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Women and leadership: the impact of collegiate athletics on leader identity development and attainment of leadership positions

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Women and leadership: the impact of collegiate athletics on leader identity development and attainment of leadership positions

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Content Running head: WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP

WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP: THE IMPACT OF COLLEGIATE ATHLETICS ON LEADER
IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT AND ATTAINMENT OF LEADERSHIP POSITIONS

by
Stephanie Baugh

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

Spring 2019

Copyright 2019 Stephanie Baugh
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP ii

COMMITTEE MEMBERS

Committee Co-Chair: Angela Hasan, Ph.D.
Associate Professor Clinical Education
University of Southern California

Committee Co-Chair: Margo Pensavalle, Ed.D.
Professor of Clinical Education
University of Southern California

Committee Member: Charles Davis III, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor of Clinical Education
University of Southern California

WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am indebted to many for their contributions to the successful completion of this study.
I am grateful to have an amazing family who has always supported and believed in me.
To my mother Sharon and my brother Steven, there are no words that can express the depth of
my love for both of you.
To my amazing mentors, strong women who have been exemplary role models and
encouragers, between you all and my mother, it never occurred to me that I couldn’t be who I
wanted to be. To my coach for life, thank you for always having my back Pritch. And to those
in my chosen family in California and around the country, you inspire me daily.
To my chairs, Dr. Margo Pensavalle and Dr. Angela Hasan, thank you for your guidance
and support through this process. To Dr. Charles Davis, thank you for your wisdom and for
pushing me to be my best. We did it! To my, classmate, sounding board and fellow former
collegiate athlete, Carly Omizo, thank you. To my editor, Dr. Guadalupe Garcia Montano, thank
you for helping me polish and refine this work.
To the 10, the phenomenal leaders who participated in this study, thank you is not
enough. Your stories and insights are daily reminders to me to serve others and to learn from
every situation. It was an honor to give voice to your experiences and I hope you too can take
pride in this work.

WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ........................................................................................................................................... III
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................................................... VII
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................................................. VIII
ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................................................. 1
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY ............................................................................................................. 2
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ............................................................................................................................ 6
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY .................................................................................................................................... 7
RESEARCH QUESTIONS ...................................................................................................................................... 7
THEORETICAL APPROACH .................................................................................................................................. 7
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY .............................................................................................................................. 8
LIMITATIONS AND DELIMINTATIONS .................................................................................................................... 9
POSITIONALITY STATEMENT ............................................................................................................................... 9
KEY TERMS ................................................................................................................................................... 11
ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY ......................................................................................................................... 13
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW................................................................................................................... 15
GUIDING THEORIES ........................................................................................................................................ 15
Social Identity Approach ...................................................................................................................... 15
Social Learning Theory ......................................................................................................................... 17
LEADER IDENTITY AND DEVELOPMENT ............................................................................................................... 20
ON BECOMING A WOMAN LEADER ................................................................................................................... 23
Gendering Leadership .......................................................................................................................... 25
Traditional Barriers .............................................................................................................................. 26
Conceiving as Leader ........................................................................................................................... 28
Gender Stereotypes .............................................................................................................................. 28
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP v
Experiences of Women in Male-Dominated Industries ........................................................................ 30
Consequences of Gender Stereotypes .................................................................................................. 31
IMPACT OF COLLEGIATE ATHLETICS ................................................................................................................... 33
Positive Relationships .......................................................................................................................... 37
PERMISSION TO VIOLATE: SUBGROUPS AND COUNTER-STEREOTYPIC WOMEN ........................................................... 38
The Female Athlete .............................................................................................................................. 39
SUMMARY.................................................................................................................................................... 41
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................................... 44
SAMPLE AND POPULATION .............................................................................................................................. 45
Participants .......................................................................................................................................... 46
INSTRUMENTATION ........................................................................................................................................ 47
DATA COLLECTION ......................................................................................................................................... 47
Interviews ............................................................................................................................................. 48
DATA ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................................................. 50
Coding .................................................................................................................................................. 50
Validity ................................................................................................................................................. 51
LIMITATIONS AND DELIMITATIONS .................................................................................................................... 52
ROLE OF THE INVESTIGATOR ............................................................................................................................. 53
SUMMARY.................................................................................................................................................... 53
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS ................................................................................................................................... 54
INFLUENTIAL EXPERIENCES IN COLLEGIATE ATHLETICS ........................................................................................... 57
Impactful Experiences in Collegiate Athletics ...................................................................................... 58
Influence of Others ............................................................................................................................... 63
Coaches. .......................................................................................................................................................... 64
Teammates. ..................................................................................................................................................... 67
Summary .............................................................................................................................................. 69
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP vi
THE FORMATION OF NAVIGATION STRATEGIES: BARRIERS TO ATTAINING LEADER POSITIONS ....................................... 70
Empowering Experiences ..................................................................................................................... 74
How to Lead ......................................................................................................................................... 82
Summary .............................................................................................................................................. 86
THE LEADER IDENTITY PROCESS ........................................................................................................................ 87
DEVELOPING A LEADER IDENTITY OUTSIDE OF COLLEGIATE ATHLETICS ...................................................................... 89
Empowering Experiences ..................................................................................................................... 89
Summary of Findings ........................................................................................................................... 94
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................................................. 96
CONCURRENT STUDY RESEARCHER FINDINGS ...................................................................................................... 97
IMPLICATIONS OF FINDINGS: BECOMING A LEADER ............................................................................................... 98
A New Normal .................................................................................................................................... 102
RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................................................................... 104
FUTURE STUDIES ......................................................................................................................................... 106
REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................................................... 108
APPENDIX A: INTERVIEW PROTOCOL ................................................................................................................. 122
APPENDIX B: CONSENT FORM ........................................................................................................................... 127
APPENDIX C: DEMOGRAPHIC SURVEY ................................................................................................................ 133

WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP vii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Review of Articles ............................................................................................................41
Table 2 Methodology Overview ....................................................................................................45
Table 3 Summary of Themes .........................................................................................................56

WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP viii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Our Complete Leadership Development Model (Bennis & Thomas, 2002). .................21
Figure 2: Developing a Leadership Identity: Illustrating the Cycle (Komives et al., 2005)..........22
Figure 3. Influencers on Possible Self Conception (Baugh, 2019). ...............................................98
Figure 4. The Impact of Crucible Moments on Possible Self (Baugh, 2019). ...............................99
Figure 5. The Path to Obtaining Leadership Positions (Baugh, 2019). .......................................100
Figure 6. The Process of Becoming a Leader (Baugh, 2019). .....................................................102
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 1

ABSTRACT
Even as more women attain leadership positions, gender-based stereotypes and norms still
influence how they are perceived and even influences whether a woman can conceive of herself
as a leader. The social identity approach and social learning theory provided a theoretical base
that grounded the study with the understanding that society and group identity influences how we
conceive of ourselves as leaders and behaviors we feel are acceptable. Ten women who are
former collegiate student-athletes and now hold leadership positions participated in this
qualitative study. The first research question for this study examined if collegiate athletics
influenced the leader identity development of female former collegiate student-athletes. Results
indicate that leader identity was developed, at least in part, due to the collegiate athletic
experience. It is not the only way to develop a leader identity. The second research question
investigated experiences that may have empowered the participants to overcome gender-based
stereotypes and norms. Data indicated that the participants have felt like outsiders at some points
in their careers and have faced gender-based stereotypes. Yet, they were able to embrace that
outsider feeling and found a sense of freedom that allowed them to behave and lead in a manner
not bound by social norms. Implied from this study’s findings is that the collegiate athletic
experience and other meaningful experiences are opportunities for women to develop a leader
identity. That being said, women’s opportunities to lead and attain leadership positions are still
limited by societal and personal barriers.

WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 2

CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
In June 1972, Title IX was passed. The enabling clause reads, “No person in the United
States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or
be subjected to discrimination under any educational program or activity receiving Federal
financial assistance” (U.S. Department of Education, 2015). This bill was considered a historic
victory for women in education, and the impact on women in athletics was transformational.
The passage of Title IX was the start of a fundamental shift for women. Athletics has provided a
platform to continue to create new opportunities for women to fight for a more equitable society.
There have been countless stories from female former collegiate student-athletes about the
important role athletics played in their lives. Yet, there is a dearth of scholarly research to
determine the truth in those sentiments and to ascertain whether participation in sports actually
helps develop leaders. This study sought to uncover the link between sports and leadership and
the role the collegiate athletic experience plays in creating successful female leaders.
Early conceptions of leadership left out women, instead focusing on the traits of great
men (Northouse, 2016). Despite the fact that the definition is not in gender binary terms,
research finds that many leadership characteristics are still thought to be masculine traits
(Koenig, Eagly, Mitchell, & Ristikari, 2011; Rhode & Kellerman, 2007). The ascription of
masculinity to leadership creates a barrier for women who pursue leadership positions. Recent
scholarship has sought to be more inclusive, and the new conceptualization of leadership allows
more room for women.
Many reasons for women not attaining leadership positions, especially in male-
dominated industries, have been pursued and studied (Salas-Lopez, Deitrick, Mahady, Gertner,
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 3

& Sabino, 2011). One argument is that there are not enough qualified and interested women in
the pipeline to take on leadership positions. However, research has found many
counterarguments to that deficiency argument. In 1962, the percentage of women who attended
four or more years of college was 6.7% compared to the almost double percentage of men,
11.4% (Statista, 2018). Since then, that number has continued to rise for women; in 2016,
women enrolled in college at a rate of 71.9% compared to 67.4% for men (U.S. Bureau of Labor
Statistics, 2018). Currently, women outpace men in the attainment of bachelor’s, master’s, and
doctoral degrees (U.S. Department of Education, 2017). Professionally, according to the U.S.
Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics (2017), women comprised 51.5% of all workers
in high-paying management, professional and related occupations in 2015.
Despite holding key management roles, women across industries, from business to sports
to Congress, are severely underrepresented in upper level leadership positions (Burton &
Leberman, 2017; Lang, 2017; NCAA, 2017b; Seo, Huang, & Han, 2017; Center for American
Women and Politics, 2016). There are 24 women who serve as CEOs at S&P 500 companies,
which equates to 4.8% of positions (Catalyst, 2019). Even with the gains in the 2018 election,
there are only 25 women in the U.S. Senate and 102 women in the U.S. House of
Representatives, which equates to about 25% of the Senate and the House (DeSilver, 2018).
According to the recent 2018 Racial and Gender Report Card on collegiate athletics, only
40.1% of head coaches at the Division I level for women’s teams are women, and only 46.1 of
assistant coaches on women’s teams were women. Women comprised 10.5% of Division I
athletic directors, and there is only one woman serving as a conference commissioner at the FBS
level of collegiate athletics, which is considered the most powerful level. There are nine out of
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 4

30 commissioners at the Division I level, not including Historically Black Conferences
(Lapchick, 2019). These disparities show there are educated women and even women in the
leadership pipeline, yet they are still not obtaining top leadership positions.
Another common explanation for the underrepresentation of women in leadership
positions is women’s traditional responsibility as the familial caregiver. Past discussions have
centered on women’s decision to leave professional positions; however, these discussions often
overlook familial obligations and policies of employers that influence the decision (Rhode &
Kellerman, 2007). These career interruptions are not evidence of women’s desire to stay out of
the workforce. In a survey conducted by Hewlett (2007), 93% of the women who left the
workplace want to return, but only 74% are able to do so, and only 40% of the 74% are able to
return to mainstream, full-time employment (Hewlett, 2007). In their desire to simply reenter the
workforce, some women are forced to settle for jobs that they are overqualified to hold and lose
ambition to pursue leadership positions (Hewlett, 2007). They are further penalized in the form
of lost earning power. The loss of talented women due to society’s inability to re-incorporate
qualified women has implications for leadership.
Having women in leadership is more than a politically correct aspiration. Economically,
the lack of diversity in leadership positions excludes multiple viewpoints, innovations, and
experiences that enrich organizations. Studies show that having more women in top level
management has a positive impact on performance in Fortune 500 companies as well as initial
public offering firms (Welbourne, Cycyota, & Ferrante, 2007). Culturally, the absence creates a
void for young girls seeking role models and perpetuates stereotypical thinking among men and
women regarding gender norms. Having women in leadership positions also increases the
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 5

probability of reshaping societal ideas regarding gender roles and combating the hidden
discourse that reinforces the status quo (Ayman & Korabik, 2010; Grappendorf & Burton, 2017;
Kellerman, Rhode, & O’Connor, 2007; Seo et al., 2017; Walker, Schaeperkoetter, & Darvin,
2017). Proscriptive societal norms, the reaction of men and women to stereotype threat and the
resulting backlash due to the unconscious desire to maintain the status quo, create barriers that
women seeking leadership positions must overcome (Eagly & Karau, 2002; Rudman, Moss-
Racusin, Phelan, & Nauts, 2012; Ridgeway, 2001). As women continue to obtain advanced
degrees as well as secure valuable positions in the workplace, the leader identity development of
young women will be crucial to the continued ascension of women to leadership positions.
Over the past 5 years, there has been a growing awareness that women in leadership
positions, specifically the C-suite, are former athletes. A 2015 EY study found that 94% of
women in C-suite leadership positions played a sport, and 52% were former collegiate athletes.
As C-suite leaders, these women, due to their gender, are outliers and seemingly violated the
common image of the C-suite leader. Although there is heightened awareness of a possible
correlation, research on the impact of collegiate athletics on female former athletes and their
leadership development has been lacking. This study sought to understand the leader identity
development of female former collegiate athletes. Day (2000) distinguishes leadership
development from leader development. He states that leader development is focused on
individual skills, knowledge and abilities. Self-awareness, self-regulation and self-motivation
are competencies he ascribes to the leader development process. Leadership development is
defined as an “integration strategy” that helps people understand how they interact and relate to
others (Day, 2000). It is a skill that must be developed over time through experience (Mumford,
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 6

Zaccaro, Harding, Jacobs, & Fleishman, 2000). The collegiate athletic experience is an
opportunity for female athletes to develop leadership competencies by providing crucible
moments where they can learn and practice their leadership skills. The sum of the learnings that
the women experienced empowered them to overcome societal norms that may be barriers to
attaining leadership positions.

Statement of the Problem
Women are underrepresented in senior and executive leadership positions in male-
dominated industries such as the military, business, and sports. Men are most often equated to
leaders because most leader characteristics are considered masculine (Rhode & Kellerman,
2007). Yet, as Northouse (2016) says, “Women are no less effective at leadership, committed to
their work, or motivated to attain leadership roles than men” (p. 419). Barnett (2007) contends,
society continues to gender leadership due to a presumed “natural order in which males are
innately and uniquely endowed to take charge” (p.151). To become a leader, women must
conceive a future self that is a leader, an identity which is against the social norm. This study
assessed the process of becoming a leader through the lived experiences of female former
collegiate student-athletes.
Attaining a leadership position does not remove barriers to leading for women.
Prescriptive stereotypes and backlash against individuals who deviate from the norm are among
the less overt barriers that limit women. Even as leaders, women must still overcome stereotypes
and social norms that criticize their leadership and/or limit opportunities to lead. This study
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 7

sought to understand experiences that proved empowering for participants as they encountered
challenging situations.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to extend knowledge on leader identity development and
the attainment of leadership positions through the lens of the lived experiences of female former
collegiate student-athletes. The researcher investigated the role of the collegiate athletic
experience and its influence on the leader identity development of female former collegiate
student-athletes. In the quest to understand how female former student-athletes were successful
in obtaining leadership positions, the researcher examined experiences that may have
strengthened participants’ ability to overcome stereotypes and social norms of masculine
leadership.
Research Questions
This study was guided by the following research questions:
1. Was the collegiate athletic experience an influential factor in the development of a
leader identity in female former collegiate student-athletes?
2. What experiences empowered female former collegiate student-athletes to overcome
stereotypes and discrimination which could have been barriers to attaining leadership
positions?
Theoretical Approach
The theoretical framework for this study is based upon two concepts: the social identity
approach comprised of social identity theory and self-categorization theory and social learning
theory. The social identity approach refers to the overlapping theories of social identity theory
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 8

and self-categorization. Social identity theory, conceptualized by Tajfel (1974), contends that an
individual’s self-concept is influenced by their membership in a social group and the emotional
significance and salience of that group membership. Self-categorization theory shares many
commonalities with social identity theory. A key element of self-categorization theory is that the
definition of self will be created based on the level of comparison to others and one’s own self-
categorization (Turner, Oakes, Haslam, & McGarty, 1994). Prototypical members are seen as
the ideal or exemplars who are aspirational models for group members. Those who are a-typical
are subject to ostracization.
Social learning theory contends that learning is influenced by the following factors: direct
observation, the expected outcome due to prior experiences and reinforcement, self-regulation,
accomplishing and aspiring to greater levels of performance, and self-efficacy (Bandura, 1971,
1977). Models and self-efficacy are crucial components of social learning theory. Behaviors are
learned through the deliberate or inadvertent example of models, according to Bandura (1971).
Self-efficacy, an individual’s belief in their own ability to execute behaviors necessary to
successfully accomplish a task, influences behaviors, effort, and persistence (Bandura, 1977).
Both of these concepts work in tandem to explain why an individual may feel as if they can
become a leader and also the process whereby an individual can learn how to lead.
Significance of the Study
Previous explanations of barriers that women face in attaining leadership positions have
offered many deficit-based explanations. However, there appears to be a connection between the
collegiate athletic experience and women who have attained leadership positions. This research
sought to explore the experiences of those women. The study contributes to current literature
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 9

related to women and leadership and adds to the limited research regarding the relationship
between participation in collegiate athletics and female leaders. This study is also significant
given the conversation on the cost of collegiate athletics, its impact on the educational process of
student-athletes, and the reputational cost to universities. The goal is for this study to be used as
a tool for administrators, coaches, and athletes to expose the benefits of building healthy, strong,
confident, and powerful women.
Limitations and Delimintations
Validity is a common criticism of qualitative research. For one, the researcher is an
integral part of the study. The experiences, background and identities of the researcher cannot be
disentangled from the study (Maxwell, 2014). However, the elimination of these factors is not
necessary; an awareness and transparency of those innate biases is most important (Maxwell,
2014). The researcher is also cognizant that there are threats to validity due to the reliance on
self-reported data (Maxwell, 2014).
The study does not intend to generalize participants’ experiences on a mass scale. The
women selected for the study met certain criteria to ensure they fit the study’s objectives. In as
much as possible, the researcher sought a diversity of industries, previous experiences and other
unique qualities that make the group less homogeneous.
Positionality Statement
The researcher believes in the power of sport to produce positive social change. From
Wilma Rudolph to Julie Foudy to Serena Williams, to the 2018 gold medal winning U.S.
Women’s National Hockey Team, through sport, women have a platform to advocate for a more
equitable society and pursue previously unreachable leadership positions. As a former college
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 10

athlete and woman of color, the researcher strongly believes that participation in and
socialization through athletics uniquely shapes and prepares women for the challenges of
leadership.
Growing up playing sports, I aspired to be like the strong female athletes who were able
to conquer their fears, compete, sweat, scream and be their full selves on the court, fields, tracks,
and pools. As a young girl, I sat transfixed as the U.S. Women’s National teams converged in
Atlanta for the Summer Olympics in 1996. I was mesmerized by those Olympians and took pride
in being an athlete like them. I wanted to be Jackie Joyner-Kersey going over the hurdle with her
quad heavily bandaged in the rain, a look of determination cemented onto her face. I wanted to
be Kerri Strug when she stuck the landing on one foot. I wanted to be on a team like the women’s
soccer team, a team that inspired us and gave us the courage and conviction that, even as
women, we could boldly proclaim “anything you can do, I can do better!” We all wanted to be
like those women…invincible leaders.
On the soccer field, I was free to just play, to make mistakes, to get a little dirty,
to yell, to be me. I was evaluated based on my ability to help my team win the game. My
responsibility to my teammates and coaches was to give my best effort every time I hit the
field and to be ready to go, to the best of my ability, if they needed me. I didn’t have to
worry about whether I smiled enough or worry that I was too intimidating. If I wore
sweats to class or a suit (only on presentation days), my teammates were not going to
care. I was judged, good or bad, based upon how I treated my teammates and the
content of my character. I made mistakes and was imperfect, and I was free to be me.
I never started a game, barely played, yet I would not trade the experience
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 11

for anything. I worked hard. I matured. I also gained a role model who taught me what
it means to persevere. A former female athlete herself, she made me feel like I could keep
going under any circumstance. I never passed the two mile with my strength coach, but
as I was in my final sprint, the clock ticking 13:30, 13:31, 13:32 over five years later, I
could still hear her soft, gravelly, 2nd soprano voice, saying, “C’mon Steph”.
Collegiate athletics isn’t easy. You are challenged physically, emotionally
and mentally to be more, do more and to achieve. Yet, every time you finished the last
sprint before you collapsed and then you got up and did another, you got a little stronger,
a little more resilient. I take pride in being a former Division I athlete. I learned the grit
and boldness it takes to be a leader. I learned that I am capable even when I make
mistakes and that I don’t have to be defined by anyone else. I learned I can be tough,
strong, competitive and nurturing at the same time. As an athlete, I learned I can be me.

Key Terms
Adaptive capacity: A leadership competency in the Bennis and Thomas (2002) model. It
is the ability to find creative solutions for problems, to learn from situations and create meaning
that builds confidence and releases fear (Bennis & Thomas, 2002).
Crucible moment: A transformational experience that a leader uses to gain a new
understanding of who they are, who they can be, who they should be and how they relate to
others (Bennis & Thomas, 2002).
Descriptive stereotypes: Refer to differences between women and men.
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 12

Gender: Gender is defined as “attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that a given culture
associates with a person’s biological sex” (American Psychological Association, 2015, p. 20).
Leader development: Leader development focuses on intrapersonal factors such as self-
awareness, self-motivation and self-regulation (Day, 2000).
Leadership: “A process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to
achieve a common goal” (Northouse, 2016, p. 6). Leadership is a complex process with multiple
dimensions, many definitions, and has been socially engendered as masculine (Eagly & Karau,
2002).
NCAA: National Collegiate Athletic Association is an organization dedicated to the
management and success of college athletics.
Possible selves: A concept of a future self (Markus & Nurius, 1986).
Prescriptive stereotypes: Refer to how men and women should be and should not be.
Prototypical members: Members who conform to embody the best or most desirable
characteristics of the ingroup’s norms and do not deviate from the status quo.
Sex: Sex is a biological distinction most often defined by binary categories of male and
female; the American Psychological Association also includes intersex (American Psychological
Association, 2015).
Social identity approach: The social identity approach refers to the overlapping theories
of social identity theory and self-categorization. Social identity theory is grounded in the
understanding that group membership influences a person’s identity development (Tajfel, 1974).
Self-categorization theory posits that there is an equally valid personal (me) and social (us)
identity and an overarching human identity (Turner et al., 1994).
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 13

Social learning theory: This theory focuses on learning and behavior. Learning is
influenced by the following factors: direct observation, the expected outcome due to prior
experiences and reinforcement, self-regulation, accomplishing and aspiring to greater levels of
performance; and self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977).
Stereotypes: An oversimplification about traits or characteristics of a group; generally an
automatic response.
Stereotype threat: Occurs when an individual is in a situation where there is a possibility
of being judge or stereotyped while performing an activity in a certain domain.
Title IX: Bill passed in June 1972 that reads: “No person in the United States shall, on the
basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to
discrimination under any educational program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance”
(U.S. Department of Education, 2015). This bill was considered a historic victory for women in
education and was not originally considered to have an impact on sports. The benefits for sport
participation in high schools and colleges are undeniable, however unintended consequences of
the bill continue to be felt in collegiate sports administrative positions.
Organization of the Study
The first chapter of this study was co-authored by a second researcher, Carly Omizo. The
studies were independently written, yet complementary. An overarching research theme was
pursued by both researchers. Each researcher had their own research question for their
subsequent study.
Chapter Two provides research on the primary issues surrounding the overarching
research question and the researcher’s individual question. The chapter focuses on key literature
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 14

regarding the social identity approach and social learning theory, college athletics, leader identity
development, current societal norms, and finally the impact on women’s leadership attainment.
Chapter Three provides the methodology for this phenomenological study. Participants
were identified through a purposeful sample based upon specific criteria to ensure their fit with
the study objectives. The two researchers collaborated to interview four women simultaneously
so that the researchers could address the overarching theme regarding the collegiate athletic
experience and the research question relevant to their specific study. Six participants were
interviewed independently to allow each researcher the time to focus on their second research
question. In total, each researcher interviewed 10 female former athletes. After analyzing the
findings from the qualitative interviews, the researcher identified themes and trends (Creswell,
2014).
Chapter Four discusses the common themes and findings based upon the interviews and
linked back to the literature. All data analysis and reflections were conducted separately.
Chapter Five connects the findings with the literature, expounds upon any key
revelations and provide implications and recommendations. Data pertaining to the overarching
research theme from the complementary Omizo study and vice versa were shared to allow each
researcher an opportunity to look for commonalities and points of dissimilarities to create a
richer narrative and larger data set to explore the lived experiences of female former collegiate
athletes. The information presented is separate and distinct from the Omizo study.

WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 15

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Chapter Two is a comprehensive review of relevant research that informed the study.
The chapter is divided to reflect the major components that are crucial to understanding the
experiences of female former collegiate student-athletes and their leader identity development.
The guiding theories are presented first to ground the study and provide an understanding of the
social development process. Literature on the development of a leader identity, the challenges
women leaders face, the impact of collegiate athletes, and literature that suggests there may be
instances when defiance of social norms is acceptable comprise the remainder of the chapter.

Guiding Theories
The theoretical framework for this study is based upon two concepts. The social identity
approach, comprised of social identity theory and self-categorization theory, focuses on how
individuals see themselves and others as a group. The second concept is social learning theory,
which focuses on how an individual learns. The use of these two concepts reflects the idea that
leadership does not happen in a vacuum but is a reflection of who we are, who society thinks and
allows us to be and how we learn the behaviors necessary to lead. Both of these theories are
influenced by the interaction of individuals and those they interact with. Furthermore, both are
reliant upon an individual’s self-appraisal as the ultimate influencer on behavior and self-
concept.
Social Identity Approach
The social identity approach refers to the overlapping theories of social identity theory
and self-categorization. Social identity theory (Tajifel, 1974), states that an individual’s self-
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 16

concept is based upon their membership in a social group (social categorization) and the
emotional significance associated with membership in that group. Membership in a group
inherently creates an ingroup and outgroup that changes how we see ourselves and others
(Hornsey, 2008). Ultimately, due to an individual’s desire for a positive self-concept and the
hierarchical nature of groups due to status and power, members are motivated to act and behave
in a manner that makes their group appear to be the best group in comparison to other groups
(Hornsey, 2008; Stets & Burke, 2000). If a social identity is salient, an individual will act in a
manner that is favored by the group; when a personal identity is salient, that manner of being will
take precedence (Abrams & Hogg, 1990). An individual may choose to disassociate from a
group that is considered lower status to improve their own standing. Gender, a social
categorization that has a strong likelihood of salience on identity, can define an individual’s
place in society.
Self-categorization theory shares many similarities with social identity theory; the
primary differentiator is that self-categorization theory posits that there is an equally valid
personal (me) and social (us) identity and an overarching human identity (Hornsey, 2008; Turner
et al., 1994). In a specific moment or context, the definition of self will be created based on the
level of comparison to others and one’s own self-categorization (Turner et al., 1994).
Categorization is determined by fit and perceiver readiness or accessibility (Turner et al., 1994).
Fit has two aspects, comparative, when an individual believes a group of stimuli is more similar
than dissimilar, and normative, when the social behavior and group membership are congruent
with stereotypical expectations (Hornsey, 2008). A perceiver’s readiness, or willingness, to see a
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 17

category as relevant based on their current reality, is influenced by “a person’s past experience,
present expectations, current motives, values, goals and needs” (Turner et al., 1994, p. 455).
When a shared social identity is salient, the self becomes depersonalized and the
individual aspires to be a representative and interchangeable member of the group, also known as
a prototypical member (Turner et al., 1994). Prototypical members are influential exemplars in
salient groups (Hogg & Terry, 2000; Hornsey, 2008). A prototypical member is defined not only
by the ingroup but also how they compare to the outgroup. When an identity is uncomfortable in
a context, using various symbols such as behavior, speech or appearance, an individual will
attempt to change the context to create a more favorable context (Hogg & Terry, 2000).
Stereotypes and norms are resultant outcomes of group behavior (Hogg & Terry, 2000). Self-
definition should be thought of as “flexible, constructive processes of judgment and meaningful
inference in which varying self-categories are created to fit the perceiver’s relationship to social
reality” (Turner et. al, 1994, p. 458)
Social Learning Theory
This theory focuses on learning and behavior. Learning is influenced by the following
factors: direct observation, the expected outcome due to prior experiences and reinforcement,
self-regulation, accomplishing and aspiring to greater levels of performance, and self-efficacy
(Bandura, 1971; Bandura, 1977).
Models play an integral role in the learning process (Bandura, 1971). In fact, Bandura
argues that most behaviors are learned through the deliberate or inadvertent example of models.
In order for a person to learn by observation, an individual must be attentive to the model’s
behavior and retain the information (Bandura, 1971). Similarity between the model and the
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 18

individual impacts a model’s ability to influence an individual. When an individual understands
an appropriate response to a behavior and values the received responses, they will do it again.
The ability to understand a future result impacts current motivation (Bandura, 1971; Bandura,
1977).
Self-efficacy is an individual's belief in their own ability to execute behaviors necessary
to accomplish a task (Bandura, 1977). An individual’s self-efficacy not only influences choices,
behaviors and course of action, but also effort and persistence. An individual’s expectation of
mastery affects their willingness to try and to continue a pursuit (Bandura, 1977). Success
attributed to skill will have a greater impact on self-efficacy than success attributed to luck.
Furthermore, the difficulty of the task shows greater competence, further increasing self-efficacy
(Bandura, 1977). Likewise, an occasional failure that is later overcome can strengthen self-
efficacy; the number of failures and the timing of the occurrence will be most predictive of the
overall impact of efficacy (Bandura, 1977).
Performance accomplishment, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion and physiological
states are the four major sources of information on which expectation of personal efficacy are
based (Bandura, 1977). The cognitive process that analyzes these sources of information are
impacted by the social, situational, and temporal circumstances of the event (Bandura, 1977).
Performance accomplishments can be raised or lowered based on prior experiences; failures do
not always have a negative impact if they are later overcome (Bandura, 1977). Vicarious
experience from a model can be influential if an individual perceives that the activity that the
model participated in is something that they too could accomplish. Essentially, an individual
needs to be able to see the model as an attainable example and that mimicking their achievement
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 19

is possible (Bandura, 1977). However, this influence can be weak. Verbal persuasion is a weak
influencer when confronted with a less favorable reality. The model’s perceived credibility and
trustworthiness also influences the impact of verbal persuasion. An individual’s emotional state
has an impact on their self-efficacy. An emotionally aroused individual, such as one in a
negative or fearful state, can be influenced by the emotion and doubt their success (Bandura,
1977). Ultimately, the individual’s interpretation of the outcome and their ability to attain their
goal will have the most influence on their efficacy.
The concept of self-efficacy can be applied to leadership. Allio (2005) contends that
leadership can be learned. That being said, a key factor influencing an individual’s desire to
become a leader is their self- efficacy regarding being a leader (McCormick, 2001). Leaders
learn how to lead by practicing (Allio, 2005; Mumford et al., 2000). In McCormick’s (2001)
social cognitive model of leadership, the central mediating factor of good leadership is a
“person’s confidence in his or her ability to successfully lead a group” (p. 30). Mastering the
skills needed to lead a group through practice will increase self-efficacy. With success and
increased self-efficacy, an individual is more likely to persist in the endeavor and stay motivated
to grow as a leader. Allio states, “Leadership is dormant until possible leaders have the
opportunity to display their mettle in specific situations. Leadership competence develops when
an individual is forced to address the challenge of innovating, inspiring, and adapting” (p. 1074).
A leader’s level of efficacy towards leadership impacts their willingness to engage in leadership
behaviors and in turn impacts their leadership development.
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Leader Identity and Development
This study is focused on the development of leaders, not their style or the actions that
they take. The distinction can be seen in Day’s (2000) explanation of differences between
leadership and leader development. Leader development focuses on intrapersonal factors such as
self-awareness, self-motivation, and self-regulation. Leadership is a social process contingent
upon relationships between individuals and groups. Northouse (2016) defined leadership as “a
process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal” (p.
6).
Bennis and Thomas (2002) studied the leadership of leaders across generations. One
element that was common across the leaders that they interviewed was that they all had crucible
moments (Bennis & Thomas, 2002). A crucible moment is a transformational experience that a
leader uses to gain a new understanding of who they are, who they can be, who they should be
and how they relate to others (Bennis & Thomas, 2002). This crucible moment spurs a leader to
become a better version of themselves.
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 21

Figure 1. Our Complete Leadership Development Model (Bennis & Thomas, 2002).
Bennis and Thomas (2002) conceived of a development model (Figure 1) focused on the
individual’s leadership competencies and acknowledges that era and individual factors influence
the motivation and perhaps opportunities for an individual to lead. Four key competencies, or
essential skills, enable leaders to learn from challenges: adaptive capacity, the ability to create
shared meaning, the development of a unique voice, and integrity. Adaptive capacity is one of
the most important competencies; it is the ability to find creative solutions for problems, to learn
from situations and create meaning that builds confidence and releases fear. Even with all of
these factors, Bennis and Thomas (2002) concede that a leader must ultimately have the
opportunity to lead. It is important to note that Bennis and Thomas are not advocating a style of
leadership; instead they are pointing to a developmental process.
Komives, Owen, Longerbeam, Mainella, and Osteen (2005) conducted a study with 13
college students. Out of that study, they conceived a development model, the leadership identity
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 22

model (LID). Komives et al. (2005) found that leadership identity was developed in students
who went through different experiences and developed a new awareness of themselves (Figure
2).

Figure 2: Developing a Leadership Identity: Illustrating the Cycle (Komives et al., 2005).
Developmental influences reflect the environmental context within which the identity
develops; it includes adults, peers, involvement in meaningful experiences and reflective
learning (Komives et al., 2005). Adults recognize a students’ leadership potential, mentor and
help make meaning. Peers, such as teammates, can also serve as role models and sources of
support. Meaningful experiences, such as sports, help clarify personal values, learn about who
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 23

one is and develop skills while also gaining an appreciation for others. Reflective learning
centers around critical reflection and meaningful conversations that allowed students to truly
self-assess. There are six stages that take a student from awareness to integration/synthesis.
Within each stage are five categories that interact to form a leadership identity: developing self,
group influences, changing view of self with others, broadening views of leadership and
leadership identity (Komives et al., 2005). Before exiting a stage, there is a transition period
where the student is reflective and starts reconceiving who they are and what leadership means to
them.
Elements of the work of both Bennis and Thomas (2002) and Komives et al. (2005) have
been validated by other researchers. Research by DeRue and Wellman (2009) found that
developmentally challenging work experiences could help an individuals’ cognitive and strategic
leadership skills. However, they contend that there is a point of diminishing return if a person
becomes overwhelmed by the experience, resulting in cognitive overload where they focus on
performance failures and evaluation anxieties (DeRue & Wellman, 2009). These effects can be
mediated, however, by access to feedback that helps them become more self-aware and have a
greater understanding of their competence and performance (DeRue & Wellman, 2009).
Furthermore, a learning orientation may also reduce the effect of overly challenging work
experiences. These findings are consistent with the leader development models proposed by
Bennis and Thomas and Komives et al.
On Becoming a Woman Leader
Before discussing the experiences of women leaders, it is important to understand the
terminology and constructs that define gender. Gender is defined as “attitudes, feelings, and
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 24

behaviors that a given culture associates with a person’s biological sex” (American
Psychological Association, 2015, p. 20). It is influenced and enforced by society (Deutsch, 2007;
Martin, 2004; Risman, 2004). Gender is different from sex. Sex is a biological distinction most
often defined by binary categories of male and female; the American Psychological Association
also includes intersex (American Psychological Association, 2015). For the purpose of this
study, the terms female and woman are defined by traditional societal norms as an individual
who is born female or one whom society considers a woman.
There are multiple theories on how gender is developed and conceptualized. Within the
theories, researchers may argue that biological, psychological, or sociological factors are primary
influencers on development (Bussey & Bandura, 1999). Bussey and Bandura presented a gender
development theory based upon social cognitive theory. The social cognitive theory of gender
development created a framework based upon psychological and sociostructural determinants;
put simply, they contend family and society influence gender development (Bussey & Bandura,
1999). Furthermore, they assert that gender development does not end in childhood but is a
negotiation through the course of one’s life (Bussey & Bandura, 1999). The concept of gender
as a structure of society is influenced by time and context (Risman, 2004). The behaviors or
attitudes one has towards gender do not remain stagnant but are continually evolving. Gender
roles are the acceptable behaviors and attitudes based upon how society perceives an individual.
Acceptable behaviors in one society, may be completely unacceptable in a different culture.
Martin (2004), contends that gender is being defined by “active” human agents (p. 1262). Hence,
conceptions of gender is continually changing based upon whatever a specific society deems to
be acceptable.
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 25

Gendering Leadership
Early leadership scholars conceptualized definitions of leadership based on observing and
studying the traits of great men (Northouse, 2016). These conceptions of leadership left out
women while framing notable past female leaders as exceptions. Recent scholarship has sought
to be more inclusive, yet a troubling trend has emerged in the wake of women’s initial exclusion
from the leadership discussion—the great woman theory. The great woman theory relies on
positive stereotypes about women and attempts to position those stereotypes as ideal leader
characteristics (Pittinsky, Bacon, & Welle, 2007). Stereotyping of any type inherently leads to
exclusionary practices given the uniqueness of individuals. Barnett (2007) contends, society
continues to gender leadership due to a presumed “natural order in which males are innately and
uniquely endowed to take charge” (p. 151). The resultant consequence of that reinforcement is
the creation of prescriptive norms and backlash against women who violate that norm (Pittinsky
et al., 2007). Furthermore, by espousing the great woman theory, the notion that leadership is
gendered is reinforced.
As women move into more roles that have been traditionally been held by men, many
have wondered about their leadership style. Leadership styles refer to behavior patterns that
include directive and supportive behaviors which influence others (Northouse, 2016). Like men,
different women have and rely on different leadership styles and approaches given the context of
the situation (Keohane, 2007). In a review of literature on leadership styles, Eagly and
Johannesen-Schmidt (2001) offer that the behaviors of leaders, or their leadership styles, are
influenced by the organizational structure and gender. They contend that certain behaviors have
traits that are more traditionally associated with the behaviors of men, such as being task-
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 26

oriented, autocratic, and transactional. Women, on the other hand, are more congruent with
leadership behaviors associated with relational leadership styles such as democratic and
transformational leadership. Yet, Due Billing and Alvesson (2000) caution against the
celebration of feminine leadership. For one, notions of masculinity and femininity are fluid,
cultural constructs (Due Billing & Alvesson, 2000). Thus, our conception of masculine and
feminine are subject to change. Second, when we celebrate feminine leadership, we impose an
expectation that women should conform or embrace that ideal (Due Billing & Alvesson, 2000).
The behaviors that women may engage in prior to attaining a leadership position may be
different from the behaviors necessary to lead (Due Billing & Alvesson, 2000). In fact, research
does not support the notion that there are gender differences in terms of style or effectiveness
(Rhode & Kellerman, 2007; Northouse, 2016). De-gendering leadership and leading in an
androgynous manner, a style that values great traits typically associated with men and women,
may give women more opportunities (Ayman & Korabik, 2010).
Traditional Barriers
Over the years, many different explanations have been offered for the leadership gap
between men and women in senior positions, from women choosing to prioritize their family to a
lack of qualified women. Women were traditionally the caregivers in household. Yet, even
today women often take on a disproportionate amount of the housework even if they are the
primary earners in the household (Hewlett, 2007). According to a 2015 Pew Research Center
release, 22% of people believe that women’s familial responsibilities are a major reason they do
not become top business executives (Parker, Horowitz, & Rohal, 2015). Hewlett (2007) argues
that women have the push of work-related factors and the pull of familial obligations that factor
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 27

into the reasons why women exit the workplace. When women are not appreciated or are
undervalued at work, the pull of family is much more tempting (Hewlett, 2007). Furthermore,
public policies and structures in the workplaces that are generally unsupportive of either sex
attempting to balance familial roles and their careers are structural impediments that further
undermine women aspiring to leadership positions (Rhode & Kellerman, 2007).
In terms of qualifications, recent research shows that women have higher attainment rates
of bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral degrees (U.S. Department of Education, 2017). Yet, the gap
persists. A March 2018 headline in the New York Times read, “Picture a Leader. Is She A
Woman?” This question speaks to the standards imposed by society based upon gender and its
impact upon our concept of who a leader can be.
The impact of sexism and misogyny are also deterrents to women persisting and attaining
leadership positions. Swim, Hyers, Cohen, and Ferguson (2001) studied the concept of everyday
sexism. These experiences, for traditionally marginalized groups, are the everyday occurrences
with prejudice or discrimination that happen and may be overlooked (Swim et al., 2001). Overt
and subtle forms of sexism not only exist, but also impact the psychological well-being of
individuals (Swim et al., 2001). Modern sexism is a more subtle form of prejudice that is veiled
in political correctness (Barreto & Ellemers, 2005). Barreto and Ellemers (2005) found that
modern sexism may be more insidious than blatant sexism due to the unwillingness of
individuals to confront the behavior. Women may be unwilling to call out modern sexism
because doing so would be an acknowledgment that they have been the target of such behavior;
for men, modern sexism plays into the idea that they are superior so they may be less inclined to
disconfirm that idea, especially if it is not blatantly said (Barreto & Ellemers, 2005). The
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 28

consequences of these behaviors is that modern sexism is allowed to continue while women’s
anxiety levels increase (Barreto & Ellemers, 2005).
Conceiving as Leader
Women who aspire to become leaders must first be able to conceive of a possible self as
a leader. A possible self is an individual’s idea of who they may become in the future (Markus &
Nurius, 1986). This self-conception is tied not only to our own individual ideas but is also
influenced by society. Individuals are more likely to pursue opportunities that conform to
ingroup stereotypes (Dasgupta, 2011). Traditionally, the leader identity has been closely tied to
a masculine identity. Thus, the prototypical members of the leader group are men. Those men,
influential exemplars, are seen as more likable and are able to attain more power and leadership
(Hogg & Terry, 2000; Hornsey, 2008). For women and other minorities who may not fit the
prototype, the group may be more likely to overlook them (Hogg & Terry, 2000). Karelaia and
Guillén (2014) proposed that women who have favorable conceptions of a social identity, in this
case gender, will experience less conflict in their conception of themselves as leaders. Over the
course of three studies, the researchers were able to support their hypothesis. Women who are
able to conceive of themselves as leaders, believe in their abilities as leaders, and are allowed to
lead by their social group, can be effective leaders. For women who are able to be leaders, the
identity that supersedes all else is that of a leader, not a woman.
Gender Stereotypes
Stereotypes are an oversimplification about traits or characteristics of a group. A gender
stereotype is a stereotype tied to a specific gender. Both are influenced by societal views and
beliefs. Stereotypes homogenize individuals into the view of their social group held by society.
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 29

As social groups have different status and power in society, an individual may try to act counter
to a stereotype. Stereotype threat occurs when an individual is in a situation where there is a
possibility of being judged or stereotyped while performing an activity in a certain domain
(Steele, Spencer, & Aronson, 2002). It is moderated by the degree of negativity associated with
the stereotype, the amount of association to the domain and the group, and one’s ability to cope
with the stereotype (Steele et al., 2002). For women, gender stereotypes can be an impediment
to women attaining leadership positions (Hogg & Terry, 2000).
Gender stereotypes are descriptive and prescriptive. Descriptive gender stereotypes refer
to differences between women and men. Prescriptive gender stereotypes refer to how men and
women should be and should not be (Heilman, 2001; Prentice, & Carranza, 2002). Men are
often labeled as agentic; they are attributed characteristics, such as forceful and decisive.
Women are often labeled as communal; those with communal characteristics are seen as kind
and others centered (Heilman, 2001). Prentice and Carranza (2002) conducted a study based on
the foundational work of Bem’s 1974 Sex Role Inventory. The study had an evenly divided
group of two hundred eight men and women undergraduates to determine traits that were
desirable in women and men. Prentice and Carranza proposed four different categories to classify
whether the trait was considered desirable by society: intensified prescriptions, relaxed
prescriptions, relaxed proscriptions and intensified proscriptions. Intensified prescriptions were
defined as “the qualities women and men are supposed to have by virtue of their gender” (p.
271). Relaxed prescriptions are high in general desirability, but low for that gender. Relaxed
proscriptions were defined as “the flaws women and men are allowed to have by virtue of their
gender” (p. 271). Intensified proscriptions are low in general desirability and even lower in
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 30

desirability for the gender. Results were that traditional traits such as warm, kind, patient, and
cooperative were classified as intensified prescriptions for women. For men, traits classified
under intensified prescriptions included business sense, athletic, and leadership ability (Prentice
& Carranza, 2002). When women and men violate prescriptive and proscriptive norms, they will
face negative reactions.
Experiences of Women in Male-Dominated Industries
Women have made progress across industries, yet barriers created by gender-based
stereotypes still exist. In the political arena, women have made significant gains. Despite that,
the narrative and expectations about female politicians and nominees remain influenced by
gender stereotypes. Astor (2019), of the New York Times, recently wrote about the likeability
trap that ensnares women but can be overlooked more frequently for men if they are perceived as
qualified and of the double standard that women face. Voters say they look for the masculine
qualities of authoritativeness or confidence, but when women display these traits, they risk being
seen are arrogant or inauthentic because they are trying to be like men. Astor also points out that
women frequently must face judgments on their dress, body language, and their voice. Perhaps
most notable, Astor wrote that despite swift backlash to superficial judgments, they continue.
The military has also made progress in terms of their desire to create a more gender
equitable environment. Boyce and Herd (2003) conducted a study with U.S. Air Force Academy
cadets to learn more about the relationship between gender role stereotypes and the
characteristics of military leaders. They discovered that the male cadets still associate leader
characteristics to male traits and experiences with female leaders did not decrease that
perception; the masculine culture is still pervasive (Boyce & Herd, 2003).
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 31

Similar to other male-dominated industries, masculine traits are still most closely aligned
with the athletic director position in collegiate athletics (Burton, Barr, Fink, & Bruening, 2009).
That being said, feminine traits are also appreciated in an athletic director (Burton et al., 2009).
In collegiate athletics, the leadership gap at the athletic director level, especially at Division I, is
better, but still has much room for improvement.
Consequences of Gender Stereotypes
Violation of societal norms and stereotypes can lead to backlash (Rudman & Fairchild,
2004), which may cause individuals to not pursue opportunities; in fact, the fear of backlash
actually helps to maintain stereotypes (Rudman & Fairchild, 2004). The lack of social
acceptance and approval due to backlash from the violation of norms means that workplace peers
are looking to invalidate performance or undervalue the performance (Heilman, 2001). Women
who violate an intensified prescription or proscription will face social and professional
repercussions (Heilman, 2001; Prentice & Carranza, 2002). However, individuals whose
violations are not seen as deviant behavior, but as androgynous behavior escape the backlash
(Prentice & Carranza, 2002). Heilman, Wallen, Fuchs and Tamkins (2004) conducted a study to
investigate reactions to women who worked in positions considered male. The researchers
conducted a series of three studies with 242 participants. The first study confirmed that women
were perceived in a less hostile manner when there was ambiguity as to their success level; they
were also seen as less competent and less achievement oriented when there was ambiguity
regarding their success level. When a woman’s success was undeniable, the women were seen as
more unlikable. The second confirmed the results of the first and expanded upon the
understanding that the backlash occurred when women were successful in male positions. The
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 32

third study found that likeability had a significant impact in the workplace. Disliked competent
individuals can impact evaluations and also foster feelings that the individual is not worthy of
promotions or raises.
Eagly and Karau (2002) assert that incongruities between the way that society stereotypes
female gender roles and leadership roles leads to prejudice. Prejudice occurs when individuals
perceive women’s leadership behavior as contradictory to their role as females. Furthermore,
when there are few members of a subgroup represented, such as women in a male dominated
field, then they will be more susceptible to automatic stereotyping based upon gender (Eagly &
Karau, 2002). The theory proposes that women face two kinds of prejudice based on agency: a
devaluing of leadership potential due to an incongruence related to descriptive norms and a less
favorable evaluation of actual leadership behaviors due to prescriptive and proscriptive norms.
Rudman and Glick (2001) argue that agency consists of two components: competence and
dominance. Each component has a different impact on a woman’s ability to obtain leadership
positions.
The first form of prejudice which underestimates women’s leadership potential, is
heightened when the role is considered masculine. Agentic competence is tied to the belief that
an individual can perform the tasks required of the position (Rosette, Koval, Ma, & Livingston,
2016). Women who are perceived to be low in agentic competence, will not be viewed as having
a deficiency and thus unable to perform the task. This dynamic not only reduces the amount of
opportunities that are perceived to be appropriate to women, but also inadvertently increases the
amount of positions that are appropriate for men given the congruence of gender role with the
leader role.
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 33

The second form of prejudice influences the evaluation of women’s leadership behaviors
and results in harsher criticisms (Eagly & Karau, 2002). Women who display agentic dominance
violate prescriptive and proscriptive norms and will be penalized (Rosette et al., 2016). Eagly
and Karau (2002) note that the degree of prejudice would be determined by the perceiver’s
beliefs on gender roles and the leadership role and how incongruous the perceiver believes the
two roles to be. Women who hold or aspire to leadership positions that are seen as masculine
roles or require more agentic qualities are more susceptible to prejudice.
Impact of Collegiate Athletics
In 1972, the passage of Title IX changed the collegiate athletic experience for women.
Prior to Title IX, the governing body that hosted championships for women’s collegiate athletics
was the Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women. Resources in terms of funding, the
quality of coaches and facilities for women, as well as participation opportunities, were severely
limited. The passage of Title IX and the eventual integration of women’s athletics into the
NCAA resulted in increased opportunities to play and more equitable distribution of resources.
According to the NCAA Sport Sponsorship and Participation Report, during the 1981-1982
academic year in Division I, there were 31,686 female athletes; in the 2017-2018 academic year,
85,322 female athletes participated in Division I athletics with approximately 1,000 more
competing in sports that are in emergent status with the NCAA (Irick, 2018). Today, gender
equity is a guiding principle for the NCAA. According to the NCAA (n.d.),
An athletics program can be considered gender equitable when the participants in both
the men’s and women’s sports programs would accept as fair and equitable the overall
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 34

program of the other gender. No individual should be discriminated against on the basis
of gender, institutionally or nationally, in intercollegiate athletics. (para. 2)
The impact of athletics on the educational experience of the student-athlete has also
yielded a wide range of perspectives. In terms of the educational experience, the NCAA has
national minimum standards that govern whether a student-athlete can take part in competition or
practice, and even whether they can remain on their athletic team. This standard is dependent
upon the student-athletes’ year in school and number of credit hours. Athletes have access to
tutors, academic advisors and others who are focused solely on their academic success.
Furthermore, Umbach, Palmer, Kuh, and Hannah (2006) did not find a significant difference
between student-athletes and their peers in terms of their participation in effective educational
engagement practices. In fact, in some situations, the student-athletes were more engaged
(Umbach et al., 2006). In the most recent results of NCAA Growth, Opportunities, Aspirations
and Learning of Students in College Survey (GOALS) in 2015, at the Division I level, over 70%
of both men and women reported that they felt positive or very positive about their overall
college academic experience (Paskus & Bell, 2016). On the other hand, there are still stigmas
such as the dumb jock or other derogatory stereotypes regarding student-athletes’ academic
capabilities or interest. Student-athletes perceive almost a third of their professors and over half
of their classmates held negative views towards athletes (Simons, Bosworth, Fujita & Jensen,
2007). These perceptions create potential barriers to success that must be overcome by the
athlete.
It should also be noted that, according to a recently completed Gallup study
commissioned by the NCAA that surveyed individuals who received their bachelor’s degrees
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 35

between 1970 and 2014, athletes are just as likely to graduate within a 4-year time period as their
peers and to continue their education. Nonetheless, many critics have derided the graduation
rates that the NCAA touts because they use a rate known as the graduation success rate (GSR)
which is different from the federal rate. The NCAA argues that the GSR is actually a more
accurate rate because it factors in student-athletes who transfer.
Athletes are seen as highly desirable employees by employers as well. A study by
Chalfin, Weight, Osborne and Johnson (2015) queried employers who target former collegiate
athletes for recruitment and hiring. The results of the survey showed that, among a variety of
hypothetical college experiences that they would value on a resume, captain of a sports team, and
All-American status had the highest collective means; just being a student-athlete was viewed as
more valuable than positions such as a part-time job as a restaurant manager, editor-in-chief of
the student paper or an RA (Chalfin et al., 2015). The employers attributed characteristics such
as goal-orientation, ability to handle pressure, coachability and ability to work with others to
athletes. The Gallup (2016) study also found that former student-athletes were thriving at a
greater rate that their non-athlete peers in the dimensions of purpose, social, community and
physical well-being. In terms of financial well-being, the two group were comparable (Gallup,
2016). The employment status and engagement at work percentage for both groups was also
comparable; one significant difference is that the employment gap between NCAA men and
women is narrower than their peers (Gallup, 2016).
One unique impact of athletics is the development of the athlete mindset. Mental
toughness is a quality that is noted as a highly desirable trait. Mack, a noted sports psychologist,
said that mental toughness can be learned (Mack, 2001). Jones, Hanton and Connaughton (2002)
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 36

said mental toughness was a psychological advantage over opponents predicated on strong self-
regulatory skills. Those who were mentally tough remained “more determined, focused,
confident and in control under the pressures and demands that top level sport placed upon them”
(Jones et al., 2002, p. 210). One of the top-ranking attributes identified by the participants was
an “unshakable self belief” in their ability to achieve and the ability to bounce back as well as the
ability to block out distractions (Jones et al., 2002, p. 210). The Olympic and world medalists
who had stronger mental skills for dealing with setback and distractions were able to perform at
their highest level more consistently (Orlick & Partington, 1988). They also developed vivid
imagery skills that allowed them to imagine themselves successful and developed clear goals that
kept them focused on what they wanted to accomplish (Orlick & Partington, 1988). The authors
noted that the athletes felt that, if they had developed their mental skills earlier in their careers,
they would have achieved their goals sooner (Orlick & Partington, 1988).
Injuries and other stressors are common in athletics. Yet, studies have found that growth
from stressful situations is possible. Galli and Reel (2012) studied the impact of stress related
growth due to a sport-related adversity. Their study found that by working through their sport
stressor, athletes perceived growth within themselves (Galli & Reel, 2012). Social support was
a critical element of helping athletes make meaning from their stressor (Galli & Reel, 2012).
Among the psychosocial outcomes reported were a new perceived change in their attitudes,
coping strategies and ability to handle adversity; increased mental and emotional fortitude; and a
greater appreciation for others (Galli & Reel, 2012).
Research on the impact of collegiate athletics on the leadership development of student-
athletes has rendered mixed results (Aries, McCarthy, Salovey, & Banaji, 2004; Huntrods, An &
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 37

Pascarella, 2017; Ryan, 1989). Huntrods et al. (2017) conducted a 4-year longitudinal,
qualitative study that had students and student-athletes complete pretests and posttests to
determine the influence of collegiate athletics on leadership development. The study looked at
seven elements including collaboration and consciousness of self. They concluded that
participation in athletics does not increase leadership development in comparison to non-athletes,
but in some instances slows leadership development (Huntrods et. al, 2017). Aries, et al. (2004)
also conducted a study on student-athletes that showed that student-athletes perceived
themselves more favorably than non-athletes in terms of their confidence and leadership. Ryan’s
(1989) study also found positive results that indicated that athletic involvement may make a
strong contribution to leadership abilities, though his criteria was different from that of Huntrods
and colleagues. Both studies that reported a positive impact were much more reliant on students’
self-perception on their development.
Positive Relationships
Coaches and teammates provide unique interpersonal relationships that can inspire
positive growth in student-athletes. The influence of coaches today extends beyond their field of
competition. The competitive environment of practice and games is an opportunity for athletes
to learn visualization and goal setting skills. They are charged not only with skill development
but the holistic well-being of student-athletes. Feltz, Schneider, Hwang, and Skogsberg (2013)
found that coaches’ attitudes and opinions regarding student-athlete academic competence may
counteract negative perceptions from professors and increase academic self-efficacy. Andrea
Becker (2009) conducted 18 in-depth interviews with elite athletes about their experiences with
great coaches. Those athletes viewed their coaches as teachers, mentors and friends; they were
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 38

far more than just coaches (Becker, 2009). Coaches are individuals who can be credible models;
thus, their persuasive influence can positively influence self-efficacy (Feltz & Lirgg, 2001).
Athletes appreciated their coaches’ expertise and/or their competitive, inspirational personas;
that their coaches were accessible and approachable; and the close relationships formed (Becker,
2009). Their coaches taught them about life and imparted and modeled life skills such as how to
deal with pressure, self-reliance and working with others (Becker, 2009). A great coach is able to
help athletes focus on the process of improvement rather than the outcome (Feltz & Lirgg, 2001).
Permission to Violate: Subgroups and Counter-stereotypic Women
All women are not the same. There are different standards for different women.
Furthermore, even though stereotypes are easy, automatic mental shortcuts, recent research
contends that those automatic responses are not rigid, but malleable. Rosette et al. (2016) argue
that, by looking at women as a homogenized group, subgroups that may be held to different
societal standards may be overlooked. They contend that the experiences of Asian American,
Black, and White women may be different from the global, overarching women categorization.
According to Rosette et al. (2016) stereotypes about Asian, Black and White women are different
and the consequences of those stereotypes affect leadership attainment differently. Asian women
are seen as competent, yet passive; if Asian women were to act in a dominant manner, they
would incur a penalty for violating prescriptive and proscriptive norms (Rosette et al., 2016).
Black women, on the other hand, are stereotyped in ways that allow them more leeway to be
dominant; however, they are not perceived as having the intellectual competence to perform the
role (Rosette et al., 2016). Asian women may be perceived as able to do the job, but stereotypes
undermine others’ ability to recognize their leadership (Rosette et al., 2016). Black women,
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 39

according to the stereotypes, can be the forceful leader but are not able to do the mental tasks of
the job (Rosette et al., 2016).
Livingston, Rosette, and Washington (2012) conducted a small study that explored the
dynamics of race and backlash towards dominant (agentic) behaviors that leaders would face. Of
note, the researchers surmised that Black women faced a weaker proscriptive norm regarding
dominance than White women and Black men. The authors found no evidence of agency penalty
against Black female leaders. The researchers did note that given there are few Black female
leaders, it is highly likely that there are other confounding factors that influence their attainment
of leadership positions. Although this was a small study whose findings require future study, it
raises the possibility that certain groups of women may have more freedom to violate societal
norms without traditional backlash.
Dasgupta and Asgari (2004) found that exposure to counter-stereotypic women in
leadership positions in the short-term significantly impacted women’s own association between
leadership qualities and women leaders, especially when those women’s accomplishments were
seen as attainable. They also found that the environment, if populated by counter-stereotypic role
models, can also counter stereotypes about women (Dasgupta & Asgari, 2004). Social penalties
against counter-stereotypic individuals may occur when the behavior is explicitly counter-
stereotypic (Williams & Tiedens, 2016).
The Female Athlete
There are a wide range of positive and negative stereotypes about female athletes, all of
which serve to distinguish them from the normative female identity construct (Kauer & Krane,
2006). Female athletes are consistently reminded of their otherness and must adapt (Krane et al.,
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 40

2004). Some athletes countered negative stereotypes by trying to distance themselves from their
athletic identities or other avoidance strategies. Over time, many female athletes learned to cope
and ignore negative stereotypes (Kauer & Krane, 2006). Krane (2001) states that “being
emotional, passive, dependent, maternal compassionate and gentle” are all characteristics of
hegemonic femininity (p. 117). In a study conducted by Ross and Shinew (2008), the collegiate
female athletes in the study refused to embrace or conform to stereotypes that portrayed women
as the weaker sex. Despite the ostracism that the female athletes faced while in high school for
being more muscular or for other traditionally masculine behaviors, these young women
embraced their strength and their physical power “strength, competitiveness, assertiveness,
confidence and independence are characteristics of hegemonic masculinity” (Krane, 2001, p.
117). The female athletes in a study by Krane, Choi, Baird, Aimar and Kauer (2004) stated that
being feminine, which they defined in terms of the opposite of who they were (i.e. not loud, not
sweaty, not aggressive), simply was not essential to being great athletes. Furthermore, they also
were aware and had learned when it is most appropriate to conform to society by acting more
feminine (Ross, & Shinew, 2008). The authors surmise that this dualism is not a display of
conformity but a new understanding of femininity. “Their ability to develop themselves as
athletes, their navigation of the sport environment, and their desire to de-emphasize traditional
femininity (if only at certain times and in particular contexts) may allow them to resist
constraining dominant ideologies” (Ross & Shinew, 2008). Of great significance Kauer and
Krane (2006) found, “sport became a place where the athletes could transgress feminine and
heteronormative social conventions” (p. 50).
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 41

Summary
The research provided is an overview of relevant topics which influence the study (see
Table 1). The social identity approach and social learning theory provide a foundation of
understanding to explain how individuals interact and learn in groups. The development of a
leader identity is a proactive process that is influenced by the group and an individual’s self-
conception. Furthermore, mentors, family members and coaches all can have positive influences
on individuals as they develop leader identities. Scholars have provided evidence that the
collegiate experience can be beneficial and detrimental to the development of collegiate athletes.
On the positive side, the benefits of collegiate athletics include the development of a mindset that
is resilient and focused. Furthermore, athletes appear to be able to learn from stressful situations
and still perform under trying conditions. These skills are among the qualities that make them
desirable workers.
For women who aspire to be leaders, there are gender-based obstacles that have impacted
the number of women who have been able to attain leadership positions. Stereotypes, prejudice
and backlash are societal barriers that have been impediments for women. Yet, the research has
also found that there may be exceptions to those societal norms when women are not seen as a
homogenized group.
Table 1
Review of Articles
Topic Research Question Article
Social Identity Approach
Theoretical Foundation

Abrams & Hogg, 1990; Hornsey,
2008; Stets & Burke, 2000;
Tajfel, 1974; Turner, Oakes,
Haslam & McGarty, 1994
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 42

Social Learning Theory Theoretical Foundation
Allio, 2005; Bandura, 1971;
Bandura, 1977; McCormick,
2001; Mumford, Zaccaro,
Harding, Jacobs, & Fleishman,
2000
Leader Identity
Development
Was the collegiate athletic
experience an influential factor
in the development of a leader
identity in female former
collegiate student-athletes?
Bennis & Thomas, 2002; Day,
2000; DeRue & Wellman, 2009;
Komives, Owen, Longerbeam,
Mainella, & Osteen (2005);
Northouse, 2016
Gender
Was the collegiate athletic
experience an influential factor
in the development of a leader
identity in female former
collegiate student-athletes?
American Psychological
Association, 2015; Bussey &
Bandura, 1999; Deutsch, 2007;
Martin, 2004; Risman, 2004
Women & Leadership
What experiences empowered
female former collegiate
student-athletes to overcome
stereotypes and discrimination
which could have been barriers
to attaining leadership positions?
Ayman & Korabik, 2010; Barnett,
2007; Keohane, 2007; Pittinsky,
Bacon, & Welle, 2007;
Northouse, 2016; Rhode &
Kellerman, 2007;
Barriers to Leading
What experiences empowered
female former collegiate
student-athletes to overcome
stereotypes and discrimination
which could have been barriers
to attaining leadership positions?
Barreto & Ellemers, 2005; U.S.
Department of Education, 2017;
Hewlett, 2007; Murphy, 2018;
Parker, Horowitz, & Rohal, 2015;
Rhode & Kellerman, 2007; Swim,
Hyers, Cohen, and Ferguson,
2001
Self-Conception
What experiences empowered
female former collegiate
student-athletes to overcome
stereotypes and discrimination
which could have been barriers
to attaining leadership positions?
Dasgupta, 2011; Karelaia and
Guillén, 2014; Hogg & Terry,
2000; Hornsey, 2008; Markus &
Nurius, 1986
Gender Stereotypes
What experiences empowered
female former collegiate
student-athletes to overcome
stereotypes and discrimination
which could have been barriers
to attaining leadership positions?

Heilman, 2001; Hogg & Terry,
2000; Prentice, & Carranza, 2002;
Steele, Spencer, & Aronson, 2002
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 43

Consequence of Gender
Stereotypes and
Prejudice
What experiences empowered
female former collegiate
student-athletes to overcome
stereotypes and discrimination
which could have been barriers
to attaining leadership positions?
Eagly & Karau, 2002; Heilman,
2001; Heilman, Wallen, Fuchs
&Tamkins, 2004; Prentice &
Carranza, 2002; Rosette, Koval,
Ma, & Livingston, 2016; Rudman
& Fairchild, 2004; Rudman &
Glick, 2001
The Impact of Collegiate
Athletics
Was the collegiate athletic
experience an influential factor
in the development of a leader
identity in female former
collegiate student-athletes?
Aries, McCarthy, Salovey, &
Banaji, 2004; Chalfin, Weight,
Osborn and Johnson, 2015; Galli
& Reel, 2012; Gallup, 2016;
Huntrods and Pascarella, 2017;
Jones, Hanton, and Connaughton,
2002; Orlick & Partington, 1988;
Paskus & Bell, 2016; Irick, 2018;
Simons, Bosworth, Fujita &
Jensen, 2007; Ryan, 1989;
Umbach, Palmer, Kuh, &
Hannah, 2006
Positive Relationships
Was the collegiate athletic
experience an influential factor
in the development of a leader
identity in female former
collegiate student-athletes?
Becker, 2009; Feltz & Lirgg,
2001; Feltz, Schneider, Hwang,
and Skogsberg, 2013
Permission to Violate
What experiences empowered
female former collegiate
student-athletes to overcome
stereotypes and discrimination
which could have been barriers
to attaining leadership positions?
Dasgupta & Asgari, 2004; Krane,
2001; Krane, Choi, Baird, Aimar
& Kauer, 2004; Kauer & Krane,
2006; Rosette, Koval, Ma, &
Livingston, 2016; Livingston,
Rosette, & Washington, 2012;
Ross, & Shinew, 2008

WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 44

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Women continue to be underrepresented in leadership positions across all industries
(Burton & Leberman, 2017; Catalyst, 2019; Center for American Women and Politics, 2016;
Lang, 2017; NCAA, 2017; Seo et al., 2017; U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). One
potential obstacle that could explain the gap is that society continues to gender leadership
(Barnett, 2007; Eagly & Karau, 2002; Northouse, 2016; Rhode & Kellerman, 2007; Ridgeway,
2001; Rudman et al., 2012).
The purpose of this phenomenological, qualitative study was to understand the impact
that the collegiate athletic experience has on the leader identity development and attainment of
senior leadership positions of female former collegiate athletes. The phenomenological approach
allowed the researcher the opportunity to get the personal perspective of female former collegiate
athletes, the impact of the collegiate athletic experience, and their motivations and actions as
they have navigated their professional careers (Lester, 1999). This approach, coupled with a
constructivist worldview, allows individuals to create subjective meaning out of their
experiences (Creswell, 2014; Lester, 1999). Thus, firsthand accounts of their interpretations of
the collegiate athletic experiences are valued.
This chapter outlines the sample and population, instrumentation, data collection
methods and data analysis that was used in this study. The following research questions served
as guides for the study:
1. Was the collegiate athletic experience an influential factor in the development of a
leader identity in female former collegiate student-athletes?
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 45

2. What experiences empowered female former collegiate student-athletes to overcome
stereotypes and discrimination which could have been barriers to attaining leadership
positions?
Table 2
Methodology Overview
Research Data Collection
Method
Method of
Analysis
Rationale Function Implementation
RQ1
RQ2

Interviews Pattern codes and
continuous memoing
looking for themes
(Miles, Huberman,
& Saldana, 2013).
In-depth

Qualitative

Foundational
information for
understanding
To understand how
the collegiate athletic
experience impacted
FFAs’ leader identity
development and
attainment.

To understand what
experiences
empowered FFAs to
overcome stereotypes
Purposeful selection

One-on-one interviews

Network sampling
Sample and Population
The study was reliant upon creating a diverse but purposeful participant group to answer
the research questions. The foundational determinant that the researcher used for the selection
criteria was whether or not the potential participants had experienced the phenomena that was
being investigated (Englander, 2012). A stratified purposive sampling was utilized to obtain a
sample population with the specific characteristics necessary for understanding the collegiate
athletic experience (Johnson & Christensen, 2014; Maxwell, 2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
To obtain this purposeful sample, the researcher used a network of former colleagues, coaches,
mentors, and professors to help recruit potential interviewees. It should be noted that using a
network sampling technique potentially introduced “key informant bias” in which the
information from the selected population may not be representative of all individuals they seek to
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 46

represent (Maxwell, 2014, pp. 99 –100). That being said, this study focused on the lived
experience of the interviewee and did not seek to make global statements (Englander, 2012;
Hycner, 1985). Furthermore, because the population was difficult to gain access to, network
over systematic sampling was the best means to gain access to the individuals who best fit the
criteria (Maxwell, 2014). In total, 10 women participated in the study, which was well within the
accepted range for phenomenological studies that says at least three participants are needed
(Creswell, 2014; Englander, 2012).
Participants
Ten successful female former collegiate student-athletes leaders participated in this study.
All participants shared these common criteria: (a) former collegiate student-athlete; (b) hold a
senior level leadership position; (c) works in a male dominated industry; (d) and has supervisory,
strategic planning and/or decision-making responsibilities. The women held positions or
previously held positions in law enforcement, the military, politics, collegiate athletics,
professional sports, law, medicine and business. The women attended university between the
years of 1971 and 2004. Four of the women competed between 1971 and 1981, one competed in
the early 80s, two competed in the late 80s and early 90s, two competed between 1990 and1996;
and one competed in the early 2000s. Seven of the women participated at the Division I level,
one competed at a DII university that has since moved up to the Division I level, one competed
at the DIII level on a men’s team, and one competed prior to the division classifications. There
was a variety of sports represented among the women. Four women played basketball; one
played softball; one ran cross country/track; two swam though one of them also rowed; one
played lacrosse; and one played volleyball. Two women identified as Black while six women
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 47

identified as White and two did not identify. Although there was not much racial diversity, the
women grew up all over the country. Three grew up on the west coast, two women in the Pacific
Northwest and one in Southern California. Three women grew up in the Midwest. Four grew up
in the Northeast.
Instrumentation
An interview protocol provided a guide for the interview. The interview protocol was
constructed ahead of time to serve as an interview guide in this semi-structured approach (Patton,
2002). The guide was utilized as a tool to keep “the interactions focused while allowing
individual perspectives and experiences to emerge (Patton, 2002, p. 344). Questions started off
broad and narrowed as the interview progressed, allowing for additional probing as necessary
(Patton, 2002). Background and demographic questions were provided through a demographics
survey that was sent to participants prior to the interview (see Appendix C). Eight participants
completed the surveys. The researcher acted as an instrument in this study (Creswell, 2014;
Maxwell, 2014). Please see Appendix A for the interview protocol.
Data Collection
The researcher aspired to conduct these interviews in an ethical manner. To protect all
participants, the study and data collection protocols were submitted to the University of Southern
California as well as all research site’s institutional review boards (IRB) and followed the rules
and guidelines for the protection of all participants. Prior to participating in the study
individuals received a consent form that outlined the study, articulated their rights including the
right to not answer any question and to terminate the interview at any point, and provided the
researcher’s contact information. Verbal consent to participate was provided when a hard copy
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 48

signature was not feasible (Glesne, 2011). All interviews were recorded using an audio-
recording device to aid in data analysis and transcription as permission to record interviews was
requested and granted (Weiss, 1994). Although the study did not involve a high-risk population
or subject area that could cause significant harm, the privacy of the participants was of the
upmost concern to the researcher. The researcher avoided intentionally collecting information
that may harm participants. Any information that could have been harmful was removed from
the transcript and any identifying information was removed (Creswell, 2014). All raw data were
stored in a secure location. Recorded interviews were coded with the date and location; the
name of the participant was not used. All raw data were deleted.
Interviews
Prior to conducting formal interviews, the researcher and the co-researcher conducted
two pilot interviews with two female former collegiate student-athletes. One interview was
conducted in person. The second interview was conducted via a video chat program. The goal
of the pilot interviews was to improve the questions on the interview protocol (Creswell, 2014).
Furthermore, it was an opportunity for the researchers to become more comfortable conducting
interviews.
For the formal interviews, the researcher made every effort to travel to the interviewees
and keep the interviews to two hours or less as to minimize stress and maximize time for the
interviewees (Weiss, 1994). All of the interviews lasted between 45 and 90 minutes. The
average time for the interview was approximately 75 minutes. Interviews were conducted
between August and November 2018. Seven interviews were conducted in person.
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 49

The researcher conducted four interviews with a co-researcher: three in person and one
on the phone. This collaboration allowed the researchers to gain insight on the impact of the
collegiate athletic experience, and, given the limited availability of the women, to have access to
interview the participants on the research question specific to their particular study.
The researcher completed six more interviews, four in-person and two over the phone
independently. The independent interviews allowed each researcher more time to focus on their
individual research questions.
The researcher conducted semi-structured interviews that were designed to collect data in
response to the research questions (Maxwell, 2014; Patton, 2002). Semi-structured interviews
allowed the researcher a structure that ensured common topics were discussed between interview
subjects yet still had the flexibility to probe responses for more information (Weiss, 1994). The
resultant data included detailed descriptions and stories.
Interviews were transcribed from the audio recordings. One interview was transcribed
using an outside service. The remaining nine interviews were transcribed by creating an initial
transcript using an online transcription website. The researcher manually edited these transcripts
for accuracy. Interview transcriptions and recordings were read and listened to multiple times to
ensure all themes and patterns were identified and as part of an on-going process of gaining a
more thorough understanding and reflection of what was shared. The researcher used the
reflective memos as a sense-making tool composed following the interviews to recreate the
interview setting and ensure that the data were accurate in terms of the statement made and in
terms of the emotional context of the statement (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007; Miles et al., 2013).
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 50

Data Analysis
Analysis of interview data began immediately following an interview. Immediate
impressions of the interview, the tone of the conversation and of specific moments and questions
generated as a result of the conversation were written down as memos to capture what was seen,
heard and experienced during the interviews (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). Noting the holistic
environment and features in the interview setting aids the phenomenological analytical process
which values a “sense of the whole interview” (Hycner, 1985, p. 281). Even as reflections were
recorded, analysis remained general until all interviews were complete so that conclusions did
not solidify with incomplete data. The goal was to inductively allow the data to present itself
and truthfully convey the experiences of all the participants without overanalyzing the data
(Hycner, 1985).
Coding
Qualitative data were transformed into quantifiable data by creating codes and themes
(Creswell, 2014). Themes and patterns gleaned while transcribing were used as the basis for the
initial categories of codes. The categories used for coding tied together data from the interviews
to themes found in the literature review and possible emergent themes (Corbin & Strauss, 2008;
Miles et al., 2013). Although a formal code list was created after all the interviews, an informal
list was created as interview data revealed common themes after the individual interviews were
conducted. The researcher completed the first cycle of coding by hand after all data were
collected. The main goal of this process was to “initially summarize segments of data,” chunking
data sets into manageable pieces and to allow for emergent, a priori analysis (Miles et al., 2013,
p. 86). The second cycle of coding, using coding software, enabled the researcher to further
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 51

refine and revise the codes. Furthermore, the software allowed the researcher the ability to group
like sentiments revealing previously unrecognized connections.
Validity
Validity is a common criticism of qualitative research. The researched wanted to create
an honest picture of what is and utilized many tools to ensure that the data were truthfully
collected and presented (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Creswell (2014) defines validity as the
researcher’s desire to ensure accuracy. Validity can be deemed accurate based upon the
viewpoint of the researcher, participant, or trusted counsel (in this case a fellow researcher,
industry professional and former collegiate female athlete who was not a member of the study)
(Creswell, 2014). Independent analysis of the data by the researcher and a comparison of the
findings will strengthen the internal validity of the data and will enhance credibility of the
research (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Miles et al. (2013) also suggest validity can be enhanced by weighting the evidence and
looking for negative evidence. Data are not equally valuable (Miles et al., 2013). That being
said, researchers who look for discrepant evidence should be wary of accepting the discrepancy
as absolute truth; however, the process of assessing all data and not ignoring conclusions is an
important validity check (Creswell, 2014; Maxwell, 2014; Miles et al., 2013). If a theme was not
mentioned by multiple participants or noted in past literature, it was not included in the findings
due to a lack of supporting evidence; however, the lack of inclusion should not be taken as a
criticism of its truth or validity to the participant. The researcher did find results that were
outside the scope of the research questions. These themes were included given they were found
in the data obtained from multiple interviews.
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 52

Limitations and Delimitations
Although the researcher desired for this study to be comprehensive there were
limitations. Inherent criticism of phenomenological studies pertain to the size and lack of
randomness in the sample (Hycner, 1985). This study was small, and the pool was purposeful
and narrow. Women who may lead in other industries, teammates who have not succeeded, and
the lived experiences of non-collegiate athlete female leaders were among those excluded from
the study. It should also be noted that, in defining collegiate athlete, the researchers did not
explicitly limit participation in the study based upon the NCAA division; however, non-NCAA
athletes were not be included. Finally, the researcher was not specifically looking for women
based upon race, sexual identity, or sport played. The subsequent demographics of the pool
skewed to White women and to basketball players. The women were not asked explicitly about
their sexual identity. There were potentially other women who could have qualified for the study
and provided more diversity; however, given time limitations did not allow for a large amount of
time to recruit participants and restricted access to those women, they were not included.
Another limitation of the study occurred during the interviews. The participants, while
generous with their time, were busy. Optimally, more time spent with the participants would
have allowed the development of more trust and rapport which could have resulted in more
insightful findings. Furthermore, the interview process and experience were different in-person
and over the phone. Finally, the opportunity to thoroughly analyze the data and then return for
another round of interviews would have provided an opportunity for clarity and a deeper
discussion of the themes that came out of all the interviews. However, that was not feasible in
this study.
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 53

Role of the Investigator
As a female former collegiate student-athlete as well as a woman of color, the
researcher’s personal experiences in athletics and as a member of society influences her
worldview and thoughts on the role of athletics in the study of leadership. As the main
instrument of data collection in a qualitative study, the researcher is aware that her biases may
have influenced how data were interpreted and significance was assigned (Creswell, 2014). The
elimination of these biases was unrealistic (Maxwell, 2014). The researchers’ culture, beliefs
and experiences cannot be removed or prevented from influencing the study (Maxwell, 2014).
The researcher tried to be transparent and forthright in regards to any influencing biases
(Maxwell, 2014). Furthermore, the researcher used accepted measures to ensure data was
presented accurately and true to the lived experiences of participants and supported by past
literature or collaborated by multiple participants.
Summary
This phenomenological study emphasized the understanding and meaning making of the
collegiate athlete experience. This approach was the best design to understand the lived
experiences of female former collegiate student-athletes and the role that collegiate athletics
played in their leader identity development and subsequent attainment of leadership positions.
The purposefully selected participants were all female former collegiate athletes who currently
hold leadership positions. Interviews were conducted in person or over the phone for
approximately one hour with each participant. The findings are presented in depth in Chapter
Four with minor corrections to quotes that did not impact intent but enhanced clarity.

WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 54

CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
This study employed a semi-structured interview protocol (see appendix A) to collect
qualitative data. The semi-structured format yielded a rich data set comprised of lived
experiences and stories from the participants. Interviews were conducted in person and over the
phone with 10 women from around the country. The group was comprised of two African-
American women and eight White women who all hold senior leadership positions. A position of
leadership was defined as a senior level leadership position that has supervisory, strategic
planning, and/or decision-making responsibilities. The women held or previously held positions
in law enforcement, law, politics, marketing and sales, college and professional sport
administration, coaching, medicine, the military, sports agency and sports product. Seven
women competed at NCAA Division I universities, one woman competed at a Division II
university that has since moved up to Division I, one woman competed at a Division III
university on a men’s team, and one woman competed in a now Division I university prior to
Title IX and division categories. Seven of the women were captains on their team, and one
woman did not provide a response. The women will be referred to as participant or Leader 1,
Leader 2, Leader 3, and so forth to reduce the possibility of identification and preserve their
anonymity.
Raw data themes emerged from the interviews and were coded based on commonalities
found across the participants’ stories. Themes were synthesized into four principal categories:
influential experiences in collegiate athletics that impacted leader identity development, which
correlated to the first research question, the formation of navigation strategies, which correlates
to the second research question; and two emergent themes, the leader identity development
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 55

process and the development of a leader identity outside of the collegiate athletic experience (see
table 3). The emergent themes fell outside of the direct scope of the research questions.
The first research question examined the impact of the collegiate athletic experience had
on leader identity development. In turn, the participants shared impactful experiences they had
as collegiate athletes and the influence of others, such as coaches and teammates, on their leader
identity development. Past research on the impact of collegiate athletics found contradictory
results with some researchers asserting that experience was impactful, while others argued that it
perpetuates group think and poor social skills. Yet, the participants spoke of experiences that
encouraged the building of self-awareness and increasing resilience (Bennis & Thomas, 2002).
They also spoke to the learning that resulted from both positive and negative interactions with
coaches and teammates that still influence them as leaders today (Bandura, 1971). These
experiences help them conceive a future version of themselves where they could be successful
leaders (Markus & Nurius, 1986).
The second research question asked the participants to evaluate whether there were
empowering experiences to overcome stereotypes and discrimination that could have been
barriers to attaining leadership positions. The participants revealed gender-based barriers they
had to overcome. Many of the participants faced prescriptive judgments on behaviors based on
gender that mirrored the findings of the Prentice and Carranza’ (2002) study. The participants
also shared how they were able to navigate different experiences that could have dampened their
motivation to persevere and overcome barriers; instead, they became strategic in the
opportunities they pursued and the relationships that they formed and nurtured.
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The first emergent theme was the development of a leader identity. The data indicated
that the formation of a leader identity was an emergent process influenced by the participants’
self-conceptions and nurtured by trusted others. The participants realized that growth as a leader
was also influenced by opportunities where they could lead or learn the skills needed to lead.
Finally, an internal motivation to lead was a necessary component that the participants identified
as they worked to become more confident as leaders.
The second emergent theme was related to experiences outside of collegiate athletics that
nurtured their leader identity development. Past research found that transformative experiences
can help leaders develop competencies that prepare them to lead (Bennis & Thomas, 2002;
Komives et al., 2005).
Table 3
Summary of Themes
Topic Research Question Sub-themes
Influential Experiences in
Collegiate Athletics that
Impacted Leader Identity
Development
1. Was the collegiate athletic
experience an influential factor in
the development of a leader identity
in female former collegiate student-
athletes?
• Impactful
Experience in
Collegiate
Athletics
• The Influence of
Others
o Coaches
o Teammates
The Formation of Navigation
Strategies
2. What experiences empowered
female former collegiate student-
athletes to overcome stereotypes
and discrimination which could
have been barriers to attaining
leadership positions?
• Barriers to
Attaining Leader
Positions
• Empowering
Experiences
• How to Lead
The Leader Identity
Development Process
Emergent insights related to the
development process

WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 57

The Development of a Leader
Identity Outside of the
Collegiate Athletic Experience
Emergent insights related to
experiences outside of collegiate
athletics
• Empowering
Experiences

Research Question #1: Was the collegiate athletic experience an influential factor in the
development of a leader identity in former female student-athletes?
Influential Experiences in Collegiate Athletics
In response to the first research question, the collegiate athletic experience was an
influential factor in the formation of a leader identity, which can be marked by an increase in
self-awareness, building self-confidence, embracing a desire to lead, seizing opportunities to
lead, and developing purpose and a moral competence. Leader 5 described the impact of
athletics on her development: “I mean, it makes you so organized and disciplined, and tough,
kinda you can withstand physical pain, but it also gives you such a sense of pride and
accomplishment, that I don’t think you can get from very many things.”
Experiences as an athlete, the influence of coaches and teammates and the learning that
resulted all worked together to create an environment which fostered growth. Whether the actual
playing experience or interactions with coaches and teammates were positive or negative, all of
the leaders were impacted. In one case, the collegiate athletic experience was initially dismissed
as “something that I did and I'm very proud of it, but it wasn't, I would say, something that I
necessarily carry conscientiously.” However, throughout the interview, the leader was surprised
by the many ways that collegiate athletics had influenced her mindset and behaviors. She
remarked, “I really can't believe how much of the things I'm equating to college. It is bananas.”
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Impactful Experiences in Collegiate Athletics
The collegiate athletic experience provided the leaders an opportunity to gain insight into
who they are as individuals and become more self-aware. Greater self-awareness is marked by
the recognition of strengths and areas of needed growth as well as the development of values and
integrity (Komives et al., 2005). Leader 2 recalled how integral sport was to her self-
development. She said,
On the inside, I was always conflicted with, “Are people gonna like me?” I always
wanted to, you know – “Are people gonna like me? Do you like me?” It was, you know –
I was tall, I was gawky, hadn’t grown into my body. Um, and sport was a great vehicle
for me to just be okay with me. Being muscular, being tall – you know, being aggressive.
Um, playing a predominantly male sport during that time. I do think it absolutely shaped
my sense of self.
For this leader, sports helped her own who she was. For Leader 3, the transition to her collegiate
environment as an athlete stimulated reflection that resulted in greater awareness. She remarked,
I was pretty robotic when I was a freshman just, my survival mode was you couldn't hurt
me, you couldn't make me laugh, you couldn't make me cry which was pretty efficient
but it wasn't a great way to live, you know. And I remember, as a sophomore, I said,
“Okay do I want it? Why am I doing this? Who am I, you know?” and cost benefit wasn't
a landslide, but I said I'll stay with it, but I'll try to be more myself and I think after that
then I could be… could have fun and feel safe with my team and then even if I wasn't
officially the captain, I think I was an informal leader.
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The insight that her state as a freshman was unproductive was an important lesson. Another
participant learned a comparable lesson when she was not able to replicate early success that she
had as a freshman. In hindsight she said,
When I came in as a freshman, I was just trying to keep up in practice. And I actually
raced my best. Compared to what I could do my freshman year, and then every year I was
in better shape and I was a better runner, but I would perform not as, you know, not as
close to my capacity. So, I think the pressure kinda got to me a little bit. I think just
knowing that anytime you're feeling pressure in a situation, it's just your internalized…It
doesn't matter. No one else is thinking about it the same way… your internalized goals
are, should always only be there to improve things not to make things worse.
Now as leader and collegiate coach, one participant is cognizant of the value of self-awareness.
When asked about how to develop leaders Leader 10 said, “I think people need to fall back on
who they are and understand who they are and understand their skill set.” Self-awareness is an
important part of developing a leader identity and one that the participants learned through the
athletic experience.
Being a collegiate athlete is difficult, yet it provides a unique opportunity to build
adaptive capacity. Adaptive capacity is the ability to thrive in stressful situations, recognize and
seize opportunities, transcend limits and navigate the continuing process of learning from
challenges, adapting and reaching new goals (Bennis &Thomas, 2002). Perhaps the most
common way that adaptive capacity is developed is by being able to fail regularly and learn from
the experience spurred growth for the participants. Leader 3 said,
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You've suffered a million reversals, right? You've never been perfect in a game. You got
tired, or you got hurt and your body gave out on you. And so, when you've suffered a
reverse and can handle that, that actually shapes your perspective, I think. So I think
that's where sports may come through.
Leader 7 also talked about failure, saying,
I think my experiences from my collegiate days has shown me, don't be afraid to fail.
You're going to fall. You’re going to make mistakes, you’re going to do a lot of things
that people aren't going to agree with. But you, when you are coming from the standpoint
of being, you know, where you're trying to be open, you're trying to be fair, you know,
you'll be, you'll be okay. I just feel that I'm going to be okay, because of those
experiences.
Bennis and Thomas (2002) said, “Those with well-developed adaptive capacity are not paralyzed
by fear or undermined by anxiety in difficult situations. They believe that if they leap, a net will
appear—or, if it doesn’t they will be able to find or fashion one in time” (p. 102). According to
Bandura (1977), failures can actually increase self-efficacy if it can be overcome later. In failing
and learning from those failures, the participants were able to develop their adaptive capacity and
build their self-efficacy.
While collegiate athletes, the participants learned how to focus on their goals and ignore
distractions. Leader 4, who competed on a men’s team recalled, “There was some negativity. I
was just totally focused on being the best athlete I could be, and going to classes and getting, you
know, graduating at the top of the class was important”. Leader 10 described the mentality she
and her teammates had to outside negativity, saying,
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For the most part, the teammates that I hung out with, we didn't care. We just wanted to
be competitive, play our sport, care about our sport, and not conform to what…I don’t
know, people. We're very driven by ourselves.
Any limitations that external sources tried to place on the team were ignored and they
determined that they would succeed. For Leader 1, this lesson has carried over to her
professional mindset. She said,
Whether in leadership roles or a task is, What is the goal? So, I think the mistakes that I
see a lot of people make men and women when emotion gets to them and they want to,
they want to like prove a point, and my issue with that is, What's your goal? If your goal
is to just be right and like slam your stiletto down on somebody, I don't know if that
moves the ball forward to the goal, to like generating revenue, to close the sale, to
convince the C-suite that we need more money. Like I don't, I don't know how that
moves the ball.
The collegiate athletic experience provided opportunities for the participants to hone their sense
of focus and develop perseverance.
Dynamic team environments were also opportunities for participants to learn and grow as
leaders. Leader 7 said, “Being on a team is something that I loved, something that I learned a lot
from.” Leader 2, who served as a captain, remembered her teammates remarking to her years
later, “We just remember you always coming to people’s aid. You were always willing to fight
for other people.” She took great pride in their comments. She said, “As a collegiate athlete, I
think they knew that I was in it for them. It wasn't just about me. And I – I think that’s the –
that’s the takeaway that I think also transcends itself into leadership.” These interactions were
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 62

also opportunities to practice their leadership and learn how to create shared meaning. For
Leader 9, being a 3-year captain was a responsibility that helped her grow as a leader. She
recounted,
I was a captain for 3 years, right? And, and that's a big responsibility. It helped shape me.
I mean, there were days when I was feeling low, and I had to be optimistic, and I knew
she was expecting that from me. So, I had to be upbeat even over, you know, having a
bad stretch. So, the captainship, the collegiality, the teamwork, you know, I think all were
critical skills to learn.
Leader 9 was one of the first scholarship recipients at her school. In many ways, the team should
have expected to fail since the program was so new and the team was young. Yet, during this
time, she witnessed firsthand the importance of creating shared meaning to help motivate a team
towards a goal. She said, “It was less about each person than, look, we just want to keep getting
better. We were all in this together and the exhorting you do as a captain… you just have your
ways of communicating the goals.” She shared a story about a fall preseason practice,
I remember my fourth year doing early season training, we would have to run in the fall.
As we were running, finishing the loop and collapsing on the finish line, we were yelling
“RANKED,” you know, because that was our goal. We wanted to be nationally ranked.
So, it was very deeply held, a very deeply held belief by the players that we that we could
be, you know, nationally ranked, and that did happen.
She understood the context and focused on a messaged that built a shared meaning, a key skill
according to Bennis and Thomas (2002). The team environment presented a great chance to act
as leaders.
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Collegiate athletics also put the former student-athletes in situations that built their
resilience. Reflecting on her experience, Leader 1 likened it to “building up calluses” and the
development of an attitude of “you really think that you’re tougher than me?” She continued by
saying that she was able to release some of her fears because “the worst thing that can happen is
not even close to what I’ve already had to maybe tolerate”. Leader 6 decided to not continue
playing her senior season. The conversation with her coaches and teammates where she revealed
that she would not be continuing her career was difficult. However, she also learned that “life
moves on after the hard and horrible conversations”. Leader 9 summed up her experience by
saying,
It was really hard as a student athlete. We just kind of found a way to get through it. So, it
was, you know, very hard at times, but, you know, I wouldn't trade it for anything. It
made me who I am. I very much see a correlation between what I experienced there and,
you know, the life skills that emanated from that and, you know, what it's meant for me
and my career. So, I'm a huge believer and in the benefits of, you know, being on
intercollegiate athletics team. I mean its incomparable, you know, what you learn and
what you experience in terms of getting ready for life.
Leader 4, when asked what made her persist said, “I guess it was just in my DNA. I wanted to
push myself to see how good I could be.” That these lessons in resilience, in spite of trying
situations, still influence them today is significant.
Influence of Others
Relationships with adults and peers are key development influencers that foster the leader
identity (Komives et al., 2005). For collegiate athletes, those relationships are innate to the
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 64

environment. Hence, the relationships that collegiate athletes have the potential to form with
coaches and teammates are influential factors in the leader identity development process.
Coaches. The coach athlete relationship is a unique and important relationship. Leader
10 said, “Developing a relationship with the coach. I think that's important. Not a friendship. But
one that shows that you care.” The participants in Becker’s (2009) study also commented on the
importance of the relationship with a coach and its significance to their experiences in athletics.
For Leader 4, that relationship was one where, “if he would say, walk on water, I'd walked on
water.” He saw her potential when she did not think she was anything special.
Through sport, coaches can create environments for athletes to learn how to lead, push
themselves and also draw out qualities that will aid them as leaders. Leader10 remarked, “I think
effective leadership training happens on the court or on the field. I think it's coaches challenging
you through really hard times…if you're not forced to change or forced to respond, then you
don't get any better.” Both women who competed on men’s teams credit their coaches for
ensuring they were treated in the same manner as their teammates and creating an environment
where they had a chance to be successful. At a time when women were fighting for equality,
these progressive coaches allowed these women to just be athletes instead of judging their
abilities based on gender. Leader 8, who previously coached at the collegiate level said,
As the coach of a team in sport, you're creating an environment and providing tools in a
way that the people that are participating can have the greatest chance to succeed and find
a way to express themselves, that ends up being a positive experience for them. Notice, I
didn't say winning and losing. It's all around an environment where you can, a person,
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 65

you know, achieve some kind of self-mastery, they learn about themselves, and they have
the chance to express themselves.
This participant created an environment not only where her student-athletes could be successful,
but the self-mastery and self-awareness that she championed are key skills that an emerging
leader must develop (Bennis & Thomas, 2002).
Coaches serve as influential models for athletes through their deliberate or inadvertent
examples (Bandura, 1971). Although the actions and behaviors of some of the coaches were not
always positive, the women learned valuable lessons in how to lead regardless. Leader 6
recalled her coach, saying,
We were definitely treated like family. Her door was open if you needed to chat. She
encouraged us to pursue things that we were interested in, outside of (sport) and class.
And I think she, she just, I don't know, I can't really put my finger on what it was, but she
wasn't like, she was hard on us but never too hard. She had high expectations … didn't
take flak, didn't let us rest on our laurels but she wasn’t a, I was never, she wasn’t a coach
who you were like afraid of or anything”
The appreciation that this participant had for her coach is similar to the qualities that Becker
(2009) found were qualities of great coaches. The influence of her coach is apparent as she
describes her own coaching style now. She said,
I'm trying to coach them through some of the leadership stuff. That, you know, their
responsibility is, first and foremost, to lead by example, to be supportive, to be a good
teammate. That there's got to be that level of respect for each other, and hard work and
pushing each other and, you know, respect for the coach and the game and how they, how
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 66

they work through some of those things. I hold the girls pretty accountable to some pretty
high standards. And that I am present and available as someone they can talk to, outside
of [sport]. And if I can, I think that's part of just helping them realize what they can be
like.
One participant had a negative experience with her coach and did not feel supported. She
recalled, “She wasn't a leader. She wasn’t because a leader is going to stand up for everyone and
you're going to call things right and you’re going to call things wrong and she didn't do that.” In
her subsequent definition of a leader she said,
One thing that I always defined leaders by, from my experience, you have to be fair. You
have to make, be willing to make the tough decision when it's not popular. You have to
you have to be consistent. And if you're not consistent, and you're not fair, then you
pretty much lost. You've lost. Those are leaders. Someone that's willing to step up and
stand up for people.
Despite the bad example of her coach, she learned. “I took the lessons that were negative there
and turned them into positives.” She recalled one instance while she was coaching where the
poor example of her coach made her choose to do things differently. She said,
She chose athletics over what was right. And those were lessons that I learned. I learned
later in life because I had one of my point guards, by far the best athlete on the team,
[she] sometimes didn't understand what it took to be a leader. I told her, I made a
decision with her, and her parents, the next time, I don't care what game it is, if she has
earrings in her ear, she's going to sit. She’s going to sit that first half. We had an AAU
Final with our rival team to make it and she had earrings in. I made her sit that [first] half.
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 67

We were down by like 15 without her, almost came back and won but we lost. And some
people were like, ‘Hey, why did you sit her?’ I said this is not about basketball. This is a
lesson for her. She went on to college, is in her Hall of Fame at her university… those
were lessons that she needed. And I think that I played a role in that with her because I
learned a lesson as well. Because when you tell your kids that you're coaching that you're
going to do something or that if they don't abide by a rule, they're going to be in trouble
for it, and you have to be consistent. I learned from her that.

Teammates. Teammates also played a role in the development of leader identities. For
some participants, teammates modeled traits that they wanted to emulate as leaders. Leader 7
admired one of her teammates and identified her as a leader because “she wasn’t afraid to be
who she was. She was who she was no matter what”. Even negative experiences with
teammates resulted in positive learning. One participant said,
I think I learned the difference between like friends and colleagues. I mean it's easy to
identify who and why I get along [with] certain people and why some are just always
going to be sandpaper. You can't ignore people just like teammates, right? You can't
necessarily sidestep working with them. If I have to turn a double play I need a f-ing
shortstop? So, I think, for me, it's more about like, again, the relationship I have with you
is just for this thing that we do together.
The participants have carried over lessons they learned while being a part of a team into
their professional roles. Leader 3 said,
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If we want to win, and if our goal is to win, then everyone's gonna bring some different
skill set down. And on a given night, I'm not doing very well [with] one of the things I
bring, then I need to make sure I bring something else. I think I've applied this sense of
teamwork. We all have a role to play and we all can contribute. And you practice
together. And you, again, gutting it out on those hill runs that you do until you're sick,
together. I think it plays out on when life isn’t it going your way. You just dig in, right?
You don't quit. You keep trying.
The ability and experience of working as a team is a factor that Leader 8 appreciates as well.
She said,
I think that there are great benefits to having participated on a team because you know
what it takes to collaborate. You know that it's not about you individually. That it
requires others around you, and, you know, all the things that we just talked about, with
being aware of what the environment is, what the opportunities are, all those things. I
think when you're in a team setting, it enables you not only to appreciate that part, but
there are times when you're a leader, and there are times when you're not, and there are
times to let other people shine and other times for you to take charge to the benefit of the
team. There are times when you, you know, you absolutely have to listen to your coach,
you've got to listen, and you've got to try and take from that what you can. You know, I'll
say that I have colleagues who have not done that. And I just see them struggle and it
feels like there, you can chalk it up to just not having that awareness. And as a leader,
you know, to be in that spot, to recognize how you can create these chances for, for
people to be a member of a team. And to get some of that kind of experience. I think it's
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 69

critical in in helping people, this is going to sound so judgmental, but I think be, be better
towards their colleagues and other people in their lives. Because, again, there's nothing
like the shared experience, going through a shared struggle. And being on a team is a bit
of a struggle.
Relationships and understanding your role on a team are key learning that these participants took
away as a result of interacting with teammates.
Summary
The first research question was meant to examine whether the collegiate athletic
experience was an influential factor in the development of a leader identity in female former
student-athletes. Although some participants admitted that they did not enjoy the experience nor
did some immediately recognize its impact on their leader identity development, it was
influential. One participant said, “I think the process of being a collegiate athlete is so important
and I don't know that in the moment, I don't know that you realize what you're learning. It's
really kind of in retrospect that you can look back and see how formative it was”. Another
participant stated, “I do think it's the power of sport that has allowed me to just stay very clear
about who I am and the fact that those are good qualities. Because they’re the qualities that make
me a leader on the basketball court, and they are qualities that make me a leader here...I think
sport really solidified the confidence”. The collegiate experience was an opportunity where the
participants gain greater self-awareness, built resilience and adaptive capacity, and practiced
their leadership. Furthermore, coaches and teammates also were integral to the leader identity
development as models, both positive and negative, and as creators of the competitive
environment.
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 70

Research Question #2- What experiences empowered female former collegiate student-
athletes to overcome stereotypes and discrimination which could have been barriers to attaining
leadership positions?
The Formation of Navigation Strategies: Barriers to Attaining Leader Positions
Although there has been progress, there are still barriers that women must be overcome.
Misogyny and sexism are still issues that women must contend with; however, what may be
more insidious is the negativity that accompanies any woman bold enough to call out the
behavior. One participant said, “I know that retaliation is going to happen. It has happened. I
always tell them to report especially when the behavior is just absolutely egregious”. The threat
is real. Two participants remarked that given that they were in the minority as women, they had
to decide whether to tolerate bad behavior or risk being labeled “that woman”. They came in
with their “eyes open” and were determined not to take it personally. Another participant
remarked, “I think there's sexism and I just try and ignore it. I'm not going to be shut down by it,
and I’m going to stand up and speak”. Swim et al. (2001) discovered that everyday sexism
affects women negatively as they internalize the misogyny rather than confront the veiled
discrimination. When looking at statistics and arguments regarding the leadership gap or even
why women may choose to leave the workforce, these experiences and choices must be
considered.
Another traditional barrier that some of the women discussed related to familial
obligations. One of the participants mentioned that, to attain leadership positions, you need to be
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 71

willing to sacrifice and “put your family second,” an admittedly painful decision. Another
participant related a story of trying to balance family and work obligations, saying,
I recall I was scrambling. I had all my Christmas gifts, you know. You give Christmas
gifts to people. Shopping bags on the train, get to the office. I have my wrapping paper.
I'm like, “I gotta get a half an hour in the day just to wrap these gifts.” And I come in, and
there is this beautifully adorned box. I think it was, like, wrapped in velvet. I was like,
“Oh, my God. This is beautiful. Who did this?” And it was my manager. And I was like,
“Who did this?” And he was like, “Oh, my wife.” And I was just like, “Oh, my God. I
need a wife.”
Although this was a funny anecdote, it highlighted the pressures that women still face to fulfill
traditional gender roles while also balancing the demands of professional life. The pull of family
coupled with deeply engrained division of labor in the household impacts both men and women
and their behaviors (Hewlett, 2007).
Limited access to opportunities for these women is an enduring barrier to attaining
leadership positions. One participant who was able to step into different leadership roles was
very cognizant that the mere fact that she had a chance was critical. She said,
I was able to do some things and did and contributed to an environment and I had a
support structure around me, that allowed me to do that. We see this all the time with
people, right, where there are some who can afford to speak up, and there are others who
can't, and I happened to be in a circumstance and felt strong enough that I could speak up.
And if you have all those things, then you know, you have your best chance of being the
best you can be. And I had the chance to do that. Again, not because I set out to have
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 72

those things. It was opportunities presented themselves, and I was able to take advantage
of them. I appreciate that it’s, it's not all, you hear people all the time say, “Well, I set out
to do this and I did it.” Yeah, but you didn't do that by yourself. There was all these other
things had to be there.
Bennis and Thomas (2002) also noted that there may be those who have all of the qualities, but
they have little or no opportunity to use them. One participant who was a first in her role was
proud of her accomplishment but at the same time lamented that she was the first. She said,
“people are like, ‘Oh, that's a great accomplishment.’ Well, that's really, really sad because we
have a lot women in our department, that can do the job.” The idea that men are naturally
equipped to take charge is still influencing societal views on leaders and who can lead (Barnett,
2007). Another participant who was also a first stated that she was once told,
“You're the exception to the rule that proves women don't belong here.” And I said,
“What does that mean?” He said, “If they have to be like you to graduate from this place,
then it shows that women don’t belong here.”
One significant obstacle that the participants faced were prescriptive judgments on how
they should behave. One participant who often works with male athletes recalled that at the
beginning of her career she worked hard to prove that she was good enough, essentially
justifying her coaching men. She said,
I was trying to survive as a coach and be the best coach I could and develop the respect
that I needed to. And I knew that the only way that I was going to get respect, was to be
willing to do the things that I asked them to do. And I participated with them. I coached
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 73

them, but they saw me doing it too. Or if they needed another person… and win. I had to
win everything that I ever stepped in.
In the business setting, even as bosses and leaders, social norms still influence the
automatic assumption of how people should behave. One participant recalled feedback from a
performance evaluation that asked her to “adopt a more nurturing management style”. She
responded saying, “‘What does that mean exactly?’” You would never say that to a man, right?
That was a way of them saying, “We wanna see the softer side of you”. In fact, many
participants admitted that they have been labeled as being direct or even bitches. She continued
by saying,
If you ask anybody to describe me, the first thing they’ll say is, “She’s direct.” Yeah. And
I've had many an instances where someone will say [that]. You know, I think in general
women are perceived – if they're more direct – they’re perceived as ice princesses or, you
know, the age-old B-word...I wear that like a badge of honor.”
These prescriptive judgments arise from the women being members of the outgroup.
Those who are perceived as outside of the group are members of the outgroup. The comparison
between the prototypical members of the ingroup versus those in the outgroup can lead to
stereotyping (Hogg & Terry, 2000). Agentic characteristics such as being direct are typically
associated with how men should be, not how women should behave (Eagly & Karau, 2002). For
Leader 8, this is an issue for her as well. She said, “If I say something in a strong way, I'm being
strident. If a guy says the same thing, exactly the same thing, it's, you know, brilliant.” She
continued by saying,
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I have found myself, in many circumstances, too many times to tell you, where I will
have expressed an idea, it gets overlooked, and a guy two people later says exactly the
same thing and it's, fabulous idea. Or, had ideas that I had put forth taken up by
somebody else, and at the time it's like, okay, as long as it gets done, it's okay. But I
certainly fought to get credit where I felt I needed to have it. I've seen it. I see it all the
time. And I've seen it over and over, I’ve witnessed it, I've been a part of it, I've been the
victim of it. And the response is, I don't think it's changed anything about what I do other
that, other than just being you know, I just know that I'm going to get that.
When leadership is equated with men and masculinity, it encourages the expectation that
women will lead differently than men (Keohane, 2007). This expectation and the lack of
flexibility that to lead in the necessary manner is an impediment for women.
Empowering Experiences
Despite obstacles, the women in this study learned from different experiences and
developed different strategies that helped them navigate around obstacles and attain leadership
positions. As athletes, the women developed a mindset that encouraged them to plan a path that
would get them to their goals and then execute the plan, not deviating due to distractions.
Furthermore, the participants experienced gender stereotypes and discrimination early in their
careers either as athletes or as young professionals and as a consequence, they learned how to
positively cope and confront behavior. They also realized that they existed in the outgroup for
women, not just as leaders; instead of attempting to conform, the women used the freedom to be
themselves and lead.
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The athlete mindset that was cultivated in them provided them with mental tools that has
helped them prepare for challenging situations or daunting achievements. One participant
recalled,
For me, it didn't feel extraordinary, because I was just doing what I needed to do. Like,
you know, people would say, “Well weren’t you shocked when you made the Olympic
team?” And I'm looking at him, like, “Uh, you mean after the 40 hours of training every
week?” No, I was not shocked. I should have been there. I earned my way there.
Although the participant could understand why the achievement was so extraordinary, for her,
she had a plan for success, had trained and had the belief that she could and would succeed. She
was mentally tough and qualified. One participant described how she felt as if she was able to
focus more and almost played better when she felt sick and had to compete. A key quality of
mental toughness is an athletes’ ability to focus on the task (Jones et al., 2002). In life now, she
contends that everyone is going through something; as an athlete, she said, she developed both a
physical toughness and a mental toughness. Another participant, described how she still uses
visualization techniques to prepare and see her success. She said,
I'm ridiculous about prepping for my sales calls or things like that, practicing. I usually
go to bed…I used to go to bed when I was in college thinking about my swing or my
plays, you know, was your elbow up? Just envisioning. I'm a very visual person, so I
have to like think about it and see it in my mind’s eye. I carried that over. I go to bed
thinking…to try and win. And so, I go to sleep imagining being in front of all these
people and speaking and imagine, sort of, here's what I'm gonna do.
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The process of visualizing your success not only is a positive coping mechanism, but also a way
to practice. These are the same skills that the Olympians used to help them reach their goals
(Orlick & Partington, 1988).
The participants have encountered negativity and gender discrimination and learned how
to confront sexism and/or disregard the negativity instead of internalizing the anger. One
participant, when asked about the impact of bias said, “I just generally have always set my mind
to working hard and knowing that I will get a position that I’ve earned.” For another participant,
confronting misogyny was a skill she developed at a young age. She recalled,
I wanted to be a beach lifeguard, did all the testing, was in the top 10% on the swim test.
This is against everybody, males and females. Ninety-nine on the written exams—so I
finally get interviewed. And I'm faced with the most ridiculously sexist questions you can
imagine. “Well, what would you do if you're in the water and the guy you were rescuing
attacked you?” And I'm going “Well, first of all, I, you have that float. And number one
in rescuing is you don't actually have physical contact with the person, you know, unless
they're unconscious”. So, yeah… I didn't get hired, but I was on the list. You know,
apparently, I was like 20th or something on the waiting list. So they could say that
technically… there were only a few women, and I complained, and they actually
investigated it.
Simply being a female athlete allowed many to experience and learn how to navigate
discrimination. Name calling was not out of the norm for the athletes, including some of the
younger participants. One participant recalled an incident in college where another woman tried
to belittle her. She said,
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I was ripped and was really fit and, you know, a woman said, “My mother told me that
there were women like you here.” And I go, “Like what? Super fit and I’m tired. What
else?” You know, but the whole society didn't know what to do with women athletes.
People said and have done things over the years with women that are the same. You
know? That you can't, as a class, you can't do that. And then, when you can do the
pushups or run or know the knowledge or handle the stress, then they say, well, then
there's something wrong with you. If you can do it, then they malign your orientation.
She concluded saying,
Yeah, the athlete thing confused people. Let’s say, people say you can't do this, but oh,
you can, well there's something wrong with that. And it makes people question
themselves, then. You know, it's like, well, I'm a guy and you're doing this right next to
me, then how am I defining myself as a man.
One participant recalled an incident as a resident in medical school. Although she recognized
that attitudes were shifting, there were still gendered experiences. She said,
People would still assume that we were nurses and definitely being pregnant in med
school was difficult. A lot of the residents actually would treat me badly, like question
my commitment to medicine. Women would be like, “Oh, you don't believe in birth
control or something?” I would get mad. And I wouldn't get mad at them, but I would go
home and be mad.
Despite being upset, she processed her anger and persisted. She said,
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I just knew. I wanted to do it. And I did. I basically enjoyed what I was doing, too. That
was the other part of it. It’s like, I knew I was good at it. So that, like, that wasn't going to
deter me.
One participant, as she reflected on her journey, said,
I didn’t pay any attention to it. I just did what I did. I worked my ass off, you know? As
I've gotten older, I realized that people actually look at your gender first but I didn't pay
any attention to it.
She continued later saying,
I used to get upset if somebody would walk by my office and go past the woman and then
just ask an assistant who is a man. Now I confront it. I go out and introduce myself. I
don't let it get that far. It's empowered me.
The participants learned how to embrace certain prescriptive stereotypes that are
affiliated with men and leaders, release the fear of backlash and navigate through different
barriers. One participant said that, when she is in a board meeting, she is the only woman in the
room, yet, in that moment, all she can do is “slip off the gender concern switch...you just do your
job.” One participant who realized that she’s aggressive and can be confrontational said,
For the state that women are in, it [has] served me very well. I don't think doing it a
different way would have been a better route. I know that I've left money on the table
because I didn't negotiate well, because I kept my mouth shut or I didn’t do things a
certain way. I also know that I can sleep very well at night that I didn't sell out. I didn't
throw anyone under the bus, I didn’t, I didn’t debase myself anyway. I know that there
are certain jobs that even if I wasn't a loud mouth would not be given to me because I am
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a woman so I might as well be me. I don't think that I've missed out on an opportunity
because I'm sensitive. You know I can hold my own you know very well. I've been in
front of some of the most intimidating men, and I know that I annoy them. But I also,
like, I didn't get punished for it. Right. So, I don't think a man would be annoying, I think
because I'm a woman it bothered them or annoyed them. Right? I think it served me very
well.
Another participant expressed a similar sentiment saying,
When you play sports, and you're around sports, you know, you develop a certain sort of
attitude and strength about things that you can, you can move forward. I was never
pushed around on the field, or on the court, or on the ice. And I'm certainly not going to
be pushed around in my daily life. And, if someone's going to push me, I'm going to push
back. Now, I’m probably smarter about how I push back, right, because it's kind of the
same things in sports, like, Where can you push? Where can you get an advantage?
Where are you maybe working in the gray to gain your advantage? And how are you
smart about that? And I feel like that's what you gotta do in business, too, right?
Her mindset is very strategic and very cognizant of the balance necessary to succeed. Ross and
Shinew (2008) found that collegiate athletes also knew when it would be most advantageous to
conform to expected standards. One participant summarized her the balance critical to success
navigation by saying,
The end game is you wanna be successful, right? You wanna be able to manage people.
You want people to work for you. You want them to feel valued and respected. So, over
the course of my career, I have adjusted. Um, but I am direct, and I'm kind. You can be
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kind and people know that you care about them, but you can also be direct. And that’s, I
wear like a badge of honor. Like, I think it's okay. That’s the way I've raised my
daughter, you know, to cope with the other stuff. If you’re seen as direct, sometimes
people won’t, um, be complimentary of you. But, you know, I always remind people
when they are like, “Oh, you're really direct.” I’m like, “Yeah, I am.” Most men are.
The participants realized that there were and are obstacles but are determined to keep working.
As women in male-dominated fields, those who experienced a sense of otherness or a
feeling that they were outside of accepted norms used it as an opportunity to be free of typical
constraining norms. One participant described the notion of otherness by saying,
If you, if you feel like other sometimes your goals and standards are more absolute,
because you don't fit in any way. And the peer pressure's different, I guess, is what I'm
trying to say. So, it's interesting to be in organizations that are all male. Well, maybe
people do feel more like peers. And this is collegial. But also there's a pressure that's
interesting to watch happen between like colleagues because they do norm more. And
when you already feel like I'm not normal anyway…but I think to some extent, you're
not. They’re so not used to your entirety, that you can operate in a different in different
place, because you can't be that group. So again, this crucible, I think empowers you to
be less conforming, and I don't mean in a rebellious way, but just things I tried to do with
my career, ask the questions, try to make things better. [It] didn't always work and didn’t
always make a dent, but I think it lets you come in from a different place.
When she entered college as part of one of the first classes of women at the school, she was
unprepared for the anger. She recalled, “We didn't realize what it was going to be like that there
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would be people in your face every day saying, ‘Why are you here trying to ruin my institution?
You don't belong here.’ Every day.” Yet, she blocked out the distractions and kept working. She
said,
When you can do the work objectively, sometimes you have to use a lot of extra energy
to get there because people are distracting you with whatever nonsense or negativity
they’re throwing out there. But, once you can get in there and do it, they go, “Oh, you can
hack it.” These days, I think being a woman athlete brings credibility that people say,
“Oh, you're tough. You can hack it, you’re an athlete.”
This perspective that being an athlete may add credibility is an interesting dynamic to consider
given that Livingston et al. (2012) offered that different subgroups of women may be able to
have more freedom from traditional social norms. For another participant, being outside the
norm also opened new potential opportunities for her to exist without the fear of fitting in. She
said, “I think people struggle with me as a female who is a leader because they're not sure what
to do with me or the place to put me. And that's a disadvantage. But it's also an advantage”. Yet,
due to their previous experiences in sport, many already had a different perception of normal and
acceptable norms. One participant who competed with boys when she was growing up could not
fathom what would have happened if any of the boys she competed with tried to make her feel
other. She said, “I mean, you're doing the same work. There's nothing that creates respect, like
working alongside one another, right. And we all did that from the time we were very young.
That was the norm.” Another participant who worked for a men’s hockey team recalled,
You know, I was an athlete like the rest of them. The guys on the team were athletes.
Like we all just came in, worked hard, had a common goal. Didn't matter that I was a
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woman. I mean, like working for a team, is kind of like being on a team. Like everybody
gets together. You pull your weight, you get stuff done.
These sentiments echo the findings of Kauer and Krane (2006) in that, just as sport was a safe
place to reject social norms based on gender for their participants, so too were the participants in
this study able to develop a mindset that emphasized work over gender roles. Furthermore, as
Rosette et al. (2016) found, among subgroups of women, there seem to be different standards and
consequences. As outgroup members, these women found spaces of existing that allowed them
to violate norms that are typically applied to the homogenized woman concept that could have
constrained their behavior and found success.
How to Lead
One participant said a leader is,
Someone who can set the tone and give direction either overtly or not…someone who can
be a consistent reference point for people to look to for how they should behave, or
respond to situations. And then, someone who can provide structure for variety of ideas.

The women in this study are leaders. They have experienced different crucible moments, learned
the skills and developed the mindset and resolve to help them navigate different potential
barriers. One participant said,
Well, it's a process. I mean, leadership development is a journey. I mean, you know, I've
been at this now for 30 years in this business. And I started out, you know, with a job that
had a lot of responsibility. I was thrown some really hard matters. So, you know, I had to
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develop, you know, core competencies, of leading. I would say this, I’m a better leader
now than I was by a large margin.
Even today, they continue to learn from each experience and grow as leaders. One participant
related a story about how she sought and acquired a mentor who was a Millennial. She recalled
that it was a phenomenal experience, and it has helped her in multiple ways. Bennis and Thomas
(2002) note that the leaders that they interviewed all learned from other generations.
As leaders now, many of the participants aspire to lead like an ideal coach. An ideal
coach guides the way to success. Leader 1 said,
Listening to a coach, he says, do this and these are the results. Here are the tools that you
need in order to succeed. Do these things. Practice these things. Have you know, get
your mental health correct? Do your conditioning. Like all of these tools are supposed to
put you in the best position to succeed in the path.
She now describes herself as a “coach boss.” She says, “You ask me a question of how to do
something, I’m going to ask you first what you think you should do. Because I want you to
develop.” This idea of letting others problem solve allows them the opportunity to practice
leading and develop adaptive capacity in a safe setting which is key to developing as a leader
(Allio, 2005; Bennis & Thomas, 2002). She continued saying, “You want to put in the effort,
you're putting in the work to get it done, I will do everything I can to help you.” In fact, many of
the women embrace this coach-like or mentoring leadership approach. One participant said, “I'm
teaching, I'm guiding, that means I'm leading.” Another participant said, “I'm trying to meet
people where they are and bring them, which a good coach would do in sports.” Leader 6 said,
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“I try and mentor the women, and the men, right? Like, this is the thing, I help any of the young,
the young people on my team, I help.” She continued saying
Empowering others and helping them to be that person. You know, because, like a lot of
people, they think they’re a leader, and they're not. So, I'm trying to get myself in
position where I can help teach them how to lead.
Leader 8 said, “I guess, what's fundamental for leadership for me is creating an environment
where the people that you're working with can have the chance to be successful and achieve the
mission, whatever that mission is.” Intentional or not, these participants who function as coach
bosses are giving the people they mentor an opportunity to grow as leaders.
Understanding relationships and the environment is a key competency for leaders to
develop. One participant said,
If you're good, you're adaptable. You know, when to be a team player, you know, when
to be a team leader. You know, who to stand up against, you know who to avoid. You
know, how to stand up for yourself.
Understanding context and being a responsive leader, one who is “able to change direction based
on what he or she had observed” are crucial leader competencies (Bennis & Thomas, 2002, p.
164). For another participant, a key strategy she uses is to identify individuals who can help her
reach her goals. She said,
When I was a walk-on, I mean, to keep my spot, I had to learn to get better, you know?
And like okay, what can I do? I had no ego to carry around with me. It was like, I'm at
the bottom of the food chain. I have no problem asking for help. I have no problem
saying, “Is there a better way to do this?” And is there a better way that I can be doing
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this? And I mean, again, I think it's so easy to build up the worst case scenario. What’s
the worst case scenario? In most cases it's really just your pride; they’re going to laugh at
me. They're gonna find me out as being a total fraud. And I think, again, pulling from, I
know who the bad guys look like, so I'm not going to go ask them for help, I'm going to
put up a front. But everybody else, if you're somebody that I feel like I can trust I’m
going to say like, I don't know what I'm doing but, hey, this is totally new to me. What
are the things that we find important? What's going to get me in trouble? Who do I need
to be friends with? Who do I need to leverage in order to get something done and define
your allies?
Leader 2 described the navigation saying,
When you get somewhere, you gotta feel around where you are, and you have to work
things through strategically. You're trying to build relationships, and it's in the building
of relationships over time that allow you to truly be influential”.
Leader 9 said,
When you get to be a really effective leader, what you're get really good at is connecting
dots. You just understand how parts fit together. You know, you're not in a silo. It's your
job to understand how all the pieces fit together. And how if you make this decision, it’s
going to effect that piece.
The participants also realized that they must be balanced leaders. One participant said
that she might have started her career as a “blunt force object,” but she has since “learned how to
sort of hone the tool very well.” Many of the participants, though they have become comfortable
as women leaders, understood that, to be successful they needed to balance some of the traits that
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have been traditionally attributed to women with those ascribed to men. In fact, one participant
described it as beneficial “to be part woman and part man.” She continued saying that traditional
“part woman” traits such as “trying to be consensus oriented” or showing compassion are
valuable in the workplace. Women also need to be able to display traditional masculine traits
such as being “forceful” and “decisive” and “having some level of aggressiveness and ambition”
as well. Ayman and Korabik (2010) believe that this combination of male and female traits, or
androgynous leadership style that emphasizes people and task, may offer increased opportunities
for women.
Summary
The women in this study are leaders and are part of the low percentage of women leaders
in male dominated roles. They faced barriers which could have derailed their aspirations or
caused them to question their skills or sense of belonging; yet, they persevered. The second
research question was designed with the goal of learning more about the experiences that may
have empowered female former collegiate student-athletes to overcome stereotypes and
discrimination which could have been barriers to attaining leadership positions. The mindset that
allowed the athletes to persevere in overtime as athletes or to push the bodies physically to
previously unattained levels is the same mindset that helped the women block out distractions at
work and stay focused on their goals. They learned how to confront negative behavior instead of
internalizing the negativity, and, instead of letting the lack of belonging become a deterrent, they
embraced the freedom of being an outsider.
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The Leader Identity Process
In addition to the data collected addressing the research questions, two different themes
emerged. These themes revealed insights outside of the scope of the research questions but were
still relevant to the overall understanding of the leader identity process. The first emergent theme
Becoming a leader is an emergent process that is based on our self-conceptions and also
on who we are allowed to be. On the one hand the participants believe that some people were
born leaders. Leader 10 said,
I think it's just who people are. Like, there are some people that just want to follow and
that's who they are. There's some people that want to lead, and they won't stop until they
do lead. I've never changed on who I was, from the beginning of time.
Leader 8 had a similar thought saying, “I think there are people who like to lead and who emerge
as leaders, and you almost can't even help it.” These thoughts on leader development were
common, though they were often accompanied by the caveat and acknowledgment that the leader
identity development is a growth process. Leader 7 described it as, “I think that leaders can be
born but leadership can be taught as well.” This points to a latent leader identity that can be
nurtured. Allio (2005) would concur that leadership is dormant until individuals are given an
opportunity. Leader 6 said, “Leadership evolves and definitely comes more naturally to some
people.” This process orientation is congruent with the model that Komives et al. (2005)
conceived.
To grow as a leader, an individual not only needs greater self-awareness, but also the
opportunities and motivation to lead. In many instances the leaders did not seek out leadership
positions. One participant explained her motivation as a young leader saying,
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The one thing that I didn't want to do was fail. Right? So, I think I was motivated to be
prepared or motivated to do what was asked. I think it came from also looking and seeing
what other people, what I didn't want to be, you know. I think we have bad examples and
you have good examples. I never wanted to be the bad example. I wanted to be the
example that people said, “Well this is I how you should do it.”
Leader 8, who also was not seeking to be a leader said, “I imagine, I have natural
leadership capacity. I don't think those are skills that I tried to develop. I think that I probably
had them already. And I was in circumstances where I have the chance to use them.” Mastering
skills through practice is consistent with social learning theory and also supported by the
contention that leaders develop by practicing the skills (Allio, 2005; Bandura, 1977). Another
responded, “No one sat down and said, “Let's go through leadership training.” I mean, for me, it
was just, like, learn by doing and just sort of natural instincts”. She continued saying, “I have
been in leader roles really, my whole life. I mean, I was captain of my high school. So, I mean,
I'm used, I’m kinda used to it. I don't really think about it. I just do it.” Yet, over time, all of
these participants grew as leaders and experienced success as leaders, increasing their self-
efficacy with each positive leadership experience.
With greater self-efficacy, an individual will have a great expectation of mastering the
skill and persist in the pursuit, in this case becoming a leader (Bandura, 1977). Even now, the
participants do not necessarily seek out leadership roles; instead, they are merely working to
achieve their goals and step up when needed. Leader 6 said, “I don't know that I seek out
opportunities to be a leader. I feel like I find myself in situations where I become the leader”.
Leader 8 said,
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I didn’t set out to be a leader. Ok, it's not my mission. I'm not even sure I had a mission. I
think that overriding, probably something that's central to my character, is, when I see
that there's something that's not right, I want to do something about it. Do something
more than talk about it. So I will figure out what I can do to have an impact.
Although you can be placed into a leadership position, the inner drive and motivation to lead is
crucial for the development of a leader identity.
Developing a Leader Identity Outside of Collegiate Athletics
Collegiate athletics was influential in the participants’ leader identity development. That
being said, it was not the only experience that was influential.
Empowering Experiences
The emergent leader identity process is one that is fostered by experiences and influenced
by models (Bennis & Thomas, 2002; Komives et al., 2005). Transformative moments are
opportunities for individuals to gain the intrapersonal skills and learning that bring a greater
understanding of self. These can be moments in their collegiate careers, a childhood experience,
or any other instance where learning can occur. The difference between a moment and a
crucible moment is whether the experiences shape leaders (Bennis & Thomas, 2002). Bennis
and Thomas (2002) stated,
The crucible experience was a trial and a test, a point of deep self-reflection that forced
them to question who they were and what mattered to them. It required them to examine
their values, question their assumptions, hone their judgment. And, invariably, they
emerged from the crucible stronger and more sure of themselves and their purpose—
changed in some fundamental way (p. 63).
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For one participant, a crucible moment occurred before she got to college, as she had to
fight for access to even compete at the collegiate level. She said,
I’d been in AAU swimming since I was 8 years old, 9 years old. So, it was a whole,
completely different mindset. And, when you were in that sport, coming up, you are
participating with the males, you look at each other, you're equals. I ended up being an
activist. The impact of the experience of coming out of a very equitable circumstance
moving into one that was not, was profound.
She also emphasized that her family and even the era influenced her willingness to stand up and
seize the opportunity to lead. She said,
It was the height of political activism among students and the anti-war movements
around Vietnam and Cambodia. There was the, you know, the women's liberation
movement was really starting to fire on all cylinders. And so that was the environment
that I was in and it can't be divorced from or separated from the rest. Had it been five
years earlier, I'm not sure that would have happened, but I came up and I know this is
unusual, too. I never, not once did a family member say to me, isn't it time for you grow
up or, you know, young ladies don't behave like that, or gosh, you're getting too many
muscles, or when are you going get to get serious about other things and be done with
sport? Never, ever, ever. So that was, that's unusual. I know that to be unusual, having
been brought up in a family where speaking up for yourself was valued, having an
opinion. And if you felt strongly about something, then there were things you could do
about it. You didn't have to sit back and do nothing. So we had, again, we're in this
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environment where if you had an opinion, first of all, good on you, have an opinion,
right? And be able to support it and speak up.
Bennis and Thomas (2002) contend that the influence of era is too often overlooked. The
experience of the older participants as they contended with the newness of Title IX and its
enforcement and other key social justice issues was one that the younger participants did not
have to face at all. Hence the mindset that developed out of those experiences was different as
well. Another participant recalled an instance early in her career that left a lasting impression.
I was let in by a crusty old lieutenant colonel who had flown in Vietnam. We were taking
off, and I was a lieutenant co-pilot, and we're getting a check ride, and he had ceased to
read the tech orders. And so I noticed that one of the panels wasn't set up so, I reached
across the console, which isn't done, you know, I put my finger on the button one time
and said, “Sir, I'll just set your nav select panel before we take off because we’re about
ready to get cleared for takeoff and the check pilot was sitting in the jump seat. More
importantly, I would like to live through this” and I still remember he said, "thanks co.”
Small thing, huge thing. that he just let me help him. And those kinds of things matter.
And when you can let go like that, and then people help you…But I think if you don't feel
like you fit in, and then success happens, I don't know. It just added to my gratitude. I'm
so glad this worked out.
This experience was also influenced by the norms of the era. In fact, it was the unexpected,
progressiveness of her superior officer that made this opportunity so significant in such a positive
manner. This mentoring moment ended up being a significant learning moment for this
participant.
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For another participant, confronting her team was a transformative experience. She recalled,
When I was a sophomore in college, we had major chemistry problems on the team and
like the f-ing stars of the team are all whining about losing and they weren’t leaders. Like
I'm sorry, just because you have a better batting average doesn’t make you a team
captain, and, yet, you think that you're leading this team, and I called them out in a
meeting. And, and then I called our coach out. I was like, “This is bullshit. I know that
you don't go all the way down with your pushups and you're upset that we're losing
games? Like f-ing finish, like do your job.” I threw an elbow and it caused a bit of a
like, “All right… like who are you?” I didn't know my voice could get loud. I never
tried to get that loud before. You build up in your head the worst thing that's going to
happen when you do something, right? It's like, Oh, God, the world's going to end. And
then when it doesn't, you're like, “Oh, alright, so good.”
The reactions of her teammates and coaches after she confronted them was not the most
significant part of that interaction. What was most significant was her personal growth in terms
of the loss of fear and empowerment that she felt for speaking her truth.
Trusted others are influential in the development of leaders. Coaches are one potential
model, though they are not the only influencers. Family and mentors also play a significant role
in shaping an individual’s leader identity and helping them navigate different potentially
negative experiences. One participant said, “Whether they were positive or negative, you learn
what not to do, or what you don't like. You learn what you do like.”
The influence of family was significant for the participants. For one participant, who
played football with her brother and the other boys, her mother’s influence helped her feel
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 93

confident and comfortable in who she was as an individual regardless of what others may have
thought or said. She recalled,
I think my mom told me don't worry about it. Be you. She was very supportive. She had
probably a huge influence just because she always, in my eyes, did the right thing and
empowered others. And she wanted to help people get to where they wanted to be and do
what they want to do. And if I wanted to play football, she was going to support me
playing football.”
Another participant remembered an instance in college where she was shocked by an experience
where a friend unconsciously made her very uncomfortable due to her low racial awareness. She
said, “I remember telling my father, and he said, “Don’t give up on her.” She recalled another
instance where her father was able to help her make sense of a stressful situation where she was
frustrated about being the only as a woman and person of color in the room. She said,
I remember I said, “I'm just tired of being the only one. Tired of being the only this.” And
he was like, “I need you to remember that we used to not be there at all. There used to be
no women sitting at the table. There used to be no people of color. And so, don’t let that
become the chip on your shoulder that keeps you from being successful. Figure out how
to make it work for you. And figure out how to work around it, because it's progress.”
The participant’s father helped her engage in reflective learning through meaningful
conversation, a key learning process (Komives et al., 2005). For both participants, the influence
of their parents had a significant impact on helping them have confidence in who they were and
persevere through hardships.
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Bosses and mentors also can serve as influencers by modeling behaviors of a leader. For
one participant, when her boss defended her, she learned a lesson in leadership. She recalled,
Working there, I was the only Black person. One of the sales people that was calling to
reach someone was kind of, well wasn’t kind of, he was very rude and they heard me
trying to maneuver the conversation, and he came out of his office and he took the phone
from me and he said to them, “Don't you ever talk to her like that again.” And it was a
life lesson. Here you have this person who was going to lose a client, it was a client,
money. He said, Nope. We don't want your business. He's like, you don't have to ever
talk to someone, keep going on with a conversation with someone treating you like that
on the phone. It was like, that was a life lesson there and I always remember that.
Another participant, who as a young intern worked in a hyper-masculine environment where
there were few women, remembered a boss who ensured that she always had access to the
individuals who were vital to her completing her work regardless of their status.
As leaders in male dominated fields, many of the participants understand they also must
be models for others to emulate. One participant who has been in many situations over the
course of her career where she has been the first recalled one instance of honesty with a male
colleague. She was told, “We don't know what this is going to look like for a woman to do it.
It’s going to have to look like you.” Her leadership may be a guide for the next aspiring leader
like the bosses and mentors whose behaviors influenced our participants.
Summary of Findings
The collegiate athletic experience was influential in development of a leader identity for
the participants. Practice and games created a unique environment where the participants were
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able to become more self-aware, develop adaptive capacity and gained opportunities to practice
leadership. Relationships with teammates and coaches provided participants with role models
who demonstrated positive leadership and negative leadership; yet all of the participants were
able to learn from the examples. However, athletics is not the only means to develop a leader
identity. The development process is an active process with the participants learning and
growing from every situation they encounter. The meaning making process that they undertake
as individuals or with the aid of trusted people is where they become more efficacious and begin
to truly embrace that they can be leaders.
As professionals, the participants have encountered gender-based stereotypes that sought
to confine them to traditional roles. At times, they felt as if they did not fit in; however,
participants used that lack of belonging as an opportunity to embrace the freedom to express and
behave in a manner that worked best for them in their roles. The participants have been and
continue to lead in agentic and communal manners, attuned to situational and contextual cues
that dictate the most appropriate response.

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CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS
Not every leader is an athlete, nor is every athlete a leader. The process of becoming a
leader is defined by an individual’s own experiences and the learning they derive from those
experiences. Athletics provides an opportunity for student-athletes to become more self-aware,
be exposed to models who can show them different conception of who they may become or who
they do not want to emulate and puts them in challenging situations. What is evident now is that
the athletic experience, whether it was a positive or negative experience the athlete, noticed
and/or appreciated in the moment, was influential and instructive. Some of the lessons,
subconsciously learned, are still impacting the behavior and mindsets of the participants.
Nonetheless, athletics is not the only experience that influences leader identity
development. Experiences in childhood, with parents and mentors or as young professionals all
played a role in helping our leaders and in building the self-efficacy so that they were confident
in the belief that they could be good leaders.
The sum of the learning from crucible moments that the participants went through
influenced their leader identity development and helped them refine the skills necessary to lead
with confidence. There are critical barriers to women attaining leadership, barriers which attack
their sense of self. However, the women in the study were able to develop strategies that helped
them to overcome the barriers. They learned how to confront misogyny and to be themselves,
direct and aggressive at times, empathetic and democratic other times. Through these strategies,
they were able to seize opportunities to lead and have continued to evolve as leaders.
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Concurrent Study Researcher Findings
A concurrent study was conducted that shared an overarching research theme that
focused on the impact of collegiate athletics, leaders and leadership. This study’s research
questions were:
1. How did the collegiate athletic experience influence former female student-athletes’
(FFAs) leadership development?
b. How do FFAs feel their interactions with coaches and teammates influenced their
leadership identity development?
The two studies shared four participants. The interpretation of that interview data was
conducted separately and independently. The concurrent study themes related to environments
and the roles of teammates and coaches in that space; how individuals conceived of themselves
as athletes and their interactions with others; and leadership.
Similar to the participants in this study, the researcher’s participants in the concurrent
study noted that they experienced challenging situations within the collegiate athletic experience.
Those experiences influenced how they approach challenging situations now. The athletic
identity influenced their sense of self and helped them develop persistence (Omizo, 2019). In
terms of leadership, they spoke about the importance of understanding individual’s strengths and
ensuring that those strength were developed. That mindset is analogous to sports teams where
teammates must rely on one another to perform their roles in order to win (Omizo, 2019). They
also felt as if they are still learning and growing as leaders (Omizo, 2019). One participant
remarked that her growth as a leader was not based upon one moment, but “[a] thousand
moments that kind of put it all together” (Omizo, 2019). These findings are consistent with the
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expressed views of the participants in this study in that they affirm similar findings from this
study.
Implications of Findings: Becoming a Leader
Based upon the interview findings, the theoretical foundation of the study and
synthetization of past literature, a conceptual model was created to represent the process of
becoming a leader. Each component is reviewed in the subsequent sections.

The development of a leader identity is a process. We enter the process with our own
conceptions of who we think we are and who we think we can be (Figure 3), a mindset created
due to our past experiences personally and in society (Turner et. al, 1994). The social identity
approach provides clarity to explain the development of self. On the one hand, we are shaped by
the societal boundaries that are placed upon us. On the other hand, our family and the
environment (era, neighborhood, etc.) also shapes us. Finally, there is our own personality and
hidden selves that build together to create our possible self-conception. To become leaders,
especially women leaders, one must shirk the traditional expectations of society and its equating
of men to leaders. If women can embrace the idea of a possible self that believes they can lead,
Figure 3. Influencers on Possible Self Conception (Baugh, 2019).
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they are more likely to embrace the role and the skills development training so that they are
prepared to lead when the opportunity arises.
Our sense of self begins to evolve as situations arise that impact our leader identity
development (Figure 4). Every experience, not just the collegiate athletic experience, but all
transformative, crucible moments provide us with opportunities to gain a new understanding of
we are and our possible selves (Bennis & Thomas, 2002; Komives et al., 2005). We learn and
derive meaning from the moments that can happen in an activity, a new opportunity or in the
wise words of a mentor either on our own or with the advice of trusted others (Bandura, 1977;
Bennis & Thomas, 2002). In the collegiate athletic setting, the trusted other may be a coach or
teammate. In life, it may be our family members, mentors, bosses or friends who serve as
models and mentors. These individuals model the way as leaders, setting both good and bad
examples. They can also help make meaning of the experience an individual is going through.
For aspirational leaders, the learning from the crucible moments can lead to greater self-
efficacy and a confidence in their conception of a possible self as a leader (Bandura, 1977;
Bennis & Thomas, 2002). As we encounter different situations, there is an initial thought that
Figure 4. The Impact of Crucible Moments on Possible Self (Baugh, 2019).
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makes us ponder whether we can be successful. Our self-efficacy towards a situation will
influence whether we will persist in the skills development necessary to master the endeavor.
Through crucible moments, we learn more about what we can accomplish, a greater
understanding of what our priorities may be and a sense of purpose and justice. These insights
are the leadership skills that will prepare us for any challenge.
Once an individual conceives that they are able to lead, that individual still needs to be
given an opportunity to lead (Figure 5). In athletics, athletes are given numerous opportunities to
lead whether they are selected as captain or they serve an informal role on team. Leadership
opportunities also arise off the field when athletes are asked to speak to the press or donors or
serve in their communities. It should also be noted that every practice and game is an
opportunity to grow and reveal yourself as a leader. As one participant said, “People show who
they are during practice.” The game and practice environment demand that athletes read the
environment and adapt, accept criticism and make corrections to improve and work hard in front
of others and on their own.
Figure 5. The Path to Obtaining Leadership Positions (Baugh, 2019).
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In the real world, the opportunity to lead formally is constrained by personal factors and
societal barriers. Prescriptive stereotypes that dictate how men and women behave and the
gendering of leadership are barriers to women even having an opportunity to lead. Women may
be overlooked for different opportunities due to their gender. The women in this study employed
different navigation strategies to best position themselves for different opportunities to lead.
While they waited for their opportunity to lead, the participants continued to go through
moments where they learned and grow as leaders.
Once an individual is given an opportunity to lead, an individual must choose to lead or
not. The decision to lead, much like the opportunity, is influenced by societal and personal
barriers. Once the leader has accepted the position, the style which they lead will be situational.
In some situations, a woman may lead like a man; they may be decisive and authoritative. In
other situations, they may be democratic and display an empathy that empowers the individuals
they are leading. The leadership style is not predicated on their gender.
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Figure 6. The Process of Becoming a Leader (Baugh, 2019).
Even as a leader, individuals will encounter crucible, transformative moments. The
process is cyclical (Figure 6). In those moments, trusted others may help them make sense of the
situation and increase their self-efficacy so that they can step up and lead with the confidence
that they are prepared for the moment and will do a great job leading.
A New Normal
Ultimately, by attaining leadership positions in male dominated fields, the participants
overcame gender-based stereotypes and prejudice, embraced their outsider status and violated
social norms. Barriers may be overt, but, more likely there will be subtle biases that create the
general feeling that they do not belong, are not qualified in some way, or their behavior is
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unbecoming of a woman. These gender norms and stereotypes are the current normal even as
more women become leaders. Gender is a cultural concept that evolves, and what is perceived as
masculine today, may be androgynous or even feminine in the future. At times, the women
embraced characteristics and behaviors traditionally ascribed to men. They had to be decisive,
forceful and direct. Other times, they built consensus and were empathetic. Given that
becoming a leader is not just about the opportunity to lead, but is reliant upon our self-
conceptions, the women had to be confident in who they were when they violated prescriptive
gender norms.
As noted, when women are not treated as a monolith, but as a diverse group, research
has found that social norms may differ dependent upon points of different aspects of their
identity (Rosette et al., 2016). When considering female athletes, their athletic identity may also
allow more leniency to defy social norms than those applied to women in general. As it is, as
former athletes, they embody traits traditional ascribed to men, such as athletic. Furthermore, as
high achieving athletes, by virtue of sport and their success, they also had to be competitive and
forceful and other traits traditionally used to describe men (Prentice & Carranza, 2002).
The athletic environment also created a safe space for these women to violate social
norms. Dasgupta and Asgari (2004) contend that an environment where role models demonstrate
attainable accomplishments that are counter to the norm can be powerful influencers in rewiring
the automatic responses that encourage the status quo stereotypical behavior. The athletic
environment, when a young girl has the opportunity to be surrounded by young women who are
celebrated and encouraged to be strong and capable, can create a sense of normal at a young age
that is counter to the stereotypes about women.
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Dasgupta (2011) predicted in his stereotype inoculation model that contact and exposure
to models and peers who are counter-stereotypical at a young age can function as a “social
vaccine” that helps individuals overcome self-doubt and sustain their self-efficacy. For the
women in this study, peers, parents, coaches and mentors all provided the permission to violate
societal norms. The progressive coaches who allowed some of the participants to compete on the
men’s teams and treated them as athletes instead of outsiders allowed them to be strong athletes
and define their goals without the pressure of conform to a feminine ideal. In a time when girls
were often expected to be seen and not heard, a family who encouraged a young girl to use her
voice, to have an opinion and speak up was an empowering precedent that went counter to the
norm. Similarly, when a mother supports her daughter in the fullness of who she is, including as
a football player, the opinions of others can be muted. When a member of a previous generation,
and a person of influence and power at that, set the precedent that he could receive help from a
woman, he set the precedent that she did not need to accept any judgment that factored in her
gender. These models all helped the women to build self-efficacy as they violated social norms
and became leaders. Ultimately, these experiences would serve them as they became leaders and
continue to confront challenges and barriers as leaders today.
Recommendations
This study was also significant given the conversation on the cost of collegiate athletics and
its impact on the educational process of student-athletes and the reputational cost to universities.
Collegiate athletics has become more commercialized and the time commitment has increased
substantially. Given that collegiate athletics, with the large coaching staffs and other supports
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available, has a unique ability to give athletes an opportunity to go through transformative
moments in a safe environment, the researcher proposes the following recommendations:
• Provide athletes with experiential leadership training opportunities. Scenarios where an
athlete must engage with the topic and work with trusted mentors and peers to develop
solutions help them build efficacy and transferable leadership skills. The best format for
this type of training is in a leadership class that spans their entire career and is scaffolded
to continue the development of a leader identity and give the student-athletes increasing
opportunities to lead.
• Develop mentoring networks where the athlete and the mentor are guided in order to
facilitate the learning process and sharing of lived experiences. Mentors can be alumni,
coaches and members of campus. The key criteria for the mentors is that they must have
an expertise or set of experiences that they are willing to share. These interactions are
learning opportunities.
• Just as educational goals have been included as evaluative measures of performance for
coaches, the holistic development of student-athletes also needs to be included. Coaches
are primarily judged on their teams’ wins and losses. This emphasis is a disservice to the
athlete and coach who would like to create a balanced culture or spend time developing
their athletes beyond sport. It is recognized that the athlete must engage in development
opportunities; however, this expectation does not absolve coaches. Just as an athlete has
ultimate responsibility over their academic achievement, coaches are still expected to be
positive influencers on their academic pursuits. Similarly, with the support of a coach, an
athlete may be more apt to engage in different leader identity growth experiences be it
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SAAC or community service. By tangibly recognizing the extra investment of time and
resources into the development of student-athletes, it incentivizes coaches to perhaps
reduce practice times in the off-season or otherwise allow their athletes the time to pursue
other opportunities that would help them grow as individuals.
• On a national level, the NCAA needs to institute more restrictions on practice time in the
off-season. As a former athlete, the researcher can appreciate an athletes’ desire to
practice and play. However, as educators, the overemphasis on athletics, especially given
the low percentage of athletes who have professional athletic careers, requires that the
necessary skills of life, such as leadership, be emphasized as well. If the national office
creates the legislation, then it will be applied to everyone and the coaches will adapt to
the decreased practice time.
Future Studies
This study looked at the lived experiences of female former collegiate student-athletes. It
is not a complete picture of the impact of collegiate athletics nor does it go in depth into some of
the relationships that are influential in the leader identity development process. Researchers
interested in pursuing this line of research or extending this study should remember that the
participants in this study represent just a small subsect of the diverse group of women who have
competed in collegiate athletics. The lived experiences of a more diverse pool of women would
provide a greater understanding of the leader identity development of women and former female
athletes. Furthermore, a more diverse pool could lead the researcher to uncover other influences
that may have been overlooked due to the lack of focus on intersectionality. Finally, as this
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study on studied women who had attained leadership roles, future research may compare the
lived experiences of female former collegiate student-athletes, especially captains, who have not
attained leadership positions.
In this chapter, a conceptual model based upon the experiences of the women and
synthesis of past research and theories was offered to explain the process of becoming a leader.
The collegiate athletic experience has the potential to create crucible moments and opportunities
for leaders to practice their skills under the potentially insightful eye of coaches and teammates
who can help make meaning of difficult situations. However, there are countless experiences
that could potentially help leaders learn and increase their self-efficacy. The women in the study
overcame barriers and became leaders. As leaders, they do what is necessary to achieve their
goals and win.

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WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 122

APPENDIX A: INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
Former Female Student-Athletes’ Perceptions of Coaches and Teammates Role in
Leadership Identity Development
Date:
Time:
Location:
Interviewer:
Interviewee:
I. Introductory Protocol
(Purpose, Line of Inquiry, Plan, Confidentiality, Reciprocity, Permission to Record):
Good (Morning/Afternoon),and thank you again for your time. The purpose of this interview is to
understand your perception and experience related to the role of the collegiate athletic
experience in the leadership development of former collegiate female athletes. I also hope to
explore the role the collegiate athletic experience may have played in your career trajectory and
in navigating gendered stereotypes as a professional. My primary goal through this process is to
understand your own experiences, which is to say there is no right or wrong answer.
You were provided a copy of a Consent to Participate form that gave an overview of the study as
well pertinent information of what we are asking of you and your rights as a participant. I
would like to emphasize that your participation is completely voluntary and, if you feel
uncomfortable at any point, you may terminate the interview or request your interview not be
used in our dataset. None of your personal information will be used in the reporting of the data
and the perspectives you provide will not be shared with anyone outside of the research team.
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 123

Instead, your contributions will be used within the broader dataset to identify themes among
other participants, which I will then report in the aggregate rather than individually. I hope this
approach will allow you and others to provide the most honest and truthful perspectives to our
questions.By signing the consent form, you are indicating that you agree to the terms outlined on
the form and voluntarily are participating.
The interview should take no more than 90 minutes, however I am flexible given the demands of
your schedule.
Are there any questions I can answer before we begin?
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 124

II. Understanding the Former Female Athlete’s Collegiate Experiences

Student Athlete Experience
First, I’d like to start by asking you some general questions about your experiences as a female
student athlete at [insert college name]. We ask that you keep in mind your own experiences,
particularly as a woman (of color), as you consider your response. Could you begin by stating
your name, college or university attended, and current professional role within your
organization for our records?
1. How would you describe your college experience as a student athlete?
1.1. How did you end up playing your sport?
1.2. What experiences as a female student athlete do you feel were unique when compared to
male athletes? What about in comparison to your non-athlete peers?
1.3. How would you describe your relationships with your coach(es), athletics staff, and/or
teammates?
1.3.1. Were any relationships especially formative for your overall development?
Understandings of Leadership
[INSERT ANOTHER INTRODUCTION TO INDICATE TRANSITIONING TO ANOTHER
TOPIC WITHIN THE INTERVIEW TO HELP YOUR PARTICIPANT ADJUST THEIR
FOCUS]
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 125

2. Based on abovementioned experiences, how do you define what it means to be a leader and
exhibit leadership?
2.1. What are some examples of past athletic experiences (and/or relationships within
athletics) that helped shape your definition?
2.2. Could you provide a descriptive example(s) of specific leadership lessons you learned
through sport as a female student athlete?
3. How have your past experiences and leadership lessons learned as a female student athlete
informed your career as a professional?
Gendered Experiences as a Professional Leader
[INSERT ANOTHER INTRODUCTION TO INDICATE TRANSITIONING TO THE FINAL
TOPIC WITHIN THE INTERVIEW TO HELP YOUR PARTICIPANT ADJUST THEIR
FOCUS]
4. Looking back over your career, could you describe your professional journey?
4.1. What experiences, as a woman, do you feel were unique in comparison to your male
colleagues?
4.1.1. How did you perceive and feel about those instances?
4.2. Could you describe any gendered (or sexist) professional experiences you’ve
encountered as a leader in a professional setting?
4.2.1. How did you perceive and feel about these experiences?
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 126

4.3. How do you feel your experiences and the leadership lessons learned as a female student
athlete influenced your approach to navigating gendered stereotypes and
social/professional norms?
Interview Wrap-Up
5. That was our last question for today, so thank you for providing such great responses.
However, just in-case we missed something during our conversation, is there anything that
you would like to add before we conclude?
III. Closing (thank you and follow-up option):
Again, thank you so much, I truly appreciate your time and willingness to share your experiences
and thoughts. To ensure an accurate conveyance of your experience, would you mind if I contact
you with any follow-up questions and to get your feedback on our analysis of your responses?

WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 127

APPENDIX B: CONSENT FORM
Study Title: Women and Leadership: The Impact of Collegiate Athletics on Leadership
Development and Attainment of Leadership Positions
Principal Investigator: Stephanie Baugh
Co-Investigator: Carly Omizo
IRB Study Number: APP-18-04395

You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by two students in their second year
of a doctoral program (Ed.D) at the University of Southern California in the Rossier School of
Education. This form contains pertinent information detailing the purpose of this study, what
will be required of you as a participant, your rights, and how we will use the information that you
share.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to understand the impact the collegiate athletic experience has on the
leadership development and attainment of senior leadership positions of former female athletes
(FFA). Over the past five years, there has been a growing awareness that women in leadership
positions, specifically the C-suite, were former athletes. Although there is heightened awareness
of a possible correlation, research on the impact of collegiate athletics on former female athletes
and their leadership development has been lacking. The following research questions guide the
study:
• How does the collegiate athletic experience influence current and former female student-
athletes’ (FFAs) leadership development?
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 128

o What role did the college athletic experience of FFAs play in navigating gendered
stereotypes and social norms?
o How do FFAs feel their interactions with coaches and teammates influenced their
leadership identity development?
Participant Involvement
As a participant in the following, your participation will entail:
• One (1) in-person interview lasting no more than 2 hours will be conducted in a secure,
quiet and familiar setting to the participant;
• Prompts will be provided prior to the interview so that the participant can reflect before
the discussion;
• The interview will be audio recorded and the interviewer will take notes. All data
(recordings and notes) will be confidential and securely stored in a locked file cabinet. I
may quote your remarks as part of findings from the study. A pseudonym will be used to
protect your identity, unless you specifically request that you be identified with your true
name.
Possible Risks or Discomforts
To the best of our knowledge, participation in this study does not involve any more risk of harm
than may be encountered in everyday life. Please note, the interviewer will ask about personal
experiences and the impact of gendered stereotypes on your career trajectory.
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 129

• If you feel uncomfortable at any point, please inform the interviewer if you wish to not
answer the question, take a break or stop the interview.
As with all research, there is a chance that despite all efforts to ensure confidentiality, the
information that we collect could be breach. We will take all necessary steps to minimize risks
(see below for more details).
Possible Benefits
This study is designed to understand the impact of the collegiate athletic experience on female
athletes. Thus, you likely will not receive a direct, personal benefit.
Use of Information and Privacy Rights
The researchers will avoid collecting information that may harm participants and will do their
best to de-identify all information (Creswell, 2014) All raw data will be stored in a secure
location. Recorded interviews will be coded with the date and location; the name of the
participant will not be used. Results from this study will be reported as findings in a dissertation
and may be used in future scholarly publications.
Financial Information
Participation in this study will involve no cost to you nor will you be compensated for
participating.
Participant Rights
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 130

Participation in this study is voluntary. You have the right to not answer any question. If at any
time and for any reason you would prefer not to participate in this study, you may stop
participating. You have the right to take a break or stop at any point during the interview. You
may withdraw from the study at any point. Please note, if you choose to withdraw from this
study, you will be asked if the information previously collected may be used.
If you have any questions about your rights as a participant in this research, you can contact the
following office at the University of Southern California:
University Park Institutional Review Board (UP IRB)
University of Southern California
3720 South Flower Street #301
Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702
Phone: (213) 821-5272
Email: upirb@usc.edu
The University of Southern California’s Human Subjects Protection Program (HSPP) reviews
and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects. Members of
HSPP may access collected data in their oversight capacity.
Investigator Contact Information
Co-Principal Investigator:
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 131

Stephanie Baugh

Co-Principal Investigator:
Carly Omizo

Dissertation Committee Chair:
Margo Pensavalle
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Parkway

You will be given a copy of this form to keep for your records.

WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 132

Statement of Consent:
I have read the above information and have received answers to any questions I asked. I consent
to take part in the study.
Your Signature ___________________________________ Date ________________________
Your Name (printed) ____________________________________________________________

In addition to agreeing to participate, I also consent to having the interview audio recorded.

Your Signature ___________________________________ Date _________________________
Signature of person obtaining consent _________________________________Date__________
Printed name of person obtaining consent ____________________________ Date ___________

WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 133

APPENDIX C: DEMOGRAPHIC SURVEY

WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 134

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Asset Metadata

Creator Baugh, Stephanie Michelle (author)

Core Title Women and leadership: the impact of collegiate athletics on leader identity development and attainment of leadership positions

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 05/03/2019

Defense Date 03/21/2019

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag collegiate athletics,leader identity,leadership,OAI-PMH Harvest,Women

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Hasan, Angela (committee chair), Pensavalle, Margo (committee chair), Davis, Charles (committee member)

Creator Email stephaniembaugh@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-166586

Unique identifier UC11660199

Identifier etd-BaughSteph-7393.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-166586 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-BaughSteph-7393.pdf

Dmrecord 166586

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Baugh, Stephanie Michelle

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA