University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Leaf module panel system: novel vertical wall wind energy production

(USC Thesis Other)

Leaf module panel system: novel vertical wall wind energy production

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content

Leaf Module Panel System

Novel Vertical Wall Wind Energy Production

By

Casey Castor

Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE
SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In partial fulfillment of the
Requirements of degree
MASTER OF BUILDING SCIENCE

August 2019

2

3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Contributers:
Doug Noble - Thesis Chair
Kyle Konis - Thesis Committee
Joon Ho Choi - Thesis Committee
Mohammed Beshir – Thesis Committee
Doris Sung – Automata/Kinetics in Architecture Discussions
Greg Thompson – Previous Professor Involvement – Intelligent Skins
Collin Ardnt – Previous Partner for Leaf Research Facility Project
Udit Dangarwala – Advisement of Electrical Engineering
Parth Sharma – Advisement of Electrical Engineering
Erica Leung – Advisement of Mechanical Engineering
Brandt Bradley – Developmental Advising
Ivan Monsreal – Developmental Advising
Evelyn Cancino – Developmental Advising

Family:
Tim and Gale Castor - Family Support
Koda Bear - Stress Support

4

COMMITTEE MEMBERS

Douglas Noble
Director - Master of Building Science, Discipline Head for Building Science, Associate Professor
Professor for Building Science Program
dnoble@usc.edu

Kyle Konis
Assistant Professor of Architecture at USC
Professor for Arch 519, 588, 692a
kkonis@usc.edu

Joon Ho Choi
Assistant Professor of Architecture at USC
Professor for Arch 515, 579, 615, 692a
joonhoch@usc.edu

Mohammed Beshir
Professor of Electrical Engineering-Systems Practice
Professor for EE 444
beshir@usc.edu

5

ABSTRACT
Renewable energy produced on-site for buildings is becoming more integral to meet energy code
requirements within the US, especially in the state of California. About 39% of carbon emissions in
the United States are expelled by power plants that feed all building electricity needs. [1]
Counteracting building energy loads can require more on-site energy production, passive energy
design and the use of increasingly efficient occupant comfort building systems. The ability for an
individual or structure to produce enough energy to sustain its lifecycle is instrumental to the future
of sustainability. Currently there are few technologies that allow renewable energy to be produced
and directly used in the built environment. On-site energy production in the US is dominated by
solar energy generated on the roof surface of buildings. Thus, energy generation on structures is
typically an ancillary function of the building hidden from sight. The Leaf-Gen device to be initially
produced from this research, on the other hand, is intended to both create energy, and be an integral
part of the aesthetic nature of the structure it resides. First, an understanding of fluid dynamics was
attained to produce oscillation by a geometric form and wind flow. Then, taking known geometries
of energy production and the natural form of the aspen leaf an extrapolated geometry was created.
This form was tested through computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to understand how the geometry
produces pressure fluctuations, and real time studies were performed via fan airflow. After the
geometric form was designed to oscillate at a rate that could produce energy, the electromagnetic
energy production mechanism was developed at a small scale. The final device is a vertical wall
solution which is comprised of a series of wind induced oscillating geometries. As these devices
flutter in the wind, they produce electricity on a micro scale on the interior encasement of the
system. When these modules are connected together in a wall panel system they intend to produce
enough energy to be used on-site within the building as lighting/electrical outputs.
6

KEY WORDS: Alternative Renewables, Microgeneration, Bio-mimicry, Wind Energy, On-site
Energy Production

RESEARCH STATEMENT
● Using a biomimicry-based geometry as inspiration, it is possible to design, build and test a
device prototype to install on the vertical face of a building and translate wind energy to
measurable electrical energy through oscillations while exploring geometry, orientation,
wind speed, and aesthetics.

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
● Preliminarily explore modes of oscillation induced by air flow.
● Generate forms based on research of geometries.
● Perform computational fluid dynamic analysis of forms based on air flow.
● Explore underlying factors of why certain geometries create better oscillation.
● Devise a microgeneration system.
● Propose device in response to performance metrics for geometry, orientation, wind velocity
and aesthetics.
7

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT 5
1. INTRODUCTION 10
1.1.1 Current State of Renewables 12
1.1.2 Adoption of Alternative Renewable Systems 12
1.3 Objectives 14
1.3.1 Oscillation 14
1.3.2 Micro-generation 15
1.3.3 Architectural Implementation 16
1.4 Hypothesis 17
1.5 Scope 17
1.5.1 Phasing 18
2. BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW 21
2.1 Renewable Energy Review 21
2.2 Solar Market Review 22
2.3 US Wind Climate Potential Review 23
2.4 Aspen Trees Leaf Movement Review 25
2.5 Technical Oscillating Microgeneration Review 27
2.5.1 Energy Harvesting Geometries 27
2.5.2 Wind Energy Conversion Systems 28
2.5.2 Oscillating Generator Design 29
2.6 Architectural Designed Wind Energy Production Review 30
2.6.1 Zephyr Wind beam 31
2.6.2 Blinking Sail Facade 32
2.6.3 Integrated Wind Turbine 33
3. METHODOLOGY 35
3.1 Phase One – Early Schematic Design 35
3.1.1 Schematic Technical Sketching 35
3.2 Phase Two – Software Analysis and Computation 37
3.2.1 Computational Fluid Dynamic Study #0 37
3.2.1 Computational Fluid Dynamic Study #1 38
3.2.2 Computational Fluid Dynamic Study #2 38
3.3 Phase Three - Module Materiality/Component Studies 41
3.4 Phase Four – Prototyping and Technical Micro-Generation Studies 42
3.4.1 Modeling and Production Lab 42
8

3.5 Phase Five – Architectural Attachment/Integrated Wall Preliminary Development 44
3.6 Phase Six – Module Testing Controlled Environment (Wind Tunnel) 44
3.6.1 Controlled Wind Testing Experiment Setup 45
3.6.2 Controlled Wind Testing Experiment Setup 46
3.7 Phase Seven – Final Module Output Levels Defined 47
4. DATA AND RESULTS 49
4.1 Early Schematic Design 49
4.2 Computational Fluid Dynamic Studies 56
4.2.1 CFD Case Study #1 56
4.2.2 CFD Case Study #2 59
4.3 Module Materiality and Component Studies 62
4.3.1 Materiality Study 62
4.3.2 Component Studies 63
4.3.3 Specifications Study 64
4.4 Prototyping and Technical Generation Studies 64
4.4.1 3D Modeling 65
4.4.2 3D Print Study 65
4.4.3 Prototyping 66
4.4.3.1 Prototyping #1 67
4.4.3.2 Prototyping #2 70
4.4.3.3 Prototyping #3 73
4.4.3.4 Prototyping #4 77
4.4.3.5 Prototyping #5 81
4.4.3.6 Prototyping #6 85
4.4.3.7 Prototyping #7 88
4.5 Architectural Wall Detail and Connections 94
4.5.1 Wall Schematic Design 94
4.5.2 Architectural Wall Mock-up #1 95
4.5.3 Architectural Wall Mock-up #2 96
4.6 Real time Oscillation Testing 98
4.6.1 Real Time Testing #1 99
4.6.2 Real Time Testing #2 102
5. TESTING AND PROTOTYPING ANALYSIS 108
5.1 Schematic Design Developments 108
5.2 CFD Studies Comparisons 109
9

5.2.1 CFD Case Study #1 Analysis 109
5.2.2 CFD Case Study #2 Analysis 110
5.3 Materiality, Component and Specifications Analysis 112
5.4 Prototyping and Technical Generation Analysis 112
5.4.1 3D Modeling 113
5.4.2 3D Print Study 113
5.4.3 Prototyping Developments 113
5.4.3.1 Prototype #1 Development 114
5.4.3.2 Prototype #2 Development 116
5.4.3.3 Prototype #3 Development 117
5.4.3.4 Prototype #4 Development 119
5.4.3.5 Prototype #5 Development 121
5.4.3.6 Prototype #6 Development 123
5.4.3.7 Prototype #7 Development 124
5.5 Architectural Wall Design 128
5.6 Real Time Testing Analysis 128
5.6.1 Real Time Testing Study #1 128
5.6.2 Real Time Testing Study #2 129
6. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK 133
6.1 Schematic Design Conclusion 133
6.2 CFD Study Conclusion 134
6.3 Materiality, Component and Specification Conclusions 134
6.4 Prototyping Conclusions 135
6.5 Early Wall Development Conclusions 135
6.6 Real Time Testing Conclusions 136
6.7 Future Developments 137
6.7.1 Oscillation Qualities 137
6.7.2 Component Performance 137
6.7.3 Mechanical Operation 138
6.7.4 Applications 138
REFERENCES 139
APPENDIX A: CFD ANALYSIS CASE STUDY #1 DATA: 141
APPENDIX B: CFD ANALYSIS CASE STUDY #2 DATA: 144
APPENDIX C: REAL TIME WIND TEST #1: 155
APPENDIX D: REAL TIME WIND TEST #2: 161
10

1. INTRODUCTION

Buildings cause nearly 40% of the carbon emissions within the United States mainly due to the use of
mechanical systems to provide thermal comfort for human occupancy (U.S. Green Building Council).
The United States has been going through a green energy movement during the mid-20
th
century and
that became more formalized with the creation of the Environmental Protection Agency in late 1970.
On-site energy production in the US is dominated by solar energy generated on the roof surface of
buildings. Energy generation on structures is typically an ancillary function of the building, hidden
from sight. As technology moves forward, the growing ability to create energy via different mediums
could allow for the creation of aesthetically appealing energy generation methods. The availability of
wind powered micro-electric generation was evaluated for onsite use and a device that could be
integrated into the building envelope was developed. The device is an alternative wind energy vertical
wall design solution comprised of a series of wind induced oscillating geometries. These devices use
techniques based on organic leaf shapes and functions, coupled with a computational fluid dynamic
(CFD) understanding of movement. As these devices flutter in the wind, they produce electricity on
a micro scale on the interior encasement of the system. When these modules are connected together
in a wall panel system and electrical grid circuit they produce enough energy to be used on-site for
electrical lighting/outputs.

1.1 The Problem
In the current architectural domain, a big focus is reduction of buildings’ carbon footprint. Carbon
footprint, as defined in by the Merriam-Webster dictionary, refers to the quantity of carbon emitted
by fossil fuels due to the consumption, creation, or operation by a specific entity. The goal is to get
to net-zero carbon footprint, net-zero meaning that the building has effectively no carbon emissions
over its operational lifecycle. This does not include the design, construction and all other processes
11

needed to create a building, but net-zero remains a difficult achievement. Mitigating the energy
loads of an entire building structure with passive energy design and on-site energy production
requires an enormous level of research and prediction.

Figure 1: The 2030 Architecture Challenge (Architecture2030.org) [2]

The World Green Building Council (WGBC) has initiated the 2030 goal of all new construction
projects to be net-zero, with 100% of buildings operating at net-zero carbon impact by 2050. This is
a short timeline with only 11 years to move new architectural projects into the net-zero goal. To
reach this milestone, architectural firms must make a few vital adjustments to their scope: firms
should increase their design capability to perform analysis on the micro-climate of a new project’s
location, understand passive strategies associated with this analysis, and implement these design
strategies while complying with their clients’ interests. Net-zero pushes architectural firms to either
reach out to other companies for help or start to develop their own higher level of building design.
Even with the analysis and predictions provided during the design process, the ability to provide a
12

net-zero structure primarily relies on the on-site generation capabilities provided in the marketplace.
Passive strategies and highly efficient mechanical systems will only get the energy load reduced to a
certain extent, so the need for more on-site generation solutions for the architectural market is the
main problem associated with this research.

1.1.1 Current State of Renewables
Moving towards net-zero means many forms of renewable energy must be exhausted. Hydro, wind,
and solar power are the three most impactful renewable solutions currently. Hydro doesn’t apply to
all sites and solar makes up most of the commercial sector of renewable energies. Solar panels are an
excellent source of on-site renewable energy, but the efficiency of these panels can only reach a certain
level, and they are built with non-sustainable materials such as silicon. Of these three, wind energy is
currently the least pursued commercial renewable beyond the wind turbine which makes up 5% of the
energy production market within the US. Air flows are always moving, and pressure changes occur
constantly making wind energy production adaptable to nearly any context. Moving into a more micro
scale wind energy renewable could be one next step towards net-zero.

1.1.2 Adoption of Alternative Renewable Systems
In regards to on-site energy production for buildings, a large majority rely on wind and solar power.
The traditional wind turbine does not provide a viable source of energy in an urban context due to its
size and the land space required. Additionally, most cities have ordinances and laws that do not allow
such turbines to be placed within their community. Solar energy is the most used on-site renewable
energy in the market, and nearly all projects that are seeking net-zero rely solely on solar energy
related devices. The need for new and creative design solutions for on-site renewable energy are dire
moving towards 2030.
13

Figure 2: Renewable Electricity Capacity Growth by Technology (IEA) [3]

1.2 Resolutions
For buildings to produce enough energy on-site to mitigate the energy loads of internal systems,
passive design approaches must be applied to the structure’s local environment. Passive deisgn
approaches include strategies for daylighting, natural ventilation and solar energy to reduce building
energy loads. Having on-site renewable energy produced by multiple natural forces will increase the
ability to produce net-zero structures. A large problem in the architectural world in relation to
energy generation is that most generation devices are not visually appealing to implement onto a
structure. Architects often want buildings to be artworks that facilitate a specific internal function
for the client. Providing a solution that is both aesthetically appealing and produces energy on a
building façade allows for a reduction of carbon load while appealing to architectural applicability.
Currently, the solar market is well developed as a result of solar rooftops that do not jeopardize the
aesthetic of a building. Wind is available in nearly every location of the world, some better suited
than others. Creating a wind energy producing device for an architectural application could be one
14

solution. This thesis specifically explores the ability to implement a vertical wall wind energy
production device onto an architectural façade that maintains aesthetic appeal.

1.3 Objectives
There are three main objectives to the design process of this project. Being able to create this device
with oscillation, micro-generation and architectural implementation in mind will be crucial to the
development and creation of this device. These three items will also be main keywords in relation to
this project. The following sections will delve into these ideas.

1.3.1 Oscillation
The first objective is to produce oscillations using geometry. The proposed strategy is based on an
adaptation between bio-mimicry of aspen trees and other known energy harvesting forms. This
geometry creates pressure fluctuations in multiple angles induced by wind flow across the device.
These fluctuations of pressure, pulling in air at a higher rate of speed and then establishing a low-
pressure zone on the opposite side of the wind flow, allows for the pressurized force in the opposite
direction of the wind to perform oscillation. The oscillation is thus transferred into an energy
producing internal system and directly used or stored on site.

Populus Tremuloides, otherwise known as the aspen tree, has a specialized form of motion in its
leaves induced by wind flow. [4] Aspen leaves’ motion is referred to as quaking, and this motion is
almost a combination of rotating and oscillating. The oscillator in this project is seeking to create a
similar motion due to the fact that aspen trees only require a low level of wind for the leaves to
induce the quaking motion. If low levels of wind can also be picked up by this device, then it will be
able to produce energy even on mild wind flow days.
15

Figure 3: Aspen Leaves in the Fall (Arbor Day Foundation)[5]

With the understanding of aspen leaves’ motion and using precedents in regard to energy harvesting
forms through wind, this project aims to formulate a geometry with this mixed interpolation. There
are a few generic energy harvesting forms that are known to create oscillation via pressure
fluctuations, chapter two will touch into these forms more specifically. The basic development is
through the leaf-like shape, which provides the surface area of the geometry, and the openings or
“pressure pockets” that are cut out of this surface. These will facilitate the ability to provide
oscillating motion, even during a constant wind flow.

1.3.2 Micro-generation
The second main objective relates to micro-generation. Micro-generation is the production of energy
on a small scale. Being able to produce enough energy through the force of wind is a difficult task.
Maintaining production at low levels of wind will require a lot of analysis on the oscillator
described in section 1.3.1. Micro-generation in this context requires the creation of an internal
encasement that can translate the oscillating motion into micro-generated energy. This study will be
16

based on many previously produced devices that have similar traits. Wind energy production in
architecture at a micro scale has not been deeply developed, and there are very few projects that
pertain directly to this device’s intent.

The design of this project is intended to be simple in the way that it produces electricity, keeping the
manufacturing of this concept easy. This simple concept will consist of magnets passing through a
coil made up of insulated magnetic wire. Increasing the oscillation alongside the appropriate sizing
of coils and magnets will provide a solution at the highest efficiency for its scale. Chapter three will
explain in depth the methodology of this process.

1.3.3 Architectural Implementation
The last objective is the implementation of the device into building enclosures. Providing a wall
panel to be integrated into the architectural domain requires a level of aesthetic quality. The device
needs to produce energy at a performance level that can be used, but it also must fit in to an
architectural context. Development of this façade component is a major portion of how applicable to
a built environment the device can be. The wind energy producing micro-generation module is
designed to allow simple plug and play into the exterior skin of the wall panel. This means that the
system would still function with the removal of a few of the modules during maintenance or
restructuring. These panels have two main means of being implemented. They can be provided by
means of attachment, which may apply more to existing structures, and by means of wall
integration. If the modules are intended to be used in a new construction or remodel, the wall
envelope can be developed to allow for the modules to be directly applied into one assembly. The
leaf-like movements of the exterior geometry provide an interesting flow of exterior kinetic
components that act as a form of natural beauty. With the provision of a form that gives the
17

architecture a sense of enlivenment, the device creates a more personal connection to the building.
The intention of this device is to provide a specific level of energy production in the wall, while
providing a solution that remains desired in the architectural environment.

1.4 Hypothesis
There are only a select few building enclosures that are equipped with alternative wind energy
production, and this is usually through turbine-based devices. Most buildings are only being
equipped with solar power systems on the horizontal roof surface. The roof surface is typically the
smallest surface area upon a building, while the combined exterior walls make up majority of the
surface area that is exposed to the natural elements for energy production. Most projects in the
United States that are considered net-zero only mitigate building energy loads with solar panels and
minimal passive design strategies. Being able to design, create, and implement an architectural
façade-based device that produces energy via wind production, coupled with pre-existing solar
panels, can provide the next step needed to facilitate net-zero through on-site energy production.
Beyond the requirement for all new construction buildings to be net-zero by 2030, all existing
construction must be re-evaluated and redesigned to be net-zero as well. Providing more attachment
systems that have energy producing capabilities, will allow existing building enclosures to develop a
net-zero infrastructure.

1.5 Scope
The scope of this project is made up of 7 phases of project development over a 12-month period.
This begins with schematic design stages of the device, and continues through conceptual
implementation strategies. This project will produce a device from the ground up based on the three
main objectives given in section 1.3. Using understanding of oscillation and micro-generation in
every phase of this project will eventually lead to the finalized product designed for the building
18

envelope. Table 1 on the next page schedules all of the work that will be done in the research,
construction, and testing of this device and wall assembly.

Table 1: Thesis Schedule of Scope

1.5.1 Phasing
The layout and framework is based on the 7 phases that will be performed to achieve the final
output and product design. Each phase will overlap, and in some cases, carry forward as an
additional portion of the following phase or phases. More information on these tasks will be
provided in Chapter 3.
19

Figure 4: Project Phasing Layout Diagram

Phase 1: Early Schematic Design (April 1
st
– June 30
th
, 2018)
o Pre-design research
o Developmental sketching
o Initial 3D-modeling

Phase 2: Software Analysis and Computation (June 1
st
– July 31
st
, 2018)
o Testing Forms through computational fluid dynamics
o Developmental 3D-modeling
o Performing analysis on 3D models

Phase 3: Module Materiality and Component Studies (August 1
st
– September 30th, 2018)
o Materiality research
20

o Material and component strategies for 3D models
o Component and material Purchasing

Phase 4: Prototyping and Technical Micro-Generation Studies (September 1
st
– December 31
st
,
2018)
o Initial prototyping through 3D printed models
o Developmental construction of micro-generation capabilities
o Production of prototype for energy performance testing

Phase 5: Architectural Wall Development (January 2019)
o Provide detailing and connection of modules
o 3D model wall panels
o Create full scale mock-up panel

Phase 6: Module Testing in Controlled Environment (February 2019)
o Prototype testing with fan
o Collect data of geometry performance
o Perform test with refined prototype

Phase 7: Final Output Levels Defined (March 2019)
o Analyze data of geometry oscillation
o Analyze data of energy performance
o Provide data sheet of specifications and outputs

21

2. BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Renewable Energy Review
Renewable energy has become more popular and can be found at some level nearly everywhere you
go within the US. These typically are in the form of solar panels and wind turbines, two relatively
refined existing technologies. “Renewable energy is now considered a more desirable source of fuel
than nuclear power due to the absence of risk and disasters. Considering that the major component
of greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide, there is a global concern about reducing carbon emissions. In
this regard, different policies could be applied to reducing carbon emissions, such as enhancing
renewable energy deployment and encouraging technological innovations.” (A Review of Renewable
Energy Supply and Energy Efficiency Technologies – IZA)[6] Renewable energy is in high demand,
and new renewable solutions are constantly being sought out. Wind power for on-site production is
very rarely used, and almost all wind energy production is through wind turbines which are not used
on site in nearly all urban settings. “Significant expansion of wind energy development will be
required to achieve the scenarios outlined in the U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE)’s Wind
Vision: 20% wind energy by 2030 and 35% wind energy by 2050.” (2016 Wind Development In the
United States by Region)[7] Based on this study, clearly driven by wind turbines, there is large
potential in the wind energy department. Moving beyond turbines themselves and providing a
solution on a smaller scale for more urban communities as well as off grid potential, is one possible
next step in wind energy. “Variable renewable energy (VRE) is commonly understood as renewable
energy that is not stored prior to electricity generation.” (2016 Renewable Energy Grid Integration
Data Book – US Department of Energy)[8] VRE was an interesting concept for renewables with
direct usage. This project utilizes VRE via an onsite device that directly takes renewable energy
22

produced and applies it to direct building energy load, storing back up energy during low energy
usage hours.
2.2 Solar Market Review
Solar is the leading renewable market in the US, but it is not without its flaws. “Adoption of rooftop
solar in the United States primarily has been concentrated in higher-income households (Moezzi;
Vaishnav 2017)[9]. As technology costs decline and markets expand, however, focus is shifting to
increasing solar access in underserved market segments—particularly to low-to-moderate income
(LMI) households, or those earning 80% or less of the area median income (AMI).” (Rooftop Solar
Technical Potential for Low-to-Moderate Income Households in the United States – NREL)[9] This
study looking into potential adoption of solar by low-to-moderate income households proves that
there is a market for another similar price/watt renewable on-site generation solution. The more
households producing electricity, the more likely the goal of 2030 net-zero can be achieved. Solar
has dominated the market in recent years and is being implemented into more homes now than ever.
With the influx of individuals looking for these solutions, a secondary on-site renewable can be
adopted in the years leading up to 2030. For a home that has been constructed in the past, achieving
net-zero is a much more challenging task than providing a new construction at net-zero standards.
Developing a device that produces wind energy on-site at a low cost would fit well into the current
market outlook of renewables.
With the price breakdown provided by NREL on the next page, these numbers are an excellent goal
for the cost associations of an alternative wind producing façade. “As the global PV market
increases, so will the volume of decommissioned PV panels. At the end of 2016, cumulative global
PV waste streams are expected to have reached 43,500-250,000 metric tonnes. This is 0.1%-0.6% of
the cumulative mass of all installed panels (4 million metric tonnes). Meanwhile waste streams are
23

bound to only increase further. Given an average panel lifetime of 30 years, large amounts of annual
waste are anticipated by the early 2030s.” (End-Of-Life Management Solar Photovoltaic Panels –
IRENA)[10] Based on quantities of nearly unrecyclable PV systems, this is a pressing issue that will
be coming into the solar energy realm. Solar collecting materials are hard to manage at the end of
their life cycle, and researchers are currently working on providing systems based on bio-related
materials. Providing a system that is easily recyclable with a cheaper upgrade solution may be the
next step in renewables.
Figure 5: Figure ES-1 Benchmarked Prices and Price Breakdowns (U.S. Photovoltaic Prices and
Cost Breakdowns: Q1 2015 Benchmarks for Residential, Commercial, and Utility-Scale Systems –
NREL)[11]

2.3 US Wind Climate Potential Review
The wind market in the US has great potential. “Wind energy is one of the fastest growing energy
markets in the nation, contributing 6,800 MW of new generating capacity in 2011, which comprised
24

32% of all new U.S. electric capacity for the year. In 2012, the total U.S. installed wind capacity
reached 50,000 MW—enough to power more than 12 million homes annually or as many homes as
in the entire state of California—with another 10,000 MW of additional wind farms under
construction.” .(US DOE) [12] Affordable wind is on the rise, and renewable technologies for wind
power are at a new peak. There is much potential in taking these technologies into a new sector of
smaller scale singular unit or singular building-based functions.

Figure 6: United States- Annual Average Wind Speed at 80m (Wind Resource Assessment and
Characterization – Department of Energy)[13]

Seeing from the map provided from NREL, a majority of the US has at least an annual average wind
speed of 4 meters/second, showing that wind availability is widespread. Even in the cases of these
lower annual wind speeds there are methods to increase wind velocity in a location based on
pressure and adaptive analysis. “Thirty years of North American research on public acceptance of
25

wind energy has produced important insights, yet knowledge gaps remain… (3) Socioeconomic
impacts of wind development are strongly tied to acceptance. (4) Sound and visual impacts of wind
facilities are strongly tied to annoyance and opposition and ignoring these concerns can exacerbate
conflict.” (Energy Analysis and Environmental Impacts Division Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory – Berkeley Lab) [14] Wind energy will likely only go as far as the public will accept.
Large turbines disrupt the spatial interaction we have with our urban environment and can lead to
negative public feedback and community reaction. There is a market for an on-site solution that is
less intrusive to the urban environment. The development of a leaf-like node will hopefully also
supply a natural flow aesthetic, which has the ability to encourage more wide acceptance.

2.4 Aspen Trees Leaf Movement Review
Populus Tremuloides, otherwise known as the aspen tree, has a specialized form of motion in its
leaves induced by wind flow. “Poplars (Populus spp.) have a particular petiole morphology that
enhances leaf flutter even in light winds.” (Modeling the light interception and carbon gain of
individual fluttering aspen (Populus tremuloies Michx) leaves – John S. Roden) [15] Aspen leaves’
motion is otherwise known as quaking, a combination of rotating and oscillating. The reason that
these leaves flutter in low wind flows is the fact that the petiole of the leaf, also known as the stem
structure, is a flattened adaptation in comparison to other leaf types. This flattening of the petiole
allows for the leaf to flex and oscillate, or quake, in low level winds. “It is also an adaptation to
strong wind. The flat petiole permits the leaves to twist easily and reconfigure, accounting for the
resistance of aspen and other poplars to wind damage.” (Why are leaves of Quaking Aspen (Populus
tremuloides) shivering? – Lenka Sprtova) [4] Along with the ability for this flattened petiole to
create oscillation in low level winds it also is a safety mechanism to reposition itself in high level
winds without damaging the leaf structures.
26

Figure 7: Aspen Leaf (Why are leaves of Quaking Aspen (Populus tremuloides) shivering? – Lenka
Sprtova) [4]

Along with the functional qualities that are presented by the aspen, there are also aesthetic qualities
to its form and materiality. “…other trees are subject to two conditions-sunlit or shaded. The
translucency of aspen’s thin leaf provides an added dimension with backlighting, which creates the
illusion of internally illuminated leaves.” (Esthetics and Landscaping – Craig W. Johnson) [16] The
ability of aspen leaves to let lighting down and through the tree is an adaptation to improve
photosynthesis functions, but it also renders a beautiful sight. Incorporating this understanding of
the aspen leaves into a bio-mimicked geometry could facilitate multiple positive benefits that can
assist in its usage in the form of an aesthetically pleasing wind generation device.
27

2.5 Technical Oscillating Microgeneration Review
Microgeneration translated from the motion of oscillation is a very specific science. Rotating motion
has a simplicity to it, using appropriate blade geometries to allow a form to move in one direction.
Oscillating motion is a more complex art, aggregating the geometry to move in two or more
directions at a rate devised by air flow. Oscillation in wind design adds another level of difficulty in
the forms needed to facilitate its energy production task. The following projects have developed
systems to achieve oscillation and produce energy at a micro level.
2.5.1 Energy Harvesting Geometries
Figure 8: “Energy harvester shapes: (a) cantilever beam, (b) out-of-plane plate, (c) free-sliding mass,
(d) in-plane plate, (e) spring–mass structure, (f) oscillating rotational, (g) continuous rotation
mechanism.” [17]
Mehdi Niroomand and Hamid Reza Foroughi’s research article regarding “A rotary electromagnetic
microgenerator for energy harvesting from human motions” directly correlates to what this wind
energy concept is trying to achieve. The journal delves into electromagnetic energy generation, but
28

the main takeaway from this work was the energy harvesting forms that they had categorized into
simple geometries.
Most of the interest and connection between these geometries and this research, is through the
alternative energy production with a “leaf-like” form. Taking the concepts and geometries derived
from items a, b, c, and d in Figure 7, and forming a interpolation between these forms and the aspen
leaf is the aim of this geometrical form.
2.5.2 Wind Energy Conversion Systems
Figure 9: Rigid Wing Oscillating in a Supportive Track (1976) (Oscillating Wind Conversion Systems
– Peter South and Richard Mitchell) [18]
Research of oscillating wind energy production has been around for a long period of time, evidenced
by this research paper done in 1983: “Interest in oscillating-element wind energy conversion systems
29

(WECS) was generated when it was suggested that these systems could be built with relatively simple
elements. Because the main part of the structure would be extracting energy from the wind, the cost
of that energy would be relatively low.” [18] There are a few early wind energy capturing devices
mentioned in this research that are very simple forms and show the ability to oscillate, but do not have
a highly developed interior energy producing component. The design of a simple geometry that can
move in a specific way when subjected to wind flow seen in the 1976 Rigid Wing design in Figure 8
was an early example of this. There are many potential forms that can be provided at a low cost, that
allow wind energy on-site production. These different research projects bring up many key typologies
of transferred oscillating motion into energy harvesting systems.

2.5.2 Oscillating Generator Design
Figure 9 shows a concept devised by M. Musharraf dealing with a flapping device that is connected
to a pulley. As the wing flaps the magnetic bar oscillates on the interior of a coil to provide energy
production. “One of the main elements of this system is a copper coil pendulum with flapping wing
attached to it which oscillates at a low frequency when wind strikes it. The wind blowing kinetic
energy compels the pendulum to oscillate, so the kinetic energy of wind is converted into oscillating
energy of pendulum.” (Oscillating Wind Conversion Systems – Peter South and Richard Mitchell)
[18] This research has studied oscillating movements transferred into energy produced by a
microgenerator. The movement of the magnet system in this research is what was taken and observed
as the specific applicable motion of the magnet in the instance of wind energy production.

30

Figure 10: Oscillating Microgeneration design with a “Flapping Wing” (“Design of an Oscillating
Coil Pendulum Energy Generating System” by M. Musharraf) [19]

2.6 Architectural Designed Wind Energy Production Review
Beyond theoretical research in regard to wind energy devices that can be implemented, the
following review section explores devices that have been created to produce wind energy at a small-
scale level. There are devices that have applicability, but few have taken off at a large level and
some have only been applied at a singular scale.
31

2.6.1 Zephyr Wind beam

Figure 11: Windbeam Pressure Fluctuations (Zephyr Energy) [20]

Zephyr Energy have produced a device that creates energy through a pressure fluctuation driven
geometry called the Zephyr Windbeam. This design incorporates two different principles of
aerodynamics. Aerodynamics is the study of air movement, primarily the relationship between air
pressure and a solid form. The two principles are transverse galloping and vortex shredding.
Transverse galloping means that when air velocity gets to a critical point, the transverse vibration, or
oscillation continues to increase as the air flow increases. “Vortex shredding is the formation of
alternating vertices when placed in a fluid flow, meaning that the form used to oscillate in wind flow
creates a specific pressure zone behind the geometry when in a flow of air.” (Intoductory Fluid
Dynamics – Joseph Katz) [21] This concept creates energy through a high-speed oscillation of their
geometry moving in the upward and downward motion from wind flow between 2-20 miles per
hour. The product has a magnet on the underside of the geometry that, on the downward motion, is
inserted into a circular coil, producing energy. The study and technology of this device is very
32

thorough in regard to the geometry’s oscillation. This concept is a precedent for the tests regarding
the geometry to be created in this thesis project, and what type of aerodynamic movements are to be
created for oscillation.

2.6.2 Blinking Sail Facade
Another product design, created by M.C. Cimmino, is a more complex form and emphasizes on-site
wind power generation and aesthetic function. “Adaptive architecture must be considered the future
of contemporary architectural research because it can decrease the energy balance of buildings by
controlling thermal energy, light energy and sound waves.” [22] This quote from Cimmino’s research
hits on exactly what this project is trying to be a part of. The next step in architecture is adaptive
façades that can work in relation to their environment and act or react to the forces of nature. “The
wind-flow induced elongations of such cables rotate the generator, creating power for immediate use
of the served building, to operate solar facades.” (M.C. Cimmino, 2017) [22] In this project, M.C.
Cimmino is using the energy derived from the wind sail design to power the adaptive façade for solar
shading during the day time. This concept of direct usage of energy is very interesting and important
in the topic of wind energy.
Figure 12: Blinking sail facades working as wind generators (Composite solar facades and wind
generators with tensegrity architecture – M.C. Cimmino) [22]
33

2.6.3 Integrated Wind Turbine
HOK architects integrated a turbine design into one of their projects back in 2010 in Chicago. In this
instance they placed the turbine in a location at the corner of the building allowing for more range of
wind flow to affect the turbine. Also, they applied a more aesthetic based design into the turbine
allowing it to provide energy production from a more sculptural looking form on a vertical axis rod.
The design has a double-helical column shape that has pleasing aesthetic attributes to it. Being able
to provide solutions of this variety to architectural envelopes in the form of wind energy production
is very untraditional at this point in time, but as more integration occurs across the board, this can be
viable in many regions. Figure 12 shows the detail of this complex form applied to a simple parking
garage that has the ability of power generation at some scale. Allowing buildings to have multiple
modes of power generation will help reach the goals of 2030 in the realm of architecture and net-zero
practice.

Figure 13: Integrated Wind Turbine Detail – Greenway Self Park, Chicago (HOK Architects)[23]
34

2.7 Review Summary
Renewable energy is the future of our global sustainable lifestyle, and incorporating these goals in
every degree of development from small scale to large scale is crucial. Currently, solar is the leading
market for renewable energy production, but it is not without its flaws. A product must take reduction
of carbon load into consideration at every step of its lifecycle. Wind energy production could be viable
at both small and large scale development. Public consent to wind energy devices is crucial in its
placement ability. Providing a natural aspen inspired design can contribute a plethora of positive
benefits to the geometry design and could be widely appreciated. Taking simple designs with simple
geometries and developing an aesthetically pleasing and low-cost wind energy generation device is
the aim of this project. The research provided by these individuals has created a foundation of
precedents for the further development of this device.
35

3. METHODOLOGY
As this is an experimental product design, the framework is a straight forward layout. This project
starts with an early schematic design process and then goes into each trait individually. This section
will dissect each particular step of the research framework and go into great detail on its function
and use. This project is comprised of seven main phases of development, and each phase has
multiple tasks.

3.1 Phase One – Early Schematic Design
The schematic phase of most projects includes design research and investigates the approaches of
previous projects as precedents. This involves looking into wind energy production at a micro level
and what devices currently exist, then integrating these thoughts into a form that follows the goals of
the research. Utilizing the understanding of the biology of aspen trees and the basic principles of
how they react to wind, a more developed external geometry can be formulated. The movement of
this oscillating device will then help to develop the design of the internal energy producing element.
Many configurations of coil and magnet movement provide for an array of directions that can be
taken for translation of oscillation to energy output. Later in the thesis, it is understood that many
different prototyping ideas are pursued and left behind as faults are encountered, and better solutions
are formulated. With this knowledge and understanding developed in the schematic design phase,
the project moves into the computational analysis performed on these early concepts.

3.1.1 Schematic Technical Sketching
Creating sketches of an architectural and engineering product requires a level of innovation, based
on the interpolation of a research precedent and a concept that has potential application. This phase
was very analytical, taking thoughts and putting them on paper. As new concepts were derived from
36

this process, each new thought was researched to see if a precedent of a similar nature had been
created prior.

Figure 14: Pressure Pocket Leaf Geometry Sketch (Summer 2018, Casey Castor)

Sketches like Figure 13 led to many concepts that moved forward under closer study. This process
of schematic sketching allowed for the refining of ideas at an early level to understand which ideas
could have the best outcome.

37

3.2 Phase Two – Software Analysis and Computation
Computational Fluid Dynamics was done on the oscillating component to predict pressure
fluctuations induced by the geometry. The geometry itself being based on shapes that have already
been proven to create oscillation described in section 2.4 and 2.5. This testing led to the geometry
achieving a pressure fluctuation from airflow. The CFD analysis studies were done in Autodesk
CFD 2019. This program allows for very specific set up of the geometries and the flow across it. All
of the studies performed on the iterations of this device were done based on the average US wind
flow of 10mph (4.47 m/s) for preliminary study.

3.2.1 Computational Fluid Dynamic Study #0

Figure 15: Oscillation Geometry CFD test

Study #0 was testing a geometry which is known from other research by Mehdi Niroomand and
Hamid Reza Foroughi described in section 2.5.1 to create pressure fluctuations. This initial study
was very important to understand what the pressure fluctuation profiles might be. In Figure 1, the
38

green flow of wind velocity is moving at about 3 meters/second behind the geometry, higher than all
of the blue wind velocity surrounding it. This is a pressure pocket or pressure fluctuation created by
the geometry as air flow moves across it. This fluctuation creates a level of transverse galloping,
described in section 2.6.1. From this understanding many studies were performed during the next
stage to emulate the pressure fluctuation provided by Study #0 with the geometries designed for this
product.

3.2.1 Computational Fluid Dynamic Study #1
This next study was a test of multiple geometries that were based on the simple planar geometry
shown in Study #0. Study #1 was based on 24 iterations of the geometry from study #0. Produced first
in Rhinoceros 3D, and then imported into the CFD 2019 program, each geometry was slightly adjusted
based on opening size to see how it affected the resulting fluctuation. This study was performed using
the guidelines for CFD modeling described in the following section.

3.2.2 Computational Fluid Dynamic Study #2
The intention of study #2 was to create five angles of oscillation with one geometry. A new geometry
with 5 planar rectangular components attached together was created in Rhinoceros 3D, and slightly
altered based on opening size as in study #1. In this case study there was a defined level of presets
created to perform each task. Each geometry is tested in three specific positions: Cross flow testing
(Geometry is horizontally perpendicular to air flow); Top flow testing (Geometry is vertically
perpendicular to air flow); and Front flow testing (Geometry is parallel to air flow).

39

Step 1: Open CFD 2019 by Autodesk
Use functions: File>New>Select geometry file> Name File> Create surface wrap
This step allows the geometry to be inputted into the CFD program with required surface wrapping
needed to allow air flow to be tested upon its surfaces.

Step 2: Creating study volume
Function: >Select Exterior Volume> Input values to create exterior volume based on testing
type> Select create generate wrap> Transfer to CFD setup

Figure 16: External Volume setup (Cross Flow (Left), Top Flow (Middle), Front Flow (Right)

Each of these values correlated to the external volume is derived from a pre-analysis that was
performed prior to each test level. They are created based on CFD standards to allow the flow to move
across the geometry with enough testing space to derive appropriate results.
40

Step 3: Materials
Two geometries should be shown in this display> Select oscillating geometry and edit material to
ABS molded (injection plastic)> Select external volume and adjust material to fluid/air

ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene) plastic is the most common injection molding plastic that is
used in large production manufacturing, and for reasons outlined in section 3.3, was chosen as the
material for the geometry. The exterior volume is fluid/air as air flow is the focus of this study.

Step 4: Boundary Conditions
● Select the surface of which the air flow will derive from> Edit> Select velocity> Set value to
4.47 m/s (10 miles per hour)
● Select the four exterior geometries surrounding the flow that the air will pass through> Edit>
Select slip symmetry
● Select the opposite surface of the air velocity output surface> Edit> Select Pressure> Set value
to 0
This last portion of the CFD analysis model set up creates the specific type of boundaries that will
outline the study. Velocity will output the wind flow attributed to its values, slip symmetry is a
zero-friction surface allowing the air to pass seamlessly, and the pressure boundary allows the
flow to move across the geometry with no exterior pressure constants to offset the change of
velocity and pressure. The only change associated with velocity and pressure will be induced by
the geometry, allowing for a clear analysis.

41

Step 5: Solve
Select solve in the function screen> Select the quantity of tests that are desired to be performed>
Select analyze to start computational fluid dynamic analysis

The program automatically sets the output studies to be 100 tests, however in this study this was
reduced to 50 to allow for a quicker initial testing period.

3.3 Phase Three - Module Materiality/Component Studies
Materiality of this device was selected based on plastic material types that have the ability to be
recycled and extruded through a 3d printer. First, materials were arranged and sorted based on cost
effectiveness and appropriate sizing. The next step of this phase was to select the components that
were included in the design. These components included: metal or carbon fiber rods, ball bearings,
springs, coils, wires, fabric, electrical plugs, and magnets. These products were chosen based on the
availability and size requirements specified for each prototype design. Each list of components for
the prototypes were saved in a specification list format to keep a log of materials used. (example
shown below)

Example:
COMPONENT
TYPE
SIZING DURABILITY PRICE MANUFACTURE
R
SPRINGS 0.5X4.1X18mm HIGH $0.13 - $.014 each UXCELL
ABS PLASTIC 1.75mm HIGH $23.99/ 1 kg PRUSA
PLA PLASTIC 1.75mm MEDIUM $23.99/ 1 kg PRUSA
METAL ROD 4mmX100mm HIGH $8.23/ 10 rods UXCELL
42

3.4 Phase Four – Prototyping and Technical Micro-Generation Studies
This phase required considerable technical and manual work designing components through 3D
modeling. This process of prototyping was a series of trial and error tests based on the 3D modeling
and printing of components. Each component of the system was printed and refined multiple times
to assure a fast and clean replication process, emphasizing efficiency for each item. During this
process the micro-generation studies were performed analyzing the spatial relation of the electrical
components to the interior encasement of the system. After much trial and error, new components
were designed to fit the prototype system as well as the output of a final module.

3.4.1 Modeling and Production Lab
This phase of the project necessitated a small design lab to design, produce, and test several physical
prototypes. This lab had simple tools consisting of a collection of hardware, a 3D printer with the
ability to print a wide range of materials, and a laptop. This lab facilitated direct output production of
the module components. Each print requires a series of items to occur before the 3D printer can run a
model file.

Figure 17: Prototyping Design Lab (Tools, Components, Laptop, 3D printer)
43

Step 1: Each prototype is modeled in the 3D software, creating the pieces to fit together appropriately
and maintain adequate sizing for non-3D printed components to be put into place.

Step 2: The 3D model files were translated into a Stereolithigraphy (.STL) file used by 3D printers.

Step 3: The .STL files were inputted into PrusaControl, a software provided by the Prusa MK3 3D
printer that transfers the geometry file information into a linear pattern for the 3D printer to complete
its task.

Step 4: The G-Code, a 3D printer file that allows the printer to create the geometry, was saved to an
SD card, or directly inputted to the printer via USB cable.

Step 5: The 3D printer was turned on and preheated to the degree chosen for the specific material type
used for prototype production. Finally, the file was selected and printed.

This process was completed each time a new prototype was 3D modeled to a high enough degree to
be printed into a real form for qualitative analysis of its function qualities. Prototyping takes an
extended quantity of time to transfer the information from one output to the next, but as this process
was performed many times in this research, it became very efficient. This allowed for more function
and output than error, but in the early stages many mistakes were made until the science of the
production was refined.

44

3.5 Phase Five – Architectural Attachment/Integrated Wall Preliminary Development
Once the module was at a production level, the architectural connection system had to be developed
next. This design was created based on similar framework of the module development but on a much
quicker and direct timeline. Schematic design of the wall system evolved through sketching to get a
rough idea of a final product. Next, two mockups were developed to see how the module could attach
to a simple frame and skin design in a real world context.

Figure 18: Vertical Wall Alternative Wind Energy Panel #1

3.6 Phase Six – Module Testing Controlled Environment (Wind Tunnel)
After computer analysis and module development, real time studies were performed using a simple
fan and anemometer to make sure the modules acted as planned. Software played a large part in the
development and production of this façade, but without testing in real-time the modules couldn’t be
45

optimized to react to wind conditions. During this analysis the module geometry was placed in
multiple orientations to ensure the oscillation levels worked with varying wind speeds and
directions. Each orientation was tested at multiple wind speeds, and with multiple oscillating
geometries. During this study the refinement of the “Leaf-like” Geometry was produced, while
maintaining an aesthetic architectural appeal. There were slight losses in efficiency to provide a
solution that can appeal to the architectural industry while still producing a relative level of energy
output.

3.6.1 Controlled Wind Testing Experiment Setup
This test was based on six different oscillating geometries that were tested in three different
orientations to the wind flow as well as three different speeds of wind flow for each orientation. This
adds up to a total of fifty-four test scenarios to find the highest energy output level. The structure of
this test is as follows:

Framework:
● Each controlled test scenario was performed for 20 seconds.
● Data is collected every 5 seconds for oscillation height
o 6 geometries, 1 wind speed, 3 orientations
Scenarios:
Test 1 - Front Flow: Device was oriented parallel to the direction of the wind flow.
● Test Run: 3.0-3.5 meters/second wind flow (6.7 - 7.8 miles per hour)
● 6 tests, 20 seconds each
● 6 geometries are switched out during transition between 20 second intervals

46

Test 2 - Cross Flow: Device was oriented perpendicular to the direction of the wind flow.
● Test Run: 3.0-3.5 meters/second wind flow (6.7 - 7.8 miles per hour)
● 6 tests, 20 seconds each
● 6 geometries are switched out during transition between 20 second intervals

Test 3 - Top Flow: Device was oriented 45’offset to the direction of the wind flow.
● Test Run: 3.0-3.5 meters/second wind flow (6.7 - 7.8 miles per hour)
● 6 tests, 20 seconds each
● 6 geometries are switched out during transition between 20 second intervals

3.6.2 Controlled Wind Testing Experiment Setup
The second test is based on three different oscillating geometries that will be tested in three different
orientations to the wind flow as well as three different speeds of wind flow for each orientation. This
geometry is based on the best performing shape from wind testing study #1 and then adjusted based
on the pitch angle of the leaf shape. This comes to a total of twenty-seven test scenarios to find the
highest energy output level. The structure of this test is as follows:

Framework:
● Each controlled test scenario will be performed for 20 seconds.
● Data is collected every second and calculated for oscillations/second
o 4 geometries, 1 wind speed, 3 orientations

47

Scenarios:
Test 1 - Front Flow: Device is oriented parallel to the direction of the wind flow.
● Test Run: 3.0-3.5 meters/second wind flow (6.7 - 7.8 miles per hour)
● 4 tests, 20 seconds each
● 4 geometries are switched out during transition between 20 second intervals

Test 2 - Cross Flow: Device is oriented horizontally perpendicular to the direction of the wind flow.
● Test Run: 3.0-3.5 meters/second wind flow (6.7 - 7.8 miles per hour)
● 4 tests, 20 seconds each
● 4 geometries are switched out during transition between 20 second intervals

Test 3 - Top Flow: Device is oriented vertically perpendicular to the direction of the wind flow.
● Test Run: 3.0-3.5 meters/second wind flow (6.7 - 7.8 miles per hour)
● 4 tests, 20 seconds each
● 4 geometries are switched out during transition between 20 second intervals

3.7 Phase Seven – Final Module Output Levels Defined
The final stage of this product’s development process was the compilation of results of the energy
production studies. Compiling the data from phases five and six allowed for a coherent energy
output based on wind speed at a given time. This allowed the results to be used in a base level
output for the product and this output is used in the comparison to other on-site renewable products
such as photovoltaic panels. Other data that defines the design is the recyclability, component
pricing, and market availability for this type of architectural assembly. Once this report was
48

compiled and produced, the final step was to create the Specification Package for this product that
could be used for later production.
49

4. DATA AND RESULTS
The design and creation of this system depended heavily on careful experimentation, and the results
tie together the earlier and later stages of design production. Most of the early results were
developed via qualitative means of observation and reaction to how the system performed while the
latter half depended on more quantitative results exposing some numerical data.

4.1 Early Schematic Design
During the Schematic Design phase of this project, sketches were created based on preliminary
research of wind energy devices and microgeneration techniques. This sketching strategy laid out
the foundation of the design, allowing for new ideas to be used in the later analysis and prototyping
section of this research.
Figure 19: Initial component layout sketch from Device to Inverter/Fusebox/On-site Battery
(Summer 2018, Casey Castor)
50

Figure 19 depicts the connection of the device to the home or entity that it is producing power for.
The device would output DC power to an inverter to transition that power back to AC. After this, the
electricity produced would connect back to the fuse box and either go to direct usage or be stored by
a battery cell.

Figure 20: Pressure pocket concept sketch 1 in leaf geometry (Summer 2018, Casey Castor)

Figure 20 shows ad concept idea for the geometry of the oscillating leaf component that incorporated
pocket zones to bring in wind from high pressure to low pressure. Positioning these in the opposite
direction could potentially cause a flutter or vibrating effect on the geometry to induce movement.
This developmental thought led to research on pressure and fluid dynamic effects of geometrical
entities. Moving forward, the next step was to find a concept that has been produced with a similar
trait of oscillation.

51

Figure 21: Pressure fluctuations sketch of vortex shredding (Summer 2018, Casey Castor)

This sketch is based on the motion created by one the devices explored in Chapter 2.6.1. The Zephyr
Wind beam uses air flow in one direction to induce oscillation up and down via pressure fluctuations.
This airflow movement in fluid dynamics is called vortex shredding. Putting this drawing to paper
helped to better understand and derive information from a complicated concept, and helped develop
the project from a conceptual standpoint.

52

Figure 22: Pressure pocket concept sketch 2 in leaf geometry (Summer 2018, Casey Castor)

Figure 22 further develops the pressure pocket design. This concept looked to modularize the pockets
into a grid format with a thinner profile and simpler geometries of the pockets themselves. This also
shows the leaf as a folded plate shape, similar to that of the geometry depicted in Figure 19.

53

Figure 23: Break action sketch design (Left), Figure 24: Penetration through Exterior sketch (Right),
(Fall 2018, Casey Castor)
Next, research was done on mechanical movement as well as connections to the interior components.
This resulted in the design of a contraption that would hinge back away from the pressure of the wind
after a certain amount was applied, allowing the movement to transition in the opposite direction
based on surface area exposed in that direction. Figure 23 shows an exploration using a spring coil
system to create the hinge/flip back motion, referred to as Break-Action. Figure 24 shows an
exploration of the integration of a waterproof membrane to the interior of the system, as well as the
development of the connection between the rotational rod and oscillating arms. This sketch was the
first appearance of the dual rod connection through the exterior skin of the wall system, and this
concept would be taken into the first stages of prototyping.
54

Figure 25: Layout of Shape Testing Based on Oscillating Form (Left), Figure 26: Layout of Testing
Forms by means of Computational Fluid Dynamic (Fall 2018, Casey Castor)

Figures 25 and 26 lay the foundation for the upcoming CFD analysis, with 25 depicting a form that is
known to produce pressure fluctuation, with various sized openings. Each of these thin profile
rectangular geometries would be adjusted by slight opening parameters and ran through the CFD
program described in the next section. Figure 26 diagrams the four main directions of wind flow that
would be analyzed in CFD testing.
55

Figure 27: Sketch of interior reaction of component oscillation (Fall 2018, Casey Castor)

This last portion of the schematic sketching phase was concurrent with CFD testing. After tests were
run on the computer, sketches were created to further understand what was occurring on the interior
of the system. Figure 27 first conceptualized the base design of how magnets and coils would
eventually be used to create energy in the final product.

Figure 28: Sketch of interior reaction of component oscillation (Fall 2018, Casey Castor)
56

As this thought developed through a series of more rudimentary sketches, Figure 28 depicted a more
thought out understanding of how the system could produce energy. As the exterior oscillating
element moves up, the interior magnet would move down adjacent to a set of electromagnetic coils
thus pushing electricity through the system and outputting an AC current. This first concept was a
strong start, but would be altered to a more refined energy outputting design in the prototyping phase.

4.2 Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) Studies
These studies were performed using Autodesk CFD, this program simulates airflow on objects and
provides data results on specific parameters selected. The following results were found via velocity
flow testing, which showed areas of high or low pressure. Each study used the same external
volume parameter, thus the same testing field around the geometry within the CFD computer model.
Additionally, each rectangular geometry used the same external perimeter sizing in each iteration
but with slightly altered openings as indicated in each test.

4.2.1 CFD Case Study #1
This study was performed with the oscillation inducing shapes from section 2.5.1. This study took
these geometries at a singular plane orientation and applied computational wind flow. The aim of this
study was to induce pressure fluctuations with each of these geometries and to find a stronger case of
fluctuation based on the alterations.

57

FRONT FLOW STUDY: This was performed with the geometries to show the induction of
pressure behind the shape. This was tested directly at the front of the device geometry at 10 mph/
4.47 m/s.

Figure 29: Case Study #1 Front Flow Test
58

Table 2: CFD Study #1 Front Flow Test, (See that from minimal adjustments cause large changes to
the flow)

59

Conclusion:

24 Geometries were created and tested to see how adjustments to opening size would increase or
decrease the pressure fluctuations induced by the geometry. Based on the results of this study there
were a few specific geometries that outperformed the rest. Geometries 12, 14, 19 and 24 created the
largest fluctuations that would induce oscillation.

4.2.2 CFD Case Study #2

This study followed CFD study #1, taking the singular plane orientation and working in a new
geometric profile while maintaining the thin rectangular form. The aim of this study is to induce
pressure fluctuations within one geometry in multiple directionalities of wind flow.

Figure 30: Case Study #2 Testing Parameter Design

60

Part 1: Cross Flow Study:
This was performed with half of the geometry to show the full induction of pressure behind the
shape. This was tested perpendicular to the device geometry at 10 mph/ 4.47 m/s as well as a
secondary 20 mph/8.94 m/s.

Part 2: Diagonal Flow Study:
This was performed with half of the geometry to show the full induction of pressure behind the shape.
This was tested at a forty-five-degree angle to the device geometry at 10 mph/ 4.47 m/s as well as a
secondary 20 mph/8.94 m/s.

Part 3: Front Flow Study:
This was performed with the full geometry to show the induction of pressure behind the shape. This
was tested directly at the front of the device geometry at 10 mph/ 4.47 m/s as well as a secondary 20
mph/8.94 m/s.

61

Table 3: CFD Study #2 3 Flow Tests, (See that each flow direction causes much different velocities
of the air flow across the geometry)
62

CFD Conclusion:
This test was performed to understand how a geometry based on the previous rectangular form could
be created to induce a pressure fluctuation in multiple directions of wind flow. If the fluctuation was
created in multiple directions, then the geometry should oscillate based on the previous test. These
fluctuations were defined by sharp changes between wind velocity speeds, and visualized by sharp
jumps from light to dark blue in the diagram. Geometry tests 1 through 5 each only had five openings,
while geometry 6 through 11 had nine openings. When more openings were added, such as geometries
6 through 11, the pressure fluctuation was harder to define or was non-apparent. In tests 1 through 5
however, there is a clearer delineation of where a pocket of pressure is created.

4.3 Module Materiality and Component Studies

This section examines the materiality of the device as well as the components that will be used to
create the device. First, it explores materials in relation to 3D printing and how a prototype can be
made within the parameters of a 3D printer. Then, it finds preconstructed components that can be
implemented into the system with appropriate specifications and sizing. Lastly, it takes these
materials/components and provides a preliminary specification list for the first design module that
will be constructed.

4.3.1 Materiality Study
The first thing that was decided was how the module prototypes were going to be constructed.
Industry and manufacturing standards generally utilize plastic component construction by the
process of injection molding. Thus, material analysis was done with this process in mind. On a
smaller design scale, these components can still be produced through 3D printing with the same
materiality. Many injection molded plastics use Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene, known as ABS
63

plastic. This form of plastic is recyclable and quite durable, making it ideal for the exterior
encasement of the design. After this was decided, next came the decision for where to conduct the
prints. At this point purchasing a 3D printer provided the most optimum condition of design flow
without going to a 3
rd
party. The Prusa MK3 by the company PRUSA in the Czech Republic was
selected based on its premium quality and open source design. Additionally, this printer can print
many materials, so during production, this materiality could still be altered for a better result.
Figure 31: Prusa MK3 3D printer (https://shop.prusa3d.com/en/)[24]

4.3.2 Component Studies
Prefabricated components are critical to the prototyping phase, as certain items were unable to be
produced in this lab. This study was to search for appropriate sizing and type of material. The
module, as it was developed through sketching, was to have eight different main components: ABS
plastic, springs, metal rotational rods, ball bearings, magnets, electromagnetic wire, electrical wire,
64

and electrical plug connections. After looking online for each component, a selection of
manufacturers and sizes were developed into the first specification material list of the module.

4.3.3 Specifications Study
Within each dataset, there is a list just as specified below indicating all materials and items that were
used to produce each prototype. This table layout is used to give an understanding of the
components used as well as pricing and sizing of each prototype.

Prototype #1 Material/Component Specification List:
COMPONENT
TYPE
SIZING DURABILITY PRICE MANUFACTURER
SPRINGS 0.5X4.1X18mm HIGH $0.13 - $.014 each UXCELL
ABS PLASTIC 1.75mm HIGH $23.99/ 1 kg PRUSA
PLA PLASTIC 1.75mm MEDIUM $23.99/ 1 kg PRUSA
METAL ROD 4mmX100mm HIGH $8.23/ 10 rods UXCELL
CARBON FIBER
RODS
4mmX1000mm HIGH $20.99/ 5 rods Carbon Composites
MAGNETS 1/2”X1/8”X1/8” HIGH $9.99/ 10 magnets TotalElement
BALL BEARING 12mmX8mm HIGH $6.99/ set of 4 Highmoor
COIL WIRE ¼ lb /497.25 ft MEDIUM $9.34/ ¼ lb BULKWIRE
ELECTRICAL
PLUGS
2.1mm x 5mm MEDIUM $5.99/ set of 20 Ksmile

4.4 Prototyping and Technical Generation Studies

Prototyping was the bulk of this project and allowed for much understanding of how to take a
schematic concept and design it into a workable product. The focus of this section was to
computationally design, prepare, and fabricate prototypes to work towards a product that has some
65

aesthetic qualities, provides a notable level of energy generation, and can work in an exterior
environment.

4.4.1 3D Modeling
This phase began with a design based around the geometries from CFD case study #2 that was
modelled in the Rhinoceros 5 design software. This first prototype was designed to incorporate all
components referred to in section 4.3.3, and needed to be fabricated by means of 3D printing.

Figure 32: Rhinoceros 5 design software program (Prototype 1)
4.4.2 3D Print Study
In the beginning stages of working with the Prusa MK3 3D printer, a study was performed to test
printing with the selected material (ABS plastic mentioned in 4.3.1). The first-time printing with this
robot, the material was tested simply on its ability to stay on the build plate. ABS plastic has been
known to cause deformation or warping due to external temperatures, so this issue needed to be
addressed first and foremost. The first prints with the material resulted in several instances of
warping on the corners of the main encasement system due to lower temperature air in the room
66

(below 70 degrees). The next print, the temperature of the print bed was slightly increased, and the
room temperature was maintained at above 70 degrees. After these factors were adjusted for, the
printing process had no issues.

4.4.3 Prototyping
Prototyping takes the concepts included in the design and incorporates them into one form. Each
prototype has a specification list, troubleshooting errors, material information, and a proposal for a
new design solution. Regardless of the output, all prototype designs include an oscillation geometry,
connection assembly, micro-generation components, and external encasement.

67

4.4.3.1 Prototyping #1
Figure 33: Rhinoceros 5 design of Prototype #1 (Axonometric and Plan View)

68

Prototype #1 was based on the CFD case study #2’s geometry #7. This was the initial trial
prototype, and it utilized information from chapter 2 in regard to electrical generation to create the
first internal encasement to actually have micro-generation capabilities.

Figure 34: Prototype 1 printed components
This design incorporated 10 different components: the geometry oscillator, encasement,
electromagnetic wire coils wrapped upon 3d printed holders, metal rods, male and female electrical
plugs, ball bearings, 3d printed bolts, springs, 3d printed rod connector elbows, and magnets held in
3d printed holders.

69

Prototype #1 Material/Component Specification List:
COMPONENT
TYPE
SIZING DURABILITY PRICE MANUFACTURER
SPRINGS 0.5X4.1X18mm HIGH $0.13 - $.014 each UXCELL
ABS PLASTIC 1.75mm HIGH $23.99/ 1 kg PRUSA
PLA PLASTIC 1.75mm MEDIUM $23.99/ 1 kg PRUSA
METAL ROD 4mmX100mm HIGH $8.23/ 10 rods UXCELL
CARBON FIBER
RODS
4mmX1000mm HIGH $20.99/ 5 rods Carbon Composites
MAGNETS 1/2”X1/8”X1/8” HIGH $9.99/ 10 magnets TotalElement
BALL BEARING 12mmX8mm HIGH $6.99/ set of 4 Highmoor
COIL WIRE ¼ lb /497.25 ft MEDIUM $9.34/ ¼ lb BULKWIRE
ELECTRICAL
PLUGS
2.1mm x 5mm MEDIUM $5.99/ set of 20 Ksmile

Table 4: Prototype 1 specifications, note the use of materials here as each module will change

Figure 35: Prototype 1 fully assembled

70

4.4.3.2 Prototyping #2
Figure 36: Rhinoceros 5 design of Prototype #2 (Axonometric and Plan View)
71

Prototype #2 was also based on the CFD case study #2 geometry #7, but this design incorporated
solutions to technical errors/failures from prototype #1, as well as changes to promote oscillation
and an easier build. The primary change was the inclusion of lightweight carbon fiber rods
connecting the interior encasement to the oscillating geometry.

Figure 37: Prototype 2 print upon holding stand
This design incorporated 12 different components: The geometry oscillator, encasement,
electromagnetic wire coils wrapped upon 3d printed holders, coil frame slider, metal rods, carbon
fiber rods, male and female electrical plugs, ball bearings, 3d printed bolts, springs, 3d printed rod
connector elbows, and magnets held in 3d printed holders.

72

Prototype #2 Material/Component Specification List:
COMPONENT
TYPE
SIZING DURABILITY PRICE MANUFACTURER
SPRINGS 0.4X3X12mm HIGH $0.13 - $.014 each UXCELL
ABS PLASTIC 1.75mm HIGH $23.99/ 1 kg PRUSA
PLA PLASTIC 1.75mm MEDIUM $23.99/ 1 kg PRUSA
METAL ROD 4mmX100mm HIGH $8.23/ 10 rods UXCELL
CARBON FIBER
RODS
4mmX1000mm HIGH $20.99/ 5 rods Carbon Composites
MAGNETS 1/2”X1/8”X1/8” HIGH $9.99/ 10 magnets TotalElement
BALL BEARING 12mmX8mm HIGH $6.99/ set of 4 Highmoor
COIL WIRE ¼ lb /497.25 ft MEDIUM $9.34/ ¼ lb BULKWIRE
ELECTRICAL
PLUGS
2.1mm x 5mm MEDIUM $5.99/ set of 20 Ksmile

Table 5: Prototype #2 specifications, with the toroid premanufactured inductors as the major
change

Figure 38: Prototype 2 interior encasement close up
73

4.4.3.3 Prototyping #3
Figure 39: Rhinoceros 5 design of Prototype #3 (Axonometric and Plan View)
74

In comparison to design #2, more of a reworking, design #3 was a full redesign. This layout now
took the internal encasement and split it into two separate components, the front encasement
connecting the device to the exterior wall assembly, and back encasement housing the
electromagnetic coils and connections to electrical outputs.

Figure 40: Prototype 3 components during build
This design incorporated 16 different components: The oscillator geometry exoskeleton, nylon
fabric component, front encasement, back encasement, cap, premanufactured electromagnetic wire
coils, 3d printed coil holders, metal rod, carbon fiber rods, male and female electrical plugs, ball
bearings, springs, 3d printed rod connector elbows, magnets held in 3d printed holders, central
rotational connection, and the connectors between rod and external geometry.

75

Figure 41: Prototype 3 new leaf geometry design
The two-piece encasement system was refined to work more appropriately for connection and
maintenance, the coil system was adjusted to allow these components to better rest within the
holder, and most strikingly, the oscillator geometry was developed into a full geometric leaf-like
shape. Made of fabric with a light-weight 3d printed exoskeleton frame, this design created more
surface area for wind to be captured as well as providing less mass to the geometry.

76

Prototype #3 Material/Component Specification List:
COMPONENT
TYPE
SIZING DURABILITY PRICE MANUFACTURER
SPRINGS 0.05X6X25mm HIGH $0.16 - $.017 each UXCELL
ABS PLASTIC 1.75mm HIGH $23.99/ 1 kg PRUSA
PLA PLASTIC 1.75mm MEDIUM $23.99/ 1 kg PRUSA
METAL ROD 4mmX100mm HIGH $8.23/ 10 rods UXCELL
CARBON FIBER
RODS
4mmX1000mm HIGH $20.99/ 5 rods Carbon Composites
MAGNETS 1/2”X1/8”X1/2” HIGH $9.99/ 10 magnets TotalElement
BALL BEARING 12mmX8mm HIGH $6.99/ set of 4 Highmoor
COIL WIRE ¼ lb /497.25 ft MEDIUM $9.34/ ¼ lb BULKWIRE
ELECTRICAL
PLUGS
2.1mm x 5mm MEDIUM $5.99/ set of 20 Ksmile
WATERPROOF
FABRIC
HIGH $7.99/ 1 yard Mybecca
TOROID
INDUCTOR
COILS
6.5mmX14.5mm HIGH $8.99/ 10 pieces UXCELL

Table 6: Prototype #3 specifications, alteration to external oscillating geometry by inclusion of
waterproof fabric and premanufactured induction coils

77

4.4.3.4 Prototyping #4
Figure 42: Rhinoceros 5 design of Prototype #4 (Axonometric and Plan View)
78

Prototype #4 was an alternate design based off of design #3. This refined the interior encasement to
provide appropriate tolerances for connections, and included an updated coil holder system to
accommodate the magnetic attraction to the ferrite cores within the pre-made induction coils. Also,
this design introduces a new concept related to leaf systems, inspired by the aspen tree and
understanding derived from the pressure fluctuation studies performed in the CFD studies.

This design incorporated 14 different components: the geometry oscillator, front encasement, back
encasement, cap, premanufactured electromagnetic wire coils, 3d printed coil holders, metal rod,
carbon fiber rods, male and female electrical plugs, ball bearings, springs, 3d printed rod connector
elbows, magnets held in 3d printed holders, and a central rotational connection.

Figure 43: New design for pre-made coil holders
79

The back casement was altered to be a two-piece system, allowing for easy access to the coil system
implemented into this design. The new coil system consisted of pre-manufactured coils with ferrite
cores attached to 3d printed coil holders at the center of the ring. The oscillator geometry was
altered to facilitate a smaller overhang from the device, resembling an aspen leaf. Additionally, two
cut outs were created in the leaf shape to induce oscillation by pressure fluctuation. This leaf is
much lighter than the previous iteration, and the 3d print exoskeleton was printed at 1/16” rather
than 1/8”.

Figure 44: Prototype 4 full module

80

Prototype #4 Material/Component Specification List:

COMPONENT
TYPE
SIZING DURABILITY PRICE MANUFACTURER
SPRINGS 0.05X6X25mm HIGH $0.16 - $.017 each UXCELL
ABS PLASTIC 1.75mm HIGH $23.99/ 1 kg PRUSA
PLA PLASTIC 1.75mm MEDIUM $23.99/ 1 kg PRUSA
CARBON FIBER
RODS
4mmX1000mm HIGH $20.99/ 5 rods Carbon Composites
METAL ROD 4mmX100mm HIGH $8.23/ 10 rods UXCELL
MAGNETS 1/2”X1/8”X1/2” HIGH $9.99/ 10 magnets TotalElement
BALL BEARING 12mmX8mm HIGH $6.99/ set of 4 Highmoor
COIL WIRE ¼ lb /497.25 ft MEDIUM $9.34/ ¼ lb BULKWIRE
ELECTRICAL
PLUGS
2.1mm x 5mm MEDIUM $5.99/ set of 20 Ksmile
WATERPROOF
FABRIC
HIGH $7.99/ 1 yard Mybecca
TOROID
INDUCTOR
COILS
6.5mmX14.5mm HIGH $8.99/ 10 pieces UXCELL

Table 7: Prototype #4 specifications, this remains very similar to the previous design but with a
better component layout

81

4.4.3.5 Prototyping #5
Figure 45: Rhinoceros 5 design of Prototype #5 (Axonometric and Plan View)
82

The development of this prototype resulted in much change, as it was created after the midterm
review of the project with comments from building science industry individuals. There was much
feedback that encouraged transitioning the vertical oscillation to a horizontal oscillation. This
module is a trial run of this potential transition that would eliminate the additional tension required
for the force of gravity on the upper spring. This design introduced several new elements, including
small pulley wheels that would connect to a magnet and oscillate through a cylinder coil on the
inside. Based on electro-generation research, placing the magnet within the coil rather than outside
proved more viable, resulting in more effective energy outputs. This system was also tested with a
new plastic material called polyethylene terephthalate glycol (PETG) which is known to be easier to
print with and is also recyclable.

Figure 46: Horizontal system design prints, coil tube at top right
83

This design incorporated 14 different components: the geometry oscillator, front encasement, top
encasement, bottom encasement, cap, 3d printed coil tube with electromagnetic wire, metal rod,
male and female electrical plugs, mini pulley wheels, springs, 3d printed core rotational
piece, magnet, wire connection to magnet, and a 3d printed flex material connection from
encasement to oscillator.

Prototype #5 Material/Component Specification List:

COMPONENT
TYPE
SIZING DURABILITY PRICE MANUFACTURER
SPRINGS 0.05X6X25mm HIGH $0.16 - $.017 each UXCELL
PETG PLASTIC 1.75mm HIGH $23.99/ 1 kg AmazonBasics
PLA PLASTIC 1.75mm MEDIUM $23.99/ 1 kg HATCHBOX
TPU FLEX 1.75mm MEDIUM $27.99/ 1 kg SainSmart
METAL ROD 4mmX100mm HIGH $8.23/ 10 rods UXCELL
MAGNET 1 6mmX20mm HIGH $14.99/ 20 magnets WOTOY
COIL WIRE ¼ lb /497.25 ft MEDIUM $9.34/ ¼ lb BULKWIRE
ELECTRICAL
PLUGS
2.1mm x 5mm MEDIUM $5.99/ set of 20 Ksmile
WATERPROOF
FABRIC
HIGH $7.99/ 1 yard Mybecca
PULLEY RAIL
BEARING
4X13X6mm HIGH $8.73/ 20 pieces Preamer

Table 8: Prototype #5 specifications, the system now incorporates a change in magnet size and
addition of a pulley rails for new movement design
84

Figure 47: Prototype 5 full module and (Aspen) leaf geometry flexible connection

85

4.4.3.6 Prototyping #6
Figure 48: Rhinoceros 5 design of Prototype #6 (Axonometric and Plan View)
86

Transitioning back to a vertical oscillating exterior wall module allowed for a full redesign of the
interior encasement system. This redesign was necessary, as previous iterations were becoming too
complicated in their attachment system and encasement. This design reverted to a two-piece system
with a back cap for access. The front encasement is attached to the exterior envelope while the back
of the system carries the micro-electro generation components. The front encasement was
redesigned to allow the metal rod to be installed directly from the back without having external
openings. This new rotational attachment doubles as a magnet holder. This design incorporates two
types of magnets in this system, with two oscillating magnets moving opposite of the external
geometry, and a one-cylinder magnet within the coil tube. the opposite polarity of the oscillating
magnets forces the cylindrical magnet up and down through the coil as the system oscillates.

Figure 49: Prototype #6 back encasement at left, and front encasement at right.
This design incorporated 12 different components: the geometry oscillator, front encasement, back
encasement, cap, 3d printed coil tube with electromagnetic wire, metal rod, carbon fiber rod, LED
87

light diode, springs, 3d printed core rotational piece with magnet holders, magnets, and a 3d printed
flex material connection from encasement to oscillator.

Prototype #6 Material/Component Specification List:
COMPONENT
TYPE
SIZING DURABILITY PRICE MANUFACTURER
SPRINGS 0.05X6X25mm HIGH $0.16 - $.017 each UXCELL
ABS PLASTIC 1.75mm HIGH $23.99/ 1 kg PRUSA
PLA PLASTIC 1.75mm MEDIUM $23.99/ 1 kg HATCHBOX
TPU FLEX 1.75mm MEDIUM $27.99/ 1 kg SainSmart
METAL ROD 4mmX100mm HIGH $8.23/ 10 rods UXCELL
MAGNET 1 6mmX20mm HIGH $14.99/ 20 magnets WOTOY
MAGNET 2 1/2”X1/8”X1/2” HIGH $9.99/ 10 magnets TotalElement
COIL WIRE ¼ lb /497.25 ft MEDIUM $9.34/ ¼ lb BULKWIRE
ELECTRICAL
PLUGS
2.1mm x 5mm MEDIUM $5.99/ set of 20 Ksmile
WATERPROOF
FABRIC
HIGH $7.99/ 1 yard Mybecca
Table 9: Prototype #6 specifications, main changes include use of TPU flex material and the
inclusion of two magnet sizes
Figure 50: Prototype 6 full module(left), LED light at back demonstrating successful power
generation(right)
88

4.4.3.7 Prototyping #7
Figure 51: Rhinoceros 5 design of Prototype #7 (Axonometric and Plan View)
89

This system took the ideas from prototype #6 and bulked up the micro-generation system for higher
outputs of energy. The primary change was incorporating rare earth metal magnets made of
neodymium. These magnets are very strong and provide 22 pounds of force in magnetic attraction
each. Using magnetic attraction to move the interior magnet in the electro-magnetic coil cylinder
and adjusting the gauge of the electro-magnetic wire to promote a higher level of energy allowed
this design to be the most practical yet. 36-gauge electro-magnetic wire was used to reduce the
thickness of the gauging, which allows for more coil windings within the unit, and thus more energy
generation.

Figure 52: Prototype #7 front encasement at left, and back encasement at right.
This design incorporated 13 different components: the geometry oscillator, front encasement, back
encasement, cap, 3d printed coil tube with electromagnetic wire, metal rod, carbon fiber rod, LED
light diode, male and female electrical plugs, springs, 3d printed core rotational piece with magnet
holders, magnets, and a 3d printed flex material connection from encasement to oscillator.

90

Prototype #7 Material/Component Specification List:
COMPONENT
TYPE
SIZING DURABILITY PRICE MANUFACTURER
SPRINGS 0.05X6X25mm HIGH $0.16 - $.017 each UXCELL
PETG PLASTIC 1.75mm HIGH $23.99/ 1 kg AmazonBasics
PLA PLASTIC 1.75mm MEDIUM $23.99/ 1 kg HATCHBOX
PLA PLASTIC 1.75mm MEDIUM $23.99/ 1 kg PRUSA
TPU FLEX 1.75mm MEDIUM $27.99/ 1 kg SainSmart
METAL ROD 4mmX100mm HIGH $8.23/ 10 rods UXCELL
MAGNETS ½”X 1/2” CYLINDER HIGH $14.99/ 20 magnets TotalElement
COIL WIRE ¼ lb /497.25 ft MEDIUM $9.34/ ¼ lb BULKWIRE
ELECTRICAL
PLUGS
2.1mm x 5mm MEDIUM $5.99/ set of 20 Ksmile
WATERPROOF
FABRIC
HIGH $7.99/ 1 yard Mybecca
Table 10: Prototype #7 specifications, this switches back to only using one magnet size, but at a
much larger scale

Figure 53: Prototype #7 full module

91

4.4.3.8 Prototyping #8
Figure 54: Rhinoceros 5 design of Prototype #8 (Axonometric and Plan View)
92

The alterations to this system was based on trying to maximize interior movement of the magnets.
This was attempted by extending the encasement an additional 1” in length, this allowed for the
magnet holder to also extend 1” in length. With this extension more, movement would be generated
by the oscillation of the leaf back to the magnet. Additionally, the spring connections were altered to
attempt a new alignment of the springs for connections and angle.

Figure 55: Prototype #8 back encasement at left, and front encasement at right.
This design incorporated 14 different components: the geometry oscillator, front encasement,
extended back encasement, cap, 3d printed coil tube with electromagnetic wire, metal rod, carbon
fiber rod, LED light diode, male and female electrical plugs, springs, 3d printed core rotational piece
with magnet holders, magnets, spring hooks, and a 3d printed flex material connection from
encasement to oscillator.

93

Prototype #8 Material/Component Specification List:
COMPONENT
TYPE
SIZING DURABILITY PRICE MANUFACTURER
SPRINGS 0.05X6X25mm HIGH $0.16 - $.017 each UXCELL
PETG PLASTIC 1.75mm HIGH $23.99/ 1 kg AmazonBasics
PLA PLASTIC 1.75mm MEDIUM $23.99/ 1 kg HATCHBOX
ABS PLASTIC 1.75mm MEDIUM $23.99/ 1 kg PRUSA
TPU FLEX 1.75mm MEDIUM $27.99/ 1 kg SainSmart
METAL ROD 4mmX100mm HIGH $8.23/ 10 rods UXCELL
MAGNET ½”X 1/2” CYLINDER HIGH $14.99/ 20 magnets TotalElement
COIL WIRE ¼ lb /497.25 ft MEDIUM $9.34/ ¼ lb BULKWIRE
ELECTRICAL
PLUGS
2.1mm x 5mm MEDIUM $5.99/ set of 20 Ksmile
WATERPROOF
FABRIC
HIGH $7.99/ 1 yard Mybecca
Table 11: Prototype #8 specifications, this switches to using a singular magnet for the oscillating
magnet holder arm in ABS plastic rather than two. All other specs. remain the same from Prototype
#7.

Figure 56: Prototype #8 full module

94

4.5 Architectural Wall Detail and Connections

Preparing some of the early layouts describing this system’s attachment into an architectural wall
composition allowed for display pieces used in the two presentations that were given relating to this
project. Along with this model, a detail was drawn up as an early rendition of how it may work.
Mock up #1 was provided for the mid-term in the fall of 2018 and the Mock up #2 was created for
the end of the semester presentation to feature the work that was done.

4.5.1 Wall Schematic Design

Figure 57: Plan and Section of wood stud wall w/ wind energy device (Fall 2018, Casey Castor)
95

This preliminary schematic design shows how the system could be incorporated into a simple wood
frame 1-hour rated wall assembly. It could be an extension of the system to the outside beyond the
waterproofing with an attached metal bracket. Additionally, the modules could be installed into the
wall assembly through gaps in the polycarbonate envelope as noted earlier utilizing a plug and play
system for easy maintenance.

4.5.2 Architectural Wall Mock-up #1

Figure 58: Mock up panel #1 incorporated with Prototype #4
Mock up #1 was produced for the mid-term in the fall of 2018 and was the first time the concept
was attached to a backing structure to hold the modules in place. The system at this time did not
96

produce any energy, but the leaf geometries oscillated nicely to give a reasonable appeal to the
project.

4.5.3 Architectural Wall Mock-up #2

Figure 59: Mock up panel #2 incorporated with Prototype #7
Mock up #2 was created for the final presentation in the fall 2018, incorporating Prototype #7. This
was a very similar design to mock up #1, but these modules used a clip-in system allowing them to
be easily taken out and put back in. This replaced the small bolts that were an issue in the previous
design. This design had the ability to produce energy from the modules but not by direct wind
exposure.
97

Figure 60: Four prototype #7’s made for Mock up panel #2

98

4.6 Real time Oscillation Testing

Figure 61: Real time testing layout diagram.
Two tests were performed to analyze potential increase in oscillation for the external geometry
design. Within these tests, multiple sizes and opening arrangements were used for further
improvement. After the tests were performed each video was analyzed to quantify the oscillation
amount in inches. Once the Test #1 was completed the best performing geometry for the test was
used to move forward to test #2. Then after test #2, the most optimal oscillating geometry was
chosen to be incorporated into the final prototype output.

99

4.6.1 Real Time Testing #1

Framework:
● Each controlled test scenario was performed for 20 seconds.
● Data is collected every 5 seconds for oscillation height
o 6 geometries, 1 wind speed, 3 orientations
Scenarios:
Test 1 - Front Flow: Device was oriented parallel to the direction of the wind flow.
● Test Run: 3.0-3.5 meters/second wind flow (6.7 - 7.8 miles per hour)
● 6 tests, 20 seconds each
● 6 geometries are switched out during transition between 20 second intervals

Test 2 - Cross Flow: Device was oriented perpendicular to the direction of the wind flow.
● Test Run: 3.0-3.5 meters/second wind flow (6.7 - 7.8 miles per hour)
● 6 tests, 20 seconds each
● 6 geometries are switched out during transition between 20 second intervals

Test 3 - Top Flow: Device was oriented 45’offset to the direction of the wind flow.
● Test Run: 3.0-3.5 meters/second wind flow (6.7 - 7.8 miles per hour)
● 6 tests, 20 seconds each
● 6 geometries are switched out during transition between 20 second intervals

100

Each test is logged by video camera and then taken into the computer for further analysis. Once these
videos were compiled, they were analyzed to see how much oscillation from highest to lowest point
in the movement was performed. This is what is being shown in Table 11.

Table 12: Real time test #1 – all Geometries oscillation qualities, note Geometry #3 to slightly
outperform the rest

TESTING ANGLE CROSS FLOW DIAGONAL FLOW FRONT FLOW
GEOMETRY #1
1” 1” 1 ½”
GEOMETRY #2
1 ½” 1” 2”
GEOMETRY #3
1 ½” 1 ½” 2 ½”
GEOMETRY #4
1” 1” 1”
GEOMETRY #5
1” 1” 1 ½”
GEOMETRY #6
1” 1” 2”
101

Table 13: Real time test #1 – Geometry #3 showing highest oscillation qualities

102

4.6.2 Real Time Testing #2

Framework:
● Each controlled test scenario will be performed for 20 seconds.
● Data is collected every second and calculated for oscillations/second
o 4 geometries, 1 wind speed, 3 orientations
Scenarios:
Test 1 - Front Flow: Device is oriented parallel to the direction of the wind flow.
● Test Run: 3.0-3.5 meters/second wind flow (6.7 - 7.8 miles per hour)
● 4 tests, 20 seconds each
● 4 geometries are switched out during transition between 20 second intervals

Test 2 - Cross Flow: Device is oriented horizontally perpendicular to the direction of the wind flow.
● Test Run: 3.0-3.5 meters/second wind flow (6.7 - 7.8 miles per hour)
● 4 tests, 20 seconds each
● 4 geometries are switched out during transition between 20 second intervals

Test 3 - Top Flow: Device is oriented vertically perpendicular to the direction of the wind flow.
● Test Run: 3.0-3.5 meters/second wind flow (6.7 - 7.8 miles per hour)
● 4 tests, 20 seconds each
● 4 geometries are switched out during transition between 20 second intervals

103

Figure 62: Testing #2 angle adjustments diagram showing the 4 geometry arrangements for this
test
After test #1 the geometry with the highest levels of oscillation was then taken and adjusted into 4
geometries that change the pitch angle of the leaf by 10 degrees each to allow for an increase or
decrease in surface area affected in the horizontal flow of wind. This was performed to analyze this
effect on the oscillation amount, further refining the geometry.

Table 14: Real time test #2 – all Geometries oscillation qualities, note Geometry #3 to slightly
outperform the rest
TESTING ANGLE CROSS FLOW DIAGONAL FLOW FRONT FLOW
GEOMETRY #1
1 ½” 1 ½” 2”
GEOMETRY #2
1 ½” 1 ½” 2 ½”
GEOMETRY #3
1 ½” 1 ½” 3”
GEOMETRY #4
2” 1 ½” 2”
104

Table 15: Real time test #2 – Geometry #3 showing highest oscillation qualities

105

4.7 Final Output Module
Figure 63: Rhinoceros 5 design of Prototype #9 (Axonometric and Plan View)
106

This prototype was the final output with the electrical output having reached the most notable level
indicated by LED light production. The main alteration of this system was the fact that it was
enlarged by 125% to help account for high level of magnetic attraction (22lbs per magnet). With the
larger oscillation geometry and encasement, the spring sizing could be further adjusted to account
for magnetic pull. This system took the spring connection adjustments from prototype #8, increased
the length of the coil tube with a higher quantity of coil winds on the electromagnetic coil and
changed the magnet holder material to a copper infill for higher durability. The petiole attachment
was altered to a rigid plastic connection made of the same PLA material used for the leaf shape
exoskeleton.

Figure 64: Prototype #9 back encasement at left, and front encasement at right.
This design incorporated 14 different components: the geometry oscillator, front encasement, back
encasement, cap, 3d printed coil tube with electromagnetic wire, metal rod, carbon fiber rod, LED
light diode, male and female electrical plugs, springs, 3d printed core rotational piece with magnet
holders, magnets, spring hooks, and a 3d printed flex material connection from encasement to
oscillator.
107

Prototype #9 Material/Component Specification List:
COMPONENT
TYPE
SIZING DURABILITY PRICE MANUFACTURER
SPRINGS 0.05X6X25mm HIGH $0.16 - $.017 each UXCELL
PETG PLASTIC 1.75mm HIGH $23.99/ 1 kg AmazonBasics
PLA PLASTIC 1.75mm MEDIUM $23.99/ 1 kg HATCHBOX
PLA PLASTIC 1.75mm MEDIUM $23.99/ 1 kg PRUSA
COPPER INFILL
PLASTIC
1.75mm HIGH $24.95/ 1 kg GIZMO
TPU FLEX 1.75mm MEDIUM $27.99/ 1 kg SainSmart
METAL ROD 4mmX100mm HIGH $8.23/ 10 rods UXCELL
MAGNET ½”X 1/2” CYLINDER HIGH $14.99/ 20 magnets TotalElement
COIL WIRE ¼ lb /497.25 ft MEDIUM $9.34/ ¼ lb BULKWIRE
ELECTRICAL
PLUGS
2.1mm x 5mm MEDIUM $5.99/ set of 20 Ksmile
WATERPROOF
FABRIC
HIGH $7.99/ 1 yard Mybecca
Table 16: Prototype #9 specifications, Note incorporation of copper infill plastic as alteration.

Figure 65: Prototype #9 full module (left), light emission of energy production (right)
108

5. TESTING AND PROTOTYPING ANALYSIS

Throughout this design process many changes came about thanks to the qualitative understanding of
various lessons learned. Each section in this process directly correlates to the final outcome, even if
at times it seems like a large leap from beginning to end. Each set of data and each design has been
analyzed and better understood in the following research sections, with each corresponding to the
same number in section 4.

5.1 Schematic Design Developments

The schematic design process provided an understanding to the project that would have been hard to
achieve without taking the time to devise the end goals. Using a creative design process while cross-
comparing with existing precedents helped to formulate a cohesive working object.

Figure 19: (left), Figure 20: (middle), Figure 23: (right)

Figure 19 provided the base design for electrical connectivity and how those connections would
need to be developed. Additionally, figures 20 and 22 showed the need to develop an understanding
of aerodynamics and how oscillation was achieved within other entities. These sketches heavily
109

influenced the project to include these fundamental topics that needed to be extrapolated from pre-
existing work. Figures 23 and 24 introduce the mechanism engineering that would have to be
implemented in the connections and mechanical movements that are required to produce such a
design. Finally, Figure 25 and 26 provide a more thought out process of how the fluid dynamics
would be approached in regard to testing. This led to the need for a computational fluid dynamic
program to be found for the progression of this study in a more finite analysis. These schematic
ideas provided the groundwork for this study.

5.2 CFD studies Comparisons

This portion of data collection was important not only for the overall understanding of fluid
dynamics, but also for creation of a testing archetype for future work. These two main case studies
produced quantitative data, but it was used in a more qualitative way to proceed to the next step
rapidly. This fast-paced work resulted in knowledge of CFD and also helped to develop a better
grasp of the steps needed to achieve the end-goal of this project. The foundation laid by these tests
was built upon in future work towards a more refined design.

5.2.1 CFD Case Study #1 Analysis

This test focused on taking pre-existing knowledge from researchers and designers in regard to
oscillation inducing shapes and developing one that could be tested based on opening size
parameters. Throughout this test the two openings within the rectangular geometry (Figure 29) were
slightly altered into 24 geometries and all tested under the exact same conditions. The goal was to
understand if changing the sizing of these openings created a large impact on the potential pressure
fluctuation that could be induced. This study proved that alteration of these openings, as long as
they were of similar size on each end, provided much the same effect of pressure fluctuation. In
110

other words, as long as there are two openings opposite of one another on a surface-based geometry,
there is a likelihood that an oscillating motion can be induced wind flow.

Figure 53: Simple Geometry #17 from Table 2

5.2.2 CFD Case Study #2 Analysis

This test directly extrapolated from the results of case study #1, specifically the understanding of
geometry that created oscillation. The geometry shown in Figure 30 was created to take a singular
plane from case study #1 and replicate it around the frame to allow for five different avenues of
wind flow to potentially affect the resulting oscillating movement. Three main directionalities of
flow were tested but based on the shape it can be assumed that mirroring the shape would perform
the same way. It was eye opening to see the testing get much more difficult as more planes were
added to a geometry.

111

Figure 54: Geometry #1 Cross flow test from Table 3
This test provided a lot more “gray area” in interpreting how the geometry was reacting to the wind
flow. After 11 geometries were tested there was more clarity to how pressure fluctuations look like
and act, but whether or not the movement would actually be induced in the physical world was
unclear. There were much more randomized instances of pressure fluctuation unlike case study #1,
where the location of the lower velocity magnitude flow zones was much more clearly delineated.
Geometry type 4 in the 9.94 m/s cross flow plane test gives a more prominent pressure fluctuation,
but in other angles, the fluctuation is not as prevalent. This study made it clear that this project
would require a very complex form to provide direct results. While this study provided quantitative
values, it was again analyzed through a qualitative lens to gain comprehensive understanding of
112

CFD. Moving forward, the prototyping stages were based around this geometry and focused on
refining and maximizing the oscillating movement.

5.3 Materiality, Component and Specifications Analysis

Finding information in regards to materiality and specifications prior to the construction stage was
completely necessary, as some items have lead times or extended shipping time periods based on the
manufacturer. This analysis gave a qualitative understanding of what kinds of items would most
likely be implemented and what plastic material was going to be used for the 3d print extruder.

After examining available options, it was clear that most this project would require PLA, ABS,
PETG, and FLEX filaments to manufacture the concept. Along with that there would be a need for
springs, bearings, pulleys, metal rods, carbon fiber rods, magnets, coil wire, fabric, super glue, and
still other components specified within chapter 4.

The last portion of this was the specification formatting attempt which provided the layout table for
the most important information noted about each item. This layout was used throughout section 4.3
to provide insight on each prototype and its makeup.

5.4 Prototyping and Technical Generation Analysis

The seven main components of the research are analyzed to better understand how each level of
development proceeded to interact or shape the overall project. Additionally, looking back on the
reasoning behind certain aspects of the qualitative and quantitative data and why they had
performed as indicated. The prototyping stage was the most in-depth stage of the project and will
provide the development knowledge into the conclusion.
113

5.4.1 3D Modeling

Using Rhinoceros 3D was a pivotal portion of the research, as it took the ideas from paper to the
computer space. Each prototype was developed within the software from scratch, modeled with
custom designed components. This process provided much insight into how the printed design was
going to function. Two main factors were considered for each component: the tolerances between
connections, and the ability to construct the 3d printed components and have them be operational.

5.4.2 3D Print Study

During this quick study, the printer was calibrated and then the encasement component of the first
prototype was printed as a test case. There was not much problem with printing the ABS material
besides the fact that there was warping on front section of the print. After this the room was kept
above 70 degrees Fahrenheit to avoid warping which occurs as a result of rapid cooling. This initial
test gave an idea of the troubleshooting errors the following prints might be subject to. Along with
this, additional research was done online to understand how different plastic print filaments react to
being printed on a heated print bed, which the PRUSA Mk3 has equipped. It was understood that
ABS needs good room temperature and additional adhesion to the build plate, facilitated by print
glue. PLA does not have the same issues with warping, but also needs help for adhesion provided by
the glue. PETG filament needs to have the print bed completely cleaned by hydrogen peroxide to
allow good adhesion. Finally, the FLEX material does not need the glue for adhesion, just a clean
surface.

5.4.3 Prototyping Developments

Each prototype is analyzed by the three main stages of their development. First, each module is
manufactured reflected upon at the print stage. This delves into the 3d printing production and
114

interaction between plastic filament and the errors involved. Then, during the process of putting
each one together an analysis is provided on the ability to construct based on complexity or ease of
assembly. Lastly, a final brief is provided for the fully built prototype to look into its ability to
operate and each of the component’s complications or successes.

5.4.3.1 Prototype #1 Development

Analysis:

Printing Stage: During the 3d printing of this module, the encasement system made out of ABS
required multiple prints due to error. The system was printed without the hole penetrations for the
metal rods the first time, the second print posed a warp on the external rectangular surface, and the
3
rd
print provided the appropriate specifications.

Build Stage: Taking the components for the first time and putting the module together posed
technical issues. Due to not providing a tolerance to the metal connections to the oscillator geometry
and rod elbow connector holes, additional drilling to allow the rods to fit in while remaining snug
was required. The main issue during the build was getting the electromagnetic coil holders into the
encasement as it is such a tight space. Not only this, but the magnet holders are within such a small
tolerance that installing them took the bulk of the assembly time. Along with this issue, the spring
placement was nearly impossible, as connecting the spring hooks to the designed hooks was very
difficult.
115

Figure 33: Prototype 1 printed components

Fully built Prototype:
● Coils – Once in place, unable to be taken out. Wire connections from coils are stuck in place
due to hole placements.
● Magnet Holders – Too tight of fit in between coils, larger tolerance required. Currently gets
stuck and won’t allow for oscillation
● Springs – Tension too high, no oscillation provided by means of magnets’ location and
spring tension.
● Plug – Sticking out the back end as positioned extends too far and wastes internal space for a
potential wall assembly. Need to provide alternative location.
116

● Oscillator – No movement from wind flow. When components are removed to allow
oscillation, wind flow does not induce any movement. Tension may be too high, but also
oscillator is too heavy and may need more surface area for wind to apply force to.
● Bearings – No issues.

5.4.3.2 Prototype #2 Development

Analysis:

Printing Stage: During the 3d printing of this module, the encasement system had a slight warp on
the external face, this was not notable enough for a reprint so was kept in this prototype. New
magnet holders required a reprint due to reduced thickness of component. Tolerance of elbow
connector holes were adjusted from last design but still needed a slightly larger tolerance up to
.5mm outside exact to size to facilitate a good fit without alteration.

Figure 35: Prototype 2 print upon holding stand
117

Build Stage: During the build stage the new design again posed new technical errors, but less than
prototype #1. Installing both the springs and the magnet holders again proved to be quite difficult.
Building the coil system was not as difficult for placement, but magnet holders had to be moved out
of the way before installation.

Fully built Prototype:
● Coils – The new coil sliding design allows for the coils to slide out the side of the module,
but for this to happen the oscillating geometry has to be removed and the magnet holders
have to be rotated to full extent of spring allowance.
● Magnet Holders – These now fit between the coils, allowing for oscillation.
● Springs – Still too high of tension for appropriate oscillation, but any lower tension and
oscillating geometry would sag.
● Plug – New plug location on the bottom side of encasement provides better interior
connection space.
● Oscillator – Again no movement from wind flow. Tension is still too high, but also oscillator
even after reduced form is still too heavy and may need more surface area for wind to apply
force to.
● Bearings – No issues.
5.4.3.3 Prototype #3 Development

Analysis:

Printing Stage: During the 3d printing of this module, the encasement system was much easier to
work with for printing. Breaking this up into two different components required zero build-up
structure for the 3d print, thus requiring less material per print. The issue posed with this layout was
118

the tolerance applied for the pieces to connect together tightly without need for exterior work. The
oscillator geometry took 10% the time to print as previous iterations. The central rotational
connection piece that connects to each of the magnet holders in this layout had issues printing in
PLA due to the small holes used for connection, and took a series of 3 iterations to print
appropriately.

Build Stage: The build stage of the new oscillator geometry took more manual work time to apply
the fabric material in between the two 3d printed exoskeleton pieces, but it provided a durable,
lightweight design. The encasement system was the easiest yet to assemble, but issues again arose in
regard to the magnet holders, as they had to be hammered onto the metal rotational rod.
Figure 38: Prototype 3 new leaf geometry design
119

Fully built Prototype:
● Coils – New pre-made coils are placed into holders with ease, but they now have to be glued
in place due to the magnetic attraction to the ferrite toroid cores.
● Magnet Holders – Issues with rod connection and printing holders as design is now split into
three separate pieces. Once in place they work well.
● Springs – New springs used with lightweight fabric work effectively with tension.
● Plug – Plug location has no issue.
● Oscillator – Movement works slightly better, but still seems too heavy. Mainly due to length
of shape protruding from device. Leverage back to spring system is overly weighted at this
time.
● Bearings – Work perfectly fine.

5.4.3.4 Prototype #4 Development

Analysis:

Printing Stage: During the fourth module printing, there were clear indicators of the increase in
printing knowledge. Encasements, leaf geometry, and all interior components printed appropriately
on the first attempt with no issues.

Build Stage: Building the components was not much of a problem, as the encasement pieces
attached together with ease. The only issue was still having to use a hammer to apply central
rotational print to the metal rod, but without this, it will not rotate and stay in place the way it needs
120

to. Additionally, the leaf geometry exoskeleton to fabric build was slightly faster due to the size
being reduced.

Figure 40: Prototype 4 full module

Fully built Prototype:
● Coils – Coil system oscillates well with arrangement, but connection shows no energy
produced with magnets oscillating adjacent to coils.
● Magnet Holders – Oscillate with minimal resistance or friction on the system.
● Springs – Tension works well, allows for oscillation with wind flow.
● Plug – Plug location has no issue.
● Oscillator – New geometry with aspen inspired leaf allows oscillation even with constant
wind flow. A breakthrough was provided with the new geometry arrangement.
● Bearings – Work perfectly fine.
121

5.4.3.5 Prototype #5 Development

Analysis:

Printing Stage: During this print period there were two new 3d print materials involved in which
required a learning curve. The PETG plastic proved difficult at first, as all previous work with ABS
plastic required an added adhering glue stick to be applied to print surface. After some trial and
error, it was found that PETG, on the other hand, worked best with a completely clean print surface
wiped with hydrogen peroxide. The FLEX material also had issues first time printing, as the
material is very elastic, often causing stringing to occur beyond the printed geometry. A few
practice runs adjusting temperature resulted in a much cleaner print.

Build Stage: Encasement components had issues with connecting due to new tolerances for the top
and bottom encasement to fit together tightly. First time assembly was too tight and broke
connectors, requiring a re-print. Additionally, the magnet did not allow for soldering of wire to
attach with enough structural integrity to allow oscillation without breaking, and thus had to be
attached with a pulley system. Otherwise, all other components assembled smoothly.
122

Figure 42: Prototype 5 full module and (Aspen) leaf geometry flexible connection

Fully built Prototype:
● Coils – The new design of the magnet going through the coils seems much more viable, but
this design only worked on a very small scale. There is a need to increase size and devise a
better way for magnet to oscillate without wire/pulleys.
● Springs – Tension works well, allows for oscillation with wind flow.
● Oscillator – New geometry with aspen inspired leaf did not oscillate with the transition of
vertical to horizontal. The leaf would also have to go on its side to produce the oscillation in
the same way as previous designs. This was a huge issue and moving forward will transition
back to vertical movement.
● Pulleys – Difficult to place appropriately within system for minimal friction, this system
seems to lose mechanical energy very easily.
123

5.4.3.6 Prototype #6 Development

Analysis:

Printing Stage: Switching back to the ABS plastic encasement system required one reprint due to
colder weather during the printing period causing a warp in back front encasement edge. FLEX
material printed properly in one print as well as the PLA plastic for the leaf geometry.

Build Stage: New components went together with minimal issues, and this was the easiest build to
date. One issue is still applying rod to central rotational rod, which has been deemed necessary for
durability requirements of that component. Another issue was that the tolerance allowances for tube
coil system needed to be adjusted for better connections.

Figure 44: Prototype 6 full module, LED light at back, lighting up at the right

124

Fully built Prototype:
● Coils – Tube coils show promise as two exterior magnets oscillate with same polarity
moving the interior magnet through the coil based on magnetic attraction. Currently LED
will only emit light on the down stroke of the leaf with a higher velocity motion.
● Springs – Tension works well, allows for oscillation with wind flow.
● Oscillator – Moving back to vertical motion leaf oscillates well. No energy produced by pure
wind flow, only by hand providing motion to leaf.
● LED – emits light from system!

5.4.3.7 Prototype #7 Development

Analysis:

Printing Stage: This design incorporated all previous printing materials including ABS, PLA, PETG,
and FLEX. At this stage the rapid prototyping development has become a much more engineered
process allowing for less errors.
Figure 46: Prototype #7 full module
125

Build Stage: After refining tolerance for another time, the components slide together and provided
stability to the connections. Magnets were tricky in this portion as the magnetic attraction is much
higher than that dealt with before. The firm fit helps reduce the chance of them slipping out and
smashing together which can cause breakage, an issue that had been encountered previously.

Fully built Prototype:
● Coils – With increased magnet sizing, magnets have larger amount of attraction causing for a
need for refined tension in springs based on the encasement system having more resistance.
● Springs – Tension works well, allows for oscillation with wind flow.
● Oscillator – Moving back to vertical motion leaf oscillates well. On select instances the LED
emits light from wind flow alone, but still requires some human motion to keep light lit
consistently.
● LED – Emits a good amount of light from the system on the upstroke and downstroke of the
oscillation!

5.4.3.8 Prototype #8 Development

Analysis:

Printing Stage: This design incorporated all previous printing materials including ABS, PLA, PETG,
and FLEX. All prints ran with no errors.

Build Stage: With the alteration to the magnet holder there was a need to place small hooks into the
design for a better spring connection. The hooks had to be shaved down to be glued and placed
taking some additional time. After these were glued to spring connections were more accessible and
126

allowed for faster construction. With only one magnet being in the oscillator it was placed with ease
without an additional magnet having attraction towards it. higher than that dealt with before.
Figure 55: Prototype #8 back encasement at left, and front encasement at right
Fully built Prototype:
● Coils – With extension of magnet holding oscillator it decreased the allowance for
oscillation due to the larger quantity of cantilever. This is a large issue and shows that the 1”
extension has not worked as planned for higher oscillation movement on the interior of the
system.
● Springs – Adjustment in spring connection from vertical to more horizontal connection at
central portion of the front encasement affected the oscillation quality in a negative way
from the original spring connection at the front of the encasement.
● Oscillator – Adjustment to leaf-like oscillator to have an arrangement of four openings as
apposed to two in the last iteration was unable to be tested with this iteration due to
malfunction of magnet cantilever attraction.
● LED – Light emits with large quantity of human force.
127

Table 17: Prototype Iteration Analysis Table
128

5.5 Architectural Wall Design

The development of the architectural component of this device lays a foundation for real world
application. Figure 47 shows just one example of how this could be integrated into a wall design,
specifically as part of an assembly with a 1-hr rated exterior wood stud wall. This design that could
be easily adapted to incorporate steel framing or higher fire rated walls based on the gypsum wall
board quantities. Additionally, Mock ups #1 and #2 focus more on the concept of an attached
system which could be applied to a building’s future installation, much like the attachment of solar
to a roof system, but on the vertical wall. These mockups also give an understanding of how much
this system would weigh and various other real-world specifications.

5.6 Real Time Testing Analysis

The real time testing phase was important to the outcome of the overall design. Performing these
tests allowed for a slightly better understanding of the geometry produced and its reaction to wind
flow. Also, each test has helped to provide a framework for future studies using these methods.
Testing further geometries in this manner with additional variables of wind flow velocity will allow
for a more refined design.

5.6.1 Real Time Testing Study #1

Real time test #1 provided insight into how each geometry was performing based on the oscillation
movement induce by the wind flow. Each geometry actually performed its highest translations in the
front flow test which was not expected. Then in most cases the geometry movement at the cross
flow and diagonal flow test were very similar. Geometries #1 and #4 had no openings in the leaf
shape and proved to potentially have lower level of pressure fluctuation due to this. Geometries #2
and #5 had two openings which showed a slightly higher level of movement. Then finally
129

Geometries #3 and #6 had higher levels of movement but #3 with the highest due to its sizing. With
this data found, it appeared that the geometry #3 had the largest oscillation movement due to its dual
set of openings, inducing a higher level of pressure fluctuation as the wind flowed across its surface
as shown in Table 11.

Table 18: Real time test #2 – Geometry #3 oscillation amount

5.6.2 Real Time Testing Study #2

Real time test #2 provided a very slightly improved oscillation movement based on the front flow
data for Geometry #3 of this test. This study was similar to test #1 but with focusing in on one
geometry type and increasing its ability to oscillate to a certain extent. The final leaf output has a
30’ degree pitch in the right and left planes of the leaf-like shape. Geometry #2 in this study was the
20’ degree pitch design which was the highest performing geometry from test #1. Moving forward
these designs can be further studied and optimized with a similar layout of testing. Ideally with more
wind velocity to see how these would reacting on a moderately windy day. Additionally, these
studies were performed at an almost constant wind flow, in the actual environment wind flow
changes constantly which could either hinder the oscillation movement or increase it. This
understanding would be part of future work to take the final prototype into the natural environment.

Table 19: Real time test #2 – Geometry #3 oscillation amount
TESTING ANGLE CROSS FLOW DIAGONAL FLOW FRONT FLOW
GEOMETRY #3
1 ½” 1 ½” 2 ½”
TESTING ANGLE CROSS FLOW DIAGONAL FLOW FRONT FLOW
GEOMETRY #3
1 ½” 1 ½” 3”
130

Table 20: Real time test #2 – Geometry #3 showing highest oscillation qualities

131

5.7 Final Prototype #9 Development

Analysis:

Printing Stage: This design incorporated all previous printing materials including ABS, PLA, PETG,
and also included a Copper Infill plastic. Printing with these materials proved to have no issue on
the Prusa MK3 through production.

Build Stage: During build stage of the prototype, each component had been refined through the
previous iterations to allow for a very seamless construction.

Figure 64: Prototype #9 back encasement at left, and front encasement at right.
Fully built Prototype:
● Coil – This coil was would with 36 gauge wire at 3000 coil winds proving to be the highest
output of electrical production by light emission of LED.
132

● Springs – Tension works well, allows for oscillation with wind flow.
● Oscillator – Increased size picks up more wind flow allowing for a slightly higher oscillation
movement.
● LED – Highest emission of light by coil and oscillation movement. Slight movement of
magnet within coil. From small test cases in exterior environment wind had affected
oscillating leaf-like geometry to light LED without human interaction.

133

6. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
This project from schematic to prototyping transformed extensively as it met many challenges along
the way. Devising methods to produce oscillation, preparing components to induce electricity, and
manufacturing the devices through 3d printing and hand labour all had technical obstacles that had
to be overcome. The availability of wind powered micro-electric generation was evaluated based on
the ability to create energy at a relative level through means of oscillation in an aesthetically
pleasing device. Based on the final outcomes of all stages of the development, creation of a device
that provides a relative output of energy based on the means of oscillation was achieved. Overall the
only notable energy defined is through light emission by LED, energy levels have not been defined
by outputs in wattage. The largest achievement in this project is having the LED light up without
external human force, but from air movement alone. The greatest improvement would be increasing
the energy levels enough to be measured in standard energy quantity and to be effectively implanted
within the architectural domain.

6.1 Schematic Design Conclusion
The aim of the schematic design phase was to develop mechanical and aesthetic based concepts of
the device based on multiple types of engineering research. To fully develop these ideas, they were
given physical form, via the art of sketching and technical drawing. Main concepts were then
selected from these drawings and incorporated into the development of the early oscillating leaf
system. These concepts focused on pressure fluctuations, mechanical movement of the device
composed on a central axis, exterior to interior connectivity by means of rod system, and finally
oscillating a magnet along an electromagnetic coil to produce electricity. These core fundamentals
stayed with the project from this phase and all the way through the final prototype. The schematic
phase was crucial in the understanding and development of the project. Further research in this stage
134

could have helped address key faults later in the development of the component’s electromagnetic
induction.

6.2 CFD Study Conclusion
Computational fluid dynamics elaborated on the research provided by the schematic design phase.
This section required computer program skill development as well as an understanding of the
fundamentals of fluid dynamics. The strategy devised in this section was the initial test process, and
then running many tests to get a grasp of how slight adjustments to the geometries affected the air
flow velocity and movement. The layout of the CFD studies became more refined as more
experience was gained. The first study provided a quick understanding that as long as the planar
geometry had two openings on opposite ends, the fluctuation created would remain constant.
Moving onto the second study, this basic understanding allowed for quick analysis that the geometry
at this stage had gotten more complicated and did not work in all directions as originally intended.
This study could have been more thorough, with more geometries developed to be tested within the
CFD program before moving to actual production.

6.3 Materiality, Component and Specification Conclusions
Creating a good basis of materials and components based on manufacturer seemed to be an easy
task. There were not many issues with the 3d printing plastic filament, as these were of typical
variety, but the components were more difficult due to their sizing. After more experience selecting
items and developing a catalog of manufacturers, the products were easily selected. Once they were
selected they were placed within the specification charts that were devised in this section. A
potentially better way of selecting the products would have been going to specific stores and asking
for help rather than selecting all components online.
135

6.4 Prototyping Conclusions
Prototyping was the most difficult and extensive portion of the project. This phase consisted of
taking the hand-made drawings, putting them into the computer, and manufacturing the design into
an aesthetically pleasing and functional device. The process for creating these devices was
developed through the iterations alongside the components and design itself. The process for
developing each design into a .STL file was tedious, but not as time consuming as the construction
of each device. Each prototype refined the process as the layout of the printed components became
easier for the human hand to assemble. The two main focuses and challenges of the design were the
oscillation and the energy generation. Creating the motion at a low-friction basis was a difficult task,
but with trial and error the final outputs were low friction, allowing the leaf design to oscillate
freely. This was not enough however, as once the oscillating shape took physical form, it was
apparent that more surface area and lighter materials were needed. Moving to a 3d printed
lightweight exoskeleton with fabric for surface area in the later stages proved to be a strong design.
The energy generation side of the project seemed unlikely to succeed in the early to mid-iterations.
The main issue, as pointed out within the schematic phase, was that more research needed to be
done to understand the need for the magnet to go through the electromagnetic coil rather than
adjacent to the coil as attempted in earlier portions. Once this concept of the energy generation was
understood, a low output device was created, and with the increase in magnet size and intensity,
provided a much higher output of energy. This stage of the development provided the understanding
that a device could be made to achieve the overall goals of the research.
6.5 Early Wall Development Conclusions
Developing an enclosure to facilitate these devices comes with a few complications. First
connecting them together with a series of wiring on the interior makes it more difficult for
136

maintenance, fire-rated assemblies (if the wall is an integrated solution and not attached), and lastly
structure of the attachment/integration system. An early schematic drawing was created to show
how it could be integrated into a wall assembly of a standard 1-hr rated wood frame wall. This
showed that once the system was in place they would need to have a plug and play approach to
allow easy access for maintenance and adjustments. Furthermore, the system could be devised in a
better layout for easier access. Later during the prototyping phase two mock-ups were created for
display when presentations for the research had to be made. These two mock-ups were of a similar
design showing the system attached to a lightweight frame and allowing for easy attachment and
release of the devices from the system. Further improvements can be made to these designs and this
section overall was a schematic preliminary stage to developing an architectural attachment system
for the devices.
6.6 Real Time Testing Conclusions
Making assumptions of how the oscillating leaf geometry will react to the movement of wind after
alterations were made proved to be highly complex. Fluid dynamic motion of airflow is hard to
grasp at the perspective of the human eye due to the invisibility of air. The leaf geometry was tested
at first with two other alternative shapes and then an increased scale of each geometry. This totaled
six shapes for the first real time testing scenario. The original leaf shape at the smaller scale devised
in prototype #4 provided the highest level of oscillation in comparison to the other types. After other
geometries were created based on this shape, geometry #3 from test #1 proved to oscillate at a
higher frequency than the others. The shape was then taken and the pitch of each side of the leaf was
altered to have 10, 20, 30 and 40 degrees of pitch angle to see how it would react to wind flow as
shown in Figure 51. The second real time testing scenario showed the geometry with an increase of
10-degree pitch, geometry #3 to have the highest factor of oscillation. The main take away from this
portion was the fact that the leaf geometry originally devised was already performing at a good
137

level, and the increase to the pitch of the leaf created a higher level of performance moving forward.
This section could have been more refined if there were more geometries studied for optimization.

6.7 Future Developments
This project still has a lot of further work that can be done to optimize nearly every condition that
arose during the development. Each application will provide a different scenario to interact with and
facilitate. The concept can be very adaptive to alternative solutions moving forward based on four
main items with subcategories as indicated in the following sections.

6.7.1 Oscillation Qualities
● Alternative geometries beyond Leaf-like shape
● More intensive fluid dynamic testing
● More quantitative testing approach to oscillation levels
● Higher speed flow testing
● Spring tensions calculations
● Robotic system to adjust tension in system based on wind speed
● Testing wind flow based on pulsing flows
6.7.2 Component Performance
● Materials engineering of best suited material make-up
● Connection and durability testing
● Spring tension longevity
● Glue connection longevity
● Connection to solar energy system as a dual component

138

6.7.3 Mechanical Operation
● Alternative mechanical functions to translate oscillation to energy
● Spring tension testing for customized components
● Lowering friction in system for higher oscillation output
● Potentially stronger materials for mechanical movements
● Optimization of energy generation
6.7.4 Applications
● Climate zone-based applications
● Testing locations for payback period
● Wall system designs
● Infrastructure connection designs
● Tree-like design applications for public charging
● Energy storage
● Application for 3
rd
world countries
● Lighting studies of interior environment

139

REFERENCES

[1] WGBC, “Home | World Green Building Council.” [Online]. Available:
https://www.worldgbc.org/. [Accessed: 21-Apr-2019].
[2] Architecture 2030, “The 2030 Challenge – Architecture 2030.” [Online]. Available:
https://architecture2030.org/2030_challenges/2030-challenge/. [Accessed: 21-Apr-2019].
[3] “RE electricity capacity growth by technology.” [Online]. Available:
https://www.iea.org/newsroom/energysnapshots/re-electricity-capacity-growth-by-
technology.html. [Accessed: 21-Apr-2019].
[4] L. Sprtova, “Why are leaves of Quaking Aspen ( Populus tremuloides ) shivering ?,” pp. 1–4,
2009.
[5] Ben, “The Fastest Fast Growing Trees | Arbor Day Blog,” 2010. [Online]. Available:
https://arbordayblog.org/landscapedesign/the-fastest-fast-growing-trees/. [Accessed: 21-Apr-
2019].
[6] S. Abolhosseini, A. Heshmati, and J. Altmann, “A review of renewable energy supply and
energy efficiency technologies,” IZA Discuss. Pap. Ser., no. 8145, pp. 1–36, 2014.
[7] R. Baranowski, F. Oteri, I. Baring-gould, and S. Tegen, “WIND DEVELOPMENT IN THE
UNITED STATES States by Region,” no. April, 2017.
[8] National Renewable Energy Laboratory, “2016 Renewable Energy Grid Integration Data
Book,” 2018.
[9] B. Sigrin and M. Mooney, “Rooftop Solar Technical Potential for Low-to-Moderate Income
Households in the United States,” Golden, CO Natl. Renew. Energy Lab., no. NREL/TP-
6A20-70901, p. https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy18osti/70901.pdf, 2018.
[10] S. Weckend, A. Wade, and G. Heath, End-of-life management: Solar photovoltaic panels.
2016.
[11] D. Chung, C. Davidson, R. Fu, K. Ardani, and R. Margolis, “U.S. Photovoltaic Prices and
Cost Breakdowns : Q1 2015 Benchmarks for Residential , Commercial , and Utility-Scale
Systems,” Natl. Renew. Energy Lab., no. September, p. 42, 2015.
[12] W. Program, “Securing Clean , Domestic , Affordable Energy with Wind,” 2012.
[13] NREL, “United States - Annual Average Wind Speed at 80 m,” pp. 2011–2011.
[14] J. Rand and B. Hoen, “Thirty years of North American wind energy acceptance research:
What have we learned?,” Energy Res. Soc. Sci., vol. 29, no. June, pp. 135–148, 2017.
[15] J. S. Roden, “Modeling the light interception and carbon gain of individual fluttering aspen
(Populus tremuloides Michx) leaves,” Trees, vol. 17, pp. 117–126, 2003.
[16] C. W. Johnson, T. C. Brown, and M. L. Timmons, “Esthetics and landscaping,” 1982.
[17] M. Niroomand and H. R. Foroughi, “A rotary electromagnetic microgenerator for energy
harvesting from human motions,” J. Appl. Res. Technol., vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 259–267, 2016.
[18] S. Peter and R. Michell, “Oscillating Wind Energy Conversion Systems,” 1983.
[19] “DESIGN OF OSCILLATING COIL PENDULUM ENERGY GENERATING
SYSTEM.pdf.” .
[20] “Zephyr Energy | Windbeam | | Zephyr Energy Corporation’s patented Windbeam micro
generator captures energy from airflow to recharge batteries and power electronic
devices.Zephyr Energy | Windbeam | | Zephyr Energy Corporation’s patented Windbeam
micro generator captures energy from airflow to recharge batteries and power electronic
devices.” [Online]. Available: http://zephyrenergy.com/. [Accessed: 21-Apr-2019].
[21] Introduction to Fluid Dynamics. .
[22] M. C. Cimmino, R. Miranda, E. Sicignano, A. J. M. Ferreira, R. E. Skelton, and F. Fraternali,
“Composite solar façades and wind generators with tensegrity architecture,” Compos. Part B
140

Eng., vol. 115, pp. 275–281, 2017.
[23] F. Shapiro, “Integrated Wind Turbine | Architect Magazine | Transportation Projects, Wind
Power, Green Products, Post-Occupancy Performance, Chicago-Naperville-Joliet, IL-IN-WI,
HOK, nature orienterad design AB, Illinois.” [Online]. Available:
https://www.architectmagazine.com/technology/detail/integrated-wind-turbine_o. [Accessed:
21-Apr-2019].
[24] “Original Prusa i3 MK3 - Prusa3D - 3D Printers from Josef Průša.” [Online]. Available:
https://www.prusa3d.com/original-prusa-i3-mk3/. [Accessed: 21-Apr-2019].

141

APPENDIX A: CFD ANALYSIS CASE STUDY #1 DATA:
Table 1: CFD Analysis study #1, Geometries 1-8
142

Table 2: CFD Analysis study #1, Geometries 9-16
143

Table 3: CFD Analysis study #1, Geometries 17-24
144

APPENDIX B: CFD ANALYSIS CASE STUDY #2 DATA:
Table 1: CFD Analysis study #2, Geometries #1

145

Table 2: CFD Analysis study #2, Geometry #2

146

Table 3: CFD Analysis study #2, Geometry #3

147

Table 4: CFD Analysis study #2, Geometry #4

148

Table 5: CFD Analysis study #2, Geometry #5

149

Table 6: CFD Analysis study #2, Geometry #6

150

Table 7: CFD Analysis study #2, Geometry #7

151

Table 8: CFD Analysis study #2, Geometry 8

152

Table 9: CFD Analysis study #2, Geometry #9

153

Table 10: CFD Analysis study #2, Geometry #10

154

Table 11: CFD Analysis study #2, Geometry #11

155

APPENDIX C: REAL TIME WIND TEST #1:

Table 1: Real time wind test #1, Geometry #1

156

Table 2: Real time wind test #1, Geometry #2

157

Table 3: Real time wind test #1, Geometry #3

158

Table 4: Real time wind test #1, Geometry #4

159

Table 5: Real time wind test #1, Geometry #5

160

Table 6: Real time wind test #1, Geometry #6

161

APPENDIX D: REAL TIME WIND TEST #2:

Table 1: Real time wind test #2, Geometry #1

162

Table 2: Real time wind test #2, Geometry #2

163

Table 3: Real time wind test #2, Geometry #3

164

Table 4: Real time wind test #2, Geometry #4

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Renewable energy produced on-site for buildings is becoming more integral to meet energy code requirements within the US, especially in the state of California. About 39% of carbon emissions in the United States are expelled by power plants that feed all building electricity needs. Counteracting building energy loads can require more on-site energy production, passive energy design and the use of increasingly efficient occupant comfort building systems. The ability for an individual or structure to produce enough energy to sustain its life-cycle is instrumental to the future of sustainability. Currently there are few technologies that allow renewable energy to be produced and directly used in the built environment. On-site energy production in the US is dominated by solar energy generated on the roof surface of buildings. Thus, energy generation on structures is typically an ancillary function of the building hidden from sight. The Leaf-Gen device to be initially produced from this research, on the other hand, is intended to both create energy, and be an integral part of the aesthetic nature of the structure it resides. First, an understanding of fluid dynamics was attained to produce oscillation by a geometric form and wind flow. Then, taking known geometries of energy production and the natural form of the aspen leaf an extrapolated geometry was created. This form was tested through computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to understand how the geometry produces pressure fluctuations, and real time studies were performed via fan airflow. After the geometric form was designed to oscillate at a rate that could produce energy, the electromagnetic energy production mechanism was developed at a small scale. The final device is a vertical wall solution which is comprised of a series of wind induced oscillating geometries. As these devices flutter in the wind, they produce electricity on a micro scale on the interior encasement of the system. When these modules are connected together in a wall panel system they intend to produce enough energy to be used on-site within the building as lighting/electrical outputs.

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

Mitigating thermal bridging in ventilated rainscreen envelope construction: Methods to reduce thermal transfer in net-zero envelope optimization

PDF

Energy performance of different building forms: HEED simulations of equivalent massing models in diverse building surface aspect ratios and locations in the US

PDF

Onshore wind power systems (ONSWPS): a GIS-based tool for preliminary site-suitability analysis

PDF

Energy use intensity estimation method based on building façade features by using regression models

PDF

Impacts of building performance on occupants' work productivity: a post occupancy evaluation study

PDF

Building energy performance estimation approach: facade visual information-driven benchmark performance model

PDF

A parametric study of the thermal performance of green roofs in different climates through energy modeling

PDF

Enhancing thermal comfort: air temperature control based on human facial skin temperature

PDF

Impacts of indoor environmental quality on occupants environmental comfort: a post occupancy evaluation study

PDF

Impact of occupants in building performance: extracting information from building data

PDF

Streamlining sustainable design in building information modeling: BIM-based PV design and analysis tools

PDF

Pre-cast concrete envelopes in hot-humid climates: examining envelopes to reduce cooling load and electrical consumption

PDF

MM Electrical Tool: a tool for generating electrical single line diagrams in BIM

PDF

ctrl+z: exploring the effects of undoing retrofits to pre-war buildings in Los Angeles

PDF

Smart buildings: employing modern technology to create an integrated, data-driven, intelligent, self-optimizing, human-centered, building automation system

PDF

Using architecture in the fight against global warming: presenting viable energy-saving renovation design strategies to homeowners via an interactive web learning tool

PDF

A BIM-based visualization tool for facilities management: fault detection through integrating real-time sensor data into BIM

PDF

Acoustic cumulus: acoustic improvements in the graduate building science studio

PDF

CFD visualization: a case study for using a building information modeling with virtual reality

PDF

Multi-domain assessment of a kinetic facade: determining the control strategy of a kinetic façade using BIM based on energy performance, daylighting, and occupants’ preferences; Multi-domain asse...

Asset Metadata

Creator Castor, Casey Mack (author)

Core Title Leaf module panel system: novel vertical wall wind energy production

School School of Architecture

Degree Master of Building Science

Degree Program Building Science

Publication Date 07/16/2020

Defense Date 05/06/2019

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag alternative renewables,bio-mimicry,microgeneration,OAI-PMH Harvest,on-site energy production,wind energy

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Noble, Douglas (committee chair), Beshir, Mohammed (committee member), Choi, Joon-Ho (committee member), Konis, Kyle (committee member)

Creator Email ccastor@usc.edu,mack.designs.research@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-182576

Unique identifier UC11659911

Identifier etd-CastorCase-7554.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-182576 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-CastorCase-7554.pdf

Dmrecord 182576

Document Type Thesis

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Castor, Casey Mack

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA