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The American Red Cross and its activities during the world war

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The American Red Cross and its activities during the world war

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Content T H E AFRICAN R E D C R O S S A N D ITS ACTIVITIES D U R IN G T H E W O R L D W A R A TH ESIS P R E S E N T E D T O T H E D E P A R T IR E N T O P H IST O R Y U N IV E R SIT Y O F S O U T H E R N C A L IFO R N IA IN PA R T IA L FU L F IL L M E N T of the R E Q U IR E M E N T S F O R T H E D E G R E E O F M A S T E R O F A R T S B ; Grace K ir 0*Donnell M ay 17, 1932 UMI Number: EP59180 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. OlsssrtatJon PVb»listwrtg UMI EP59180 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 This thesis, written under the direction of the candidate's Faculty Committee and approved by all its members, has been presented to and ac cepted by the Council on Graduate Study and Research in partial fulfillment of the require ments for the degree of M aster of Arts Dean D ate............ Faculty Committee Professor Ericksson Chairman Professor H a im n o n d Professor M eum ^er D E D IC A T E D -To- M I88 E V A D. E D W A R D S 1. P R E F A C E In dealing with the subject of "The American Red Gross and Its Activities During the World War," I have tried to show the origin and development of the Red Cross, and also to present the problems v/lth v/hich the American Red Cross had to cope during the World War. TMs discussion has served to emphasize the rapid mobilization of the American Red Gross forces at the beginning of the W ar, and the extensive work that it carried on both in the United States and in Europe* Although its services were extended to all of the allied countries, I have confined m y discussion to the work done in France. It has been m y purpose to show that while the ' "Supreme Mission" of the Red Cross was to care for the wounded soldier, it also rendered invaluable service to the American civilians and soldiers through H om e Service work, and to the French nation through its care of the refugees, especially the children of France. For guidance in the choice and development of this interesting and profitable subject, I am indeed grateful to Dr. E. M . Eriksson, m y thesis advisor, to Dr. I. P. H am m ond, and to Dr. M . H. Neumeyer, members of m y thesis committee. I also express m y gratitude for the time they gave in 11 reviewing m y work. M ost of m y research work has been done in the Los Angeles City Library and in the Library of the University of Southern California. I received splendid service at each. I also received material from the Red Cross Headquarters in Los Angeles and from the American National Red Cross, at Wash ington, D. G . I also wish to express m y appreciation for valuable information secured from personal interviews with iïiss Marjorie Jacks on, supervisor of Red Cross case v/ork in Los Angeles, w ho was organizer of large city chapters during the World W ar; lllss Eva D. Edwards, chairman of the Junior Red Cross in Southern California, and Mrs. F. C. Karicofe, Red Cross nurse in France during the World War. I have earnestly tried to write a true account of m y subject and to give a just estimate of the marvelous work done by the American Red Cross during the World War. 1 % . K. 0. M ay 17, 1932 Los Angeles, California ii î. C O N T E N T S C H A P T E R Page P R E F A C E I T H E O R IG IN O F T H E R E D C R O SS...................................................... 1 The Spirit of the Red Cross.......................................... 2 Clara Barton. .................................................... 7 The Geneva Convention .......................................... 12 The Birth of the Red Cross in The United States ................ 17 II M O B IL IZ A T IO N O F T H E R E D G R O S S F O R T H E W O R L D W A R 19 National Headquarters and Division Organization...................................... 20 Appointment of W ar Council...................... 21 The First Red Cross Drive for $100,000,000. 27 Organization for Active S e rv ic e ............ 35 III R E D C R O S S W O R K IN T H E U N IT E D S T A T E S . ......................... 39 Chapter Organization and Work.................................... 40 The Junior Red Cross .................................................. 45 H om e Servi ce. .............................. 52 IV T H E A M E R IC A N R E D C R O S S IN FRA N CE..................... 57 Problems of the American Red Cross in France......................... 58 Canteen Servi ce ............. 60 IV C H A P T E R Page Supreme Mission—Care of the W ounded Soldier ..................... 70 V C H IL D R E N » S RELIEF W O R K IN FR A N C E .................................. 84 Care of Undernourished Children. ................. 85 Evain. ............. 86 Caring for the Refugees .............................. 90 V I C O N C L U S I O N .................................................................................. 99 B IB L IO G R A PH Y ................... 105 A PPEN D IC ES ..................... 109 A. The International Red Cross Treaty.. 109 B. A Proclamation by The President of The United States of America. 113 C. Charts Showing Organization of The Red Cross before and after September 1, 1917................. 117 D. Red Cross Poster ................... 119 E. Table Showing Junior Membership by States as of February 28, 1919.... 120 F. Table Showing Revenues and Expenditures of The American Red Cross ................... 123 C H A P T E R I T H E O R IG IN O P T H E R E D C R O S S The Spirit of the Red Cross, the motive prompting the work of the International Red Gross, is simply the impulse of compassion in its truest sense. This spirit might be treeedd down from the beginning of history, for in every age could be found those w ho were imbued with the desire to serve suffering humanity. A n essential characteristic of the Red Cross idea is the presence of the impersonal spirit of pity for, and the desire to relieve alike, both friend and foe The earliest recorded example of this impersonal spirit of compassion is that of Heldora, the Dane, in the year 1000 A. D., when on the eve of battle, she assembled the w om en of her household together and said, "Let us go forth and dress the wounds of the warriors, be they friend or foe." She and her attendants then girdled high their blue mantles and went forth to minister to the wounded and dying. O f Heldora it is written that she found the enemy chieftain desperately wounded, and nursed him back to health.^ This spirit which looks beyond race, creed, and cause. ^Lavina L. Dock, et. a l., History of Red Cross Nursing, (N ew York, 19Sè) 1, 2. ^Sarah Elizabeth Pickett, Purposes, and Services, (N ew York, 1923) 3-8. and sees in a wounded soldier only a sufferer to be made less miserable, next found expression in the Knights Hospitalers of the medieval orders, and later, in the Sisters of St. Vincent de Paul, w ho went in 1654 and 1655 to the battle fields of Sedan and Arras. These Sisters of Charity were the first trained and disciplined nurses to be officially assigned to the care of the sick and wounded m en in war. Later, German w om en felt the influence of the Knights Hospitalers, and in the Napoleonic war of 1813, formed w om en » s relief societies However, the earliest expression of the idea of the Red Cross, as w e understand it today, was found in the work of Florence Nightingale during the Crimean War. In the British A rm y Hospital at Scutari, she revolu tionized the care of the wounded. Not in the actual saving of life, however, nor in the lasting reforms in the British A rm y Sanitary Service, v/hich she inaugurated, did she render her most enduring service. Her two epoch making contributions lay, first, in the establishment of the modern profession of nursing, and second, in the value of her example in altruistic service to the wounded and sick in war O ne v/ho followed Miss Nightingale » s example was a young Franco-Sv/iss, Henri Dunant. H e was born in 1828 in ^Lavina L. Dock, e t. a l., op. c it., 2. ^Sarah Elizabeth Pickett, op. c it.. 8. Geneva, Switzerland# W hen he was thirty-one years of age, he went to Lombardy, Italy, and in the guise of a tourist witnessed there, on June 24, 1859, the battle of Solferino. Forty thousand m en were killed or wounded on that field# In a compassionate desire to aid them. Monsieur Dunant gathered together a group of kind hearted w om en from the neighboring towns, and this small band did what they could to lessen the misery of the wounded# They made no distinction in friend or foe, but rendered what aid they could to all#^ In America, The Sanitary Commission, which operated during the Civil War, was the Herald of the Spirit of The Red Cross # Previous to the Civil W ar organized and systematic relief for the sick and wounded had never been undertaken on any large scale. Because the war department of the United States had to create an army out of undisciplined civilian soldiers in charge of untrained and inexperienced officers, it became evident to thoughtful m en that if the health and morale of the soldiers were to be maintained, the medical de^ partment of the army must be organized and supplemented by volunteer aid. With a vivid recollection of the fearful mortality due to ignorance and neglect during the Crimean War, an earnest group of m en studied the situation. They felt the need of immediate preventive measures rather than investigation after the war was over• R bld.. 8. The medical service of the United States* army was out of date; and, even with the desire to do more effective work, i t was without power to carry out any vital reforms. It was jealous of any outside interference, yet nothing could be accomplished without the co-operation of the medical depart ment, and intelligent volunteer assistance to educate public opinion, and to force government action. M any of the first regiments to reach Washington were unfit for service. They had no uniforms and no training. There had been no preparation made for their coming. W hen they reached camp, utterly worn out, they had no beds, but a scanty pile of straw; and nothing for covering but shoddy blankets. The careful students of this situation became con vinced that the Government must be aroused to the importance of immediately changing such conditions. O n the same day that President Lincoln sent out his call for volunteers, the w om en of Bridgeport, Connecticut, and those of Charleston, Virginia, started organizations for soldier*s relief. Other cities soon followed their example. Plans were hastily m ade to supply nurses, bring hom e sick and wounded soldiers, and to forward comforts, provisions, books and papers to m en at the front. In the later part of April, there was held at Cooper * s Institute a large and enthusiastic meeting. At that time, there was organized "The W om en*s Central Association of Relief," whose duties were to collect suitable supplies, establish warehouses for their storage, bureaus for examination, and registration of nurses, and to provide supplementary aid in various forms to the A rm y Medical ServiceThe leading executive officer of this group was Louisa Lee Schuyler. This association was, in effect, during the whole war the most powerful and important branch of the Sanitary Commission.^ In a short time m any complicated questions arose. For this reason a delegation consisting of Dr. Henry Bellows and several others of the association were sent to Washington. Here they met with most obstinate opposition. Although the delegation was received courteously, i t was only after the exercise of m uch diplomacy, that it finally succeeded in having appointed a Sanitary Commission to act in an advisory capacity to the Surgeon General*s department, as neither President Lincoln nor the Secretary of W ar looked with favor on the proposition. Dr. Henry W . Bellows was selected as chairman, and M r. Frederick L aw 01mstead as Secretary of the Commission. The Commission was divided into two committees; the first, on Inquiry, the second, on Advice. The Commission was without Mabel T. Boardman, Under the Red Cross Flag at H om e and Abroad, (Philade1phi a, 1915) 4é-5Ô. ^Lavina L. Dock, et a l., op. c it., 6. Government support and. therefore independent of Government control The first active work undertaken by the commission was the inspection of twenty army camps. This inspection revealed conditions such, that the Government was justly alarmed and immediately inaugurated reforms. Next, the Commission under took the inspection of Hospitals. A s a result, a plan for temporary hospitals was adopted, which caused a prompt re duction of the death rate. M ore thorough cam p inspection by six delegates followed. This included inspection of the sol diers* bedding and clothing, of the sources and quality of water, the character of rations and cooking, cam p discipline, qualification of medical officers, sickness and mortality am ong the troops, and the nature of local hospital accom modations. O n the whole, the officers were willing to re ceive suggestions, and to try to put them into execution.^ The fundamental purpose of the Commission--and that to i^hich i t clung with an ever steadfast tenacity--was defined by its officers in these words: The one point which controls the commission is just this: A simple desire and resolute de termination to secure for the m en enlisted in this war that care which i t is the duty of the nation to give them. That care is their right. ^Mabel T. Boardman, op. c it., 46-60. %bld.. 53. and in the Government or out of i t , i t must _ be given them, let w ho will stand in the way. That the Sanitary Commission was dominated by the Spirit that characterized the work of the Red Cross was demon strated in their work after the battle of Gettysburg. For it recognized neither friend nor foe, but freely offered sup plies to the Confederate surgeons, and side by side the Blue and the Gray cared for the wounded of both armies A m ong the many w om en whose names are associated with the care of the sick and wounded, the most outstanding is that of Miss Clara Barton. For i t was she w ho first con ceived and carried into execution the idea of carrying med ical aid and comfort to the wounded and dying on the battle field, and it was through her efforts that the American Red Cross was eventually established as a national organization. A contemporary of Clara Barton, who saw her a day or two after Fort Sumter was fired upon gives this interesting word picture of her: She was confident even enthusiastic. She had feared that the Southern" Aristocracy, by their close combinations and superior politi cal training, might succeed in gradually sub jugating the whole country; but of that there was no longer any real danger. The war might be long and bloody, but the rebels had aban doned a policy on which the odds were in favor of their ultimate success, for one in which they had no chance at all. For herself she had saved a little in time of peace and she in tended to devote it and herself to the service ^Mable T. Boardman, op. c it., 53. 2 Ibid., 62. 8 of her country and humanity. If the war must be, she neither expected or desired to com e out of it with a dollar. If she survived she could no doubt earn a living. A nd if she died it was no matter Then the first great blow of organized war fell, and the nation awoke from its dream of peace. Then beyond recall Miss Barton presented herself, she knew not then just how, as a living sacrifice upon her country* s altar. Death seemed the probable cost, but she determined to suffer i t . Something of her enthusiasm and patriotism are reflected in a private letter to her niece, Mrs. Vassal, written from Washington: "l think," she said, "the city will be attack ed within the next sixty days. If it must be let it come, and when there is no longer a soldier*s arm to raise the Stars and Stripes above our Capitol, m ay G od give strength to mine. Although never called upon to perform this heroic task, it was not long before the opportunity to render aid to suf fering humanity, presented itself, and she grasped i t . O n April fifteenth, Massachusetts had responded, with four regiments, to President Lincoln*s call for seventy-five thousand troops. O ne of these, the Sixth, while passing through Baltimore, was murderously assaulted by a m ob of ten ^Percy H. Epler, Life of Clara Barton, (N ew York, 1917) 28. 29. thousand furious opponents w ho choked the streets. Four were killed and thirty others wounded. However they fought their way on to the station and proceeded on their journey to Washington. Lincoln, on their arrival, told them that if they had not com e that night, Washington would, before morning, have been in the hands of the Rebels. Clara Barton was justly proud of the Massachusetts Sixth, and when they detrained in Washington, she was there to receive them. Then for the first time she dressed war wounds and saw blood that had been shed in combat. A m ong the soldiers she recognized many of her early associates, as m any were from Worcester, where she had formerly lived. "W e bound their v/ounds," she wrote, "and fed them." W hen their supply of handkerchiefs was exhausted. Miss Barton, with the other volunteer nurses, rushed hom e and tore up her sheets for bandages. The next day with five huslcy negroes as porters, car rying as m any hampers and boxes she led a procession through the Washington streets, am ong amazed churchgoers, and dis tributed necessities to the sick and wounded soldiers. It was not only to the wounded that Miss Barton ren dered service. For she did not forget the uninjured soldiers w ho had gathered in the Senate Chamber. She spread a feast before them, and from the desk of the President of the Senate, 10 read to them from the Worcester Spy. Later i t occurred to Miss Barton to place an adver tisement to the columns of the Worcester Spy, asking for stores, supplies, and. money for the wounded and needy of the Sixth Regiment. She stated that she v/ould receive all ship ments and dispense them personally. The city of Worcester was the first to send assistance Other Massachusetts tov/ns followed its example. So great was the response that she was obliged to secure space in a ware house, near Seventh Street and Pennsylvania Avenue, in which to store her supplies. Prom this time on Clara Barton was a new creature. All the sensitiveness, bashfulness, timidity, and self con sciousness from which she had suffered all of her life, were swallowed up. With the realization of the intense suffering to which her fellow countrymen would be subjected, cam e the determination to forget self, and to dedicate her life to the service of others.^ Soon after this the Peninsular Campaign was begun. Going down to the docks Miss Barton met the wounded soldiers returning from the sw am ps of Chickahominy. She saw blood and clay caked on their sore vjounds t i l l they were like the hard shells of turtles. With warm water, lotions, dressings l l b l d . . 30. 11 and restoratives, she bent over them and amid filth and sup purating sores, and odors, under the torrid sun of Washington, she washed their neglected wounds « Seeing them back to the hospitals, she remounted the ambulance, and trip after trip rode back to be the firs t to reach each incoming boat load of human freight Then it was that the question arose in her mind-- "Could she not prevent this terrible neglect?" Relief could be given only on the battle field. W hy should she not go and administer aid there, where i t was most needed, and would be of greater value in saving lives, instead of waiting for transports to reach Washington where so often aid was too late ? Consequently, after a long struggle with her ow n sense of propriety, as society forbade w om en at the front, she determined to ask for permission to go out on the field of battle to carry aid to the wounded and dying.. The officials considered her proposal as absurd and refused her request point blank. However she persisted in her attempts and fin ally obtained passports to take her to the front. She im mediately loaded supplies upon a railroad car and started. Her ow n terse comment on this signigi cant step was, "W hen our armies fought on Cedar Mountain, I broke the shackles and went to the field. l lbid.. 31. %bld., 35. 12 From this time on for four long years, Clara Barton was an "Angel of Mercy," on the battle-fields of the Civil W ar, administering aid and comfort to the wounded and dying soldiers. N o scene was too horrible, no work too strenuous, no danger too grave to deter this courageous w om an in her efforts to help suffering humanity. At last the war ended and v/ith i t Clara Barton *s work on the battle-field. But her services did not end here. For at the close of the war there v/ere many soldiers w ho did not return. All that their families knew of their fate was that they did not com e. home. So from bereaved families in all parts of the United States heartbreaking appeals began to pour into Washington. Consequently early in March Pres ident Lincoln sum m oned Mss Barton and assigned to her the gigantic task of locating eighty thousand missing men. From then until the early winter of 1868, she devoted all of her time, energy, and resources to this coliosal undertaking and so earnestly did she work that she was able to determine the fate of at least half of the number missing. Then Miss Barton*s health and voice failed her, and she was forced to give up the work.^ Meanwhile, v/hile the Civil W ar was s till in progress in America, a conference had been held in Geneva, Switzer land, This conference was due to the efforts of Henri Dunant, 1 2 1 . 13 w ho had been so d.eeply impressed by the suffering he had witnessed at Solferino, that he had written a book entitled A Souvenir of Solferino, in which he strongly advocated more humane and extensive appliances of aid to wounded soldiers. H e lectured about them before the "Society of Public Utility" of Geneva, and succeeded in interesting the members in his views. Consequently a meeting of this society was called to consider a proposition relative to the formation of perman ent societies for the relief of wounded soldiers. This meeting took place on the ninth of February, 1863. At this meeting it was decided to call an international convention to be held at Geneva during the autumn of 1864. At this con vention, the Geneva Treaty was drafted. A permanent inter national committee with headquarters at Geneva was formed, and the fundamental plan of the national permanent relief societies was adopted.^ O ne of the first objects necessary and desired by the International committee for the successful prosecution of its work was co-operation by som e of the more important nations of Europe through a treaty which should recognize the neu trality of hospitals established, of the sick and wounded, and of all persons and effects connected with the relief ^Clara Barton, The Red Cross, (Washington, D.C.) 23, 24. 14 service; also the adoption of a uniform protective sign or badge- It inquired with care into the disposition of the several governments, and met with active sympathy and moral support- It first secured the cooperation of the Swiss Federal Council and the Emperor of France- I t shortly after ward procured the signatures of ten other governments, which were given at its room in the city hall of Geneva, August 22, 1864- This conference was called the Convention of Geneva The sign or badge of the Red Cross was also agreed upon; as it was necessary for recognition and safety, and for carrying out the general provisions of the treaty that a uniform badge should be used- The Red Cross was chosen out of compliment to the Swiss Republic, where the first conven tion was held, and in which the central committee had its headquarters. The Swiss colors being a white cross on a red ground, the badge chosen was these colors reversed. This badge was to be worn by all persons acting with or in the service of the committees enrolled under the convention. The treaty provided for the neutrality of all sanitary supplies, ambulances, surgeons, nurses, attendants, and sick or wounded men, and their safe conduct when they bore the P sign of the organization, the Red Cross. ^Ibid., 24. 2 Ibid. , 24., cf. post.. Appendix A for text of Treaty. 15 Althou^ the convention which originated the organ ization was necessarily international, the relief societies themselves are entirely national and independent; each one governing itself and making its ow n laws, according to the genius of its nationality and its particular needs For many years the fear of "entangling foreign al liances" kept the United States from signing this treaty: A s early as 1864 the United States Minister Plenipotentiary to Switzerland had urged the United States to adhere to the Red Cross Treaty of Geneva. Later, beginning in 1868, the famous Dr. Henry Bellows tried for ten years to secure in the United States the recognition and adoption of the treaty. However, every petition was ignored by Congress and the 2 President. O n July 20, 1866, a number of m en who had been most active in the Sanitary Commission formed the "American As sociation for the Relief of Misery on the Battle-fields." Its objects were to obtain the Government’s adherence to the Treaty of Geneva and to maintain a Permanent Relief Society. Its badge was the Red Cross Insignia on a white ground. Neither the Government nor the public could be aroused into action favorable to the treaty, though during the Franco-Prussian W ar of 1870, the Sanitary Commission had received generous contributions for relief work, which were forwarded to the belligerent nations. This association was the first Red Cross llbld.. 24. Sibld.. 36. 16 organization in the United States, but, as i t held an anamalous position, under a government that had not accepted the treaty under which it must function in time of war, in 1871, it ceased to exist.^ In the autumn of 1869, Miss Clara Barton met, at Geneva, members of the International Red Cross Committee. They expressed regret that the United States Government had not yet accepted the Treaty. M ss Barton later witnessed the work of the Red Gross during the war of 1870. In 1877, after her return to America, Monsieur Moynier, President of the International Red Cross Committee decided to make a further effort to obtain the adherence of the United States to the treaty. For this reason, he sent a special letter to Miss Barton to deliver to President Rutherford B. Hayes. H e in turn referred i t to the State Department, where it met the fate of previous appeals In 1881, through President Garfield, another effort was made. The great soul of Garfield had been touched all along by Miss Barton’s conception of the Red Cross for America. She had worked in blood and fire before his eyes. H e himself had stood with her under the rain of bullets and shell in the Civil War, for their country’s cause. Hence the bond of Sympathy was strong. "W hen President Garfield came, I went again to Washingtonÿ" Miss Barton says. The request that the treaty be signed was cordially received by the President, and by him referred to 1 2 Mabel T. Boardman, op. c it., 80 Ibid., 81. 17 Secretary Blaine, w ho considered i t himself, conferred fully with me, and finally laid i t before the President and the Cabinet Thus encouraged, in July 1881, a Red Cross Organization was incorporated in the District of Columbia, under the nam e of the "American Association of the Red Cross." Miss Barton was president of this association. President James A. Garfield did not live to see the adoption of the treaty, but in March 1882, President Chester A. Arthur and Secretary of State, James G . Blaine, secured its confirmation by the Senate without a dissenting vote. The stipulations were exchanged at Berne, Switzerland on the ninth of June; and, on the twenty-sixth of July, the 2 treaty was proclaimed to the people of the United States. Thus, #ie first great movement toward neutralization of Nations and International Relief in war became to the United States an accomplished fact and a Law of the Land. The President of the International Red Cross at the Convention of Geneva, September 2, 1882, characterized the birth of the American Red Cross as follows; "Its whole history is associated with a nam e already known to you, that of Miss Clara Barton ; without the energy and perseverance of this remarkable woman, w e should not for a long time have had the pleasure of seeing the Red Cross received into the ^Percy H. Epler, op. c it., 230. 2 Cf. post.. Appendix B for the proclamation. 18 United States.’ * ^ In the year 1905 the American National Red Cross was finally and permanently incorporated and nationalized; the President of the United States became its president; and the war department its auditor. It had behind it the full sponsorship of the United States Government; its books were open; i t was the property of the people and in their hands In that sense, and in almost no other, it was ready for the terrible war that the European Nations forced upon the world in 1914. ^Percy H. Epler, op. c it., 233. %Ienry P. Davidson, The American Red Cross in The Great War, (N ew York, 1919) 1. ^ 19 C H A P T E R II M O B IL IZ A TIO N O P T H E R E D C R O S S F O R T H E W O R L D W A R From the date of its re-incorporation in 1905 until the declaration of war in 1917, the American Red Cross had been organized strictly on a peace basis with a complete centralization of administrative responsibility at National Headquarters. This plan of organization provided the cen tralization of authority at National Headquarters in the Acting Chairman of the Executive Committee. The Executive Committee was the general governing body, acting in the same capacity as the Executive Committee of the directorate of any industrial corporation. The Executive Committee met frequently and considered all general questions of policy and practice. The Acting Chairman of this Committee, be tween the meetings, served as the active executive officer of the Red Cross. Reporting to the Acting Chairman, as provided by the By-laws of the Red Cross, were the Secretary, Counselor, Treasurer, Director General of the Department of Military Relief, the Director General of the Department of Civilian Relief, and other department and bureau heads. The Secretary of the Red Cross was responsible for the general administrative work at National Headquarters, which includ ed administrative purchases, files and records, and the suneryision of buildings and grounds. The Treasurer’s Office 20 had charge of collections and disbursements and the accounting work of the Red Cross.^ Som e months before the declaration of war the rapid increase in the number of chapters and members necessitated the establishment of a Department of Chapters at National Headquarters to assume specific charge of the organization and supervision of Chapters, Auxiliaries, membership exten sion work, and to provide and direct the local machinery for the conduct of the various activities of the Red Gross. The Department of Chapters also reported to the Acting Chairman* Each of the Departments at National Headquarters had under i t several bureaus, each of which assumed direction of its P specific activities. The continued rapid growth of the Red Cross organi zation between the date of the declaration of war and July 1, and the fact that National Headquarters had already issued the call to its chapters for surgical dressings, knitted articles, and other supplies, together with the purchase, distribution, and collection of workroom materials and fin ished articles, m ade it necessary to decentralize the super vision of this greatly increasing volume of work* This re sulted in the establishment of six supply branches with headquarters and warehouses in Boston, N ew York, Chicago, ^The American National Red Cross, Annual Report for 1918* 8* % bld.. 10. 21 N ew Orleans, Denver, and San Francisco. Division offices v/ere also established throughout the United States by the Department of Chapters and the other departments, for the purpose of securing closer detailed supervision of their rapidly increasing activities. These division representatives had no connection with each other, but reported directly to their respective department and bureau heads at National Head- quarters The tremendous increase in the volume and scope of Red Cross work after w e entered the war necessitated a large increase in the executive force and personnel at National Headquarters, as well as in the Division Offices and Chapters. President Wilson, who was also President of the Red Cross, met the situation by creating the Red Cross W ar Council on M ay 10, 1917, as a board of managing directors for the war period This Council ccnsisted of seven members, with Henry P. Davidson of J. P. M organ and Company, as President. Its purpose was to carry on the extraordinary relief work made necessary by the entrance of the United States into the World W ar,® The work of the Red Cross, both as to its volume and number of varied activities, continued to grow with increasing Hbld.. 10. %bld.. 10. Henry P. Davidson, The American Red Cross In the Great War. (N ew York, 1919) 7. 22 m om entum * The organization of new chapters and the response of their members to the demands for the production of supplies, and the conduct of their local activities, m ade necessary more complete decentralization and expansion of the organ ization* Consequently, one of the first tasks of the W ar Council was to increase the executive personnel at National Headquarters and reorganize the Red Cross on a territorial basis* Accordingly, leaders in Red Cross work from all parts of the country were called together in Chicago, July 19, 1917* At this meeting General Manager Harvey D * Gibson submitted a plan of organization under #ii ch it proposed that the States of the Union should be grouped into thirteen Divisions, each with its ow n manager and each following in a general way the plan of organization and administration for National Headquarters* This plan of decentralization was agreed upon and put into effect on September 1, 1917 Subsequently the Fourteenth Division was created to take charge of the Red Cross activities of territo rial, insular and foreign chapters, and chapters am ong Americans in foreign countries. Each of the Divisions was placed in charge of a Division Manager w ho was made directly respon sible for all Red Cross activities within that Division. The Division Managers were placed under the general direction of ^The American National Red Cross, Annual Report for 1918, 10, 11. 23 a G enersO L Manager at National Headquarters* The General Manager was given the responsibility for the direction of all Red Cross activities within the United States and of our territorial and insular Red Cross units other than those operating in various theaters of war. This general mod ification of the organization resulted in a change in status of the departments at National Headquarters* Hitherto, they had been directly concerned in operating the local Red Cross activities of chapters* The Departments and their Bureaus at National Headquarters new become a large staff of the General Manager, having responsibility for planning and supervising the scope, character, and conduct of their spec ific activities, and for relieving the General Manager of the details of work, but having no direct authority over the Division Managers or Chapters for the local administration of the Red Cross activities.^ During the first years of the Great War, before the entrance of the United States, the American Red Gross was chiefly occupied with an effort at organization. This effort was centered around the collection of funds, the enlistment of personnel, and the getting of supplies. Factories were driven to top speed in the production of materials. Ware houses were filled to over-flowing with contributions* Yet ^Ibid. , 11-13. Cf., post., Appendix G for Charts shov/ing the organization of the Red Cross before and after September 1, 1917. 24 even in the face of so great a necessity monetary contribu tions were slow in coming in# This greatly hampered the activities of the Red Cross# However, a month after the Germ an troops had invaded Belgium, a Red Cross ship sailed away fron our shores, and distributed her hospital units, and medical supplies, her gauze and anesthetics, her hospital garments, cigarettes, and cam p comforts for the fighting m en of belleagured Europe* For, the American Red Cross had offered its trained personnel and hospital supplies to every belligerent country, and ac ceptance had been unanimous# Besides supplies, this ship carried surgeons, and one hundred and twenty nurses for England, Russia, France, Germany, Austria, Belguim, Serbia, and Bulgaria. A s a result, tiny American Units of the Red Cross were set up in many and unique shelters as the out- p posts of their country’s generosity. In the spring of 1915, typhus broke out in Serbia, and men, wom en, and children died like flies. T w o Red Cross surgeons fell victims to the fever, and the ranks of the f it daily grew thinner. The Rockefeller Foundation and the Red Cross together rushed volunteers and huge quantities of supplies into the infected country. Serbia was drenched in ^Henry P. Davidson, op. c it., 1, 2. ^Ibid.. 25 disinfectants and smoked in sulphur, and finally after a bitter battle, the scourge was conquered In 1915, after the promised year of service, the Units of the Red Cross were recalled, but many members remained in Europe as volunteers. Later, the experience, gained during P this year of service, proved very valuable. But the country as a whole was rather indifferent to the appeals of the Red Cross until the year 1917* In the first three months of that year a change cam e over the people that was almost magical in its swiftness. N o w the war was at the summit of its intensity; the tortured allies had almost reached the breaking point; conditions in Prance were as ominous as they were heart-breaking. M any were thout the bare necessities of life . The roads were full of the home less, the hungry, and the half clad. The cities were clogged with them I During all this time, the American Red Cross, in spite of the inertia of the American people, strained every nerve and utilized every resource to prepare for the emergency that they knew was bound to come. Day and night they had labored formulating plans, which later saved months of slow and re tarding toil. By the most industrious and carefully organized effort they increased the membership fron twenty-two thousand . 80, 81. ^Ibld.. 81. 26 to two hundred and eighty thousand and the numbers of chapters by more than a hundred.^ Early in 1917 President Wilson sent out an appeal to the American people in behalf of the Red Cross in which he said; ^It is for you to decide whether the most prosperous nation in the world will allow its national relief organ ization to keep up its work or withdraw from a field where there exists the greatest need ever recorded in History Even this appeal fai.led to arouse the people. But in February events began to m ove rapidly* O n the second of February Count V on Bernstroff, the German Ambassador, was handed his papers. O n the following day the American Red Cross moved its scanty belongings into the N ew Memorial Building, which was as yet without heat and equipment, and s till littered with the debris of construction. The Vice Chairman sent out to two hundred and sixty-seven chapters the following telegram: If not already active appoint the following committees: finance, hospital, garments and surgical supplies, comfort bags, (see cir. 126) packing and shipping, publicity and informa tion, motor service; appoint committee on edu cation; (outlined in c ir. 144) possibility of organizing sanitary training detachments should be taken up at once. (see cir. 136)^ Ibid. . 3, 4. % b id ., 4 . ^Ibld.. 5. 27 For many days afterward the great building was deluged with answers that cam e pouring in by wire and mail. The marble halls were crowded with stenographers w ho worked from dawn until dark, in a temperature far below freezing, answering letters which cam e from all parts of the country asking for orders or instructions how to found chapters During the next month events moved even more rapidly, and on April sixth. Congress called in extra session, by President W oodrow Wilson, voted War. A nd thus die United States became a participant in the most terrible war the world has ever known. The little knowledge that the Red Cross had of conditions in Europe was enough to teach them that every doctor and nurse should prepare. Also that every city and town in the United States should be ready to get under its burden on an instants notice. But the people did not seem to understand this need; and so, while the membership increased rapidly, money contributions lagged. However, in order for the W ar Council to carry out its program, it had to have money; consequently an appeal went out to the people of the United States for a hundred million dollars There were m any obstacles in the way of collecting such a sum, the greatest of which was that the first Liberty Loan drive had the right of way and nothing must interfere with l lb ld .. 5. 9. 28 that. It was finally decided that the v/eek of June 18-25, three days after the closing of the loan drive--should he Red Cross W eek. “From that time on,“ said M r. Davidson, “it was like a military campaign. The gentleman w ho had been chosen to head the Executive C om mittee for the campaign went at the task like a veritable Foch. Like Foch he certainly proved to be a great offensive commander, and his staff were of the same dynamic character. W e had one month in which to prepare for this task. A N ew York friend of the Red Cross set a keynote for the undertaking by an in itial gift of a million dollars. It is m y belief that it was this inspirational act that gave the whole undertaking an almost decisive in fluence. . . . The whole country was hum ming with activity long before the drive started. M en left im portant positions to com e and ask what they could do. They were given a desk and a job and went to i t . And when local workers v/anted “ammunition,^ it was provided in the form of advertising copy, placards, streetcar signs, banners, slogans for electric signs, pictures for lantern slides, material for speeches, sermons and lectures, newspaper features, and advice without end. . . . With the team leaders i t was a gam e and they played it v/ith all the sporting joy in the world. Everywhere people vied with each other in giving. Rival cities strove with one another to be firs t in raising their allo t ment, and then started a new contest to see which should go farthest beyond the mark. The result was a typical American accom plishment, and when at the close of the cam paign it was known that the country had given one hundred and fifteen million dol lars, there v/as rejoicing like that which follows a great political victory. llbld.. 9, 10, 11. 29 From M ay 10, to August 31, the Council appropriated for its work in the countries of the Allies $12,339,681. The general objects of the work in France were described as follows : 1. To establish and maintain hospitals for soldiers in the American A rm y in France. 2. To establish and maintain canteens, rest houses, recreation huts, and other means of supplying the American soldiers with such comforts and recreation as the array authorities m ay approve. 3. To establish and maintain in France, canteens, rest houses, and recreation huts for the armies of our allies# 4. To distribute hospital equipment and supplies of all kinds to military hospitals for the soldiers of the American and allied armies. 5. To engage in civilian Relief including: (a) Care and education of destitute children. (b) Care of mutilated soldiers. (c) Care of sick and disabled soldiers. (d) Relief work in devastated areas in France and Belgium. 6. To furnish relief for soldiers civilians held as prisoners by the enemy and to give assistance to such civ ilians as are returned to France from time to time from parts held by the enemy. 7. To supply financial assistance to committees. 30 societies, or individuals allied with the American Red Cross and carrying on relief work in Europe At the time that the Red Cross was established on a war basis its membership was five hundred thousand. Six months later i t was five million# The numbers of chapters rose from five hundred and sixty-tv/o to three thousand two hundred and eighty-seven. The Christmas membership drive during the week ending Christmas Eve 1917, swelled the membership to twenty million. In the period between Feb ruary 12-22 the school daildren were organized as a Junior Red Cross organization.^ Immediately following the war organization and the raising of the first fund, separate commissions of represen tative Americans, skilled in medical and administrative work were sent to the various countries in Europe where war was in progress. Major Grays on Murphy, vice president of the Guarantee Com pany of N ew York was appointed General C om missioner for Europe and assumed direct charge of ttie com mission to France, where the greater burden of American Red Cross work had fallen. The commission to France reached Paris during June. Eighteen m en constituted the original working force. From this nucleus there developed before the end of the year an organization that operated all the y/ay from ^Anonymous, “W ar W ork of the American Red Cross, “ Current History, Vol., VI, p. 24-26. October, 1917. 2 American National Red Cross, The W ork of The American R ed Cross During The War, (Washington, 1919) 9-12. 31 Sicily up the entire front of Western Europe and into Great Britain Major Murphy, after organizing the Red Cross work in Europe, resigned to enter the United States Army. H e was succeeded by Henry D. Gibson, President of the Liberty Bank of N ew York and General Manager of the Red Cross from the beginning of its activities. W hen this Red Cross Commission sailed for Prance, they knew that preparations must be made for yet unsolved contin gencies • For, in France an endless stream of gray ambulances poui’ed men into arrry hospitals, and refugees fled empty handed from the battle zone, while at hom e the American sold iers were entering the first stage of their journey to the front. The task before these m en was no easy cne, but in a comparatively short time they had organized their work and had begun to send in requests for definite supplies that were most needed. In September the right of way was given to surgical dressings and hospital supplies. In December the ratio of need was stated as seventy-five hospital to twenty-five refugee garments. In July, 1918, an order covering six million items was sent in under the heading: “Requirements for military and Hospital purpose for the six months follov/ing.“ ^Fisher Ames, Jr., American Red Cross W ork A m ong The French People, (N ew York, 1921) lO^Isl ^Henry P. Davidson, op. c it., 29, 30. 32 The dispatch of the Commission created an immediate need for som e agency for recruiting personnel. To meet this need the Bureau of Personnel was organized at Headquarters soon after the arrival of the Red Gross Commission in Paris 1 in June 1917• In the early months of the Commission’s work in France, the calls that were received were largely for individuals known personally to members of the Commission and were based on first-hand knowledge of the individuals’ particular fitness for the positions to which they were called. The first definite requisition for a large number of workers was received from the French Commission on December 17, 1917. This requisition called for approximately four hundred persons—executives, store-keepers, canteen-managers, factory organizers, casualty searchers, stock clerks, sten ographers and nurses, which figure was shortly increased to two thousand. The receipt of this requisition marked the beginning of the rapid growth of the Bureau of Personnel. The staff of the Bureau grew from fourteen in December, 1917, to sixty- seven in June, 1918. The grov/ing activities of the Bureau resulted in the need for a women’s division which was first established at 222 Fourth Avenue, N ew York City, and later was moved to National Headquarters. In February, 1918, an ^The American National Red Cross, Annual Report for 1918, 97 33 embarkation office was established in N ev/ York City, under the jurisdiction of the Bureau of Personnel, to facilitate sailings of workers The demand for personnel for service abroad increased to such an extent that it was decided to decentralize this work, and a Bureau of Personnel was established at each Div ision Headquarters in the United States* Each Division Bureau handled the applications for foreign service origin ating in its ow n territory and looked after all preliminary correspondence with applicants and investigations as to their ability, loyalty, and character. Under this system the Bureau of Personnel at National Headquarters, was relieved of a vast amount of detail work and did not cone into contact with applicants until they had been passed upon by the Div ision Bureaus and their completed papers sent to National Headquarters O ne of the obstacles to enrolling foreign personnel was the Selective Service Lav/. The Red Cross adopted the policy of not enrolling for foreign service any m an of mili tary age unless he had been first classified by his local draft board as exempt because of total and permanent physi cal unfitness for military service. A further requirement of the Red Cross was that his physical disability should be of a character obvious to the casual observer. This later 97. 2lbid., 98. 34 requirement was dictated by the conviction that the Red Cross should not only cooperate with the Government, but should be free from the criticism of anyone who, unaware of its policy, might assume that it was accepting m en fit for military service. In round numbers the requisitions for foreign personnel received by the Headquarters Bureau up to June 30, 1918 was 4,800 of v/hich 2,500 were m en and 2,300 women.^ In the United States, for a year before war was declared, the necessity of preparedness in hospital service was evident. Therefore, the Surgeon General requested the Red Cross to organize Base Hospital Units with the privilege of building up a hospital system. These proved to be the backbone of the Medical Corps during the first trying months of the war. For in the Base Hospital Units the doctors and nurses were accust om ed to work together. W hen they moved they carried with them personnel and equipment sufficient to set up a complete five hundred bed hospital wherever needed. The great civil hos pitals of America were called on to organize teams from their staffs and soon a score of units were established. Twenty- two doctors, two dentists, sixty-five Red Cross Nurses, one hundred and fifty-three corps men, six civilian employees, and a chaplain signed the muster call of each unit and pledged themselves to report for duty whenever called within two years.2 3 - Ibld., 98. 2Henry P. Davidson, op. c it., 80-82. 35 In Philadelphia, during October, 1916, a Base Hos pital was mobilized for the first time. Humber four cam e together on average time with the precision of clockwork. The tentage covered a space one thousand feet long and five thousand feet wide. The tria l mobilization cost $5035.75 and proved the practicability of the “canned" hospital.^ After America entered the war the first call for specific aid came from the British Commission. This was for doctors and nurses. Six of the Base Hospitals were assigned to duty with the British Expeditionary Forces. Number four was the first to leave N ew York, in M ay, 1917; number five followed two days later; and then numbers two, twelve, twenty- one, and ten. It was over the Hospital in Rouen that the Stars and Stripes first floated as the flag of an Ally on the soil of France O n October first, 1916, the names of over thirty thousand Red Cross nurses stood on the card index at Head quarters* O f these fourteen thousand three hundred and sixty eight had been assigned to the army and nine hundred and three to the navy, #iile two thousand fifty-four v/ere waiting orders. Fifty-one complete Base Hospital Units were turned over to the army with a personnel of three thousand seven hundred and thirty-four nurses. The Navy mustered in five J - lbld . . 83. %bld . . 84. 36 Base Hospital Units of two hundred and fifty beds apiece. Nineteen Hospital Units each manned by twenty-one Red Cross nurses were organized at a cost of from $5,000. to $7,000. apiece. Various groups of specialists in mental and nervous diseases, in fracture cases and orthopedics, were gathered together at the request of the Surgeon General The nurses in America did no less valiant work than those overseas. During the first war winter they waged a war against local epidemics. During the autumn months of 1918, they fought stubbornly against the terrible ravages of Spanish influenza, the dred disease that raged from coast P to coast. The Red Cross Canteen Service was established in order to provide conveniences and comforts to the soldiers in tran sit. It worked in the closest harmony with the Government, especially in the matter of maintaining Secrecy as to the movement of troops. At seven hundred railroad junction points where trains stopped. Red Cross Canteens were always waiting to greet the cramped, train weary men, with something to add to their comfort. At the more important stations canteen huts, hospital transfer rooms, information booths, reading rooms, telephone booths, shower baths, swimming fac ilitie s , lunch rooms, and other conveniences and necessities ^Ibld. . 84. ^Ibid., 85. 37 were provided.^ The Bureau of Motor Servioe was established at Nat ional Headquarters in February, 1918. Its purposes were to render supplementary aid to the Arm y and Navy, particularly in moving sick or wounded m en from ships and trains to hos pitals or homes; to cooperate with other Red Cross depart ments and bureaus in calling for and delivering supplies; to carry canteen workers with their supplies and equip ment to points where troops in transit were to be provided with meals; to take Red Cross nurses and Civilian Relief and H om e Service workers on official errands; and to furnish transportation without cost for Red Cross activities gen erally and for local cnarities, hospitals, and dispensaries, and for Liberty Loan Drives and other Government activities. Prior to the organization of the Bureau, motor corps had been organized in various Chapters, but had been operated without standardized rules or uniforms. O n June 30, 1918, there were in operation throughout the United States approxi mately one hundred motor corps, having a membership of about three thousand. Automobiles and operating expenses, except ambulances, were provided generally by the members without cost to the Red Gross. The service was rendered entirely by full-time volunteer wom en, v/ho gave at least sixteen hours ^The American National Red Cross, Annual Report for 1918., 75. 58 a week of their time, and w ho wore standard uniforms, and v/ere subject in their work to strict discipline. Thus the service donated amounted for the year to approximately 2,500,000 hours which, figured in dollars, v/ould amount to a considerable sum. The per annum mileage donated amounted approximately to 10,000,000 miles and the value of the motor equipment at the service of the Red Cross totaled fully #3,000,000.^ ^The American National Red Cross, Annual Report for 1918. 79-80. 39 C H A P T E R III R E D G R O S S W O R K IN T H E U N IT E D S T A T E S The local unit of the Red Cross is the Chapter* It is responsible for all local Red Cross activities within its territory, subject to the policies and regulations of the national organization as enunciated by the manager of the Division within which the Chapter is located* The te rri tory assigned to a Chapter is usually a county, and its members are the residents thereof w ho become members of the Red Cross through the yearly payment of membership dues * The officers of a Chapter are the chairman, the vice-chairman, the treasurer, and the secretary. They are elected by the members . Subject to the authority of a Chapter, subdivisions called Branches m ay be organized under the parent Chapter for the purpose of conducting Red Cross service in various districts and lying within the territory and jurisdiction of the parent Chapter. Branches have dealings only mth their parent Chapters and not with Division offices. Rep resentatives of its branches are generally members of the Executive Committee of the parent Chapter. Funds and pro perty of the branches are administered in accordance with the regulations and instructions governing that of the Chapter ^Sarah Elizabeth Pickett, The American Red Gross. Its Origin. Purposes, and Services. 25, 26. 40 At the apex of the Red Cross Activity, during the War, there were three thousand seven hundred and twenty-four chapters with seventeen thousand one hundred and eighty-six branches. These had enrolled twenty million adult and eleven million Junior members* Careful consideration was given to the subject of increasing and maintaining member ship, resulting in the decision that the best results would be accomplished by a national campaign held annually at Christmas time, virtually placing all memberships, except life and patron memberships, on the calendar year basis* The first Membership Campaign, held in the week proceeding Christmas, 1917, resulted in securing approximately sixteen million members, in addition to the existing membership of six million. The campaign created intense and widespread interest in Red Cross work and ideals, and in addition to the direct result had a very marked effect in paving the way for the Second W ar Fund Campaign held in M ay, 1918. While the increase in membership in the Christmas Membership Campaign was principally in the annual or one-dollar class, due attention was paid to the magazine memberships, with the result of increasing the number of magazine subscriptions by approximately seven hundred thousand ^The American National Red Cross, Annual Report for 1918. 59. 41 From the outset there was such an intense desire on the part of w om en workers in the Chapters to m ake useful relief supplies, and so ready a response to every call made upon the Chapters, that the principal effort at National Headquarters was in guiding and systematizing the work* Patterns, spec ifications, and directions for making surgical dressings, hospital garments, and supplies, refugee clothing, knitted articles, and conforts for soldiers and sailors were pre pared after careful study and in consultation with experts in various lines* In this work the W om en’s Bureau, which in December, 1917, was incorporated with the American Red Cross, played an important part. In the standard instructions which were promulgated, it was the purpose to bring about simplicity of design, reasonable uniformity of product, and as economical as possible a use of raw material A n equally important subject to which attention was given was the allotment of certain tasks to the various Divisions and in turn by Divisions to the various Chapters, so that the filling of requisitions for relief supplies from the Red Cross foreign commissions and. for relief purposes might proceed on a definite basis. Chapters responded readily to this idea, with the assurance it gave them that they were o always working on something for which a definite need existed. Hbld.. 60. ^Ibld., 59, 60. 42 There Is nothing surprising in the vast amount of work that was turned out, because the spirit of the entire country was to give liberally to every worthy cause connected with the war. Soon after the first news of war in Europe, cam e tales of awful suffering for want of bandages and dressings. It was reported that wounds were being covered with sawdust and newspaper. With winter cam e the demand for socks and sweaters to expel the terrible cold of the trenches. So all over the country little groups of workers bravely started out to explore the unknown field of surgical dressings and refugee garments as well as to supply the needed socks and sweaters. The Red Gross had Issued directions for their making, but almost anything was acceptable. W om en made what they could, or what rumor reported to be right, with the result that, wherever two or three w om en were gathered to gether, a new line of models arose. The Red Gross under^ took to forward gifts to any designated country, and a motley stream of packing boxes passed through the N ew York ware house. During the two and a half years of divided sentiment, before the United States entered the war, eighteen thousand donors, individuals, ladies clubs, charitable organizations, and Red Cross Chapters appeared regularly on the record of shipments received. Seventy-five thousand big packages went overseas. However, by April, 1917, a little order was coming 43 out of chaos. Classes In making surgical dressings had been established, and trained instructors were now directing the output in chapter workrooms# In spite of individualistic tendencies a compress from California was obviously of the 1 same family as a compress from N ew York. O n April 30, the first foreign order arrived in Washing ton: "Ask Chapters for four hundred pairs woolen socks and unlimited supplies hospital garments and clothing." This first haphazard stock of, supplies was built up under pressure. However, the system was so perfected that later a call from overseas was answered without apparent effort. Often it was only a matter of shipping a certain number of packing cases from the piled reserves in an export warehouse. Segregated by size and kind in uniform boxes, duly inspected, recorded, and labeled, garments, bandages, and socks moved in orderly ways from thirty thousand world?ooms, through division in spectors and export stations, by train and ocean liner, to the long line of warehouses that ran parallel with the western front. In the first month of 1918, two thousand packing cases of supplies were coming in daily from the Chapters. N ew re cruits were gathered ra % A dly, as reports cam e in of the American boys in the trenches and the productions increased. ^Henry P. Davidson, The American Red Cross in The Great War, 27, 28. ' 44 steadily. In 1917, the average monthly production was six million; in 1918, it was thirty-one million. U p to September 30, 1918, tv/o hundred seventy-five million articles made by the w om en and children in the Red Cross had been sent over seas. M ost of them were sent to France; the balance to Italy, England, Serbia, Russia, and Palestine.^ The rallying of what is known as the comradship, in the Chapters of the Red Cross, is one of the great romances of democracy. For, millionaire and miner, red Indian, white man, and negro marched shoulder to shoulder in the army of mercy. The story of the Fourteenth Division, which was com posed of Americans in foreign countries is an interesting one. ?/hen the United States entered the war, it was felt that through the Red Cross, the Americans, w ho were scattered all over the globe might help do their b it. A s a result, the roll calls of the Red Cross echoed all over the world. In its orkrooms thousands of Americans felt closer to hom e than they had for many years. W hen the Red Cross made its second appeal to the country for one hundred million dollars, the Fourteenth Division contributed one million seven hundred thousand to the fund, which was six times its quota. In less than a year the scattered Chapters of the Four teenth Division turned in a million and a half dollars worth ^Ibid.. 31. 45 of supplies, knitted goods from China and Chile, surgical dressings from Brazil and Spain, tens of guava jelly frcm Porto Rico destined for French hospitals, and Havana cigars and cigarettes from Cuba. In Costa Rico twenty knitters called for the second hundred dollar lot of wool in four months, and knitting needles being scarce they made their ow n from cocobolo wood. Red Cross work was also carried on in the little island of Exuma, a scrap of land not to be found on most maps. Thus the Fourteenth Division planted the out posts of the American Red Cross around the world.^ Prior to September, 1917, the Red Cross had only grown up people in its membership. N o one had given much thou^t to the children. However, as time went on, there were more and more little girls knitting wristlets, helmets, and sweaters, and doing it about as well as their mothers did. There were little girls going daily to the Chapter rooms and working diligently. Then some one realized what it would mean to the Red Cross if all of the children were mobilized for work. So the Junior Red Cross was created. In the Junior Red Cross, the school children of the country were organized for educational and productive pur poses under the inspiration of patriotic and other altruistic motives. During the fall of 1917, the Red Cross firs t began ^Ibxd., 35, 36. 46 to enroll junior members. By June, 1918, a children's army of eight million had been mobilised, and by February 28, 1919 this number had increased to over eleven million. During the war the work of the Junior Red Cross involved many kinds of activities, including the production of relief articles, the operation of war gardens, the conservation of second-hand articles and assistance to the Government of the United States and the American Red Cross in many other lines of work. Tho basic unit of organization in the Junior Red Cross was the auxiliary or school. A school officially became a junior auxiliary v/hen twenty-five cents had been paid into the Red Cross School Fund for each pupil, although under unusual circumstances a school could earn membership by proving its value to the Chapter as a v/orking unit. O n February 28, 1919 there v/ere about ninety thousand such auxiliaries. O n that date, more than half of a ll the school children of America were members. In four states, Arizona, California, Delaware, and Nevada, a ll school children were members The Junior membership dues of twenty-five cents for each child were placed in "school funds," and were used chiefly in purchasing materials to be made up into surgical and other relief supplies by the children. ^The American National Red Cross, The W ork of The American Red Cross During The War, 12-14; C Y . post., Appendix D for table shiDwing the Junior membership by states as of February 28, 1919. 47 The School Auxiliary was part of the local Red Cross Chapter. In all Red Gross matters it was guided by a special group, the Chapter School Committee, which represented the school interests of the locality. In the quantity, variety, and management of its productive work, the School Auxiliary, officered by its ow n teachers and principal, was practically autonomous, which usually resulted in the Chapter being endlessly besieged for larger quotas and more work.^ The plan by which the School Auxiliary was organized was simple. O ne morning, after the "Red Gross" had been dis cussed for several days, a poster appeared on the wall of the schoolroom. The teacher explained that every time a quarter was added to the school fund another little cross could be added to the poster. Then there v/as a grand scramble for jobs after school, for everyone wanted to add at least one cross. Therefore, for a while the quarters rolled in steadily. But eventually, there was an end to the odd jobs to be done, and as the school fund needed constant replenishment, other means of raising money had to be found. Consequently, every pupil joined forces to put over a project of real magnitude-- an entertainment, a sale, a school garden, or one of the innumerable "business opportunities" that the mind of youth could devise. ^Ibid., 15, 16. ^Henry P. Davidson, op. c it., 96, 97. 48 In Minneapolis, in the year 1917, all the schools of the city put on a bazaar, for which the stock was all made by the children in school time. For six weeks before the sale the sewing classes and school carpenter shops were scenes of keen rivalry and commercial ambition* The children worked as never before in the knowledge that the fruit of their labor at last would reach the soldiers overseas The children of Los Angeles, as well as those in m any other places, derived unfailing support from the collection of unsaleable waste* Periodical calls were made upon house holders, who gladly surrendered the week's accumulation of waste paper, old rubbers, tooth paste tubes, and broken pans * The booty was carried off in "two-boy" power cars, to be turned into money by the Senior Red Cross Committee. The Los Angeles school fund averaged about a thousand dollars a month from this source. In Southern California, the Junior Red Cross harvested castor oil beans from vacant lots. In Lenhi County, Idaho, they collected five hundred pounds of wool from the trees and wire fences of the sheep ranges. Som e N ew Jersey chil dren sold arbutus in Atlantic City. Very often the ctiildren's financial activities were of double value* The war gardens added to the national food supply. Toy making in school workshops aided markets that l l b i d . . 9 7. 49 were depleted by the boycott on those made in Germany. The collection of junk saved time and raw materials for over crowded v/ar industries.^ However, raising money was the beginning, not the end of the Junior's work. A s fast as the money cam e in, it was turned into supplies for the Red Cross. Everyone had his share of work to do. The girls sewed and knitted in sewing- class; the boys in their manual-training shops turned out hundreds of pieces for the Red Gross convalescent houses, and thousands of peg legs, potato mashers, equipment chests, bedside tables, splints, and m any other things, for the use of the Army. In four months the Junior Red Cross delivered two hun dred fifty-five thousand refugee garments. In even a shorter time the boys contributed over four thousand articles, which included writing tables, chairs, benches, and rugs, for the furnishing of the Red Cross convalescent houses in our American p camps The success of the Junior Red Cross was founded on the correlation of two great systems, the Red Gross and the American Schools. It was made possible only by enthusiasm and hard work on both sides. In a short time, so important ^Ibld. . 98. gibld.. 99. 50 did the work of the Juniors become that, "Call up the Junior Red Cross" became a familiar phrase on the lips of the Chapter chairman#^ Throughout the entire period of the War, in every com munity of the United States, the Red Cross v/orkers were put ting forth their best efforts to raise money, and to furnish the needed supplies* The Red Cross Shop of Los Angeles stood out among the many enterprises to raise money. It m ade $200,000 in one year clear of expenses. The methods employed, the originality of the many ideas, and the absolutely business basis on which it was managed, com m anded the respect and admiration of the merchants of the city. The enterprise was started by Mrs. Hancock Banning, a w om an of large social experience, executive ability and imagination. A fine old house and barn were donated by Mrs. M , Danziger, w ho became assistant manager. The main shop was in the barn. In the stalls was arranged a vast assortment of goods, on the same plan, as that used by the department stores. In addition to used wearing apparel, there were departments of new things—art, needlework, children's clothes, fine lingerie, heirlooms of old jewelry, gold and silver ornaments, and Sheffield plate were donated, as well as rare books, and firs t and autographed editions. This 100. 51 department became a M ecca for those who loved beautiful things. In another department there was a tea room, where luncheons and tea were served. In another department dresses and hats were made over. This proved very paying. The shop furnished a "continuous show." At least twice a week theatrical or movie stars, lecturers, musicians or dancers gave programs. Before Christmas the public schools co-operated with the shop. The manual training and domestic science departments m ade toys, clothing and other articles for the Christmas trade. Afterward they continued to supply the shop with needed articles. O n successive Saturdays the various high schools took charge of the shop and provided luncheon, a program, articles for sale, and also the buyers. The merchants of the city gave their hearty co-operation and support. O n different Saturdays, during the summer, the various department stores devoted half holidays to the Red Cross Shop, each store taking one day. The stores brought their bargains to the shop, built booths, furnished a be wildering progran and turned over large sum s of money. The first Saturday this amounted to $6,000.00, which goal was reached on successive Saturdays. A s a result of all of this, the Red Cross Shop became the center of the city's activity and accomplished much in furthering the work of the Red Cross.^ ^Laura C. Smith, "The Red Cross Shop of Los Angeles, Calif ornia.," Outlook, Vol. 120, p. 227, October 9, 1918. 52 O ne of the most important phases of the Red Cross work in the United States was that of H om e Service. During the summer of 1917, when the American soldiers and sailers were being sent to Prance in large numbers, it became more and more evident that the families of these m en needed considerate help and guidance through the m any perplexing difficulties which confronted them. Everyv/here, among rich and poor alike, there was a great need for accurate information on allotment, allowance, insurance, compensation, military regulations, absences, discharges, furloughs, casualties, on the Civil Relief Act and on many other laws and rules which applied to the affairs of soldiers' and sailors' families. There was need to combat anxiety, to safeguard health, to give legal protection, to promote education, to assist in employment, to give encourage ment to disabled soldiers on their return,, to look after their families while they were being retrained for civilian life, to meet problems arising out of diminished income, household, management, and the discipline and care of children. I t was early discovered by the military authorities that hom e affairs play an important part in building up or in depressing the morale of the fighting men. Troubles at hom e caused them to overstay their leave or even to desert. Therefore, H om e Service was welcomed by the commanding 53 officers as a means for getting information to the m en about their families and for straightening out situations which caused the m en worry and uneasiness.^ This work was on an intimate, personal character, requir ing tact, skill, ard knowledge. Because this v/ork could be done more effectively by workers with training and because trained workers were scarce, the Red Cross found i t imper ative to devise some means of preparation and training. Sev eral kinds of training courses were organized and of these, the H om e Service Institute, planned and developed by some of the leading social workers and professors of sociology, was the most successful and distinctive. By June 30, 1919, one hundred and fifteen such courses of six weeks duration had been held in the leading cities of the country and one thousand eight hundred students, most of w hom were volun teers, had completed the course and v/ere busily engaged in H om e Service Work,^ To acquaint soldiers and sailors with the opportunities for assistance which H om e Service offered, talks were made to drafted m en and letters were v/ritten to them before they left for the contonments. Newspaper publicity was employed and posters were used. Regimental and naval officers, chaplains and Red Cross representatives at the camps and ^The American Nati onal Red Cross, Annual Report for 1918, 83. ^The American National Red Cross, H om e Service, (Washington, D.C. 1930) 3. 54 and naval training stations, were informed very early on this sub ject. But not only was there need to have the m en in service informed about H om e Service, but it was found necessary to have special representatives of the Red Cross constantly in touch with the men. In the settlement of family difficulties, very often the m an away from home influences and family con tacts needed advice, information, encouragement, and personal service, quite as much as did the family at home. Consequent ly H om e Service representatives were attached to the Red Cross staff in each A rm y contonment and naval base, and arrange ments were made to extend this service to the troops in Prance. To cope with the grave and urgent problems growing out of the migration of soldiers families to the comiminities adjacent to the contonments, the Red Cross placed special H om e Service workers at such points. Thousands of families stranded or otherwise in trouble were helped to shelter, food, medical care, and transportation back to their homes.^ It sometimes happened that the domestic situation of a soldier or sailor became so critical that a furlough or even a discharge was advisable. In such cases the Red Cross representative ascertained the true situation through H om e Service channels and communicated with the commanding officer. Ifhe American National Red Cross, Annual Report for 1918, 84. 55 The following is a record of this work for the twenty months ending February 28, 1919: Furlough investigations ............................. 21,373 Discharge investigations ..• . « • . 19,298 H om e Service Cases ....................... .... 173,848^ It was often necessary to m ake small loans to m en in camps in great need because of temporary financial worries* Loans were restricted to legitimate cases and were m ade with the approval of the commanding officers to boys called hom e by critical illness of the mother or other close relatives, to casuals or m en Invalided hom e from overseas whose pay was in arrears, and to assist m en commissioned from the ranks in securing outfits. U p to February 28, 1919, twenty-five thousand eight hundred and three loans were made amounting to over three hundred and twenty-five thousand dollars C am p service work in the United States, taken all to gether, required expenditures aggregating about thirty-eight million dollars during the twenty months ending February 28, 1919. O f this, about six million dollars went to purchase supplies and for all other cash expenditures, about twenty- nine million represented the value of chapter-produced sup plies sent to the camps for distribution, and about three million was used in constructing buildings ^The American National Red Cross, The W ork of The American Red Cross During The War, 36. %bld.. 37. ®Ibid. 56 H orae Service was far reaching in its effects. Wherever a situation became tense H om e Service stepped in and took care of i t. W hen once it had taken a family under its protective and advisory wing, it "carried on" with them, kept tab on them, and mothered them properly. "if H om e Service in Italy," says Davidson, "was reflected in the victory at the Piave, H om e Ser vice in America gave an account of itself at Chateau Thierry and along the stubbornly contest ed reaches of the Meuse. The "cases" which constitute the H orae Service Record were multi-colored. ' In the main they piv oted on money, and the tough old question of sub sistence, but their details varied as people do. There was every conceivable sort of plot. It was to the credit of the system that most of these had a happy ending."I ^Henry P. D avidson, op. c i t . , 7 5 . 57 C H A P T E R IV T H E AFRICAN R E D G R 088 IN F R A N C E So m uch, of the World W ar was fought on French soil, and so many of its heaviest burdens fell on the French people that the efforts of the American Red Gross to lighten suffering were greater in France than in any other war country. From the beginning the American Red Cross had three clearly defined problems to solve in France: first, to find the quickest and best means of helping the French sol di er; second, to prepare adequately for the arrival of the American Army; and third, to afford relief to the civilian population v/hlch had suffered deeply during nearly three years of warfare Before the United States armies reached France the Red Cross was aiding the French soldier and helping the distres sed non-combatants to fight disease, hunger and oppression. From the arrival of the advance guard of the American Exped itionary Force, the Red Cross carried on its work for the French civilian and soldier, and also assumed larger tasks in helping to promote the comfort and safe guard the morale of the American forces. During the period between the declaration of war by the United States and the actual arrival of our armies in France, ^The American National Red Cross, Annual Report for 1918, 113. 58 it was deemed the duty of the American Red Cross to convey to the French nation the sympathy and material support of the American people. There was but one effective way in which this support could be rendered, and that was through concrete acts of war relief on a scale much larger than had been pos sible before the Red Cross Commission reached France.^ The Red Cross Commission, which was canposed of eighteen men, under the leadership of Major Grayson M . P. Murphy, reached France on June 13, 1917. The members of this com mission were specialists, m en picked for their braod know ledge of the lines of endeavor along which their campaign was to be directed. They were experts on banking, on welfare work, and building; on transportation and organization. They had not com e merely to investigate and report to the W ar Council at home, but with the intention, and thanks to the generous p size of their budget, the power to operate at once. Soon after its arrival in Paris, the Commission held a conference with the Committee of the American Relief Clear ing House, who expressed the belief that a ll American effort should be co-ordinated under one head. Accordingly the Committee tui'ned over to the American Red Cross their organ ization, equipment, and personnel. ^Ibid. ^Fisher Ames, Jr. American Red Cross W ork A m ong The French People, 10, 11. 59 Thus provided with a definite organization, a conference was held with General Pershing, at which the relief work to be done and the agencies through which i t should be done were discussed. General Pershing said that, in his opinion, the American Red Cross was the agency through wMch the desire of the American people to help Prance could best be expressed.^ For nearly three years, France had carried on steadily and efficiently virtually all the relief work that had been done among soldiers and civilians. The demands, however, upon France' s relief resources had increased so rapidly that they had beccme well-nigh overwhelming. However, the American Red Cross did not seek to supplant any of the relief agencies already established in France. Its policy, from the begin ning, was to attain the desired end through existing mediums by strengthening them in every way possible; assistance was p given to one hundred and fifty-seven organizations. The relief work naturally fell into two classes: firs t, work am ong the soldiers ; second, work for the civilian pop ulation. The Department of Military Affairs was immediately organized to perform the first function, and the Department of Civil Affairs for the second.^ The greatest immediate need was for canteen service. ^The American National Red Cross, Annual Report for 1918. 113. %bld. ^Ibld., 60 Canteens were characterized by the French Minister of W ar as indispensable. The French had already done much along this line, but the increasing intensity of warfare had prevented them from giving the canteen service the necessary scope. French soldiers on leave traveling to and fro from the fight ing fronts, had been compelled to wait in cold stations, where they often slept on the floor in their vermin infested trench clothes and passed hours without food or any sort of comfort. Consequently the French authorities were quick to see the military value of an adequate canteen service. They, there fore, advised the American Red Cross officials that therein lay an immediate opportunity to convince the French soldier of the reality of America's participation in the war. The canteens were divided into three general classes; the Line of Communication, the Metropolitan District, and the Canteen at the Front. The first served the soldier in tran sit ; the second while on leave in Paris or on the Grande Ceinture railroad running around Paris, and the third just be- 1 hind the lines. By the terms on which the L. 0. C. canteen collaboration was finally settled the French were required to furnish the necessary buildings and provide electric light, running water and coal for heating purposes, while the Red Cross undertook ^ Ib ld ., 114. 61 to supply the cooking appliances, the coal for cooking, all the medical and equipment stores and the personnel. Later the Red Cross v/as allowed to purchase supplies of the French commissariat at military rates, without which proviso it could hardly have carried out its share of the contract After this arrangement was put in force the Red Cross served a meal of hot soup, roast meat, vegetables, bread and coffee for seventy-five centimes, v/ith various extras like eggs, salads, jams, and ham, no one of which should cost more than thirty centimes. Beer, wine and spirits were prohibited in all American Red Cross canteens. The first canteen on the lines of communication was opened at Chalons-sur-Marne, on September 17, 1917. In October one was established at Epernay and later at each of the follaving stations ; Orry-la- Ville, Survilliers, and St. Germain-des-Posses. The co operation of France and the United States was symbolized in a way that no soldier, no matter how unlettered, could misin terpret, by signboards bearing the tricolor and the Star's and Stripes, and the canteens were known officially as the Cantines 2 des Deux Drapeaus. All the permanent or semi-permanent plants in France v/ere built and equipped to meet all future requirements. The French Ipisher Ames, Jr., op. c it., 36. Slbld.. 37. 62 looked on dubiously at the preparations for the debarkation of the American Armies--at the huge buildings, the ponderous railroad equipment, and hundreds of miles of rails ; they looked dubiously, too, at the preparations of the Red Cross and wondered if the finished fabrics of accomplishment would ever fit their vast foundations. But within eighteen months they saw two million soldiers walk off these same docks and m ove forward over the iron pathways. They saw incalculable stores of everything necessary for carrying on warfare, fol lowing in uninterrupted procession, food, clothing, engine ering supplies, and all the paraphernalia of war.I A well known Liberty Loan speaker upon returning from France, referring to the big line of stations, said: I didn't know what a canteen was like. I didn't know whether you rolled i t or kept it back in the kitchen somewhere; but here is what i t 's like: if you took one of those piers in the North River that you tie a big steamship up to and converted i t into a business enter prise to rest and sleep and wash people, that is about the size of the proposition. The k it chen cam e first--a huge room full of caldrons and chopping blocks and meats and things--and next was a lunch-counter affair v/ith som e tables where they could probably feed five hundred at a clip. Next was the living room v/here the soldiers could throw off the accouterments of war and rest themselves and write letters. Outside they had some very pretty gardens which had been decorated by the camouflage artists of France. Next cam e a large theater, --mostly moving pictures, --1 was told, but occasionally the m en got up entertainments of their own. lile n ry P . Davi ds on , op. c i t . , 134. 63 Next cam e a place v/here I suppose twenty five hundred m en could sleep, and they had baths and ways to m ake their clothes sanitary and things of that kind, all very essential. The wom en workers in this sam e outift are en titled to som e kind of a memorial, if i t is nothing more than in our hearts and minds. They are doing a wonderful work. There is a group of w om en over there taking care of about seven or eight thousand soldiers every day. It is at a railroad center where they transfer off the trains and are redistributed. That thing is dene twenty- four hours a day in three shifts of eight hours.1 Before the American Red Gross undertook to establish fully equipped canteens, the London Committee of the French Red Cross had been operating at many railroad stations small canteens known as the "Gauttes de Cafe," where coffee and bullion were served free to the soldiers in passing trains. In several cases agreements were made v/ith the French society by which certain individual "Gauttes de Cafe" passed to the control of the American Red Cross and were, in other cases, absorbed in the larger installation which it was prepared to support. Occasionally i t was found advisable for our Red Cross to inaugurate a canteen of its own, while the "Gauttes de Cafe" continued to carry on its ow n work on the station platform or in the immediate vicinity.^ "l remember particularly the situation in the great central station of the M edi Railroad in Bordeaux," said M r. Hungerford. "This huge ^Ibia,. 135. ^Edward Hungerford, With The Doughboy In Prance, (N ew York, 1920) 108. 64 structure is a real focal point of passenger traf fic . . • • A great proportion of this traffic is military, and long ago the French sought to ac commodate this with a huge Gauttes de Cafe in a barn-like sort of room in the main station struc ture and opening direct upon its plat-forms. I glanced at this place. It was gloomy and ill- lighted by the uncertain, even though dazzling, glow of one or two electric arc lights. It was fearfully overcrowded. Poilus occupied each of the m any seats in the room and flowed over to the floor, where they sat or reclined as best they might on the benches or on their luggage. The place was ill-ventilated, to®. It was not one that offered large appeal. H ow different the appearance of the canteen of our ow n Red Cross. It had a far less advanta geous location; well outside the station train shed ard only to be found by one w ho was defin itely directed to i t. T w o buildings had been erected and another adapted for the canteen. They were plain enough outside, but inside they were typically American--which meant that light and color and warmth had been combined effect ively to produce the effect of a hom e that might have been in Maine, or Ohio, or California, or any other nice corner of the old U. S. A. There was a homelike atmosphere, too, in the long, lov/ buildings enhanced by the unforgetable aroma of coffee being made--being made American style, if you please. That building boasted a long counter, and upon that counter miniature mountains of ham sandwiches and big brown doughnuts--sandv/iches and doughnuts v/hich actually had been m ade frcm white flour--and ham sandwiches with an actual flavor to them. And all in great quantity-- two thousand meals in a single day was no un usual order--and for a price that was nominal, to put it lightly. In another building there were more lights and the warm yellows and greens of good taste in dec oration; a big piano with a doughboy at i t seme twenty-three hours out of the twenty-four--whole companies of divans and regiments of easy chairs; American newspapers, many weekly publications, a 65 lot of magazines, and books in profusion. This room was completely filled, but som ehow one did not gain the sensation of its being crowded. The feeling that one carried from the place was that a bit of the U. S. A. had been set right down there at the corner of the great and busy chief railway terminal of the French city of Bordeaux. . . . Only one forgot Bordeaux.! To realize what these canteens meant to the soldiers one must understand the conditions of railway travel as they were at that time. The soldiers were packed into the trains like cattle, t i l l each car contained nearly double its ordinary quota of passengers. The first few to get aboard obtained seats, vhen there were any seats, but the majority had to stand for hours, sweltering in the heat or shivering with cold according to the season. The journeys were almost in variably performed under cover of darkness, and sleep was practically unobtainable even for the most weary. The air so on became so intolerably stale and so heavy with-tobacco smoke that the m en were half suffocated. They could not ease their cramped limbs by a change of position as they were jammed together in a mass so compact that no one could m ove unless he moved a neighbor also. Efforts to obtain relief in this direction were seldom repeated, but occasionally the train on being sharply shunted to a side track or in rounding a curve accomplished a violent shifting of its cargo "en masse" to the accompaniment of oaths and groans. It was the epitome llb ld .. 108, 109. 66 of discomfort and when the cars finally drew up to the station and unloaded their sore, exasperated contents the physical and mental cheer, offered by the canteen was absorbed very grate fully by the soldiers. It was most agreeable to talk with the attendants in their crisp costumes; to be served with hot stimulating drinks and good food in a clean, pleasant room, to rest, and sing, and write letters if one wished; in short to feel that one had risen from a mere cipher in a driven herd to the dignity of a hum an being. A nd nothing counted more in the renewal of spirits and self respect than the presence of the gracious, loyal women. During war, courage and chivalry is the man's part; devotion the woman's. The fact that these capped and aproned w om en had cared enough to cross the ocean in order to serve France in this menial capacity showed the poilu that America's heart and hand were with him. It is not to be doubted that this knowledge was of some benefit to his morale The work that the Red Gross w om en did cf ten involved the hardest kind of physical labor. There were many girls w ho stayed at their posts, while the soldiers were at the front, when the windows in their huts cracked from shell-fire and the roof fell to pieces. W hen on the Jam m ed roadways in the great advance, the crowding thousands of troops were delayed !p is h e r Ames, J r . , op. c i t . , 3 8 , 3 9 . 67 by ambulances and trucks with their hundreds of wounded, the Red Cross girls were there to help dislodge the tangle, so that the troops could again get on their way.! The ambulance drivers played a picturesque part in the work of the Red Cross. Their peril was incessant. These drivers, straining every nerve, striving to get the wounded from the most forward point possible, carried their cars through raining shells and bombs, through gas, ttirough every danger in the fighting zone. In and out, journey after jour ney, always on call, night or day, there is a long record of their courage and devotion to one of the most trying duties of the war. The ambulance service in com m on with that of the hos pitals was militarized almost as completely as the fighting forces. In all, the Red Cross organized forty-seven am bulance units which operated under army management and as parts of the Medical Corps and Expeditionary Force. The am bulance units were maintained in the nature of reserves, en gaged in transporting wounded men, who were on their way to recovery from base hospitals to the convalescent establish ments maintained by the Red Cross in all parts of France. It also maintained service for the M arin© Hospital at the port 2 of debarkation. !nenry P. Davidson, Op. c i t ., 136. 141, 142. 68 A n important organization of the Red Cross was the Bureau of H om e Communication. The work of this Bureau consisted pri marily in gathering information as to casualties. I t was the duty of the war department to give notice of casualties to families. Those notices were necessarily laconic and business like. Families # 1 0 had sent their boys overseas could not understand why, when their son was wounded, he could not com e directly home, or why his mother could not go out to nurse him. Consequently the Red Cross placed w om en in the Hospitals to write letters or reports about the young m en who were i l l , wounded, or dying. These letters were transmitted by the Bureau of Communication in Washington to the families. O f course i t was an impossible task to report on all cases, when in the evacuation hospitals the wounded were passing through in a steady stream; but they tried to report on the more serious cases and to write personal letters about those who had died.^ With the divisions near the front there were m en searchers Their business was to answer inquiries from America concern ing m en who had not been heard from, or who had troubles that might be relieved by v/ord from home. Sometimes they too reported on casualties without any request. The searcher 147. 69 had to devote most of his time to assisting the stretcher- bearers and the surgeons; but he s till had time very often to drop dow n beside som e seriously wounded m an and jot dop/n the last message he wanted sent to his family* This service brought one small ray of confort to many a bereaved family* All the Information collected abroad was sent to the Paris Office, where i t was classified and sent to Washington. A card file of all casualties was kept. This finally grew to contain four hundred thousand cards. O n each card was given as far as possible the history of the case. The Arm y gave its hearty co-operation to this as they realized the need and understood that in this the Red Cross was being of service not only to the families, but also to the military author ities Som e of the work that the Red Cross m en w ere called upon to do was both gruesome and horrible. The following is an extract taken from the diary of M r. Harvey D . Gibson, of the Red Cross ; A couple of days before Thanksgiving I accom panied the Division Graves Registraticn Officer to the woods north of Verdun v/here our Division had been heavily engaged during the month of October and where w e had quite a lis t of missing. The fighting had been intense through these woods, portions of them changing hands five or six times in the course of three weeks, and nat urally it was impossible to keep careful track 1 Ibid.. 148, 149. 70 of all the brave fellows w ho fe ll. Delving Into the earth, uneover!hg rotten corpses, and search ing for proper marks of identity is as gruesome and as horrible a job as could be imagined and I must confess m y nerve was a bit shattered at the close of the second day Although all of the work of the Red Cross in France was of vital importance, its supreme mission lay in its care of the wounded soldier. Therefore, the work of the Medical and Surgical Section in France was the very essence of the American Red Cross Relief, having first claim on all its facilities, because its chief function was the care of the wounded to w hom , primarily the services of the Red Cross are devoted. A m ong the activities undertaken were the establish ment of American Red Cross hospitals, American Red Cross M litary hospitals, dispensaries, and diet kitchens, and convalescent hospitals, the furnishing of medical supplies to A rm y hospitals, the assignment of nurses to French hos pitals, and supplying artificial limbs to French veterans and medical service to American Red Cross auxiliaries.^ Soon after the outbreak of the war in Europe, the Red Gross had sent a force of surgeons and nurses and a large amount of medical supplies to the warring nations of Europe. The field of activity was so vast that the little force was ^Edward Hungerford, op. c it., 156. ^The American National Red Cross, Annual Report for 1918, 116 71 broken up into various units and distributed over Europe. The unit dispatched to France equipped a hospital at Pau, which i t operated for one year. Its personnel was then removed, part of it being sent to Belgium. The American Ambulance at Neuilly v/as helped by the organization and various French Institutions were given substantial aid. But the plan of the Red Cross was not to concentrate its activities for the benefit of any one nation but to distribute them impartially. With the entry of the United States into the war this plan was automatically changed. The Red Cross became the official American relief organization, and put at the dis posal of the A. E. F. and their allies all of their resources. They immediately began plans- for hospital cooperation mth the French. In accordance with these plans the Medical Department of the Red Cross took complete control over some existing hospitals, and assisted others. T v /o of the first to be ac quired was the hospital at Neuilly which became American Red Cross Military Hospital No. 1 and Dr. Joseph A. Blake * s hos pital which became No. 2.^ Both of these hospitals were supported and run by the Red Cross and the United States Army, but both were at the dis posal of the French. The Red Cross maintained a thoroughly equipped sanitary train to bring back the French wounded from the front and an ambulance service that carried the wounded Ip is h e r Ames, J r . , op. c i t . , 1 9, 2 0 . 72 for the Paris d istrict. In Hospital No. 2 was situated the Red Cross Research Laboratory where a corps of bacteriolo gists carried on a series of important investigations into the original causes of maladies com m on to soldiers.- There were, in all, five Red Cross Military hospitals, ten Red Gross hospitals and six convalescent hospitals. In the American Red Cross hospitals, the organization supplied the materials, installed the hospitals, and paid the nurses. The doctors and orderlies were partly supplied by the Red Cross. The convalescent hospitals were established for officers and enlisted m en recovering fran wounds or sickness. They also accommodated soldiers and nurses needing rest and quiet Under the A rm y system there were in hospital service three parallel zones in which i t was intended that all the elements involved should be of the A rm y service and not vol untary. In a mobile A rm y each division had four companies, each company twelve ambulances, with dressing station equip ment. These stations were set up in som e sheltered place, if such could be found, and to them the wounded were brought. They were provided with a certain amount of equipment, food, and supplies, such as could be easily carried and would. ^Tho American National Red Cross, Annual Report for 1918. 117. 73 suffice for in itial treatment of injuries. Back of these-- marking the second zone— were four field hospitals under canvas, each capable of caring for two hundred and sixteen patients. There were beds but no cots. These stations carried operating equipment and adequate kitchen outfits. At the next stage was the evacuation hospital. The capacity here was double that of the field hospitals, since the trans portation facilities farther up might in time of intense action be overtaxed. This v/as a more c o ? less permanent station, usually located in some suitable existing building. This had no transportation equipment. The wounded were dis patched by ambulance or by hospital trains. It was equiva lent to what in the British A rm y was known as the Casualty Clearing Station and was, usually, located in the nearest tcwn. Its function was to clear the field hospital for future emer gencies and was permanent save in cases of retreat. If an advance was made, a new evacuation station would be set up in the acquired ground, thus shortening the distance fran the mobile area. From this point the patient, v/hen in fit con dition, was removed to the base hospital. Back of this lay the so-called "hom e zoneFrom the base progress was to the convalescent hospitals in Paris or other parts of France, some of which were maintained by the Red Cross.^ Outwardly and in its operation and control, i t v/as ^Henry P. D avidson, op. c i t . , 142, 1 4 3 . 74 exclusively an A rm y organization, but the function of the Red Cross was s till an important one. For to these hospitals it furnished large sum s of money, for what is knov/n as ravitail lement service. Under this title the Red Cross furnished all sorts of things contributary to the proper and convenient care of the wounded. It included portable kitchens, heating and lighting plants, laundries, baths and disinfecting outfits, dental ambulances, and material for what are called mobile com plementary hospitals; i t also furnished huts, barracks, and miscellaneous supplies for the purpose of facilitating re storative work am ong the wounded and maintaining such work in the advanced territory at points of greater availability. Under the advice of the A rm y Medical authorities the Red Cross es tablished two plants, one in France and one in America, for the manufacture of nitrous oxide gas for the purpose of anaesth esia in cases where the patient was in too critical a state for ether. The total normal capacity was over twenty-five thousand gallons a day In the early days of the war the American Red Cross in France v/as organized into two departments, one for military affairs, the other for civil. At that time the Department of Military Affairs grouped its work chiefly under the Medical and Surgical Division w hi© h v/as headed by Colonel Alexander Lambert, a distinguished N ew York physician, w ho then bore the ^Henry P. D avidson, op. c i t . , 144. 75 title of Chief Surgeon of the American Red Cross. In January, 1918, this Medical and Surgical Division be cam e knovm as the Medical and Surgical Section 'Of the Depart ment of Military Affairs, while Captain C. C. Burlingame, a young and energetic doctor from South Manchester, Connecticut, became its guiding head. Captain Burlingame was one of the most energetic, the most tireless, and most efficient execu tives of the American Red Cross in France, and he was able to accompl3Lsh remarkable results through the constant use of these attributes. W hen General Pershing told Marshal Foch that the American A rm y was in France to be used as the French Commander saw f it, Foch moved quickly and brigaded the American soldiers with his between Montdidier and Soissons. This meant, of course, the evacuating of the casualties tlirough French hospitals. The American boys, w ho did not speak French--and few of them did--were in a most helpless condition. They could neither te li their wishes, nor be advised as to what was going to be done with them. Colonel Burlingame sensed the situation in its fulness. With much diplomacy, he approached Dr. Vernet Kleber, the Commander of the French-American section of the French Ser vice de Sante, saying that he realized that its servicê had been taxed to its uttermost and proffering the use of the American Red Cross personnel. Dr. Kleber accepted. 76 Within twenty-four hours, two nurses and two nurses* aides, w ho could speak French, were dispatched to the French hospital at Soissons where the first American patients were being received. The movement of the First and Second Div isions in the Beauvois and Montdidier sectors immediately afterwards increased very greatly this flow of Yankee dough boys into French hospitals—and the American nurses were thrown into them in far greater numbers. Soon, a more def inite plan was adopted, according to which American nurses, speaking French were installed in each and every French military hospital that received American wounded. The first call for nurses under this new arrangement came in M ay, 1918, when a nurse and an aid were sent to the French Military Hospital at Besancon, in the extreme east of France and south of the fighting zones. The second came from La Rochelle, dow n on the Atlantic coast. After that these calls were almost continuous, until American nurses had been sent to all corners of Prance The American Red Cross not only sent nurses to these hospitals, but it also supplied m any articles of equipment,, and numerous luxuries to the American sick and wounded. Miss Alice Fitzgerald, w ho had charge of placing the nurses in the French hospitals, wrote: Our nurses did not simply go out to give the ^Edward H u n g erfo rd , op. c i t . , 1 8 3 t—189. 77 patient the nursing care he required* They went to look after his general welfare. They pro vided for him the food which was not obtainable in the hospital, the companionship which he mis sed, the small luxuries which our m en were apt to call necessities, and in other words, any thing or everything that the Red Cross could give. A s soon as nurses left for a particular hospital, I put in a request for standard sup plies such as pajamas, socks, cigarettes, choc olate, games, writing paper, magazines, books and newspapers. Wherever the hospital was not too far off, I have taken these supplies out by motor The nurses assigned to the hospitals just behind the lines met with the most harrassing experiences. O f the pressure under which the French hospitals operated during the last great German Offensive, Katherine Williams, a nurse assigned to ’ ^l*Hospital Militaire,** C ha 1 ons- sur-Marne, gives the following account: Paris, July, 1918: .... That memorable holiday, July 14, I had dinner with some of the canteeners and went to a concert afterwards, returning hom e and getting to bed about 9:30. Twelve midnight--Bang— with so great a concus sion that it practically threw us both out of bed, and w e were sure a bom b had struck the house. The sky was blazing from horizon to horizon and the thundering roar.of guns was so close and terrific that it made m y blood run cold. That first bang on the dot of midnight was a long range gun that planted a shell very close to our house every five minutes regular ly for two. days and nights. • « . By the time this letter reaches you it will be no sec ret that the Huns had their eyes and plans fixed to drive through Chalons again. ^Lavina L. Dock, R. N . e t,a l., History of Red Cross Nursing, 587, 586. W hen it began, one of the first things w e did v/as to pack up everything, ready to flee at a moments notice. O f course v/e dressed and went over to the hospital and about 6:30 A. M . the first French grands blessis began to arrive. I shall never forget the sight of that hall, litters from end to end, m en blown to atoms but s till pitifully hanging to a thread of life ; no noise, a sickening silence as the ambulances were unloaded, a litte r lifted dovm to the ground, only to find that the journey had been too much and in that lonely, ghastly ride one more soul had been released. W e both turned to at once, to cut the cloth ing off the m en and get them ready to go to the operating room. In the midst of this, the chief surgeon, M . Tardary, asked m e if I would operate with him; they were short on doctors and his assistant must work another room so that they could keep going two at a time. The French surgeons are marvelous. he asked m e during the day if I were fond of surgery and added, **B ut this is not surgery; it is but chery ." . . . About noon that day v/e were told that w e were going to receive Americans; there had been a dandy little field and mobile hospital unit established nearer the line, but they had been bombed and shelled almost out of existence and were forced to m ove back. . . • Four barracks on the lawn were set aside for the American unit when it should arrive and about 2:00 A. M . the patients began to arrive. . . . Sister Jean and M . Haulie, the eye, ear, nose, and throat doctor, who was not very busy at that time, picked out the worst cases and pumped them full of camphor and morphine. . . . About five that afternoon, two American surgi cal teams, four doctors, tv/o anesthetists, five nurses, and several orderlies arrived. . . . W e established a '^triage,** as the French call it, or a sorting out hospital on the lav/n, and as the ambulances arrived, one doctor was sta tioned to keep those m en w ho were in so shocked • a condition that they could go no further snd to send the rest on. The new arrivals were put in one barrack and as soon as possible were carried 79 over to the main hospital building for operation and then back to a post-operative barracks • All this v/ent on under Boche bombs tumbling from airplanes, that five minute long range shell and anti-aircraft shrapnel falling like hail all over the place and much the most dangerous thing liis protecting divine ness our sufferings that week, hurt or killed, in our those terrible days, shrapnel that glanced of a ll. Surely God, in must have seen and felt for happily, no one v/as particular hospital all I*ve saved the piece of off m y tin lid. . . . Miss Robins, two of the Sisters and myself stayed in the barracks on the lawn. There were five nurses in the operating room. I coild never te ll you about that night,—it is burned into m y memory as a horror never to be forgotten. M en died, i t seemed to me, every five minutes; every case was either abdominal or head and there fore practically hopeless. I did not know death could be so pitiful. All I*ve ever seen of death has really been a merciful release for sane s oui struggling against disease when the course of life v/as nearly complete, but G od Î hav hard i t was for these strong young lives to give up, such a ghastly waste of human vitality, thought, hap piness, everything snuffed out under the most exquisite suffering! A nd nothing to be dcoe about it but try and make i t bearable and thank G od few knew that they were going to die. During n i^ ts and days such as these, the French and American nurses repeatedly came face to face with death and the memory of the agony which attended the last struggle burned itse lf into their consciousness and left scars which were to remain with them for years to com e The hospital supply service to both American and French Hospitals was very wide. Agents called at the various hos pitals and obtained from them lists of needed articles not 'Ibid., 589-691. 8 0 regularly supplied by the Army, such as special surgical instruments and apparatus, convalescent garments, bandages and slings for special operation. These v/ere delivered from the Hospital supply service. The fighting on the M arne in July afforded a striking illustration of the importance of the Red Cross supply system. In one shipment seven tons of surgical dressings, and five tons of diet foods were dispatched to the front for use in evacuation hospitals for American wounded. The Red Cross Medical storehouses and pharmacies were open and busy day and night. O n July 18, the chief of the medical section arrived from the front and started back at three o*clock the following morning with emergency supplies, including fifty gallons of alcohol ; tv/o thousand doses of tetanus anti toxin; surgical instruments; several gross of surgical needles; and dressings and operating materials of all kinds* N o speed laws are recognized in war. The quickest way is the best way. A new speed record was established during this battle in the preparation of evacuation hospitals bellind the lines. A hospital officer with ten nurses and ten tens of equip ment left Paris. Within three days, they had found a des irable building, rented i t , equipped i t with everything necessary, including an X-Ray outift, and were receiving 81 patients.^ The Red Cross sought at all times to upbuild and main tain the most effective and most modern service for healing and restoring wounded m en* It was for this purpose that the millions of dollars placed at its disposal by popular sub scription was used* O ne of the greatest triumphs of the war was the con quest that medical and surgical science achieved over the scourges which had devoured armies in the past * In July, 1918, the Red Cross mobilized in this country a six months supply of the bacillus Weichi serum for the cure and preven tion of gas gangrene, amounting in all to one hundred and twenty thousand doses. The Red Cross assumed the respon sibility of despensing it to the allied armies Another large scale activity of, the Red Cross v/as the providing of splints, of the six types developed for the confinement of injured members in case of fracture* The boys of the Junior Red Cross acquired great proficiency in their manufacture and produced them in Volume * The Red Gross also maintained five factories for this purpose in Paris with an output of sixteen thousand splints each month*^ In 1917 the Red Cross provided funds f or a Christmas ^Henry P. D avidson, op * ci t * , 1 4 5. % b i d . , 146. 82 Party and entertainment in every base hospital, and a Christ m as tree in every ward where a soldier or sailor lay. There were one million seven hundred and fifty thousand Christmas cheer packages distributed at hom e and abroad, which cost approximately one dollar each, and each contained socks, handkerchiefs, tobacco, chewing gum, cigarettes, and other useful things* The Red Cross supplied and distributed the cartons* In order to be sure that every soldier received one, i t prepared several thousand of these packages for those w ho might be overlooked. The Red Gross also supplied each wounded man--who had lost all of his belongings--with a confort kit, containing toilet articles, razors, handkerchiefs and other necessities. A tooth brush was often the first thing for which a wounded doughboy asked on his arrival at the hospital. "These things said General Pershing, ’ *bring the soldier to know that the people at hom e are behind him. You do not know how much they mean to the soldier who is over here carrying the flag for his country.*’^ H ow well the American Red Cross in France served as an emergency arm of the United States Medical Corps m ay be seen by a brief statistical summary. The total number of battle casualties of the American Expeditionary Forces during the European V far was two hundred eight y-nine thousand and three 147. 83 hundred thirty. O f this number thirty-four thousand one hundred and eighty v/ere killed in action; fourteen thousand seven hundred and tv/enty-nine died of v/cands; tv/o hundred thirty thousand seventy-four were wounded in varying degrees ; two thousand nine hundred thirteen were reported “missing in action”; and four thousand four hundred thirty-four were taken prisoner. During the twenty months ending February 28, 1919, twenty-four of the twenty-eight military hospitals which were operated in France by the American Red Cross cared for eighty-six thousand seven hundred eighty-seven patients of the American Expeditionary Forces. These m en were largely wound cases because the hospitals v/here they were treated were organized for the specific purpose of caring for American soldiers wounded in the principal German and Allied Offensives. Thus the American Red Cross, in addition to organizing and equipping the fifty base hospitals which formed the skeleton of the hospitalization of the Medical Department in France, m ay also be said to have provided, through this emergency hospital service as developed by the American Red Cross Commission for Europe, hospitalization to more than one third of the American casualties of the European W ar ^Lavina L . Dock, e t . a l . . op. c i t . . 631 84 C H A P T E R V C H ILD R EN 'S RELIEF W O R K IN F R A N C E The welfare of children could not be given much care by a country harassed as France was by war, and, after three years of continuous warfare, there was great need for v/ork among the children. It was for this reason that one of the most import ant branches of the Red Gross work in France developed. The main task was to cope with underfeeding, under nourishment, and lack of medical care. A s far as possible, the work was carried on by encouraging and supporting the French agencies, but in m any places operations were carried on directly by the Red Gross,—particularly in case of hos pitals, dispensaries, and clinics W hen the Red Cross Commission arrived in France in June, 1917, the ranks of soldiery had been terribly depleted. There was acute suffering am ong the civilian population, where whole families found themselves separated; fathers were in the trenches, mothers worked in the munition factories, while the children were adrift in a world of disorder. Before the commission had been in France a fortnight i t cabled a request for food, clothing, hospital supplies, and lumber to help the refugees and to begin relief v/ork in the devastated areas in the North of France. O n July 12, 1917, ^The American National Red Cross, W ork of The American Red Gross During The War, 63. 85 the W ar Council set aside one million dollars for the relief of sick and wounded French soldiers. A nd when on July 16, word cam e by cable of the immediate need of doctors and nurses, especially experts in children's diseases, the W ar Council engaged the foremost pediatrist of the country who, with a staff of child specialists, and a corps of nurses sailed for France, where he and others established a most extra- ordinary series of homes for refugee children. It is practically impossible to describe the magnitude of the child problem that existed in France. The condition was far worse than even the French people or the French gov ernment realized, and it was constantly growing worse. There was the vast accumulation of refugee children from all the departments of the north and from Belgium and the shifting fortunes of war. Added to these was the army of repatriated children— including a host from Belgium--who, like the adults who cam e over the border were suffering from malnutrition, and many other things. Even the health of the children w ho had homes was becoming impaired. For epidemics of local character could not be checked on account of the scarcity of doctors and nurses. To accomplish results, the Red Cross had to provide suitable places for operation and get the children together ^Anonymous, "W ork of The American Red Cross," Current Hi story. Vol. VI, p. 439, September, 1917. 86 to examine and sort out the tuberculous and contagious cases, to provide nurses labor and medical supplies, dentists and attendants and artisans to make requisite repairs. A nd all this had to be done at a time when every man was needed at the front. W hat this vast army of children needed first was food, for the majority of them were hungry, and food of any kind was scarce. In the devastated areas the Germans had left nothing. Even the stoves and water systems had been destroyed.^ At Nesle and Lyons, Dinard and Dieppe, Gaudebee and Barenton, Issyle- -Molineaux, Taul and Evain, similar condi tions existed. Conditions that were most distressing. Evain has been called the "Gateway of a Hundred SorrowsFor it was here as the war wore on, that Germany sent back into France the army of French and Belgian civilians w ho had been taken from the devastated country in the north in the first onrush of 1914, and since held in bondage. In the sum m er of 1917, they were herded back over the frontier at the rate of a thousand or more a day. Daily, for a long time, tv/o trains, morning and night, rolled in from the German border. June Richardson Lucas, w ho was stationed at Evain at the time, describes the arrival of one of these trains as follov/s; Today at eleven was almost the most dramatic. Tïlenry P. Davidson, The American Red Cross in The Great V/ar, 165, 166. 8 7 the most thrilling moment of all at Evain* Six hundred and eighty Belgian children arrived on the morning train. It was indescribable; all these little children, thin, sickly looking, alone; all of them between the ages cf four and twelve. It is impossible to picture it for you. Those poor children calling "Vive la France," then, “Vive la Belgique for the first time in three years. . . . The boys were livelier than the girls--the little girls of ten and twelve, in charge of four or terly . five brothers and sisters, cried bit- A s they passed along, the rapartries on the sidewalk called to them: “Don't cry you are going to have meat 1 “ A nd the boys shouted; Meat, v;e are going to have meat Î" as they marched. You couldn't believe i t . You were looking at starving children, Belgian children. The Casino was glowing with good cheer; the meat was there, plenty of it with potatoes and hot chocolate and hot roasted chestnuts. H ow they ate I Yes, they just stuffed that good dinner I They were hungry and they were child ren. I shall never forget their hands, little bird-like claws, so thin, and when they sang they waved those pathetic little hands. . . . After the eating and singing, these children were questioned and registered. Then cam e the medical inspection and I was glad that an American Red Cross doctor was there to help. . . . H e told m e that the little claw-like hands were only an indication of the whole under-nourished condition of those children. But he said: “W e have them in time, a few weeks of proper feeding and no epidemic and they will pull up.“ The contagious cases, like m um ps, skin infections, etc., were isolated and the children were arranged for the night.- Prom forty to sixty per cent of these cast-offs, coming back from Germany, were under twelve years of age. M any of ‘ June Richardson Jucas, The Children of France and The Red Cross, (N ew York, 1918) 33-38. 88 them were dying from tuberculosis; all were unutterably dirty, half clad, and worn to emaciation with sorrow, hunger, and slavery.^ Paris and its immediate suburbs were the scene of great activity on the part of the Children's Bureau, Fourteen sep arate dispensaries were maintained or helped to operate in this particular district. The Bureau also established and conducted in co-pperation with the Infirmières Visiteuses de France a training course for French w om en in the essentials of child welfare work. This course consisted of lectures by prominent French specialists and practical work in dispen saries, which fitted many young French wom en for the pro phylactic social v/ork of a child welfare campaign, although it did not give them such nursing training as would f it them to care for such children. Later, m any of these w om en were sent out into the devastated areas to carry on welfare work.^ However, the activities of the Bureau were not confined to Paris. They extended to all parts of France. In the Department of the “Seine Inférieure" a good deal was done by the Bureau for Belgian refugee children in connection with the American Red Cross Commission for Belgium.. The centers of this were Rouen and La Havre, and in the course of their operations these two organizations developed a service for ^Henry P. Davidson, op. c i t .. 170, 171. ^Fisher Ames, Jr., American Red Cross W ork A m ong The French People, 119. 89 the care of children in the immediate districts, which in Rouen especially, became a very complete child-v/elfare system with a hospital, dispensaries in the city and outlying towns, a complete social service, a beginning of playground activi ties, and school nursing. Every possible use was made of local institutions. The personnel was mainly French, and pains were taken to adapt the work to the French situation and methods, and to secure harmony throughout.^ The worst conditions were not always in the big cities. Sometimes a small town received more than its share of re fugees from the North, or through lack of proper accommoda tions too many were housed under one roof. And as most of them were old, or delicate wom en, or impoverished children, sickness soon broke out am ong them. In a town of two thousand inhabitants, about two hundred and eighty refugees, most of them children, had been placed, and a unit from the Bureau was dispatched to try to better their condition as it was reported that typhoid had broken out am ong them. This town had no sewer system and its water supply was derived from a com m on well, from v/hich water was pumped to a fountain in the center of the tO T /n where everyone came, with pails or pitchers, for water. The clothes of the inhabitants were all washed at a com m on “lavoir". The garbage Ip is h e r Ames J r . , op. c l t . . 1 1 9 -1 2 4 . 9 0 and refuse from the houses was placed in the street and col lected once a week. Needless to say, flies were plentiful. The refugees had been housed in two old hotels and an ancient convent. Having no other means of disposing of their garbage they had thrown it onto the roof of an annex.: Dysentery and pneumonia had taken two of the refugees on the night before the arrival of the Red Gross, and one child was found dying of tubercular meningitis and three were i l l with pneumonia. There were twenty-seven cases of typhoid and dysentery and fifteen cases of skin diseases. The Red Cross took over one of the hotels and gave it such a cleaning and scrubbing as i t had never before experienced, and into this, they moved the sick. The food furnished the refugees v/as coarse and ill- adapted to the needs of patients, but with condensed milk, rice, and vegetables that it was able to secure, the Red Cross managed to make up a reasonably good b ill of fare. It also furnished the necessary medicines. However, bad conditions had existed for so long that the fight was very much an up h ill one. For, each day brought fresh cases of typhoid, dysentery, pneumonia, grippe, and bronchitis. The old con vent, where those v/ho were not actually sick, were housed, was cleaned and whitewashed and the refuse and garbage burned. Both groups, the sick and the well, were carefully tended and 91 by the end o f six weeks the various diseases were finally driven out of the little colony*^ At about the same time, an appeal for aid came from the town of Nesle, situated in the center of the area frcm v/hich the Germans v/ere driven in March, 1917. The British had won it back from the enemy, but i t was s till in the war zone and under constant danger from air-raids when the Red Cross unit arrived there. In the neighboring tov/ns and hamlets were some tv/elve hundred children, all of them dirty, and hungry and many of them i l l . The Red Cross immediately opened a clinic, and in October established a small hospital. The condition and health of the children rapidly began to improve, but there were adverse factors in .the situation that could not be removed. It was bitterly cold and the heating provisions were inadequate. Night after night, during that winter, they were bombarded by the enemy airplanes and the nurses were forced to seek refuge in the damp cellar, often with desperately sick children in their arms There v/as a large personnel of Red Cross child-welfare workers stationed at Lyon. They carried oh two definite act ivities. The first concerned the care of the children of repatries and refugees and involved the establishment of dis pensaries working in concert with local charitable societies, llbld .. 1S5-127. %bld.. 127, 128. 92 a hospital for infants and children, a contagious hospital, a convalescent home, and a country place for summer outings. The second activity which was in the nature of an educational campaign included a very successful baby shov/, the training of a corps of French w om en as visiting nurses, the co-ordin ation of the local charitable efforts, and the granting of subsidies to various worthy institutions.^ The beautiful Chateau des Halles was made into a con valescent hom e for children. This was a modern chateau on a fine old estate. It had belonged to Monsieur Mongini the French Engineer, w ho had built the Rivier Railroad. At his widow's death the Lyon Hospital was given this estate to be used as a convalescent hospital for children. Owing to war conditions the Lyon Hospital could not avail themselves of the Chateau; so they offered it to the Red Cross free, if the Red Cross would leave it fitted up as a hospital after the v/ar. The Chateau was an ideal spot for such a hospital as it stood high on a h ill, surrounded by a fine old forest of cedars, pines, and redwoods. O n the estate v/as a splendid farm, which furnished a plentiful supply of milk, eggs, and vegetables. A s the house itself was modern in arrangement and camvehiences, it adapted itself quite easily to a hos pital of wards, isolation rooms, play rooms, and a laboratory. l l b i d . , 129, 13 0 . 93 It had even a beautiful Gothic chapel for services.^ This proved an ideal spot for listless young invalids#. Their condition before they went into the country was appal ling* But it was a matter of building up their systems, and as youth is wonderfully elastic, given fresh air, nourishing food, and the necessary medical attention, it was not long before the little patients became healthy boys and girls, with a newly developed fondness for out-of-doors life and vigorous sports of all kinds. Their day began at six A. M . with drills and exercises before a breakfast of chocolate, followed at seven-thirty A - M . by bread and butter. The hours for study, play, work and regular exercise were carefully planned. The children were kept at the chateau until they had fully recov ered, when they were evacuated to the ^ * 8 ecours des Repatries" at Lyon, whence they were eventually returned to their parents, if they had any, or to relatives or friends .2 Lyons was a child t ow n ; and the Red Cross, with a broad idea of starting in Prance a general movement for child hygiene, selected it as the scene of its first child welfare exhibits # The timid said i t would not be a success. For it was in April, 1918, the great drive was on and two hundred miles to the north, thousands were falling on the field of battle. W ho could think of expositions? However, the exposi tion was staged, and in the week that i t was in progress more ^June Richardson Lucas, op. c it., 69. ^Fisher Ames, Jr., op. c it., 130, 131. 93 than one hundred thousand crowded into the hall. It was en tirely an American show; hut it had at its opening session, twelve hundred doctors, lawyers, government officials, founders of hospitals of Prance, and the best citizens of Lyons. There was no questioning the fact that the French realized that the salvation of Prance lay in the preservation of her children. This was a veritable field day for the toothbrush, and an American dentist operated while his assistant preached the gospel of dentifrice. There v/as also a great demonstration of the sterilization of milk; and outside, in the square, there was a playground with equipment for basketball, sv/ings, slides, sandboxes for babies, and all such means of outdoor exercise for the making of strong, healthy children. In a glass "greenhouse" in the center of the hall each day. Red Cross nurses v/ashed French babies; the Lyons mothers watched with interest, the whole process dovm to the sanitary and scientific disposition of the last towel.^ The second of these shows took place soon after at Marseilles, the great cosmopolitan seaport of the Mediterranean In no city of Prance were conditions less favorable for child ren or the need for popular education in hygiene greater. The third show to be held on a large scale by the Red Cross was held at St. Etienne, and the fourth was at Toulouse. The iR e n ry P. Davidson, op. c i t . , 173. 94 operation of all of these was practically the sam e# The object of these expositions was not only to help the individuals w ho cam e into personal contact v/ith the Red Cross, but also to stimulate the desire of the general public for organized effort for the welfare of the children The Children*s Bureau also found a great need of food among the school children of Prance# So work was begun in the schools# Every school of Paris had a canteen and the Red Cross supplied them with ham, beef, lentils, beans, macoroni, potatoes, rice, confiture, lard, cheese, sugar, peas, flour, and milk# They also prepared a special Red Cross bun to be served, afternoons, v/hich especially delighted the children*^ Health centers were opened in two munition districts just outside Paris, with welfare workers. Red Cross Doctors, clinics and visiting nurses w ho reached, in a snort time, three hundred families. This was sorely needed, for two hundred munition factories and one hundred and ten buildings had sprung up almost over night. Consequently the congestion was terrible, and disease ran riot#^ In Paris, there was so m uch tuberculosis am ong the child ren that the child welfare was combined with the tuberculosis service and children* s wards were established in a ll the Ipisher Ames, Jr., op. c it., 143-146. 2 'Henry P. D avidson, op. c i t . , 168 June Richardson Lucas, op. c it., 146, 147. 3, 95 tuberculor hospitals. In high healthy districts, the Director had farm schools established, v/here weak children could be built up and, at the same time, be taught to make things grow. The cardinal test of anything v/as what it promised for the future of the children and France. Boys were taught trades-and girls v/ere taught sewing. The Red Cross designed and built in Paris a traveling dispensary--an automobile hospital, v/ith drugs and supplies of all sorts, and with an outside seat on which a nurse could transport a sick child to the hospital. With this the workers v/ent from town to town, about the district on their mission of mercy.1 The Gutlirie Society, an American organization for the relief of French v/ar orphans, had begun to function in Paris, in 1916, and by the fall of 1917, was assisting eighteen thou sand v/ar orphans. A s the President declared that the con centration of administrative action in relief work v/as abso lutely necessary, this society turned over its work, its funds, and its little pensioners to the American Red Cross. This work v/as first placed in the hands of the Children’s Bureau. Later, everything except the medical part was turned P over to the Bureau of W ar Orphans. . 168, 169. ^Fisher Ames, Jr., op. c it., 147. 96 The Aide aux OEuvres was the point of contact between a ll French Children’s Societies, not doing, strictly medical work, and the Red Cross. M ost of the societies had stations in Brittany and Southwestern Prance, seme occupying chateaux which the owners had lent for orphanages, but whenever possible the child and its mother had been kept together. M any citizens had taken the little orphans into their homes, but as the war continued i t became more and more difficult to . place the children in this way. By the time the Red Cross arrived in France, the situation was serious. They immediately rendered lavish assistance.^ O ne of the most interesting of the Bureau’s activities was that connected with the "Stars and Stripes W ar Orphans." From the very beginning of the arrival of the American soldiers in Prance, there had been a genuine friendship be- tv/een the French children and the American doughboy. The children were the first to greet him at the dock and wherever he went they were there to applaud him. Before long, boys who had run away from hom e or had become separated from their parents in the devastated areas began to attach themselves to various American regiments. The soldiers petted these little mascots, shared their food and blankets with them, and the company tailors fitted them out with uniforms. Eventually ^ I b i d . , 147, 148. 97 they originated a plan for sending them to school. A company of United States Engineers was the first unit to decide on this, and raised contributions among the m en to pay for the education of their mascot. In March, 1918, the Stars and Stripes, the official nev/s- paper of the American forces in France, started a campaign for the so-called adoption of war-orphans by Individual soldiers and groups of soldiers. This plan was welcomed so enthusias tically by the m en that before long the originators found the work too heavy for them and so turned i t over to the Red Cross. Five hundred francs was the amount set for the yearly maintenance of each child. The money v/as paid in four quar terly instàllments to the Stars and Stripes, who turned i t over to the Red Cross. The Red Cross had its list of war orphans and selected from it those w ho were most in need of assistance, sending.their names, photographs, and any details that might be of interest to the soldiers vh o vd shed to adopt a child. From this data the soldier made his selection. During the first week of campaign five orphans were adopted. Funds then began to com e in rapidly and by fa ll, the nev/s paper was encouraged to start a "Christmas Drive." This was so successful that by the end of December sufficient money for three thousand five hundred orphans had been received, and also a miscellaneous fund of several thousand francs to be used in behalf of the children for any purpose that might be considered advisable. The children were extremely proud of being adopted by American soldiers, and did their best to shov/ they affection and gratitude, by sending them little gifts, such as socks knitted by their ow n hands, chestnuts they had gathered, along with photographs and many letters A n idea of the extent of the Children’s Relief work in France is given by the following table for the twenty months ending February 28, 1919: Hospitals and convalescent homes operated • • . • . 25 Patients treated in hospitals and convalescent homes 16,346 Dispensaries and clinics operated . • ............................ 99 Patients treated in dispensaries and clinics • • • . 189,111 School children served in canteens . . . . . . . .32,000 Children taught to plày 27,000 Child-v/elf are expositions held .................................. 7 Attendance at expositions .• • • .. ....................... . . 625,000 P Children’s institutions or societies aided . . . . . 519 ^Fisher Ames, Jr., op. c it., 147-151. ^The American National Red Cross, The W ork of The American Red Cross During The War. 63. 99 C H A P T E R V I C O N C L U S IO N In the preceding chapters I have attempted to show : 1. H ow the "Spirit of The Red Cross" began to develop very early in History, and how, eventually, the Red Cross was brought into existence, in Europe, through the efforts of Florence Nightingale and Henri Dunant, and in the United States, largely through the efforts of Clara Barton. 2. That The American Red Cross immediately after the outbreak of the European W ar in 1914, began to mobilize its forces so that it might be prepared for any emergency. 3. That after the entry of the United States into the World Y tfa r the Red Cross was entirely reorganized in order to take care of every type of work, such as: hospital service, canteen service, motor corps service, and-home service. 4. That through its chapters, the work of The American Red Cross extended to every corner of the earth. That the chapters turned out stupendous quantities of knitted articles, surgical dressings, splints, and m any other tilings needed by the soldiers. 5. That hundreds of millions of dollars were donated to alleviate suffering. 6. That the canteen service and hom e service rendered to the soldier were indispensable in keeping up his morale. 100 7. That the Red Cross in connection with the Military Hospitals rendered every possible aid and comfort to the wounded s oldiers. 8. That the work among the civilian population of France, especially that of saving the children, was of the utmost importance in insuring the future stability of France The following statement for the W ar Council, which ap peared in the Red Cross Bulletin, published in Paris, March 1, 1919, gives such an excellent summary of the Red Cross W ar Record, that I am including i t, in its entirety: Mr. H. P. Davids on. Chairman of the W ar Council of the American Red Cross, today issues on behalf of the Council the following statement for pub lication throughout the United States • To the American People; The W ar Council of the American Red Cross, appointed by President Wilson on M ay 10, 1917, to carry on the work of the American Red Cross during the war, ceases, at their request and by vote of the Central Committee, to exist to day. Immediately the armistice was signed, the W ar Council instituted studies to determine when the strictly war work of the organization would have been sufficiently matured to enable the direction of affairs to be resumed by the permanent staff. Mr. Davidson, being in Paris when the armistice was signed, summoned a con ference there of the heads of all the commis sions in Europe to canvass the situation. After considering all factors, i t was concluded to make the transition on March 1. The very for tunate choice of Dr. Livingston Farrand as the new chairman of the central committee, and there by the permanent chief executive of the Red Cross, makes possible the execution of this plan under the most favorable conditions. 101 Detailed reports to Congress and a complete audit of its accounts by the W ar Department will constitute the final record of Red Cross activity during the war. Although it has been the rule to m ake public all expenditures when authorized, and to give detailed information relative to a ll work undertaken, the W ar Council in turning over its responsibilities to Dr. Farrand and his associates, desires to give a brief resume of Red Cross W ar time activities to the American people, to w hom the Red Cross belongs and whose generous contri butions have made possible a ll that has been ac complished. During the past nearly twenty-one months the American people have subscribed to Red Cross funds substantially three hundred million dollars in cash, while contributions in supplies have amount ed to fully fifty million dollars additional. N o value can be placed upon the contributions of ser vice which have been given without stint, and of- times at great sacrifice by millions of our ow n people. The effort of the American Red Cross in this war has constituted by far the largest voluntary gift of money, of hand and heart, ever contri buted purely for the relief of human suffering. Through the Red Cross the heart and spirit of the whole American people have been mobilized to take care of our ow n, to relieve the misery incident to war, and also to reveal to the world the sup reme ideals of our national life . Everyone w ho has had any part in this W ar effort of the Red Cross is entitled to congrat ulate himself; no thanks from any source could be equal to the self-satisfaction everyone should feel for the part taken. It would be-invidious to single out for mention the effort of any single group of persons, but i t must be said that in this outpouring of service the w om en of America have played a signal part, wonderful in both mag nitude and spirit. Fully eight million American w om en have exerted themselves in Red Cross Service. Into their work, they have put an amount of love and devotion that cannot be measured. In spealcing of this effort of our w om en through the Red Cross, 102 General Pershing recently said to M r. Davidson; "The w om en of America deserve a large share of the credit for the success of the American for ces." . . . The chief effort of the Red Gross during the war has been to care for our m en in service and to aid our army and navy wherever the Red Cross might be called upon to assist. A s to this phase of the work Surgeon General Ireland of the United States A rm y recently said, "The Red Cross has been an enterprise as vast as the war itself. From the beginning it has done those things which the A rm y Medical Corps wanted done, but could not do itse lf. Without the help of the American Red Cross, the A rm y Medical Corps could not have, done its work." Red Cross endeavor has naturally been upon an exceptionally large scale in France, where ser vice has been rendered to the American A rm y and to the French A rm y and French people as well, to the latter particularly during the trying period when the allied world was waiting for the American A rm y to arrive in force and power. Hospital emergency service for our A rm y in France has greatly diminished, but the Red Cross is s till being called upon for service upon a large scale in the great base hospitals where thousands of American sick and wounded are s till receiving attention. • • • American Red Cross work in France was in itia t ed by a commission of eighteen men, w ho landed on French shores June 13, 1917. Since then som e nine thousand persons have been upon the rolls in France, of w hom seven thousand were actively en gaged when the armistice was signed. . . . V/herever, during the War, our A rm y has gone, the Red Cross has followed. A n active Commission was established in England primarily to render aid to our o v /n soldiers passing through. Red Cross workers were likewise sent to Archangel, in Russia, and again to Eastern Siberia, when our armies went to those districts. These workers assisted not'alone our ow n Army, but local civ ilian populations as well. • . . 103 The work in Italy has been almost entirely on behalf of the civilian population of that country. In the critical hours of Italy ’s struggle, the American people, through their Red Cross, sent a practical message of sympathy and relief, for which the Government and the people of Italy have never ceased to express their gratitude. A m ong the Belgians, wandering homeless through out France, the Red. Cross m ade a special effort to care for the w om en and children. . . . Occasion for such concentration of effort in Italy, England, and Belgium, and even in France, having been naturally and normally diminished, it has been possible to divert supplies and person nel in large measure to the aid of those people in the Near East w ho have hitherto been inaccessible to outside assistance, but whose sufferings have been upon an appalling scale. . . • Red Cross effort is thus far flung. I t will continue to be so. But the movement represented by this work has likewise assumed an intimate place in the daily life of our people at home. The army of workers v/hich has been recruited and trained during the war must not be demobilized* All our experience in the war shows clearly that there is an unlimited field for service of the kind which can be performed v/ith peculiar effect iveness by the Red Cross. IV hat its future tasks m ay be, it is as yet, impossible to forecast. W e knov/ that so long as there is an American Arm y in the field, the American Red Cross will have a special function to perform. Nothing could be of greater importance to the American Red Cross than the plans just set in motion by the five great Red Cross Societies of the world to develop a program of extended act ivities in the interests of humanity. The con ception involves not alone efforts to relieve human suffering but to prevent it--not alone a movement of an individual nation, but an attempt to arouse all peoples to a sense of their respon sibility for the w e If are of their fellov/ beings throughout the world. It is a program both ideal 1 0 4 and practical. Ideal, in that its supreme aim is nothing less than veritable peace on earth, good will to men, and practical in that it seeks to take means and measures which are actually available and make them effective in meeting without delay the crisis which are daily recur rent in the lives of all peoples ^Davidson, Henry P., "Red Cross W ar Record Told to The American People," Red Cross Bulletin. (Paris, March 1, 1919) 1-7. 105 BIBLI O G R A P tiY S O U R C E S B 0G K 8; Ames, Fisher, Jr., The American Red Cross A m ong The French People. The Macmillan Co., N ew York, 1921. Barton, Clara, The Red Cross. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1898. Boardman, Mabel T., Under The Red Cross Flag at H om e and Abroad. J. B. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia, 1915. Davidson, Henry P., The American Red Cross and The Great War. The Macmillan Co., N ew York, 1919. Dock, Lavina L., e^ . _al.. History of Red Cross Nursing. The Macmillan Co., N ew York, 1922. Epler, Percy H., The Life of Clara Barton. The M ac millan Co., N ew York, 1917. Hungerford, Edward, With The Doughboy in France. The Macmillan Co., N ew York, 1920. Lucas, June Richardson, The Children of France and The Red Cross, Frederick A. Stokes Co., N ev / York, 1918. Pickett, Sarah Elizabeth, The American National Red Cross, Its Origin, Purpose, and Services. The Century Co., N ew York, 1923. The American National Red Cross, The W ork of The American Red Cross During The War. A Statement of Finances and Accomplishments. The American National Red Cross, Washington, D. C., 1919. A M E R IC A N R E D G R O S S P A M P uL E T S A N D B U LLETIN S: H om e Service, A Discussion The Organization. Principles, and Procedure Involved in Family Social Case Work. The American National Red Cross, Washington, D. C., August, 1930. A îÆ E R IC A N R E D C R O S S P A M P H L E T S A N D B U LLETIN S: H om e Hygiene and Gare of The Sick. American National Red Cross, Washington, D. C., April 1, 1924. Manual of Organized Volunteer Service. American National Red Cross, Washington, D. C., September, 1923. Manual of H om e Service. American Red Cross, Washington, D . C., December, 1917. Lee, Porter R. & de Schv/initz, Karl, American Red Cross, Department of Civilian Relief. H om e Service, The American National R ed. Cross, Washington, D. C., July, 1917. The W ork of The American Red Cross, Report by the W ar Council of Activities from The Outbreak of The W ar to November 1. 1917. The American National Red Cross. Washington, D. C.^ January 5, 1918. Davidson, Henry P., Red Cross W ar Record Told to The American People, Final Statement for W ar Council, Paris, March, 1919. Red Cross at Work, American National Red Cross, W ash ington,"^ CT, (n. d.) Volunteer Special Services. General Manual. The American National Red Cross, Washington, D. C., 1930. The American Junior Red Cross in The Schools, The American National Red Cross, Washington, D. C., April 1, 1924. P E R S O N A L IIW ER V IEW S: Edwards, (Miss) Eva D., Chairman of Junior Red Cross in Southern California, February 18, 1932. Jacks on, (Miss) Marjorie, Organizer of large city chap ters during the War, February 20, 1932. Karicofe, (Ivirs . ) F.. C ., Red Cross Nurse in France during the War, February 23, 1932. 1 0 7 S E C O N D A R Y mTERIAL. B O O K S : Blackwell, Charles M., The Story of The American Red Cross in Italy . The Macmillan Co., N ew York, 1920. M A G A Z IN E A R TIC LES: American National Red Cross, "W ar W ork of The American Red Cross, Summary of Years Activities.," Current History, Vol. VIII, 258-262, M ay, 1918. Anonymous, "W ar W ork of The American Red Cross," Current History., Vol. VI, 24-26, October, 1917. Anonymous, "W ar W ork of The American Red Cross," Current History, Vol. VIII, 262, M ay, 1918. Anonymous, "Best Red Cross Chapter in The United States," Ladies H om e Journal, Vol. X X X IV , 39, October, ToTT. Anonymous, "American Red Cross and Its Plans," Survey, Vol. XXXVII, 416, January 6, 1917. D i v i n e , E, T., "Nation’s Mandate to The Red Cross," Survey, Vol. 38, 314, 315, July 7, 1917. Lakeman, C. E., "Roll of The American Red Cross in The National Program for Rehabilitation of W ounded Americans," The Annals of The American Academy of Political Science. Vol. L X X X , 1-159, November, 1918. Lane, W . D., "Red Cross at Work," Review of Reviews, Vol. 51, 315-317, March, 1915. Persons, Frank W., * ^ T h e Soldiers and Sailors Fam ilies," Annals of The American Academy of Political Science, Vol. LXXVII, 171-184, M ay, 1918. Scheitlin, M . J., "W hat Our Red Cross Is Doing in France," Review of Reviews, Vol. 56, 616^620, December, 1917. Smith, Laura G., "Red Cross Shop in Los Angeles, California," Outlook, Vol. 120, 227, October 9, 1918. 108 M A G A Z IN E A R TIC LES: The American National Red Cross, Annual Reports, Washington, D. C., 1917, 1918, 1919, 1920. N E W S P A P E R S : N ew York; The N ew York Times, January 1, 1917-- December 31, 1918. 109 A PPE N D IX A The International Red Gross Treaty Convention of Geneva For the Amelioration of the Condition of the W ounded in Armies at the Fields, August 22, 1864. The sovereigns of the following countries, to wit: Baden, Belgium, Denmark, Holland, Spain, Portugal, France, Prussia, Saxony, Wurtemberg, and the Federal Council of Switzerland, animated by a com m on desire of mitigating, as far as in their power, the evils inseparable from war, of suppressing needless severeties and ameliorating the con dition of soldiers wounded on fields of battle, having con cluded to determine a treaty for this purpose, these plen ipotentiaries, after the due interchange of their powers, found to be in good and proper form, have agreed upon the following articles, to wit: Article 1. Ambulances (field hospitals) and military hospitals shall be acknowledged to be neutral, and as such shall be protected and respected by belligerents, so long as any sick or wounded may be therein. Such neutrality shall cease, if the ambulances or hospitals should be held by a military force. Article 2. Persons employed in hospitals and ambulances. 1 1 0 comprising the staff for superintendance, medical service, administration, transport of wounded, as well as chaplains, shall participate in the benefit of neutrality whilst so employed, and so long as there remain any to bring in or to succor. Article 3. The persons designated in the preceding article may, even after occupation by the enemy, continue to fu lfill their duties in the hospital or ambulance which they may have, or m ay withdraw in order to regain the corps to which they belong. Under such circumstances, when the persons shall cease from their functions, they shall be delivered by the occupying army to the outposts of the enemy. They shall have specially the right of sending a represen tative to the headquarters of their respective armies. Article 4, A s the equipment of military hospitals remains subject to the laws of war, persons attached to such hospitals cannot, on withdrawing, carry away any articles but such as are their private property. Under the sam e cir cumstances an ambulance shall, on the contrary, retain its equipment. Article 5. Inhabitants of the country w ho m ay bring help to the wounded shall be respected and shall remain free. The generals of the belligerent powers shall be respected and shall remain free. The generals of the belligerent powers I l l shall make it their care to inform the inhabitants of the appeal addressed to their humanity, and of the neutrality which will be of consequence of i t . Any wounded m an enter tained and taken care of in a house shall be considered as a protection thereto. A ny inhabitant w ho shall have enter tained wounded m en in his house shall be exempted from the quartering of troops, as well as from a part of the contri butions of war which m ay be imposed. Article 6. W ounded or sick soldiers shall be enter tained and taken care of, to whatever nation they m ay be long. Commanders in-chief shall have the power to deliver immediately to the outposts of the enemy, soldiers w ho have been wounded in an engagement, when circumstances permit this to be done, and with the consent of both parties. Tiiose who are recognized after they are healed as incapable of serving, shall be sent back to their country. The others may also be sent back on condition of not again bearing arms during the continuance of the war. Evacuations, together with the persons under whose directions they take place, shall be protected by an absolute neutrality. Article 7. A distinctive and uniform flag shall be adopted for hospitals, ambulances, and evacuations. It must on every occasion be accompanied by the national flag. A n arm badge (bassard) shall also be allowed for individuals 1 1 2 neutralized, but the delivery thereof shall be left to military authority. The flag and arm badge shall bear a red cross on a v/hite ground. Article 8. The details of execution of the present convention shall be regulated by the commanders in-chief of belligerent armies, according to the instructions of their respective governments, and in conformity with the general principles laid dov/n in the convention. Article 9. The high contracting powers have agreed to communicate the present convention to those governments which have not found i t convenient to send plenipotentiaries to the International Convention at Geneva, with an invi tation to accede thereto; the protocal is for that purpose, left open. Article 10. The present convention shall be ratified and the ratification shall be exchanged at Berne, in four months, or sooner if possible. In witness thereof the respective plenipotentiaries have signed the same, and have affixed thereto the seal of their arms. Done at Geneva, the twenty-third day of August, 1864 ^Clara Barton, The American Red Cross, 57, 58. 113 A PPE N D IX B B y the President of the United States of America: A P R O C L A M A T IO N . Whereas, on the twenty-second day of August, 1864, a convention v/as concluded at Geneva, in Switzerland, between the Grand Duchy of Baden and the Swiss Confederation, the Kingdom of Belgium, the Ed.ngdom of Denmark, the Kingdom of Spain, the French Empire, the Grand Duchy of Hesse, the Kingdom of Italy, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the King dom of Portugal, the Kingdom of Prussia, and the Kingdom of Wurtemberg, for the amelioration of the wounded in armies in the field, the tenor of which convention is hereinafter subjoined: A nd whereas, the several contracting parties to the said convention exchanged the ratification thereof at Geneva on the tv/enty-second day of June, 1865; A nd whereas, the several .states hereinafter named have adhered to the said convention in virtue of Article IX. thereof, to wit: Sweden, December, 13, 1864; Greece, January 5-17, 1865; Great Britain, February 18, 1865; Mecklenburg-Schwerin, March 9, 1865; Turkey, July 5, 1865; Wurtemberg, June 22, 1866; 114 Hesse, June 2, 1866; Bavaria, June 30, 1866, Austria, July 21, 1866; Persia, December 5, 1874; Salvador, December 30, 1874; Montenegro, November 15, 1879; Argentine Republic, November 25, 1879; Peru, April 22, 1880. A nd whereas, the Swiss Confederation in virtue of the said Article IX. of said convention, has invited the United States of America to accede thereto; A nd whereas, on the twentieth of October, 1868, the following Additional articles were proposed and signed at Geneva, on behalf of Great Britain, Austria, Baden, Bavaria, Belgium, Denmark, Prance, Italy, Netherlands, North Germany, Sweden and Norway, Switzerland, Turkey and Wurtemberg, the tenor of which Additional Articles is hereinafter subjoined (see page 74); And whereas, the President of the United States of America, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, did, on the first day of March, one thousand eight hundred and eighty- two, declare that the United States accede to the said convention of the tv/enty-second of August, 1864, and also accede to the said convention of October 20, 1868; A nd whereas, on the ninth day of June, one thousand eight hundred and eighty-two, the Federal Council of the Swiss Confederation, in virtue of the final provision of a certain minute of the exchange of the ratifications of the said con- 1 1 5 vention at Berne, December 22, 1864, did, by a formal declar ation, accept the said adhesion of the United States of America, as v/ell in the nam e of the Swiss Confederation as in that of the other contraction states ; And whereas, furthermore, the Government of the Swiss Confederation has informed the Government of the United States that the exchange of the ratifications of the aforesaid Ad ditional Articles of the twentieth of October, 1868, to which the United States of America have, in like manner, adhered as aforesaid, has not yet taken place between the contracting parties, and that these articles cannot be regarded as a treaty in full force and effect; H ow , therefore, be it known that I, Chester A. Arthur, President of the United States of America, have caused the said Convention Treaty of August 22, 1864, to be made public, to the end that the same and every article and clause thereof m ay be observed and fulfilled with good faith by the United States and the citizens thereof; reserving, however, the pro mulgation of the hereinbefore mentioned Additional Articles of October 20, 1868, notv/ithstanding the accession of the United States of America thereto, until the exchange of the ratifications thereof between the several contracting states shall have been effected, and the said Additional Articles shall have acquired full force and effect as an international 116 treaty. In witness whereof I have hereunto set m y hand, and caused the seal of the United States to be affixed. Done at the city of Washington, this twenty-sixth day of July, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and eighty-tv/o, and of the Independence of the United States the one hundred and seventh. (L.S.) C H E S T E R A . A R T H U R . B y the President. FR ED ’K T. PH E L IN G H U Y SE N , Secretary of State. United States of America, Department of State, to a ll to v/hom these presents shall come, greeting: I certify that the foregoing is a true copy of the original on file in the Department of State. In testimony whereof I, John Davis, Acting Secretary of State of the United States, have hereunto subscribed m y name and caused the seal of the Department of State to be affixed. Done at the city of Washington, this ninth day of August, A. D. 1882, and of the Independence of the United States of America the one hundred and seventh. (L.S.) JO H H D A V IS. ^ ^ C la ra B a rto n , op. c i t . , 8 5, 8 6 . A P P E M D IX C 117 ^ FA/tLfi AL B O A /f Z ? 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Report^ I^IS j Ad)Tisor^ Committee \Wir Relief Board 1 JVdtionai Reiief Board \lnternational Relief Board \ji'at. Com Medical Service 0 ", \ji'at Co.n.Mzrsing Sc.’iTce \Commidee on Cooperation G E K E R A L B O A R D Central Com m ittee E x e c u tiv e C om m ittee a n d War C ouncil l a O m i n t m o ! l i u r C c u p c i l Tied Cross Magazine I JlToVing Tieiures J V c w s General Publicitÿ Information Speakers A d v e r tis in g Jted Cross Ytar Fund CoUecMoti Central Trust Company M r r Y o r A ^ I Correspondence D it^ I Division ofAccounts~\- I Chief Clerk. ~ ]~ Chief Clerk. 3urecm it’OAiiion Organization Organization Problems in Connection nith Oitisional Organization • Division O iUce Inspection and Ifeports Medical Adtisory Committee of Fed Cross War Council Ads in G enera] Advisory C apacity to It/ar Council on all matters relating to Sanitation and med ical relief dominates medicat personnel forlhreign Commissions and special medical serdct al home and âbroad Advises Bureau purchases concerning medical reguisn — \Fmnce I Belgium -Major G MPMurphy | - \lta ly ■ Foreign Commissions ■ Mr (jeo.F.Bakfr,jr\ — \Fÿumania— Mr Ferny Anderson | —I Fussia -Dr. TrankJBillings \ — \serbia Mr C ASeverance\ — j Great Britain | Department of Foreign I^ilief T o be representative of alt Foreign Missions at Headguarlers ■ T o consider ibr andmakp recommendabons to the Hàr Council on all matters cf foreign Helief • In the execubon of its bOri, to ubiize the exuting Departments and Bureaus of the l(ed C ross at headguariers whenever possible_______________ Bureau of Medical Service IbreignMissions S election of medical personnel for all Foreign Commissions • Feguisitions for all medical supplies and U nits from fceign Commissions .■feting Chairman General Manager Office ofFecctrds and International Interests I Secretarj/ Corporate Fgcards-Wnuiet ofCentrd C om rrnttee -ixec- Btnê Committee -Fêr C ourt dl Appnopn'ahorB Cletij. Division ofUfcordo Division o f Fid Cross Insignia. Division of Cables Business Manag, Division of Personnel • TtiVimnfiC Mails S Files ■ Division o f Buildings and Grounds ■ Department of Civilian Felier' Bureau oflaiV and International Relations Division o f Disaster and Jielief Bureau o f Communication Servi ce and R elief to Communities VJsited big Disaster B ureau A Prisoners R ^ ie f Bureau of Tomfi and Country JlRirsing Service Division o f Anerican Prisoners Division A A llies Prisonen Enrollment ofRid Cross Public Health Mirses - Supervision of Rgd C ross PublicHealth Sendee in Rural Communitiee Chief Clerk,. D epartment Ttfail, Files 6c . Division o f Home Service Service to Families M Soldiers and Sailors- After Care and Fmploy- ment c f Crippled men. Division ofllgd Cross Christmas Seals I Bureau o f Deiélopmeiit | | Bureau o f Adrsing Financial Campaigns ■ Chapter Fromotions ■ MimberdiipFxtcii sions • Junior Memberships Bureau of Membership Promotions of Special Activities Promohon (fimtrucbon Clan- la g TétunteerUnits and Special Matters to be assigned Bureau cf Chapter troducbon Regulation of Output, Cooperates ivjth Bureau of Ttransportation and Supplies_____________ Bureau o f Publications Bditondi ItëA in coiirtecUon WUh Ttgd Cross Publications ■ Printing of Red Cron 'Pamphlets Chief ClerK. Bureau of Tiursing Service Organization of Mirsinq Units Bureau of Class Instruction Appointment of Instruct ors and Examiners for Qasses in Elementary hy giene and home Delebcs and Supervision o f Glosses in Instruction Dhlsion of Enrollment Enrollment o f Rfd Cross jiurses Chief Clerks Bureau of Standards Division o f 0thce Practices bSpeciRcations Standards i f OfDct Practice fbrheadgaarters Divisions and Chapters ■ Ffilew'oF Pam/Silets and Bulletins ■ Standards forMvr AcbVibes (Jc. Chief ClerK- V IS 1 0 B f Assistant to Acting Chairman Woman's Bureau Bureau o f Surgical Dressings Division of hospital Supplies f- Garments Division c f General Sup/dies and Comfort Dags Etc Chief Clerk, Chief Clerks Clerical and Stenographic Facilities ■ Rpcephon and Arrangement cf Reports • Odice Supplies. M ails, and Files. Bureau of Purchases Purchase o f General Supplies Foreign Domestic Réquisitions Requisitions Administratin _________ Supplies Purchase and Sale First Aid Supplies Bureau of Supplies | iBureauARaiat RiFoirs\-\Dcparlnieiil i/Miliiary OlFce of dv Treasurer Port Warehouses Division o f Transportation Qiapler Material and Supplies headguarlers Storeroom Division of Transportation - | Chief aerk^ - | Chief Clerks Asst .Director General Military Rshef_____ Bureau of Base hospi tals and hospital L'mts Bureau of ■ Medical Senlce Formation oCAmbuluuce Ihits First Aid Instruc tions ■ Sanitary Training Detachments Chief Clerks Asst Director General M l it a r y R y l i e f Bureau ofCampSenice (Cantonments) Red Cross Smrcs at Arm-g and Mnij Stations Bureau of Canteen Service Canteen R^resh merit a Troops en route Bureau if Samhug Service Sanitary Service around Army Cantonments. Guard Camps. Matùl Boses C tc Cooperate with Federal and Stale Authorities Chief Clerk, Cashieri Division -^Disbursiment Diniion] -^Auditing Division | -{Accounbrq Diidsio.n] Aiscellaiieaus DiAsion MAMA GERS I A t la n t ic I I Tfew Englond \ | V c n n sg lfu n ia | I P o to m a c | | S o u th ern \ I G u lf | I Southwestern | | l a k e \ | C entral | | Jvorlliern | V M im ntain ] I Pucit'ic | | ycnlincsieni [ CHART II The A m erican R ed Cross N ation al H eadquarters Cirs-anizution Subseijuent to J u ly, IQ17 Afjfius/ ttpoH 1^18 119 Red Gros 5 X m n a R o l l Cal[ D e c . 16 "'2-3 yd. % / THE 0RCATC5T MOTHER " IN TMC WORLD >> Red C ro ss Roll Caff Dec. I6~25rd. r A PPE N D IX E ' Junior Red Cross M em bers and Percentage of Membership to School Population, By ,States February 28, 1919. State Junior M embers Per Cent of School Population M ai ne 32,025 19.25 Massa chus etts 507,266 69.86 Rhode Island 44,948 40.30 Vermont 14,204 19.35 N ew Hampshire 13,718 15.38 Connecticut 154,121 53.71 N ew Jersey 396,497 67.22 N ew York 1,339,951 70.38 Deleware 66,050 100. Pennsylvania 1,451,059 86.12 District of Columbia 51,601 79.90 Maryland 140,076 51.29 Virginia 138,208 27.43 West Virginia 77,740 24^39 Florida 25,252 12.20 G -e orgia 164,484 24.27 121 fetate Junior M em bers Per Gent of School Population North Carolina 41,667 6.17 South Carolina 41,154 9.66 Tennessee 74,433 11.68 Indiana 244,621 40.48 Kentucky ^ 163,080 28.59 Ohio 387,622 37.81 Illinois 765,473 68.95 Iowa 355,584 62.64 M i chi gan 552,307 79.60 Nebraska 230,645 75.68 Wisconsin 373,310 70.68 Alabama 15,465 2.90 Louisiana 48,502 13.53 Mississippi 10,734 2.15 Montana 81,627 74.36 Minnesota 370,628 71.33 North Dakota 98,417 63.43 South Dakota 85,119 61.39 Arkansas 83.552 18.40 Kansas 342,900 81.85 Missouri 510,836 64.92 Oklahoma 266,606 50.26 /State / Junior M em bers Per Cent of School Population Texas 464,799 44.57 Colorado 117,397 61.31 N ew Mexico 22,729 27.49 Utah 41,595 36.05 W yom ing 17,150 50.10 Alaska 1,800 56.90 • Idaho 47,049 47.87 Oregon 84,438 56.23 Washington 144,540 56.54 Arizona 73,900 100. California 637,755 100. Nevada 14,771 100. T O T A L 11,418,385 51.49^ ^The American National Red Cross, The W ork of The American R ed Cross During The War, 14, 15, 123 APPEimiX F A M E R IC A N N A T IO N A L R E D C R O S S R E V E N U E S Twenty Months Ending February 28, 1919 N A T IO N A L H E A D Q U A R T E R S-- First W ar Drive Collections . • • $ 92,947,000*00 Second W ar Drive Collections. • • 136,852,000*00 Membership Dues • .................................. . 18,930,000*00 Donations of Surplus Funds from , Chapters .................................. . . . 1,420,000.00 Interest .............................................................. 3,157,000.00 Other Revenues ... ................................ 6,697,000.00 Total Revenues--National Headquarters . $260,003,000.00 Add--Fund Balance, June 30, 1917. 3,135,000.00 $263,138,000 C H A P T E R S -- Chapters' Proportion of W ar Drives $ 53,800,000.00 Chapters* Proportion of M em ber ship Dues 18,440,000.00 Chapters* Proportion of Glass F e e s ................................................................... 390,000.00 Sales of Materials to M em bers for Relief Articles ............... 20,290,000.00 Contributions, Legacies, Gifts • . $9,580,000.00 All Other Revenue ........................................ 31,540,000.00 Total Revenues--Chapters. . . $133,840,000.00 Add— Balance, June 30, 1917 . . . 3,200,000.00 $137.040.00 Total Revenues--National Head quarters and Chapters ....................... $400,178.000.00^ A M E R IC A N N A T IO N A L R E D C R O S S E X PE N D IT U R E S Twenty Months Ending February 28, 1919 N A T IO N A L H E A D Q U A R T E R S -- W ar Relief in France . . . . . . . $57,207,000.00 W ar Relief Elsev/here Overseas . . 63,841,000.00 W ar Relief in United States . . . 28,978,000.00 Disaster Relief ............................. . . . 939,000.00 Collections, Enrollments and pub lications . . . . . . . . . 4,660,000.00 Operation of Relief Bureaus . . . 2,727,000.00 Operation of Bureaus for Handling Relief Supplies, also. Transpor tation in United States of Relief Supplies . ...... 5,530,000.00 Operation of Administrative Bureaus at National and Divisional Headquarters . . . . . . . . 4,360,000.00 ^Henry P. Davidson, The American Red Cross in The Great War, 292. .126 Other Activities ........................................ $854,000.00 Total National Headquarters . . . ....................... $169,096,000. C H A P T E R S Materials Purchased for Relief A rtic le s.............................................. . . $60,660,000.00 Canteen Service............................ • • • 2,320,000.00 Equipment of Military Hospitals, Ambulances, etc. . ...... 3,070,000.00 H om e Service ............................. . 8,790,000.00 Miscellaneous W ar Relief . . . 480,000.00 Spanish Influenza Epidemic Re lief W ork . . . 1,680,000.00 Disaster Relief. 520,000.00 Public Health Nursing .... 380,000.00 Transportation of Materials and Supplies .................................. . 290,000.00 General Operating Expenses . . 7,490,000.00 All Other Expenditures .... 17,900,000.00 Total Chapters. .........................................................................$105,580,000. Total Expenditures—National Headquarters and Divisions .... .......................$272,676,000.^ A M E R IC A N N A T IO N A L R E D C R 088 R E S O U R C E S February 28, 1919 N A T IO N A L H E A D Q U A R T E R S — T Ibid., 293. 1 2 6 Supplies-- In United States .................................. $27,698,000 Overseas . . . . . . . . 20,980,000 Total .........................................................$48,678,000 Cash Advances--(T o Provide W ork ing C ap ital)............................ Overseas Commissions ..... $ 9,509,000 Divisions in United States . . 2,994,000 Miscellaneous. . . . . . . . . 331,000 T o ta l..............................................................$12,834,000 Current Assets-- Cash in Banks...................................................$19,063,000 Cash and Securities in Hands of W ar Finance Committee. . . . 31,703,000 Securities O w ned . . . ... . 1,206,000 Bills Receivable . ....................... 3,000 Miscellaneous Accounts Receiv able ................................. .... 631,000 T o ta l........................................................ $52,606,000 Des8--Accounts Payable. . . . 3,362,000 $49.244,000 Total Resources National Headquarters (Excluding En dowment Fund.). . . . . . . . . . . . . $110,756,000 1 2 7 Less--Amount Obligated by Appro priations but not Expended on February 28, 1 9 1 9 ............................ $ 16,714,000 Net Resources National Headquarters (Excluding Endowment Fund) . . . # . $ 94,042,000 C H A PT E R S— Balance February 28, 1919......................................................... 33,460,000 Total Resources (Excluding End omen t Fund) $127.502,000 Endowment Fund Balance July 1, 1917 . ...........................$ 1,361,000 Add— Revenues 20 Months to Feb ruary 28, 1919 1,072,000 T o ta l $ 2,433,000 Less—Income Payments to Nat ional Organization, A. R. 0. 106,000 Balance--February 28, 1919. « $ 2,327,000^ The follo'wing statistics m ay also be of interest. They represent the great volume of production and work v/hi ch the American Red Cross undertook both at hom e and 'abroad:-- Red Cross members: adult, 20,000,000; children 11,000,000 31,000,000 Red Cross workers .......................................................................................... .... 8,100,000 ^ I b i d . . 294, 2 9 5, 1 8 8 Relief articles produced by volunteer workers . . 371,577,000^ Families of soldiers and sailors aided by H om e Service in the United States ...... ... 500,000 Refreshments served by canteen workers in U.S. • 40,000,000 Hurses enrolled for service with A rm y or W avy or Red Cross ............................................................................................... 23,822 Kinds of comfort articles distributed to soldiers and sailors in U.S. 2,700 Knitted articles given to soldiers and sailors in United States ......................................................................................... 10,900,000 Tons of relief supplies shipped overseas. . • • • 101,000 Foreign countries in which the Red Cross operated 25 Patient days in Red Cross hospitals in France • . 1,155,000 French hospitals given material aid . . . • • • 3,780 Splints supplied for American soldiers ..... 294,000 Gallons of nitrous oxide and oxygen furnished hos pitals in France........................................................................ 4,340,000 M en served by Red Cross canteens in France .... 15,376,000 ^Representing Surgical dressings ............................................. 306,967,000 Hospital garments .................................. . . 17,462,000 Hospital supplies ............................................. 14,211,000 Refugee garments ............................................. 6,329,000 Articles for soldiers and sailors • 23,329,000 Unclassified . ................................. 3,279.000 TOTAL................................................................... 371,577,000 129 Refugees aided in France 1,726,000 American convalescent soldiers attending Red Cross movies in Prance ............................................. • 3,110,000 Soldiers carried by Red Cross ambulances in I t a l y ............................................................................................... 148,000 Children cared for by Red Cross in Italy . • 155,000^ ^Henry P. Davidson, The American Red Cross in The Great W ar, 295, 296.

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Asset Metadata

Creator O'Donnell, G. K. (author)

Core Title The American Red Cross and its activities during the world war

Degree Master of Arts

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Health and Environmental Sciences,OAI-PMH Harvest,Social Sciences

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c37-424052

Unique identifier UC11657713

Identifier EP59180.pdf (filename),usctheses-c37-424052 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier EP59180.pdf

Dmrecord 424052

Document Type Thesis

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights O'Donnell, G. K.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA