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An exploration of the relationship of awareness and use of student services to sense of belonging, overall satisfaction with institution, and intent to persist to degree completion among internat...

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Content Running head: AWARENESS AND UTILIZATION OF STUDENT SERVICES

An Exploration of the Relationship of Awareness and Use of Student Services to Sense of
Belonging, Overall Satisfaction with Institution, and Intent to Persist to Degree Completion
Among International Students

by

M. Cort Brinkerhoff

_______________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
Faculty of the Rossier School of Education at the
University of Southern California
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Education

August 2019

Copyright 2019 M. Cort Brinkerhoff
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ii
Table of Contents
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. iii
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ iii
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ iv
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... v
CHAPTER I: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY ............................................................................... 1
Persistence and International Students ........................................................................................ 3
Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................................. 12
Importance and Purpose of the Study ....................................................................................... 22
Organization of the Study ......................................................................................................... 24
CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................................... 25
Population of Focus .................................................................................................................. 25
Awareness and Use of Student Services ................................................................................... 27
Sense of Belonging ................................................................................................................... 30
Overall Satisfaction with Institution ......................................................................................... 36
Summary of Literature Review ................................................................................................. 40
Purpose, Research Questions, and Hypotheses ......................................................................... 41
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY .............................................................................................. 44
Participants ................................................................................................................................ 44
Instruments ................................................................................................................................ 49
Procedure .................................................................................................................................. 52
CHAPTER IV: RESULTS ............................................................................................................ 53
Preliminary Analysis ................................................................................................................. 53
Analysis of Research Questions ................................................................................................ 55
Post hoc Analysis ...................................................................................................................... 59
CHAPTER V: DISCUSSION ....................................................................................................... 63
Summary and Discussion of Main Findings ............................................................................. 63
Limitations ................................................................................................................................ 71
Directions for Future Research ................................................................................................. 72
Implications for Practice ........................................................................................................... 73
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 77
References ..................................................................................................................................... 79
Appendix A: Invitation to Participate in the Research Study ....................................................... 94
Appendix B: Demographic Questions .......................................................................................... 95
Appendix C: Awareness and Use of Student Services Questionnaire .......................................... 96
Appendix D: Sense of Belonging Sub-Scale of The Perceived Cohesion Scale .......................... 97
Appendix E: Student Satisfaction Inventory (SSI) Sub-scale ....................................................... 98
Appendix F: College Persistence Questionnaire – Institutional Commitment Subset ................. 99

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List of Tables
Table 1. Frequency Distribution of Top Ten Countries of ........................................................... 44
Table 2. Frequency Distribution for Country of Origin of ........................................................... 45
Table 3. Demographic Frequencies of International ..................................................................... 46
Table 4. Demographic Frequencies of Domestic .......................................................................... 48
Table 5. Means, Standard Deviations, and Pearson Product Correlations for Measured Variables
of International Student Participant Data ........................................................................ 54
Table 6. Means, Standard Deviations, and Pearson Product Correlations for Measured Variables
of Domestic Student Participant Data ............................................................................. 54
Table 7. Summary of Linear Regression Statistics for Awareness and Use of Student Services
and Sense of Belonging as predictors of Overall Satisfaction ........................................ 58
Table 8. Summary of Linear Regression Statistics for Awareness and Use of Student Services,
Sense of Belonging, and Overall Satisfaction with Institution as predictors of Intent to
Persist to Degree Completion .......................................................................................... 58
Table 9. Frequency Distribution of Top Five Student .................................................................. 60
Table 10. Frequency Distribution of Top Five Student ................................................................ 61

List of Figures
Figure 1. Tinto's Longitudinal Model of Institutional Departure ................................................. 16
Figure 2. Profile Plot of Estimated Marginal Means of Sense of Belonging for Students' Gender,
Class Standing, and Residency Status ............................................................................. 56

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Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank his dissertation advisor and committee chair, Professor
Ruth Chung, whose guidance and support on this project were invaluable. The author would
also like to acknowledge the generous contributions of his committee members, Dr. Briana
Hinga and Dr. Tony Tambascia.
The author wishes to express his gratitude for the enduring encouragement of his family
and friends. He would especially like to thank his wife, whose unwavering support and care
were crucial to this project’s completion.

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Abstract
Using Tinto’s model of student departure (1993) as a conceptual framework, this
quantitative study examined institutional and behavioral variables that may have a relationship to
international student persistence. The results indicated that intent to persist to degree completion
can be predicted by awareness and use of student services, sense of belonging, and overall
satisfaction with institution. Additionally, this study found that international undergraduate
males have a significantly lower sense of belonging than domestic undergraduate males. This
study also found that international students have a higher use of student services than domestic
students; however, the services used differ somewhat for each group. Finally, this study found
that Chinese and Indian students have a higher sense of belonging and a lower level of
interaction with domestic students than all other international students. The findings of this
study have practical implications for higher education researchers and administrators seeking to
improve outcomes for international students.

Running head: AWARENESS AND UTILIZATION OF STUDENT SERVICES

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CHAPTER I: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY

International students represent an increasingly important part of the total population of
students at institutions of higher education in the United States. The overall number of
international students enrolling at institutions in the U.S. has increased dramatically over the last
several decades from fewer than 30,000 students in 1950 to over one million today (Institute of
International Education, 2018). In the 2017-18 academic year, there were 1,094,792
1

international students enrolled in colleges and universities in the United States (Institute of
International Education, 2018). This represents an increase of 1.5 percent over the previous
academic year, and an increase of 75.5 percent over the 2007-08 academic year (Institute of
International Education, 2018). As of 2018, international students comprised 5.5 percent of the
total student population at U.S. institutions of higher education (Institute of International
Education, 2018). This parameter represents an all-time high and is more than two percentage-
points higher than the 2007-08 academic year, when international students comprised 3.4 percent
of the total student population (Institute of International Education, 2018).
While it seems likely that the international student population in the U.S. will continue to
grow, growth is not guaranteed. In fact, the United States’ share of the global population of
international students has been gradually decreasing. In 2000, 23 percent of all international
students were enrolled in U.S. institutions. In 2013, this share had dropped to 19 percent
(Institute of International Education, 2015). Perhaps even more striking, if we only look at new
enrollments of international students, the U.S. has actually been in decline for the past two years
(Institute of International Education, 2018).

1
Total enrollment numbers include international students receiving OPT (Optional Practical Training).
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Though the U.S. remains the most popular destination for international students, there is
plenty of competition and international students have more choices than ever before when
selecting a destination country. After the U.S., the next five most popular destination countries
are United Kingdom, France, Australia, Russia, Germany, and Japan (Institute of International
Education, 2017). If American institutions of higher education fail to meet the needs of
international students, these students may increasingly look to other countries to meet their
educational needs. This could cause the U.S. market share of the international student
population to erode further, leading to stagnant and even declining enrollments.
A decline in the enrollment of the one million-plus international students would not only
affect the local and state economies where these students study, it would have a considerable
impact on the entire U.S. economy. According to NAFSA (2018), international students in the
U.S. supported 450,331 jobs while generating 36.9 billion dollars of economic activity during the
2016-17 academic year. For comparison, estate and gift taxes in the U.S. generated 24.3 billion
dollars in 2016 (USAFacts Institute, 2017). Additionally, international students develop valuable
skills that can be put to use for their future employers. With a global race for high-skill workers,
the U.S. has much to gain by educating and retaining foreign talent. If international students
begin looking to other countries, the U.S. could miss out on a sizable economic return. Not only
would there be a direct loss in dollars and service jobs, there would likely be a major loss to the
competitiveness of American corporations, as international students tend to either stay in the
countries where they earn their degrees, therefore contributing to that economy, or return their
home countries (Dustmann & Weiss, 2007). Without a sustained flow of foreign-born
knowledge workers into the economy, the U.S. could stand to lose ground in the constant
struggle for corporate innovation and competitiveness.
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While the economic benefits of hosting international students at American universities
may seem obvious, it is easy to overlook the moral obligation of U.S. institutions to provide
equal opportunities and support services to these students. American legislators and university
administrators too often view international students as cash cows whose ultimate purpose is to
generate revenue for the university to help subsidize the cost of education for domestic students
(Cantwell, 2015; Andrade M. S., 2006). This view is short-sighted and harmful. Universities
that admit international students are taking on a duty to provide the same levels of service,
learning opportunities and experiences to these students as they do for domestic students. Any
university that fails to do this is failing its duty as an educational institution.
There is evidence to suggest that providing more resources to student services
departments can lead to higher student retention and completion rates (Webber & Ehrenberg,
2010; Ryan, 2004). Taking a student development theory approach to the problem of
diminishing international student enrollment, this study explores the relationship of awareness
and utilization of student services to sense of belonging, overall satisfaction with institution, and
intent to persist among international students at a large, private university on the west coast.
Persistence and International Students
Persistence of international students is a neglected topic among education researchers
(Andrade M. S., 2006; Andrade M. S., 2008). However, as increasing numbers of international
students come to the U.S. for higher education, student services professionals must better prepare
to accommodate these students and serve their needs (Hayes & Lin, 1994). International
students face many challenges in addition to those faced by their domestic counterparts (Quaye
& Harper, 2014; Hayes & Lin, 1994; Heggins & Jackson, 2003), including adjusting to a new
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culture, foreign language immersion, and lack of support networks. Other major challenges
include fear of failure, anxiety, difficulty finding campus jobs, and workload.
The collegiate experience. International students are often marginalized and
misunderstood on American campuses (Quaye & Harper, 2014). They can be invisible to the
general population and are often lumped together with domestic ethnic groups on campus. Host
nationals typically avoid reaching out and befriending international students. International
students have reported that they feel like second class citizens, and that they are not made to feel
welcome (Tan, 1994). These challenges are compounded by the international student’s feelings
of lack of support. This can lead to severe stress and clinical depression (Constantine, Okazaki,
& Utsey, 2004). This is not to say that international students are destined for depression.
International students who are more independent, have traveled abroad before, and have higher
fluency in English fare better than their counterparts (Heggins & Jackson, 2003).
Social support systems. Most international students cite academic achievement as their
main goal in attending institutions of higher education in the U.S. (Aubrey, 1991). However, this
goal is difficult to attain as many international students face campus environments that incite
feelings of stress, fear, frustration, and depression (Hayes & Lin, 1994). Students more readily
achieve their academic goals when the campus environment is supportive (Hayes & Lin, 1994).
Hayes and Lin (1994) describe a sense of loss that international students experience when they
leave their home countries and come to the U.S. Their excitement and eagerness to study abroad
can quickly dissipate and turn into feelings of isolation, as they separate from the shared identity
and culture of their home countries. This sense of loss is often compounded by a lack of fluency
in English, which can further alienate international students from their American classmates. To
fill the void, international students, especially from non-European countries, will flock together
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with other students from their home countries (Kang, 1972). This causes group isolation from
the host national population, despite the international students’ desire for more interaction with
the host nationals (Hayes & Lin, 1994).
There are steps that American institutions can take to mitigate the transition for
international students. Counselors and advisors can draw on the relational competence model
(Hansson, Jones, & Carpenter, 1984) to facilitate international students’ development of social
support networks. Solberg et al. (1994) suggest that universities make an effort to connect
international students with parents and community groups in the local community who are
willing to serve as mentors. Counselors and administrators who make a conscious effort to serve
the unique needs of international students are doing their part to help these students have a
fulfilling experience.
Integration or cultural integrity? A student’s background can predict how well they
will integrate into campus life. Strong high school grades and high socioeconomic status lead to
firm social and academic integration (Tinto, 1987; Berger & Milem, 1999). Students who differ
from the dominant campus groups in terms of cultural values and norms and political beliefs
struggle the most to integrate and have the highest rates of departure (Tierney W. G., 1992;
Berger & Milem, 1999). In fact, institutions expect minority groups to adapt and adhere to the
dominant cultural norms and beliefs. Those who do not, are at an elevated risk for departure
(Tinto, 1993; Tierney W. G., 1992; Berger & Milem, 1999). However, Tinto (Tinto, 1987)
believes that individual students should adapt to the dominant values, while Tierney (Tierney W.
G., 1992) believes that this is an integrationist ideology. Tierney (1999) even takes this a step
further and equates integration with cultural suicide.
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Andrade (2006) finds that international students who are able to integrate into a campus
culture, have higher rates of persistence. While these students were able to integrate, this did not
mean that they rejected or abandoned the cultural values of their home countries. Rather, they
were able to adapt to the cultural values that the context dictated (Andrade M. S., 2006).
Additionally, Andrade (2006) finds that international students were freer to adapt to a new
culture than domestic minority students. Andrade (2006) speculates that this may be the case
because the international students are stepping outside of their home countries to attend college.
In doing so, they recognize that they are willfully immersing themselves in a new culture.
Mamiseishvili (2012) finds that international students’ academic integration positively
correlates with greater persistence, while social integration negatively correlates. Mamiseishvili
(2012) categorizes academic integration as education-related activities that students engage in,
including study groups, academic advising sessions, and faculty interaction. Social integration is
categorized as extracurricular activities such as participating in sports, student clubs, and other
arts and entertainment activities (Mamiseishvili, 2012). International students devote
considerably more time to academic integration activities than their American counterparts,
especially in their first year of college. Along with social integration, poor English language
skills correlate with lower persistence (Andrade M. S., 2006; Stoynoff, 1997). Student services
professionals and advisors should work collaboratively with academic staff and English language
instructors to ensure that international students’ needs are being met (Mamiseishvili, 2012).
Challenges to Persistence Among International Students
International students choose to study abroad for many reasons. Some students may be
interested in seeing the world and experiencing a new culture, while others may find limited
seats at institutions in their home countries, which pushes them to look abroad (Yan & Berliner,
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2011). When these students arrive in the U.S., they face many challenges in persisting to degree
completion. According to Yan and Berliner (2011), these challenges can be grouped into three
categories: academic, personal, and socio-cultural.
Academic challenges. One of the most daunting academic challenges that students face
is the pressure from their families to succeed and excel. Families who send their children to
study in the U.S. are paying tens, and even hundreds, of thousands of dollars for tuition, housing,
and meals. For instance, international students who attend New York University, the American
institution of higher education with the highest number of international students (Institute of
International Education, 2018), pay a one-year cost of attendance of $72,900 (New York
University, 2017). If a student spends four years completing a bachelor’s degree, the cost would
be nearly three-hundred thousand U.S. dollars. Many domestic students qualify for federal
financial aid and other cost-reduction programs; whereas, international students typically must
pay the full sticker price. International students are aware of the financial burden that this places
on their families and feel increased pressure to perform academically (Yan & Berliner, 2011).
Another academic concern is language. While non-English speaking students typically
must pass an English exam such as the TOEFL, once they arrive in the U.S., they may quickly
find that they have trouble understanding their classmates and teachers (Yan & Berliner, 2011).
Lewthwaite (1996) finds that, in addition to their written course materials, international students
often struggle to comprehend instructors’ accents and use of idioms. Lewthwaite (1996) also
finds that international students are often unfamiliar with pedagogical styles and practices
common to American academe. One such pedagogical practice that international students tend
to struggle with is classroom participation (Beykont & Daiute, 2002).
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Personal challenges. The personal challenges that international students face include the
students’ status as foreigners. International students come to the U.S. on student visas with no
guarantee of being able to stay on after earning their degrees. Those who return to their home
countries upon degree completion face job competition from their peers who never left, and who
may have already made valuable connections with employers. In addition to job anxiety,
international students face limited dating prospects due to a perceived limited dating pool and
their transitory residential status (Yan & Berliner, 2011). All of the problems that international
students face can compound and result in social isolation, homesickness and depression
(Rajapaksa & Dundes, 2003). Heggins and Jackson (2003) find that students from Asia are
reluctant to use support services provided by universities, and instead rely largely on support
from informal social networks.
While the challenges mentioned above can be daunting, there are many small and
immediate challenges confronting international students as they enter the country. International
students must find housing, obtain identification cards, get a driver’s license or learn to navigate
the local public transportation system. These seemingly minor challenges can accumulate and
become roadblocks to a student’s ability to focus on school (Poyrazli & Grahame, 2007).
Language barriers can compound these challenges and add to the surmounting levels of stress
that accumulate as international students transition to a new country and university (Poyrazli &
Grahame, 2007). For international students who bring their spouses and children, the stressors
are compounded even further.
Socio-cultural challenges. The socio-cultural challenges that Yan and Berliner (2011)
outline include cultural shock, difficulty adjusting to a new country, and unfamiliar norms and
values. International students have preconceived ideas about the U.S. that are often wrong (Lee
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9
J. J., 2010). They experience a loss of familiarity with their surroundings, and often have no
support network in place. They frequently experience feelings of social isolation, as American
students fail to reach out and interact with them (Lacina, 2002). These socio-cultural challenges
can cause a psychological disturbance, and lead to a less positive educational experience.
Chapdelaine and Alexitch (2004) find that many international students experience culture
shock when arriving in the U.S. International students are often unfamiliar with the social norms
and customs of their host countries, which causes them to face difficulty when interacting with
members of the host country. Conflict can arise from social interactions where international
students are not aware of the behaviors expected of them (Chapdelaine & Alexitch, 2004).
Social interactions that would have been easy and enjoyable in their home countries, can become
tense and awkward in their new environment leading to misunderstandings and resulting in
conflict. This conflict can discourage further social interaction resulting in social isolation
among international students (Chapdelaine & Alexitch, 2004). The isolation that these students
experience is especially frustrating because one of the primary reasons many international
students choose to study abroad is to interact and form bonds with peers outside of their
homelands (Chapdelaine & Alexitch, 2004).
Discrimination is another challenge that international students face (Poyrazli & Lopez,
2007; Lee & Rice, 2007). Lee and Rice (2007) cite a number of ways in which international
students are discriminated against including admissions denials, no financial aid, poor academic
evaluations, and racial comments and microaggressions from students and faculty. Poyrazli and
Lopez (2007) find that international students on American campuses perceive greater racial
discrimination than do their domestic counterparts. Asian students are faced with higher levels
of racial discrimination than European students (Poyrazli & Lopez, 2007). The researchers find
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that this perceived discrimination compounds with homesickness and anxiety to increase
negative feelings in international students (Poyrazli & Lopez, 2007).
Altogether, international students face daunting academic, personal and socio-cultural
challenges that are above and beyond what traditional, domestic college students face (Yan &
Berliner, 2011; Lacina, 2002).
Possible interventions
To facilitate persistence and degree completion, many universities offer numerous
services to domestic and international students. Research shows that for many institutions,
higher spending on student services correlates with higher levels of persistence and completion
rates (Webber & Ehrenberg, 2010). In addition to student services, another major factor that has
been identified to have a sizable impact on persistence and degree completion is a sense of
belonging. Much has been written about sense of belonging as it pertains to various ethnic and
racial groups at colleges and universities (Hausmann, Schofield, & Woods, 2007; Hoffman,
Richmond, Morrow, & Salomone, 2002). However, few studies have focused on sense of
belonging in relation to the international student population.
O’Keefe (2013) in referring primarily to students of color, contends that institutions must
create a warm environment where students feel welcomed, not rejected. Institutions can
accomplish this by encouraging student/faculty interaction, providing quality counseling
services, and increasing student diversity. Creating an accommodating atmosphere is crucial to
improving student retention and completion rates. Lee (2010) finds that many international
students, especially those from Asian countries, experience difficulty in adjusting to academic
life and campus culture at American universities. Furthermore, Lee (2010) finds a correlation
between international students’ satisfaction with their institution and their willingness to
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recommend the institution to their friends and family. With evidence pointing to a relationship
between international students’ sense of belonging and retention rates, it stands to reason that
more research should be performed in this area.
Chapdelaine and Alexitch (2004) argue that academic advisors should be proactive and
facilitate opportunities for international students to interact socially with domestic students. This
can take some of the pressure off of the students and create a safe space where students can gain
an understanding of the social norms of their host country (Chapdelaine & Alexitch, 2004).
Advisors could even take this a step further and provide formalized training sessions for
international and domestic students to learn about each other’s cultures (Chapdelaine & Alexitch,
2004). Furnham and Bochner’s (1982) Revised Social Situations Questionnaire (RSSQ) can be
used as a template to create workshops and training sessions to improve cultural literacy.
Andrade (2008) conducted a study of international student persistence at faith-based
institutions and argues that universities should not take a laissez-faire attitude toward retention
and persistence. Instead, she finds that international student outcomes could be improved
through “increasing vision, spiritual engagement, and validation” (Andrade M. S., 2008, p. 449).
International students at the study site indicated that religious participation and spiritual
engagement are factors that contribute to their persistence (Andrade M. S., 2008). This assertion
supports Astin’s (2004) claim that institutions should allocate resources to the inner development
of students.
Based on their research, Lee and Rice (2007) determine that the typical support services
offered by U.S. colleges and universities, “including admission, registration, residence life, and
dining do not well accommodate international students despite the greater needs such students
have” (Lee & Rice, 2007, p. 386). Poyrazli and Grahame (2007) suggest that college and
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university orientations should point out the numerous stressors that international students are
likely to face to help mitigate the stressors’ effects. The researchers assert that institutions of
higher education should be proactive in creating programs and services designed to integrate
international students into the campus community. The researchers note that this may be
difficult for smaller institutions with limited resources, but the current method of providing
counseling services after the fact is less effective.
Poyralzi and Lopez (2007) argue that universities should devote resources to diversifying
their campuses to mitigate the levels of racial tensions and discrimination against international
students. Additionally, universities could offer programs to educate the campus community to
help combat discrimination (Poyrazli & Lopez, 2007). Programs offered exclusively for
international students could not only help the students succeed but show them that the university
is concerned with their well-being and success (Poyrazli & Lopez, 2007). This effort could lead
to stronger relationships between host universities and prospective international students
(Poyrazli & Lopez, 2007).
Although little research has been conducted on the many challenges facing international
students, the studies that do exist point to a need for colleges and universities to increase their
efforts to address these challenges. Institutions that admit international students have a duty to
provide resources and services to support these students in their academic and personal lives as
they work toward degree completion.
Theoretical Framework
Since so few studies have been conducted regarding the persistence of international
students (Andrade M. S., 2008), it is necessary to ground the framing of this study on the vast
and influential body of literature that studies the persistence of college students in general. Three
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influential works on college student persistence will be used as a framework for this study: 1)
Tinto’s (1993) theory of student departure, 2) Astin’s (1984) theory of student involvement, and
3) Braxton’s (2000) revised theory of student departure.
Tinto’s Theory of Student Departure
Tinto’s (1975; 1987; 1993) theory identifies three primary causes of student departure: 1)
difficulty with academics, 2) indecision regarding academic and career choices, and 3) an
inability to integrate into the social and academic lives of the institution. Tinto finds that
persistence requires the formal and informal integration of the student into the academic and
social systems of their institution. Tinto further finds that retention programs should be designed
for and committed to the students they serve. Students’ well-being should be prioritized ahead of
the institution’s goals. Institutions should strive to serve all students equally, and not place some
students’ needs above others. Effective programs seek to include all students in social and
educational activities both inside and outside of the classroom. All student outcomes should be
valued equally by the institution.
In addition to bringing awareness to the problem of student attrition, Tinto had two major
objectives in writing his book. First, he was interested in reconciling the existing body of
research under a unifying theory of student departure. The theory was focused on institutions of
higher education and their role in student development. Secondly, Tinto wanted to identify
practices that would increase student retention. His aim was not to provide a one-size-fits-all
solution, rather he set out to define a series of steps that would lead to improved outcomes.
Ultimately, Tinto aimed to provide a comprehensive study of student attrition along with a
refined toolkit to repair the problem.
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Tinto is careful to point out that a student who leaves an institution of higher education
does not necessarily abandon their pursuit of higher education. Many students who withdraw
from one institution will enroll in another. Additionally, a student may leave higher education,
then return several months, and even years, later to continue. Despite the inherent difficulty,
Tinto’s aim was to track student movements both within and away from the system of higher
education. Furthermore, Tinto states that institutions should consider a student’s perception
when categorizing a departure. If the student does not perceive the departure as a failure, neither
should the institution. Likewise, institutions should avoid use of the word “dropout” when
defining student behavior. When establishing retention policies and programs, institutions
should consider the goals and values of their students. The goals and values of the institution can
be brought into alignment with those of the students.
Tinto was largely concerned with understanding how institutional behavior influences
student departure within that same institution. Tinto identified eight major sources of departure:
“intention, commitment, adjustment, difficulty, congruence, isolation, obligations, and finances
(Tinto, 1993, p. 81).” Intention and commitment address the attitudes students have when they
enter an institution. Adjustment, difficulty, congruence and isolation concern the experiences
that students have while enrolled in the institution. Obligations and finances pertain to the
outside forces that bear down upon students as they navigate college life.
One key factor that affects a student’s intent to persist are the interactions between
students and faculty, both inside and outside of the classroom. Students who experience more
frequent and positive interactions develop more academically and socially and have higher rates
of persistence. Tinto points out that not all students enter college with same amount of
preparation, likewise, not all institutions have the resources to address under-prepared student
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populations. Tinto also states that finance, while certainly a consideration, is generally not a
central issue in determining whether a student will choose to leave college.
In its broadest sense, Tinto’s theory of departure maps the stages of movement of
students progressing from outsiders to members of various social groups within an institution.
The key to successful persistence, Tinto argues, is the ability to transition from one set of social
memberships to another. Many of an institution’s early departures correspond to the students’
incapacity to adapt to the intellectual and social life of a college. Furthermore, the departures are
defined as much by the academic and social groups’ attitudes as it is by the departing students’
behaviors and attitudes.
When a student chooses to withdraw, it is not due to the student’s attributes or
characteristics; it is most often due to an inability to find community membership on campus.
The quality of a student’s social interactions with peers and mentors inside and outside of the
classroom can be the determining factor in persistence. There is no objective instrument to
measure the quality of a student’s interactions, rather what matters is the student’s perception of
quality. If a student perceives an interaction to be negative, regardless of what others think, the
interaction has already been shaped in the mind of the student. Institutions cannot begin to
address problems of social membership without first assessing individual perceptions of the
problem. Persistence is greatest when a student integrates both socially and intellectually. Tinto
states that both social and intellectual educational experiences are integral to a student’s
development.
Tinto points out that a major constraint on institutional action are the finite limits of
resources. Most institutions lack an adequate amount of financial resources that can be devoted
to student affairs departments. Despite a lack of resources, institutions can still devote psychic
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16
resources to the problem of attrition. Tinto advises that institutions should focus on programs
that 1) aid the transition to college, 2) establish early contact with students and enmesh them in
the social fabric of the institution, 3) provide academic advisement and tutoring, 4) warn advisors
early on of potential academic problems, 5) counsel and advise students as they progress toward
graduation. These institutional actions can help to integrate students into the academic and
social life of an institution. Students who successfully integrate are more likely to persist (Tinto,
1993). Figure 1 shows Tinto’s model of student departure.
Figure 1. Tinto's Longitudinal Model of Institutional Departure
2

2
Adapted from Leaving college: Rethinking the causes and cures of student attrition. Second edition (p. 114),
V. Tinto, 1993, Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.
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Ultimately, Tinto’s model of student departure (see Figure 1) posits a direct correlation
between academic/social integration and persistence. The more integrated a student becomes in
the academic and social fabric of a university, the more likely they are to persist to degree
completion (Tinto, 1993).
Braxton’s Revised Theory of Student Departure
Braxton’s (1997; 2000) revised theory of student departure seeks to reform and reinforce
Tinto’s (1987) original theory. Drawing from existing studies, Braxton et al. (2000) assess the
strength of the positive relationship between social integration and retention. The researchers
make a distinction between residential colleges and commuter colleges, and they offer a separate
theoretical model for each.
Braxton, Sullivan and Johnson (1997) conducted an assessment of Tinto’s theory of
student departure. The researchers found evidence to support only five of Tinto’s 13 primary
propositions. Namely, they found that a student’s background informed their initial commitment
to the institution in which the student enrolls. This initial commitment leads to the student’s
overall integration into the academic and social life of the college. Ultimately, a student’s level
of integration predicts their likelihood of persistence (Braxton, Milem, & Sullivan, 2000).
In addition to involvement, the study (Braxton, Shaw Sullivan, & Johnson, 1997)
incorporates the construct of active learning (Bonwell & Elison, 1991). Active learning includes
classroom-based activities that cause a student to think about, discuss, respond to, and otherwise
engage with the content of the lesson, as opposed to passively listening to an instructor (Bonwell
& Elison, 1991). Several studies have shown active learning to increase a student’s perception
of their learning (McKeachie, Pintrich, Yi-Guang, & Smith, 1986; Chickering & Gamson, 1987;
Johnson, Johnson, & Smith, 1991). That is, a student who participates in active learning
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18
perceives that they are gaining knowledge and acquiring skills. The student, whether accurate or
not, believes that they are learning, and this, in turn, may lead to higher levels of involvement
and may impact actual learning and persistence (Milem & Berger, 1997).
Braxton et al. (2000) find that higher order thinking activities and class discussions are
positively correlated with social integration. Class discussions are also found to have a positive
influence on continuing commitment to institution (Braxton, Milem, & Sullivan, 2000). The
opposite is true for knowledge-level exams. Knowledge-level exams and group work show no
correlation with social integration. Social integration was found to have a strong influence on
continuing commitment to institution (Braxton, Milem, & Sullivan, 2000).
The findings of Braxton’s (2000) study do offer some support to suggest that active
learning may influence persistence. In accordance with Tinto (1975), the findings support the
idea that social integration is important to persistence. The study also suggests that faculty
classroom behavior may influence persistence. To enact active learning on campuses, student
affairs professionals could conduct training seminars with faculty, and implement co-curricular
activities for students. Efforts to activate students in the learning process can lead to lower levels
of student departure.
Astin’s Theory of Student Involvement
Astin’s (1984) theory of involvement identifies three core elements that serve to define
the impact of a college education on a student. The three elements are: (1) inputs, defined as a
student’s demographic and the personal experiences prior to college, (2) environment, defined as
a student’s holistic experiences during college, and (3) outputs, defined as a student’s knowledge
and character traits upon completing college. Astin argues that involvement requires and
investment by the student, and the return on investment that a student sees from involvement is
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19
proportional to their level of involvement. Level of involvement also correlates to academic
achievement (Astin A. W., 1984).
Astin developed his theory of student involvement to bring some order to the chaotic
state of the field of student development (Astin A. W., 1999). He defines the construct of
involvement as “the amount of physical and psychological energy that the student devotes to the
academic experience” (Astin, 1999, p. 518). Astin elaborates that involvement includes such
things as attending class, studying, participating in student organizations, attending
extracurricular seminars, etc. Furthermore, Astin lists five basic postulates for his theory,
namely (1) students invest energy in various experiences or objects, (2) students express varying
degrees of investment in objects, (3) involvement can be measured qualitatively and
quantitatively, (4) the amount personal development is directly associated with the level of
involvement, and (5) the efficacy of an educational practice is directly related to the practice’s
capacity to increase involvement (Astin A. W., 1984).
Astin’s theory places an emphasis on the institution and the individual. The institution
must provide ample opportunities for the student. The student must actively participate in these
opportunities. It is the combination of the two that leads to positive outcomes in student
development. The theory implies that the most important resource in student development is not
the financial support, state-of-the-art facilities or star faculty; the most important resource in
student development is a student’s time. The more time a student spends interacting with faculty
and peers, attending lectures, studying, and participating in extracurricular activities, the more
they will learn. Astin (1984) also understands that resources are finite, and that faculty and staff
compete with other sources for a student’s time. Institutions should consider how they want to
affect student behavior when designing campus layouts, facilities, and programs.
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The roots of Astin’s theory of involvement lie in his longitudinal study of students who
leave college (Astin A. W., 1975). The study attempted to identify the major factors that impact
student persistence. Astin (1975) found a direct correlation between increased involvement and
persistence. The more involved a student was with the life of the institution, the more likely that
student was to persist. Some environmental factors that contribute to persistence are living on
campus, joining a sorority or fraternity, participating in extracurricular activities and sports, and
participating in a professor’s research project. Another surprising factor that contributes to
retention is holding a part-time work study job on campus. Students who hold jobs off campus
are less likely to persist. Students at a two-year college are much more likely to drop out, than
students at a four-year college. The study also finds that students are more likely to persist at
institutions where they feel they belong, e.g. black students have higher persistence rates at black
colleges than at predominantly white institutions.
Additionally, Astin (1977) finds that living on campus leads not only to higher
persistence, but an increase in intent to attend graduate or professional school. These students
also attain more leadership roles in campus organizations. They also report more numerous and
higher quality relationships with peers and faculty. Astin (1977) concludes that regular
interaction with faculty is the highest predictor of student satisfaction with their institution.
Astin (1999) advises that an emphasis should be placed on identifying and intervening
with passive students, i.e. students who are not involved. Some emphasis will consequently shift
from teaching to motivating students to engage in their learning. Instructors should focus more
on learning outcomes, and less on the technique of teaching itself. In an ideal environment,
student services personnel would play a larger role (Astin A. W., 1999). Academic advisors and
counselors are in a position where they can monitor and encourage student involvement. An
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21
advisor can look at the complete activity profile of a student, and tailor a treatment plan to
optimize involvement activities designed to address the student’s academic challenges.
Astin (1999) suggests that the next step in continuing the research in this area would be to
examine the different types of involvement. Having students keep a time diary could be a
valuable tool in assessing the various types of activities that students engage in, and the amount
of time devoted to each activity (Astin A. W., 1999). This could help researchers identify the
most valuable types of involvement. There is also a need to study quantity versus quality of
student involvement. Different forms of involvement lead to different learning outcomes (Astin
A. W., 1977). More research is needed to determine which activities are most effective.
Additionally, forms and levels of involvement may have differing impacts on students from
disparate backgrounds. Peer groups have been shown to influence outcomes in elementary and
secondary education (Coleman, 1961). Furthermore, a student’s motivation to be involved may
depend on their locus of control (Weiner, 1979). Research is needed to determine the extent of
influence from these factors in postsecondary education.
Synthesizing Tinto and Astin
Astin’s (1975, 1984, 1999) and Tinto’s (1975; 1987; 1993) theories have been used for
decades to examine student persistence (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). Not only have the
models been applied to the general study of student persistence, they have also been applied to
sub-populations of students, e.g. first-generation students (Lohfink & Paulsen, 2005),
racial/ethnic minority students (Carter, 2006), and student athletes (Comeaux & Harrison, 2011).
Astin set out to study college student development grounded in a psychology framework,
while Tinto set out to identify variables that contribute to student attrition using a sociology
framework (Kerby, 2015). However, both Tinto and Astin find a strong link between a student’s
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22
level of engagement and their likelihood of persistence. While Astin and Tinto define
engagement in different terms, Astin as student involvement and Tinto as social/academic
integration, they are essentially referring to the frequency with which a student interacts and
engages with the faculty, their peers, and all of the services and programs that a university has to
offer. This link between engagement and persistence has important implications for student
affairs professionals.
In addition to engagement, both Astin’s and Tinto’s models consider the impact of
student background characteristics on college persistence. Astin labels these characteristics as
inputs, while Tinto calls them pre-entry attributes. However, both researchers emphasize the
importance of student background characteristics as a factor that impacts a student’s behavior in
college and their likelihood of persisting.
Although neither Tinto nor Astin mention international students in their research on
student persistence, their work has been applied to numerous student groups (Pascarella &
Terenzini, 2005; Lohfink & Paulsen, 2005; Carter, 2006; Comeaux & Harrison, 2011). At least a
couple of researchers have applied Astin’s and Tinto’s theories to study international student
departure (Andrade M. S., 2006; Andrade M. S., 2008; Mamiseishvili, 2012). However, much
more research on international student persistence needs to be conducted before a substantial
body of work will exist. The work conducted by Astin (1984) and Tinto (1993) provides a solid
framework to explore international student persistence.
Importance and Purpose of the Study
More international students are electing to study in the United States than ever before
(Institute of International Education, 2018). However, international students also have more
choices than ever before when choosing a destination country for higher education. The result is
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that a smaller share of the global pool of international students are now coming to the U.S., while
increasingly choosing to enroll in institutions in the U.K., France, Australia, Russia, Japan, and
elsewhere (NAFSA, 2018). If this trend continues, the total number of international students in
the U.S. could begin to decline. A drop in the number of international students at American
universities could have repercussions for the entire U.S. economy.
In addition to economic value, international students bring academic and cultural value to
American institutions of higher education. International students add diversity to the student
body, fresh perspectives to the classroom, and a general broadening of cultural awareness and
understanding to the campus (Bevis, 2002; Harrison, 2002). They also bring new knowledge and
skills, and help to fill vital roles on campus, such as teaching assistantships and research
assistantships (Trice, 2003). In our increasingly global world, it is imperative that students learn
to value and navigate other cultures. Including a sizable contingent of international students on a
college campus is an important way to cultivate diversity and global-mindedness (Volet & Ang,
2012).
International students face numerous challenges as they enroll, matriculate and persist
toward degree completion at American universities (Yan & Berliner, 2011). Academic
challenges, personal challenges and socio-cultural challenges all contribute to an international
student’s decision to persist (Yan & Berliner, 2011). Universities that admit international
students have an obligation to provide the same level of service and support to these students as
they do to domestic students. Studies have demonstrated that colleges and universities that
devote more resources to student services can see an increase in retention and persistence rates
(Webber & Ehrenberg, 2010; Ryan, 2004). Sense of belonging has been identified as another
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important factor that impacts international students’ overall satisfaction with an institution
(Hausmann, Schofield, & Woods, 2007; Hoffman, Richmond, Morrow, & Salomone, 2002).
The purpose of this study is to examine different variables that may contribute to
international student persistence at institutions of higher education in the U.S. This study uses
student development theories of Astin (1984) and Tinto (1993) as a framework for identifying
variables that impact persistence of students at American colleges and universities.
Organization of the Study
Chapter one of this dissertation provides an overview of the study, including the
background, theoretical framework, and importance of the study. The following chapter
provides a review of the relevant literature pertaining to this study, including analyses of the
study variables which are: awareness and utilization of student services, sense of belonging,
satisfaction with institution, and intent to persist to completion. Chapter three describes the
population of focus, survey instrument, data collection method, research design, and planned
analyses for this study.

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CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter begins with an overview of the population of focus: international students in
the U.S. This is followed by an extensive review of the literature relevant to the independent
variables used in this study, which are 1) awareness and use of student services, 2) sense of
belonging, and 3) overall satisfaction with institution. The variables were identified through an
examination of the conceptual framework for this study based on theoretical work by Astin
(1984), Tinto (1993), and Braxton et al. (2000). The independent variables serve as predictor
variables for persistence, which was discussed in chapter one. The chapter closes with summary
and an explanation of the research questions that guide this study.
Population of Focus
During the 2017-18 academic year, international students comprised 5.5 percent of the
twenty million students that were enrolled in institutions of higher education in the United States
(NAFSA, 2018). This statistic is a full two percentage-point increase over the 2007-08 academic
year, when international students comprised 3.4 percent of the total student population. This
percentage has been steadily growing, with occasional blips, over the decades since record-
keeping began in 1948, when international students only comprised 1.1 percent of the total
student population (NAFSA, 2018).
Of the countries that send students to the U.S., China by far sends the most. Chinese
students make up 31.5 percent of the international student population in the U.S. (Institute of
International Education, 2018). Rounding out the top five countries of origin are India, Saudi
Arabia, South Korea, and Canada with percentages of 15.9, 5.9, 5.8, and 2.6 respectively
(Institute of International Education, 2018). Data collected by the Institute of International
Education (2018) demonstrate that one-third of international students headed to the U.S. enroll in
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26
universities in just three states: California, New York, and Texas. The three most popular
institutions of higher education for international students are New York University, University of
Southern California, and Columbia University with international student populations of 13,178,
12,334, and 11,510 respectively (Times Higher Education, 2016)
3
.
The overall six-year completion rates for undergraduate international students have been
steadily increasing over time. According to the National Center for Education Statistics (2016),
international students, defined as non-resident aliens, have an overall six-year degree completion
rate of 68.8 percent for students who enrolled in 2009. This percentage is up from 59.6 for
international students that enrolled in 2000. This compares to six-year completion rates of 59.4
percent for 2009 enrollment, and 57.5 percent for 2000 enrollment for the overall student
population of first-time, full-time degree-seeking students at four-year institutions in the U.S.
The only single racial/ethnic group to complete at higher rates than international students are
Asian American students, whose six-year completion rates are 73.0 percent for those that first
enrolled in 2009 (IPEDS, 2016).
Students that attend private non-profit institutions have the highest six-year completion
rates for all institutional types. International students that attend private non-profit institutions of
higher education have six-year completion rates of 74.8 percent, while the same statistic for
international students at public institutions is 64.9 percent (IPEDS, 2016). International students
that enroll in for-profit institutions have six-year completion rates of 42.2 percent (IPEDS, 2016).
Overall undergraduate completion rates are 65.6 percent 58.6 percent, and 22.7 percent for
private non-profit, public, and for-profit institutions (IPEDS, 2016). These statistics are for the
2009 cohort.

3
These numbers include international students receiving OPT (Optional Practical Training). OPT is a 12-
month employment authorization program for eligible students on an F-1 visa.
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When disaggregated by gender, there is a sizable gap between female and male
completion rates. Female international student completion rates are ten percentage points higher
than their male counterparts. The six-year completion rate for female international
undergraduates is 74.1 percent, while the six-year completion rate for males is 64.2 percent for
all institutions (IPEDS, 2016). The gender gap for overall student completion rates is only six
percentage points: 62.1 percent for females versus 56.2 percent for males (IPEDS, 2016).
Although international students complete at higher rates than the total population, there is
still ample room to improve persistence for international students that enroll in American
colleges and universities. There is also a need to explore the gender gap in completion rates
between female and male students. Additionally, IPEDS data does not disaggregate completion
rates for international students by country of origin. There may be valuable insights to be gained
from such information.
Awareness and Use of Student Services
Heng (2017) finds that international students desire more, and improved, student services.
Yi, Lin, and Kishimoto (2003) find that a lack of English language proficiency could be
contributing to the social and personal, as well as academic, problems of international students.
These researchers also find that undergraduate international students need more English
language training than graduate international students (Yi, Lin, & Kishimoto, 2003). Service
enhancements should include better trained staff in writing centers, comprehensive orientations,
and acculturation workshops (Heng, 2017). Additionally, institutions need to better inform
students about administrative requirements, and educate them on existing services. Institutions
should monitor international students’ awareness and use of student services, as well as their
access to them (Roberts & Dunworth, 2012). Institutions must also understand that student
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28
needs shift over time. In their first year of study, students need help adjusting to campus culture;
in later years, students desire more career counseling (Heng, 2017). Heng (2017) further
suggests that institutions should listen to international students and include them in the decision-
making process.
Health issues and service utilization. Hyun et al. (2007) find that international students
have an unmet mental health need. International students face many difficulties in their
transition to American universities. These students tend to rely on peer internationals for
support, instead of seeking out professional help from campus resources (Hyun, Quinn, Madon,
& Lustig, 2007). Advisors are well-positioned to observe when international students are in a
crisis situation and refer them to other campus resources for help. However, advisors often miss
the subtle cues indicative of minor and underlying needs that also need treatment (Hyun, Quinn,
Madon, & Lustig, 2007). Research suggests that lack of awareness may be a major reason why
international students use counseling services less than domestic students. In particular, students
from Asian countries are far less likely to use counseling services (Hyun, Quinn, Madon, &
Lustig, 2007). International students will seek help for symptoms arising from emotional and
mental stress, such as fatigue and insomnia; but they often ignore mental conditions like
loneliness and depression (Hyun, Quinn, Madon, & Lustig, 2007).
Hyun et al. (2007) find that international students do not report a higher need for
counseling services, but they do report less awareness and use of such services. Similarly,
Nilsson et al. (2004) find that international students use counseling services at far lower rates
than domestic students. Conversely, Nilsson et al. (2004) find that domestic minority students
utilize counseling services at levels proportional to, or in excess of their total student body
compositional percentage.
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For international students who do utilize counseling services, their top six presenting
concerns are 1) depressions, 2) lack of assertiveness, 3) indecision about selecting a major, 4)
anxiety, 5) inability to socialize, and 6) lack of self-esteem (Nilsson, Berkel, Flores, & Lucas,
2004). Nilsson et al. (2004) also find that international students who are assigned counseling
after their intake session fail to return for their next session at higher rates than domestic
students. Other studies demonstrate that international students who fail to show for assigned
counseling sessions may hold cultural views of counseling as an ineffectual means of solving
personal problems (Dadfar & Friedlander, 1982; Mori, 2000; Yi, Lin, & Kishimoto, 2003).
Zhang and Dixon (2001) take a more pessimistic stance on why international students fail to
return for counseling sessions. The researchers speculate that the counselors lack of cultural
understanding and sensitivity can deter international students from seeking further help.
Career services. International students tend to rely more on advisors and departmental
resources for career assistance, rather than university-wide career service centers (Hyun, Quinn,
Madon, & Lustig, 2007). Yi, Lin, and Kishimoto (2003) find that international students who use
career counseling services skew younger and female, when compared to the overall international
student population. By contrast, students who sought help for personal problems tended to be
older, male, and graduate students. The researchers did not find a significant difference in the
country of origin of students, and their reasons for seeking counseling. Yi, Lin, and Kishimoto
(2003) also point out that career counselors need to understand that many international students
may be seeking to treat their anxiety and depression by addressing career concerns. That said,
international students place a very high value on achieving strong academic success and attaining
esteemed careers (Yi, Lin, & Kishimoto, 2003).
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Yang, Wong, Hwang, and Heppner (2002) find that country of origin should be
considered when designing career services, as students from different countries have different
career counseling needs. The researchers find that students from Asian countries value
collectivism and filial piety above individual concerns. This often leads students from Asian
countries to make career decisions based on what they think their families want, not what they
themselves want (Yang, Wong, Hwang, & Heppner, 2002). Other research shows that Asian
students’ career choices do not necessarily reflect their personal interests (Tang, Fouad, & Smith,
1999). Once international student career services are in place, they should be continuously
evaluated and revised, as to best serve the needs of the students (Yang, Wong, Hwang, &
Heppner, 2002).
Universities have a responsibility to acknowledge the underutilization of services by
international students. Institutions collectively, and counselors individually, need to be proactive
about reaching out to international students and educating them on the services available.
Furthermore, institutions, and counselors, need to increase their cultural sensitivity and
understanding when it comes to treating international students. Institutions can educate advisors
on the specific needs of international students and inform students of the services available to
them (Nilsson, Berkel, Flores, & Lucas, 2004; Dadfar & Friedlander, 1982; Mori, 2000).
Sense of Belonging
Studies on sense of belonging in college indicate that it is associated with persistence in
the first year of college (Hoffman et al., 2002), and is influenced by successful management of
the college transition as well as student perceptions of campus racial climate and peer
interactions (Hurtado & Carter, 1997; Locks et al., 2006).
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Sense of belonging in the context of higher education has been defined as a students’
“psychological sense of identification and affiliation with the campus community” (Hausmann,
Ye, Schofield, & Woods, 2009, p. 650). As a construct in education literature, sense of
belonging was established by Hurtado and Carter (1997) in their study on how Latino students’
experiences during their first two years of college impact their perceptions during their third
year. Hurtado and Carter grounded their definition of sense of belonging on Bollen and Hoyle’s
(1990) notion of perceived cohesion. The construct of cohesion was brought into the education
literature from sociology and social psychology. Prior to Bollen and Hoyle’s (1990) work,
education researchers were mostly content to measure behavior, without considering perceptions.
In defining perceived cohesion, Bollen and Hoyle refer to a person’s appraisal of their
connectedness or sense of belonging to a certain community or group. This appraisal is further
colored by the person’s feelings of morale in their association with that group. These two
concepts, sense of belonging and feelings of morale, are combined to create the Perceived
Cohesion Scale (Bollen & Hoyle, 1990). For their study, Hurtado and Carter (1997) disregard
the second dimension and focus on sense of belonging and how it may impact persistence.
Bollen and Hoyle (1990) discovered that a group member’s perception of their cohesion
to that group has a profound effect on the individual’s behavior. Sense of belonging breaks
down into both cognitive and affective elements. Cognitive elements include a group member’s
assessment of their interactions with other members. Affective elements are those in which a
group member evaluate their feelings concerning their interactions with the group. Bollen and
Hoyle (1990) find that most individual group members’ feelings of morale and sense of
belonging are positively related.
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Hurtado and Carter (1997) tested Tinto’s (1993) conceptual model of student departure,
including a variable for sense of belonging, on Latino students’ retention rates. Working off of
Newcomb’s (1962) theory of peer group formation, Hurtado and Carter (1997) posit that it is
possible for minority students to feel that they fit into the campus culture, without having to
assimilate to the dominant group’s values and beliefs. The researchers found that students who
engage in meaningful academic and social activities have a strong sense of belonging, while
students who perceive a hostile campus racial climate have a weaker sense of belonging
(Hurtado & Carter, 1997).
Berger and Milem (1999) find that student background characteristics correlate to
different levels of initial commitment to an institution. Black students have the highest initial
level of commitment, followed by White students, then females. However, being black
correlates to a lower sense of belonging, and ultimately, lower rates of persistence. Berger and
Milem (1999) find that being female has a positive impact on persistence, and especially
correlates positively to strong social integration. The most important predictor in the Berger and
Milem (1999) study is high school GPA, which strongly correlates to multiple positive
outcomes. Berger and Milem (1999), in accordance with other researchers (Tinto, 1993;
Andrade, 2006; Astin, 1977; Kuh, 2009; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005; Braxton, Sullivan, &
Johnson, 1997), conclude that interactions with peers and faculty positively affects student
outcomes.
O’Keeffe (2013) points out risk factors that have a detrimental effect on retention and
completion rates. These factors include ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and disability. O’Keeffe
(2013) finds that developing a sense of belonging is critical to student persistence. Fostering a
climate of acceptance, inclusivity, and support is critical to an institution’s creation of a sense of
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33
belonging. Institutions can achieve this by nurturing positive peer and faculty interactions,
facilitating student counseling services, and promoting diversity on campus (O'Keeffe, 2013).
Sense of Belonging among International Students
Advisor support. Despite facing additional challenges to degree completion, e.g.
acculturation and language skills, international students enjoy higher rates of persistence and
completion than domestic students (Curtin, Stewart, & Ostrove, 2013). Curtin et al. (2013) find
that international students place a higher value on academic activities than domestic students.
Paradoxically, international students also reported a higher sense of belonging than domestic
students (Curtin, Stewart, & Ostrove, 2013). The researchers also find that advisor support
increases sense of belonging. In accordance with these findings, a prior study (Heath, 2002)
shows that students who meet more frequently with their advisors complete their degrees more
quickly. Conversely, students who have poor relationships with their advisors, have higher rates
of attrition (Lovitts, 2001; Golde, 2005; Jacks, Chubin, Porter, & Connolly, 1983).
Studies have demonstrated that first-generation international students have lower rates of
overall satisfaction (Garrett, 2014; Zhou & Cole, 2016). To increase the level of satisfaction,
academic advisors should have an awareness of which instructors are supportive of international
students’ needs and should steer international students into these instructors’ courses (Glass,
Gesing, Hales, & Cong, 2017). Advisors should also form partnerships with the international
student services office with the goal of further identifying instructors who are known to be
helpful to international students in their first year of study (Glass, Gesing, Hales, & Cong, 2017).
Student-faculty interactions. Faculty can influence international students’ involvement
in campus academic and social activities (Glass, Gesing, Hales, & Cong, 2017; Zhou & Cole,
2016). Student-faculty interactions both in and outside of the classroom contribute to students’
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34
sense of belonging and community (Heng, 2017). However, not all student-faculty interactions
are equal. Glass et al. (2015) show that an international student’s background characteristics, i.e.
resources and preparedness, can lead to more positive, or more negative interactions. Positive
interactions are defined by inclusive speech and affective concern. Faculty members’ use of
language signals emotional clues of inclusion or exclusion to students (Fitzsimons & Shah, 2008;
Reis & Sprecher, 2009). Professors can serve as mentors, or even gatekeepers to academic and
social involvement (Glass, Kociolek, Wongtrirat, Lynch, & Cong, 2015). Positive interactions
with faculty correlates to a stronger sense of belonging, and higher rates of persistence (Glass,
Kociolek, Wongtrirat, Lynch, & Cong, 2015).
Glass et al.’s (2015) research suggests that international students would be more willing
and likely to adapt to campus culture if they are introduced to it by a professor. Faculty
members who are more culturally competent are more likely to socialize with international
students. Heng (2017) finds that international students want their professors to show an interest
in them and to remember information about their backgrounds. International students yearn for
mentorship and guidance from professors and would like to see an embrace of culturally relevant
pedagogy (Heng, 2017).
Peer interactions and social networks. Many international students come to the U.S.
eager to make new friends and learn about a new culture (Heng, 2017). They yearn to form new
networks and join larger social and academic communities (Heng, 2017). However, when
international students first arrive on campus, they find that they are not met with equal curiosity
and friendliness from the host nationals (Klomegah, 2006). This can lead to feelings of
alienation and isolation (Klomegah, 2006).
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35
International students with strong social connections to their institutional peers have
higher rates of persistence and completion (Glass, Kociolek, Wongtrirat, Lynch, & Cong, 2015).
International students who have regular contact with other students, whether international or
domestic, experience less alienation, and feel a stronger sense of belonging (Klomegah, 2006).
Yao (2015) points out that international students from Asia come from a collectivist culture and
have an interdependent social mindset, whereas western students are taught to be more
independent. Institutions should be aware of east versus west differences and take efforts to be
more inclusive (Yao, 2015). Sato and Hodge (2013) argue that institutions should be more
proactive in connecting incoming international students with current students and alumni.
Additionally, colleges should sponsor international student organizations, and help organize
group activities and student events that expose the campus community to different cultural
activities and foods (Sato & Hodge, 2013; Klomegah, 2006; Heng, 2017).
Slaten et al. (2016) find that international students’ sense of belonging is strongly
connected to their academic performance. When seeking to connect with domestic and
international students alike, international students look for others who equally value academic
performance and success (Slaten, Elison, Lee, Yough, & Scalise, 2016). Furthermore,
international students seek to experience two types of social connections: those with their fellow
nationals, and those with domestic students. Both types are needed for students to feel a strong
sense of belonging (Slaten, Elison, Lee, Yough, & Scalise, 2016). In addition to social
connections, international students report that access to campus facilities and services increases
their sense of belonging. Additional research shows that international students who perceive that
campus resources are available to them have higher rates of retention (Nadelson, Semmelroth,
Martinez, Featherstone, & Sell, 2013).
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36
Overall Satisfaction with Institution
Tinto (1993) finds that students who are satisfied are at lower risk for institutional
departure. Satisfaction as a construct can be defined as the difference between a consumer’s
expectations and the services delivered (Oliver, 1981). In higher education, the consumers are
the students and the service providers are colleges and universities. Increasingly, education
researchers have recognized the need to assess student satisfaction with an institution to
effectively measure the performance of the institution (Wilkins & Stephens Balakrishnan, 2013).
Student Satisfaction and Retention
Students who are dissatisfied with their institution are at increased risk for attrition, while
students who report high levels of satisfaction also enjoy high rates of persistence (Schertzer &
Schertzer, 2004; Bryant J. L., 2006). One way to increase student satisfaction is to improve
student fit at a given college or university. Schertzer and Schertzer (2004) argue that improved
marketing by colleges would help ensure that the right students are applying to the right colleges.
Students who are clear about what to expect have higher levels of satisfaction and are therefore
less likely to drop out (Schertzer & Schertzer, 2004). Colleges whose students have higher
levels of satisfaction have higher completion rates (Miller, 2003; Schertzer & Schertzer, 2004).
Graduates of these colleges are more likely to donate money and are less likely to default on
student loans (Miller, 2003).
In a meta-study spanning 30 years of research, Santini et al. (2017) find a significant
positive relationship between resources provided to students and student satisfaction. The
researchers included fourteen constructs under resources provided including: assessment and
feedback, curriculum, library services, online learning materials, access to technology, and
professors (Santini, Ladeira, Sampaio, & da Silva Costa, 2017). In a 14-year longitudinal study,
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37
Billups (2008) finds that the major factors influencing satisfaction and persistence are 1) quality
of instruction, 2) academic rigor, 3) close relationships with faculty, 4) personal development
opportunities and social connections, 5) identity and integration with campus community, and 6)
institutional commitment. To improve satisfaction and retention, one recommendation Billups
(2008) makes is for colleges to invest more resources into programs and services that support the
holistic development of students.
Another study used the following constructs to study student satisfaction: academic
advising, business procedures, faculty and staff approachability, involvement and engagement,
social connectedness, and student support services (Roberts & Styron, 2010). The researchers
find that students who do not persist have low perceptions of faculty and staff approachability
and low perceptions of social connectedness. Students who reported higher usage of support
services had higher rates of persistence (Roberts & Styron, 2010).
Using the 116-item Noel-Levitz Student Satisfaction Inventory, Elliot and Healy (2001)
find that the strongest predictors of student satisfaction are 1) student centeredness, 2) campus
climate, and 3) instructional effectiveness. However, when students rate what is most important
to them, these three dimensions score in the bottom half of the 11 dimensions on the inventory.
The top dimensions that students value are academic advising, safety and security, and
registration effectiveness. The researchers conclude that colleges and universities may consider
emphasizing what is important to students when recruiting prospective students, and another set
that predicts retention when advising current students (Elliot & Healy, 2001).
Theoretical and Conceptual Models for Student Satisfaction
Measuring student satisfaction is an efficient means of assessing college and university
performance, while simultaneously gathering useful data that can guide resource allocation
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38
(Beltyukova & Fox, 2002). Furthermore, student satisfaction data can serve as a baseline for
analyzing student outcomes and institutional accountability (Upcraft & Schuh, 1996). It is
therefore in an institution’s best interest to collect and analyze student satisfaction data to better
serve students and improve outcomes.
Aitken (1982) developed and tested a theoretical model for student retention based on a
series of equations that include the following variables: academic performance, academic
satisfaction, living satisfaction, and retention. Though the model has limitations, the researcher
finds that student satisfaction with academic experience, study facilities, residential facilities, and
food service correlates positively with retention (Aitken, 1982).
Alves and Raposo (2006) set out to identify the factors that influence student satisfaction.
The researchers created and tested an explanatory model with several variables: image, customer
expectations, technical quality perceived, functional quality received, perceived value, student’s
global satisfaction in higher education, student loyalty, and word of mouth actions. Of the
variables tested, image was determined to have the largest impact on student satisfaction. Image
also holds a significant influence in shaping students’ expectations in higher education (Alves &
Raposo, 2006).
In a study aimed at reaching a universal metric for student satisfaction, Beltyukova and
Fox (2002) find that the services that students tend to be most satisfied with are courses offered
in major, quality of instruction, opportunity to talk to professors, and extracurricular activities.
The services that students are least satisfied with are job placement, career counseling, personal
counseling, and regulations of campus life (Beltyukova & Fox, 2002). The researchers argue
that their satisfaction scale could be co-calibrated with other instruments to create a universal
assessment for student satisfaction.
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Scherzer and Scherzer (2004) argue that colleges and universities should take a cue from
the business world and adopt a relationship marketing mindset. The researchers developed a
conceptual retention model centered on academic fit. The model presupposes that academic fit
predicts student satisfaction, which itself is positively related to institutional commitment,
aligned student-institution values, aligned student-faculty values, and student retention
(Schertzer & Schertzer, 2004). Colleges can use student satisfaction data to determine the
academic fit of applicants. In turn, retention and completion rates will increase as will alumni
satisfaction. Satisfied alumni are often the best marketers for an institution, as word-of-mouth
advertising is free and highly effective (Schertzer & Schertzer, 2004).
Satisfaction of International Students
Not only do international students face the same challenges as domestic students in
persistence and degree completion, they face additional challenges that fall into three categories:
personal, academic, and social (Yan & Berliner, 2011). More specifically, international students
confront acculturation stress, language barriers, social alienation, and difficulty with securing
housing and navigating public transportation (Perrucci & Hu, 1995; Yan & Berliner, 2011).
Furthermore, international student expectations are often misaligned to the actual experiences
and services provided by American colleges and universities (Perrucci & Hu, 1995).
International students tend to arrive in the U.S. with high expectations for the academic and
social experiences that await them; however, these expectations are rarely, if ever, met (Perrucci
& Hu, 1995). It is this misalignment between expectation and actuality that leads to low
satisfaction, which in turn can impact persistence.
Given the generally high expectations of international students, Arambewela and Hall
(2009) suggest that colleges and universities work to manage expectations before international
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40
students arrive on campus. While this may cause friction with the institution’s marketing
division, the institution would be better served by bringing expectations into alignment with the
actual student services provided (Arambewela & Hall, 2009).
In a study of international graduate students, Perrucci and Hu (1995) find that language
skill, contact with domestic students, and discrimination correlate most strongly with
satisfaction. The students that reported the highest levels of satisfaction felt that the host
community respected their home countries and did not discriminate against them. These students
also reported high levels of self-esteem, regular social contact with domestic students, and
admiration for their own accomplishments. Being married is another predictor of high
satisfaction, while gender is not (Perrucci & Hu, 1995). For institutions that wish to increase
international student satisfaction, Perrucci and Hu (1995) recommend increasing language
training for students with relatively low English proficiency. Additionally, institutions would do
well to create opportunities for international students to socialize with domestic students. Pairing
international students with domestic students in campus residential units has been demonstrated
to increase socializing opportunities and overall satisfaction for international students (Tolman,
2017).
Summary of Literature Review
International students on average have higher persistence rates than domestic students.
However, rates of persistence vary dramatically from institution to institution. Additionally,
there is a substantial completion gap between female and male international students. There may
also be differences in persistence based on country of origin; however, more data needs to be
collected to verify this. Overall, a better understanding of the factors that contribute and
correlate to international student persistence is needed. Studies that focus on persistence rates of
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41
domestic students emphasize sense of belonging as one major factor. Research shows that
students who get involved in the academic and social life of their institution have a stronger
sense of belonging and higher rates of persistence. It is therefore prudent for new research to
measure sense of belonging among international students in accordance with persistence.
Satisfaction is a strong predictor of retention. Students that express high levels of
satisfaction enjoy high rates of persistence. While there have been few studies that examine the
link between satisfaction and international student persistence, the research that does exist shows
a strong relationship. Measuring satisfaction can help administrators determine where services
are lacking. This could lead to better resource allocation, which could lead to higher levels of
satisfaction, and ultimately higher levels of persistence.
Awareness and utilization of student services has been studied far less than sense of
belonging, and there are virtually no studies that analyze the relationship between the two.
However, several studies demonstrate the importance of student services in helping students
adapt to college life. There is also a lack of research on why international students underutilize
student services when compared to their domestic counterparts. It may be that they feel these
services are not meant for them or that they are offer no real value. It also may be that
international students are not aware of the full range of services available to them. This study
could help shed light on these questions.
Purpose, Research Questions, and Hypotheses
The objective of this study is to explore the relationship between Awareness and Use of
Student Services, Sense of Belonging, Overall Satisfaction with Institution, and Intent to Persist
to Degree Completion among international students at institutions of higher education in the U.S.
The research questions that guide the design of this study are listed below.
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Research Question 1. Are there gender, class standing, and residency status group
differences in Awareness and Use of Student Services, Sense of Belonging, Overall Satisfaction,
and Intent to Persist?
Hypothesis 1.1. There will be group differences in Awareness and Use of Student
Services based on students’ gender, class standing, and residency status.
Hypothesis 1.2. There will be group differences in Sense of Belonging based on
students’ gender, class standing, and residency status.
Hypothesis 1.3. There will be group differences in Overall Satisfaction with Institution
based on students’ gender, class standing, and residency status.
Hypothesis 1.4. There will be group differences in Intent to Persist to Degree Completion
based on students’ gender, class standing, and residency status.
Research Question 2. Does Awareness and Use of Student Services predict Sense of
Belonging among international students?
Hypothesis 2. Awareness and Use of Student Services will predict of Sense of
Belonging.
Research Question 3. Do Awareness and Use of Student Services and Sense of
Belonging predict Overall Satisfaction with Institution among international students?
Hypothesis 3. Awareness and Use of Student Services and Sense of Belonging will
predict Overall Satisfaction with Institution.
Research Question 4. Do Awareness and Use of Student Services, Sense of Belonging,
and Overall Satisfaction with Institution predict Intent to Persist to Degree Completion among
international students?
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Hypothesis 4. Awareness and Use of Student Services, Sense of Belonging, and Overall
Satisfaction with Institution will predict Intent to Persist to Degree Completion.

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CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY
This study explores the relationship between Awareness and Use of Student Services,
Sense of Belonging, Overall Satisfaction with Institution, and Intent to Persist to Degree
Completion among international students at a large, private west coast university. This chapter
contains information on the study participants, instruments used, and procedures for data
collection and analysis.
Participants
Undergraduate and graduate international students at a large, private research university
on the west coast were recruited for participation in this study during a one-month period in the
fall semester of 2018. Participants came from a pool of 2,523 undergraduates, 7,929 graduate
students, and 528 visitors for a total of 10,980 international students
4
. International students
comprise 24 percent of the entire student population at this institution. The top five countries of
origin for this pool of students were: China (N = 5,101), India (N = 2,088), South Korea (N =
579), Taiwan (N = 424), Canada (N = 321). Table 1 shows a frequency count and percentages
for the top ten countries of origin for all international students at the study site.
Table 1. Frequency Distribution of Top Ten Countries of
Origin for International Student Population at Study Site
N Percentage
China 5,101 46.5
India 2,088 19.0
South Korea 579 5.2
Taiwan 424 3.9
Canada 321 2.9
Saudi Arabia 174 1.6
Iran 171 1.6
Indonesia 125 1.1
Hong Kong 104 0.9
Japan 100 0.9

4
Data come from the Student Affairs Office of the study site. Data are from Fall 2017, as data for 2018 were
not available at the time of writing. Students participating in OPT are not counted.
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International student participants in this study reported 40 different countries of origin.
The majority of international students (n = 82, 36.0%) reported China as their home country.
The next four most frequent countries of origin were India (n = 63, 27.6%), South Korea (n = 16,
7.0%), Japan (n = 6, 2.6%), and Taiwan (n = 5, 2.2%). The top five countries of origin make up
75.4 percent of all participants. Table 2 shows frequencies of country of origin for international
student participants.
Table 2. Frequency Distribution for Country of Origin of
International Student Participants
N Percentage
China 82 36.0
India 63 27.6
South Korea 16 7.0
Japan 6 2.6
Taiwan 5 2.2
Indonesia 4 1.8
Pakistan 4 1.8
United Kingdom 4 1.8
Others 44 19.2

International undergraduate students at this institution were weighted more toward
upperclassmen, than underclassmen. There were 1,070 Freshmen and Sophomores, compared to
1,453 Juniors and Seniors. There were 141 international undergraduate students designated as
“visitors” with no stated degree level. International graduate students were heavily weighted
toward masters’ students, as compared to doctoral and professional students. There were 6,124
Masters’ students and 1,805 Doctoral and Professional students. There were 387 graduate
students designated as “Graduate Visitor” with no stated degree level.
Table 3 shows the demographic breakdown of international student participants, where
130 were female, 96 were male, one was other, and one participant did not answer this question.
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The youngest participant was 18, the oldest 45. The mean age of participants was 25.0, while the
median was 24 with a standard deviation of 4.3.
Table 3. Demographic Frequencies of International
Student Participants
N Percentage
Gender
Female 130 57.3
Male 96 42.3
Other 1 0.4

Age
18 – 19 12 5.3
20 – 24 119 52.7
25 – 29 66 29.2
30 – 34 20 8.8
35 – 45 9 4.0

Class Standing
Freshman 12 5.3
Sophomore 3 1.3
Junior 10 4.4
Senior 6 2.6
Master’s 159 69.7
Doctoral/Professional 38 16.7

Undergraduate total 31 13.6
Graduate total 197 86.4

Attended High School in US
Yes 15 6.6
No 213 93.4

Years Living in US
Less than 1 year 115 50.4
1 year 38 16.7
2 years 16 7.0
3 years 18 7.9
4 years 11 4.8
5 years or more 30 13.2

Cumulative GPA
2.1 – 2.5 2 0.9
2.6 – 3.0 10 4.4
3.1 – 3.5 61 26.8
3.6 – 4.0 107 46.9
No response 48 21.1

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International undergraduates comprised 13.6 percent of participants, while 86.4 percent
were graduate students. A few participants (n = 15) attended high school in the U.S., while the
majority (n = 213) did not. Half of the participants, 50.4 percent, have lived in the U.S. for less
than one year. Of the 197 graduate-level international student participants in this study, 13.7
percent (n = 27) reported having attended college in the U.S. Of those who attended college in
the U.S., eight also attended high school in the U.S.
Of the international student participants, 48 did not respond to the question, “What is
your cumulative GPA?” Since many of the participants are in their first semester of study, it is
likely that they did not have an official GPA score at the time of the survey. The mean GPA was
3.607, while the median GPA was 3.700 with a standard deviation of 0.309. The minimum GPA
was 2.40, and the maximum was 4.00.
In addition to international students, a number of domestic students were recruited to
participate in the study to establish a baseline for evaluating international student survey
responses. A total of 324 students volunteered to participate in the survey; however, only 300
completed the survey. Of those, 228 participants were international students and 72 were
domestic. Thus, the total number of international student participants in this study is n = 228.
The total number of domestic student participants in this study is n = 72.
Of the domestic student participants, there were 47 females, 24 males, and one other.
The mean age for domestic participants was 23.0, while the median age was 21 with a standard
deviation of 4.5. The minimum age was 18 and the maximum was 36. Eighteen domestic
student participants were 18 to 19 years old; 29 were 20 to 24; 18 were 25 to 29; 6 were 30 to 34;
and one was 35 or older. Students were split fairly evenly regarding class standing with 39
undergraduate and 32 graduate participants. Nearly all, 95.8 percent, of the domestic students
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48
attended high school in the U.S. The mean GPA for domestic student participants was 3.66,
while the median GPA was 3.70 with a standard deviation of 0.28. The minimum GPA was 2.50
and the maximum was 4.00. Six, 8.3 percent, of domestic students did not provide their GPAs.
Table 4 shows the demographic breakdown of the 72 domestic student participants.
Table 4. Demographic Frequencies of Domestic
Student Participants
N Percentage
Gender
Female 47 65.3
Male 24 33.3
Other 1 1.4

Age
18 – 19 18 25.0
20 – 24 29 40.3
25 – 29 18 25.0
30 – 34 6 8.3
35 – 45 1 1.4

Class Standing
Freshman 11 15.5
Sophomore 11 15.5
Junior 9 12.7
Senior 8 11.3
Master’s 3 4.2
Doctoral/Professional 29 40.8

Undergraduate total 39 54.9
Graduate total 32 45.1

Attended High School in US
Yes 69 95.8
No 3 4.2

Cumulative GPA
2.1 – 2.5 1 1.4
2.6 – 3.0 2 2.8
3.1 – 3.5 17 23.6
3.6 – 4.0 46 63.9
No response 6 8.3

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Most of the domestic students (n = 62, 88.6%) reported their country of origin as the
United States. The remaining domestic students’ countries of origin were Ecuador, France,
Greece, Iran, Italy, South Korea, and Sri Lanka. Two domestic student participants did not
respond to the question.
Instruments
Prior to taking the survey, participants were provided with a consent form (Appendix A)
stating that all responses are confidential, and that participants may opt out of the study at any
time. The survey contains 54 items divided into five sections: 1) demographic information
(Appendix B), 2) awareness and use of student services (Appendix C), 3) sense of belonging
(Appendix D), overall satisfaction (Appendix E), and intent to persist (Appendix F). Details
about the instruments used appear in the following paragraphs.
Awareness and Use of Student Services
The Awareness and Use of Student Services Questionnaire (AUSSQ) (Appendix C) is a
32-item instrument created by the researcher specifically for this study. Since the number and
nature of services provided to students varies greatly from institution to institution, an ad hoc
instrument was needed for this study. The AUSSQ is uniquely tailored to the institution that the
participants of this study attend. Each item on the instrument is a service or resource offered to
students by the university. For each item, participants are instructed to select all that apply: (a) I
am aware of this service and (b) I have used or will use this service.
The services available to students are listed on the institution’s Student Affairs website.
The 32 student services are divided into nine categories by Student Affairs: 1) cultural
communities, 2) student activities, 3) student leadership, 4) campus venues, 5) student media, 6)
student health center, 7) safety, 8) student services, and 9) support and advocacy.
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Sense of Belonging
The sense of belonging variable was measured using the Perceived Cohesion Scale that
was developed by Bollen and Hoyle (1990) to measure an individual’s perception of group
cohesion. The instrument consists of two sub-scales: sense of belonging and feelings of morale.
The sense of belonging sub-scale was used in isolation for this study. There are three questions
in the sense of belonging subset: 1) “I see myself as part of the ______ community,” 2) “I feel
that I am a member of the ______ community,” and 3) “I feel a sense of belonging to the ______
community” (Bollen & Hoyle, 1990). Since this study took place on a university campus, the
word “campus” fills in the blank for each question. Responses to the questions are recorded on
an 11-point Likert-type scale ranging from zero to ten. A score of zero indicates that the
respondent strongly disagrees with the statement. A score of ten indicates that the respondent
strongly agrees with the statement. A score of five indicates that the respondent has neutral
feelings toward the statement.
The instrument has a high reliability rating with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of .898
(Johnson, et al., 2007). Bollen and Hoyle (1990) determined that the instrument has high
reliability and validity; their findings have been confirmed by further research (Hurtado &
Carter, 1997; Chin, Salisbury, Pearson, & Stollak, 1999). The sense of belonging subset
(Appendix D) was chosen for this study to measure international students’ perceptions of their
cohesion to the campus community. This specific instrument was chosen due to its validity and
reliability as a survey instrument, and also for its established track record in being able to assess
sense of belonging among a wide array of groups, especially racial and ethnic groups of students
in higher education (Salisbury, Carte, & Chidambaram, 2006; Johnson, et al., 2007; Bollen &
Hoyle, 1990).
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Overall Satisfaction with Institution
The overall satisfaction with institution variable was measured using the Overall
Satisfaction survey (Appendix E), which is a subset of items on Form B of the 84-item Student
Satisfaction Inventory (SSI) (Schreiner & Juillerat, 2006). The instrument was developed to
measure the satisfaction levels and priorities of students, and to help administrators determine
how best to allocate resources to improve the quality of learning and student life at institutions of
higher education. The instrument has been used by thousands of students from campuses across
the U.S. The Overall Satisfaction survey is a subscale of the SSI and consists of three items
designed to measure a student’s overall feelings of satisfaction toward their institution of higher
education. Responses to the questions are recorded on a seven-point Likert-type scale with a
neutral response at the midpoint of each scale.
The instrument reliability and validity are high (Juillerat, 1995). The Student Satisfaction
Inventory was chosen for this study due to its widespread use and demonstrated validity in
assessing overall satisfaction among students in all types of institutions of higher education
(Bryant J. L., 2006).
Intent to Persist to Degree Completion
The intent to persist variable was measured by a subset of the College Persistence
Questionnaire (Davidson, Beck, & Milligan, 2009). This 53-item instrument was developed to
predict student attrition. The instrument contains six subsets that each measure a factor of the
college persistence construct. The subsets are: 1) Academic Integration, 2) Social Integration, 3)
Supportive Services Satisfaction, 4) Degree Commitment, 5) Institutional Commitment, and 6)
Academic Conscientiousness. The Institutional Commitment subset (Appendix F) was found to
be a reliable, statistically significant predictor of retention (Davidson, Beck, & Milligan, 2009).
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The subset consists of four questions designed to measure the likelihood of a student completing
their degree at their current institution. Responses are measured on a five-point Likert-type scale
with a sixth response option of not applicable.
The reliability coefficient for the Institutional Commitment scale is .78, which is strong
(Davidson, Beck, & Milligan, 2009). The researchers also found the scale to have high validity.
The instrument was chosen for this study due to its low number of items (three) and strong
ability to accurately predict persistence among students in higher education.
Procedure
The researcher invited students to participate in the study by placing a notice in an
electronic newsletter that was sent to international students at the study site. The notice provided
students with a link to the online survey. The study site was selected due to its high number of
international students. Participants were provided with a brief description of the purpose of the
study, a notice of confidentiality, and a link to the online survey. The survey was created and
administered via the Qualtrics online platform. To ensure the confidentiality of the responses,
and to protect the identities of the respondents, only the researcher was granted access to the
data. At the end of the survey, participants were provided with an external link to an online
form, where they could enter their email address to enter the lottery drawing for one of five $50
Amazon gift cards. Most participants, n = 248, provided an email address in order to be eligible
for the gift card raffle. The contact information of the respondents was stored separately from
the responses to the survey items. Upon closing the survey, five students were selected at
random using a formula in Microsoft Excel. The gift cards were awarded via email, and the
names of the winners were never revealed to the researcher.

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CHAPTER IV: RESULTS
This chapter provides an overview of the study results beginning with a preliminary
analysis, followed by an analysis of research questions, and concludes with a post hoc analysis.
Prior to analysis, data were cleaned, coded, and examined to ensure accuracy and completeness.
Mean substitution was used to replace missing data on scored items that are part of a sub-scale.
The scored sub-scale items are: Sense of Belonging, Overall Satisfaction with Institution, and
Intent to Persist. Mean substitution was only used for cases that had one missing response. For
cases that had two or more missing responses, the case was excluded from the corresponding
sub-scale. For data analysis, intent to persist to degree completion was the main dependent
variable. Awareness and use of student services, sense of belonging, and overall satisfaction
with institution were both independent and dependent variables depending on the hypothesis
being tested. The SPSS software program was used for all data analyses.
Preliminary Analysis
Pearson product correlation analyses were used to explore the relationships between the
study variables, namely 1) Awareness and Use of Student Services, 2) Sense of Belonging, 3)
Involvement with Campus Community, 4) Interaction with Domestic Students, 5) Overall
Satisfaction with Institution, and 6) Intent to Persist to Degree Completion. Table 5 shows the
correlations along with the means and standard deviations for each study variable.
All variables had statistically significant relationships with all other variables in the study
the level of p < .01, with one exception. Awareness and Use of Student Services had a
statistically significant correlation to Intent to Persist to Degree Completion at the p < .05 level.
Sense of Belonging had a strong, positive relationship to Involvement with Campus Community
(r = .83, p < .01).
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54

Table 5. Means, Standard Deviations, and Pearson Product Correlations for Measured
Variables of International Student Participant Data
M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6
1. Aware/Use 21.74 12.06 1 .346
**
.396
**
.258
**
.266
**
.174
*

2. Belonging 6.24 2.38 1 .834
**
.356
**
.590
**
.409
**

3. Involvement 5.70 2.42 1 .407
**
.527
**
.297
**

4. Interaction 5.54 2.96 1 .360
**
.210
**

5. Satisfaction 4.87 1.22 1 .505
**

6. Persistence 4.39 0.69 1
*p<.05 **p<.01
Domestic student participants had similar mean scores on all study variables except one:
Interaction with Domestic Students (m = 5.54 for international, m = 8.40 for domestic). Table 6
shows the means, standard deviations, and correlations between variables for domestic student
participants.
Table 6. Means, Standard Deviations, and Pearson Product Correlations for Measured
Variables of Domestic Student Participant Data
M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6
1. Aware/Use 21.06 10.68 1 .277
*
.296
*
.172 .199 .045
2. Belonging 6.32 2.35 1 .730
**
.312
**
663
**
.419
**

3. Involvement 5.75 2.92 1 .479
**
.280
*
.176
4. Interaction 8.40 1.92 1 .140 -.012
5. Satisfaction 4.97 1.37 1 .512
**

6. Persistence 4.36 0.66 1
*p<.05 **p<.01
For Domestic Students, most study variables had statistically significant correlations with
most other study variables. Sense of Belonging was statistically significantly correlated with all
other study variables. As with international students, Sense of Belonging had a strong, positive
relationship with Involvement with Campus Community (r = .73, p < .01) among domestic
students. Sense of Belonging also had a strong, positive relationship with Overall Satisfaction
with Institution (r = .66, p < .01) among domestic students. It is likely that the lower number of
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55
domestic student participants (n = 72) than international student participants (n = 228),
contributed to the finding of fewer statistically significant relationships between variables among
domestic students than for international students.
Analysis of Research Questions
Research Question 1. Are there gender, class standing, and residency status group
differences in Awareness and Use of Student Services, Sense of Belonging, Overall Satisfaction,
and Intent to Persist?
Hypothesis 1.1. There will be group differences in the levels of Awareness and Use of
Student Services based on students’ gender, class standing, and residency status.
Hypothesis 1.2. There will be group differences in Sense of Belonging based on
students’ gender, class standing, and residency status.
Hypothesis 1.3. There will be group differences in Overall Satisfaction with Institution
based on students’ gender, class standing, and residency status.
Hypothesis 1.4. There will be group differences in Intent to Persist to Degree Completion
based on students’ gender, class standing, and residency status.
Four three-way between-subjects ANOVA tests were conducted; one test for each of the
four dependent variables: 1) Awareness and Use of Student Services, 2) Sense of Belonging, 3)
Overall Satisfaction with Institution, and 4) Intent to Persist to Degree Completion. Since there
was only one ‘other’ response for gender, this case was excluded from analysis for research
question number one.
Hypothesis 1.1 was not supported. There were no interactions or main effects for the
three group variables on the dependent variable of Awareness and Use of Student Services.
Hypothesis 1.2 was supported. There was a statistically significant three-way interaction
AWARENESS AND UTILIZATION OF STUDENT SERVICES

56
between gender, class standing, and residency status on Sense of Belonging [F(1, 269) = 3.92, p
= .049]. There was a statistically significant simple two-way interaction between class standing
and residency status for males [F(1, 269) = 7.755, p = .006], but not for females. There was a
statistically significant simple simple main effect of residency status for male undergraduate
students [F(1, 269) = 8.562, p = .004], but not for male graduate students. A simple simple
pairwise comparison was run for male undergraduates with a Bonferroni adjustment applied.
Mean Sense of Belonging in the domestic student group was 8.35 (SD = 1.59) and 5.42 (SD =
1.88) for international students with a statistically significant mean difference of 2.93, 95%
CI[0.958, 4.897], p = .004. Figure 2 shows a profile plot of the estimated marginal means of
Sense of Belonging for the independent variables.
Figure 2. Profile Plot of Estimated Marginal Means of Sense of Belonging for Students' Gender,
Class Standing, and Residency Status

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57
Hypothesis 1.3 was not supported. There were no interactions or main effects for the
three group variables on the dependent variable of Overall Satisfaction with Institution.
Hypothesis 1.4 was not supported. There were no interactions or main effects for the
three group variables on the dependent variable of Intent to Persist to Degree Completion.
The remaining research questions do not analyze between group differences and focus
exclusively on international students.
Research Question 2. Does Awareness and Use of Student Services predict Sense of
Belonging among international students?
Hypothesis 2. Awareness and Use of Student Services will predict of Sense of
Belonging.
To examine the research question, a simple linear regression was performed. The
hypothesis was supported. Awareness and Use of Student Services did predict Sense of
Belonging, [F(1, 212) = 28.82, p < .001, R
2
= .12] with 12.0 percent of the variability in Sense of
Belonging accounted for.
Research Question 3. Do Awareness and Use of Student Services and Sense of
Belonging predict Overall Satisfaction with Institution among international students?
Hypothesis 3. Awareness and Use of Student Services and Sense of Belonging will
predict Overall Satisfaction with Institution.
A multiple regression was run to predict Overall Satisfaction with Institution from
Awareness and Use of Student Services and Sense of Belonging. The hypothesis was supported.
The multiple regression model statistically significantly predicted Overall Satisfaction with
Institution, [F(2, 209) = 56.805, p < .001, R
2
= .35] with 35 percent of variability accounted for.
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58
However, the betas indicate that only Sense of Belonging was significant as a predictor (p <
.001). Table 7 shows the regression coefficients and standard errors.
Table 7. Summary of Linear Regression Statistics for Awareness and Use of Student Services and
Sense of Belonging as predictors of Overall Satisfaction
R
2
F B SE b p
Overall Satisfaction .352 56.805 <.001
Awareness/Use of Services .008 .006 .072 .228
Sense of Belonging .293 .031 .565 <.001

Research Question 4. Do Awareness and Use of Student Services, Sense of Belonging,
and Overall Satisfaction with Institution predict Intent to Persist to Degree Completion among
international students?
Hypothesis 4. Awareness and Use of Student Services, Sense of Belonging, and Overall
Satisfaction with Institution will predict Intent to Persist to Degree Completion.
A multiple regression was conducted to predict Intent to Persist to Degree Completion
from the independent variables. Table 8 shows the multiple regression summary of results.
Table 8. Summary of Linear Regression Statistics for Awareness and Use of Student Services,
Sense of Belonging, and Overall Satisfaction with Institution as predictors of Intent to Persist to
Degree Completion
R
2
F B SE b p
Intent to Persist .274 26.224 <.001
Aware/Use of Student Services .001 .004 .009 .881
Sense of Belonging .049 .022 .167 .027
Overall Satisfaction .226 .041 .404 <.001

The hypothesis was supported. The overall model was significant in predicting intent to
persist [F(3, 208) = 26.224, p < .001, R
2
= .27] with 27.4 percent of the variance in the dependent
variable being explained by the independent variables. However, the betas indicate that only
Sense of Belonging and Overall Satisfaction with Institution were significant as predictors (p =
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59
.027 and p < .001, respectively). Awareness and Use of Student Services did not add statistically
significantly to the model.
Post hoc Analysis
Since a substantial number of respondents were domestic students (n = 70), post hoc
analyses were conducted to compare domestic students with international students on key study
variables. The results of these analyses are provided below.
Post hoc Question 1. Are there group differences in levels of Interaction with Domestic
Students between international and domestic students?
A Mann-Whitney U test was conducted to determine if there were differences in
Interaction with Domestic Students scores between international and domestic students. A
Mann-Whitney U test was chosen over an independent-samples t-test because the dependent
variable is ordinal. Distributions of the Interaction with Domestic Students scores were similar
for international and domestic students, as assessed by visual inspection. Interaction with
Domestic Students scores were significantly higher for domestic students (Mdn = 9.0) than
international students (Mdn = 6.0), U = 3084, z = -6.97, p < .001. The results of the Mann-
Whitney U test support the alternative hypotheses, there are group differences in levels of
Interaction with Domestic Students between international and domestic students.
Post hoc Question 2. Are there group differences between international and domestic
students for Awareness of Student Services, Use of Student Services, Sense of Belonging,
Overall Satisfaction with Institution, and Intent to Persist to Degree Completion?
Independent-samples t-tests were performed for each of the dependent variables. Use of
Student Services for international students (M = 7.12, SD 5.66) was significantly higher than
domestic students (M = 4.89, SD 3.98). There were no statistically significant differences
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60
between international and domestic students for Awareness of Student Services, Sense of
Belonging, Overall Satisfaction with Institution, or Intent to Persist to Degree Completion.
Post hoc Question 3. Are there group differences in the types of services that students
are using?
Since a group difference was found for Use of Student Services between international
and domestic students, a frequency count was run to determine the top five services by use. The
top five services were 1) Fitness Centers and Pools, 2) Medical Services, 3) International
Services, 4) Campus Cruiser, and 5) Career Center. Table 9 shows the frequency count for the
top five services with proportional usage data for international and domestic students.
Table 9. Frequency Distribution of Top Five Student
Services by Use with Proportional Data for International
and Domestic Students
Service N IS DS
Fitness Center 136 .43 .53
Medical Services 134 .46 .41
International Services 121 .52
*
.03
*

Campus Cruiser 113 .40 .31
Career Center 106 .40
*
.20
*

*Statistically significant proportional differences at the
level of p < .01

A test of two proportions was run to determine if the proportional differences between
international students and domestic students were statistically significant. The test of two
proportions used was the chi-square test of homogeneity. For International Services, 121
international students (53%) used this service compared to two domestic students (3%), a
difference in proportions of .5, p < .001. For Career Center, 92 international students used this
service (40%) compared to 14 domestic students (20%), a difference in proportions of .2, p =
.002. There were no statistically significant differences in proportions for the remaining top
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61
three student services.
Since there were a sizable number of participants from China and India, it was
determined that there may be important group differences based on country of origin. Table 10
shows the frequency count for the top five services with proportional usage data for students
from China and India.
Table 10. Frequency Distribution of Top Five Student
Services by Use with Proportional Data for students from
China and India
Service N CHN IND
Fitness Center 65 .52
*
.35
*

Medical Services 63 .49 .37
International Services 75 .54 .49
Campus Cruiser 67 .39
*
.56
*

Career Center 70 .49 .48
*Statistically significant proportional differences at the
level of p < .05

A test of two proportions was run to determine if the proportional differences between
Chinese students and Indian students were statistically significant. The test of two proportions
used was the chi-square test of homogeneity. For Fitness Center, 43 Chinese students (52%)
used this service compared to 22 Indian students (35%), a difference in proportions of .17, p =
.036. For Campus Cruiser, 32 Chinese students used this service (39%) compared to 35 Indian
students (56%), a difference in proportions of .17, p = .048. There were no statistically
significant differences in proportions for the remaining top three student services.
Post hoc Question 4. Are there country of origin group differences in Sense of
Belonging and Interaction with Domestic Students among international students?
Since the study site has a large population of international students from China and India,
and much smaller populations from other countries, it was hypothesized that there may be group
AWARENESS AND UTILIZATION OF STUDENT SERVICES

62
differences in Sense of Belonging and Interaction with Domestic Students between these groups.
A one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted to determine the effect
of country of origin on Sense of Belonging and Interaction with Domestic Students.
International students were grouped into two categories: A) China and India, and B) all other
countries. Students from group A had higher levels of Sense of Belonging (M = 6.52; SD = 2.23)
than students from group B (M = 5.80; SD = 2.53). However, students from group A had lower
levels of Interaction with Domestic Students (M = 5.09; SD = 2.92) than students from group B
(M = 6.35; SD = 2.88). The differences between the groups on the combined dependent
variables was statistically significant, [F(2, 211) = 11.385, p < .0005; Wilks’ Λ = .903; partial η
2

= .097].

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63
CHAPTER V: DISCUSSION
The goal of this study was to explore institutional factors and behavioral perceptions that
may predict international student persistence at colleges and universities in the United States.
More specifically, this study sought to empirically examine the relationships between awareness
and use of student services, sense of belonging, overall satisfaction with institution, and intent to
persist to degree completion among international students at a large research university on the
west coast. The results showed that the factors identified in this study can predict intent to
persist to degree completion for international students. Furthermore, results showed that
international male undergraduates had a much lower sense of belonging than their domestic
counterparts. And surprisingly, international students enjoyed a higher usage of student services
than domestic students. This chapter contains a discussion of the main findings, implications for
practice, study limitations, and suggestions for future research.
Summary and Discussion of Main Findings
The preliminary analysis of the results showed that there were significant correlations
between all of the study variables, i.e. all of the 15 correlations were statistically significant.
This was a good indication that the variables selected for the study were appropriate, and that the
hypotheses would likely be supported.
Group differences based on gender, class standing, and residency status. This study
hypothesized that there would be group differences across the study variables based on students’
gender, class standing, and residency status. However, support for this hypothesis was only
found for sense of belonging. The fact that there were no group differences for awareness and
use of student services, overall satisfaction with institution, and intent to persist to degree
completion is somewhat surprising; however, in another sense, these findings are encouraging
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64
because they indicate that in many ways, international students have similar motivations and
experiences as do their domestic counterparts. It may be that student affairs departments need
not make major adjustments to fully accommodate the international students at their institutions.
But this should not diminish the need for a full array of services to accommodate these students
on campus. Ryan (2004) and Webber and Ehrenberg (2010) found that increasing student
services resources at a given institution can improve persistence and degree completion rates.
Institutions should assess whether they provide the same level of support for international
students that they do for domestic students.
When examined in the aggregate, there was virtually no difference between international
and domestic students for sense of belonging. Both groups scored approximately 6.3 on an 11-
point scale, i.e. both groups expressed feeling a somewhat positive sense of belonging to their
campus community. However, when the demographic variables of gender, class standing, and
residency status were considered, an interaction effect was found. An analysis showed a sizable
gap between sense of belonging scores for international undergraduate males and domestic
undergraduate males. On average, international undergraduate males reported feeling a neutral
sense of belonging, meaning that they felt neither a positive nor a negative sense of belonging.
In contrast, domestic undergraduate males reported feeling a very strong sense of belonging.
The sense of belonging gap between these two groups is in line with gaps found by other
researchers between white and ethnic minority student groups (Hausmann, Schofield, & Woods,
2007; Hoffman, Richmond, Morrow, & Salomone, 2002). This is not to say that practitioners
should treat international undergraduate males as they do underrepresented racial and ethnic
minority groups. Rather, the point here is that administrators need to be aware of the gap and
take steps to mitigate it.
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65
Awareness and use of student services to predict sense of belonging. It was
hypothesized that awareness and use of student services would predict sense of belonging. This
hypothesis was supported by the analysis. Few studies analyze student services in relation to
sense of belonging. Though, there is some evidence that agrees with the findings of this study
and ties the two together (Ryan, 2004; Webber & Ehrenberg, 2010).
Tinto (1987) found that students who were better able to socially and academically
integrate with their campus community enjoyed higher rates of persistence. For Tinto, social and
academic integration includes participating in activities inside and outside of the classroom. One
of the important ways that students integrate is to participate in campus clubs and organizations.
These types of activities fall under the student affairs umbrella and are a part of the services
offered to students. Central to Tinto’s theory is the idea that integration increases sense of
belonging, and together, this improves persistence. Tinto’s model is supported by this study.
Students who have higher levels of awareness and use of student services have a higher sense of
belonging. In turn, this study found that sense of belonging is an important predictor of intent to
persist.
The transition to college is another major tenet of Tinto’s (1987) theory. Students who
are able to manage a smooth transition to their new environment by finding ways to fit in, are
much more likely to persist. Institutions can take an active role in helping students with their
transition. Hansson, Jones and Carpenter (1984) find that counselors and advisors can help
students establish social support networks using a four-step relational competence model to
prepare students to conceptualize their relationships, establish support networks, access their
networks, and maintain satisfying relationships. Practitioners should also strive to connect
international students to community groups and families in the local area who can function as
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66
mentors (Solberg, Choi, Ritsma, & Jolly, 1994). Solberg et al. (1994) found that students who
are less integrated with the campus community are more likely to seek counseling and
mentorship from local community groups. It may be that international students who have a low
sense of belonging could benefit from connections to outside groups. Academic advisors should
have an awareness of the unique needs of international students, and make good faith efforts to
address those needs.
Another finding of this study is that there was no statistically significant difference
between awareness and use of student services between international and domestic students. It is
quite possible that this finding is unique to the study site; however, it also may be that this
finding would hold up in a national study. But more research is needed to determine this. If the
finding holds true, this is another positive sign for administrators in student affairs. If
international students are being educated about the range of services available to them, and if
they are making use of those services, then institutions are possibly achieving equitable treatment
of international students. Though, it is important to point out that while institutions may be
providing the same level of health, safety, and social activity services to international students as
they do domestic, there is clear documentation of the shortcomings of institutions in meeting the
financial support needs of international students.
Additionally, as this study has found, there is a gap in sense of belonging between
international and domestic undergraduate males. Extra support services may be needed to
address this gap. There are many forms that this extra support could manifest; one possibility is
to establish a culture center to give these students a physical place on campus where they can
openly interact in a safe space free from the perceived campus racial climate.
AWARENESS AND UTILIZATION OF STUDENT SERVICES

67
Overall satisfaction as predicted by awareness and use of student services and sense
of belonging. This study hypothesized that awareness and use of student services and sense of
belonging would predict overall satisfaction with institution. The result found support for this
hypothesis. It may stand to reason that students who have a strong sense of belonging would
also have higher degrees of satisfaction with their institutions, but there are few studies that
examine this link for international students. In a study that included overall satisfaction, Lee
(2010) found a link between sense of belonging and retention rates among international students.
However, the study did not link satisfaction to sense of belonging. Lee looked at how
international students’ levels of satisfaction led them to either recommend or not recommend
their host institution to family and friends back home, and found a strong correlation between the
two. Lee also found that international students perceived that they were treated less fairly and
equally than domestic students. Furthermore, Lee found that students from predominantly non-
white regions (especially east Asia) expressed significantly lower levels of satisfaction than their
international counterparts from predominantly white (especially European) countries. The
current study found no difference in the aggregate for levels of satisfaction between international
and domestic students. This contradicts other studies that did find lower rates of satisfaction for
international students (Garrett, 2014; Zhou & Cole, 2016). Further research is needed.
Predictors of intent to persist to degree completion. It was hypothesized that
awareness and use of student services, sense of belonging, and overall satisfaction with
institution would predict intent to persist to degree completion. This hypothesis was supported
by the results. These results are consistent with other studies (Andrade, 2006; Mamiseishvili,
2012). Andrade (2006) found that successful integration to campus culture leads to higher
persistence among international students. Andrade is careful to point out that although students
AWARENESS AND UTILIZATION OF STUDENT SERVICES

68
can successfully integrate to campus culture, this does not mean that they have abandoned their
home culture. To the contrary, students can participate and identify with their campus’s social
life, and not lose cultural fluency when participating the social life in their home country.
Andrade (2006) found that students were able to adjust to the cultural context of their given
circumstances. Furthermore, Andrade found that international students were more readily able to
adapt to campus culture than domestic minority students, likely because they have consciously
chosen to move to a new country and fully expect to be immersed in a new culture. This may
help explain why this study found virtually no difference in mean sense of belonging scores
between international and domestic students in the aggregate. This ability to adapt likely leads to
higher levels of sense of belonging, which this study found to predict intent to persist.
Mamiseishvili (2012) found a distinction between academic integration and social
integration. In the researcher’s study, academic integration had a positive impact on persistence,
while social integration had a negative impact. It should be noted that this finding is not
consistent with other studies, which have found that both academic and social integration are
important factors in persistence (Tinto, 1993; Hurtado & Carter, 1997). Mamiseishvili found
that international students devote more time and energy to academic integration than do domestic
students. This may indicate that international students come to American universities with a
strong intent to persist. Their experiences on campus, once they arrive, may affect their initial
degree of intent to persist. In a longitudinal study, Hausmann, Schofield and Woods (2007)
found that for domestic ethnic minority students, sense of belonging actually declines over time.
This may also hold true for international students, but future research is needed.
Interaction with domestic students. This study found that international students
interact with domestic students at levels significantly below those of their domestic counterparts.
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69
While this may seem logical on the one hand, on the other it is surprising. International students
are on campus, in residence halls, and in classrooms with domestic students on a daily basis. It
stands to reason that they should interact with domestic students regularly. However, this study
showed that this is not necessarily the case. These findings are consistent with other studies
(Tan, 1994; Chapdelaine & Alexitch, 2004; Kang, 1972; Hayes & Lin, 1994).
Tan (1994) found that international students perceive a second-class status for
themselves, as domestic students refuse to make them feel welcome. Chapdelaine and Alexitch
(2004) note that the isolation that international students feel is troubling since many of these
students elect to study abroad to form friendships and have experiences with people outside of
their home countries. To counteract their feelings of isolation, international students end up
forming social groups with peers from their home countries, essentially creating a bubble for
themselves that further isolates them from the host culture (Kang, 1972). This unfortunate social
stalemate between international and domestic students defeats the entire purpose of studying
abroad and undermines the rationale for its continuation.
Use of student services. Though this study found no difference between international
and domestic student awareness and use of student services, the post hoc analysis revealed a
statistically significant difference in use of student services between international and domestic
students. This is perhaps the most surprising finding of this study. To clarify the distinction,
awareness of student services measures a student’s knowledge of services available. This study
found no significant differences between groups for this variable. Use of student services
measures a student’s actual use of a service provided. For example, a student can be aware of
the fitness center, but that does not mean that the student has used the fitness center. This study
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70
found that international students have a higher use of student services than domestic students.
There are no other studies to support or repudiate this finding.
A further analysis found that international students use the career center significantly
more than domestic students. The literature review revealed that international students face
added expectations to perform well academically, complete their degrees on time, and secure a
good job (Yan & Berliner, 2011). However, at a highly selective institution such as the study
site, one might expect the domestic students to be equally career-minded. Additional research is
needed to discover why there is a large gap between international and domestic students in use of
career services.
An additional analysis that compared the two single largest groups of international
students at the study site, Chinese students and Indian students, and found that Chinese students
use the fitness centers and pools significantly more than the Indian students. Conversely, Indian
students used the Campus Cruiser (university-sponsored personal ride service) significantly more
than Chinese students. One can only speculate as to why these differences exist. Anecdotally,
the Chinese students are perceived on campus to have greater wealth than other groups of
international students. Chinese students may therefore have access to personal vehicles and need
not rely on the free ride service offered by the university. A follow-up study could use focus
groups and interviews to provide more insight into these group differences.
Sense of belonging and interaction with domestic students. An additional post hoc
analysis grouped Chinese and Indian students together to compare them to all other international
students. Since there are large populations of Chinese and Indian students, and much smaller
populations of all other international students, it was hypothesized that Chinese and Indian
students may form cliques with their fellow nationals. The analysis supported this idea. It was
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71
found that Chinese and Indian students have a significantly higher sense of belonging and a
significantly lower level of interaction with domestic students than all other international
students. This may be the case because Chinese and Indian students have many prospects for
making friends with their fellow countrymen, whereas students from other countries do not have
the same opportunity and may therefore rely more on domestic student interactions. More
research is needed.
Limitations
One major limitation of this study is its scale. The study was conducted at a single
university and included only a small fraction of the actual international student population. For
generalizable findings, a study should have a sizable sample of students from each major region
of the U.S. Additionally, in order to understand important differences between different
populations of international students, it would be useful to have a large enough sample size so
that data could be disaggregated by country of origin. Due to the relatively small sample size of
the current study, all international students were considered as one group. The study site is
another limitation. While the site has one of the largest populations of international students in
the U.S., the institution is highly selective. Students who gain admission are already highly
qualified and motivated to persist. Including additional study sites at less selective institutions
may lead to important findings about the overall population of international students in the U.S.
A limitation of the study design is that student services and resources can differ greatly
from institution to institution. A study that explores the relationship of awareness and use of
student services to international persistence across multiple study sites would need a systematic
method of classifying student services consistently from one institution to the next. It may be
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72
that student services and resources could be categorized more broadly, e.g. counseling services,
medical services, athletic facilities, language and writing centers.
Directions for Future Research
Undergraduate males’ sense of belonging. This study found a significant gap for sense
of belonging between international male undergraduates and domestic male undergraduates. To
confirm these findings, and to validate generalizability, additional studies are needed. A national
survey could be conducted to determine whether this gap is exclusive to the site of this study, or
if the gap exists at other institutions. Furthermore, the current study was unable to find
differences based on country of origin due to sample size. A future study could assess whether
the gap exists for all international undergraduate males, or if the gap is limited to students from
particular countries or regions. The vast majority of participants in this study were from Asia. It
may be that country of origin contributes to the gap.
Furthermore, as noted in Chapter Two of this study, there is a sizable gap in six-year
completion rates between international female students and international male students. The
relatively low sense of belonging scores that this study found for international undergraduate
males could potentially help explain this gap in completion rates. Future research could help
determine whether there is a relationship between these two statistics.
Interventions to increase interaction with domestic students. In accordance with
other studies, this study found that international students on average do not interact regularly
with domestic students. It would be beneficial to conduct research to determine cost-effective
interventions that may directly increase interaction between international and domestic students.
Researchers have found that international students desire increased interaction with domestic
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73
students. Evidence shows that this could also lead to a stronger sense of belonging and higher
persistence rates for international students.
Student services. This study found that international students have a higher use of
student services than domestic students. More research is needed to determine whether this is a
national occurrence. If the finding holds true nationally, an experimental study could help to
determine causation. Additionally, this study found that there are differences between
international and domestic students in the types of services that are used. Differences were also
found between Chinese and Indian students for types of services used. Additional research could
help determine which types of services international students benefit most from.
Implications for Practice
Sense of belonging for male undergraduates. This study found a gap in sense of
belonging between international undergraduate males and domestic undergraduate males. Since
there are no other studies that have examined this gap, future studies should be conducted, and
implications for practice must be gleaned from research that focuses on the gap between white
and underrepresented racial and ethnic minority students. The first implication for practice is
awareness. Student affairs professionals need to be made aware that this gap may exist on their
campus. The next step for practitioners is to measure the gap on their campus. If a gap exists,
practitioners should attempt interventions to close the gap.
Consistent with the current study, Hausmann, Schofield and Woods (2007) found that
sense of belonging predicts intent to persist. In the same study, the researchers incorporated a
longitudinal experimental design to test interventions to attempt to improve sense of belonging in
African American students. Participants were randomly assigned to either a control group or an
intervention group. Students in the intervention group were given small college-branded gifts
AWARENESS AND UTILIZATION OF STUDENT SERVICES

74
and received regular letters from senior administrators stating that the students were valued
members of the community. The researchers measured sense of belonging for participants
throughout an academic year and found that scores actually declined as the year went on, i.e.
participants experienced lower feelings of sense of belonging. However, students in the
intervention group experienced less of a decline than students in the control group.
Working off of Tinto’s (1993) student departure model, Hurtado and Carter (1997)
studied factors that may have an impact on Latino students’ sense of belonging. They measured
background characteristics and first-year college experiences among participants, then
determined which factors had affected sense of belonging in the students’ third years. The
researchers found that student interactions about course content with peers outside of class and
membership in social groups related to campus had a significant effect on sense of belonging.
Practitioners should consider the degree to which international undergraduate male students on
their campuses participate in these activities.
In a nation-wide study, Johnson et al. (2007), building on the work of Hurtado and Carter
(1997), found that African American, Asian American, and Latino students reported significantly
lower levels of sense of belonging than their white counterparts. The researchers found that the
perceived racial climates of the students’ residence dorms affected the students’ sense of
belonging; that is, a perceived hostile racial climate equated to a low sense of belonging for these
students. The researchers recommend that residence hall staff members should determine ways
to create a diverse and inclusive environment that promotes cultural tolerance and understanding
(Johnson, et al., 2007).
Overall satisfaction with institution. Astin (1977) found that the largest single factor
that influences students’ satisfaction with their institution is regular interaction with faculty.
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75
While the current study found no significant difference in levels of satisfaction between
international and domestic students, this does not mean that institutions should not work to
improve levels of satisfaction. Taking a cue from Astin’s research, institutions could work to
ensure that students have ample opportunities to engage with faculty both inside and outside of
the classroom. Establishing formal mentorships between students and faculty who have shared
research interests could translate to higher student satisfaction, and in turn, higher persistence.
Astin is careful to note that passive students are the ones who need the most help in establishing
interaction with professors. Astin states that student services personnel, and especially academic
advisors, are in a prime position to facilitate student–faculty relationships.
In accordance with Astin (1977), Glass et al. (2017) believe that academic advisors are
well-positioned to intervene with fledgling international students. The researchers argue that
advisors should be conscious of faculty who are known to have a sensitivity toward the needs of
international students. Advisors could also partner with the international services office on
campus to identify additional instructors. International students should be encouraged to take
courses from these instructors.
Interaction with domestic students. One of the major challenges host universities face
is facilitating interaction between international and domestic students. The current study, in
accordance with other studies (Hayes & Lin, 1994; Tan, 1994; Chapdelaine & Alexitch, 2004;
Kang, 1972), found that international students do not regularly interact with domestic students.
Glass et al. (2017) studied how international students’ engagement with instructors outside of
class and intercultural interactions in class can increase students’ sense of community. The
researchers recommend that practitioners create pre-departure orientation materials to begin
preparing students for campus life before they even leave home. This can help prepare students
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76
for the diversity and culture of their host campus. The researchers stress that faculty play a
critical role in encouraging co-curricular engagement to improve students’ sense of community.
Academic advisors should help steer international students to courses taught by instructors who
have are conscious of the special needs of this student population. Academic affairs offices can
also step up their efforts to better facilitate student needs.
Lacina (2002) found that institutions could to do a better job of facilitating international–
domestic student interaction. The researcher points out that international students experience
strong feelings of social isolation. International students often come to the U.S. to make friends
and have experiences outside of their home culture, but host students are reluctant to interact
with them. In addition to isolation, international students experience a loss of status as they
transition from their home countries to the U.S. The first step in addressing this situation, Lacina
argues, is for practitioners to gain an awareness of the extra challenges that international students
face at their institutions. After awareness, administrators need to design and implement
programs to encourage social interactions between international and domestic students.
Improving the social lives of international students could increase sense of belonging, overall
satisfaction, and persistence.
Intent to persist. This study found that all major study variables predicted intent to
persist to degree completion. Practitioners would do well to assess international students’
metrics for these variables, and to seek ways to improve these metrics for students at their
institution. This would likely lead to gains in retention, persistence, and degrees awarded. Other
studies have also found these variables to impact persistence (Andrade, 2006; Hurtado & Carter,
1997; Mamiseishvili, 2012; Tinto, 1993). Suggestions for interventions can be found under the
other sections in this chapter.
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In addition to the study variables, other researchers have stressed the importance of
English language skills in international student persistence. In separate studies, Andrade (2006)
and Stoynoff (1997) found that international students who lack full proficiency in English have
lower persistence rates. Furthermore, Stoynoff (1997), in accordance with others (Burgess &
Greis, 1984; Heil & Aleamoni, 1974), found that English proficiency scores correlated
significantly to GPA. International students who score in the lower range on English proficiency
exams may need additional language training in their first semester of study, or even prior to
their first semester, to better prepare them for academic success. Institutions would do well to
have an awareness of who these students are, and a systematic plan for providing additional
language instruction to empower these students to succeed. Mamiseishvili (2012) argues that
academic advisors, admissions staff, and English language instructors should collaborate to
ensure that the incoming international students in need of additional language instruction are
accommodated.
Conclusion
The goal of this study was to take variables that have been identified by researchers to
have a relationship to persistence, and to explore those variables in relation to international
students at a large, highly selective research university on the west coast. This study found that
awareness and use of student services, sense of belonging, and overall satisfaction with
institution predicted intent to persist. The study also found that international undergraduate
males had significantly lower rates of sense of belonging than domestic undergraduate males. It
was also found that relative to domestic students, international students had a higher use of
student services, but a lower rate of interaction with domestic students.
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78
International students have been choosing to study in the United States in greater and
greater numbers since the middle of the 20
th
Century. While the overall numbers have generally
gone up every year, the number of new enrollments of international students has actually been in
decline for a couple of years. Furthermore, the United States’ share of the global population of
international students continues to decline as it has for several years now. Pile onto this the
constantly changing winds of public policy toward immigrants, undocumented workers, and
other marginalized groups, and we can begin to see the likelihood of dramatic reductions in the
numbers of international students electing to study in the U.S. Though there is not much that
institutions of higher education can do to affect U.S. foreign policy, there is much that they can
do to improve the reputation of American colleges and universities as good hosts to international
students. If institutions fail to devote time and resources toward this end, they stand to lose out
on this vital populations’ future enrollment and contribution to the academic and social fabric of
their campuses.

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79
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Appendix A: Invitation to Participate in the Research Study

Welcome to the research study!

We are interested in exploring factors that may influence international student persistence. You
will be asked to respond to questions that shape your likelihood to continue your education and
complete your degree. Please be assured that your responses will be kept completely
confidential.

The survey should take around 5 minutes to complete, and you will have the option to enter a
lottery drawing to receive a $50 Amazon gift card (five cards available) for your participation.
To enter the lottery, follow the link at the end of this survey.

Your participation in this research study is voluntary. You have the right to withdraw at any
point during the study, for any reason, and without prejudice. If you have questions about the
study, please contact the Office for the Protection of Research Subjects at the University of
Southern California at regarding study UP-18-00613.

By clicking the button below, you acknowledge that your participation in the study is voluntary,
that you are at least 18 years of age, and that you are aware that you may choose to terminate
your participation in the study at any time and for any reason.

AWARENESS AND UTILIZATION OF STUDENT SERVICES

95
Appendix B: Demographic Questions

Q1. What is your gender?
____Female
____Male
____Other

Q2. What is your age?
____

Q3. What is your class standing?
____Freshman
____Sophomore
____Junior
____Senior
____Graduate Master’s Program
____Graduate Doctoral/Professional Program

Q5. Are you an international student?
____Yes
____No

Q5. What is your home country?
____________

Q6. Did you attend high school in the U.S.?
____Yes
____No

Q7. If you are a graduate student, did you attend college in the U.S.?
____Yes
____No
____Not applicable

Q8. How long have you lived in the U.S.?
____

Q9. What is your cumulative GPA at this institution?
____

AWARENESS AND UTILIZATION OF STUDENT SERVICES

96
Appendix C: Awareness and Use of Student Services Questionnaire

For each service, select all that apply: (A) I am aware of this service, (B) I have used or will use
this service.

Cultural Communities
1. A__B__: Asian Pacific American Student Services
2. A__B__: Center for Black Cultural and Student Affairs
3. A__B__: El Centro Chicano
4. A__B__: LGBT Resource Center
Student Activities
5. A__B__: Office of Campus Activities
6. A__B__: Fraternities and Sororities
7. A__B__: Student Organizations
8. A__B__: Volunteer Center
9. A__B__: Recreational Sports
10. A__B__: Late Night Events
Student Leadership
11. A__B__: Student Government
Campus Venues
12. A__B__: Event Services
Student Media
13. A__B__: Student Newspaper
Student Health Center
14. A__B__: Medical Services
15. A__B__: Student Counseling Services
16. A__B__: Office for Wellness and Health Promotion
17. A__B__: Relationship and Sexual Violence Prevention Services
Safety
18. A__B__: Mobile Safety App
19. A__B__: Campus Cruiser
20. A__B__: Emergency Blue Light Phones
21. A__B__: Self Defense Training
22. A__B__: Sexual Assault Resource Center
Student Services
23. A__B__: Career Center
24. A__B__: Veterans Resource Center
25. A__B__: Disability Services and Programs
26. A__B__: Office of International Services
27. A__B__: Free legal Advice for Immigrants
28. A__B__: Center for Learning and Creativity
29. A__B__: Residential Education
30. A__B__: Student Judicial Affairs and Community Standards
31. A__B__: Fitness Centers and Swimming Pools
Support and Advocacy
32. A__B__: Student Support and Advocacy
AWARENESS AND UTILIZATION OF STUDENT SERVICES

97
Appendix D: Sense of Belonging Sub-Scale of The Perceived Cohesion Scale

Bollen & Hoyle (1990)

What best describes your response to the following statements?
SD N SA
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Q1. I see myself as part of the campus
community

Q2. I feel that I am a member of the
campus community

Q3. I feel a sense of belonging to the
campus community

Note. SD = Strongly Disagree; N = Neutral; SA = Strongly Agree

Supplemental Questions to Further Assess Campus Belonging

What best describes your response to the following statements?
SD N SA
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Q4. I am involved with the campus
community

Q5. I interact regularly with domestic
students

Note. SD = Strongly Disagree; N = Neutral; SA = Strongly Agree

AWARENESS AND UTILIZATION OF STUDENT SERVICES

98
Appendix E: Student Satisfaction Inventory (SSI) Sub-scale

Q1. So far, how has your university experience met your expectations?
____ Much worse than I expected
____ Quite a bit worse than I expected
____ Worse than I expected
____ About what I expected
____ Better than I expected
____ Quite a bit better than I expected
____ Much better than I expected

Q2. Rate your overall satisfaction with your experience here thus far.
____ Not satisfied at all
____ Not very satisfied
____ Somewhat satisfied
____ Neutral
____ Somewhat satisfied
____ Satisfied
____ Very satisfied

Q3. All in all, if you had to do it over again, would you enroll here?
____ Definitely not
____ Probably not
____ Maybe not
____ I don’t know
____ Maybe yes
____ Probably yes
____ Definitely yes

AWARENESS AND UTILIZATION OF STUDENT SERVICES

99
Appendix F: College Persistence Questionnaire – Institutional Commitment Subset

Davidson, Beck and Milligan (2009)

Q1. How likely is it that you will earn a degree from here?
____ Very likely
____ Somewhat likely
____ Neutral
____ Somewhat unlikely
____ Very unlikely
____ Not applicable

Q2. How confident are you that this is the right university for you?
____ Very confident
____ Somewhat confident
____ Neutral
____ Somewhat unconfident
____ Very unconfident
____ Not applicable

Q3. How likely is it that you will reenroll here next semester?
____ Very likely
____ Somewhat likely
____ Neutral
____ Somewhat unlikely
____ Very unlikely
____ Not applicable

Q4. How much thought have you given to stopping your education here perhaps transferring to
another university, going to work, or leaving for other reasons?
____ A lot of thought
____ Some thought
____ Neutral
____ Not much thought
____ Very little thought
____ Not applicable

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Asset Metadata

Creator Brinkerhoff, Morris Cort (author)

Core Title An exploration of the relationship of awareness and use of student services to sense of belonging, overall satisfaction with institution, and intent to persist to degree completion among internat...

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 06/18/2019

Defense Date 03/05/2019

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag international students,OAI-PMH Harvest,persistence,sense of belonging,student services

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Chung, Ruth (committee chair), Hinga, Briana (committee member), Tambascia, Tony (committee member)

Creator Email brinkerhoff@me.com,mcbrinke@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-176045

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Legacy Identifier etd-Brinkerhof-7499.pdf

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Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Brinkerhoff, Morris Cort

Type texts

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