University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

A school leadership approach to building a college-going culture for low-income Latinx students: high school case study

(USC Thesis Other)

A school leadership approach to building a college-going culture for low-income Latinx students: high school case study

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content Running head: LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 1
1

A SCHOOL LEADERSHIP APPROACH TO BUILDING A COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
FOR LOW-INCOME LATINX STUDENTS: HIGH SCHOOL CASE STUDY
by
Luz Marina Arellano

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2019

Copyright 2019 Luz M. Arellano

LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 2

DEDICATION
I want to dedicate this study to my family, in particularly to my siblings, nephews and
cousins. You all have been strong first generation college-going Latinx students, and with or
without the support have managed to get far. I believe in you. Thank you for being my
inspiration to pursue this degree, to pursue to learn more about promising practices to support
our community, and for giving me an opportunity to be there for you.
I also want to dedicate this to my students and thank you for giving me the opportunity to
learn from you. All of you have been amazing and I absolutely have loved being your counselor,
your professor and mentor. This is for all of my first generation college going and English
language learner students, and all of those who have once felt like the “invisible student.” You
can do it! I did.
Por último, le dedico este título a mis abuelos y padres, que con tanto sacrificio me dieron
la oportunidad de estudiar y tener todas las oportunidades que ahora tengo. Gracias por las
largas horas de trabajo, por el espíritu de superación que me enseñó a nunca rendirme. Gracias
por hacerme reír cada vez que decían “Otra vez vas a estudiar? Cuanto te falta?” Los amo!
Gracias hermanos Estrella, Mirna, Javier y Luis Angel- esto es por y para ustedes! Chelito,
terminé! Te amo!

LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First I would like to acknowledge all of the people who have believed in me and
supported me throughout the years. Thank you to my chair, Dr. Stowe and committee members,
Dr. Malloy and Professor Ahmadi J.D. for your guidance throughout this process. Second, I
want to thank my family and extended family also known as my colleagues for your
encouragement and faith in me. Thank you for always reminding me that I can reach any goal I
set my mind to, and for your continued understanding while I attempted to juggle school, work
and my personal life. Thank you USC family/friends, professors and mentors. You all inspire
me so much. Thank you to my twin sister for always challenging me and for picking me up
when I felt emotionally exhausted. You are earning this degree with me! I could have not been
able to finish the last few months without your unconditional love and support.
Lastly, but never least I want to thank God for giving me strength, especially towards the
end of this journey. I never lost faith and knew he would walk me to the finish line.

LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 4

TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................ 2
LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................................... 6
LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................ 7
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... 8
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY ........................................................................ 9
Background of the Problem....................................................................................................... 10
Role of School Leadership in Building a College-Going Culture 11
College and Career Readiness and College-Going Culture 11
College Access for Latinx Students 12
Statement of the Problem .......................................................................................................... 13
Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................................. 14
Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 14
Significance of the Study .......................................................................................................... 15
Limitations and Delimitations ................................................................................................... 16
Glossary of Terms ..................................................................................................................... 16
Organization of the Study ......................................................................................................... 17
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................... 18
Factors that Hinder Latinx Students’ Access to Higher Education ........................................... 18
Systemic Barriers 19
Discrimination and Stereotype Threat 20
Ethnic Identity 21
Socioemotional Focus 21
Sociocultural Factors 22
Latinx Perception of College Access ........................................................................................ 23
Financial Barriers 23
Social Capital 24
Creating and Sustaining a College-Going Culture .................................................................... 25
College Preparatory Curriculum 26
High Academic Standards & Communication Networks that Promote College Expectations
28
Resources Devoted to Counseling and Advising College-Bound Students 29
School Leadership in the School Context ................................................................................. 35
Summary ................................................................................................................................... 38
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................... 41
Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 41
Research Design ........................................................................................................................ 41
Sample and Population .............................................................................................................. 42
Overview of the Organization ................................................................................................... 43
Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................................. 44
Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................................. 46
Data Collection .......................................................................................................................... 47
Instrumentation.......................................................................................................................... 49
Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 50
Ethical Considerations............................................................................................................... 51
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 5

Credibility and Trustworthiness 52
Summary ................................................................................................................................... 52
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS .................................................................................................... 54
Overview of the Organization and Participants ........................................................................ 54
Former Principal 56
Principal 57
Assistant Principals 58
Counselors 58
Teachers 59
Findings for Research Question One: Strategies Used to Promote a College-Going Culture .. 60
School Leaders Communicate High Expectations of College Access and Shared
Responsibility of College Knowledge 60
School Leaders Support College Access Through Instructional Expectations 63
School Leaders Provide Resources to Support Students’ Academic Eligibility and Access to
College Knowledge 65
Discussion of Research Questions One 73
Findings for Research Question Two: Challenges in Sustaining College-Going Culture ........ 74
School Leaders’ Perception of College Cost and Students’ Persistence 75
Need to Build School Leader’s Capacity to Support Students’ Self-Efficacy 77
Limited Resources to Execute College-Going Practices Affect the Sustainability of the
College-Going Culture 78
Discussion of Research Question Two 79
Summary ................................................................................................................................... 80
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY .................................................................................................... 83
Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................................. 83
Summary of Findings ................................................................................................................ 84
Implications for Practice ........................................................................................................... 87
Culturally Responsive Instructional Practices 88
Social Emotional Learning Competency 89
Recommendations for Future Studies ....................................................................................... 89
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 90
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 92
APPENDIX A Protocol for Interview ........................................................................................ 103
APPENDIX B Observation Tool ................................................................................................ 105
APPENDIX C Introduction Letter .............................................................................................. 106

LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 6

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Purposeful Sampling 48
Table 2: Research Question Instrumentation 49

LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 7

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological systems model. 45
Figure 2: Ed.D. thematic group conceptual framework. 47
Figure 3: Creswell’s six steps for data analysis. 50

LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 8

ABSTRACT
This study applies Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model for human development and McClafferty
and colleagues’ work on factors of a college-going culture to explore practices to promote and
sustain a college-going culture at an urban high school with a high enrollment of low-income
Latinx students. The purpose of this case study was to identify practices that increase Latinx
students’ enrollment in higher education. Sixteen school leaders shared their experiences in
promoting a college-going culture and the challenges they face to sustain it. Data were collected
via semi-structured interviews, observations and document analysis. Promising practices include
communicating high expectations and shared responsibility for college access, accountability
measures to support student learning, and allocating resources that offer broad exposure to
college preparatory curriculum and a comprehensive college readiness system. The challenges
relate to perceptions of college affordability and accessibility, a need to build capacity in school
leaders, and limited financial and human resources. The findings highlight the role of school
leaders in creating collaborative structures to communicate college knowledge and the
importance of fostering a strength-based and culturally responsive college-going culture that
supports students holistically while developing human and social capital.

LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 9

CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Globalization and rapid advances in technology are dramatically changing the job
landscape, demanding that students are better prepared with the skills to meet the demands of the
21st century workforce (Carnevale, Smith, & Strohl, 2013). It is projected that, by 2020, 65% of
jobs will require a postsecondary degree. Furthermore, there will be an increased demand for
workers within STEM fields, and 92% of those jobs will require postsecondary education and/or
training (Carnevale et al., 2013; Dyce, Albold, & Long, 2013). Policymakers expect students to
graduate high school equipped with the necessary skills to matriculate into postsecondary
education (Carnevale et al., 2013). These expectations are tied to accountability measures that
require public schools to close the achievement gap. Encouraging students to achieve a
postsecondary education can benefit the country overall, as education is widely viewed as a
ladder out of poverty and catalyst to increase civic engagement and lower crime rates (Lillard et
al., 2017; Soule & Warrick, 2015; Tierney & Duncheon, 2015).
American schools are diverse in student composition, with a significant enrollment of
Latinx students. The Latinx student population has been the fastest growing subgroup in our
educational system. In 2014, 24% of K-12 enrollment was composed of Latinx students, and this
percentage is expected to increase to at least 29% by 2026 (National Center for Education
Statistics, 2017). Historically, Latinx students have ranked behind Whites and Blacks in
educational attainment (Gregory, 2003; Vela-Gude et al., 2009). According to the United States
Census Bureau, in 2016, 83% of Latinx earned a high school diploma compared to 94% of
Whites and 90% of Blacks. Additionally, 21% of Latinx students obtained some postsecondary
education, and 45% obtained a bachelor’s degree, compared to 74% of Whites with a bachelor’s
degree and 66% of Blacks with a bachelor’s degree (Carnevale & Fasules, 2017). Growing
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 10

demands for future workforce call for school leaders’ efforts to improve Latinx students’
educational attainment. Research shows comprehensive school programs that foster a college-
going culture are effective at increasing students’ academic achievement and college-going
aspirations (Farmer-Hinton, 2011; McClafferty, McDonough, & Nunez, 2002).
Background of the Problem
The educational system in the United States allocates substantial resources to increase
college matriculation. Policymakers increased educational accountability in 2001 with No Child
Left Behind as the new accountability system and implemented measures to urge high-quality
instruction and more equitable outcomes for all children (Darling-Hammond & Pittenger, 2014).
Today, accountability measures continue through the Common Core State Standards (CCSS),
and teachers are expected to deliver authentic, inquiry-based instruction (Darling-Hammond &
Pittenger, 2014). The CCSS align with 21st century skills to ensure students graduate high
school equipped with the cognitive and noncognitive skills to compete in a global and more
technological economy (Carnevale et al., 2013; Conley, 2008; Yamamura, Martinez, & Saenz,
2010).
In 2013, First Lady Michelle Obama presented The Reach Higher Initiative to help all
young people gain access to postsecondary education (Poyton & Lapan, 2017). In the same year,
educational accountability measures, such as the local control accountability plan, were released
to monitor how school districts spent money, improved student outcomes, and increased college
and career readiness (Bae & Darling-Hammond, 2014). Furthermore, in 2017, California
adopted a new accountability system, the California School Dashboard, to help educational
agencies monitor their progress, highlight the performance of student groups, and identify
strengths and areas of improvement. The website provides information on students’ test
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 11

performance, graduation rates, and college and career readiness. The new measure aims to guide
school district leaders on allocating funding and resources for subgroups most in need. Driven
by such initiatives, accountability measures and achievement gaps, school leaders foster school-
wide academic accountability efforts that support college attainment (Deans & Robinson, 2015).
Role of School Leadership in Building a College-Going Culture
Perna and Thomas (2008) emphasize that students’ overall success can be influenced by
the interactions they have with a larger group of stakeholders. A child’s social environment
comes primarily from the child’s school, where several stakeholders contribute to the child’s
preparation and success. School leaders play an influential role in student learning, and their
leadership has a greater impact when it is widely distributed (Leithwood, Harris, & Hopkins,
2008; Orr & Barber, 2005). School leadership is carried by administrators, teachers and
counselors, and each plays an important role in creating a college-going culture (Corwin &
Tierney, 2007; Yamamura et al., 2010). Through their leadership and vision, they set
expectations on how staff is involved in engaging, encouraging, and equipping students to access
resources postsecondary education (Darling-Hammond & Snyder, 2015; Holland & Farmer-
Hinton, 2009). Thus, school leaders influence how staff and stakeholders interact with students
and on which resources and programs are available to students.
College and Career Readiness and College-Going Culture
Definitions of college and career readiness vary, and these terms are often used
interchangeably (Bailey et al., 2010; Tierney & Duncheon, 2015). Some definitions include
cognitive and noncognitive facets, while others encompass a variety of skills needed to succeed
in postsecondary education (Porter & Polikoff, 2012). According to Conley (2007),
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 12

College readiness can be defined as the level of preparation a student needs in order to
enroll and succeed—without remediation — in a credit-bearing general education course
at a postsecondary institution that offers a baccalaureate degree or transfer to a
baccalaureate program. (p. 1)
Understanding the definition of college and career readiness informs educators about
what a college-going culture should encompass. According to Corwin and Tierney (2007), a
high school’s college-going culture “cultivates aspirations and behavior conducive to preparing
for, applying to and enrolling in college” (p. 3). College and career readiness speaks to the skills
students need to be successful in postsecondary education, while a college-going culture refers to
the characteristics of the school which foster college-going aspirations. This study focused on
examining promising practices in building a college-going culture at an urban school.
College Access for Latinx Students
American public schools are undergoing an achievement gap and a postsecondary
matriculation crisis, where the most affected pupils are of low income and Hispanic descent
(CDE, 2017; Cook, Boals, & Lundberg, 2011; Nunez et al., 2016; Swail, Cabrera, & Lee, 2004;
Tomas Rivera Policy Institute & National Hispanic Caucus of State Legislators, 2003). These
students are risk of dropping out of high school, not meeting college entrance requirements,
falling behind in college matriculation rates, and continuing to be underrepresented at 4-year
universities (Burke, 2013; Cook, Pérusse, & Rojas, 2012; Dukakis, Duong, Ruiz de Velasco, &
Henderson, 2014; Dyce et al., 2013; Ohrt, Lambie, & Ieva, 2009a; Savitz-Romer, 2012; Schmid,
2001; Suárez-Orozco, Onaga, & de Lardemelle, 2010; Vela-Gude et al., 2009). Additionally,
high numbers of Latinx students graduate high school without the academic preparation for
postsecondary education (Creech & Clouse, 2013; Savitz-Romer, 2012; Soule & Warrick, 2015;
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 13

Vela-Gude et al., 2009). Low student achievement rates, increased future workforce demands,
and accountability measures to improve student outcomes are spurring school leaders to seek
new strategies to engage Latinx students in college-going practices (Bae & Darling-Hammond,
2014; Carnevale et al., 2013; Dyce et al., 2013).
In 2017 in California, only 39.4% of Latinx students met university entrance admission
requirements, compared to 52.1% of White students (CDE, 2018). Student under preparedness
for the 21
st
century workforce is problematic to the nation (Tomas Rivera Policy Institute &
National Hispanic Caucus of State Legislators, 2003; National Center for Education Statistics,
2017). These statistics indicate that first-generation college-going students need more guidance
on navigating college-related matters (Belasco, 2013; Bryan et al., 2009; Savitz-Romer, 2012).
Therefore, there is an opportunity for school leaders to provide this guidance and help close the
achievement gap for Latinx students (Belasco, 2013; Dyce et al., 2013; McKillip, Rawls, &
Barry, 2012; Savitz-Romer, 2012).
Statement of the Problem
Postsecondary education and training are critical, as careers requiring higher education
emerge each year (Carnevale et al., 2013). These changes necessitate American students’
emerging from secondary to postsecondary school better prepared with 21st century workforce
skills. Current legislation draws attention to this matter by increasing accountability at the
federal, state, and local levels. Legislation ensures that school districts allocate programs and
resources to increase student outcomes and postsecondary matriculation (Bae & Darling-
Hammond, 2014; CDE, 2017; Cohen, 2008; Darling-Hammond & Pittenger, 2014; Poyton &
Lapan, 2017).
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 14

School leaders can ensure accountability measures are met through a culturally sensitive
systemic approach and inclusive college-going culture. Development of a college-going culture
is aimed at increasing college admission eligibility and at supporting college aspirations
(Leithwood et al., 2008). Therefore, studying how school leaders successfully promote and
engage students in a college-going culture can provide insight and direction to educators on how
to close the achievement gap for Latinx students and support their aspirations to matriculate into
postsecondary education.
Purpose of the Study
Globalization research and increasing accountability measures at the federal, state, and
local levels recognize a growing need for more students to enroll in higher education to meet the
needs of an emerging 21
st
century workforce (Carnevale et al., 2013). As stated by researchers, a
collective school leadership effort is needed to ensure students graduate high school
academically ready and able to pursue postsecondary education and adapt to a changing
economy (Barton, 2011; Carnevale et al., 2013; Conley, 2008; Corwin & Tierney, 2007;
McCollough, 2011; Soule & Warrick, 2015). While creating a college-going culture increases
college enrollment (Farmer-Hinton, 2011; McClafferty et al., 2002), little is known about
strategies to foster and sustain a college-going culture. Learning how school leaders create and
sustain a college-going culture can serve as a roadmap to closing the achievement gap and
increasing college enrollment.
Research Questions
The purpose of this study was to examine promising strategies leaders at one high school
employ to promote a college-going culture for a population with a high number of
socioeconomically disadvantaged Latinx students. Additionally, challenges to sustaining the
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 15

culture were also explored. The research questions developed for this study were constructed
collaboratively by six members of a University of Southern California Ed.D. thematic
dissertation group:
1. What strategies do school leaders at Tiller High School employ to promote a college-
going culture in urban high schools with low-income Latinx students?
2. What are the challenges of school leaders in sustaining a college-going culture at Tiller
High School?
Significance of the Study
There is a growing need for more students to enroll in higher education, as it is projected
that, by 2025, 65% of jobs will require postsecondary education. Students who graduate high
school unprepared to attend a 4-year college will be less likely to take advantage of the nation’s
economic, political, and social opportunities. Research on the achievement gap and college
matriculation among low-income Latinx students expands on the importance of identifying and
evaluating college access programs (Dukakis et al., 2014; Dyce et al., 2013; Venezia & Jaeger,
2013). Research also states that school leadership is significant in promoting college-going
aspirations and increasing college attainment. However, little is known about how school
leadership contributes to the development and promotion of a college-going culture. Therefore,
analyzing practices of sustaining an inclusive college-going culture may provide valuable
information on engaging students in college-going activities and nurturing their college-going
aspirations. This study sought to contribute to the literature by providing school leaders with
promising practices on engaging Latinx students in a college-going culture that empowers them
to seek postsecondary education.

LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 16

Limitations and Delimitations
All studies have limitations and delimitations that guide and inform their direction.
Limitations are the factors that may not be controlled by the researcher. There are several
limitations to this study, such as time constraints, voluntary participation, and researcher bias.
The first limitation was the time frame of three months to complete data collection. Volunteer
participation was another limitation due to the number of participants to be interviewed and
observed. Lastly, researcher bias while interpreting the data presents an additional limitation.
The delimitations of the study are those which the researcher controls. The researcher
worked with a thematic dissertation group which collectively decided on the criteria for the unit
of analysis for this case study. The thematic group agreed that the unit of analysis was to be an
urban high school with a graduation rate of at least 90% and from where at least 50% of Latinx
students matriculate into postsecondary education. Based on these delimitations, findings are not
generalizable to other settings.
Glossary of Terms
There are a variety of terms referenced in this study and used to guide the research. For
the purpose of this study, the following terms are used as they are defined below.
Aspiration capital: “the ability to maintain hopes and dreams for the future, even in the
face of real and perceived barriers” (Yosso, 2005, p. 77).
College-going culture: one in which students find encouragement and help from multiple
sources to prepare them with knowledge needed for college success (Corwin & Tierney, 2007;
Holland & Farmer-Hinton, 2009; McKillip, Godfrey, & Rawls, 2013).
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 17

School leadership: for the purpose of this study, school leaders shall include school
administrators (e.g. superintendents, principal, assistant principal), school counselors, and
teachers.
Organization of the Study
This study sought to inform secondary school leaders on promoting and sustaining a
college-going culture. Chapter One outlines an overview of the problem in the school system
concerning the Latinx student population and the importance of creating a college-going culture
in secondary schools. Chapter Two provides a description of college-going culture in a school
context and the role school leaders play in creating this culture. Chapter Three outlines the
methodology and instrumentation of the study along with the description of its theoretical
framework and conceptual framework. Chapter Four reports the results of the study. Chapter
Five provides an analysis and synthesis of the findings, recognizes implications of the study, and
presents recommendations for future research.

LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 18

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Globalization and rapid advances in technology increase the need for students to enroll in
postsecondary education to help meet the demands of the 21st century workforce. Obtaining a
college degree or other postsecondary training will become a necessity, as it is expected that,
by 2020, 65% of jobs will require postsecondary education (Carnevale et al., 2013; Dyce et al.,
2013). In addition, individuals with a higher education are more likely to earn higher wages
(Bosworth, Convertino, & Hurwitz, 2014) in comparison to individuals with a lower level of
education (Dyce et al., 2013). Nationally, if college attainment does not increase, the United
States may face a shortage of at least 16 million college educated adults to fill the workforce by
2025 (Dyce et al., 2013).
Latinx students, particularly those of low income and who are the first in their families to
go to college, are at a higher risk of not graduating from high school and are underrepresented
in higher education. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, in 2016, 83% of Latinx students
earned a high school diploma compared to 90% African American students and 94% of White
students. Forty-five percent of Latinx students earned a bachelor’s degree compared to 66% of
African American students and 74% of White students. This provides educators and school
leaders an opportunity to ensure that all students are ready to pursue postsecondary education.
This chapter discusses the challenges to low-income Latinx students’ enrollment in
higher education. Secondly, the characteristics of a college-going culture, framed by the work
of McClafferty and colleagues (2002), is discussed in detail.
Factors that Hinder Latinx Students’ Access to Higher Education
Latinx are the fastest growing minority group in the United States, composing almost
25% of pupils in the K-12 system, and it is projected that this population will increase to 29% by
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 19

2026 (Gregory, 2003; National Center of Education Statistics, 2017). Yet, Latinx continue to be
most at risk for lower academic outcomes and lower postsecondary education matriculation as
compared to their counterparts (Carnevale & Fasules, 2017; Gregory, 2003; Vela-Gude et al.
2009). Much of the literature pertaining to Latinx students’ college access and academic
outcomes speaks to the external and intrinsic factors that affect their academic development
(Dyce et al., 2013; Gandara & Contreras, 2009; Schmid, 2001). External factors relate to
socioeconomic influences, such as “economic opportunities, racial and ethnic status and group
reception” (Schmid, 2001, p. 1) while intrinsic factors relate to sociocultural perspectives, such
as “human and social capital, family structure, and cultural and linguistic patterns” (Schmid,
2001, p. 1). Both factors are interrelated and can limit or enhance opportunities for Latinx
students, support their aspirations to go to college, and enhance their persistence in
postsecondary education.
Systemic Barriers
Students attending high-minority high-poverty schools are less likely to matriculate to
postsecondary education, particularly to 4-year universities (Welton & Williams, 2015). In
addition, research indicates that Latinx students are affected by segregation, limited access to
resources, lack of challenging curriculum and quality instruction, and minimal academic and
linguistic support (Cook et al., 2011; Dukakis, Duong, Ruiz de Velasco, & Henderson, 2012;
Dyce et al., 2013; Gandara & Contreras, 2009; Nunez, Rios Aguilar, Kanno, & Flores, 2016;
Ohrt et al., 2009; Vela-Gude et al., 2009). Frequently, less affluent schools with high minority
student enrollment are under-resourced, hire novice or undertrained teachers, and have high
teacher turnover, which affects students’ academic preparation (Burke, 2013; Creech & Clouse,
2013; Kanno & Cromley, 2015; Savitz-Romer, 2012; Suárez-Orozco & Suárez-Orozco, 2009).
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 20

Further, students are often taught by teachers who are not bilingual, trained in multicultural
competence, or able to differentiate and scaffold lessons and have limited access to educational
support staff to address specific learning needs (Clark, Ponjuan, Orrock, Wilson, & Flores,
2013). These circumstances mean students have limited access to rigorous academic courses
such as Advanced Placement (AP) courses or GATE programs, which are gateways to college
(Contreras, 2011; Martinez & Welton, 2015) along with limited academic support and
remediation opportunities (Rodriguez, Rhodes, & Aguirre, 2015). Moreover, low-income Latinx
students are overly represented in special education programs and non-college preparatory
courses (Belasco, 2013; Contreras, 2011; Venezia & Jaeger, 2013). In addition, high counselor-
to-student ratios have a negative impact on counselors’ ability to interact with students
individually (Clark et al., 2013; Rodriguez et al., 2015).
Discrimination and Stereotype Threat
Research indicates that Latinx students may become academically disengaged due to
perceived discrimination, stereotype threat, and lack of school belongingness (Brown & Chu,
2012; Córdova & Cervantes, 2010; Vela-Gude et al., 2009). In a study conducted by Córdova
and Cervantes (2010), 175 Latinx students in middle school and high school from California and
New York reported perceived discrimination by their peers and teachers and experienced
stereotype threat, causing them to feel inferior. In another study performed by Brown and Chu
(2012), Latinx students reported perceived discrimination by peers, teachers, and community.
They added that they could perceive when teachers had lower expectations of them, perceived
them as troublemakers (Brown & Chu, 2012).
In a study conducted by Vela-Gude and colleagues (2009), Latinx students noted
counselors paid more attention to students from affluent families, which resulted in their feeling
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 21

less supported than their counterparts. Participants affirmed that counselors did not advise them
enough about college and credits, were never available, had lower expectations of them, and
underestimated their academic potential (Vela-Gude et al., 2009). In addition, Ohrt and
colleagues (2009) stated that Latinx and Black students are underrepresented in AP courses due
to academic tracking practices, and they outlined steps on how to actively engage these students
in more rigorous curricula. Alvarez, Milner, and O’Connor (2016) shared that “racial
discrimination and racial incidents are prevalent in schools and broader society, and there is
strong evidence that people of color experience high-stress levels and exposure to traumatic
events as related to both overt and covert racism” (p. 29).
Ethnic Identity
Adolescents who hold positive views regarding their ethnic group have more intrinsic
motivation in terms of academics (Santrock, 2015). Brown and Chu (2012) found a link between
low academic motivation, academic disengagement and reduced sense of belonging at school
when students perceived ethnic discrimination. Research has shown that feeling accepted at
school and educators’ value of diversity has a positive impact on academic outcomes.
Ethnically diverse schools that highlight the importance of multiculturalism and value diversity
help students feel supported in their academic goals and enables them to maintain positive
academic attitudes (Bryan & Atwater, 2002; Richards, Brown, & Forde, 2007).
Socioemotional Focus
Literature demonstrates the importance of building on students’ self-efficacy and
emotional strength in particular with students who haveencountered trauma related to ethnic
identity, acculturative stress, immigration status, and poverty (Cook, Pérusse, & Rojas, 2012;
Dukakis et al., 2012; National Education Association, n.d.; Shi & Steen, 2012; Valencia &
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 22

Johnson, 2016; Vela-Gude et al., 2009). According to Pajares (2006), “self-efficacy beliefs
provide the foundation for human motivation, well-being, and personal accomplishment” (p. 1).
Self-efficacy can be instrumental in motivating and encouraging students to feel more capable of
taking rigorous courses and persist to postsecondary education. In the classroom, self-efficacy
refers to a student’s “belief about their ability to learn, develop skills or master material”
(Linnenbrink-Garcia, Patall & Pekrun, 2016, p. 91). Studies indicate a correlation between self-
esteem and academic achievement as well as the role of self-efficacy in motivation, meaning that
both concepts can help build emotional strength and improved academic performance (Schunk,
Pintrich, & Meece, 2014).
Sociocultural Factors
Social and human capital are two important elements in fostering college-going
aspirations. Social capital draws from the individual’s relationships or networks and the
information and resources embedded within their relationships to help navigate society’s
institutions (Martinez & Welton, 2014). In a school context, social capital refers to how students
utilize or receive assistance from teachers, counselors, and others while human capital refers to
students and families’ skills and knowledge, such as education and experience (Belasco, 2013;
Dyce et al., 2013; Martinez & Welton, 2014; Perna & Thomas, 2008). A decision to go to
college can be promoted through human capital, as an individual can view postsecondary
education as a valuable and needed investment to increase assets and competencies (Belasco,
2013).
Latinx immigrant families face cultural and linguistic patterns that consequently impact
their levels of human and social capital (Cook et al., 2012; McCall-Perez, 2000; Vela-Gude et
al., 2009). Examples of cultural and linguistic patterns are low socioeconomic status, single-
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 23

parent households, recent immigration, inability to speak English, and lack of a family/social
support system to help and inform about academic or educational matters (Brilliant, 2000;
Schmid, 2001). These external and intrinsic factors affect students’ self-perception and
confidence, further affecting their persistence to higher education (Gandara & Contreras, 2009;
Dyce et al., 2013). Therefore, taking into account these external and intrinsic factors could serve
school leaders when creating a culturally sensitive and inclusive college-going culture
Latinx Perception of College Access
When analyzing students’ perceptions about college access, the literature highlights that
Latinx students do not perceive higher education as accessible due to financial barriers, lack of
college and financial aid knowledge, and limited social capital (Belasco, 2013; Dotson & Foley,
2016; Dyce et al., 2013; Martinez & Welton, 2014; McKillip et al., 2012; Savitz-Romer, 2012;
Venezia & Jaeger, 2013).
Financial Barriers
Socioeconomic status has a strong effect on academic achievement, as children whose
parents are better educated have more resources and more knowledge about college-related
matters (Dotson & Foley, 2016). In addition, cultural views and economic barriers affect
students’ perceptions of higher education affordability. Furthermore, misinformation about
college may indirectly influence parents to discourage students from pursuing college (Dukakis
et al., 2014; Dyce et al., 2013; McKillip et al., 2012; Savitz-Romer, 2012; Schmid, 2001;
Valenzuela & Dornbusch, 1994).
Financial obligations often lead students to work while attending high school, eventually
affecting their persistence and focus on education (Nunez et al., 2016). Additionally, the cost of
college discourages students from pursuing higher education (Lee & Jackson, 2018). Although
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 24

financial aid sources assist many low-income students, funding is often not enough to cover all
fees and tuition. In a survey conducted by the Public Policy Institute of California, 56% of
respondents reported that college affordability was a concern (Baldassare, Bonner, & Lopez,
2017).
Additionally, cultural views also indirectly influence students’ aspirations and persistence
to higher education. Familismo is a term used to refer to strong family loyalty and tendency to
put family before self, which is prevalent among Latinx families (Valenzuela, & Dornbusch,
1994). This loyalty to a strong nuclear family bond and to contribute to the family’s finances
often sways students toward work rather than education (Dukakis et al., 2014). Familismo also
involves seeking parental advice on important decisions, including where and when to go to
college. In some cases, a strong sense of familismo means parents prefer to have students attend
college close to home (Valenzuela & Dornbusch, 1994).
Need for college and financial aid knowledge. Multiple studies demonstrate that
insufficient information about college and financial aid prevent Latinx students from pursuing
higher education (Belasco, 2013; Savitz-Romer, 2012). Research indicates that low-income
students discard the possibility of higher education due to overestimating tuition costs and
underestimating financial aid availability (Savitz-Romer, 2012). As previously stated, first-
generation low-income families may not have enough human capital on the college-going
process to know how to navigate it (McKillip et al., 2012). Furthermore, insufficient or
inadequate advising about college matters causes students to not apply, apply too late, or not take
the courses required for admission to a 4-year university (Savitz-Romer, 2012).
Social Capital
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 25

Social capital refers to an individual’s relationships and networks and the information
embedded within those relationships (Martinez & Welton, 2014). Perna (2006) found that
students with lower socioeconomic backgrounds are unlikely to have individuals within their
family or communities to help them with college knowledge or promote college enrollment. In
2016, 20% of Latinx parents reported having some postsecondary education, and 26% reported
not having an education past middle school (National Center for Education Statistics, 2017).
Thus, limited exposure or experience with postsecondary matters may hinder their ability to
guide their children through the college exploration process. This means low-income students
need the support of school staff to provide them with information on how to navigate the
complicated college research and application process (Belasco, 2013; Ohrt et al., 2009a; Savitz-
Romer, 2012).
In spite of the challenges students face, schools are creating comprehensive programs to
ensure they transition to postsecondary education. Schools can foster a school environment
wherein partnership with key stakeholders prepares students academically and instills hope
towards pursuit of a postsecondary education. The following section discusses literature on the
characteristics of a college-going culture and the importance of school leadership in building a
context that fosters this culture.
Creating and Sustaining a College-Going Culture
A college-going culture is particularly important for minority low-income students, as
their access to higher education is hindered by limited information about the process.
McClafferty et al. (2002) highlight four main components necessary to increase college
attendance: “college preparatory curriculum; high academic standards with formal and informal
communication networks that promote and support college expectations; a school staff that is
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 26

collectively committed to student’s college goals; and resources devoted to counseling and
advising college-bound students” (McClafferty et al., 2002, p. 8). The authors also emphasize
nine principles necessary to create a college-going culture: college talk, clear expectations,
information and resources, comprehensive counseling model, testing and curriculum, faculty
involvement, family involvement, college partnership, and articulation. These principles are not
meant to be implemented as singular and exclusive activities, as they are highly complementary
of each other and require collaboration of the family, school, and higher institution stakeholders
(Yamamura et al., 2010). To help make sense of each principle and visualize the connection
between them, the four components mentioned above are used to organize each principle.
College Preparatory Curriculum
A college-going culture instills hope and aspirations for students to view college
matriculation as a possibility and ensures they are eligible and ready to succeed in postsecondary
education. Therefore, college preparatory curriculum is a collaborative effort among K-16
educators. The following three college-going principles are discussed in this section: testing and
curriculum, college partnerships and articulation. The relationship between both and how they
increase college access and readiness are addressed in this section.
Testing and curriculum. Academic rigor and standardized testing are two critical steps
in ensuring postsecondary access and admission eligibility. A college-bound student needs to be
knowledgeable about the exams required for admission, aware of test dates, and academically
ready in English composition, college algebra and biology to do well on these exams (ACT,
2013). Increasing exam awareness and academic potential requires ongoing and regular
information about registering and preparing for a test. Additionally, teachers can work with
counselors and students to help interpret PSAT scores and reinforce key material (Farmer-
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 27

Hinton, 2011; McClafferty et al., 2002; McCollough, 2011). Summer enrichment programs,
rigorous curricula, and intensive scaffolding support can also increase academic preparation and
college readiness (Contreras, 2011; Farmer-Hinton, 2011; Venezia & Jaeger, 2013).
College partnerships and articulation. College partnerships and articulation focus on
collaboration among K-16 educators. These partnerships can include college-related activities,
field trips to campuses or college fairs, and academic enrichment programs (McClafferty et al.,
2002). Articulation refers to ongoing communication and collaboration among counselors and
teaching staff on activities and resources (McClafferty et al., 2002). Secondary schools can
benefit from partnering with institutions of higher education to decrease students’ need for
remedial courses in college. Studies have found partnerships between high schools and colleges
increase college readiness. Creech and Clouse (2013) found that these partnership can help
reduce the need for remediation in reading and writing. For example, 16 high schools partnered
with four faculty members at a local higher education institution to create a transitional English
course to help reduce remediation and increase college readiness. Positive results were found in
reading achievement, as 32% of students achieved college readiness.
College access programs can also help connect low-income and minority students to
higher education by focusing on college aspirations, enrollment, and completion (Dyce et al.,
2013). Examples of these programs are Upward Bound, Gear UP and Advancement Via
Individual Determination (AVID). These programs’ commonality is that they provide academic,
social and emotional support, family involvement, leadership development and learning
opportunities (Dyce et al., 2013). Early College High School (ECHS), Middle College High
School (MCHS), and dual enrollment are other interventions that increase academic preparation,
increase psychological and behavioral support, increase exposure to college, inform about
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 28

college and financial aid, align high school with college assessment curricula, and develop
appropriate habits of mind (Venezia & Jaeger, 2013). ECHS, MCHS and dual enrollment are
innovative and cost-efficient partnerships that facilitate greater participation of low-income
students of color in college-level courses (CDE, 2017). Overall, college programs have been
successful at increasing college persistence among low-income, first-generation, and minority
students (Dukakis et al., 2014).
High Academic Standards & Communication Networks that Promote College Expectations
A college-going culture is characterized by high expectations for all students and a clear
and encouraging message communicated through formal and informal avenues (McClafferty et
al., 2002). College talks and high expectations are consistent messages among counselors,
teachers, and principals. Studies have found that school staff can influence student academic
achievement and reinforce college plans through daily interactions and constant communication
about college (McClafferty et al., 2002). A college-going culture that utilizes college talk along
with clear and high expectations for all students can help foster a culturally sensitive atmosphere
where all students can feel a sense of belonging and acceptance (Dukakis et al., 2014). It also
creates a community centered on strong relationships, increases student involvement in
extracurricular activities, and increases educational persistence (Dukakis et al., 2014).
College talk. College talk refers to verbal and non-verbal forms of communication
between school staff and students. Non-verbal forms of communication are newsletters, posters,
class presentations, in-class activities, and ever-present reminders that college is an expectation
(McClafferty et al., 2002). College talk is essential to increase knowledge about the educational
system (Bryan et al., 2009). College talk may occur in formal and informal settings where
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 29

students can learn that college can become a reality for them. However, these aspirations need to
start early and continue throughout high school.
Studies have shown the likelihood of academic proficiency in high school increases when
conversations about college begin early (Poyton & Lapan, 2017). Research has demonstrated
that low-income students with increased social capital and who visited their counselor often to
discuss college and career matters were more likely to transition to postsecondary education
(Bryan et al., 2009; Yamamura et al., 2010).
The decision to attend college is a developmental process that requires constant exposure
to college information, recurrent college talks, and nurturing high expectations (McClafferty et
al., 2002). Various theories explain the steps of college planning and the commitment to attend
college. Some of these theories expanded from Erickson’s fifth developmental stage, where it is
believed that adolescents struggle with identity and role confusion (McLeod, 2013). Marcia’s
(1966) identity status theory outlines four steps to getting students to commit to postsecondary
education: identity diffusion, identity foreclosure, identity moratorium, and identity achievement.
In identity diffusion, the student has not made a commitment nor explored the idea of college,
and chooses to avoid the topic altogether. In identity foreclosure, the student has committed
without exploring alternatives, often conforming to the expectations of parents to determine their
future. Identity moratorium refers to a student exploring the idea of college as he/she was ready
to commit, but has not yet committed. Identity achievement is the final step and occurs when a
student has a sense of identity, has fully researched, has options, and has made a commitment to
attend college (Santrock, 2013). School staff can support students by helping them transition
through these steps to make an informed decision about postsecondary education.
Resources Devoted to Counseling and Advising College-Bound Students
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 30

Information and resources. A college-going culture distributes opportunities to gain
information about the college-going process to students, their families, and school personnel.
Such resources can be information about college-related periodicals, entrance exam practice
materials, and one-on-one support (Corwin & Tierney, 2007). Allowing for such information to
be readily available can invite inquiry and participation from all stakeholders. There is evidence
that college aspirations can be significantly increased when parents actively inquire about
college-related matters (McClafferty et al., 2002).
A barrier for Latinx students has been the need for more information about the
postsecondary application process, and this need “normally ranges from not knowing how to
complete the [college] application or the opportunities available to them” (Zalaquett, 2005, p.
39). In addition, many Latinx families reported not knowing how to complete the Free
Application for Federal Student Aid or about prerequisites to receive financial aid. Involving the
family in the college exploration process can foster college aspirations and matriculation.
Family involvement. Family involvement encompasses parents/guardians and siblings
who interact with the student on a regular basis. Parent/guardian involvement is a vital
component to getting students to aspire to go to college, as parent and guardian’s values and
opinions are most influential in decisions about college (Bosworth et al., 2014; Dyce et al.,
2013). Research shows that, overall, high family engagement can contribute to student academic
success (McCollough, 2011; Zalaquett, 2005). School staff can communicate to parents the
value of obtaining a postsecondary degree and convince the parent that their child can attend
college. Parent buy-in is critical, as familismo can encourage students to pursue higher
education ( Dukakis et al., 2014; Valenzuela & Dornbusch, 1994). Therefore, involving the
family in college talk can increase students’ engagement in college planning activities.
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 31

Dyce and colleagues (2013) emphasized family-school partnership to help support
students’ college aspirations. Meaningful engagement from family members is a critical element
of a college-going culture, but Latinx parent participation often decreases in secondary school
(Griffin & Galassi, 2010). School-family partnerships can manifest through access to
information and resources, meaningful college talks, and various parent involvement activities to
welcome the families to the school (Epstein & Van Voorhis, 2010).
Clear expectations. Research revealed that stereotype threat has a negative influence on
academic performance. Low expectations from teachers and counselors can negatively affect
students' academic motivation, engagement, and sense of belonging at school (Dukakis et al.,
2014; McKillip et al., 2012; Vela-Gude et al., 2009). When students feel supported in their
academic goals, they are more likely to maintain positive academic attitudes (Córdova &
Cervantes, 2010). Research suggests that the most promising academic interventions emphasize
identity development, strong relationships with adults and peers, high expectations from adults,
group learning opportunities, family engagement, and fostering a sense of belonging (Dukakis et
al., 2014). It is important that school personnel maintain high expectations and positive attitudes
about the ability of all students to succeed.
Bryan et al. (2017) examined how college talk and high expectations from counselors,
teachers, administrators, and coaches influence students’ college aspirations and likelihood to
attend postsecondary education. This longitudinal study surveyed and followed 16,000 students
from sophomore to senior year in high school. The authors concluded that 48% of the students
in grade 10 and 64% of those in grade 12 perceived high intensity of college expectations from at
least three school staff members. Students who spoke with one adult about college in tenth and
twelfth grade were 41%more likely to attend postsecondary education after high school, and their
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 32

likelihood increased to 71% when combined with taking an AP class. Increasing college talk and
student-adult connectedness proved to increase postsecondary aspiration and matriculation.
Comprehensive counseling model. First-generation low-income students identify their
school counselors as being their primary source of information regarding postsecondary
education (McKillip et al., 2012). Because students need a supportive network of encouraging
staff to excel (Gandara & Contreras, 2009), school counselors can advocate for students and
address their academic, career, college, personal, and social needs (Ohrt et al., 2009). School
counselors are vital in creating a college-going culture, as they can support students, families,
and teachers comprehensively. Comprehensive counseling models can also help open access to
curriculum, create central resource centers, and share accountability with other staff members.
Tracking and lack of access to rigorous curricula have been a systemic barrier to
postsecondary education (Contreras, 2011). In a study conducted by Ohrt et al. (2009), school
counselors collaborated with stakeholders to increase access to AP courses for Latinx and Black
students and helped improve students’ perception about their ability to succeed in college.
Resource centers staffed with personnel who can answer questions about various postsecondary
options has also been noted as a factor in a comprehensive counseling program (Athanases,
Achinstein, Curry, & Ogawa, 2016). In another study (Savitz-Romer, 2012), school counselors
were central to increasing college aspirations and social and human capital among students of
low socioeconomic status by providing information about college applications and financial aid.
Furthermore, school counselors can help provide socio-emotional individual or group counseling
to help restore students’ social-emotional strength and build self-efficacy (Dukakis et al., 2014).
The American School Counselor Association’s (ASCA) national model can guide counselors on
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 33

creating a comprehensive counseling program and to eliminate barriers to educational attainment
(Ohrt et al., 2009b).
The ASCA national model serves as a framework for counselors to help underserved
students. Comprehensive in nature, the model is data-driven, ensures equity, and is
systematically delivered to all students (ASCA, 2012). The ASCA model also emphasizes the
need for counselors to focus on academics, career and college, and socio-emotional counseling.
Following the ASCA model helps mitigate large counselor caseloads and increase equity in and
access to counseling services for students who would otherwise seek support. In a study by
Vela-Gude and colleagues (2009), a group of Latinx was interviewed to determine their
perceptions of the role of the counselor. The findings revealed that respondents often did not
feel confident or satisfied with the services provided by their counselors. The common themes
were inadequate advisement, lack of availability, lack of individual counseling, differential
treatment, and low expectations or setting limits. The findings revealed a need to involve all
school stakeholders. Research highlights that meaningful student learning occurs when
resources are distributed equitably and widely, and practitioners engage in professional capacity
and accountability (Darling-Hammond & Snyder, 2015). These finding illuminate the impact of
shared responsibility and faulty involvement.
Faculty involvement. Faculty includes teachers and support staff, as they can ensure a
college-going culture (Aldana, 2014; Zalaquett, 2005). According to Gandara and Contreras
(2009), school leaders need to recruit faculty who can communicate and partner with parents to
motivate students and who are sensitive to the circumstances of low-income Latinx students.
Faculty can engage in college talk, clear expectations, rigorous curriculum, and testing programs
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 34

(McClafferty et al., 2002). All these efforts can help students build human and social capital and
develop the confidence to pursue postsecondary education (Dyce et al., 2013).
School counselors’ large caseloads do not allow for frequent conversations about college
access; therefore, faculty can help ensure all students have the necessary information (Belasco,
2013; Dukakis et al., 2014; McClafferty et al., 2002; Venezia & Jaeger, 2013; Yamamura et al.,
2010). According to Cook and colleagues (2012), faculty who employ a culturally sensitive and
strength approach can build students’ self-efficacy and improve academic success and
postsecondary enrollment. Following are studies that outline faculty’s contributions to student
outcomes.
In relation to creating a college-going culture, Welton and Williams (2015) found that
schools can make significant improvements when students are not solely responsible for seeking
academic support. The authors noted improvement in student academic preparation and college
enrollment through a collective effort focused on building faculty members’ cultural capacity,
active college talk, dissemination of resources about college, high expectations for all students,
quality instruction, and open access to rigorous curricula (Welton & Williams, 2015). Venezia
and Jeager (2013) discussed the role of teachers in providing intensive academic scaffolding
along with psychosocial and behavioral support to help develop habits of mind. William et al.
(2016) found that low-income students identified ways in which educators can promote their
academic achievement: meaningful relationships, building students’ cultural wealth, and
providing mental health resources like life skills and coping strategies.
Academically, teachers can incorporate a variety of interventions to help improve
students’ academic and test performance (Contreras, 2011; McClafferty et al., 2002; McKillip,
Godfrey, & Rawls, 2013). Teachers can begin by having high academic expectations for all
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 35

students and by providing academic support. A study analyzed Latinx students’ perceptions of
their teachers’ relationships and beliefs about their ability to succeed in challenging courses
(Cavazos & Cavazos, 2010). Students reported being treated differently and perceived as “not
smart enough” if not enrolled in an AP class. High expectations and mentoring contributed to
participants’ ability to succeed in higher education (Cavazos & Cavazos, 2010). Additionally,
maintaining positive relationships with students and making classes engaging and culturally
sensitive can motivate students to challenge themselves. Athanases et al. (2016) presented
recommendations for faculty on fostering a college-going culture in the classroom. The authors
concluded that high expectations coupled with specific academic interventions and academic
engagement were the strongest instructional interventions. Academic engagement encompasses
rigorous and meaningful disciplinary challenges, culture and context as support for learning, and
language-rich communication and collaboration. The researchers observed exemplary teachers
and identified positive classroom climate, teacher sensitivity, and behavior management as
contributing to student success.
School Leadership in the School Context
All elements addressed in prior sections cannot be implemented without school leaders’
active involvement in creating and cultivating a college-going culture (Corwin & Tierney, 2007;
McClafferty et al., 2002). School leaders can build capacity and increase motivation and
commitment to pupil learning (Leithwood et al., 2008). Leadership is as “a process whereby
individuals influence a group of individuals to achieve a common goal” (Northouse, 2016, p. 6).
Leaders examine goals and direction to develop a better system (Bolman, 1997). As stated by
Fullan (2004), leaders build a strong sense of moral purpose, help the group build a strong
coherent connection, and create energizing environments. Creating a college-going culture is a
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 36

complex process that requires all school personnel to ensure the message of college access is
disseminated (Corwin & Tierney, 2007). Therefore, school leaders are key stakeholders in
creating and sustaining a collaborative and meaningful college-going culture.
Yamamura et al. (2010) explain that a school collaborative effort can maximize college
readiness and offer an opportunity for all stakeholders to develop systematic approaches. The
literature describes the involvement of administrators, school counselors, and teachers as
necessary to creating a college-going culture (Corwin & Tierney, 2007; McClafferty et al., 2002;
Yamamura et al., 2010). Through their coaching and visionary change, they can instill in other
stakeholders that a college-going culture involves a collaborative responsibility (Yamamura et
al., 2010).
School administrators. Corwin and Tierney (2007) explained the role of school
administrator as one of “building a college oriented agenda that involves articulation, college
goals, forging relationships with communities and four year institutions, facilitating school-wide
action plans to increase college-going, choosing key individuals to implement the plan and
setting accountability benchmarks” (p. 10). As stated by Corwin and Tierney, administrators
need to choose key individuals to implement school-wide action plans. Furthermore, effective
school leaders understand that school leadership is most effective when it is widely distributed
(Leithwood et al., 2008). Distribution of powers is a fundamental element in school reform
(Short, Rinehart, & Eckley,1999). Distributing leadership can influence school climate through
staff motivation, commitment, and working conditions (Leithwood et al., 2008).
School administrators can help transform school infrastructure to be supportive and
responsive to student needs. As stated by Marzano (2005), they can help “build a culture that
positively influences teachers, who, in turn, positively influence students” (p. 47). Visionary
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 37

leaders transfer ownership and help create a desire to be responsible and contribute to a common
mission (Belasco & Stayer, 1993). Further, administrators can implement a systemic approach in
the master schedule and focus on quality instruction. They can increase access to rigorous
curriculum by offering more college preparatory courses and course remediation opportunities to
help students meet college entrance requirements (Contreras, 2011; Rodriguez et al., 2015). In
addition, they can ensure adequate class sizes and the hiring of competent teachers trained in
multicultural awareness (Clark et al., 2013). Administrators can integrate programs such as
AVID and dual enrollment to increase access and opportunity for postsecondary education.
Finally, they can foster collaboration and establish positive working relationships between
teachers and school counselors (Contreras, 2011).
Counselors and teachers. Counselors and teachers are other key stakeholders and
important school leaders to consider when creating a college-going culture. As described by
ASCA (2012), the role of the counselor is to support all students with academic, career, college,
and socioemotional matters through direct and indirect service. In relation to college and career
readiness, the counselor has an important role in helping plan for postsecondary options
alongside families, teachers, and administrators (ASCA, 2018). Counselors engage with students
and families by providing lessons about college and financial aid, coordinating college visits, and
organizing other events that foster college-going aspirations.
Hines et al. (2014) analyzed the role of the counselor and the collaboration between
middle school and high school counselors in increasing college and career readiness. The
authors recommend counselors utilize the eight components outlined by the National Office for
School Counselor Advocacy (NOSCA, 2010) to create a comprehensive school program:
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 38

The components are comprehensive and systemic in nature and focus on a) [supporting]
college aspirations, b) academic planning for career and college readiness, c) enrichment
and extracurricular engagement, d) college and career exploration and selection process,
e) college and career assessments, f) college affordability planning, g) college and career
admission process and h) transition from high school graduation to college enrollment.
(p. 223).
Teachers can assume a collective sense of responsibility by engaging students in rigorous
and meaningful academic curricula, leading college preparatory programs, incorporating college-
related activities in the classroom, engaging in college talk, and setting high expectations for all
students (Corwin & Tierney, 2007; McClafferty et al., 2002; Yamamura et al., 2010).
Administrators, counselors, and teachers are considered school leaders in their own
capacity, as they all play an important role in creating a comprehensive and inclusive college-
going culture (McCafferty et al., 2002). Administrators help create vision and purpose for
practitioners, counselors create comprehensive programs to reach a larger group of students, and
teachers directly affect college readiness through individual and constant academic preparation.
They each understand the barriers and challenges underserved students face, and they can create
an equitable and comprehensive program to benefit diverse students (Creech & Clouse, 2013;
Darling-Hammond & Snyder, 2015). This case study will aim to inform educators on how each
school leader can engage in fostering and sustaining a college-going culture to help support
college aspirations and increase college matriculation among low-income Latinx students.
Summary
Latinx students, particularly those who are the first in their families to attend college and
are of low income, are among the most at risk for lower academic outcomes and lower
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 39

postsecondary matriculation (Carnevale et al., 2013; Vela-Gude et al., 2009). These statistics
raise concerns, as, by 2026, 29% of pupils enrolled in the American educational system will be
Latinx (National Center of Education Statistics, 2017), and, by 2020, 65% of jobs will require
postsecondary education (Carnevale et al., 2013; Dyce et al., 2013). Some of the barriers to
access postsecondary education relate to external and intrinsic factors like economic
opportunities, limited access to rigorous curricula and academic preparation, cultural and
linguistic patterns, need for more college and financial aid knowledge, and need for more social
capital (Belasco, 2013; Burke, 2013; Cook et al., 2012; Dukakis et al., 2014; Kanno & Cromley,
2015; Schmid, 2001; Suárez-Orozco & Suárez-Orozco, 2009; Vela-Gude et al., 2009).
McClafferty et al. (2002) noted nine principles necessary to create a college-going
culture: college talk, clear expectations, information and resources, comprehensive counseling
model, testing and curriculum, faculty involvement, family involvement, college partnership, and
articulation. All nine are meant to be complementary of each other and necessitate the active
involvement of school leaders in creating a college-going culture (Corwin & Tierney, 2007;
McCollough, 2011; Yamamura et al., 2010). School leaders are administrators, teachers and
counselors, and each hold an important role in building and sustaining a college-going culture.
This chapter discussed the challenges and perceived barriers of low-income Latinx
students in accessing higher education, characteristics and nine principles of a college-going
culture as defined by McClafferty and colleagues (2002), the role of school leaders in supporting
a college-going culture. While literature states that creating a college-going culture has proven
to be effective with increasing college enrollment (Farmer-Hinton, 2011; McClafferty et al.,
2002), little is known about promising practices utilized by school leaders to foster and sustain a
college-going culture responsive to low-income Latinx’s perceived barriers and needs.
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 40

Therefore, this study aimed to fill that gap in research by examining how school leaders engage
low-income Latinx students in a college-going culture, the promising practices utilized to close
the achievement gap and increase college enrollment for low-income, first-generation Latinx
students. The following chapter presents the methodology, , the theoretical and conceptual
framework utilized to conduct this study.
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 41

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Creating a college-going culture is a complex process that requires the active
participation of school leaders. (Corwin & Tierney, 2007; Farmer-Hinton, 2011; McClafferty et
al., 2002; Yamamura et al., 2010). This study examined promising practices school leaders
employ to foster a college-going culture at one urban high school. Additionally, the study aimed
to gain a broader understanding of the practices that influence building this culture and the
challenges involved in its sustainment. This chapter outlines the design of the study in terms of
the qualitative methods used, the sample and population, the site and participants, the theoretical
and conceptual framework, the data collection approach, instrumentation, and methods for data
analysis. Finally, steps taken to ameliorate ethical considerations are discussed.
Research Questions
The study sought to understand strategies school leaders employ in creating and
sustaining a college-going culture at an urban high school with a high enrollment of low-income
Latinx students. The research questions were constructed to further understand leadership
practices to increase college-going rates for Latinx students:
1. What perceived strategies do school leaders at Tiller High School employ to promote
a college-going culture in urban high schools with low-income Latinx students?
2. What are the perceived challenges of school leaders in sustaining a college-going
culture at Tiller High School?
Research Design
Qualitative data collection relies on interviews, observations, and document analysis
(Creswell, 2014). This study utilized qualitative methods to gather and analyze data from
participants with first-hand knowledge of the phenomenon under review. Merriam and Tisdell
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 42

(2016) explain that qualitative researchers are “interested in understanding how people interpret
their experiences, how they construct their worlds and what meaning they attribute to their
experiences” (p. 6). Qualitative methods were most appropriate for this study, as they allow the
gathering of detailed descriptions of participants’ first-hand experiences. Interviews allow rich
and descriptive data to be collected while observations help corroborate information and witness
participants in action (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Interviews allow the researcher to enter into
the participant’s perspective and gather information that cannot be easily observed (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Observations are important as they occur in the setting where the phenomenon of
interest naturally occurs (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Both interviews and observations were
crucial to this study, as both allow insight into participants’ lived experiences.
This study consisted of interviews and observation of administrators, teachers, and
counselors to explore the ways in which all foster and sustain a college-going culture. A total of
16 interviews and six observations were conducted. Analysis of the school’s most recent
Western Association of School and Colleges report and school communication documents was
used for triangulation purposes (Creswell, 2014).
Sample and Population
Purposeful sampling is “based on the assumption that the investigator wants to discover,
understand and gain insight; therefore a select sample is chosen where the researcher can learn
the most from” (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p. 96). The researcher purposely selected six
teachers, six counselors, and four administrators at Tiller High School for interviews. Six
observations were scheduled at times when the researcher could observe the participants
implementing strategies to promote a college-going culture. The first observation took place
during a college night event, and the five observations took place during AVID instruction in
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 43

grades ninth through twelfth. The observations included counselors, teachers, and administrators
engaging with students and families.
Overview of the Organization
The study’s site was a comprehensive high school located in Southern California that
serves students in grades nine through twelve following a traditional calendar. During the 2017–
2018 school years, enrollment was 2,310, of whom 9% were in special education, 14% qualified
for English language learner support, and 72% were identified as coming from families of low
socioeconomic status. In terms of ethnicity, 2% of students were African American, 7% were
Asian, 1% were Filipino, 77% were Latinx, 1% were Pacific Islander, 12% were Caucasian, and
1.2% were multi-racial. That year, there were 591 students in grade 9, 549 students in grade 10,
592 students in grade 11, and 578 students in grade 12. Certificated staff are four administrators,
101 teachers, six school counselors, two psychologists, one adaptive physical education teacher,
and one nurse. The classified counseling staff are one career specialist, one counseling secretary,
one counseling technician, one part-time public relations office assistant, one community liaison,
and one data clerk. Other classified staff are four campus supervisors, one resource officer, one
text/library media technician, one ASB bookkeeper, and three office staff members. The
school’s graduation rate for the fall of 2017 was 98.5% for all students, 97% for English learners,
98% for students of low socioeconomic status, and 98% for Hispanic/ Latinx students (California
Dashboard, 2017). In 2017, 62% of Hispanic/ Latinx (and low-income) students met university
admission eligibility requirements compared to 34% of Hispanic/Latinx students statewide
(CDE, 2018).

LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 44

Theoretical Framework
The ecological systems model (Bronfenbrenner, 1979) served as the theoretical
framework for this study. Research has shown that sociocultural and environmental variables
along with proximal and extended environment may influence students’ academic and social
development (Gardiner & Kosmitzki, 2005; Santrock, 2013; Stewart, 2008). Bronfenbrenner’s
(1979) ecological systems theory conceptualizes a model of five interconnected systems’
influence on human development: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and
chronosystem. The model may serve school leaders as a guide to leverage contact among
families, teachers, counselors, and administrators to build a cohesive and strong college-going
culture. The microsystem refers to a child’s most direct interactions with social agents such as
parents, peers, teachers, and counselors. The mesosystem refers to the relationship and
interaction between those in the microsystem, such as parents' contact with teachers about
academic outcomes and counselors providing workshops on the college-going process. The
exosystem consists of factors such as funding for instructional resources. Although the child
may not interact with the exosystem often, it has a large effect on his/her microsystem and an
indirect impact on his/her development. The macrosystem consists of components that can
influence and support the child within the environment, such as culture, political systems,
economic patterns, laws, customs, society, and nationality. In a school context, the macrosystem
can inform and influence the mesosystem and exosystem. The chronosystem is the set of
interactions and transitions over the course of a person's lifetime as well as prevailing
sociohistorical conditions (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Hines, Harris, & Ham, 2014 Santrock, 2013).
Understanding the ecological systems model (Bronfenbrenner, 1979) and the importance
of each system can help school leaders leverage connections among stakeholders and build a
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 45

strong and cohesive college-going culture. The model informs school leaders about employing
the nine principles of a college-going culture in relationship with the school context, families,
and students. As described by the author, each environmental system interacts with the others to
influence the child’s microsystem. Further, it highlights the importance of collaboration and
relationships among a student’s family and school leaders and centers the needs of the child,.
School leaders play an important role in creating a trusting relationship within the microsystem.
Given that this study focused on school context and leadership roles, the researcher only focused
on the interactions between the microsystem and mesosystem.

Figure 1. Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological systems model.
The literature on college-going culture emphasizes the importance of involving the child's
family. The nine principles outlined by McClafferty et al. (2002) capture the interconnections
needed between the child, family, teachers, school counselors and administrators. The ecological
systems model (Bronfenbrenner, 1979) may help school leaders make sense of the interactions
and relationships between the microsystem and mesosystem and further conceptualize how they
may influence a college-going culture.
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 46

Conceptual Framework
Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological systems theory helped conceptualize and inform this
study. The following conceptual framework (Figure 2) was created in collaboration with six
members of a University of Southern California Ed.D. thematic dissertation group and was
utilized to guide this study. Important key concepts in the conceptual framework are school
leaders, resources, school environment and families. The components are interdependent within
the mesosystem and influence the microsystem.
As illustrated in the conceptual framework figure, leadership plays a key role within the
mesosystem and into the microsystem. The child’s microsystem is represented by family, school
environment, resources, and school leaders . The mesosystem is represented by the relationship
and interaction between the microsystem: how school leaders inspire other stakeholders, create
resources, and engage with families. The mesosystem utilizes and interacts with the components
within its own context and influence how the components within microsystem are leveraged.
The conceptual framework emphasizes the need for a collaborative effort and comprehensive
approach required to ensure a child’s academic success.

LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 47

Figure 2. Ed.D. thematic group conceptual framework.
Data Collection
Maxwell (2013) states that the researcher needs to interact with people to collect data for
a qualitative study, and these relationships create and structure this interaction. Ongoing contact
continually restructures these relationships; therefore, the researcher needs to ethically and
respectfully negotiate entry to gain access to information that can help answer the research
questions.
The researcher is an employee in the same district where the high school is located;
therefore, rapport has been previously established with the participants. The researcher
contacted school leaders and explained to potential participants that the study sought to highlight
and capture the strategies they utilize to promote and sustain a college-going culture. An
Mesosystem
Microsystem
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 48

introductory letter was sent to all potential participants, requesting an opportunity to interview
and observe them (Appendix C). Each respondent was contacted to determine an appropriate
time and place for semi-structured interviews, each of which took approximately 40 minutes and
was digitally recorded with the interviewee’s permission. For precautionary reasons, the
researcher also took hand written notes in addition to recording the interview. Table 1 below
describes the participants for this study.
Table 1
Purposeful Sampling
Participant Role Years in education
Ella Former Principal 30
Alex Current Principal 34
Donald Administrator 6
Jami Administrator 19
Mirna Counselor 12
Martha Counselor 11
Randee Counselor 4
Javier Counselor 16
Karla Counselor 9
Angel Counselor < 1
Consuelo AVID Head Teacher 25
Rina AVID Teacher 7
Dwight AVID Teacher 3
Nina English Teacher 20
Harvey Social Science Teacher 20
Marina Spanish Teacher 16

During the approximately hour-long observations, the researcher assumed a role as an
observer and took notes to ensure that all evidence was well represented and captured.
Thereafter, the researcher created memos regarding each observation. Moreover, the researcher
reviewed the most recent report provided to the Western Association of Schools and Colleges
and other school communication.
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 49

Instrumentation
Instrumentation consisted of an interview protocol and an observation protocol. The
interview protocol was designed to capture the school leader’s perspective and experiences in
building and sustaining a college-going culture. Interviews were conducted using the interview
protocol created by the thematic group. Appendix A outlines the protocol used for the semi-
structured interviews. Semi-structured interviewing allows for flexibility and specific data to be
collected from all respondents (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Interviews were digitally recorded
and transcribed for further data analysis. Questions 1 through 9 and 15 were designed to elicit
practices and policies employed by school leaders to promote a college-going culture and help
answer the first research question. Questions 10 through 15 were designed to learn about the
challenges school leaders face in sustaining a college-going culture and help answer the second
research question. Observations provide first-hand experience about a phenomenon of interest
and provide rich detail that cannot be captured through an interview (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Interviews, observations and document analysis were triangulated to answer the two research
questions for this study (Creswell, 2014). Table 2 below describes the research questions and the
instrumentation aligned to each research question.
Table 2
Research Question Instrumentation
Research Question Interviews Observations Documents
1. What perceived strategies do school
leaders at Tiller High School employ to
promote a college-going culture in low-
income Latinx students?

X

X

X
2. What are the perceived challenges of
school leaders at Tiller High School in
sustaining a college-going culture in low-
income Latinx students?

X

LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 50

Observations were conducted using the observation protocol created collaboratively by
the thematic group. Six observations were scheduled during the data collection phase. The first
observation took place at a parent evening college event, where information about the physical
setting, participants, activities, interactions and conversations were carefully observed. The
subsequent observations took place during AVID instructional time. Appendix B outlines the
observation protocol that was used for this research study. Document analysis was used to
corroborate information shared during the interviews and triangulate data collected in interviews
and observations (Creswell, 2014).
Data Analysis
To fully answer the research questions, the researcher analyzed each interview transcript,
observation protocol, and document utilizing Creswell’s (2014) six steps for data analysis.
Figure 3 below displays Creswell’s six steps.

Figure 3. Creswell’s six steps for data analysis.
As illustrated in the model above, the researcher followed these six steps to collect and
interpret the data. As cited by Flick (2014), data analysis is the “classification and interpretation
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 51

of linguistic or visual material to make statements about implicit and explicit dimensions and
structures of meaning-making in the material and what is represented in it” (as cited in Merriam
& Tisdell, 2016, p. 195). Data collection and analysis should occur simultaneously during
qualitative research (Creswell, 2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The first step in data analysis is
to read each interview transcript, observational notes and documents carefully. Second, while
interviews are being listened to, transcribed and analyzed, the researcher needs to “write notes
and memos on what is seen or heard in the data and develop tentative ideas about categories and
relationships” (Maxwell, 2013, p. 105). Third, each category becomes a coding and thematic
analysis strategy. Coding categories “are means of sorting the descriptive data you have
collected” (Maxwell, 2013, p. 107). Fourth, coding patterns found in interviews, observations
and document artifacts are carefully organized into organizational, substantive and or theoretical
categories or themes (Creswell, 2014; Maxwell, 2013). Organizational categories are topics,
“broad ideas or issues that you want to investigate or serve as useful ways of ordering your data”
(Maxwell, 2013, p. 107). Substantive categories identify content and are descriptive. Maxwell
(2013) defines content as “the person’s statement or action -what they actually did or meant” (p.
107). Descriptive is the description of the participants’ concepts and beliefs. Theoretical
categories are derived from prior knowledge or developed theories. The fifth stage of data
analysis consists of organizing the themes. The final stage is to examine and interpret all data to
make meaning from the themes and answer the research questions (Creswell, 2014; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016).
Ethical Considerations
Ethical considerations are of utmost importance to the researcher as data are collected
and in how documents are used (Glesne, 2011). Honoring the voice and perspective of the
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 52

school leaders was the primary focus throughout this process. Rubin and Rubin’s (2012)
recommendations were followed while conducting interviews and observations: showing respect,
honoring promises, not pressuring, not harming, having informed consent, and maintaining trust.
Pseudonyms were used to protect the privacy of each participant and the high school.
In respect to observations, Merriam and Tisdell (2016) point out “that observations
conducted without the awareness of those being observed raise ethical issues or privacy and
informed consent” (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p. 262). Therefore, to ensure that ethical standards
were maintained, observations were done in a completely overt manner. Participants were
notified of the date and time of the observation. Prior to initiation of the study, the University of
Southern California Institutional Review Board examined the research proposal and approved
the study. All records were discarded securely at the end of the study.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
The researcher is aware of the bias that may exist in a qualitative study. The researcher
attempted to control the influence of bias in this study by remaining neutral throughout the
interviews and observations. To help eliminate validity threats, a number of credibility and
confirmability strategies were used: triangulation, prolonged engagement in field, alternative
explanations, peer review, audit trails and raw and rich data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Maxwell,
2013).
Summary
This chapter provides an outline of the methods used to conduct this study. This is a
qualitative study that explored strategies through school leaders build and sustain a college-going
culture at one urban high school. Interviews, observation and document analysis were the
sources of data. The chapter also describes the sample and population of the unit of analysis.
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 53

The ecological systems model (Bronfenbrenner, 1979) was the theoretical framework, and the
conceptual model was operationalized to describe the relationship between the students’
microsystem and mesosystem. Creswell’s (2014) six steps of data analysis were described and
operationalized. Finally, the chapter closes with a description of how ethical considerations were
addressed.

LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 54

CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
This study sought to highlight promising practices that promote and sustain a college-
going culture at a secondary school with high enrollment of socioeconomically disadvantaged
Latinx students. This chapter presents findings that highlight the experiences of school leaders
in fostering and sustaining a college-going culture as well as the strategies they implement to
increase students’ college enrollment. This chapter also describes the participants and reports the
results of this study. Semi-structured interviews, observations and document analysis were used
to elicit answers to the research questions:
1. What strategies do school leaders at Tiller High School employ to promote a college-
going culture with low-income Latinx students?
2. What are the challenges of school leaders in sustaining a college-going culture at Tiller
High School?
Triangulation through observations and document analysis increased the findings’
validity (Creswell, 2014). The researcher observed participants’ interactions with students and
families, activities, and physical setting. Documents analyzed were the most recent report
provided to the Western Association of Schools and Colleges and flyers as well as the school’s
website and social media sites. The next section provides an overview of the school, description
of participants, and the study’s results aligned to each research question.
Overview of the Organization and Participants
Tiller High School was selected because the rate at which Latinx students completed
courses required for university admission increased by 15.5% in 3 years, surpassing statewide
Latinx students’ university admission rates by 28% (CDE, 2018). Additionally, Tiller High
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 55

School was recognized as a demonstration AVID school in 2014. This program is one of the
school’s most robust, as 25% of all students are enrolled in AVID.
Sixteen participants were purposefully selected to be interviewed based on their
experience and direct role in promoting a college-going culture: the school’s former and current
principal, two assistant principals, six counselors, and six teachers. As stated in Chapter Three,
pseudonyms are used to protect the identity of the participants and the school (Rubin & Rubin,
2012). Table 3 provides a brief overview of each participant, including their role, years of
experience in education, and their unique characteristics.
Table 3
Participant Overview
Participant Role
Years in
Education
Unique Trait
Ella Former Principal 30
 2013–2017 appointed principal
 Revamped school and implemented
founding college-going practices
Alex Current Principal 34
 2017- present appointed principal
 Sustains college-going culture
Donald Administrator 6  Discipline
Jami Administrator 19
 Curriculum
 Lead to counselors
 Worked closely with Ella to implement
changes
 Bilingual (Spanish)
Mirna Counselor 12
 Scholarship and NCAA lead
#accepted lead
 Original member who helped create CCR
lessons
Martha Counselor 11
 PSAT lead
 Original member who helped create CCR
lessons
Randee Counselor 4
 PBIS/Socioemotional Learning committee
member
Javier Counselor 16
 College Decision Day, ACT boot camp and
RACC college fair lead
Karla Counselor 9  Naviance and AP testing lead

LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 56

Table 3, continued
Participant Role
Years in
Education
Unique Trait
Angel Counselor < 1
 2018–19 newest addition to the team to
support English language learners
 Teaching experience at the elementary level
Consuelo Teacher 25
 AVID Coordinator
 AVID Senior Teacher
 Member of the leadership team
 Tiller Alumna
 Lead in leading THS to an AVID
demonstration school
Rina Teacher 7
 AVID Junior Teacher
 Connect Coach
 Volleyball coach
 Tiller Alumna
Dwight Teacher 3
 AVID Junior Teacher
 U.S. History Teacher
 Tiller Alumnus
 Bilingual (Spanish)
Nina Teacher 20
 English Teacher to English language
learners
Harvey Teacher 20
 Social Science Teacher to Seniors
 Former administrator
 Bilingual (Spanish)
Marina Teacher 16
 Foreign language Teacher
 Bilingual (Spanish)

Former Principal
Ella is the former principal of Tiller High School and has over 30 years’ experience as a
teacher, instructional coach, and principal at the elementary, middle and high school levels. Ella
served as Tiller High School’s principal for 4 years and was interviewed due to changes that
occurred during her leadership which strengthened the school’s college-going culture. She was
appointed principal at Tiller High School because of her skills in assessing and refining emerging
schools. During her principalship, she restructured the school’s culture and tasked the
counselors with redesigning their program to ensure all students gained college knowledge.
Early in her tenure, a primary focus was increasing enrollment in postsecondary education, so the
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 57

leadership team revised the school’s mission statement to emphasize a commitment to
differentiated, relevant, rigorous curricula and to embracing students’ diversity.
In addition, Ella hired an additional counselor and an additional support staff member
focused on parent engagement and communication. These additions helped revamp the delivery
of college, career, and financial aid knowledge. She was instrumental in students’ increased
enrollment in postsecondary education. When asked about her vision at the time, she explained,
[My] major responsibilities were creating and sustaining a climate and culture conducive
to high school graduation and preparation for life after high school. My job was to
evaluate systems that were effective to continue maintaining, and then to identify things
that were missing or lacking in order to reach goals.
In 2017, Ella became the district’s director of secondary education and left Tiller High School
under the leadership of its current principal, Dr. Alex.
Principal
Dr. Alex has extensive experience in education and shares Ella’s vision and skills. He
was an elementary and secondary teacher for 18 years, an elementary school principal for 6
years, a high school assistant principal for a few months, and a high school principal for 8 years
prior to leading Tiller High School. One of the counselors stated Dr. Alex sustains the college-
going culture, as this “drive has not lowered, but continued.” He maintains the previously
allocated resources and brought in new ones. In 2018, he added a full-time counselor to focus on
English language learner (ELL) students’ development and learning. Dr. Alex motivates staff
through his active involvement in the community and weekly reflection newsletters. Dr. Alex
has predominantly worked in schools with high enrollment of socioeconomically disadvantaged
students and has experience transforming school culture to one of a “vision and dreams for
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 58

students.” His last appointment as a principal was at a high school with characteristics similar to
those of Tiller High School, and he helped improve student outcomes and postsecondary
enrollment rates. He explained that adjusting to Tiller High School was “a very smooth
transition philosophically.” Dr. Alex works closely with two other administrators who help
develop and implement college-going practices.
Assistant Principals
The two assistant principals who oversee student services were interviewed for this study.
Jami oversees curriculum and serves as the lead to the counseling department. Jami worked
closely with former principal Ella, and, with her support, counselors gained more access to the
classrooms, developed school-wide campaigns, and expanded student resources. Counselors
describe her as “supportive” and “resourceful.” She served as an English teacher for 14 years and
as an administrator for 6 years. Donald is the newest addition to the administrative team and is a
first-year administrator. He oversees discipline and is the lead in the social emotional learning
(SEL) committee and the positive behavior intervention services (PBIS) committee. He
approaches discipline from a strength-based approach using restorative practices and tiered
systems of support. Therefore, he works closely with the counseling department. He has been
an educator for 6 years and his experience includes working as an English teacher and
instructional coach. He mentioned he finds great passion working in Title I schools with high
ELL student enrollment.
Counselors
The counseling team is composed of six counselors, five of whom serve approximately
450 students each while the sixth, Angel, serves approximately 300 ELL students. Angel’s role
is to provide these students with individualized support and serve as liaison between their
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 59

families and the school. All other counselors serve students in the areas of academics, college
and career readiness, and socioemotional counseling. Each holds a master’s degree in
counseling, except for Mirna, as her master’s degree is in social work. The only counselor with
teaching experience is Angel, who worked as an elementary school teacher. Each counselor has
different adjunct duties that help sustain college-going practices. The teachers and
administrators describe the counselors as a “dynamic team” and “the dream team.”
Teachers
Six teachers were interviewed regarding their contributions to the college-going culture.
Three of these teachers form part of the AVID team while the other three work closely with ELL
Latinx students. Consuelo is the school’s AVID coordinator and a member of the leadership
team. Her leadership helped Tiller High School become an AVID demonstration school. She
has served as English department chair, activities director, and as an English and science teacher.
Rina and Dwight collaborate to teach the junior AVID classes. Rina also serves as a Connect
Coach (instructional coach) to support teachers and counselors with AVID writing, inquiry,
collaboration, organization, critical reading (WICOR), and SEL strategies. Dwight is a newer
teacher and was an AVID student at Tiller High School. He is passionate about his role as an
AVID and History teacher. Consuelo, Rina, and Dwight were the three teachers observed during
AVID instructional time.
The other three teachers interviewed were Nina, Harvey, and Marina. They each
demonstrate passion and are involved in school-wide campaigns and activities that support
student growth. Nina is an English teacher with a specialty in English language development for
newcomers. Her unique experience working with ELL students brings a different perspective
and approach to the college-going culture at Tiller High School. Harvey is a senior social
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 60

science teacher with previous experience as an administrator. As a senior teacher, he also
supports students with postsecondary education plans as they navigate their last year of high
school. Finally, Marina is a Spanish teacher working closely with native Spanish speakers who
seeks to empower and encourage students to persist toward postsecondary education.
Findings for Research Question One: Strategies Used to Promote a College-Going Culture
The first research question aimed at understanding the strategies leaders at Tiller High
School utilize to promote a college-going culture among low-income Latinx students. Data
analysis revealed three promising practices. First, school leaders communicate their expectations
of college access to the school staff and community through a new school mission statement and
high expectations. Second, school leaders approach college access through improved
instructional strategies. Third, school leaders offer students resources to help them meet college
eligibility requirements and provide them access to college and financial aid knowledge.
School Leaders Communicate High Expectations of College Access and Shared
Responsibility of College Knowledge
Interview findings revealed that school leaders instill moral purpose and coherent
responsibility for college readiness by communicating strong expectations of college access.
School leaders believe college knowledge should be communicated to all students, regardless of
current academic performance, immigration background, English language fluency, or
socioeconomic status. Further, they expect all students to graduate high school with a
postsecondary plan. School leaders instill high expectations in all faculty and students through
the school’s vision and purpose and updated mission statement.
Set expectations through vision and purpose. School leaders revealed that the school’s
mission statement was revised in the fall of 2014 to more closely reflect the school’s
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 61

demographics and learning needs. The focus is on the skills students must have to continue their
success beyond high school. The new mission statement is displayed on the school’s website
and WASC accreditation report. It reads,
Tiller High School will prepare confident graduates for the demands and opportunities of
the future by providing differentiated, relevant, and rigorous curricula utilizing twenty-
first-century strategies and technology. The Tiller Team will continue to foster a school
community that embraces diversity.
Posters of the mission statement were observed in every classroom visited, in the main office and
in the library. School leaders communicate the school’s vision and purpose during faculty
meetings, parent college nights, and via instructional practices.
School leaders utilize the school’s mission statement as a tool to establish high standards
for faculty and students and to set yearly school-wide goals to improve student outcomes and
monitor progress. Counselor Mirna shared they communicate expectations of college access to
teachers as a strategy to gain buy-in for the shared responsibility of imparting college
knowledge: “We present to staff at the beginning of the year our [college] goals, and then we
present, at the end of the year, the data for the year.” Similarly, counselors shared they present at
Parent Teacher Organization (PTO) meetings and discuss students’ summary data and yearly
progress as a strategy for parent partnership on practices and goals. Dr. Alex shared he
empowers school staff and community to maintain commitment to the mission through his
weekly Principal Reflection Newsletter “to champion our cause, mission, vision goals, highlight
a story by presenting student success stories.” In addition, he communicates his appreciation for
the effort and contribution of school leaders in engaging students in college talk and support in
reaching school-wide goals.
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 62

High expectations of college knowledge and access. Administrators communicate high
expectations of college access to stakeholders regularly and communicate that everyone is
expected to partake in college knowledge. Principal Ella emphasized during her principalship
“that students should not [have] to go to the office with their alpha counselor to learn about
college. Everybody [should] speak to it and support [students].” In response to this expectation,
school leaders become educated on postsecondary education and engage all students in
conversations about postsecondary plans, college knowledge, and financial aid information.
Administrators, teachers and counselors buy into the school’s vision that all students
should graduate with a postsecondary plan and contribute to school-wide goals through their
expertise and practice. Counselor Karla explained that “a clear understanding of each other’s
roles and the strengths of each other’s roles in supporting the whole child educationally, socially,
and emotionally” contributes to the overall acceptance and value of college-going practices.
School leaders expressed they understand it is their responsibility to provide a school-wide
exposure to college knowledge and offer an opportunity for all stakeholders to engage in college-
going practices. Moreover, counselors agreed that presenting college knowledge requires
scaffolding for students, as “the steps of walking them through it and hand-holding” are
necessary to instill hope and persistence in college choice.
The school’s vision and purpose helped frame how school leaders approach college-
going practices. School leaders mentioned they approach the college-going culture from a
mindset based on students’ strengths and demonstrate their appreciation for diversity. Assistant
Principal Donald shared how staff members’ cultural awareness enriches college access: “The
school meets the kids where they’re at. [We] recognize [the] barriers, but don’t look at students
from low-income backgrounds as having deficits.” This perspective helped shift the
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 63

responsibility to school leaders to support student aspirations and set high accountability
measures. Hence, school leaders establish an environment where students and families can
engage in conversations, activities, and practices that increase access to higher education.
School Leaders Support College Access Through Instructional Expectations
Interviews and document analysis findings revealed that school leaders believe a college-
going culture must include accountability to meaningful learning and faculty must receive
professional capacity to meet the established expectations. School leaders engage in professional
development to support student learning and to better prepare their students for higher education.
Therefore, teachers deliver research-based quality instruction while maintaining rigorous and
accessible curricula.
The leadership team consists of the principal, three assistant principals, instructional
coaches (department head teachers) for each department, counselors, and four Connect Coaches
who meet to discuss school-wide practices. The team contributed to the formation of the
college-going culture and, through shared decision-making, opted to utilize AVID as a central
resource.
AVID as a central resource for instructional strategies. The leadership team extended
WICOR strategies school-wide and allocated resources for professional development.
According to the accreditation report, 53 teachers attended the AVID summer institute and/or
AVID Path training. AVID played an influential role in providing instructional strategies.
Assistant Principal Donald explained,
Whether you’re in an AVID classroom or not, we ask our teachers to implement the
WICOR strategies. Teachers who are implementing these strategies effectively in their
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 64

classroom [are] asked to disseminate that information to the rest of our teachers, so that
they can then use those strategies in their classes.
Delivery of AVID strategies was noticed during interviews and observations. Posters
that read “I am an AVID trained teacher!” were observed in most classrooms visited, including
those of non-AVID teachers Marina, Harvey, and Nina. In addition, all classrooms visited had a
poster that delineated the five WICOR strategies with examples of how students can engage in
each. The researcher also saw students engaging in multiple WICOR strategies throughout the
observations. Students seemed engaged in college research, writing, group discussions and
interested in the topics discussed in class. Moreover, a strong sense of community and trust was
evident in all classrooms. School leaders utilize professional development to transform
instructional practices.
Professional development to support instructional expectations. School leaders
support accountability to student learning by training faculty on research-based instructional
strategies. Professional development occurs through an Instructional Coaching Cycle delivered
by a teacher on special assignment as Connect Coach. Currently, Tiller High School has four
Connect Coaches who engage teachers and counselors in reflective analysis of their role in
enhancing student engagement and learning.
All school leaders shared the importance of professional development in promoting a
college-going culture among staff and expressed that coaching cycles have helped meet
instructional expectations. Connect Coaches train faculty on delivering differentiated instruction
in the college preparatory curriculum. Connect Coach and AVID teacher Rina shared that
Connect Coaches intend to support teachers with “intentional teaching practices to up the rigor
but also make it accessible for students.”
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 65

Counselors are also accountable to student learning through a comprehensive counseling
program (ASCA, 2012; Ohrt et al., 2009) to ensure students meet college admission
requirements and apply to college. Assistant Principal Jami said, “Counselors have goals to keep
track of who applied to college and [follow up with] those who have not.” Counselor Angel
shared, “I have three goals I need to focus on [to] increase ELL student postsecondary
matriculation.” In addition, counselors are encouraged to participate in professional
development to improve the quality of their college-going curriculum, named CCR. Assistant
Principal Jami and counselors mentioned Connect Coaches have been supportive with suggesting
instructional strategies for CCR lessons. CCR lessons are discussed later in this chapter.
School leaders’ professional development plays a significant role in the college-going
culture at Tiller High School. Their focus on instructional strategies provide students access to
academic, college, and financial aid content. Since the implementation of the Instructional
Coaching Cycle in the 2015–2016 school year, graduation rates, college admission eligibility
rates, and college acceptances have increased, demonstrating that the intentional professional
development processes have been effective.
School Leaders Provide Resources to Support Students’ Academic Eligibility and Access to
College Knowledge
Interview findings revealed that school leaders understand that the decision to attend
college entails a developmental process and that students rely on school staff to navigate this
choice. As evidenced through observations and document analysis, school leaders promote a
college-going culture through a broad course of study and a comprehensive college readiness
system. School leaders allocate intentional academic interventions to support students’ college
eligibility and collaborate on an interactive college-going curriculum regarding college and
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 66

financial aid information. College talk is not solely the school counselor’s job, as all school
leaders and staff members engage in the conversation. Further, college talk is not reserved for
the most academically successful; it is a topic addressed across campus.
Access to college through wide course offerings. School leaders ensure students are
aware and knowledgeable about course offerings to prepare for postsecondary education and
career exploration. School leaders offer a full academic and elective program, including Honors
and AP courses in all subjects. The wide range curriculum is evidenced by the variety of career
technical education (CTE) pathways and apprenticeship opportunities offered, such as graphic
design, visual imagery, media arts, technology and engineering, music technology, software
engineering, and biomedical technology. All CTE courses meet college admission requirements,
and many offer internship opportunities, which, according to school leaders, have contributed to
students’ college-going aspirations. Moreover, school leaders partner with a local community
college to offer dual enrollment courses on campus for which students receive college and high
school credit.
Strategic course advisement is another strategy school leaders employ to ensure students
meet academic college eligibility. Evidence of open and equitable access to course offerings is
demonstrated through a “challenge” process where students have the option of “challenging” into
the course with their parent’s approval when a teacher’s recommendation is not provided.
According to the WASC report, since the 2012–2013 school year, the percentage of students
taking at least one AP course increased from 12% to 20%, and 51% of students at Tiller High
School take at least one Honors or AP course.
Evidenced through the school’s calendar, counselors meet with students twice a year to
ensure they are on track to meet college eligibility requirements and to encourage students to
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 67

take courses that maintain or exceed these requirements. AVID Teacher Dwight talked about the
strong emphasis school leaders place on communicating high expectations of college access
before course selection:
Counselors are pushing them to take those [college admission requirement] classes. They
always tell them, “Don’t have a door closed.” Some students don’t want to take a math
class [senior year]. We make it very difficult for the students to self-select out of college
eligibility.
Moreover, school leaders remove systemic barriers to college entrance eligibility and allow
students in specialized programs such as AVID, STEM, or media technology to take courses for
advancement over the summer if they are unable to take all of their required courses during the
regular school year. School leaders also designed options and resources for students not on track
to meet college admission eligibility requirements.
Access to college through academic interventions. School leaders communicated that
supporting student college aspirations entails academic monitoring and intervention. They
implement preventative measures through academic monitoring and support. The school’s
schedule allocates two weekly 30-minute academic tutorial sessions, and counselors place
students in need in a 5-week mandatory tutorial intervention. School leaders believe this practice
helps instill high expectations among students. They view the tutorial as an opportunity to reach
students who would otherwise not seek academic assistance. AVID Teacher Dwight shared that
students “in tutorial receive individualized help from teachers, [because], most of the time,
classes are smaller, and one could check in with the student individually and see what they
need.”
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 68

Second, school leaders offer remediation options through online-based learning approved
to meet college admission requirements. Assistant Principal Jami mentioned that her team
“discusses students who are falling out of [academic] compliance and not wait until summer to
offer a [grade of a] D validation or remediation.” Counselors agreed that options for credit
recovery help instill hope and persistence to college enrollment. Counselor Martha recalled a
conversation with students that asserts the impact academic interventions have on students’
college-going aspirations:
Yes, people are going to accept you. Yes, they are going to give you money to go there.
They are going to have the same faith in you that we have. Online credit recovery is
huge because we need to get them remediated. We need to get those grades fixed, and
we are fortunate that the district and administrators support that [need].
Counselors mentioned that resources to support academic eligibility help increase student access
to college and financial aid. In addition to college preparatory course offerings and intentional
academic interventions, school leaders created a systematic program to infuse college and
financial aid knowledge school-wide.
Access to college knowledge through a college readiness system. Interview,
observation and document analysis findings revealed that school leaders guide students and
families through college and financial aid knowledge. They develop school-wide campaigns and
activities to engage all school staff and students in college-going tasks and celebrate those who
commit to postsecondary education. Further, parent education and alternate forms of
communication engage parents in college talk.
College-going curriculum. School leaders collaborated on a comprehensive and
developmental college-going curriculum for each grade level, which they call CCR. As
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 69

mentioned by all school leaders, AVID and CCR have been the most significant contributors to
the college-going culture. The idea of CCR emerged during a leadership team meeting where
school leaders discussed how other students could access the support that AVID students receive.
As a solution, Principal Ella tasked the counseling team with using their college knowledge
expertise to create a comprehensive curriculum to present school-wide. The leadership team
modified the schedule to fit 40 minutes of CCR time at least 18 times per school year, and, in
doing so, created a detailed developmental and task-oriented curriculum to guide students
through college and financial aid exploration.
School leaders shared that they collaborate to design and deliver CCR lessons for all
students, and college talk is a shared responsibility amongst school leaders and departments.
Principal Ella endeavored to change the mindsets of counselors and teachers. Counselors were
asked to think like teachers by designing lessons, and teachers were asked to think like
counselors by delivering the lessons created by the counseling department. School leaders
revealed that this collaboration by teachers and counselors was imperative and a promising
practice to ensure the information reached all students.
The CCR curriculum engages students with Naviance/Family Connection, a web-based
tool for career and college exploration to help students connect with postsecondary programs.
Each student has a personal account with options for self-assessment regarding personality type
and career interest. They also use Naviance to research colleges, college majors, and scholarship
opportunities. Counselors revealed that during CCR, they establish recommended tasks for
students to explore with the guidance of a classroom teacher. This time also provides the
counseling department opportunities to provide grade-specific workshops on college admission
requirements and financial aid. Counselors are assigned a CCR grade level, and each is
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 70

responsible for creating and updating the lessons. During the 2017–2018 school year, SEL
components were added to the CCR curriculum to equip students with the real-world skills to
navigate college choice and financial aid. School leaders complement the college-going system
with school-wide campaigns in which students, families, and staff can engage.
School-wide campaigns. School leaders create and coordinate school-wide activities that
bring attention to college choice and celebrate students who commit to a postsecondary path,
whether that is a 4-year university, community college, vocational school or the military.
School-wide campaigns such as Decision Day, #accepted, #enlisted, and #graduated engage the
entire school and help bring awareness to underclassmen about postsecondary options. Once a
student has solidified a plan for after high school, school leaders celebrate and highlight them by
photographing them holding a pennant and wearing a shirt that reads #accepted or #enlisted on
the back. School leaders post these pictures on the school’s website, social media, and news
board. On May 1 of every year, the school leaders promote College Decision Day and celebrate
all seniors who committed to a postsecondary option in front of their younger classmates.
School leaders shared that they celebrate all postsecondary plans equally and do not undervalue
the choice of a community college. Teacher Marina added that the essential factor is that
students “are celebrated for having a plan.” School leaders also celebrate college choice by
participating in the #graduated campaign.
School leaders engage in #graduated every Wednesday by wearing college-themed
clothing and sharing with students their knowledge about the school this clothing represents.
AVID Teacher Consuelo shared, “We encourage staff members to talk about the college that
they are wearing [and] it does not have to be a college they’ve attended.” This allows for school
staff to have an opportunity to engage in college talk with students.
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 71

In addition, school leaders organize events to prepare students for standardized tests and
expose them to colleges. School leaders host free SAT and ACT boot camps and embed PSAT
testing for all juniors during the regular bell schedule to support test preparation. The counselors
organize and partner with teachers to take all AVID and ninth grade students on college tours
once a year. Counselor Randee mentioned that “625 students were bussed to eleven colleges last
fall.” Once a year, Counselor Javier coordinates for a consortium of out of state colleges to visit
the junior classrooms and provide an overview of the elements that compose a strong college
application. Further, representatives from higher education institutions visit campus during
student lunch, so students can learn more about postsecondary options and resources. Tiller
High School also hosts an annual district college fair where families and students can attend
various workshops and engage with admission counselors from many higher education
institutions and the military. Evidence of school-wide campaigns including college visits, fairs
and tours were noted on the school’s website and social media sites. Additionally, the researcher
observed college representatives on campus speaking with students during student lunch and
with parents during the parent college workshop. These measures, demonstrate school leaders’
support and encourage students to matriculate into higher education.
Family education opportunities. School leaders shared they understand the importance
of parent involvement in supporting students’ college-going aspirations and extend the college
readiness system to parent and family education. To engage parents in college knowledge,
school leaders strive to ensure families feel welcome on campus and offer a variety of
opportunities to engage in parent education. Counselors deliver monthly evening workshops to
assist in parents’ understanding of college admission eligibility, financial aid, and postsecondary
options. In addition, Dr. Alex delivers monthly Principal’s Coffee meetings to inform parents of
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 72

opportunities to be involved in the school and to help parents navigate the high school
environment. Moreover, as evidenced by digital signage and flyers, the community liaison
organizes additional parent involvement workshops to help parents best support their students
and receive additional information on navigating the educational system.
Because financial aid is an important topic for their community, school leaders
collaborate with higher education institutions to offer multiple financial aid workshops. School
leaders shared that interpreters are available for families at these workshops, which are well
attended. Assistant Principal Jami shared, “We’re bursting at the seams. We run out of room
every year,” and Dr. Alex added, “Last year, there were over 200 parents who came [to financial
aid night].” School leaders focus on providing financial aid workshops that walk families
through completing the FAFSA and Dream Act application. In addition to parent education,
school leaders offer alternate forms of communication to engage parents who are unable to
attend any events.
School leaders utilize the school’s newsletters and social media to offer families other
platforms to stay connected and informed. As mentioned by school leaders, during her
leadership, Principal Ella created a part-time office position to assist with community outreach
and the management of the school’s social media and newsletter. The school’s newsletter
showcases articles on school programs, college activities, parent workshops, Principal’s
Reflection, and a counselor newsletter that includes graduation and college preparation
information for each grade level. All written communication is available in Spanish and posted
on the school’s website. Digital signage is available at the front of the school, front office lobby,
counseling office, and library. Lastly, bilingual office staff members are available to help
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 73

welcome and provide answers for families who may not speak English. All of parent education
resources were evidenced through observations and document analysis findings.
Discussion of Research Questions One
Findings for research question one highlight the important role school leaders have in
setting high expectations for college access and the impact shared responsibility has in providing
an equitable and comprehensive college readiness infrastructure for students. The ecological
systems model (Bronfenbrenner, 1979) and conceptual framework demonstrate how interactions
among stakeholders and practices surrounding the child have a direct impact on that child’s
perception and aspirations to enroll in postsecondary education.
School leaders have a great influence on the child’s perception of college access through
their modeling and direct conversations. School leaders’ vision and expectations about college
access inspire the interactions within the microsystem. Similarly, school leaders’ moral purpose
and understanding of perceived barriers influence the elements within the mesosystem. In other
words, school leaders become charged by the school’s vision and purpose and respond to the
needs of the child by providing resources and services that support access to higher education.
As described by Corwin and Tierney (2007) choosing key individuals to implement
school-wide action plans helps build a college-going culture. Principal Ella modeled
empowerment as described in Short et al. (1999) in her request to the counseling department for
a college knowledge curriculum. Further, she developed a community of support through the
Connect Coaches to foster a collaborative responsibility for college readiness and to expand
professional development to meet high expectations. The school leaders support the child as a
whole and address academics, career/college, and socioemotional needs. Through the CCR
lessons, school leaders address factors that inhibit students from accessing higher education
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 74

(Belasco, 2013; Cook, Perusse, & Rojas, 2012; Martinez & Welton, 2014; Savitz-Romer, 2012;
Vela-Gude et al., 2009; William et al., 2016).
The collaboration and efforts made within the mesosystem allowed for the promoting and
acceptance of the college-going culture at Tiller High School. School leaders’ belief in the
school’s vision, shared accountability, delivery of a comprehensive college readiness system, and
commitment to family engagement nurture an environment dedicated to engaging students in the
college-going culture. School leaders’ view of the counseling department as a partner
accountable for college talk allows them to reach all students. Collaboration is evident through
the CCR, school-wide campaigns, and resources to build aspiration for higher education. School
leaders utilize these resources to engage with students and families to meet school-wide goals
and provide students access to higher education. In conclusion, school leaders promote a
college-going culture through expectations for equitable exposure to college readiness, and
campus resources validate school leaders’ commitment to supporting students’ postsecondary
endeavors.
Findings for Research Question Two: Challenges in Sustaining College-Going Culture
The second research question aimed at ascertaining the types of challenges school leaders
face in sustaining a college-going culture. Three themes emerged that help answer this question.
First, school leaders perceive college costs inhibit students’ persistence to college choice.
Second, school leaders perceive a need to build faculty professional capacity to support students’
self-efficacy in college-going practices. Third, limited resources affect the college-going
culture’s sustainability.

LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 75

School Leaders’ Perception of College Cost and Students’ Persistence
Despite school leaders’ efforts regarding access to higher education, they find that some
students continue to perceive college cost as a financial burden, and socioeconomic hardship
affects their belief and persistence in terms of college enrollment. All school leaders
communicated some students do not believe they will receive financial aid to pay for college.
Counselor Martha expands on a conversation had in an AVID class that demonstrates the
students’ perspective on financial aid:
The kids said, “but they are not going to give me that money. Why would they give me
that money? I haven’t done anything to deserve this, so why would anybody [want to
give me money]?” There is something, I don’t know if it’s self-worth or self-esteem,
that’s preventing them from believing that there’s actually going to be that money there.
Further, school leaders state some students feel financially responsible to support their family
financially, which affects their perception of college affordability. Teacher Harvey shared,
“some of them are just working straight out of high school, so, therefore, college is not an
option.” Counselors also discussed the limitations some students feel in respect to their inability
to pay for college housing and impact or their desire to stay close to home, and the impact this
has on college enrollment persistence. Counselor Karla mentioned, “for some students, taking
out a loan is such a daunting idea.” This assertion was observed during the junior AVID class
when students justified their selection of colleges by saying “I chose this school because it is
close to home” and not necessarily emphasizing other relevant characteristics of the campus.
Counselor Javier shared the challenges faced during college advisement when attempting to
explain the long-term benefits of postsecondary education. School leaders challenge students to
think beyond their economic limitations and focus on achieving greater goals:
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 76

A lot of these kids are taught “you are going to work like me,” but we’re trying to break
that down [and explain to them] “why don’t you give me five classes at community
college?” [Hospitals] are recruiting for nurse’s assistants and make $25 an hour. Isn’t
that better than $10 an hour?
School leaders communicated that they engage in conversations with students about
college cost and financial aid resources available to low-income families. However, they see
convincing families and students about the affordability of college as an increasingly larger
challenge. Although school leaders provide a variety of evening workshops for parents to learn
more about college-related matters and cost, there is still a need to increase participation in these
events to change familial perceptions of college affordability.
School leaders noted through interviews that familial financial obligations have an
indirect impact on parent engagement and accessibility. They would like to see more parents
attend workshops, but they understand the challenges some families face in terms of work
schedules and childcare affect their participation. AVID Teacher Dwight expanded on this
challenge from the student lens:
Parent engagement is sometimes difficult because parents are working two jobs and don’t
have time to come to back to school at night. Yes, they would love to come, but if it’s
between picking up a report card and working a second job so there’s enough food. The
students tell me why their [parents can’t come], so that’s why I stopped giving extra
credit for Back to School Night or report card night, because I don’t want to punish the
kids [whose parents can’t come]
Understanding the limitations on parent accessibility, school leaders create alternate avenues of
communication to keep parents informed of the financial aid resources available. However,
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 77

further support is needed to ensure all students complete the necessary steps involved in the
financial aid process.
Need to Build School Leader’s Capacity to Support Students’ Self-Efficacy
School leaders believe that building students’ self-efficacy and emotional strength can
empower them to pursue postsecondary education. While they intend to promote a college-going
culture school-wide, maintaining buy-in from students who need extra academic and emotional
support is a daily challenge. School leaders communicated that considerable resources are put in
place to offer students academic remediation options, but they notice students’ aspirations
decrease when they feel academically and emotionally defeated. According to school leaders,
students’ low self-efficacy and disbelief in their academic potential affect their engagement in
college-going practices. Assistant Principal Donald stated, “Students who are entering our
school with gaps in their learning have identified themselves as like ‘I am a bad student. I can’t
be successful.’ It’s hard to fix that mindset.” AVID Teacher Consuelo recalled a similar attitude
in students with multiple Ds and Fs while delivering a CCR lesson: “The kids [said], ‘Well, that
is not for me. That’s for them.’ It’s like they don’t believe [they can] really go to college. Our
biggest challenge is getting the kids to see the abilities within themselves.” Teacher Nina shared
the struggle she faces when motivating ELL students and how their perceived challenges affect
their daily tasks: “It’s hard to keep it going. If they lack some basic skills, it’s hard to keep them
focused because they have so many challenges they have to overcome to be able to accomplish
just a basic task.” Therefore, school leaders recognize the need to support students’ academic and
socioemotional self-efficacy to engage them in college-going practices.
Although school leaders “recognize relationships are important to access the material,” as
shared by Assistant Principal Donald, they also believe further intervention is needed to develop
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 78

students’ noncognitive skills. As evidenced in the accreditation report and mentioned by school
leaders, the leadership team recognized that SEL strategies were needed to support student
engagement. Therefore, in the 2017–2018 school year, SEL competency became a school-wide
goal. SEL strategies were introduced to complement current instructional strategies to sustain
students’ college-going aspirations and the college-going culture. However, efforts to meet the
goal of SEL competency are nascent, and school leaders recognize building all teachers’
professional capacity will take time and professional development.
Limited Resources to Execute College-Going Practices Affect the Sustainability of the
College-Going Culture
Although the current resources have been instrumental in promoting a college-going
culture, there is still a need for additional human and financial resources to sustain these
practices. Funds from LCAP and Tile I helped supply most of the resources, but budget
constraints are a challenge. Principal Ella mentioned, “I always added more to the counseling
team than the district allocated,” and positions initially allocated to support college-going
practices may be eliminated if financial resources are not available. Positions like those of the
community outreach staff, the ELL counselor and the Connect Coaches depend on the
availability of funds. In addition, limited time due to a shortage of staff and added
responsibilities prevent school leaders from ensuring optimal use of CCR lessons.
Sustainability of CCR lessons. The sustainability of the college and financial aid
curriculum is in doubt due to the need to update and maximize the use of this resource. Limited
human resources impede counselors from updating and refine the curriculum. Initial lessons
were created by the counselors with the support of AVID Coordinator Consuelo. Minor content
updates were made throughout the years, but counselors recognize their expertise is not in
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 79

curriculum design and welcome support “to make lessons more engaging,” as mentioned by
Counselor Mirna. Counselor Karla mentioned that “trying to craft CCRs to essentially make it
one size fits all is a big challenge,” and, as they develop lessons to include SEL strategies, more
support is needed to make lessons interactive and accessible.
Although CCR lessons are accepted by most teachers, school leaders are aware that some
teachers do not fully engage students in college talk and request the students “click and read the
slides on their own,” as mentioned by Counselor Martha and corroborated by school
administrators. In response, administrators and counselors recognize the need to monitor the
integrity of the lessons. Assistant Principal Jami mentioned, “My next step is to create a CCR
committee to help the counselors make them more interactive” and, therefore, meet the needs of
all stakeholders.
Discussion of Research Question Two
School leaders highlighted a need to centralize resources to build on students’ emotional
strength (Cook et al., 2012; Pajares, 2006; Vela-Gude et al., 2009) and the influence cultural
values such as familismo have on students’ aspirations for and persistence to higher education
(Valenzuela & Dornbusch, 1994). School leaders mentioned that students’ perception of college
affordability and psychosocial elements affect their academic persistence and aspirations. In
addition, they conveyed that the practices that promote the college-going culture are at risk and
dependent on fund availability.
School leaders noted the increasing difficulty of sustaining a college-going culture when
students perceive that college access and affordability are beyond their control. To mitigate this
challenge, school leaders must provide resources to support students holistically and
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 80

developmentally. However, limited resources complicate school leaders’ intent to respond to
students’ needs in a non-reactive manner.
Although not expanded in detail in the literature review, it is important to add that
fostering students’ noncognitive skills can have a positive impact on academic performance and
persistence to college (Gap et al., n.d.; Nagaoka et al., 2013). Noncognitive skills refer to social
and emotional learning skills such as self-control, conscientiousness, self-confidence, and social
fluidity. Trauma and stress can affect the development of noncognitive skills, which are two
elements many Latinx students face through their experience with poverty, language acquisition,
and cultural and transitional adversities (Brown & Chu, 2012; Cordova & Cervantes, 2010;
Kanno & Cromley, 2015; Schmid, 2001). Therefore, it is not surprising that school leaders find
a need to focus and implement SEL strategies in their daily interaction with students to support
their academic and college matriculation persistence (William et al., 2016).
Finally, limited resources create an institutional barrier for students and affect the school
leaders’ morale. To date, Tiller High School leaders execute promising practices due to the
resources allocated to strengthen their working relationships. However, losing these resources
could negatively impact the school climate. Dr. Alex demonstrated that sustaining a college-
going culture depends on leaders’ influence through staff motivation, commitment, and working
conditions (Leithwood et al., 2008). These findings are timely and important for practice, as
limitations faced by school leaders could be analyzed and inform schools with similar
demographics how to better allocate resources for school leaders and students.
Summary
This chapter explored the practices school leaders employ to promote a college-going
culture in a school with a high enrollment of low-income Latinx students as well as challenges to
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 81

sustaining such a culture. Three promising practices emerged and highlight the importance of
setting high expectations for college access, accountability to student learning, and a
comprehensive college readiness program that encompasses college knowledge and parent
education. Secondly, the chapter described the challenges school leaders face in sustaining a
college-going culture: students’ perception of college affordability, psychosocial elements’
negative impact on academic persistence and college-going aspirations, and the impact of limited
resources on the sustainability of a college-going culture.
School leaders’ promising practices to promote a college-going culture stem from the
communication of high expectations for college readiness and accountability to student learning
through researched-based instructional strategies, allocation of a broad course curricula, and a
comprehensive college readiness system. School leaders provide solution-focused practices to
help address many of the barriers and factors that inhibit students from accessing higher
education, such as the need for college knowledge, financial aid knowledge, and social capital.
All school leaders contribute to the college-going culture through their active engagement in
school-wide goals, their belief in the school’s vision, and through their expertise and practice.
Challenges school leaders face in sustaining a college-going culture correlate with the
literature and emphasize the need to focus on a strength-based approach through social-
emotional strategies to support students’ academic persistence and aspirations for college, as
students’ self-perception and learning are affected by socioeconomic and sociocultural factors
(Cook et al., 2012; Schmid, 2001). Limited resources also pose a challenge, as current resources
that support school leaders’ professional development and students’ academic remediation
depend on budget availability. Further discussion of these topics is presented in Chapter Five,
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 82

along with the implications of this study’s findings and recommendations for both practice and
research.

LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 83

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY
By 2020, 65% of jobs will require postsecondary education (Carnevale et al., 2013; Dyce
et al., 2013), which means students must be better prepared to meet the demands of the 21st
century workforce. Enrollment of Latinx students in the American educational system is
projected to reach 25% by 2025 (Gregory, 2003; National Center for Education Statistics, 2017;
Vela-Gude et al., 2009). Research shows that these students have the lowest high school
graduation rates and are the least represented in postsecondary education. School leaders’ efforts
in supporting students’ attainment of postsecondary education could benefit students’ future
financial opportunity and the country’s economic growth and social stability (Lillard et al., 2017;
Soule & Warrick, 2015; Tierney & Duncheon, 2015). Comprehensive school programs that
foster a college-going culture increase academic achievement and support students’ college-
going aspirations (Farmer-Hinton, 2011; McClafferty et al., 2002). Furthermore, school leaders
play an integral role in closing the achievement gap, as they can foster a culture responsive to
students’ needs (Corwin & Tierney, 2007; Rueda, 2011). Administrators, teachers, and
counselors play an important role in building and sustaining students’ college-going aspirations
(Corwin & Tierney, 2007; McClafferty et al., 2002). They can establish policies and practices to
mitigate Latinx students’ perceived barriers to higher education (Leithwood et al., 2008).
Purpose of the Study
Disproportionate student outcomes and increased globalization spur school leaders to
seek strategies to increase postsecondary enrollment (Bae & Darling-Hammond, 2014;
Carnevale et al., 2013; Dyce et al., 2013). Nonetheless, little is known about school leadership
practices to promote and sustain this culture (Corwin & Tierney, 2007; McClafferty et al., 2002).
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 84

To that end, this study sought to identify practices of successful school leaders. The following
research questions guided this study:
1. What strategies do school leaders at Tiller High School employ to promote a college-
going culture in urban high schools with low-income Latinx students?
2. What are the challenges of school leaders in sustaining a college-going culture at Tiller
High School?
This case study utilized qualitative methodology in the form of semi-structured
interviews, observations, and document analysis. Four administrators, six counselors, and six
teachers were interviewed. Additional data were collected via observations of a parent college
night and five AVID classrooms along with analysis of the school’s most recent accreditation
report, flyers, and digital communication. Creswell’s six steps of data analysis (2014) were used
to maintain objectivity and validity of findings. Lastly, Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological
model for human development and McClafferty and colleagues’ (2002) work on what constitutes
a college-going culture served as the theoretical framework and guided the conceptual
framework approach of this study.
Summary of Findings
Emerging themes for promising practices speak to the importance of school leadership in
setting high expectations through accountability measures (Darling-Hammond & Snyder, 2015;
Leithwood et al., 2008; Orr & Barber, 2005). Further, school leaders can foster student
aspirations through a comprehensive systems model (Belasco, 2013; Dyce et al., 2013; McKillip
et al., 2012; Ohrt et al. 2009; Savitz-Romer, 2012).
First, school leaders built a college-going culture grounded on high expectations for
college access and cohesive responsibility to support students’ college readiness. School leaders
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 85

utilized the school’s vision and purpose to communicate high expectations and regularly
conveyed that all students should graduate high school with a postsecondary plan. They
established collaborative structures to communicate college knowledge school-wide.
Additionally, school leaders approached their practices from a mindset of students’ strengths and
demonstrated their appreciation of diversity.
Second, leaders assumed their responsibility for student success and provide a learning
environment where students can thrive. They established accountability measures via
expectations of quality instruction and allocated resources to capacitate faculty to meet such
expectations. School leaders instituted measures for accountability to meaningful learning and
accessible instruction and encouraged faculty to engage in professional development (Darling-
Hammond & Snyder, 2015).
Third, school leaders support students’ college-going aspirations through rigorous
curricula and created a social network to promote college exploration. School leaders support
students’ college-going aspirations via broad course offerings and a comprehensive college
readiness system. They acknowledged that college exploration is a developmental process
(Santrock, 2013), and students rely on their support to navigate the process of college choice.
Therefore, counselors and teachers deliver a curriculum that communicates college and financial
aid knowledge developmentally and school-wide. In addition, the comprehensive college
readiness system is inclusive and invites the participation of school staff in school-wide
campaigns and parent education.
School leaders demonstrate a sense of community among stakeholders and ownership to
educate, nurture, and guide students through the process of college and financial aid exploration.
They demonstrate genuine care for students, highly regard multiculturalism, and nurture their
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 86

students’ human and social capital (Belasco, 2013; Dyce et al., 2013; Martinez & Welton, 2014).
Through reflection on school practices and shared responsibility for college talk, school leaders
created a solution-focused and strength-based culture that serves their students’ needs. They
collaborate to guide students as they navigate college-related matters through the grade-specific
CCR curriculum and contribute to their students’ development of social and human capital
(Bryan et al., 2009). In addition, school leaders adapted resources to cultivate students’
confidence in their ability to pursue postsecondary education by focusing on psychosocial and
behavioral support through the embedding of SEL strategies during CCR (Athanases et al., 2016;
Cook et al., 2012). Moreover, high expectations accompanied by academic interventions
support students’ preparedness and college admission eligibility (Dukakis et al., 2012).
The second part of this study identified the challenges school leaders face in sustaining
the college-going culture. The challenges identified relate to the limited financial and human
resources available to sustain their practices. Challenges lie in mitigating students’ perceptions
of college affordability and psychosocial elements that negatively affect academic persistence
and college-going aspirations.
The college-going culture was fostered through a variety of resources offered to engage
students in college knowledge, academic interventions, and professional development.
Resources such as an ELL counselor, Connect Coaches, office support staff, sections of credit
recovery, and school-wide campaigns depend on the availability of funds, and inability to fund
these resources risks the sustainability of these practices.
School leaders recognized that, while they intend to promote a college-going culture
school-wide, student perceptions of college affordability and admissibility inhibit their
persistence. School leaders added that cultural facets tied to familial financial hardship affect
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 87

students’ aspirations for and persistence to higher education. Moreover, students’
discouragement and hopelessness are heightened when economic hardship and academic
difficulties combine, as students perceive that higher education is unattainable. As stated in the
literature, low-income Latinx students’ perceived barriers to higher education encompass
external socioeconomic and intrinsic sociocultural factors that affect perceptions of college
affordability, self-perception, and confidence in succeeding in advanced courses (Dyce et al.,
2013; Gandara & Contreras, 2009). Therefore, school leaders deem it necessary to maintain or
increase resources such as professional development in SEL strategies for faculty to support
students holistically and help them build both human and social capital (Belasco, 2013; Martinez
& Welton, 2014).
Implications for Practice
This study described practices used by school leaders to promote a college-going culture
in a high school with a high enrollment of low-income Latinx students. Practices highlighted in
this study have contributed to the increase of university admission eligibility rates and
enrollment of Latinx students in higher education at Tiller High School. The findings of this
study have implications for school and district leaders involved in the allocation and
implementation of student services.
Study data suggest the importance of teacher and counselor collaboration to communicate
college and financial aid knowledge widely. Although counselors are viewed as experts on
college counseling, it is essential for school leaders to share the responsibility of college talk to
benefit a greater number of students. In this study, school leaders model a collaborative
approach to systematically deliver college-related matters school-wide. Through the counselors’
expertise in college knowledge and teachers’ expertise in curriculum design, school leaders can
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 88

establish an equitable and efficient school-wide model for college talk. Thus, students engage in
a social network equipped to guide them through the college exploration process. Additionally,
this practice helps instill students’ college aspirations through the ecological approach of social
capital, allowing stakeholders to support students academically and socioemotionally.
Developing this practice would imply that school leaders consider the structure and functional
responsibilities of faculty in college talk and foster collaborative approaches between school
departments.
In addition, data suggest the importance of centralizing professional learning resources to
support staff members’ professional capacity to support Latinx students’ needs. A college-going
culture needs to represent inclusiveness and diversity as well as demonstrate cultural competence
and responsiveness (Bryan & Atwater, 2002; Richards et al., 2007). At Tiller High School, the
updated mission statement clearly states that leaders would continue to embrace diversity and
prepare students for postsecondary education. Through their high expectations, accountability to
student learning, and resources allocated to support students’ aspirations and access to college,
school leaders fostered a college-going and student-centered culture. The college-going culture
at Tiller High School encapsulates the importance of collaboration, equity, cultural competence,
and quality instruction.
Culturally Responsive Instructional Practices
As presented in this study, school leaders approach college access through accountability
to student learning and professional development intentionally focused on culturally relevant,
engaging, rigorous, and accessible curricula. School leaders approach the college-going culture
through a strength-based mindset and regularly communicate their high regard and acceptance of
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 89

diversity. Moreover, school leaders engage in reflective evaluation of school practices to ensure
no systemic barriers impede the growth of student learning and access to higher education.
School leaders should consider training to develop faculty members’ cultural capital and
awareness of implicit bias. They should also provide training on how faculty can foster a
culturally responsive learning experience tied with high expectations for all students. Continued
development of cultural awareness could help maximize the engagement of the Latinx
community in the college-going culture, as high regard for multiculturalism has proven to help
students feel supported in their academic goals, enable them to maintain positive academic
attitudes, and increase their feelings of school belongingness.
Social Emotional Learning Competency
Tiller High School leaders recognized that engagement in college-going practices
diminishes when students do not feel emotionally or academically efficacious. As learned in the
literature, noncognitive skills are those that can support students’ self-control, conscientiousness,
self-confidence, and social fluidity. School leaders should consider the implementation of SEL
strategies and centralize resources to develop students’ noncognitive skills. In addition, school
leaders should engage in professional development on SEL strategies and integrate them into
their daily instruction to foster a cohesive learning environment.
Recommendations for Future Studies
This study’s findings revealed that high expectations, shared responsibility for college
access, accountability to meaningful learning, and a comprehensive college readiness system
helped build college-going culture. Although the respondents provided their strategies, it would
be advantageous to conduct a study that includes the perspective of other key stakeholders to
gain a deeper understanding of how to build and sustain a college-going culture.
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 90

A future study on the perspectives of Latinx students and parents could yield deeper
understanding of how school leaders can better support these students in terms of higher
education matriculation. This recommended study could focus on students and parents’
engagement, including perceived challenges and strategies to access higher education.
A second recommendation for future study is to conduct a cross-analysis study on
multiple high schools for more generalizable results. Exploring multiple high schools with
diverse demographics could provide multiple approaches to building a college-going culture. It
could also provide a broader understanding of ways to increase graduation rates and college
access specifically for Latinx students.
The final recommendation is to conduct a qualitative longitudinal study to examine the
sustainability of the culture at Tiller High School. Although this school gained momentum in
fostering a college-going culture, these efforts were still an ongoing priority for the new
principal. Examining how school leaders sustain the school’s vision and mission could provide a
deeper understanding of ways to increase enrollment in higher education.
Conclusion
School leadership extends to administrators, teachers and counselors because all can
improve student outcomes and foster college-going aspirations (Corwin & Tierney, 2007;
Leithwood et al., 2008; McClafferty et al., 2002). This study explored promising practices at an
urban high school with a high enrollment of Latinx students of low socioeconomic status and
described the challenges school leaders face in sustaining it. Promising practices discussed
illuminate the importance of high expectations and shared responsibility for college access along
with accountability measures, a college preparatory curriculum, and a comprehensive college
readiness system. Challenges include students’ perceptions of college affordability and
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 91

accessibility, the need to build professional capacity in school leaders, and limited resources to
sustain college-going practices. Implications for school leaders include fostering collaborative
working relationships among counselors and teachers and centralizing professional learning to
develop culturally responsive instructional practices and social emotional learning competence.

LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 92

REFERENCES
ACT (2013). What are the ACT readiness benchmarks? ACT Research and Policy. Retrieved
from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED546859.pdf
Alvarez, A., Richard Milner, H., & Delale-O’Connor, L. (2016). Race, trauma, and education:
What educators need to know. In Husband, T. "But I don't see color": Challenging
assumptions about discussing race with young children (pp. 365-371). Rotterdam, The
Netherlands: SensePublishers.
Alvoid, L., & Black Jr, W. L. (2014). The changing role of the principal: How high-achieving
districts are recalibrating school leadership. Washington, DC: Center for American
Progress.
American School Counselor Association (2012). The ASCA National Model: A framework for
school counseling programs. Washington, DC: Author.
Athanases, S. Z., Achinstein, B., Curry, M. W., & Ogawa, R. T. (2016). The promise and
limitations of a college-going culture: toward cultures of engaged learning for low-SES
Latina/o youth. Teachers College Record, 118(7), n7.
Bae, S., & Darling-Hammond, L. (2014). Recognizing college and career readiness in the
California school accountability system. Stanford, CA: Stanford Center for Opportunity
Policy in Education.
Bailey, T., Jeong, D. W., & Cho, S. (2010). Referral, enrollment, and completion in
developmental education sequences in community colleges. Economics of Education
Review, 29(2), 255-270. doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2009.09.002
Baldassare, M., Bonner, D. & Lopez, L, 2017. PPIC statewide survey: Californians and higher
education. San Francisco, CA: The Public Policy of Institute of California. Retrieved
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 93

from http://www.ppic.org/publication/ppic-statewide-survey-californians-and-higher-
education-november-2017/
Barton, R. (2011). Boosting college and career readiness. Principal's Research Review, 6(6), 1.
Bauman, Kurt. (2017). School enrollment of the Hispanic population: Two decades of growth.
Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/newsroom/blogs/random-
samplings/2017/08/school_enrollmentof.html
Belasco, A. S. (2013). Creating college opportunity: School counselors and their influence on
postsecondary enrollment. Research in Higher Education, 54(7), 781-804.
doi:10.1007/s11162-013-9297-4
Bosworth, K., Convertino, C., & Hurwitz, J. T. (2014). Common purpose and different
approaches to support college-going in five southwestern districts. American Secondary
Education, 43(1), 4-24.
Brilliant, J. J. (2000). Issues in counseling immigrant college students. Community College
Journal of Research and Practice, 24(7), 577-586. doi:10.1080/1066892005013972
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and
design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Brown, C. S., & Chu, H. (2012). Discrimination, ethnic identity, and academic outcomes of
Mexican immigrant children: The importance of school context. Child
development, 83(5), 1477–1485.
Bryan, J., Farmer-Hinton, R., Rawls, A., & Woods, C. S. (2017). Social capital and college-
going culture in high schools: The effects of college expectations and college talk on
students' postsecondary attendance. Professional School Counseling: 2017-2018, Vol. 21,
No. 1, pp. 95-107.
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 94

Bryan, J., Holcomb-McCoy, C., Moore-Thomas, C., & Day-Vines, N. (2009). Who sees the
school counselor for college information? A national study. Professional School
Counseling, 12(4), 280-291. doi:10.5330/PSC.n.2010-12.280
Bryan, L. A., & Atwater, M. M. (2002). Teacher beliefs and cultural models: A challenge for
science teacher preparation programs. Science Teacher Education, 86, 821–839.
California Department of Education. (2018). Dataquest. Retrieved from
https://dq.cde.ca.gov/dataquest/
California Department of Education (2018). California Dashboard, 2017. Retrieved from
https://www.caschooldashboard.org/#/ReportDetail/30736433037553/3/4
California Department of Education (2018). California school dashboard launches with valuable
information for school districts and a new system of support that turns data into action.
Retrieved from https://www.cde.ca.gov/nr/ne/yr17/yr17rel91.asp
California Department of Education (2017). LCFF priorities/Whole child resource map.
Retrieved from: https://www.cde.ca.gov/eo/in/lcff1sys-resources.asp
California Department of Education (2019). Multi-Tiered System of Supports. Retrieved from:
https://www.cde.ca.gov/ci/cr/ri/
California Department of Education (2019). Quality School Framework. Retrieved from:
https://www.cde.ca.gov/qs/
Campos, B., Ullman, J., Aguilera, A., & Dunkel Schetter, C. (2014). Familismo and
psychological health: The intervening role of closeness and social support. Journal of
Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 20, 191–201. doi: 10.1037/a0034094
Carnevale, A., & Fasules, M. L. (2017). Latino education and economic progress: Running
faster but still behind. Washington, DC: Center of Education and the Workforce.
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 95

Carnevale, A., Smith, N., & Strohl, J. (2013). The road to recovery: Projecting U.S. job growth
and higher education demand through 2020. Community College Journal, 84(3)
Castleman, B. L., & Page, L. C. (2014). A trickle or a torrent? Understanding the extent of
summer “melt” among college intending high school graduates. Social Science
Quarterly, 95, 202–220. doi:10.1111/ssqu.12032
Cohen, M. (2008). Improving college preparation: Lessons from the American diploma project.
New England Journal of Higher Education, 22(5), 21–23.
Conley, D. T. (2007). Toward a more comprehensive conception of college readiness. Eugene,
OR: Educational Policy Improvement Center.
Conley, D. T. (2008). Rethinking college readiness. New Directions for Higher Education,
2008(144), 3-13. doi:10.1002/he.321
Contreras, F. (2011). Strengthening the bridge to higher education for academically promising
underrepresented students. Journal of Advanced Academics, 22(3), 500-526.
doi:10.1177/1932202X1102200306
Córdova Jr, D., & Cervantes, R. C. (2010). Intergroup and within-group perceived discrimination
among US-born and foreign-born Latino youth. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral
Sciences, 32(2), 259-274.
Corwin, Z. B., & Tierney, W. G. (2007). Getting there--and beyond: Building a culture of
college-going in high schools. Center for Higher Education Policy Analysis, University
of Southern California
Creech, K. K., & Clouse, P. J. (2013). Outcomes of a partnership for college and career readiness
and a senior English transition course. NASSP Bulletin, 97(4), 314–334.
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 96

Deans, M., & Robinson, G. (2015). KEEP IT SIMPLE: Support college and career readiness by
creating a college-going culture. Principal Leadership, 15(7), 28–31.
Dukakis, K., Duong, N., Ruiz de Velasco, J., & Henderson, J. (2014). College access and
completion among boys and young men of color: Literature review of promising
practices. Stanford, CA: John W. Gardner Center for Youth and their Communities.
Dyce, C. M., Albold, C., & Long, D. (2013). Moving from college aspiration to attainment:
Learning from one college access program. The High School Journal, 96(2), 152–165.
Epstein, J. L., & Van Voorhis, F. L. (2010). School counselors' roles in developing partnerships
with families and communities for student success. Professional School Counseling,
14(1), 1-14.
Farmer-Hinton, R. (2011). On being college prep: Examining the implementation of a "college
for all" mission in an urban charter school. Urban Review: Issues and Ideas in Public
Education, 43(5), 567-596. doi:10.1007/s11256-010-0168-4
Gandara, P. C., & Contreras, F., 1972. (2009). The Latino education crisis: The consequences of
failed social policies. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Gap, H. W., Gap, B. W., & Gap, N. W. (n.d). Indicators for future success: GPA and
noncognitive skills
Gardiner, H. & Kosmitzki, C. (2005). Theories and methodology. Lives Across Cultures (pp. 17-
49). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Griffin, D., & Galassi, J. P. (2010). Parent perceptions of barriers to academic success in a rural
middle school. Professional School Counseling, 14(1), 87–100.
Hines, E., Harris, P., & Ham, D. (2014). Creating a college-going culture for African American
males in middle school: A blueprint for school counselors. In Advances in Race and
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 97

Ethnicity in Education (Vol. 2, pp. 217–241). Bingley, UK: Emerald.
https://doi.org/10.1108/S2051-231720140000002028
Holland, N. E., & Farmer-Hinton, R. L. (2009). Leave no schools behind: The importance of a
college culture in urban public high schools. The High School Journal, 92(3), 24–43.
Hossler, D., J. Schmit, & N. Vesper. (1999). Going to college: How social, economic. and
educational factors influence the decisions students make. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins
University Press
Hotchkiss, L. & L. Vetter. (1987). Outcomes of career guidance and counseling. Columbus, OH:
National Center for Research in Vocational Education.
Kanno, Y., & Cromley, J. G. (2015). English language learners' pathways to four-year colleges.
Teachers College Record, 117(12), 1.
Lee, C., Jackson, J. (2018). The rising cost of college: Student fees. San Francisco, CA: The
Public Policy of Institute of California. Retrieved from http://www.ppic.org/blog/rising-
cost-college-student-fees/
Leithwood, K., Harris, A., & Hopkins, D. (2008). Seven strong claims about successful school
leadership. School Leadership & Management, 28(1), 27-42.
doi:10.1080/13632430701800060
Linnenbrink-Garcia, L., Patall, E. A., & Pekrun R. (2016). Adaptive motivation and emotion in
education: Research and principles for instructional design. Policy Insights from the
Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 3(2), 228–236.
Marcia J. E. (1993) The ego identity status approach to ego identity. In J. E. Marcia, A. S.
Waterman, D. R. Matteson, S. L. Archer, & J. L. Orlofsky (Eds.), Ego Identity (pp. 3–
21). New York, NY: Springer.
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 98

Marcia, J. E. (1966). Development and validation of ego-identity status. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 3(5), 551-558.
Martinez, M. A., & Welton, A. D. (2014). Examining college opportunity structures for students
of color at high-"minority," high-poverty secondary schools in Texas. Journal of School
Leadership, 24(5), 800-841.
Mayer, R. E., & Alexander, P. A. (Eds.). (2016). Handbook of research on learning and
Instruction (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.
McClafferty, K. A., McDonough, P. M., & Nunez, A. (2002, April). What is a college culture?
facilitating college preparation through organizational change. Paper presented at the
Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA,
McCollough, C. A. (2011). Creating a college-going culture. Science Teacher, 78(3), 51–55.
McKillip, M. E. M., Godfrey, K. E., & Rawls, A. (2013). Rules of engagement: Building a
college-going culture in an urban school. Urban Education, 48(4), 529–556.
doi:10.1177/0042085912457163
McKillip, M. E. M., Rawls, A., & Barry, C. (2012). Improving college access: A review of
research on the role of high school counselors. Professional School Counseling, 16(1),
49–58. doi:10.5330/PSC.n.2012-16.49
McLeod, S. A. (2013). Erik Erikson. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-
Erikson.html
National Center for Education Statistics (2017). Characteristics of children’s family. Retrieved
from https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator_cce.asp
National Center for Education Statistics (2017). Racial and ethnic enrollment in public school.
Retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator_cge.asp
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 99

National Center for Education Statistics. (2017). The condition of education 2017 (NCES 2017-
144). Washington, DC: Author.
Northouse, P. G. (2016). Leadership: Theory and practice (7th ed.) Los Angeles, CA: SAGE.
Nunez, A., Rios Aguilar, C., Kanno, Y., Flores, S. (2016). English learners and their transition to
postsecondary education. Higher education: Handbook of theory and research (41-90).
Cham: Springer
Oakes, J., Mendoza, J., & Silver, D. (2004). California opportunity indicators: Informing and
monitoring California's progress toward equitable college access. Berkeley: University
of California All Campus Consortium on Research for Diversity.
Perna, L. W. (2006). Studying college access and choice: A proposed conceptual model. In J. C.
Smart (Ed.), Higher education: Handbook of theory and research, Vol. XXI (pp. 91–
157). New York, NY: Springer.
Perna, L. W., & Thomas, S. L. (2008). Theoretical perspectives on student success:
Understanding the contributions of the disciplines. ASHE Higher Education Report,
34(1), 1-87. doi:10.1002/aehe.3401
Porter, A. C., & Polikoff, M. S. (2012). Measuring academic readiness for college. Educational
Policy, 26(3), 394-417. doi:10.1177/0895904811400410
Poynton, T. A., & Lapan, R. T. (2017). Aspirations, achievement, and school counselors' impact
on the college transition. Journal of Counseling & Development, 95(4), 369-377.
doi:10.1002/jcad.12152
Richards, H. V., Brown, A. F., & Forde, T. B. (2007). Addressing diversity in schools: Culturally
responsive pedagogy. Teaching Exceptional Children, 39, 64–68.
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 100

Roderick, M., Coca, V., & Nagaoka, J. (2011). Potholes on the road to college: High school
effects in shaping urban students’ participation in college application, four-year college
enrollment, and college match. Sociology of Education, 84(3), 178-211.
Rubin, H., & Rubin, Irene S. (2004). Qualitative interviewing: The art of hearing data (2nd ed.).
Los Angeles, CA: SAGE.
Santrock, J. W. (2013) Lifespan development,15th ed. New York, NY: McGraw Hill.
Savitz-Romer, M. (2012). The gap between influence and efficacy: College readiness training,
urban school counselors, and the promotion of equity. Counselor Education and
Supervision, 51(2), 98-111. doi:10.1002/j.1556-6978.2012.00007.x
Schmid, C. L. (2001). Educational achievement, language-minority students, and the new second
generation. Sociology of Education, 74, 71–87.
Shi, Q., & Steen, S. (2012). Using the achieving success everyday (ASE) group model to
promote self-esteem and academic achievement for English as a second language (ESL)
students. Professional School Counseling, 16(1), 63–70. doi:10.5330/PSC.n.2012-16.63
Short, L. (2017). How high school students' perceptions of their teacher-student relationships
relate to their academic achievement (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest
Dissertations and Theses database. (10638662)
Short, P. M., Rinehart, J. S., & Eckley, M. (1999). The relationship of teacher empowerment and
principal leadership orientation. Educational Research Quarterly, 22(4), 45.
Soule, H., & Warrick, T. (2015). Defining 21st century readiness for all students: What we know
and how to get there. Psychology of Aesthetics Creativity and the Arts, 9(2), 178-186.
doi:10.1037/aca0000017
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 101

Stewart, E. B. (2008). Individual and school structural effects on African American high school
students' academic achievement. High School Journal, 91(2), 16–34.
doi:10.1353/hsj.2008.0002
Suárez-Orozco, C., & Suárez-Orozco, M. (2009). Educating Latino immigrant students in the
twenty-first century: Principles for the Obama administration. Harvard Educational
Review, 79(2), 327-340. doi:10.17763/haer.79.2.231151762p82213u
Suárez-Orozco, C., Gaytán, F. X., Bang, H. J., Pakes, J., O'Connor, E., & Rhodes, J. (2010).
Academic trajectories of newcomer immigrant youth. Developmental Psychology, 46(3),
602-618. doi:10.1037/a0018201
Suárez-Orozco, C., Gaytán, F. X., Bang, H. J., Pakes, J., O'Connor, E., & Rhodes, J. (2010).
Academic trajectories of newcomer immigrant youth. Psychology, 46(3), 602–618.
doi:10.1037/a0018201
Tierney, W. G. (2015). In Tierney W. G., Duncheon J. C. (Eds.), The problem of college
readiness Albany: State University of New York Press.
Valenzuela, A., & Dornbusch, S. (1994). Familism and social capital in the academic
achievement of Mexican origin and Anglo adolescents. Social Science Quarterly, 75(1),
18-36.
Vela-Gude, L., Cavazos, J., Jr., Johnson, M. B., Fielding, C., Cavazos, A. G., Campos, L., &
Rodriguez, I. (2009). "My counselors were never there": Perceptions from Latino college
students. Professional School Counseling, 12(4), 272–279.
Venezia, A., & Jaeger, L. (2013). Transitions from high school to college. The Future of
Children, 23(1), 117–136.
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 102

Williams, J., Steen, S., Albert, T., Dely, B., Jacobs, B., Nagel, C., & Irick, A. (2016).
Academically resilient, low-income students' perspectives of how school counselors can
meet their academic needs. Professional School Counseling, 19(1), 155–165.
doi:10.5330/1096-2409-19.1.155

LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 103

APPENDIX A
Protocol for Interview
Date: Location: Start Time: End Time:
Interviewer: Interviewee:

Introduction:
Thank you for agreeing to participate in this study. I appreciate the time that you have set
aside to answer some of my questions. The interview should take about an hour, does that
work for you?
This interview is for a dissertation on promising practices. I am hoping that in connecting with
you, I can gain greater insight. This interview should take us about 45 minutes.

Consent:
I want to ensure that I capture your insights fully, If it's okay with you, I'd like to record our
conversation. At any point, if you would like me to stop recording, please feel free to let me
know. Is recording okay with you?

Confidentiality:
Everything you share with me will remain completely anonymous, and pseudonyms will be
used for participants and the high school.

Transition:
I am going to start off by asking some questions about your role as ______
How long have you been in your position? What made you decide to pursue a career in this
area?
Can you explain a little more about what responsibilities you have in this role?

RQ 1: What perceived strategies do xxx employ to promote a college-going culture?
RQ2: What are the perceived challenges of xxx in sustaining a college-going culture?
RQ 1 RQ 2 Interview Questions
X 1. What are the strengths of this school?
X 2. What is your organizations philosophy about going to
college?
X 3. Describe how this philosophy is communicated to parents,
students, teachers?
X 4. Describe the practices and policies that you believe
contribute to your school’s college-going culture?
X 5. What are the three most effective things you have done
LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 104

over the last 3–5 years to build a college-going culture?
X 6. What other activities do you have on your campus that
support a college-going philosophy for students?
X 7. In what ways do you support teachers in building a
college-going culture?
X 8. In what ways, do you engage parents/families in building
a college-going culture?
X 9. How do you ensure that students have access to
knowledge about the college-going process? Do you have a
center or specific location that students can go to?
x 10. Describe the challenges that you encounter in sustaining a
college-going culture?
x 11. How do you address these challenges?
x 12. How do you monitor and assess whether the college-going
practices are producing the desired outcomes for students
(i.e. college attainment)?
x 13. What do you do when students are successful in meeting
college attainment goals? What do you do when students
aren’t?
x 14. What do you do when students are successful in meeting
college attainment goals? What do you do when students
aren’t?
X x 15. Is there anything else that you want to share?

LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 105

APPENDIX B
Observation Tool
Purpose: relationship, interactions, expectations

Date: Start Time End Time Type of Observation
(Meeting, Classroom,
Workshop, etc.)

Observer (s):
Participant(s):

Descriptive Detail

Summary:

LATINX COLLEGE ACCESS 106

APPENDIX C
Introduction Letter

August 1, 2018

Dear _____,

I am interested in finding out more about how school leaders in your community build a college-
going culture. By college-going culture I mean a culture where students find encouragement and
help from multiple sources to prepare them with the knowledge needed for college success; a
college-going culture facilitates student learning, college readiness and matriculation for all
students. Given your role as a ___I thought you might be a good person to talk to. This request
for an interview is for a dissertation on promising practices in building a college-going culture. I
am hoping that in connecting with you, I can gain greater insight. This interview should take us
about 45 minutes. Everything you share with me will remain completely anonymous. I will be
discussing the findings from your interview anonymously in the dissertation and please rest
assured that I will not disclose your name at any point. Please feel free to contact me at 714-
XXX-XXXX or XXX@usc.edu to confirm a date and time that work best for you. Looking
forward to meeting with you.

Respectfully,

Luz M. Arellano

Abstract (if available)

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

Promising practices for building a college-going culture: a case study of a comprehensive high school

PDF

Promising practices for building a college-going culture for LatinX students: a case study of a large comprehensive high school

PDF

Building a college-going culture: a case study of a continuation high school

PDF

Promising practices to promote and sustain a college-going culture: a charter-school case study

PDF

Promising practices: promoting and sustaining a college-going culture

PDF

Addressing college readiness through a positive deviance framework

PDF

Promising practices for building leadership capital in educational organizations

PDF

Promising practices for building leadership capacity: a community college case study

PDF

Leadership capacity building within a Native Hawaiian nonprofit organization

PDF

Building leadership capacity to support principal succession

PDF

Positive deviance: first generation Latino college students

PDF

Principal leadership succession: developing the next generation of leaders

PDF

A new era of leadership: preparing leaders for urban schools & the 21st century

PDF

Problems and solutions for school counselors supporting Black and Latinx students in the 21st century

PDF

Utilizing school counselors to increase the number of rural high achieving low-income students at selective colleges: an evaluation study

PDF

Building data use capacity through school leaders: an evaluation study

PDF

Sustaining quality leadership at prep academy charter schools: promising practices for leadership development in public schools

PDF

Examining the relationship between Latinx community college STEM students’ self-efficacy, social capital, academic engagement and their academic success

PDF

The role of historically underserved students’ perceptions of their high school counselor in overcoming the equity gap in college admissions: an evaluative study

PDF

Student engagement in high performing urban high schools: a case study

Asset Metadata

Creator Arellano, Luz Marina (author)

Core Title A school leadership approach to building a college-going culture for low-income Latinx students: high school case study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 06/17/2019

Defense Date 03/20/2019

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag collaboration,college access,college and career readiness,comprehensive counseling programs,ecological model,Higher education,Latinx,low-income,OAI-PMH Harvest,post secondary education,promising practices,school counselors,school leaders,school leadership,SEL,strategies

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Stowe, Kathy (committee chair), Ahmadi, Shafica (committee member), Malloy, Courtney (committee member)

Creator Email Arell107@mail.chapman.edu,Luce.arell@hotmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-173648

Unique identifier UC11660104

Identifier etd-ArellanoLu-7481.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-173648 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-ArellanoLu-7481.pdf

Dmrecord 173648

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Arellano, Luz Marina

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA