made to address symptoms, rather than fundamental issues. Prior to Sputnik, counselors were primarily gatekeepers, helping to determine who went to college and who went to work after high school (McKillip et al., 2012). Post-Sputnik, a “college for all” approach prevailed, effectively eliminating the need for gatekeepers (McKillip et al., 2012). The researchers note that, during the 1970s, to provide job security in a weak economy, counselors began taking on additional duties. In addition to their gatekeeping responsibilities, counselors began to perform classroom teaching, provide services to assist students with mental and emotional health issues, advocate for students with special needs, and to perform a wide range of administrative tasks. In 2003, in an effort to clarify the role of counselors, ASCA K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 107 introduced the “ASCA National Model: A Framework for School Counseling Programs” (ASCA, 2003) which providing a list of what ASCA considers to be, and not to be, counseling work. Twelve years after the ASCA model was published, however, Hatch, Poynton, and Pérusse (2015) found continuing counselor role confusion and that time encroachment from social and emotional counseling requirements, as well as other non-counseling tasks, were restricting the time available for school counselors to provide college and career readiness guidance services. The results of the survey conducted for this dissertation are consistent with Hatch, Poynton, and Pérusse’s (2015) findings. The technology boom of the 1990s and expanded market globalization, among other factors, has caused a fundamental shift in the way job markets function and there is mounting evidence that the “college for all” approach may no longer be appropriate (Frey & Osborne, 2015). It is within this context that the wide range of CCR Guidance-related issues identified in the review of literature (Chapter Two) and the study findings (Chapter Four) are presented. When taken as a whole, the depth and breadth of the identified issues strongly suggest that the answer to the overarching research question of this study is that K-12 public school students are not receiving adequate college and career readiness guidance. The picture of school counselors in the Study Area that has emerged is of well- intentioned and caring individuals who are doing the best they can in untenable circumstances. In this regard, the comments of a school counselor in Virginia, proactively provided during the survey period, are informative: In the last 15 years my job has become all about counseling students with depression, anxiety, and various other issues and problems. We do over 100 risk assessments per K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 108 year. We do suicide prevention rather than college and career readiness. Parents are more apt to bring a depressed child to the school rather than to a doctor. The problems are epidemic and not being addressed. We are a school with the large SPED population and we are an ESL school, all of which bring problems that need to be addressed. The new attendance laws in Virginia have created an additional work load. College and career readiness? That's what I used to do. 15 years ago my school system referred to school counselors as guidance counselors and non-essential employees. Now they call us school counselors and mental health professionals. If I was a mental health professional, I'd go out into the private sector and make some money doing it! The work is unsustainable. I used to LOVE my job. Now I'm just exhausted and I feel I cannot do my job well because I am stretched too thin. I will not make it to retirement. The comments above are echoed in the literature. For example, The Joyce Ivy Foundation, in a review of counseling in Michigan (The Joyce Ivy Foundation, 2014), shared the comments of a counselor there: I have over 400 students on my caseload and find it impossible to meet the needs of all of them with the other duties I am required to do. I am at school working from 6:00 a.m. until 4:00 p.m. and then take work home (answering emails, and phone calls, writing recommendations, etc.) and I can only scratch the surface of what I would like to do for my students. Model for Implementing Change A composite model for implementing change (Change Model), depicted in Figure 5.1, provides context and structure for the recommendations that are made in this chapter. The Change Model is an amalgamation of the work of Peter Senge (Senge, 2006), Kurt Lewin K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 109 (Brisson‐Banks, 2010; Burnes, 2004; Lewin, 1951), and Donald Kirkpatrick (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Figure 5.1. Composite model for implementing change. Sources for images: (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016; Mukherjee, n.d.; Senge, 2006) The Change Model begins with Senge (2006), who indicates that two competing processes (each labeled “B” in Figure 5.1) are available to an organization when it considers how to address a problem symptom. Either the organization takes steps to address the symptom directly (referred to as a symptomatic solution) or the organization seeks to identify the cause of the symptom and address the cause (called a fundamental solution). Choosing which approach K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 110 to pursue is a wicked challenge (Rittel & Webber, 1973) 15 for leaders, since each approach has strengths and vulnerabilities. Symptomatic solutions tend to be narrowly focused, less disruptive to the organization, and more likely to provide prompt results. Somewhat akin to treating the symptoms of a disease while allowing the disease itself to fester, symptomatic solutions are vulnerable to problem recurrence and can cause unwanted side effects (labeled “R” in Figure 5.1) that, over time, make it increasingly difficult to subsequently implement a fundamental solution. Fundamental solutions, by focusing on addressing the cause of the symptom, tend to be broadly focused, more disruptive to the organization, and take longer to deliver results. Fundamental solutions have both a higher risk of implementation failure and the potential to deliver greater and more sustainable benefits to the organization. If a decision is made to pursue a symptomatic solution, then the process proceeds to Kirkpatrick’s (2016) New World Model. Though presented as a structure for training evaluation, Kirkpatrick’s New World Model provides a useful framework for all targeted change implementations. The New World Model is built around four levels, as follows:  Results (Level 4), which measures the extent to which targeted outcomes are achieved as a result of the intervention;  Behavior (Level 3), which considers whether the organization’s employees have implemented and are using the practices and processes necessary to produce results; 15 Characteristics of wicked challenges include:  Wicked challenges cannot be clearly defined, so it is impossible for the problem solver to know if he/she has all the information necessary for understanding and solving the problem;  Wicked challenges can never be completely solved because they relate to ever changing open systems;  Possible answers to wicked challenges are not true or false, they are good or bad;  Wicked challenges offer no opportunity to learn by trial-and-error, since every attempt counts significantly; and  There is no way of knowing if all possible or viable solutions to a wicked challenge have been identified and considered. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 111  Learning (Level 2), which focuses on the degree to which employees have the knowledge, skills, and motivation requisite for the intervention to be successful; and  Reaction (Level 1), which assesses the receptivity of employees to the intervention and their perception of its applicability to their own personal work program. In the event the leaders of an organization decide to pursue a fundamental solution in response to a problem symptom, then Lewin’s Three Step Model (Burnes, 2004; Lewin, 1951) is immediately applicable. The Three-Step Model is built around the premise that successful fundamental change efforts typically follow a well-defined three-step sequence. The first step involves readying the organization for change, a step frequently called unfreezing. The second step is implementing the change, a step which is sometimes referred to as moving the organization. In this step, the new processes, procedures, equipment, systems, and protocols (together, Practices) are rendered operational, replacing the Practices previously in effect. The third phase, generally called refreezing, involves the taking of steps to assure that the newly implemented Practices are sustained over time and become the accepted way of doing things. As is shown in Figure 5.1, the Composite Model presumes that the refreezing phase of Lewin’s Three Step Model, a period when the intended course of action is well defined, is best accomplished through adherence to Kirkpatrick’s New World Model. Recommendations for Practice Informed by the review of literature presented in Chapter Two and the research findings set forth in Chapter Four, and within the context of the Composite Model described above, a number of improvement recommendations are presented below. The recommendations are organized around knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences, consistent with the work of Clark and Estes (2008). Summary tables are presented for each influence, followed by an explanatory narrative. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 112 Table 5.1 Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations Assumed Knowledge Influences Principle and Citation Context-Specific Recommendation Symptomatic Solution Fundamental Solution CCR Guidance counselors need to know the scope of their responsibilities and how to allocate time between those responsibilities Conceptual (declarative) knowledge increases when an individual learns how facts relate to form relationships or structures that function together (Krathwohl, 2002). Metacognition includes the effective use of memory, attention, relevant background knowledge, and use of strategies to achieve goals (Baker, 2006; Krathwohl, 2002) The organizations overseeing CCR Guidance counselors assure that human resources processes and documentation (e.g., job descriptions) are aligned with CCR Guidance work Counselor advocacy organizations adjust their models of excellence by (i) diminishing emphasis on counselor role definition and time allocation and (ii) increasing emphasis on practices that result in the delivery of adequate CCR Guidance services to K- 12 public school students CCR Guidance counselors need to know the new and important concepts, vital processes, and current theories / principles relevant to CCR Guidance Procedural knowledge allows one to describe how to do something and can be general or subject-specific (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). Metacognition includes the effective use of memory, attention, relevant background knowledge, and use of strategies to achieve goals (Baker, nd; Krathwohl, 2002) Organizations assure ready counselor access to current and specific information relevant to providing counseling advice. This includes information relating to: (i) post-secondary educational opportunities, (ii) joining the military, and (iii) entering the workforce immediately after completion of high school CCR Guidance counselors need to know how to anticipate and solve novel challenges Metacognition includes the effective use of memory, attention, relevant background knowledge, and use of strategies to achieve goals (Baker, 2006; Krathwohl, 2002) Organizations assure that the professional development programs of counselors emphasize the development of CCR Guidance skills and principles, and their application Counselor certification programs introduce and/or broaden the teaching of CCR Guidance skills and principles, and their application Knowledge Influences K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 113 Clarifying the scope of CCR Guidance counselor responsibilities and how to allocate time between those responsibilities. The results and findings of this study indicated that CCR Guidance in public K-12 schools is inadequate in part because counselors spend only about 25% of their time on CCR Guidance, with the remainder spread across a wide array of responsibilities that includes responsive counseling, student advocacy, teaching a guidance curriculum, administrative tasks, and non-counseling assignments. A recommendation built upon the concept of symbolic modeling is made to address this issue. Bandura (2005) described symbolic modeling as a combination of (i) articulating guiding principles to inform actions relating to an issue, (ii) introducing an operational model for implementing the guiding principles, and (iii) promoting adoption of the guiding principles across diverse groups and organizations. This would suggest that clarity regarding the scope of CCR Guidance responsibilities, as well as the time allocation between various work requirements, can be achieved through symbolic modeling within and across organizations. The recommendation, then, is to clarify the role of CCR Guidance counselors within each individual school district and at the regional, state, and national levels. At the level of the individual organization:  Human resources processes must align with intended CCR Guidance counselor responsibilities, including job descriptions and performance evaluation criteria;  National professional and advocacy organizations like the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) and the National Association for College Admission Counseling (NACAC) should support the work of individual districts by clarifying their counselor responsibility recommendations and aligning them with one another. This work would include revisiting Recognized ASCA Model Program (RAMP) K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 114 criteria and the criteria included in other national models of excellence to assure that they are aligned with the clarified responsibility recommendations. Improving CCR Guidance counselor knowledge of the new and important concepts, vital processes, and current theories / principles relevant to CCR Guidance. The results and findings of this study indicated that approximately two-thirds of all counselors received limited or no CCR Guidance training in their certification programs and about 40% have had limited or no CCR Guidance training as part of their ongoing professional development. A recommendation consistent with research emphasizing the benefits of training and development for individuals, organizations, and society has been selected to address this issue. Aguinis and Kraiger (2009) found that training and development have a direct and positive impact on the performance of individuals, teams, and organizations not only by increasing procedural knowledge, but also by enhancing strategic knowledge, which is knowing when to apply a particular knowledge or skill. This would imply that the absence of training in core CCR Guidance skills and their application contributes to the problem of inadequate services being provided, and that providing appropriate training will help address the issue. Hence, it is recommended that counselor certification programs broaden their scope to include the teaching of CCR Guidance skills and principles. Similarly, it is recommended that counselor professional development programs include a focus on improving and expanding the CCR Guidance skills and knowledge of counselors. Most colleges and universities that offer educational programs in counseling do not offer courses focused on CCR Guidance (Morgan et al., 2014). Recognizing this omission, and as a first step in addressing the issue, ASCA published a set of 35 research based standards (ASCA, 2014) to provide a general framework regarding student behaviors (e.g., goal setting, engaging K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 115 challenging coursework) and student mindsets (e.g., self-confidence, awareness that continued learning is vital to career success) that counselors should emphasize when providing guidance services. ASCA should consider modifying and broadening these standards when it makes revisions to the ASCA National Model, as recommended above, to assure alignment. Improving the ability of CCR Guidance counselors to anticipate and solve novel challenges. The review of literature set forth in Chapter Two of this dissertation illustrates that the CCR Guidance needs of students vary by ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and family educational history, among other things. A recommendation that emphasizes developing the capacity of each counselor to create original CCR Guidance solutions has been selected. Howard and Navarro (2016) indicate that personalized dialogue with students that addresses their unique needs is crucial to the successful delivery of CCR Guidance services. Krathwohl (2002) suggests that producing such personalization requires skills that extend beyond training into education and experience. It is therefore recommended that CCR Guidance counselors (a) invest the time necessary to know the students they serve individually, and to understand their aspirations; (b) develop for each student an individualized CCR plan, tailored to meet the student’s aspirations and mindful of the student’s cultural heritage, socioeconomic status, and family educational history; and (c) establish metrics to follow the success of such plans through graduation and beyond. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 116 Table 5.2 Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations Assumed Motivation Influence Principle and Citation Context-Specific Recommendation Symptomatic Solution Fundamental Solution CCR Guidance counselors need to demonstrate all three facets of motivated performance - active choice, persistence, and mental effort - in their efforts to deliver CCR Guidance goals Motivated performance (Clark & Estes, 2008) - Active choice is an individual’s decision whether to actively pursue a goal - Persistence is an individual’s decision to see a goal through to completion - Mental effort is an individual’s willingness to invest the emotional and intellectual energy necessary to develop novel solutions or to overcome unexpected challenges Collective Efficacy Theory (Pajares, 2006): An person’s belief in his or her ability to succeed in specific situations or to accomplish a task The organizations overseeing CCR Guidance counselors afford them the time to know the students they serve individually, and to understand their aspirations. The organizations overseeing CCR Guidance counselors assure that a CCR plan is developed for each student, tailored to meet the student’s aspirations and mindful of the student’s cultural heritage, socioeconomic status, and family educational history CCR Guidance counselors need to demonstrate genuine interest in CCR Guidance work Goal Orientation Theory (Yough & Anderman, 2006) addresses motivation for achieving goals in two categories: - Mastery oriented goals - Performance oriented goals State departments of education develop, introduce, and regularly publish a CCR Guidance Balanced Scorecard strategic measurement tool that reports data for each school district. At least one Scorecard measure follows the success of students after they leave high school Motivation Influences K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 117 Assumed Motivation Influence Principle and Citation Context-Specific Recommendation Symptomatic Solution Fundamental Solution CCR Guidance counselors need to believe in the utility value of CCR Guidance Expectancy Value Theory (Eccles, 2006), specifically (a) expectations for success and (b) the importance the individual places on succeeding The organizations overseeing CCR Guidance counselors implement best practice reward, recognition, and compensation systems for CCR Guidance counselors State agencies, school districts, professional organizations, advocacy groups, and experts collegially develop new best practice reward, recognition, and compensation systems for counselors that incentivize desired behaviors and improved outcomes CCR Guidance counselors need to demonstrate all three facets of motivated performance - active choice, persistence, and mental effort - in their efforts to deliver CCR Guidance goals. The study found that only 25% of counselor time, on average, is spent on CCR Guidance work, suggesting that motivated performance is an issue for CCR Guidance providers. This suggests a recommendation grounded in collective efficacy theory. Parajes (2006) found that studies of efficacy found that individuals and/or groups with high self-efficacy work harder, persist longer, persevere in the face of adversity, have greater optimism, and achieve more. It is therefore suggested that, at both the national and state levels, counselor advocacy organizations adjust their models of excellence (e.g., RAMP) to increase the recommended proportion of counselor time that should be dedicated to CCR Guidance work. By making such a change, advocacy organizations can contribute to the development of CCR Guidance counselor self- efficacy on both an individual and collective basis. CCR Guidance counselors need to demonstrate genuine interest in CCR Guidance work. The findings of the study indicate that counselors would prefer to do more CCR K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 118 Guidance work than at present, indicating that genuine interest in providing these services already exists. Reward, recognition and compensation systems have the potential to create a virtuous cycle in which the mental effort and performance of counselors can continue to be cultivated and improved over time. Lawler (1971), in his seminal work on the incentivization of performance, found that compensation systems that reward goal achievement are highly effective in attracting, retaining and motivating employees. Recent work by Gerhart and Fang (2015) has re-validated this finding, indicating the extrinsic rewards can be “high quality forms of motivation” (p. 491). CCR Guidance counselors need to believe in the utility value of CCR Guidance. The frequency and helpfulness of meetings with counselors are positively correlated with achievement in high school and with postsecondary success as far as 18 months after graduation from high school (Lapan et al., 2017a). The study results strongly intimate that counselors recognize the importance of availability. For example, when counselors were asked in the study to evaluate the importance of 13 different counseling elements, availability to meet with students when needed was ranked first. Eccles (2006) linked goal or task achievement with the importance an individual places on the goal or task. Accordingly, a recommendation rooted in expectancy value theory has been selected. It is recommended that state departments of education develop, introduce, and regularly publish district-by-district Balanced Scorecard strategic measurement tools focused entirely on CCR Guidance. Zlate and Cucui (2015) indicate that the motivation process, if effective, aligns the needs, aspirations, and interests of employees with the objectives of the organization. The Balanced Scorecard is a strategic measurement tool is intended to help individuals see not only current performance in a variety of measures, but also the interrelationships between those measures K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 119 Table 5.3 Summary of Organizational Influences and Recommendations Assumed Organizational Influence Principle and Citation Context-Specific Recommendation Symptomatic Solution Fundamental Solution School Districts need to provide continual support, from both the district- and building-levels, for CCR Guidance. Kotter and Heskett (1992): It is extremely difficult to change shared values because they are deeply held and often invisible. Group behavioral norms, however, are more visible, not necessarily deeply held, and are therefore susceptible to change. Clark and Estes (2008): Addressing performance gaps requires that organizational leaders be involved and visible in the change process Organizations overseeing CCR Guidance cultivate the creation of Professional Learning Communities for counselors School Districts need to develop concrete, challenging, and current (C3) goals for CCR Guidance. Clark and Estes (2008): Successful initiatives to address performance gaps require a clear vision, goals, and a measurement process The organizations overseeing CCR Guidance counselors should set appropriate goals, with regular reporting on progress. State departments of education develop, introduce, and require the use of evaluation tools that specifically address CCR Guidance counselor performance (Kaplan & Norton, 1992, 1996, 2000). Watson and Hill (2009) indicate that the power of scorecards is that they focus organizational attention and motivate behavior. Organizational Influences K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 120 Assumed Organizational Influence Principle and Citation Context-Specific Recommendation Symptomatic Solution Fundamental Solution School Districts need to provide the material resources necessary to achieve C3 goals for CCR Guidance. Clark and Estes (2008): Successful initiatives to address performance gaps require the organization to provide the resources necessary for the change to be successful School Districts split CCR Guidance and school counseling (which includes responsive emotional counseling) into separate positions School Districts transition CCR Guidance from a self-delivered service of individual school districts to a contracted service provided either by regional / state organizations or private providers. Organizations need to provide continual support, from both the district- and building-levels for CCR Guidance. Only 34% of counselors agreed or strongly agreed with the statement: “I regularly receive constructive feedback about my counseling work from building- and/or district leaders.” Clark and Estes (2008) indicate that improved performance requires organizational leaders to be involved, visible, and supportive of the employees doing the work. Kotter and Heskett (1992) indicate that it is extremely difficult to change shared values because they are deeply held and often invisible. It is therefore suggested that organizations should cultivate the creation of peer networks and professional learning communities for CCR Guidance counselors to serve as a vehicle for knowledge sharing regarding college admission practices and K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 121 standards, enlistment in the military, and local employment opportunities. Work to improve the frequency and quality of leader-counselor feedback should also be pursued. Professional learning communities (PLCs) in education have been shown to improve both student outcomes and practitioner efficacy (Voelkel & Chrispeels, 2017a, 2017b). Recent studies also indicate that PLCs may be even better than professional development in facilitating the implementation and ongoing use of new practices (Shirrell, Hopkins, & Spillane, 2018). PLCs may be particularly important for counselors since, as the survey results suggest, more than 10% of all counselors are the only counselor in the school they serve. PLCs have been shown to be an effective approach to resolving educator isolation (Battersby & Verdi, 2014). Organizations need to develop concrete, challenging, and current (C3) goals for CCR Guidance. The study found that, for most CCR Guidance counselors, (i) measurable goals are not established for their CCR Guidance work, and (ii) CCR Guidance work is not included in their performance evaluations. Clark and Estes (2008) indicate that successful initiatives to address performance gaps require that clear goals be established, accompanied by a supporting measurement process. It is therefore suggested that the organizations overseeing CCR Guidance counselors should set appropriate goals, with regular reporting on progress. It is further recommended that the relevant State Department of Education develop, introduce, and require the use of evaluation tools that specifically address CCR Guidance counselor performance. Bruce and Bridgeland (2012) found that measures to assess the effectiveness of school counselors, in general, are nonexistent, inconsistent, or promote outcomes contrary to NOSCA’s Eight Components of college and career readiness counseling. For example, Bruce and Bridgeland found that nearly 20 percent of counselors reported that there is no accountability system in place at all at their schools. The survey conducted for this dissertation had similar K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 122 findings. For example, most counselors report that goals are not set and performance is not evaluated in any of NOSCA’s eight components of CCR Guidance. The study identified low counselor interest in certain core elements of CCR Guidance work, most notably college affordability planning support for parents/guardians. Counselors self-report a low level of expertise in this area of CCR Guidance, say that they do not frequently provide the service, and indicate a low preference for increasing service levels. In order to address this gap, a recommendation from goal orientation theory is recommended. Yough and Anderman (2006) found that the motivation of individuals to achieve goals falls into two categories: (a) mastery-oriented goals, where the objective is to deeply understand a problem, concept, or task; and (b) performance-oriented goals, where the objective is to demonstrate one’s ability when compared with others. This would suggest that, in order to increase counselor interest in CCR Guidance work, interventions that increase both counselor mastery and performance are warranted. The following steps are therefore recommended that state departments of education develop, introduce, and require the use of common evaluation tools that specifically address CCR Guidance counselor performance. Organizations.need to provide the material resources necessary to achieve C3 goals for CCR Guidance. The study found that for 89 percent of responding counselors, the time available to provide CCR Guidance services is between 31 and 78 minutes per student per school year. Clark and Estes (2008), indicate that, in order for employees to deliver desired results, it is incumbent upon the organization to provide the resources necessary for the change to be successful. Alger and Luke (2015) found that non-CCR Guidance work is a significant distraction for counselors. This would suggest that an intervention that segments CCR Guidance work from other counseling and non-counseling activities is warranted. It is therefore K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 123 recommended that organizations split CCR Guidance and school counseling (which includes responsive emotional counseling) into separate positions. Additionally, school districts should transition CCR Guidance from a self-delivered service of individual school districts to a contracted service provided either by regional / state organizations or private providers. In Pennsylvania, Intermediate Units and/or smaller regional groupings for vocational education can serve as an actionable model. In Virginia, the Governor’s Schools model may prove useful in creating multi-divisional partnerships. Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach All methodological approaches have strengths and weaknesses. The fundamental strength of the framework introduced by Clark and Estes (2008) is that it provides structure to what can be an amorphous process. Its three main areas of focus (knowledge influences, motivation influences, and organizational influences) are broadly inclusive. The emphasis on measurement is vital. The tools and methods introduced are particularly effective for implementation of narrowly defined symptomatic solutions. The framework’s highly structured approach, however, is less well suited to the discovery phase of the change process, especially if fundamental solutions are contemplated. Similar to the conduct of qualitative analysis proposed by Merriam and Tisdell (2016), the search for the cause of problems is initially highly inductive. Multiple bits of data are bundled together in different ways to try to make sense of what is going on. By driving the analysis in to knowledge, motivation, and organizational bundles, relationships and interactions can be easily missed. This issue, however, diminishes in significance as the analysis matures into the testing and confirming stages which are primarily deductive. The Clark and Estes framework also can make the articulation of findings difficult. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 124 For example, if the actions of an organization are adversely affecting employee morale, the cause of the issue is organizational, but the impact of the cause is motivational. Limitations and Delimitations The use of a quantitative survey methodology has certain inherent strengths and limitations. As noted by Creswell (2014), survey research provides a numeric description of trends, attitudes, and opinions of a surveyed population. Quantitative research is not as strong in providing descriptive insight into the nature and essence of individual responses (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Rueda, 2011). The study gathered information from the providers of CCR Guidance services, but not from the recipients of the services (e.g., parents / guardians and students) or from individuals and entities that influence outcomes (e.g., teachers, college admission counselors, prospective employers of students entering the workforce, and military recruiters, to name but a few). It is possible that the perspectives of counselors and administrators differ from the perspectives of these other stakeholders. Further study of the perspectives of these other stakeholders is warranted. The study’s focus is on a problem of practice in the field, not a specific school district or school. The information collected is representative of and provides valuable insight into the adequacy of CCR Guidance counseling in the Study Area. The findings, however, are not necessarily applicable (or applicable to the same extent) to every school district / division in the Study Area. Individual school districts / divisions should examine their own unique circumstances to determine the extent to which the findings of this study are applicable to them. Additionally, the study collected data from counselors and administrators across the Study K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 125 Area. The results and findings are representative of counselors and administrators in Virginia, Pennsylvania, and the District of Columbia, but are not necessarily generalizable to other states or regions. For example, most governance and day-to-day control of public education resides at the local level. Standards and regulations that guide and constrain local decision making, however, come from the state and federal levels (Jacobsen & Saultz, 2012). With three layers of government involved in each school district/division, there can be considerable variability in practices from locality to locality and from state to state. These limitations do not invalidate the findings of this study. Rather, the findings of this study should serve as a touchstone for future research against which similarities and differences, and their implications, can be measured. Future Research Since this study explores a problem of practice in the field, the opportunities for future research are extensive. Six stand out as most important: 1. Outward research. The Study Area was comprised of Virginia, Pennsylvania, and the District of Columbia. Further study of the remaining 48 states is warranted to determine the applicability of the findings of this study outside the Study Area. 2. Inclusive research. Counselors and Administrators were surveyed in this study. The perspectives of parents / guardians and students, as the recipients of CCR Guidance counseling services, are important to developing a complete assessment of the questions addressed in this study. Additionally, the perspectives of other groups who interact with the CCR Guidance process (e.g., teachers, college admission counselors, military recruiters, and local employers) are needed. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 126 3. Diversity research. The survey results regarding diversity painted a mixed picture of the status quo. For example, the finding that counselors in large urban districts tailor their guidance to the unique needs of traditionally underserved populations at a lower rate than the general counselor population seems counterintuitive. Since the number of large urban respondents was relatively low, it could be an anomaly that is not representative. The finding might also be explained by a perception mismatch of what constitutes tailoring between urban and non-urban respondents. In light of the high importance of CCR Guidance as a source of social capital for underserved populations, further, more targeted study is warranted. 4. Promising practices research. The conclusion that K-12 public school students are not receiving adequate college and career readiness guidance carries with it a message of urgency. Transition from secondary education to college, the military, or the workforce is a major life event that happens but once. An understanding of promising practices can accelerate the process of change and improve the likelihood of implementation success. 5. Research applicable to individual school districts / divisions. General research identifies broad trends that may or may not be applicable to individual school districts / divisions. It is important to avoid the “Lake Wobegon Effect” (where every school district / division is above average) and provide accurate, actionable data to inform change. 6. Needed entities research. A number of fundamental changes are recommended by this study that would require not just assent, but specific action by state departments of education, regional educational organizations, and national advocacy groups. Research into the perspectives of these organizations and their propensity to act in the K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 127 recommended manner may be important to developing tactics and strategies for achieving implementation success. Conclusion Two small, but significant events were the impetus for this study. The first came at a “College Announcement Day” event I attended at a high school in western Pennsylvania. At the event, graduating seniors all wore sweatshirts or other spirit wear from the college or university they would be attending. In glancing through the program, I noted that the college receiving the most students was an out-of-state institution that admitted more than 90 percent of its applicants. I thought this odd, since I would have expected the University of Pittsburgh or Penn State to be in the top spot. Upon inquiry, I was told that one of the guidance counselors was a graduate of the out-of-state university and encouraged students to put it on their application list. It was at that moment that I grasped that, for better or worse, counselors can and do meaningfully influence the lives of the students they serve. The second came when I served as an elected school board member of a high performing school district. Our school district was in the top one-percent of Pennsylvania districts instructionally, yet we were losing an alarmingly high number of students to private and parochial schools. When I asked why, a small study was conducted. It found that the parents who left our district overwhelmingly said they did so because the first interest of public schools was graduating students and the first interest of the school they moved to was the success of their child after graduation. For me, this affirmed again the importance of counseling. Millennials will be the first generation since the Civil War whose average standard of living will be lower than that of their parents. Labor markets have changed. Two-thirds of high K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 128 school graduates currently enroll in higher education, yet only 25 percent of those who enroll will finish their bachelor’s degree. Most students who drop out of college are unable to find a job that rewards partially completed programs of study, so they end up in low paying positions with high levels of educational debt. Nearly all of the students who join the workforce straight out of high school do so without any plan for the future. Many high school vocational programs are negatively stigmatized, so many students who would benefit from industry certifications do not pursue them. These problems are particularly acute in ethnically, socioeconomically, and culturally diverse community, and in families with no history of pursuing post-secondary educational opportunities. Counseling matters. And, as this study suggests, counseling, as presently constituted, is not adequately serving the students who rely upon it. Hopefully, the findings of this study provide some level of impetus for the kind of transformational changes that are needed. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 129 REFERENCES ACTE. (2010). What is career ready? Retrieved June 24, 2018, from http://ndss.ndsucceed2020.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/ACTE- Career_Readiness_Paper.pdf Aguinis, H., & Kraiger, K. (2009). Benefits of training and development for individuals and teams, organizations, and society. 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Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 180, 468–476. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.02.146 K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 147 APPENDIX A: COUNSELOR SURVEY INSTRUMENT K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 148 K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 149 K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 150 K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 151 K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 152 K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 153 K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 154 K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 155 K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 156 K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 157 K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 158 K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 159 K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 160 K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 161 K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 162 K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 163 APPENDIX B: ADMINISTRATOR SURVEY INSTRUMENT K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 164 K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 165 K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 166 K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 167 K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 168 K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 169 K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 170 APPENDIX C: SURVEY RECRUITMENT CORRESPONDENCE Letter to Superintendents K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 171 K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 172 K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 173 K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 174 Recruitment Letter #1 K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 175 K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 176 K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 177 Recruitment Letter #2 K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 178 K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 179 K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 180 Recruitment Letter #3 K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 181 K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 182 APPENDIX D: COUNSELOR SURVEY RESULTS Public K-12 Pennsylvania Virginia Large Urban Smaller Urban Suburban Rural RAMP districts Non-RAMP districts C.3.1 Where do you work? n= 449 312 135 50 29 194 174 78 308 District of Columbia 0% 0% 0% 4% 0% 0% 0% 3% 0% Pennsylvania 69% 100% 0% 62% 72% 69% 72% 68% 70% Virginia 30% 0% 100% 34% 28% 31% 28% 29% 30% Other 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% C.3.2 What is your gender? n= 448 311 135 50 29 194 173 78 308 Female 79% 76% 87% 90% 69% 82% 75% 81% 80% Male 19% 23% 11% 8% 28% 17% 24% 17% 19% Non-binary / third gender 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% Prefer not to say 1% 1% 1% 2% 3% 1% 1% 3% 1% C.3.3 What is your ethnicity? n= 445 309 134 50 29 193 171 78 305 Asian / Pacific Islander 1% 1% 1% 2% 0% 2% 0% 0% 1% Black or African American 8% 2% 21% 30% 3% 6% 5% 12% 8% Hispanic or Latino 1% 1% 1% 4% 0% 2% 0% 3% 1% Native American or American Indi 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1% 1% 0% White 85% 91% 74% 52% 93% 86% 93% 81% 87% Other 2% 3% 1% 4% 0% 4% 1% 1% 2% Prefer not to say 2% 2% 1% 8% 3% 2% 1% 3% 2% C.3.4 Which most closely describes the area served by the school district or school division in which you work? n= 447 310 135 50 29 194 174 78 306 Large Urban 11% 10% 13% 100% 0% 0% 0% 14% 9% Smaller Urban 6% 7% 6% 0% 100% 0% 0% 5% 7% Suburban 43% 43% 45% 0% 0% 100% 0% 47% 46% Rural 39% 40% 36% 0% 0% 0% 100% 33% 38% C.4.1 How long have you worked as a school counselor? n= 448 312 134 50 29 193 174 78 307 Less than 2 years 9% 7% 15% 14% 3% 10% 8% 12% 6% 2 to 5 years 15% 13% 22% 12% 17% 13% 18% 9% 18% 6 to 10 years 15% 15% 16% 16% 21% 13% 17% 12% 15% 11 to 20 years 39% 41% 32% 46% 41% 38% 37% 45% 39% More than 20 years 21% 24% 15% 12% 17% 25% 20% 23% 21% C.4.4 Is your school's counseling program a Recognized ASCA Model Program (RAMP) program? n= 449 312 135 50 29 194 174 78 308 Yes 17% 17% 17% 22% 14% 19% 15% 100% 0% No 69% 69% 69% 54% 76% 72% 67% 0% 100% Don't know 14% 14% 14% 24% 10% 9% 18% 0% 0% C.5.1 Approximately how many students are you personally responsible for in your school counselor role? n= Median 310 320 300 400 270 307 300 320 300 C.5.2 In total, approximately how many students are enrolled in the school(s) where you serve as a school counselor? n= Median 1,012 963 1,200 1,485 828 1,360 600 1,100 1,000 C.5.4 Which of the following best describes how students are assigned to counselors in the school(s) where you work? n= 422 297 123 47 29 181 163 70 293 54% 46% 74% 40% 41% 70% 42% 49% 56% 1% 1% 1% 2% 3% 1% 1% 0% 1% 27% 33% 14% 21% 45% 22% 33% 26% 27% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1% 0% 0% 0% 1% 1% 2% 0% 0% 1% 3% 1% 1% 5% 5% 5% 19% 3% 4% 3% 9% 4% 10% 12% 5% 17% 7% 3% 18% 16% 11% I am the only counselor in the schools where I work, so there is no dividing up of Survey Questions and Response Options By location By type of district RAMP vs. NON-RAMP Other By alphabetical listing By classes or homeroom teacher By grade level By achievement level No specific method for assigning students to K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 183 Public K-12 Pennsylvania Virginia Large Urban Smaller Urban Suburban Rural RAMP districts Non-RAMP districts C.7.1 What is your LEVEL OF AGREEMENT with this statement? C.8.1 In your opinion, HOW IMPORTANT is this statement to counselor success? Students are able to meet with me when they need to Level of Agreement n= 387 270 116 39 28 164 154 65 268 1 Strongly Disagree 2% 1% 2% 0% 0% 2% 1% 2% 2% 2 Disagree 1% 1% 2% 3% 4% 1% 1% 0% 2% 3 Somewhat Disagree 4% 4% 2% 10% 0% 2% 5% 5% 4% 4 Somewhat Agree 18% 17% 19% 18% 18% 19% 16% 9% 21% 5 Agree 39% 37% 43% 36% 50% 43% 32% 42% 37% 6 Strongly Agree 37% 39% 33% 33% 29% 32% 44% 43% 35% Importance n= 359 254 104 38 26 154 139 61 250 0 No importance 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1 Low importance 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 2 Medium importance 7% 7% 7% 11% 4% 7% 6% 7% 7% 3 High importance 93% 93% 93% 89% 96% 93% 94% 93% 93% I get to know each of my students individually Level of Agreement n= 387 269 117 40 28 164 153 66 267 1 Strongly Disagree 4% 4% 3% 5% 0% 5% 2% 2% 4% 2 Disagree 8% 10% 4% 15% 7% 7% 7% 5% 9% 3 Somewhat Disagree 13% 10% 19% 13% 14% 15% 10% 9% 13% 4 Somewhat Agree 32% 32% 32% 35% 29% 33% 32% 33% 32% 5 Agree 27% 28% 25% 20% 29% 27% 27% 33% 24% 6 Strongly Agree 17% 17% 16% 13% 21% 13% 22% 18% 17% Importance n= 356 252 103 38 26 152 138 61 247 0 No importance 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1 Low importance 1% 1% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1% 0% 0% 2 Medium importance 19% 18% 21% 16% 15% 20% 20% 13% 20% 3 High importance 80% 81% 79% 84% 85% 80% 79% 87% 79% I know the life aspirations of each of my students Level of Agreement n= 385 269 115 40 28 163 152 66 265 1 Strongly Disagree 6% 5% 7% 10% 4% 7% 3% 3% 6% 2 Disagree 12% 13% 12% 18% 11% 13% 10% 11% 13% 3 Somewhat Disagree 15% 15% 15% 18% 11% 20% 11% 12% 15% 4 Somewhat Agree 37% 36% 40% 30% 43% 40% 35% 39% 36% 5 Agree 21% 24% 15% 15% 21% 13% 31% 21% 21% 6 Strongly Agree 9% 7% 11% 10% 11% 6% 11% 14% 8% Importance n= 352 248 103 38 26 147 139 60 244 0 No importance 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1 Low importance 3% 3% 3% 5% 4% 4% 1% 2% 3% 2 Medium importance 39% 39% 39% 37% 27% 42% 37% 35% 40% 3 High importance 58% 58% 58% 58% 69% 54% 61% 63% 57% If a student asks me for help in identifying colleges to consider, I am able to develop a well-matched list of possibilities Level of Agreement n= 387 269 117 40 28 164 153 65 268 1 Strongly Disagree 1% 0% 1% 0% 0% 1% 0% 2% 0% 2 Disagree 4% 4% 3% 13% 0% 5% 1% 3% 3% 3 Somewhat Disagree 5% 4% 8% 5% 11% 6% 4% 6% 5% 4 Somewhat Agree 20% 20% 20% 15% 18% 23% 17% 12% 24% 5 Agree 38% 37% 40% 38% 36% 34% 43% 29% 40% 6 Strongly Agree 33% 34% 29% 30% 36% 30% 35% 48% 28% Importance n= 354 250 103 38 26 149 139 59 247 0 No importance 1% 2% 0% 3% 0% 2% 0% 3% 1% 1 Low importance 6% 7% 4% 13% 0% 7% 4% 3% 7% 2 Medium importance 40% 41% 39% 34% 38% 41% 42% 25% 45% 3 High importance 53% 50% 57% 50% 62% 50% 54% 68% 47% Survey Questions and Response Options By location By type of district RAMP vs. NON-RAMP K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 184 Public K-12 Pennsylvania Virginia Large Urban Smaller Urban Suburban Rural RAMP districts Non-RAMP districts I am able to provide individualized advice to students about educational opportunities at community colleges Level of Agreement n= 388 270 117 40 28 164 154 66 268 1 Strongly Disagree 1% 1% 0% 5% 0% 1% 0% 5% 0% 2 Disagree 2% 2% 1% 5% 4% 2% 1% 0% 2% 3 Somewhat Disagree 3% 4% 3% 5% 0% 4% 3% 0% 4% 4 Somewhat Agree 18% 17% 19% 13% 11% 17% 21% 11% 19% 5 Agree 39% 39% 39% 45% 43% 40% 36% 36% 41% 6 Strongly Agree 37% 36% 38% 28% 43% 36% 40% 48% 34% Importance n= 357 252 104 38 26 153 138 61 248 0 No importance 1% 2% 0% 5% 0% 2% 0% 3% 1% 1 Low importance 5% 5% 4% 13% 4% 5% 3% 5% 4% 2 Medium importance 42% 45% 34% 24% 38% 43% 46% 26% 47% 3 High importance 52% 48% 63% 58% 58% 50% 51% 66% 47% Level of Agreement n= 385 268 116 39 28 163 153 65 267 1 Strongly Disagree 2% 2% 1% 5% 0% 3% 0% 3% 1% 2 Disagree 3% 3% 3% 10% 4% 2% 1% 8% 2% 3 Somewhat Disagree 9% 9% 9% 10% 4% 10% 9% 2% 10% 4 Somewhat Agree 21% 20% 22% 10% 14% 25% 20% 12% 25% 5 Agree 42% 43% 41% 36% 57% 37% 46% 40% 40% 6 Strongly Agree 24% 24% 23% 28% 21% 23% 24% 35% 21% Importance n= 356 252 103 38 26 151 139 60 248 0 No importance 3% 3% 1% 16% 0% 2% 0% 5% 2% 1 Low importance 7% 8% 5% 8% 0% 7% 9% 5% 8% 2 Medium importance 42% 45% 37% 26% 42% 46% 42% 30% 46% 3 High importance 48% 44% 57% 50% 58% 45% 48% 60% 44% I am able to provide informed advice to each student who is thinking about enlisting in the military Level of Agreement n= 388 270 117 40 28 164 154 66 268 1 Strongly Disagree 3% 3% 2% 10% 4% 4% 0% 5% 3% 2 Disagree 2% 2% 1% 5% 0% 3% 0% 5% 1% 3 Somewhat Disagree 11% 10% 14% 18% 7% 12% 8% 6% 13% 4 Somewhat Agree 31% 32% 28% 18% 21% 31% 35% 32% 30% 5 Agree 35% 36% 32% 35% 50% 36% 31% 24% 38% 6 Strongly Agree 19% 17% 24% 15% 18% 15% 25% 29% 16% Importance n= 356 251 104 38 26 152 138 61 248 0 No importance 3% 3% 1% 13% 0% 3% 0% 7% 2% 1 Low importance 12% 10% 14% 18% 12% 11% 10% 8% 13% 2 Medium importance 47% 50% 41% 21% 50% 53% 49% 33% 50% 3 High importance 38% 36% 43% 47% 38% 33% 41% 52% 35% I modify my counseling approach if the student would be the first in their family to attend college Level of Agreement n= 386 269 116 40 28 164 153 65 267 1 Strongly Disagree 2% 3% 0% 3% 0% 3% 1% 3% 1% 2 Disagree 4% 3% 4% 8% 4% 3% 3% 3% 3% 3 Somewhat Disagree 9% 9% 9% 20% 14% 6% 8% 9% 9% 4 Somewhat Agree 24% 26% 19% 18% 29% 25% 25% 20% 26% 5 Agree 37% 36% 39% 30% 36% 38% 37% 34% 36% 6 Strongly Agree 25% 23% 29% 23% 18% 24% 26% 31% 24% Importance n= 358 253 104 38 26 153 140 59 251 0 No importance 2% 3% 1% 8% 0% 3% 1% 5% 1% 1 Low importance 7% 8% 6% 11% 8% 6% 7% 5% 8% 2 Medium importance 41% 45% 33% 37% 50% 41% 41% 31% 44% 3 High importance 50% 45% 61% 45% 42% 51% 51% 59% 47% Survey Questions and Response Options By location By type of district RAMP vs. NON-RAMP I tailor my counseling approach to assure that college-bound students from low-income families apply to schools whose selectivity is consistent with their academic credentials K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 185 Public K-12 Pennsylvania Virginia Large Urban Smaller Urban Suburban Rural RAMP districts Non-RAMP districts I am successful at helping students who have not yet developed plans for their future. Level of Agreement n= 343 240 102 37 25 144 135 60 234 1 Strongly Disagree 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1% 0% 2% 0% 2 Disagree 1% 1% 0% 0% 0% 1% 1% 0% 1% 3 Somewhat Disagree 4% 3% 7% 0% 0% 5% 4% 2% 5% 4 Somewhat Agree 31% 32% 29% 22% 28% 30% 34% 15% 36% 5 Agree 51% 52% 47% 65% 56% 51% 47% 55% 48% 6 Strongly Agree 14% 13% 17% 14% 16% 13% 14% 27% 10% Importance n= 327 229 97 37 23 137 128 55 225 0 No importance 1% 1% 0% 0% 0% 1% 0% 2% 0% 1 Low importance 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1% 0% 2% 0% 2 Medium importance 20% 20% 21% 19% 26% 22% 18% 15% 23% 3 High importance 79% 79% 79% 81% 74% 76% 82% 82% 76% Level of Agreement n= 344 241 102 37 25 145 135 60 235 1 Strongly Disagree 3% 4% 3% 11% 0% 6% 0% 3% 4% 2 Disagree 11% 11% 10% 16% 4% 14% 7% 5% 12% 3 Somewhat Disagree 20% 20% 23% 14% 24% 28% 13% 18% 22% 4 Somewhat Agree 36% 38% 32% 24% 32% 34% 42% 30% 38% 5 Agree 20% 20% 19% 24% 28% 12% 25% 25% 17% 6 Strongly Agree 9% 7% 14% 11% 12% 6% 13% 18% 7% Importance n= 327 229 97 37 23 138 127 56 224 0 No importance 3% 4% 0% 14% 0% 3% 0% 5% 2% 1 Low importance 12% 10% 16% 8% 9% 18% 6% 4% 15% 2 Medium importance 47% 48% 43% 30% 35% 49% 53% 46% 46% 3 High importance 39% 38% 40% 49% 57% 30% 41% 45% 37% Level of Agreement n= 344 241 102 37 25 145 135 60 235 1 Strongly Disagree 0% 0% 1% 0% 0% 1% 0% 0% 0% 2 Disagree 3% 3% 2% 8% 8% 3% 1% 2% 3% 3 Somewhat Disagree 8% 5% 16% 3% 4% 14% 4% 8% 7% 4 Somewhat Agree 18% 16% 23% 24% 20% 19% 14% 13% 20% 5 Agree 44% 49% 33% 43% 36% 41% 50% 50% 43% 6 Strongly Agree 27% 27% 25% 22% 32% 23% 32% 27% 27% Importance n= 327 229 97 37 23 137 128 56 224 0 No importance 1% 1% 0% 0% 0% 1% 0% 2% 0% 1 Low importance 2% 2% 3% 8% 4% 1% 2% 2% 3% 2 Medium importance 35% 34% 36% 19% 35% 36% 38% 27% 35% 3 High importance 62% 63% 61% 73% 61% 61% 60% 70% 62% I regularly discuss with students the value of developing employable skills Level of Agreement n= 343 241 101 37 25 144 135 60 235 1 Strongly Disagree 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 2 Disagree 3% 4% 2% 3% 0% 6% 1% 0% 4% 3 Somewhat Disagree 7% 6% 10% 3% 12% 8% 6% 5% 9% 4 Somewhat Agree 26% 28% 21% 30% 32% 26% 24% 17% 28% 5 Agree 30% 25% 41% 35% 24% 27% 33% 30% 28% 6 Strongly Agree 34% 37% 27% 30% 32% 33% 36% 48% 31% Importance n= 329 230 98 37 23 138 129 56 226 0 No importance 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1 Low importance 3% 4% 1% 5% 0% 3% 4% 2% 4% 2 Medium importance 30% 27% 38% 14% 48% 37% 26% 21% 31% 3 High importance 66% 68% 61% 81% 52% 60% 71% 77% 65% I have, or have ready access to, the information necessary to provide individualized advice to students about vocational educational opportunities Survey Questions and Response Options By location By type of district RAMP vs. NON-RAMP I am able to identify specific employers who might be a good fit for a student who has decided to go to work after graduating from high school K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 186 Public K-12 Pennsylvania Virginia Large Urban Smaller Urban Suburban Rural RAMP districts Non-RAMP districts I modify my counseling approach to incorporate the cultural heritage of the student with whom I am interacting Level of Agreement n= 342 240 101 37 25 144 134 60 233 1 Strongly Disagree 1% 0% 1% 0% 0% 1% 0% 2% 0% 2 Disagree 4% 3% 4% 8% 0% 1% 6% 2% 3% 3 Somewhat Disagree 9% 11% 6% 14% 8% 9% 8% 5% 11% 4 Somewhat Agree 31% 28% 38% 11% 36% 33% 34% 25% 34% 5 Agree 39% 41% 36% 46% 36% 38% 40% 38% 37% 6 Strongly Agree 16% 16% 16% 22% 20% 18% 12% 28% 14% Importance n= 326 229 96 37 23 136 128 55 224 0 No importance 1% 1% 1% 3% 0% 1% 1% 2% 0% 1 Low importance 7% 8% 5% 0% 9% 4% 13% 0% 9% 2 Medium importance 40% 39% 42% 38% 39% 37% 45% 38% 39% 3 High importance 52% 52% 52% 59% 52% 59% 41% 60% 51% I regularly receive constructive feedback about my counseling work from building- and/or district-leaders Level of Agreement n= 343 241 101 37 25 144 135 60 234 1 Strongly Disagree 9% 8% 10% 8% 16% 7% 9% 2% 11% 2 Disagree 18% 18% 18% 14% 24% 21% 15% 8% 22% 3 Somewhat Disagree 18% 18% 17% 24% 12% 15% 20% 7% 20% 4 Somewhat Agree 22% 24% 18% 32% 12% 24% 19% 28% 18% 5 Agree 24% 25% 23% 14% 16% 26% 27% 38% 21% 6 Strongly Agree 9% 7% 15% 8% 20% 8% 10% 17% 8% Importance n= 325 228 96 37 22 136 128 55 224 0 No importance 1% 1% 1% 0% 0% 1% 1% 0% 1% 1 Low importance 14% 14% 15% 8% 14% 13% 19% 7% 19% 2 Medium importance 39% 39% 40% 35% 36% 41% 38% 29% 36% 3 High importance 46% 46% 45% 57% 50% 45% 42% 64% 44% My school district provides the resources I need to do my job Level of Agreement n= 344 241 102 37 25 145 135 60 235 1 Strongly Disagree 7% 8% 5% 8% 16% 7% 6% 5% 9% 2 Disagree 10% 10% 11% 16% 16% 10% 8% 2% 14% 3 Somewhat Disagree 11% 10% 15% 22% 0% 11% 10% 5% 11% 4 Somewhat Agree 28% 30% 24% 22% 28% 30% 27% 22% 28% 5 Agree 28% 26% 30% 30% 24% 29% 27% 37% 26% 6 Strongly Agree 15% 15% 16% 3% 16% 13% 21% 30% 13% Importance n= 327 228 98 37 23 137 128 55 226 0 No importance 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1 Low importance 2% 1% 3% 0% 4% 1% 2% 0% 3% 2 Medium importance 17% 16% 17% 16% 0% 18% 18% 7% 16% 3 High importance 82% 82% 80% 84% 96% 80% 80% 93% 81% All things considered, I am meeting the college and career readiness guidance needs of the students for whom I am responsible Level of Agreement n= 344 241 102 37 25 145 135 60 235 1 Strongly Disagree 1% 1% 1% 0% 0% 1% 2% 0% 2% 2 Disagree 3% 3% 2% 3% 12% 2% 1% 0% 3% 3 Somewhat Disagree 6% 7% 5% 8% 8% 7% 4% 2% 7% 4 Somewhat Agree 25% 26% 24% 24% 12% 29% 24% 13% 29% 5 Agree 40% 38% 45% 43% 44% 37% 42% 43% 39% 6 Strongly Agree 25% 25% 24% 22% 24% 25% 26% 42% 20% Importance n= 327 228 98 37 23 138 127 55 225 0 No importance 0% 0% 0% 3% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1 Low importance 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1% 2% 0% 2 Medium importance 13% 13% 13% 14% 0% 15% 13% 11% 13% 3 High importance 86% 86% 87% 84% 100% 85% 86% 87% 87% Survey Questions and Response Options By location By type of district RAMP vs. NON-RAMP K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 187 Public K-12 Pennsylvania Virginia Large Urban Smaller Urban Suburban Rural RAMP districts Non-RAMP districts C.6.1 On average, over the course of a school year, what percentage of your time do you spend on the following activities? Mean 11.5% 11.7% 10.8% 10.9% 13.8% 11.7% 11.0% 13.1% 11.0% 26.1% 26.3% 25.7% 24.6% 22.5% 28.0% 25.2% 28.2% 24.5% 26.1% 26.2% 25.8% 26.1% 23.5% 26.7% 25.6% 25.6% 26.8% 13.0% 13.5% 11.9% 12.6% 13.7% 13.3% 12.9% 11.8% 13.6% 15.3% 14.6% 17.1% 17.9% 16.1% 13.5% 16.4% 15.1% 15.4% 8.0% 7.7% 8.6% 7.8% 10.4% 6.7% 9.0% 6.1% 8.8% NON-COUNSELING WORK GUIDANCE CURRICULUM, which includes lesson preparation, teacher consultation, and classroom delivery STUDENT PLANNING, which includes assisting students in establishing personal goals, as well as college and career planning RESPONSIVE SERVICES, which includes counseling activities that meet immediate needs, often necessitated by life events STUDENT ADVOCACY, which includes individual education plan meetings, student study teams, and school attendance review boards OTHER COUNSELING-RELATED ACTIVITIES, INCLUDING ADMINISTRATIVE WORK Survey Questions and Response Options By location By type of district RAMP vs. NON-RAMP K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 188 Public K-12 Pennsylvania Virginia Large Urban Smaller Urban Suburban Rural RAMP districts Non-RAMP districts C.9.1 How often do you ACTUALLY DO this work? n= 317 221 95 33 24 132 126 54 217 0 Never 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1 Rarely 7% 8% 3% 12% 4% 4% 9% 7% 6% 2 Occasionally 45% 45% 45% 48% 25% 36% 57% 43% 47% 3 Frequently 48% 47% 52% 39% 71% 60% 34% 50% 47% C.9.2 How often would you PREFER TO DO this work? n= 316 222 93 32 24 133 125 55 215 0 Never 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1 Rarely 2% 2% 1% 3% 0% 2% 2% 4% 2% 2 Occasionally 34% 35% 29% 34% 21% 29% 39% 33% 35% 3 Frequently 65% 63% 70% 63% 79% 68% 59% 64% 63% C.9.3 What do you consider to be your personal SKILL PROFICIENCY in this work? n= 320 224 95 33 24 133 128 55 219 1 Very low 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 2 Basic 3% 2% 5% 3% 4% 5% 2% 2% 3% 3 Intermediate 27% 30% 20% 30% 29% 24% 28% 27% 27% 4 Advanced 55% 53% 59% 52% 54% 53% 59% 53% 56% 5 Expert 15% 15% 16% 15% 13% 19% 12% 18% 13% C.9.4 Did you receive FORMAL TRAINING relevant to doing this work as part of your CERTIFICATION TRAINING COURSEWORK? n= 312 218 93 32 23 127 128 54 212 Yes 39% 39% 41% 44% 39% 35% 42% 50% 36% No 61% 61% 59% 56% 61% 65% 58% 50% 64% C.9.5 Did you receive FORMAL TRAINING relevant to doing this work as part of your ONGOING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT? n= 316 220 95 33 24 131 126 54 218 Yes 65% 63% 68% 64% 79% 63% 64% 65% 63% No 35% 37% 32% 36% 21% 37% 36% 35% 37% C.9.6 Are MEASURABLE GOALS regularly established for your work in this area? n= 320 224 95 33 24 133 128 55 219 Yes 43% 40% 48% 61% 54% 34% 45% 51% 41% No 58% 60% 52% 39% 46% 66% 55% 49% 59% C.9.7 Is your work in this area specifically addressed in your PERFORMANCE EVALUATIONS? n= 319 223 95 33 24 132 128 55 218 Yes 44% 44% 42% 48% 50% 42% 44% 62% 38% No 56% 56% 58% 52% 50% 58% 56% 38% 62% INFORMATION ABOUT SPECIFIC AREAS OF COUNSELING WORK COLLEGE ASPIRATIONS. Goals of this work: Building a college-going culture based on early college awareness by nurturing in students the confidence to aspire to college and the resilience to overcome challenges along the way. Maintaining high expectations by providing adequate supports, building social capital, and conveying the conviction that all students can succeed in college. Survey Questions and Response Options By location By type of district RAMP vs. NON-RAMP K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 189 Public K-12 Pennsylvania Virginia Large Urban Smaller Urban Suburban Rural RAMP districts Non-RAMP districts C.10.1 How often do you ACTUALLY DO this work? n= 308 217 90 32 23 129 122 54 212 0 Never 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1 Rarely 5% 5% 4% 9% 0% 5% 3% 7% 4% 2 Occasionally 31% 32% 27% 44% 35% 23% 35% 26% 30% 3 Frequently 65% 63% 69% 47% 65% 71% 61% 67% 66% C.10.2 How often would you PREFER TO DO this work? n= 305 215 89 32 23 126 122 54 208 0 Never 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1 Rarely 1% 1% 1% 0% 0% 3% 0% 6% 0% 2 Occasionally 23% 23% 24% 25% 22% 21% 26% 20% 24% 3 Frequently 75% 76% 75% 75% 78% 76% 74% 74% 75% C.10.3 What do you consider to be your personal SKILL PROFICIENCY in this work? n= 307 217 89 32 23 128 122 52 212 1 Very low 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 2 Basic 2% 1% 2% 0% 0% 3% 1% 2% 1% 3 Intermediate 22% 23% 20% 25% 35% 18% 22% 19% 20% 4 Advanced 57% 58% 55% 50% 57% 54% 62% 56% 58% 5 Expert 20% 18% 22% 25% 9% 25% 15% 23% 21% C.10.4 Did you receive FORMAL TRAINING relevant to doing this work as part of your CERTIFICATION TRAINING COURSEWORK? n= 305 216 88 31 23 128 121 54 209 Yes 41% 42% 38% 52% 39% 35% 45% 48% 39% No 59% 58% 63% 48% 61% 65% 55% 52% 61% C.10.5 Did you receive FORMAL TRAINING relevant to doing this work as part of your ONGOING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT? n= 307 216 90 32 23 127 123 54 210 Yes 56% 55% 59% 59% 52% 53% 60% 57% 55% No 44% 45% 41% 41% 48% 47% 40% 43% 45% C.10.6 Are MEASURABLE GOALS regularly established for your work in this area? n= 308 217 90 32 23 129 123 54 211 Yes 47% 44% 54% 66% 65% 40% 46% 57% 45% No 53% 56% 46% 34% 35% 60% 54% 43% 55% C.10.7 Is your work in this area specifically addressed in your PERFORMANCE EVALUATIONS? n= 307 217 89 32 23 129 121 53 211 Yes 49% 47% 53% 44% 65% 47% 50% 64% 45% No 51% 53% 47% 56% 35% 53% 50% 36% 55% ACADEMIC PLANNING FOR COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS. Goals of this work: Advancing students' planning, preparation, participation, and performance in a rigorous academic program that connects their college and career aspirations and goals. Survey Questions and Response Options By location By type of district RAMP vs. NON-RAMP K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 190 Public K-12 Pennsylvania Virginia Large Urban Smaller Urban Suburban Rural RAMP districts Non-RAMP districts C.11.1 How often do you ACTUALLY DO this work? n= 302 213 88 31 22 128 119 53 208 0 Never 3% 3% 2% 3% 0% 1% 5% 0% 2% 1 Rarely 34% 33% 38% 26% 23% 35% 39% 32% 36% 2 Occasionally 46% 46% 48% 58% 55% 48% 39% 42% 49% 3 Frequently 17% 18% 13% 13% 23% 16% 17% 26% 13% C.11.2 How often would you PREFER TO DO this work? n= 303 214 88 31 22 128 120 54 208 0 Never 1% 0% 1% 3% 0% 0% 1% 0% 0% 1 Rarely 10% 11% 7% 10% 5% 8% 14% 6% 11% 2 Occasionally 53% 52% 55% 39% 50% 55% 56% 44% 56% 3 Frequently 36% 36% 38% 48% 45% 38% 29% 50% 33% C.11.3 What do you consider to be your personal SKILL PROFICIENCY in this work? n= 303 214 88 31 22 128 120 54 208 1 Very low 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 2 Basic 13% 10% 20% 13% 23% 9% 15% 6% 13% 3 Intermediate 43% 48% 30% 32% 36% 50% 38% 37% 44% 4 Advanced 37% 34% 43% 39% 23% 36% 39% 41% 37% 5 Expert 8% 8% 7% 16% 18% 5% 8% 17% 6% C.11.4 Did you receive FORMAL TRAINING relevant to doing this work as part of your CERTIFICATION TRAINING COURSEWORK? n= 297 210 86 31 21 126 117 53 204 Yes 14% 13% 15% 26% 29% 10% 13% 23% 12% No 86% 87% 85% 74% 71% 90% 87% 77% 88% C.11.5 Did you receive FORMAL TRAINING relevant to doing this work as part of your ONGOING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT? n= 299 211 87 30 22 127 118 52 208 Yes 25% 24% 25% 37% 36% 23% 22% 38% 20% No 75% 76% 75% 63% 64% 77% 78% 62% 80% C.11.6 Are MEASURABLE GOALS regularly established for your work in this area? n= 296 209 86 30 22 126 118 52 204 Yes 18% 15% 22% 23% 27% 13% 19% 37% 13% No 82% 85% 78% 77% 73% 87% 81% 63% 87% C.11.7 Is your work in this area specifically addressed in your PERFORMANCE EVALUATIONS? n= 299 212 86 31 22 126 118 53 206 Yes 24% 24% 26% 32% 27% 21% 25% 47% 18% No 76% 76% 74% 68% 73% 79% 75% 53% 82% ENRICHMENT AND EXTRACURRICULAR ENGAGEMENT. Goals of this work: Ensuring equitable exposure to a wide range of extracurricular and enrichment opportunities that build leadership, nurture talents and interests, and increase engagement in school. Survey Questions and Response Options By location By type of district RAMP vs. NON-RAMP K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 191 Public K-12 Pennsylvania Virginia Large Urban Smaller Urban Suburban Rural RAMP districts Non-RAMP districts C.12.1 How often do you ACTUALLY DO this work? n= 298 210 87 30 22 124 120 54 204 0 Never 1% 1% 0% 3% 0% 2% 0% 6% 0% 1 Rarely 5% 5% 3% 10% 0% 4% 6% 2% 6% 2 Occasionally 41% 35% 56% 33% 36% 44% 41% 35% 44% 3 Frequently 53% 59% 40% 53% 64% 51% 53% 57% 50% C.12.2 How often would you PREFER TO DO this work? n= 293 207 85 30 21 121 119 52 201 0 Never 1% 1% 0% 0% 0% 2% 0% 4% 0% 1 Rarely 2% 1% 2% 7% 0% 1% 2% 2% 2% 2 Occasionally 24% 21% 29% 23% 14% 26% 22% 25% 23% 3 Frequently 74% 77% 68% 70% 86% 71% 76% 69% 75% C.12.3 What do you consider to be your personal SKILL PROFICIENCY in this work? n= 297 209 87 30 22 123 120 54 203 1 Very low 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 2 Basic 3% 2% 5% 3% 0% 5% 2% 4% 3% 3 Intermediate 26% 21% 37% 23% 32% 26% 24% 20% 26% 4 Advanced 54% 58% 44% 50% 45% 54% 56% 52% 55% 5 Expert 18% 19% 15% 23% 23% 15% 18% 24% 16% C.12.4 Did you receive FORMAL TRAINING relevant to doing this work as part of your CERTIFICATION TRAINING COURSEWORK? n= 293 206 86 30 22 121 119 53 200 Yes 43% 44% 41% 43% 50% 37% 47% 49% 42% No 57% 56% 59% 57% 50% 63% 53% 51% 58% C.12.5 Did you receive FORMAL TRAINING relevant to doing this work as part of your ONGOING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT? n= 295 209 85 30 22 121 120 52 203 Yes 60% 61% 58% 57% 55% 64% 59% 69% 58% No 40% 39% 42% 43% 45% 36% 41% 31% 42% C.12.6 Are MEASURABLE GOALS regularly established for your work in this area? n= 296 209 86 30 21 123 120 54 202 Yes 45% 48% 36% 60% 52% 41% 43% 69% 39% No 55% 52% 64% 40% 48% 59% 57% 31% 61% C.12.7 Is your work in this area specifically addressed in your PERFORMANCE EVALUATIONS? n= 295 207 87 30 22 121 120 53 203 Yes 44% 47% 36% 40% 59% 40% 47% 72% 38% No 56% 53% 64% 60% 41% 60% 53% 28% 62% COLLEGE AND CAREER EXPLORATION AND SELECTION PROCESSES. Goals of this work: Providing early and ongoing exposure to experiences and information necessary to make informed decisions when selecting a college or caareer that connects to academic preparation and future aspirations. Survey Questions and Response Options By location By type of district RAMP vs. NON-RAMP K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 192 Public K-12 Pennsylvania Virginia Large Urban Smaller Urban Suburban Rural RAMP districts Non-RAMP districts C.13.1 How often do you ACTUALLY DO this work? n= 291 209 81 30 21 121 117 53 199 0 Never 2% 2% 2% 7% 0% 2% 1% 4% 2% 1 Rarely 16% 14% 21% 30% 19% 12% 17% 9% 17% 2 Occasionally 47% 46% 49% 40% 29% 57% 42% 47% 49% 3 Frequently 35% 38% 27% 23% 52% 29% 40% 40% 33% C.13.2 How often would you PREFER TO DO this work? n= 292 207 84 30 21 120 119 54 199 0 Never 1% 1% 0% 0% 0% 3% 0% 2% 1% 1 Rarely 10% 10% 11% 27% 5% 9% 8% 11% 9% 2 Occasionally 43% 40% 52% 30% 29% 53% 40% 41% 45% 3 Frequently 45% 49% 37% 43% 67% 36% 51% 46% 46% C.13.3 What do you consider to be your personal SKILL PROFICIENCY in this work? n= 293 208 84 30 21 121 119 54 200 1 Very low 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 2 Basic 5% 5% 6% 13% 10% 3% 3% 4% 4% 3 Intermediate 33% 32% 35% 33% 33% 37% 29% 19% 37% 4 Advanced 47% 47% 46% 40% 33% 47% 51% 57% 46% 5 Expert 15% 16% 13% 13% 24% 12% 17% 20% 14% C.13.4 Did you receive FORMAL TRAINING relevant to doing this work as part of your CERTIFICATION TRAINING COURSEWORK? n= 287 203 83 29 21 119 116 51 197 Yes 44% 44% 43% 48% 43% 34% 53% 55% 41% No 56% 56% 57% 52% 57% 66% 47% 45% 59% C.13.5 Did you receive FORMAL TRAINING relevant to doing this work as part of your ONGOING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT? n= 290 206 83 30 21 121 116 51 200 Yes 57% 58% 54% 53% 57% 57% 58% 69% 55% No 43% 42% 46% 47% 43% 43% 42% 31% 45% C.13.6 Are MEASURABLE GOALS regularly established for your work in this area? n= 293 208 84 30 21 122 118 54 200 Yes 39% 38% 40% 50% 52% 30% 44% 57% 34% No 61% 62% 60% 50% 48% 70% 56% 43% 66% C.13.7 Is your work in this area specifically addressed in your PERFORMANCE EVALUATIONS? n= 291 207 83 30 20 122 117 54 199 Yes 38% 41% 31% 40% 65% 30% 42% 61% 32% No 62% 59% 69% 60% 35% 70% 58% 39% 68% Survey Questions and Response Options By location By type of district RAMP vs. NON-RAMP COLLEGE AND CAREER ASSESSMENTS. Goals of this work: Promoting preparation, participation, and performance in college and career assessments by all students. K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 193 Public K-12 Pennsylvania Virginia Large Urban Smaller Urban Suburban Rural RAMP districts Non-RAMP districts C.14.1 How often do you ACTUALLY DO this work? n= 293 208 84 30 21 122 118 54 200 0 Never 6% 7% 4% 17% 0% 7% 3% 6% 7% 1 Rarely 22% 22% 21% 33% 14% 26% 16% 17% 25% 2 Occasionally 47% 47% 46% 20% 38% 48% 55% 43% 48% 3 Frequently 25% 24% 29% 30% 48% 19% 26% 35% 21% C.14.2 How often would you PREFER TO DO this work? n= 291 206 84 30 21 122 117 54 198 0 Never 3% 4% 2% 10% 0% 4% 2% 6% 3% 1 Rarely 16% 17% 13% 17% 0% 22% 12% 17% 16% 2 Occasionally 54% 54% 55% 40% 48% 55% 58% 39% 59% 3 Frequently 27% 26% 30% 33% 52% 19% 28% 39% 22% C.14.3 What do you consider to be your personal SKILL PROFICIENCY in this work? n= 290 205 84 30 21 120 118 53 198 1 Very low 3% 5% 0% 13% 0% 4% 1% 6% 3% 2 Basic 15% 14% 18% 13% 0% 23% 11% 9% 18% 3 Intermediate 43% 41% 48% 43% 43% 44% 43% 36% 46% 4 Advanced 28% 29% 26% 13% 43% 24% 33% 36% 26% 5 Expert 10% 10% 8% 17% 14% 5% 12% 13% 8% C.14.4 Did you receive FORMAL TRAINING relevant to doing this work as part of your CERTIFICATION TRAINING COURSEWORK? n= 288 206 81 30 21 119 117 54 195 Yes 17% 17% 15% 17% 38% 9% 21% 35% 11% No 83% 83% 85% 83% 62% 91% 79% 65% 89% C.14.5 Did you receive FORMAL TRAINING relevant to doing this work as part of your ONGOING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT? n= 290 205 84 30 21 122 116 53 199 Yes 52% 54% 46% 43% 62% 48% 56% 55% 52% No 48% 46% 54% 57% 38% 52% 44% 45% 48% C.14.6 Are MEASURABLE GOALS regularly established for your work in this area? n= 289 206 82 29 21 120 118 52 198 Yes 18% 16% 22% 34% 48% 12% 14% 33% 12% No 82% 84% 78% 66% 52% 88% 86% 67% 88% C.14.7 Is your work in this area specifically addressed in your PERFORMANCE EVALUATIONS? n= 286 205 80 30 21 120 114 54 193 Yes 17% 18% 15% 23% 43% 10% 18% 46% 8% No 83% 82% 85% 77% 57% 90% 82% 54% 92% COLLEGE AFFORDABILITY PLANNING. Goals of this work: Providing students and families with comprehensive information about college costs, options for paying for college, and the financial aid and scholarship processes and eligibility requirements, so they are able to plan for and affod a college education. Survey Questions and Response Options By location By type of district RAMP vs. NON-RAMP K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 194 Public K-12 Pennsylvania Virginia Large Urban Smaller Urban Suburban Rural RAMP districts Non-RAMP districts C.15.1 How often do you ACTUALLY DO this work? n= 291 207 83 30 21 121 117 53 199 0 Never 3% 5% 0% 10% 0% 4% 2% 6% 3% 1 Rarely 11% 10% 12% 17% 5% 7% 14% 6% 13% 2 Occasionally 34% 38% 25% 23% 38% 33% 38% 32% 36% 3 Frequently 52% 47% 63% 50% 57% 55% 47% 57% 48% C.15.2 How often would you PREFER TO DO this work? n= 288 207 80 30 21 120 115 54 195 0 Never 2% 3% 0% 7% 0% 3% 1% 4% 2% 1 Rarely 4% 4% 3% 10% 0% 3% 5% 6% 4% 2 Occasionally 34% 33% 38% 17% 24% 35% 39% 28% 37% 3 Frequently 59% 59% 60% 67% 76% 59% 55% 63% 57% C.15.3 What do you consider to be your personal SKILL PROFICIENCY in this work? n= 291 207 83 30 21 122 116 54 199 1 Very low 2% 3% 1% 7% 0% 3% 1% 6% 2% 2 Basic 5% 4% 6% 7% 0% 6% 4% 0% 7% 3 Intermediate 22% 22% 24% 20% 29% 20% 24% 22% 23% 4 Advanced 52% 53% 49% 40% 52% 52% 54% 46% 53% 5 Expert 19% 18% 19% 27% 19% 19% 16% 26% 17% C.15.4 Did you receive FORMAL TRAINING relevant to doing this work as part of your CERTIFICATION TRAINING COURSEWORK? n= 288 206 81 30 20 121 115 54 195 Yes 23% 22% 23% 27% 25% 17% 28% 31% 19% No 77% 78% 77% 73% 75% 83% 72% 69% 81% C.15.5 Did you receive FORMAL TRAINING relevant to doing this work as part of your ONGOING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT? n= 287 205 81 28 21 122 114 52 197 Yes 55% 52% 62% 46% 57% 59% 53% 62% 51% No 45% 48% 38% 54% 43% 41% 47% 38% 49% C.15.6 Are MEASURABLE GOALS regularly established for your work in this area? n= 290 207 82 30 21 121 116 53 198 Yes 28% 25% 34% 53% 52% 21% 23% 43% 20% No 72% 75% 66% 47% 48% 79% 77% 57% 80% C.15.7 Is your work in this area specifically addressed in your PERFORMANCE EVALUATIONS? n= 290 207 82 30 21 121 116 54 197 Yes 31% 31% 32% 53% 48% 26% 29% 52% 24% No 69% 69% 68% 47% 52% 74% 71% 48% 76% COLLEGE AND CAREER ADMISSION PROCESSES. Goals of this work: Ensuring that students and families have an early and ongoing understanding of the college and career application and admission processes so they can find the postsecondary options that are the best fit with their aspirations and interests. Survey Questions and Response Options By location By type of district RAMP vs. NON-RAMP K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 195 Public K-12 Pennsylvania Virginia Large Urban Smaller Urban Suburban Rural RAMP districts Non-RAMP districts C.16.1 How often do you ACTUALLY DO this work? n= 291 207 83 30 21 121 117 53 199 0 Never 6% 7% 4% 7% 0% 8% 5% 4% 7% 1 Rarely 23% 21% 28% 30% 19% 21% 24% 28% 24% 2 Occasionally 42% 44% 35% 33% 33% 40% 48% 34% 41% 3 Frequently 29% 27% 34% 30% 48% 31% 23% 34% 28% C.16.2 How often would you PREFER TO DO this work? n= 290 206 83 30 21 121 116 53 198 0 Never 2% 3% 0% 3% 0% 2% 2% 2% 3% 1 Rarely 8% 8% 5% 7% 10% 6% 9% 6% 10% 2 Occasionally 47% 48% 46% 50% 29% 50% 46% 42% 44% 3 Frequently 43% 41% 49% 40% 62% 42% 43% 51% 43% C.16.3 What do you consider to be your personal SKILL PROFICIENCY in this work? n= 291 207 83 30 21 121 117 53 199 1 Very low 2% 2% 1% 0% 0% 3% 1% 2% 2% 2 Basic 16% 15% 18% 33% 10% 17% 14% 15% 18% 3 Intermediate 35% 36% 34% 20% 33% 40% 33% 30% 34% 4 Advanced 39% 40% 39% 37% 48% 31% 47% 43% 39% 5 Expert 7% 7% 8% 10% 10% 8% 5% 9% 7% C.16.4 Did you receive FORMAL TRAINING relevant to doing this work as part of your CERTIFICATION TRAINING COURSEWORK? n= 282 201 80 29 19 119 114 49 195 Yes 21% 22% 19% 21% 26% 19% 22% 24% 21% No 79% 78% 81% 79% 74% 81% 78% 76% 79% C.16.5 Did you receive FORMAL TRAINING relevant to doing this work as part of your ONGOING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT? n= 287 206 80 28 21 120 116 52 196 Yes 39% 38% 41% 36% 43% 39% 40% 48% 38% No 61% 62% 59% 64% 57% 61% 60% 52% 62% C.16.6 Are MEASURABLE GOALS regularly established for your work in this area? n= 289 205 83 30 21 120 116 53 197 Yes 20% 19% 24% 23% 33% 19% 18% 36% 16% No 80% 81% 76% 77% 67% 81% 82% 64% 84% C.16.7 Is your work in this area specifically addressed in your PERFORMANCE EVALUATIONS? n= 286 203 82 29 20 119 116 51 196 Yes 23% 21% 28% 24% 25% 23% 22% 45% 19% No 77% 79% 72% 76% 75% 77% 78% 55% 81% TRANSITION FROM HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATION TO COLLEGE ENROLLMENT. Goals of this work: Connecting students to school and community resources to help the students overcome barriers and ensure the successful transition from high school to college. Survey Questions and Response Options By location By type of district RAMP vs. NON-RAMP K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 196 APPENDIX E: ADMINISTRATOR SURVEY RESULTS Public K-12 Pennsylvania Virginia Large Urban Smaller Urban Suburban Rural RAMP districts Non-RAMP districts A.3.1 Where do you work? n= 250 170 77 23 30 98 99 31 65 District of Columbia 1% 0% 0% 13% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% Pennsylvania 68% 100% 0% 70% 67% 71% 65% 77% 71% Virginia 31% 0% 100% 17% 33% 29% 35% 23% 29% Other 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% A.3.2 Which best describes your role? n= 250 170 77 23 30 98 99 31 65 Superintendent 11% 14% 6% 0% 20% 10% 12% 10% 18% Other district/division level 21% 22% 18% 30% 17% 18% 22% 10% 17% Principal 33% 38% 25% 22% 33% 28% 41% 45% 38% Other school level 35% 26% 51% 48% 30% 44% 24% 35% 26% A.3.4 What is your gender? n= 245 167 75 22 30 95 98 29 63 Female 41% 32% 63% 50% 37% 39% 43% 34% 48% Male 58% 68% 37% 50% 60% 61% 57% 66% 52% Non-binary / third gender 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% Prefer not to say 0% 1% 0% 0% 3% 0% 0% 0% 0% A.3.5 What is your ethnicity? n= 248 169 76 22 30 98 98 31 65 Asian / Pacific Islander 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% Black or African American 12% 5% 24% 32% 30% 7% 7% 10% 5% Hispanic or Latino 1% 1% 0% 5% 0% 1% 0% 0% 0% Native American or American Indian 0% 0% 1% 0% 0% 0% 1% 0% 0% White 85% 91% 74% 59% 63% 90% 92% 90% 95% Other 1% 1% 1% 5% 0% 2% 0% 0% 0% Prefer not to say 1% 1% 0% 0% 7% 0% 0% 0% 0% A.3.6 Which most closely describes the area served by the school district or school division in which you work? n= 250 170 77 23 30 98 99 31 65 Large Urban 9% 9% 5% 100% 0% 0% 0% 3% 8% Smaller Urban 12% 12% 13% 0% 100% 0% 0% 10% 11% Suburban 39% 41% 36% 0% 0% 100% 0% 48% 42% Rural 40% 38% 45% 0% 0% 0% 100% 39% 40% A.4.2 What is the approximate ethnicity distribution in your [school district, school division, or school]? Mean Asian / Pacific Islander 2% 2% 3% 3% 2% 4% 1% 3% 2% Black or African American 12% 8% 21% 36% 28% 9% 8% 10% 11% Hispanic or Latino 9% 8% 10% 37% 19% 7% 4% 9% 10% Native American or American Indian 0% 0% 1% 1% 1% 1% 0% 1% 0% White 70% 76% 60% 21% 37% 74% 82% 71% 73% Other 6% 6% 5% 2% 13% 5% 5% 6% 4% A.4.5 What is the approximate percentage of low income students in your [school district, school division, or school]? Mean 44% 43% 43% 71% 60% 29% 48% 41% 44% Median 45% 42% 48% 75% 60% 28% 50% 40% 48% Maximum 100% 100% 85% 99% 100% 63% 88% 100% 85% Minimum 5% 5% 8% 20% 10% 5% 20% 6% 10% A.4.7 Mean 320 305 362 327 319 333 308 297 341 Median 300 300 305 281 313 291 313 285 312 Survey Questions and Response Options By location By type of district RAMP vs. NON-RAMP Estimated counselor case load [Calculated using the following formula: High school students / Counselors serving high school students] K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 197 Public K-12 Pennsylvania Virginia Large Urban Smaller Urban Suburban Rural RAMP districts Non-RAMP districts A.4.8 How are high school students assigned to counselors in your school district? n= 228 164 62 15 25 97 91 33 71 52% 48% 63% 27% 60% 67% 37% 48% 56% 0% 1% 0% 0% 0% 1% 0% 0% 1% 32% 34% 23% 47% 32% 25% 36% 36% 25% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 3% 2% 3% 0% 8% 1% 3% 0% 0% 4% 4% 2% 13% 0% 3% 3% 3% 4% 10% 10% 10% 13% 0% 3% 20% 12% 13% A.4.9 Is your counseling program a Recognized ASCA Model Program (RAMP) program? n= 205 144 59 12 24 79 90 31 65 Yes 15% 17% 12% 8% 13% 19% 13% 100% 0% No 32% 32% 32% 42% 29% 34% 29% 0% 100% Don't know 53% 51% 56% 50% 58% 47% 58% 0% 0% By classes or homeroom teacher By grade level By achievement level No specific method for assigning students to co Other We have only one high school counselor, so there is no dividing up of responsibilities Survey Questions and Response Options By location By type of district RAMP vs. NON-RAMP By alphabetical listing K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 198 Public K-12 Pennsylvania Virginia Large Urban Smaller Urban Suburban Rural RAMP districts Non-RAMP districts A.5.1 What is your LEVEL OF AGREEMENT with this statement? A.6.1 In your opinion, HOW IMPORTANT is this statement to counselor success? In my [school district, school division, or school], students are able to meet with a counselor when they need to Level of Agreement n= 195 137 55 12 23 75 85 29 58 1 Strongly Disagree 2% 0% 7% 0% 0% 0% 5% 0% 2% 2 Disagree 2% 1% 4% 0% 0% 4% 1% 0% 3% 3 Somewhat Disagree 2% 3% 0% 0% 4% 1% 2% 0% 3% 4 Somewhat Agree 16% 18% 7% 50% 4% 16% 14% 28% 17% 5 Agree 38% 39% 38% 25% 65% 35% 36% 24% 38% 6 Strongly Agree 39% 39% 44% 25% 26% 44% 41% 48% 36% Importance n= 174 124 49 9 22 67 76 24 54 0 No importance 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1 Low importance 1% 1% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1% 0% 0% 2 Medium importance 13% 12% 16% 33% 23% 10% 11% 8% 17% 3 High importance 86% 87% 84% 67% 77% 90% 88% 92% 83% In my [school district, school division, or school], counselors get to know each of their assigned students individually Level of Agreement n= 197 139 55 12 23 75 87 29 58 1 Strongly Disagree 1% 1% 2% 0% 0% 0% 2% 0% 2% 2 Disagree 4% 4% 2% 8% 9% 1% 3% 0% 9% 3 Somewhat Disagree 5% 4% 5% 17% 0% 7% 2% 7% 2% 4 Somewhat Agree 34% 32% 36% 25% 30% 43% 28% 38% 33% 5 Agree 41% 41% 40% 33% 39% 37% 45% 38% 38% 6 Strongly Agree 17% 18% 15% 17% 22% 12% 20% 17% 17% Importance n= 176 125 50 9 22 68 77 26 54 0 No importance 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1 Low importance 1% 1% 0% 0% 5% 0% 0% 0% 0% 2 Medium importance 17% 14% 22% 33% 9% 15% 19% 27% 17% 3 High importance 82% 85% 78% 67% 86% 85% 81% 73% 83% In my [school district, school division, or school], counselors know the life aspirations of each of their assigned students Level of Agreement n= 197 139 55 12 23 75 87 29 58 1 Strongly Disagree 2% 2% 2% 0% 4% 0% 3% 0% 5% 2 Disagree 7% 6% 7% 8% 4% 4% 9% 3% 10% 3 Somewhat Disagree 9% 8% 13% 0% 0% 16% 7% 3% 10% 4 Somewhat Agree 41% 40% 40% 42% 57% 45% 32% 48% 36% 5 Agree 35% 37% 29% 33% 26% 29% 43% 34% 33% 6 Strongly Agree 7% 6% 9% 17% 9% 5% 6% 10% 5% Importance n= 176 126 49 9 22 68 77 25 54 0 No importance 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1 Low importance 3% 2% 6% 0% 5% 4% 1% 0% 4% 2 Medium importance 32% 33% 27% 33% 27% 31% 34% 36% 31% 3 High importance 65% 65% 67% 67% 68% 65% 65% 64% 65% Level of Agreement n= 197 139 55 12 23 75 87 29 58 1 Strongly Disagree 1% 0% 2% 0% 0% 0% 1% 0% 0% 2 Disagree 2% 2% 2% 0% 4% 1% 2% 0% 2% 3 Somewhat Disagree 4% 4% 4% 0% 9% 3% 5% 3% 5% 4 Somewhat Agree 23% 25% 18% 25% 17% 21% 26% 21% 24% 5 Agree 35% 33% 40% 50% 30% 31% 38% 38% 38% 6 Strongly Agree 35% 35% 35% 25% 39% 44% 28% 38% 31% Importance n= 177 126 50 9 22 68 78 25 55 0 No importance 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1 Low importance 5% 4% 8% 11% 5% 3% 6% 8% 4% 2 Medium importance 36% 37% 32% 44% 32% 40% 32% 32% 40% 3 High importance 59% 60% 60% 44% 64% 57% 62% 60% 56% Survey Questions and Response Options By location By type of district RAMP vs. NON-RAMP In my [school district, school division, or school], if a student asks a counselor for help in identifying colleges to consider, the counselor is able to develop a well-matched list of possibilities K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 199 Public K-12 Pennsylvania Virginia Large Urban Smaller Urban Suburban Rural RAMP districts Non-RAMP districts In my [school district, school division, or school], counselors are able to provide individualized advice to students about educational opportunities at community colleges Level of Agreement n= 197 139 55 12 23 75 87 29 58 1 Strongly Disagree 1% 0% 2% 0% 0% 0% 1% 0% 0% 2 Disagree 1% 1% 2% 0% 0% 0% 2% 0% 2% 3 Somewhat Disagree 2% 1% 4% 0% 9% 0% 2% 14% 0% 4 Somewhat Agree 21% 24% 15% 25% 17% 19% 24% 10% 28% 5 Agree 41% 42% 36% 33% 26% 47% 40% 28% 43% 6 Strongly Agree 35% 32% 42% 42% 48% 35% 30% 48% 28% Importance n= 176 125 50 9 22 67 78 25 54 0 No importance 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1 Low importance 3% 1% 8% 0% 5% 3% 3% 8% 2% 2 Medium importance 41% 43% 34% 56% 27% 46% 38% 32% 48% 3 High importance 56% 56% 58% 44% 68% 51% 59% 60% 50% Level of Agreement n= 197 139 55 12 23 75 87 29 58 1 Strongly Disagree 2% 1% 2% 0% 4% 1% 1% 0% 2% 2 Disagree 5% 5% 5% 8% 4% 3% 7% 0% 5% 3 Somewhat Disagree 11% 11% 13% 8% 13% 13% 9% 14% 16% 4 Somewhat Agree 26% 27% 22% 25% 17% 31% 24% 21% 31% 5 Agree 36% 34% 40% 50% 43% 29% 38% 38% 29% 6 Strongly Agree 20% 22% 18% 8% 17% 23% 21% 28% 17% Importance n= 174 123 50 9 22 65 78 25 55 0 No importance 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1 Low importance 6% 6% 6% 0% 5% 6% 6% 4% 5% 2 Medium importance 38% 39% 34% 44% 36% 37% 38% 44% 38% 3 High importance 56% 55% 60% 56% 59% 57% 55% 52% 56% In my [school district, school division, or school], counselors are able to provide informed advice to each student who is thinking about enlisting in the military Level of Agreement n= 197 139 55 12 23 75 87 29 58 1 Strongly Disagree 1% 0% 2% 0% 0% 0% 1% 0% 0% 2 Disagree 1% 0% 4% 0% 0% 0% 2% 0% 0% 3 Somewhat Disagree 8% 9% 7% 17% 4% 7% 9% 7% 12% 4 Somewhat Agree 22% 22% 22% 8% 22% 24% 22% 28% 31% 5 Agree 49% 48% 49% 50% 57% 49% 46% 38% 43% 6 Strongly Agree 20% 21% 16% 25% 17% 20% 20% 28% 14% Importance n= 177 126 50 9 22 68 78 25 55 0 No importance 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1 Low importance 7% 6% 8% 11% 5% 7% 6% 4% 11% 2 Medium importance 47% 45% 52% 56% 45% 54% 41% 48% 47% 3 High importance 46% 48% 40% 33% 50% 38% 53% 48% 42% In my [school district, school division, or school], counselors modify their counseling approach if the student would be the first in their family to attend college Level of Agreement n= 194 137 55 11 23 74 86 28 57 1 Strongly Disagree 1% 0% 4% 0% 0% 0% 2% 0% 0% 2 Disagree 7% 7% 7% 0% 9% 8% 7% 0% 7% 3 Somewhat Disagree 16% 16% 16% 27% 17% 16% 14% 11% 23% 4 Somewhat Agree 28% 30% 24% 18% 26% 30% 29% 46% 26% 5 Agree 31% 33% 27% 45% 39% 27% 31% 18% 30% 6 Strongly Agree 16% 14% 22% 9% 9% 19% 16% 25% 14% Importance n= 173 123 49 9 21 67 76 24 55 0 No importance 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1 Low importance 14% 13% 16% 11% 14% 16% 12% 25% 9% 2 Medium importance 40% 44% 29% 33% 48% 40% 38% 21% 53% 3 High importance 46% 43% 55% 56% 38% 43% 50% 54% 38% In my [school district, school division, or school], counselors tailor their counseling approach to assure that college-bound students from low-income families apply to schools whose selectivity is consistent with their academic credentials Survey Questions and Response Options By location By type of district RAMP vs. NON-RAMP K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 200 Public K-12 Pennsylvania Virginia Large Urban Smaller Urban Suburban Rural RAMP districts Non-RAMP districts In my [school district, school division, or school], counselors are successful at helping students who have not yet developed plans for their future Level of Agreement n= 184 131 50 11 20 72 81 29 56 1 Strongly Disagree 1% 1% 2% 0% 0% 0% 2% 0% 2% 2 Disagree 3% 3% 2% 9% 5% 1% 2% 0% 7% 3 Somewhat Disagree 8% 7% 10% 9% 5% 8% 7% 7% 7% 4 Somewhat Agree 30% 31% 28% 27% 30% 29% 31% 31% 29% 5 Agree 45% 47% 40% 36% 40% 44% 48% 41% 45% 6 Strongly Agree 14% 11% 18% 18% 20% 17% 9% 21% 11% Importance n= 168 121 45 10 19 66 73 26 52 0 No importance 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1 Low importance 2% 1% 4% 0% 5% 0% 3% 4% 2% 2 Medium importance 23% 21% 22% 60% 21% 21% 19% 23% 19% 3 High importance 76% 78% 73% 40% 74% 79% 78% 73% 79% Level of Agreement n= 184 131 50 11 20 72 81 29 56 1 Strongly Disagree 3% 2% 4% 0% 5% 1% 4% 0% 4% 2 Disagree 13% 12% 14% 9% 20% 15% 9% 10% 14% 3 Somewhat Disagree 17% 16% 18% 36% 10% 17% 17% 10% 20% 4 Somewhat Agree 28% 27% 32% 36% 20% 32% 26% 34% 34% 5 Agree 32% 36% 22% 0% 35% 29% 37% 41% 23% 6 Strongly Agree 8% 6% 10% 18% 10% 6% 7% 3% 5% Importance n= 169 122 45 10 19 67 73 26 53 0 No importance 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1 Low importance 7% 6% 9% 20% 5% 7% 4% 12% 11% 2 Medium importance 45% 47% 40% 50% 42% 46% 44% 42% 40% 3 High importance 49% 48% 51% 30% 53% 46% 52% 46% 49% Level of Agreement n= 184 131 50 11 20 72 81 29 56 1 Strongly Disagree 1% 0% 4% 0% 0% 0% 2% 0% 0% 2 Disagree 2% 2% 2% 9% 0% 1% 2% 0% 4% 3 Somewhat Disagree 5% 4% 10% 0% 5% 4% 7% 0% 5% 4 Somewhat Agree 26% 25% 26% 45% 20% 21% 28% 28% 39% 5 Agree 38% 39% 38% 18% 45% 51% 27% 38% 29% 6 Strongly Agree 28% 31% 20% 27% 30% 22% 32% 34% 23% Importance n= 168 121 46 9 19 66 74 26 53 0 No importance 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1 Low importance 2% 2% 2% 0% 0% 2% 3% 4% 0% 2 Medium importance 27% 26% 28% 33% 16% 35% 22% 27% 34% 3 High importance 71% 72% 70% 67% 84% 64% 76% 69% 66% In my [school district, school division, or school], counselors regularly discuss with students the value of developing employable skills Level of Agreement n= 184 131 50 11 20 72 81 29 56 1 Strongly Disagree 2% 2% 2% 0% 0% 1% 2% 0% 2% 2 Disagree 4% 3% 6% 0% 5% 1% 6% 0% 7% 3 Somewhat Disagree 15% 13% 20% 18% 0% 15% 17% 7% 20% 4 Somewhat Agree 25% 25% 22% 36% 30% 24% 23% 34% 27% 5 Agree 32% 34% 30% 18% 45% 36% 27% 24% 29% 6 Strongly Agree 23% 24% 20% 27% 20% 22% 23% 34% 16% Importance n= 171 122 47 10 19 67 75 26 53 0 No importance 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1 Low importance 4% 4% 2% 30% 0% 1% 4% 0% 8% 2 Medium importance 31% 30% 34% 10% 32% 39% 27% 42% 36% 3 High importance 65% 66% 64% 60% 68% 60% 69% 58% 57% In my [school district, school division, or school], counselors are able to identify specific employers who might be a good fit for a student who has decided to go to work after graduating from high school In my [school district, school division, or school], counselors have, or have ready access to, the information necessary to provide individualized advice to students about vocational educational opportunities Survey Questions and Response Options By location By type of district RAMP vs. NON-RAMP K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 201 Public K-12 Pennsylvania Virginia Large Urban Smaller Urban Suburban Rural RAMP districts Non-RAMP districts Level of Agreement n= 181 129 49 11 20 72 78 29 56 1 Strongly Disagree 3% 3% 4% 0% 5% 3% 4% 0% 5% 2 Disagree 8% 8% 8% 9% 0% 10% 8% 0% 14% 3 Somewhat Disagree 22% 21% 24% 18% 35% 19% 21% 17% 23% 4 Somewhat Agree 30% 35% 14% 55% 15% 29% 32% 41% 29% 5 Agree 29% 25% 41% 0% 40% 28% 31% 34% 23% 6 Strongly Agree 8% 9% 8% 18% 5% 11% 5% 7% 5% Importance n= 165 119 45 9 19 67 70 26 53 0 No importance 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1 Low importance 12% 13% 9% 11% 11% 9% 16% 15% 15% 2 Medium importance 44% 45% 44% 22% 53% 43% 46% 46% 45% 3 High importance 44% 42% 47% 67% 37% 48% 39% 38% 40% In my [school district, school division, or school], counselors regularly receive constructive feedback about their counseling work from building- and/or district-leaders Level of Agreement n= 184 131 50 11 20 72 81 29 56 1 Strongly Disagree 4% 3% 6% 0% 10% 3% 4% 0% 4% 2 Disagree 9% 9% 8% 18% 10% 8% 7% 0% 7% 3 Somewhat Disagree 15% 13% 20% 9% 20% 17% 14% 10% 14% 4 Somewhat Agree 26% 27% 20% 36% 15% 24% 30% 24% 36% 5 Agree 33% 34% 32% 27% 25% 33% 36% 45% 30% 6 Strongly Agree 13% 13% 14% 9% 20% 15% 10% 21% 9% Importance n= 170 122 47 9 19 66 76 26 53 0 No importance 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1 Low importance 2% 2% 2% 0% 0% 2% 4% 4% 2% 2 Medium importance 36% 37% 36% 33% 37% 32% 41% 38% 45% 3 High importance 61% 61% 62% 67% 63% 67% 55% 58% 53% My [school district, school division, or school] provides adequate resources for counselors to do their jobs Level of Agreement n= 184 131 50 11 20 72 81 29 56 1 Strongly Disagree 3% 3% 2% 0% 0% 3% 4% 0% 5% 2 Disagree 8% 7% 10% 9% 5% 6% 10% 7% 11% 3 Somewhat Disagree 11% 11% 14% 9% 15% 10% 12% 7% 14% 4 Somewhat Agree 26% 25% 26% 45% 45% 25% 20% 21% 30% 5 Agree 33% 31% 38% 27% 20% 38% 33% 38% 25% 6 Strongly Agree 19% 23% 10% 9% 15% 19% 21% 28% 14% Importance n= 170 121 47 10 19 66 75 26 53 0 No importance 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1 Low importance 1% 1% 0% 10% 0% 0% 0% 0% 2% 2 Medium importance 22% 21% 21% 20% 32% 20% 21% 19% 25% 3 High importance 78% 78% 79% 70% 68% 80% 79% 81% 74% All things considered, counselors in my [school district, school division, or school] are meeting the college and career readiness guidance needs of our students Level of Agreement n= 184 131 50 11 20 72 81 29 56 1 Strongly Disagree 1% 1% 2% 0% 0% 0% 2% 0% 2% 2 Disagree 4% 3% 6% 9% 5% 1% 5% 3% 5% 3 Somewhat Disagree 5% 5% 8% 0% 0% 7% 6% 3% 7% 4 Somewhat Agree 25% 27% 18% 64% 35% 26% 16% 34% 25% 5 Agree 37% 37% 38% 0% 25% 39% 43% 21% 41% 6 Strongly Agree 28% 27% 28% 27% 35% 26% 27% 38% 20% Importance n= 170 122 46 10 19 67 74 26 52 0 No importance 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1 Low importance 1% 0% 2% 10% 0% 0% 1% 4% 0% 2 Medium importance 18% 20% 15% 30% 26% 19% 14% 15% 25% 3 High importance 81% 80% 83% 60% 74% 81% 85% 81% 75% Survey Questions and Response Options By location By type of district RAMP vs. NON-RAMP In my [school district, school division, or school], counselors modify their counseling approach to incorporate the cultural heritage of the student with whom they are interacting K-12 COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE 202 Public K-12 Pennsylvania Virginia Large Urban Smaller Urban Suburban Rural RAMP districts Non-RAMP districts A.7.1 HOW WELL DOES YOUR [SCHOOL DISTRICT, SCHOOL DIVISION, OR SCHOOL] DELIVER EACH COMPONENT OF COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS GUIDANCE COUNSELING? n= 174 126 46 10 20 67 77 29 51 0 We do not do this at all 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1 We are weak in this area 10% 11% 7% 20% 20% 6% 9% 14% 10% 2 We do an adequate job in this area 48% 48% 46% 80% 55% 34% 53% 41% 59% 3 We do an excellent job in this area 43% 41% 48% 0% 25% 60% 38% 45% 31% X Don't know 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% n= 177 127 47 11 20 67 79 29 52 0 We do not do this at all 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1 We are weak in this area 11% 10% 13% 18% 20% 4% 13% 14% 12% 2 We do an adequate job in this area 47% 46% 47% 64% 60% 37% 49% 34% 52% 3 We do an excellent job in this area 42% 44% 40% 18% 20% 58% 38% 52% 37% X Don't know 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% n= 176 127 46 11 20 67 78 29 52 0 We do not do this at all 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1 We are weak in this area 15% 13% 17% 36% 15% 12% 14% 17% 6% 2 We do an adequate job in this area 45% 45% 48% 55% 45% 40% 49% 41% 58% 3 We do an excellent job in this area 40% 43% 35% 9% 40% 48% 37% 41% 37% X Don't know 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% n= 175 126 46 10 20 67 78 29 52 0 We do not do this at all 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1 We are weak in this area 17% 14% 22% 20% 20% 10% 21% 21% 15% 2 We do an adequate job in this area 45% 48% 35% 60% 30% 48% 45% 38% 44% 3 We do an excellent job in this area 38% 37% 43% 20% 50% 42% 35% 41% 40% X Don't know 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% n= 174 126 46 10 19 67 78 29 52 0 We do not do this at all 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1 We are weak in this area 16% 13% 24% 40% 11% 9% 21% 10% 17% 2 We do an adequate job in this area 41% 46% 28% 50% 32% 43% 41% 41% 42% 3 We do an excellent job in this area 43% 41% 48% 10% 58% 48% 38% 48% 40% X Don't know 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% n= 173 125 45 11 20 66 76 29 51 0 We do not do this at all 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1 We are weak in this area 21% 22% 16% 45% 20% 21% 17% 21% 18% 2 We do an adequate job in this area 47% 52% 33% 36% 45% 47% 50% 41% 53% 3 We do an excellent job in this area 31% 26% 49% 18% 35% 30% 33% 38% 29% X Don't know 1% 0% 2% 0% 0% 2% 0% 0% 0% n= 171 125 44 10 20 66 75 29 50 0 We do not do this at all 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1 We are weak in this area 9% 9% 11% 10% 5% 9% 11% 7% 12% 2 We do an adequate job in this area 47% 50% 39% 70% 45% 32% 59% 34% 50% 3 We do an excellent job in this area 43% 42% 48% 20% 50% 58% 31% 59% 38% X Don't know 1% 0% 2% 0% 0% 2% 0% 0% 0% n= 171 124 45 10 19 66 76 29 51 0 We do not do this at all 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1 We are weak in this area 25% 27% 18% 60% 16% 17% 29% 17% 29% 2 We do an adequate job in this area 53% 54% 51% 30% 53% 58% 53% 55% 59% 3 We do an excellent job in this area 22% 19% 29% 10% 32% 24% 18% 28% 12% X Don't know 1% 0% 2% 0% 0% 2% 0% 0% 0% COLLEGE ASPIRATIONS (Building a college-going culture by nurturing in students the confidence to aspire to college and the resilience to overcome challenges. Maintaining high expectations, providing adequate supports, and building social capital.) ACADEMIC PLANNING FOR COLLEGE AND CAREER READINESS (Goal: Advancing students' planning, preparation, participation, and performance in a rigorous academic program that connects their college and career aspirations and goals.) ENRICHMENT AND EXTRACURRICULAR ENGAGEMENT. (Ensuring equitable exposure to a wide range of extracurricular and enrichment opportunities that build leadership, nurture talents and interests, and increase engagement in school.) COLLEGE AND CAREER EXPLORATION AND SELECTIONPROCESSES. (Providing exposure to experiences and information necessary to make informed decisions when selecting a college or career that connects to academic preparation and future aspirations.) Survey Questions and Response Options By location By type of district RAMP vs. NON-RAMP COLLEGE AND CAREER ASSESSMENTS. (Promoting preparation, participation, and performance in college and career assessments by all students.) COLLEGE AFFORDABILITY PLANNING. (Providing students and families with comprehensive information about college costs, options for paying for college, and the financial aid and scholarship processes and eligibility requirements) COLLEGE AND CAREER ADMISSION PROCESSES. (Ensuring that students and families understand the college and career application and admission processes so they can find the postsecondary options that are the best fit with their aspirations and interests.) TRANSITION FROM HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATION TO COLLEGE ENROLLMENT. (Connecting students to school and community resources to help the students overcome barriers and ensure the successful transition from high school to college.)

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this study was to determine if K-12 public school students are receiving adequate college and career readiness guidance (CCR Guidance), and, if not, to characterize the nature, extent, and cause of the shortfall. Adequacy is defined as the ability of students to meet with a CCR Guidance counselor

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Evaluation of the career development counseling in public high school in Qatar

Asset Metadata

Creator Baker, Curtis Duane (author)

Core Title K-12 college and career readiness guidance: an improvement study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 04/26/2019

Defense Date 03/21/2019

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag ASCA National Model,college and career readiness,Counseling,Eight Components of College and Career Readiness Counseling,Guidance,NOSCA,OAI-PMH Harvest,school counselor

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Freking, Frederick W. (committee chair), Green, Alan G. (committee member), Robles, Darline P. (committee member)

Creator Email curtisba@usc.edu,patrojan@aol.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-149359

Unique identifier UC11660161

Identifier etd-BakerCurti-7292.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-149359 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-BakerCurti-7292.pdf

Dmrecord 149359

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Baker, Curtis Duane

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA