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A study of professionalism as it relates to the field of counselor education and gerontology

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A study of professionalism as it relates to the field of counselor education and gerontology

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Content A STUDY OF PROFESSIONALISM AS IT RELATES TO THE FIELD OF COUNSELOR EDUCATION AND GERONTOLOGY by Beverly Little Cheryl McCamish Debra Secord A Thesis Presented to the FACULTY OF THE LEONARD DAVIS SCHOOL OF GERONTOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree : MASTERŒ SCIENCE IN GERONTOLOGY June 19 77 ___i UMI Number: EP58843 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. DissMtation PuDiismng UMI EP58843 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 4 8 1 0 6 -1 3 4 6 UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES. CALIFORNIA 90007 » T7 L_ 77& This thesis, written by Beverly Little, Cheryl McCamish, . an d. . I). el).m ..S .e. Gûr .(i .................... under the direction of h Thesis Committee, and approved by all its members, has been pre sented to and accepted by the Dean of The Leonard Davis School of Gerontology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Master of Science Dean Date M . a y . . . 26. 4 . ..±S7. % . THESIS COMMITTEE Chairman ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The members of the counselor education research team would like to thank the following people for their help fulness and wholehearted support in the completion of this work. Dr. William Albert, our advisor and first reader, without whose suggestions and directions, this work would not have been completed. Dr. Robert Wiswell, our second reader, who offered patient guidance and helpful comments. Dan Tiberi, our data analyst, who supported us and helped us organize our thoughts and efforts. Dagney Cooke, Norman Davidson, Steven Epstein, Bernice Fisher, Gloria Giedt, Anne Hansen, Roxanne Killian, Richard Matros, Eldon Teper, and Monique Waller, the other members of this project to whom we are deeply indebted for their companionship, support, patience, and contributions. The Andrus Foundation for funding this project and giving us an opportunity to explore this vast new field of integrating gerontology into so many courses. Eleanor Hudson, our competent typist. Our fellow thesis members and our families and friends who tolerated the grouchiness and general chaos until this thesis was completed and approved. 11 TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS........ ..................... LIST OF TABLES .............................. . vi CHAPTER I STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ........... . 1 Introduction ................. . 1 The Study of Counselor Education . ............... . 2 Background............. . 5 Research Problem . . ........ . 7 II PROFESSIONALISM ................... . 12 Introduction ............... . . 12 Defining Profession ........... . 13 Criteria of a Profession . . . . 17 Process of Professionalization. . 35 Conclusion ................... 42 III THE EVOLUTION OF COUNSELOR EDUCATION AS A PROFESSION ......... . 45 Introduction ................. . 45 History of Counseling ..... . 46 Counselor Education on the Continuum of Professionalism . 54 Conclusion ................... . 91 IV THE PROFESSIONAL STATUS OF GERONTOLOGY ..................... . 94 Introduction ................. . 94 Trends of Gerontology ........ . 95 Documentation of Needs .... . 98 Gerontology on Continnum of Professionalism ............... 102 Conclusion............. 118 iii CHAPTER V THE BASIS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF A RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COUNSELOR EDUCATION AND GERONTOLOGY ........... 120 Introduction ..................... 120 Demography......................121 Developmental Aspects of Aging . . 122 Education and Job Counseling . . .13 4 Rehabilitation Counseling .... 138 Conclusion....................... 140 VI METHODOLOGY........................142 Introduction ..... ........... 142 Procedures for Entire Project . . 143 Specific Procedures for Counselor Education Researchers 146 Selection of Colleges and Universities for Study .... 148 Description of Survey Question naires ............ 150 Treatment of D a t a .............153 VII RESULTS .................... ..... 155 Introduction ........... 155 Narrative Description of Edu cational Institutions ........ 155 Explanation of Tables ........... 166 Credentials and Licesehing Procedures................. 179 VIII DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS .......... 184 Discussion.......... 184 Recommendations for Future Research.............. 195 Limitations of the Study . . . . . 201 Summary........................202 Conclusion . 204 BIBLIOGRAPHY................................ . 206 IV APPENDICES A Definition of Terms ................ 219 B Letter to Colleges and Universities 224 C Information Collection Form .... 225 D Interview Data Collection Form . . 229 E Professional Study ............... 233 F Community College Credentials . . . 234 G Data From Test-Retest for Reliability - Question 5 ..........241 H Data From Test-Retest for Reliability - Question 6 .......... 242 I Data From Test-Retest for Reliability - Question 12 .... 243 LIST OF TABLES TABLES lA Relationships from the Interview Data Collection Form: Question 3 . . . 16 7 IB Relationships from the Interview Data Collection Form; Questions 5 and 6 ....................... .. 168 1C Relationships from the Interview Data Collection Form; Questions 9A and 9B ................................. 169 ID Relationships from the Interview Data Collection Form; Question 10 . . 170 IE Relationships from the Interview Data Collection Form; Question 11 . . 171 - IF Relationships from the Interview Data Collection Form; Question 12 . , 172 2 Attitudes About Aging and the Number of Courses Offered . . . . . . . . . . 173 3 Attitudes Toward Aging in Relation With all Other Counseling Issues and the Number of Courses Offered . . . . , 174 4 Types of Degrees Offered and the Number of Courses Offered 175 5 Researchers' Ratings and the Respond ents ' Attitudes Toward Gerontology . . 176 6 Gerontological Field Work Opportuni ties and the Number of Course Offerings 177 7 Tabulation of Spearmans' Rank Order Coefficient of Correlation on Some Variables ............. 178 vi CHAPTER I STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Introduction This report is based upon an exploratory study of the educational trends and status of eight selected disciplines in their relationships to gerontology. The professional and technical schools studied include: adult education, counselor education, dentistry, law, medicine, nursing, public administration, and social work. Course curricula, attitudes toward the relevance of gerontology for each dis cipline and prospects for the future development of courses in aging within each discipline were examined. Credentials and licensing procedures were explored for those disci plines which have such procedures. A better understanding of how gerontological content is integrated into educa tional curricula and how/if licensing bodies are testing for this knowledge are two goals of this study. The project was conducted by faculty and staff from the Ethel Percy Andrus Gerontology Center and by students from the Leonard Davis School of Gerontology at the Uni versity of Southern California. Eleven out of the thirteen Leonard Davis School students were involved in this study to partially fulfill the requirements for a Masters degree. One student used the project for undergraduate research credit, and one student used the project for graduate re search credit. An outcome of this research will be a re port detailing the individual disciplines, synthesizing the overall findings and making inferences about the prepara tion in professional and technical schools studied and possible unmet needs in the area of gerontology. The Study of Counselor Education Each discipline was investigated by one or more of the eleven masters students. Counselor education was selected by the authors of this report. When surveying the various institutions which offered counselor education programs, the authors focused upon the types of offerings which would specifically produce a counselor who would be likely to have an actual or potential clientele of older adults. In cluded in the study were counselor education curricula which lead toward counseling practice in the following areas : (1) marriage, family and child counseling; (2) California community college counseling and/or California community college personnel work; and, (3) vocational/re- habilitational counseling. A number of factors contribute to the need for mar riage, family, and child counseling programs to produce counselors for adults. Mid-life career change and dramatic shifts in family structure contribute to the confusion and insecurity which send many adults to counselors. In the recent past, many people in the middle and older years have found it necessary to re-examine their personal futures. This may have been created by unemployment, the tendency toward early retirement, the feminist movement, and/or the added years which people can anticipate living due to medical and scientific advances. These types of stresses and the necessity for adjusting to them have generated a need for more counseling services for people in their middle and older years (Harrison, 1976). A knowledge of the older adult is also needed for persons holding a California community college counselor or a California community college personnel worker cre dential. Adult higher education has grown significantly in the years since World War II. Veterans who were eligible for the benefits of the GI Bill and entered college in great numbers, focused attention upon the special needs of adults who return to school. Initially, there was no agreement regarding the need for higher education for adults nor a way to implement such a need if it existed. The Brooklyn experiment studied the adult experience in liberal arts and the results indicated that adults do have specific needs which can be documented and programmed (Farmer, 1971). Within the school system, there is a need for educational counselors to be tuned in to the special needs of older students in order to make their education a viable experience. Counselors who specialize in vocational counseling are needed to assist in the problems that pre-retired and re tired persons face. Along with the fact that many adults are living longer productive lives, there is also a trend towards early retirement. Everyone requires relevant and useful things to do to feel productive and worthwhile. Re tirement can be a very stressful event for someone who has worked for many years. A counselor who is aware of job opportunities for older persons may be of great assistance to an older person who desires to continue to work. It may also be possible to direct an older person into an educa tional program which will prepare him for a new career or which will enable him to make more satisfying use of his leisure time. For those who specialize in rehabilitation counseling, there is a need to understand the motivations of the older adult. Independence is very highly valued by many older people. A rehabilitation counselor who enables them to re main independent in spite of handicaps which may accompany aging, can perform an invaluable service for many older people. The rehabilitation counselor can also provide in formation about community resources which enable the elderly to remain in their homes with the aid of services such as "Housekeeper-chore," "Day Care," and "Meals-on- Wheels." Counselors from any of the above programs should be aware that they may need to use somewhat different tech niques with the elderly than they would use with younger people. It is helpful to be aware of the historical per spective of the older person. The older adult may feel more comfortable talking with a peer counselor, for they have experienced many of the same life events. The counse lor who acts as a developmental facilitator can serve ef fectively with older adults. The counselor's main task is to be a change agent, to help the client utilize resources which were previously not available to him and to assist him toward a reality-based contact with his own competence, Such an experience can only increase his sense of self in a positive way (Bocknek, 1976). In Chapter V of the literature review, there will be further exploration of the relationship between counseling and gerontology. Background This project was initiated by students of the Leonard Davis School who were concerned about the future develop- ment of the field of gerontology and its professional status. These students, who were members of the first class of the Leonard Davis School in 19 75, were concerned about whether their training would be accepted by pro fessionals in other fields and whether gerontologists would be considered professionals. In response to this concern, the faculty and admini stration of the Leonard Davis School identified various professions that are likely to be serving the elderly. A proposal to explore relationships between these disciplines and gerontology was submitted to the Andrus Foundation for funding and was approved. The students selected the dis ciplines in which they were most interested and collabor ated with the entire group in preparing and refining this research design. The immediate goals of the study were to determine the current gerontology courses offered (both courses in aging and courses with aging content), in selected colleges and universities in California? the field work experience available through these schools; the attitude of faculty and staff within the selected disciplines toward the in clusion of aging content in their curricula; and the ex tent to which the licensing and/or credentialing boards screen candidates for expertise in aging. This project is an initial step toward a long range goal to assist in the improvement of the quality of services offered to the re tired and aged by upgrading professional and technical education, relevant licensing procedures and the account ability of educators in the fields of adult education, counselor education, dentistry, law, medicine, nursing, public administration, and social work. Research Problem The researchers have identified several variables that require investigation, have devised instruments to quantify each variable, and have made relevant assumptions regarding the associations between the variables. Some of the more important variables taken into consideration were : (1) the number of students in the department/school; (2) the number and types of degrees within each department/ school; (3) the number of full-time faculty within the department/school; (4) the number of doctorates held by faculty teaching courses with gerontological content; (5) the number of faculty belonging to the Gerontological and the Western Gerontological Societies; (6) attitudes of faculty and administration toward the importance of geron tology to their discipline; and, (7) the number of journals related to gerontology which are subscribed to by the library of each department in the school. The researchers recognized that in an exploratory study of this nature it would be difficult to establish cause and effect relationships. More basic data needs to be collected through this and other studies before such cause and effect relationships can be established. How ever, associations between variables were observed and these were analyzed and reported. One association in vestigated was the respondents' attitudes toward the im portance of gerontological curricula and issues and whether these attitudes were reflected in the educational insti tutions' course offerings. It was assumed that a rating of "important" or "very important" regarding overall geron tological issues and curricula by the respondents indicated an increased emphasis on courses in which aging content is offered. If the respondent rated the gerontological issues and curricula "not very important" or "of no importance," then a decreased emphasis was assumed. The organizations' plans to provide curricula related to aging in the future and to provide continuing education classes in aging were also analyzed according to the attitudes of the respondents Another area which required examination was the number of course offerings having gerontological content in re lationship to the number of opportunities for field prac- ticum, especially in agencies which work with or on behalf of the older adult. As previously stated, a cause and effect relationship was difficult to establish -- did classes in aging proliferate due to the demand by the students working in the agencies which were related to the older adult or did the classes with gerontological content create a demand for field practicums where this knowledge could be employed? In the same manner, the number of gerontological courses offered and the number of students attending each institution were compared and evaluated. Did the course material on gerontology provide impetus for theses and dissertations relating to aging? Did the department offer gerontology courses in response to student interest? Did courses with gerontological content stimulate student in terest in the field of aging? Did the faculty, who were interested in gerontology, spark this interest in their students? Was the availability of aging related journals in the school/department library a significant factor in developing student interest in gerontology? Of course, these questions cannot be resolved through one study, but such relationships can provide a basis for new hypotheses which may eventually contribute to a better understanding of the causal relationship. The number of students and faculty in each department/ school were also correlated to course offerings in geron tology. Did a larger student population exist at those institutions with more specialization in gerontology (e.g., more minors, dual degrees, or emphases being of fered)? Another parameter investigated was whether the size of the faculty of the department/school was related to the availability of aging related courses. Did the number of teachers holding doctorates correlate in any way with the number of aging related courses? The status of a department/school is often determined by the number or proportion of faculty holding doctorates. Is a school/ department with high status more likely to offer special ized courses in aging? The statement of the problem as presented has specif ically reviewed the basic purpose and the course of this research effort. The remaining chapters present detailed information about the issues which were of particular con cern to the participants in this study. The literature re view will provide an in depth analysis of the following topics: The criteria a discipline must meet to be con sidered a profession will be discussed in Chapter II. Whether counselor education qualifies as a profession according to the established criteria will be the topic of Chapter III. The advancement of gerontology along the continuum of professionalism will be examined in Chapter IV. Counselor education and its relationship to the field of gerontology will be discussed in Chapter V- Chapter VI will discuss methodology or the process of operationalizing the research. Chapter VII will provide 10 the results of the research effort described in the method ology chapter. The researchers will offer interpretations of those results. The concluding chapter. Chapter VIII will provide a summary of the literature review, the methodology and the findings. Implications of the research findings, the limitations of the study, and recommendations for future research will also be addressed in the final chapter. 11 CHAPTER II PROFESSIONALISM Introduction Examining the concept of professionalism is difficult because the term is used to define a variety of traits, characteristics, and ideals of occupational status. Re viewing the sociological literature on professionalism re veals the amorphous, and oftentimes ambiguous explanations which have developed in attempts to delineate the limits of professional standing. It is the intent of this paper to canvas the extant literature on professionalism and formu late a reasonable clarification of the major constituents of professional standing, as well as the processes that can transform an occupation into a profession. Three specific questions are answered in attempting to provide a succinct picture of the nature of professionalism. 1. What is a valid definition of a profession? 2. What are the requisite criteria needed for achieving professional status? 12 3. What are the processes intrinsic to the development of a profession? Defining Profession The problem of developing a specific definition of profession is complex because of the term's generalized utilization. Barber (1965) states that there is no abso lute difference between professional and other types of occupational behavior, but only relative differences with respect to certain attributes common to all occupational behavior. There are different degrees of professionalism and not all professions display the same characteristics. In fact, some business organizations may encompass criteria of professionalism without ever achieving professional status. Therefore, while precise verbal definition about the term profession persists, we should think of occupa tions as falling somewhere along a continuum of profession alism, the continuum being made up of common definitional traits (Goode, 1960a). A profession is usually defined as an occupation which requires training in the liberal arts or the sciences and graduate study in a particular field. Manual labor is not considered to be one of the areas of professionalism. At the professional level of employment, individuals often are assigned a large amount of responsibility based solely on their past experiences within the setting and direct client 13 contact is most extensive. Professional status is not gained by claiming it, but must be created as a result of behavior. A professional works in an occupation that primarily serves people by contributing to and enhancing their potentials as humans. Profit motives are secondary to the concern for people (Stone & Shertzer, 1969). Cogan (1955) states that there is an almost insur mountable controversy in trying to define profession. He examines the development of a definition of professions at three different levels: (1) historical and lexicological, (2) persuasive, and (3) operational. In the historical and lexicological interpretation, a profession is a vocation whose practice is founded upon the understanding of a theoretical structure of some department of learning or science, and upon the abilities accompanying such an under standing. This understanding and these abilities are ap plied to the vital practical affairs of man. The practices of the profession are modified by knowledge of a general ized nature and by the accumulated wisdom and experience of mankind, which serve to correct the errors of specialism. The profession, serving the vital needs of man, considers its first ethical imperative to be altruistic service to the client (Cogan, 195 3). The persuasive definition of profession has justified the existence of professional occupations in society. These justifications keep the 14 profession desirable by directing societal attitudes to the value of the services the profession offers. Operational definitions are designed to furnish the basis upon which individuals and associations may make specific decisions as to the behavioral concommitants of a profession. They are guidelines for the practitioner in his day-to-day work, and are the rules for professional conduct. They mediate the practitioner's relation to the client, to his colleagues, to the public, and to the professional association. They set forth the specific criteria of general and specific education for the professional, the requirements for ad mission to practice, and the standards for competent ser vice. Cogan summarizes his discussion of the definitional aspect of profession by stating that the promulgation of a satisfactory definition has progressed little beyond the six elements proposed by Abraham Flexner (1915); (1) in tellectual operations coupled with large individual re sponsibility; (2) raw materials drawn from science and learning; (3) practical application; (4) educationally communicable techniques ; (5) a tendency towards self orientation ; and, (6) an increasing altruistic motivation. Cogan (195 3) also states that an important, though im plicit, criterion of profession is revealed through the study of dictionary definitions. The first point to be noted is that the professions are described as dealing with 15 the practical affairs of men. Also, the profession is traditionally applied specifically to the three learned professions of divinity, law, and medicine. Cogan con cludes from an analysis of dictionary definitions that it may be observed that the traditional professions mediate man's relation to God, man's relation to man and state, and man's relation to his biological environment. Smith (195 8) discusses the diversity of professions and infers that they are complex social institutions which select people of varied skills, often from several social strata, and organ ize them into different levels of operation and diverse interest groups. Some authors have tried to define profession in a con cise and explicit manner. Greenwood (1957) adapts Hall's (19 49) definition and sees a profession as an organized group which is constantly interacting with the society that forms its matrix, which performs its social functions through a network of formal and informal relationships, and which creates its own subculture requiring adjustments to it as a prerequisite for career success. Any occupation wishing to exercise professional authority must find a technical basis for it, assert an exclusive jurisdiction, and convince the public that its services are uniquely trustworthy, and while there is a general tendency for occupations to seek professional status, remarkably few of 16 the thousands of occupations in modern society attain it (Wilensky, 1964) . Hughes (1963)' states that a profession delivers esoteric services -- advice or action -- to in dividual organizations, or government; to whole classes of people; or to the public at large. The action may be man ual, but the service still includes advice. The person for or upon whom the esoteric service is performed, or the one who is thought to have the right or duty to act for him/her, is advised that the professional's action is necessary. Professionalism might be defined as a process by which an organized occupation, usually, but not always, by virtue of making a claim to a specific esoteric competence and a con cern for the quality of its work, controls training for and access to it, and controls the rights of determining and evaluating the way the work is performed (Vollmer & Mills, 1966) . It is clear that the concept of professionalism does not lend itself to precise definition ; however, certain occupational attributes are generally characteristic of professional status. The next section will examine in de tail those criteria, revealed in a review of sociological literature, which have been consistently ascribed to the established professions. Criteria of a Profession Defining specific criteria of professional status is 17 also a precarious task. Different authors list varying numbers of attributes which they consider essential to the establishment of a profession, but it is evident that some long standing professions do not comply with all of these requisites. Also, many occupations do possess some ele ments of professionalism without having professional status. . This section will closely examine seven attributes which most authors generally regard as constituents of pro fessional status. These criteria are as follows : body of knowledge; university education; professional ideology; professional associations ; codes of ethics; self-regula tion; and, public sanction. Body of Knowledge All mature professions rest on a common body of know ledge that can be utilized flexibly by practitioners in various types of interventive activities (National Associa tion of Social Workers, 1964). Others supporting the need for a body of knowledge are Engel (1970); Halmos (1970); Schott (1976); Lewis and Maude (1952); Wickenden (1950); Boehm (1959); Turner and Hodge (1970); Harries-Jenkins (1970); Schein (1972); Pavalko (1971); Dearing (1972); and. Stone and Shertzer (1969). The nature of this knowledge, whether substantive or theoretical, on which advice and action are based is not always clear; it is often a mixture of several kinds of practical and theoretical knowledge. 18 But, it is part of a professional complex, and the profes sional claim, that the practice should rest upon some branches of knowledge to which the professionals are privy by virtue of long study and initiation and apprenticeship under masters already members of the profession (Hughes, 1963). Greenwood (195 7) states that the characteristic skills of a profession are derived from a source of know ledge which has been systematically organized into a body of theory. This body is made up of abstract propositions which describe in general terms the focus of the profes sion's interest. Preparing for professional status is, therefore, an intellectual, as well as a practical experi ence . Wilensky (1964) refers to a technical base on which professional knowledge is supported. He differentiates "technical" from "scientific" in that both scientific and non-scientific systems of thought can serve as a technical base for professionalism, but the success of the claim is greatest where the society evidences strong, widespread consensus regarding the knowledge or doctrine to be ap plied. Goode (1961) reports that a prolonged specialized training in a body of knowledge is paramount to the successful development of a profession. The principles of this knowledge must be applicable to concrete problems. 19 Professionals must not only use, but help create this know ledge; the profession itself must be the final arbiter as to what is valid knowledge. Therefore, the profession con trols access to knowledge and hence, access to the profes sion. Society should believe that the knowledge can actu ally solve existing problems and should also accept as proper that these problems be given over to some occupa tional group for effective solution (Goode, 1960b). University Education Education clearly emerges as an important factor in determining whether or not a discipline is a profession (Lewis & Maude, 1952; Wickenden, 1950; Harries-Jenkins, 19 70; Stone & Shertzer, 1969). The problem is that every one has a different idea as to how much education really is necessary. Moore (1970) regards it as extremely improbable that technically trained individuals with less than a bachelor of arts or science degree could manage to attain the relatively higher positions on any scale of profession alism. Goode's (1957) criterion of lengthy training in a body of specialized abstract knowledge infers formal educa tion at the graduate level. The training involves inquiry into an abstract body of knowledge, not the acquisition of technical skills. Jackson (1970) believes the existence of professionalism itself depends on the notion of the uni versity as the institution of the intellectual. Further- 20 more, he sees the rise of the professions as positively correlated with the rise of the universities. Traditionally, professions have been affiliated with organized educational institutions, and this has developed into the concept of professional schools within the uni versity . Barber (1965) cites four major roles of the uni versity professional school. They are as follows : 1. Transmission to its students of the generalized and systematic knowledge that is the basis for professional performance ; 2. Creation of new and better knowledge on which professional practice can be based; 3. Ethical training of students, explicit (codes) and implicit (behavioral aspects); 4. Improvement of existing codes. Barber concludes that the better the university profes sional school, the more likely it is to use resources from the other professional schools in the university and from all the other departments of basic knowledge insofar as they are relevant. The university professional schools are the leading, though not the sole, innovators and systema- tizers of ideas for their professions. The emerging or marginal professions seek to locate in universities. 21 Harries-Jenkins (19 70) infers that professional educa tion is dependent upon training and knowledge acquired out side the employment setting while generalists receive their occupational preparation from within the employing organi zation. Carr-Saunders and Wilson (19 64) state that a sound general education in theoretical and practical knowledge and then specialized education in the specific discipline, as in the professions, increases efficiency. Professional Ideology Every profession has a professional ideology, which is the basis for offering the best possible service in the public interest (Ritzer, 1973; Boehm, 1959; Harries-Jenkins, 19 70; Pavalko, 1971; Bearing, 19 72; Stone & Shertzer, 1969). Elliot (1972) states that a professional ideal has three important aspects : 1. The notion of service; 2. An emphasis on professional judgment based upon professional knowledge ; 3. Belief in professional freedom and autonomy in the work situation.(p. 23) The service ideal may be defined as the norm that the technical solutions which the professional arrives at should be based on the client's needs, not necessarily the best material interest or needs of the professional himself or those of society. Further specifications of the service ideal is inherent in its four subdimensions; 22 1. The practitioner decides upon the client's needs, and the occupation will be classified as less professional if the client imposes his own judgment. 2. The society actually believes that the profession not only accepts these ideals, but also follows them to some extent. 3. The profession demands real sacrifice from its practitioners as an ideal, and occasionally, in fact. 4. The professional community sets up a system of rewards such that ' virtue pays off. (Goode, 1960b, p. 23) Wilensky (1964) reports that the success of the claim to professional status is governed also by the degree to which the practitioners conform to a set of moral norms that characterize the established professions. These norms dictate not only that the practitioner do technically, high-quality work, but that he adhere to a service ideal — devotion to the client's interest more than personal or commercial profit should guide decisions when the two are in conflict. In short, a major determinant of professional status is the degree of adherence to the service ideal and its supportive norms of professional conduct. Beatman (1956) feels that basic to professional matur ity are the knowledge essential to practice and the appro priate use of that knowledge. He goes on to say that. 23 the hope of every profession is to have its practitioners embody the best of its knowledge, experience, skill, and ethics; that they will practice with dignity, confidence and success ; and that the nature and con tribution of the practitioner that its perpetuation and continuing progress are assured. (p. 383) The nature of professional practice is such that the practitioner must make many unique and special decisions on the singularity of any particular client-practitioner transaction (Ritzer, 19 73). Quality of services rendered is of deepest concern to the client. He places his health and his fortune in the hands of his professional advisor, and he entrusts him with confidences of an intimate and personal kind. He is interested in the moral quality of service (Carr-Saunders & Wilson, 19 64). Therefore, this problem is particularly complicated by the fact that the professional service is said to require not only special skills from the practitioner, but also a particular kind of relationship between the professional and the client (Ritzer, 1973). Lewis and Maude (1952) state that the re lationship of the client and the practitioner is the basis of professional morality. This relationship is between in dividuals and it is fiduciary. The practitioner gives the best possible advice, which the client is not competent to criticize, and the practitioner acts according to his client's needs. Schein (19 72) stresses this point even 24 further saying the very essence of professionalism ,is the delivery of a service in response to the need of a client. There must also be a clear identification as to exactly whose needs are being met. Moore (19 70) maintains that an important professional qualification is commitment to a particular calling. It is this commitment that lends cre dence and stability to the profession's code of ethics. The profession and all its requirements are treated as a lasting set of norms and behavioral expectations. The pro fessional accepts these standards, identifies with his colleagues and sees the profession as a whole entity. These standards should come across in the professional's dealings with his client. Professional Associations Professional associations are necessary for the de velopment and continued growth of a profession (Goode, 1960; Wickenden, 1950; Boehm, 1959 ; Harries-Jenkins, 1970; Schein, 1972; Stone & Shertzer, 1969). The professional organization provides a framework and sanctions for this complex of obligation and responsibility delegated to the established profession. In essence, it is disciplinary in all its functions, especially the educational. It is con cerned with keeping its members accountable to the implied contract with society. The organization also insures the provision of the best possible advice and service within 25 existing knowledge, while protecting the public from the unqualified practitioner. The professional organization is the profession's ultimate measure of professional independ ence. It is the association that defines the educational requirements, entry standards, and code of ethics of the profession (Lewis & Maude, 1952). Greenwood (1957) pro poses that professional associations exert control over the profession's training centers and granting or denying ac creditation by one of the associations within a profession is the prime way the caliber of curriculum and instruction and the location of professional schools is regulated. Carr-Saunders and Wilson (196 4) propose that generally speaking, each profession is organized on a craft basis, and though within a profession it is usual to find a number of independent associations, relations between them are generally friendly and there is a clear tendency towards a dominating association or a closely cooperating group. Part of the constitution of a profession is the spontaneous coming together of the practitioners in associations. The reasons for associations are protection and the desire to hallmark the competent and to foster the study of the tech nique and give this technique such an importance that boundaries are clearly defined and stable. Ritzer (1973) lists three characteristics of profes sions which are basic to the justification for professional 26 control over members. They are as follows: 1. Assume power of ethical codes. 2. The consequences of control over recruitment and certification. 3. The professional review boards and their assumed control over practitioners. Code of Ethics Professional ethics arise from the codes of the most ancient professions : The Hippocratic oath; the inviola bility of the confessional; and the devotion of the lawyer to his client's interest (Lewis & Maude, 1952). The codes of ethics of specific disciplines are an integral component in the establishment of a profession (Goode, 1960a; Harries-Jenkins, 1970; Schein, 1972 ; Pavalko, 1971; Bear ing, 19 72 ; Stone & Shertzer, 1969). Ethical conduct, pro posed or values in the codes of ethics of the human ser vices, pertain to four major aspects of professional re lationships (Levy, 1974): 1. The practitioner, where codes insure competence, integrity, independence, impartiality, and propriety. 2. The client, involving values of devotion, loyalty, objectivity, honesty, candor, confidentiality, autonomy, respect, punctu ality, exeditiousness, and personal attention. 27 3. The professional colleagues, regarding etiquette, fairness, and professional orientation. 4. The society, insuring care in the use of personal status, care of one's personal associations, regard for others, justice, obligation to be concerned about social problems, and social orientation. Codes of ethics are at once the highest and the lowest standards of practice expected of the practitioner; the awesome statement of rigid requirements; and the promo tional material issued primarily for public relations pur poses, They embody the gradually evolved essence of moral expectations, as well as the arbitrarily prepared short cut to professional prestige and status. At the same time, they are handy guidelines for the legal enforcement of ethical conduct (Levy, 197 4 ). Greenwood (1957) states that the profession's ethical code is part formal and part informal. The formal is the written code to which the professional usually swears upon when being admitted to practice. The informal is the un written code, which nonetheless carries the weight of formal prescriptions. As a written document, the code of ethics serves as a guideline of expected levels of service. Not only does it describe expected levels of quality and 28 competency, it also may remind members to refrain from commercialism (direct competition with colleagues), as well as state the professional's responsibility to the interests of society (Marshall, 19 39). Contained within the code is a strong altruistic commitment to the betterment of the larger society through the use of the professional's specialized abilities (Cogan, 1953). Self-regulation SeIf-regulation refers to the monitoring of profes sional behavior by colleagues. In other words, the peer group holds its members accountable and will invoke dis ciplinary action when deviation from acceptable standards has occurred (Posz, 1973). This type of monitoring system is distinguished from one in which the principal monitoring tasks fall on a hierarchial organization, the consumer of the service, or an external governmental regulatory agency. Under true professionalism, monitoring and corrective ac tion is performed by the peer group. In theory, the pro fessional group itself is held accountable for the actions of its members (Wichenden, 1950; Lewis & Maude, 1952; Harries-Jenkins, 1970; Schein, 1972 ; Pavalko, 1971; Bear ing, 1972; Stone & Shertzer, 1969). One aspect of self regulation is the level of autonomy attained by the pro fession. Ritzer (197 3) states that the professional organiza- 29 tion rather than the society or the client defines the nature of the expected service and the manner of its trans mittal because the profession claims to be the only legitim mate arbiter of improper performance. In practice, auton omy exists when the leaders of a profession define or regu late the nature of the services offered in two ways: (1) control over recruitment and certification of members; and, (2) setting standards of adequate practice (Ritzer, 1973). In discussing the idea of recruiting, Caplow (1954) sates that in the independent professions the entire re cruiting process, from the initial choice of candidates for training to the bestowal of honors at retirement, is under the close control of the professional group. Although the right to practice is generally conferred by a governmental board, this agency normally represents the profession and has usually been kept free from political interference, Goode (1960b) states that professional autonomy means having one's behavior judged by colleague peers, not out siders, He adds that this is a derivative trait and is based on both the mastery of a field of knowledge and com^ mitment to the service idea. Because of this mastery^ based on specialized training and the complicated nature of the problems being dealt with, the professional person has the authority to dictate what a client should do. The rationale behind this authority is that the client lacks 30 the needed theoretical background to diagnose his need or prescribe any of the possible cures. This authority does not carry over to any other professions. One only has authority when one has khowledge of a certain specific area (Greenwood, 1957). An effective method of seIf-regulation is through the creation of what Goode (1961) calls the community profes sional. Although the profession cannot produce the next generation biologically, it can do so socially. A profes sion should and can control the selective process of its professional trainees. After these trainees are selected they are sent through the profession's adult socialization process. The profession is determining who will be market ing the services of the profession and, to an extent, the way in which those services are marketed. The profession can better preserve its standards in this way. Public Sanctioning and Licensing Greenwood (1957) discusses the importance of community sanction in the achievement of professional status. Other authors recognize this contention (Goode, 196 0a; Engel, 1970 ; Scott, 1976 ; Lewis & Maude, 1952 ; Wichenden, 1950 ; Turner & Hodges, 1970 ; Schein, 1972 ; Bearing, 1972; Stone & Shertzer, 19 69) . Public sanction refers to the com munity's formal and informal acceptance of a discipline's ability to best deliver necessary services in its area of 31 expertise, A profession may gain sanction from the com munity by formal or informal means. Formal approval con stitutes reinforcement of professional standards by police power. By formally sanctioning a profession, the community gives a profession a monopoly on performing a certain ser vice. The profession employs its association to convince the community that it will greatly benefit from the monop oly. Professions must be convincing on three factors : 1. Specialized education is necessary to perform the specific skill. 2. Those who have completed this education have capability to deliver service superior to those who have not. 3. The target population of service is of sufficient significance in the community to warrant the superior per formance, Greenwood notes that formal aspects of public sanctions take the form of approving of professional-client confidentiality and acceptance of a system of licensure. Licensure is the process by which permission to practice a profession is granted once the require ments of legality are recognized. -3-2- The degree to which a profession is subject to state supervision depends upon the external constitution or legal status it has in society (Carr-Saunders & Wilson, 1964). Licensing systems for screening applicants assures legal status. Thereby, the professional controls admission into the field (Greenwood, 1975). Operational Definitions From the preceding literature review and for the pur pose of this study, operational definitions of the seven criteria required for professional standing have been de veloped. They are as follows: 1. Body of knowledge - an identifiable and distinct set of theories, methodologies, and principles which form the technical base for professional practice. 2. University Education - the formal process within an educational institution in which the professional body of knowledge is trans mitted, usually at the graduate level. 3. Professional Ideology - the notion of service that is the basis for the professional's commitment to the field and which establishes the practitioner as the most appropriate in dividual to offer this particular type of service because of his training and know ledge of the discipline. 33 4. Professional Association - established organizations of professionals that set criteria for membership in the field, keep members accountable for their actions, in sure the provision of the best possible services, exert control over the profes sion's training centers, and keep abreast of current legislative and political activity affecting the field. 5. Code of Ethics - written and formalized standards of professional conduct that establish the commitment of the profes sional as well as insuring the competence of the practitioner and the quality of his services. 6. Self-regulation - the professional mechanism which maintains the ability of the discipline to autonomously govern and regulate its members, establish standards of service, enforce the code of ethics, assume responsibility for any disciplinary action and be publicly accountable for the actions of its constituency. 7. Public Sanction - the formal and informal approval which a community grants a dis- 34 cipline acknowledging the profession's ability to best deliver offered services and to be self-regulating. Conclusion This discussion has delineated the criteria that have been found to be relatively universal in regard to profes sional characteristics. It should be noted that in addi tion to our defined criteria, the concept of autonomy is also associated with professional standing. The authors of this study feel there are inherent problems in defining and measuring this concept. Therefore, we have integrated the notion of autonomy in the examination of seIf-regula tion , and will utilize these seven criteria in analyzing the professional status of our individual discipline. Process of Professionalization While there are definite criteria requirements for eligibility to professional status, the process by which an occupation achieves this distinction is varied in the development of each specific discipline. Certain steps are common for professionalization in general, but the sequence of events and the intensity of their implementation dif fers. This section will examine the processes that precede professional standing. Professions with a more substantial and more theoreti cal body of knowledge behind them are better able to con 35 vince society of the need for their particular services and perhaps to persuade society of their right to take responsibility for them. Reference must be made to a theoretical body of knowledge for decisions made by the practitioners of the profession. The professional's re sponsibility for interpreting the body of knowledge and for considering, even deciding, the client's needs and solutions to them is an important aspect of the autonomous development of the individual profession. One way in which a profession may first develop as a separate occupational group is when some individuals recognize a social need and become committed to providing for it. These initial pioneers, entering the field from a variety of routes, will be united by this common concern. The development of a new occupational group may open up new career possibilities for others in relatively marginal or terminal career positions. As time goes by and the process of professionalization con tinues, qualifications will be laid down for entering into the occupation and entry routes institutionalized. An occupation with pretentions to professional status cannot afford to serve as a refuge for the unqualified (Elliot, 1972). The emerging profession claims to be offering a unique service not available elsewhere. It does not rely on open competition with those occupations closest to its field. 36 but is likely to proclaim openly that its rivals are either improperly trained or illegal competitors. The economic success of a new profession is based on the norma tive acceptance it achieves -- or how much right to a legally enforceable monopoly it can successfully claim. Professional services usually cannot be adequately evalu ated by laymen. Professionals admit that they need their client's cooperation for a good performance; for survival, they also need their client's faith (Goode, 1960a). Those taking the lead in striving for the advancement of professionalism within the occupational group and in claiming public recognition of its new status become the elite of that profession. They implement the following procedures according to Barber (19 65) ; 1. Acknowledge the inadequacies of their group but compare them to ones that formerly existed in established pro fessions — express hope for progress. 2. Construct and publish a code of ethics. 3. Establish a professional association which will perform the following functions ; a. self control ; b. socialization ; c. education ; d. communication with public ; 37 e. defense of professional interest against infringement by the public or other occupational groups. 4. Leaders establish measures and titles of more or less professional behavior, hoping, of course, to use such prestigious titles as "fellow" as an incentive for the less professional to become more so. 5. Seek licensure from the state. 6. Seek to strengthen university professional schools. 7. Information program for the general public. 8. Conflict resolution — with those in the group who are less qualified and with other professionals who may be charging them with encroachment. As previously stated, there are differences of opinion about the subsequent processes of professionalization. Wilensky (1964) enumerates five procedural elements of professionalization. They are as follows : 1. start doing full time the thing that needs doing. 2. Establish a training school within a university. 38 Combine to form a professional association with: a. further self-conscious de finition of core tasks ; b. the contest between the home- guard who learned the hard way and are committed to the local establishment, on the one hand; and the newcomers who took the prescribed courses and are com mitted to practicing the work wherever it takes them; c. the hard competition with neighbor ing occupations. Political agitation to win support of law for the protection of the job territory and its sustaining code of ethics : a. licensing; b. certification. Establishment of rules to eliminate the unqualified and unscrupulous, and rules to protect clients and emphasize the ser vice ideal in a formal code of ethics. 39 Caplow (1954) lists the following processes as inher ent to the achievement of professional status; 1. Establishment of a professional associa tion with definite membership criteria designed to exclude the unqualified. 2. Change of occupational name, which serves the multiple function of reducing identification with the previous occupa tional status asserting a technological monopoly. 3. Development and promulgation of a code of ethics which asserts the social utility of the occupation, sets up public welfare rationale, and develops rules which serve as a further criteria to eliminate the unqualified and un scrupulous ; this imposes a real and permanent limitation on internal competi tion. 4. Prolonged political agitation, whose object is to obtain the support of the public power for the maintenance of the new occupational barriers, and also de velopment of training facilities directly or indirectly controlled by the profes- 40 sional society, particularly with respect to admission and to final qualification; the establishment through legal action of certain priv ileges of confidence and inviolability, the elaboration of rules of decorum found in the code, and the establish ment — after conflict — of working relations with related professional groups. Goode (1961) lists seven steps of professionalization which occur simultaneously; 1. Formulating a code of ethics. 2. Founding of a professional association. 3. Promulgating favorable legislation. 4. Establishing curricula for professional training (preferably in a university). 5. Making appeals to foundations for funds with which to develop new professional knowledge. 6. Writing articles to explain the unique contribution of the occupation. 7. Making protests against inaccurate stereotypes of the occupation. 41 Conclusion It is evident, from the preceding analysis, that pro fessionalism is not an easily defined characteristic. While one can observe a well-established profession, such as law or medicine, and describe its component and deriva tive traits, it is much more difficult to specifically de lineate those elements which are mandatorily required for achievement of professional status. Varying professions may or may not possess all the aforementioned criteria, and the degree to which a criterion is integrated into a profession also differs. Therefore, it must be concluded that professionalism is a continuum of occupational status, with no definite demarcation between the profession and the non-profession. While some occupations are distinc tively recognized in the professional and non-professional loci, others seem to arbitrarily fall between the two classifications. Generally, there are seven criteria that are fre quently observed in professions. They are: 1. A specific body of knowledge. 2. Training and education within a university. 3. A professional ideology. 4. An organized professional association. 5. A professional code of ethics. 6. Self-regulation through occupational authority and autonomy. 42 7. Public approval, sanction, and licensure. These seven criteria are often used as indicators of pro fessional standing, but are not always present in all pro fessions . The evolutional process which ultimately confers pro fessional status is also not a specific, well-defined para digm. Some events that usually occur are: 1. recognition of need; 2. recruitment of full-time workers to meet the need; 3. establishment of a body of knowledge that is transmittable through a uni versity. 4. organizing a professional association with the development of a code of ethics and a professional ideology ; 5. winning legal sanction through licensing and certification. In conclusion, it must be mentioned that these pro cesses often occur simultaneously rather than in a pre scribed sequence. Nevertheless, a general paradigm does exist. This paradigm implicates a basic framework of events that occur in the evolution of a profession. The evaluation of our specific discipline will utilize the seven professional criteria and related processes examined 43 in this discussion for an assessment of the field's locus on the professional continuum. The next chapter in this review is the evolution of counselor education as a profession according to the seven criteria suggested in this chapter. 44 CHAPTER III THE EVOLUTION OF COUNSELOR EDUCATION AS A PROFESSION Introduction In examining the concept of professionalism, seven criteria were operationally defined as being essential attributes of a profession. The present chapter will dis cuss where the field of counselor education is located in relationship with each of these criteria on the continuum of professionalism. The specialties of counseling, which are included in the present study are : (1) the marriage/ family/child counselor; (2) the counselor holding the California Community College Counseling Credential or the California Community College Student Personnel Worker Cre dential ; and, (3) vocational and rehabilitational counse lors. Psychoanalytic counselors and clinical psychologists are not included in the sample. In order to gain a better understanding of the growth of the field of counselor education, it is necessary to first explore the historical development of counseling as 45 it moves toward professionalism. Secondly, counselor edu cation will be examined according to the criteria for pro fessionalism. Finally, conclusions regarding the profes sional status of counselor education will be drawn. History of Counseling Counseling has been defined as the process of talking out problems with an empathetic and understanding listener, and as such, may be considered to have existed for thou sands of years (see Appendix A for definition of terms). From such a perspective, counseling concepts can be traced back to the Greek philosophers, to parts of the Old Testa ment and to other early sources. In this sense, the social philosophers of ancient Greece (e.g., Plato, 427-347 B.C., and Aristotle, 384-322 B.C.), the hedonists, the philoso phers of the British Associationist school (e.g., Locke, 1632-1704; Berkeley, 1711-1776 ; and, James Mill, 1773- 1836), and others were influential. They sought to define the nature of man, the nature of society, and the relation ship between the individual and society (Stone & Shertzer, 1968) . Although such philosophical concepts may be defined as a form of counseling, it is only in this century that counseling has come to be considered a profession or even a vocation. Now, it is possible for a person to choose a professional career with the title "Counselor." Today, 46 many persons turn to a counselor for assistance with prob lems which they might have discussed with a teacher or friend in the past. Counseling has been defined as a "systematic exploration of self and/or environment by an individual with the aid of a counselor to clarify self- understanding and/or environmental alternatives so that behavior modifications or decisions are made on the basis of greater cognitive understandings" (Farmer, 1971, p. 15). This definition implies that the counselor has knowledge and skills which facilitate increased self-understanding, an ability to make choices and implement behavioral changes. The effect of successful counseling is to enable people to achieve their maximum potential. The present study will examine counselor education with an emphasis on personal social counseling, educational counseling and vocational/rehabilitational counseling. The development of counseling as a profession is some what obscure, but is usually attributed to Frank Parson, who founded the Vocational Bureau in Boston in 19 08. This bureau, which was established to assist young people in selecting careers, eventually became part of Harvard Uni versity. Parson established the first counselor training program to prepare counselors for vocational bureaus which he thought would be established by schools, colleges, busi ness and professional associations, and the YMCA (Stone & Shertzer, 1974). ___________________________________________________________________________4% Jessie B. Davis also made important contributions to counseling. He devoted a considerable portion of his teaching time to counseling eleventh grade students at a high school in Detroit, Michigan. His work with counseling commenced in 1898 and continued until 190 7 when he became the high school principal and developed a school wide pro gram of character development and vocational information. As a result of the success of his program, there began a national trend towards the development of counseling pro grams for students. Another pioneer in the field of counseling was Eli B. Weaver of the Boy's High School in Brooklyn. His efforts to organize counseling services in the New York City schools received nation-wide publicity. He spearheaded the organization of several local agencies to provide coun seling and job placement services. He was also instru mental in promoting the Second National Conference on Voca tional Guidance, wbich was held in New York City in 1912 (Stone & Shertzer, 1974). From a historical point of view, it is important to realize that there exists a need within individuals in our society today for homeostasis and understanding of our social system. Socio-historical trends within this century that have created a need for counseling services include: (1) the complexity of our socioeconomic system and our be- 48 lief in equal opportunity for all people; (2) the anxiety that follows rapid changes in basic institutions in con junction with the lack of unifying religion or philosophy (Tyler, 1961). Economic and social complexity has occurred as a re sult of rapid industrialization and technological advances. A division was created between work and leisure time and persons no longer assumed the vocation of their parents as a matter of course. They were presented with a confusing array of career choices and often little knowledge to make the best decision. Counseling as a specialty was initiated in the United States to assist individuals with vocational problems. It seems to have originated in the schools and the early and important developments in counseling occurred in educational institutions. Vocational counselors re sponded to the economic forces to assist individuals in making optimal career choices. Furthermore, our democratic ideal of "equality" emphasizes that each person should be permitted to use his special talents and skills in a manner which brings him personal satisfaction and is of value to society. This implies that he has a knowledge of the many possibilities for personal growth and an equal opportunity to achieve self-expression as he may choose. Because of the complexity of our society, counselors have responded to the need to help all persons understand our rapidly chang- 49 K ing milieu and to direct them in ways to best fulfill their potential. This has been especially evident in the development of the field of educational counseling. Educa tional counseling services have arisen to counteract the effects of impersonalization which often come with mass education. Counselors focus on the individual so that he does not become lost in the group. For Americans to have equal opportunities to develop their potential, there must be a provision for professional assistance when an individ ual requires help resolving his problems, understanding himself and meeting his needs. Counselors provide this necessary service. Secondly, the instability and insecurity of our pre sent technological society leads many to experience anxiety and confusion. We have few, if any, absolutes. Basic values and beliefs are rapidly changing. Due to this, there is no absolute right or wrong to answer ques tions and to provide a direction in life. Many people are unable to cope with the uncertainty of daily living and an increasing number are turning to counselors for direction and understanding. The complexity of our social and eco nomic systems occurring in our "age of anxiety" have all led to the development of counseling as a specialty. Additional factors and forces which have assisted in the development of counseling as a profession are summar- 50 ized below; 1. The mental hygiene movement. As a response to the book, A Mind Thgt Found Itself, by Clifford Beers, the National Committee for Mental Hygiene was begun in 1909, This organization, which was founded to promote the improvement of services to the mentally ill, soon shifted its area of concern to preventive aspects of mental health, 2. The testing movement. During World War I, Alfred Binet did much work on the testing of intelligence and the construction of standardized group tests of ability. Test ing quickly became very popular and in directly encouraged the development of counseling, since it emphasized that to assist an individual, one must systematically gather information about him and use it in telligently. 3. The chiId-study movement. Concern for the well-being of children came to the foreground during the 1920 Vs and 1930's. ChiId-study centers and scientific journals emphasized the individual as the focal point of study; and the emphasis was on the significance 51 of the formative years for mature personality development. Compulsory education. During the 1880's, the high school was established as a free public institution, and school enrollments increased substantially. Compulsory school attendance, improved child labor laws, and expanded curricula brought many children into the educational system who needed guidance in getting through school and in adjusting to society. Personnel work in industry. Job analysis techniques and the development of standard ized group intelligence and aptitude tests, contributed to the development of personnel counseling. Federal government support. The Departments of Labor and of Health, Education and Wel fare, helped to influence the development of counseling. Congress enacted legislation that established counseling in settings such as rehabilitation centers, community agencies, veterans' agencies, schools and colleges. Government subsidies have contributed to the preparation and employment of counselors in various settings. 52 7. Professional organizations. In 1910 and 1912, the first national conferences were held for counselors. The National Voca tional Guidance Association was founded in 1913. The American Personnel and Guidance Association was formed in 19 52 as a result of the merger of several counsel ing and professional associations. At the present time there are eight divisions that promote guidance and personnel work. The Division of Counseling Psychology of the American Psychological Association has issued policy statements on counseling and has sponsored symposia at conventions. The development of counseling has been encouraged by national, regional, and state conventions, local branches, and through professional publications (Stone & Shertzer, 1974). The first step in the process of professionalization is for a group of individuals to recognize a need and to respond to that need in a committed manner. Historically, counseling had developed to meet the individual needs created by our rapidly changing educational, vocational and social conditions. The next section will examine the locus of counseling on the continuum of professionalism accord 53 ing to the seven operationally defined criteria for a pro fession . Counselor Education on the Continuum of Professionalism This study has operationally defined seven attributes which most authors regard as constituents of professional status. The seven criteria for professionalism are as follows : (1) body of knowledge; (2) university education ; (3) professional ideology ; (4) professional associations ; (5) code of ethics ; (6) self-regulation ; and, (7) public sanction. This section will examine the field of counselor education with respect to each of the criteria and deter mine the professional status of counselor education. Body of Knowledge A body of knowledge is essential for an occupation to be considered a profession. A common body of knowledge presents the most fundamental theories and abstract propo sitions which provide the core of the information for the profession. For persons entering the profession there follows a period of education, socialization, and identi fication. Counselors are presented with a vast body of knowledge for which they are responsible. Unlike the more exact nature of the physical sciences, counseling derives information from the social and behavioral sciences. As used here, the social sciences include : psychology. 54 sociology, economics, anthropology, and political science. The research and hypotheses generated by these disciplines have made important contributions to the development of a body of knowledge specific to counseling. It is necessary to first examine the interface between counseling and the social sciences to document the existence of a body of knowledge specific to counseling. The social sciences arose in the last two centuries when scientists began to use the research devices of the natural sciences to study human behavior. Even though the predictability and control of pure scientific research is not attainable in the social sciences, it is recognized that valid generalizations can be made regarding human be havior. Sociology and anthropology study the social inter actions within and between various cultures and societies. The theory that values are related to the specific culture, the historical time and the geographical location of the people was generated by sociological and anthropological research. This data has important implications for coun seling. Human behavior varies considerably even within a culture. For example, not everyone views formal education as good and some sub-cultures may feel that it has a cor ruptive influence. Carl Rogers developed his theory of counseling on the fact that the counselor will be ineffec tive unless he is able to enter the frame of reference and 55 value structure of his client (Stone & Shertzer, 1974). Another significant finding from social research is that human behavior is not predetermined by heredity nor are humans passively manipulated by the environment. Humans are left to develop within the context of their biological inheritance and physical and social milieu. Therefore, interdisciplinary counseling approaches developed to help the "whole" person. Behavioral changes are possible and often the entire pattern of behavioral interactions needs to be considered by the counselor to provide a guide for the most satisfactory changes. Political science concerns itself with the power structure of organizations and society. To be effective change agents, counselors need to be aware of the power structure which influences the institutions they work in or which directly affects their clients. This is necessary so that when requests are made for necessary changes, they will be handled by the people with authority. In a broader manner, political science has influenced counseling to a great extent in the development of democratic principles of counseling. Man is free thinking and acting. The result of counseling is to be measured in the ability of the client to be an autonomous individual who thinks and acts in a more effective manner. Economics studies the pattern of human production. 56 consumption, and distribution. All men are economic be ings. Today our society has become increasingly material^ istic. It is necessary for counselors to be aware of the dynamics of economics so that they can help clients under stand the impracticality of desiring more and more material wealth. Other values which are more important need to be developed; e.g., cooperation, personal growth, and al truism. It is necessary for counselors to help others evaluate the economic motivation in their lives in order to help them become more fully functioning individuals (Stone & Shertzer, 197 4). Of all the social sciences, the field of psychology has had the greatest impact on the development of counsel ing. Counseling has often been confused with psychotherapy in the minds of the public. In order for the field to be gin to evolve into its own specialized profession, it first had to free itself from the limitations of its psycho therapeutic image. This evolutionary process was much like that which occurred in the area of psychotherapy as it evolved from the field of medicine as a specific treatment for mental illness. There remains today a great deal of confusion regard ing the distinction between the disciplines of counseling and psychology which dates back to the late 1940's to 1950. The term "counseling psychologist," adopted by Division 17 57 of the American Psychological Association in 1951, grew out of "counseling and guidance." In 1952, the Veterans Admin istration announced the establishment pf two major psycho logical positions which were listed under the title "coun seling psychologist." In 1955, a , professional journal en titled Journal of Counseling Psychology was first pub lished. In 1955, the American Board of Examiners in pro fessional psychology adapted to these developments by changing the title of one of the specialty fields in which it issues a diploma from "counseling and guidance" to "counseling psychologist," The joining of emphases in vocational orientation, psychometrics, and personality de velopment led to the emergence of counseling psychology as a specialty (Deirios, 1973). The foundation of counseling psychology is the concern for mental health as it relates to the educational and vocational problems of normal individuals, Clinical psy chologists are often placed in universities and colleges, hospitals, clinics, government agencies, and private prac tice. The academic background for psychologists and coun selors is usually similar, but the focus of action differs. Counseling emphasizes the helping services, career and educational decisions and sees the person as growth- oriented and not problem-centered (Cottingham & Swanson, 1976). Demos (197 3) refers to two sources in making the 58 distinction between counseling and psychotherapy: (1) Al bert has stated that the more the experts tend to dis tinguish and differentiate counseling and psychotherapy, the more they tend to overlap; (2) Reaves and Reaves dis criminate between the two by saying that the primary ob jective in counseling is stimulating the individual to evaluate, make, accept, and act upon his own choices. In 1973 at the Vale Conference on levels and patterns of professional training in psychology, one of the conclusions drawn was that, "psychological science has matured suffi ciently to justify creating specific professional programs, in addition to programs for training research scientists and scientist-professionals" (Cottingham & Swanson, 1976, p. 191). In a 1973 study, three groups of counseling psychology professions were named. They were: (1) student personnel worker who handles educational and administra tive functions ; (2) practitioner's role ; and, (3) academic role of the social and behavioral scientists (Cottingham & Swanson, 19 76). Specialty areas such as counseling psy chologist, school psychologist, and counselor education have developed from a similar core of psychological principles. Counselor education continues to strive for profes sional status as it emerges from the social sciences and seeks specialization. The subject matter forming the 59 science of counseling is somewhat unstable and still in an evolutionary process. Therefore, exactly what is counsel ing? Counseling is considered an art and a science. As an art, it is a highly acquired level of skill in doing something well. As a science, it is the acquisition of a high level of knowledge that is both intensive and exten sive (Demos & Grant, 19 73). Counseling has been given a wide range of definitions, some of which will be cited here. Counseling is defined as "...a one-to-one, face-to-face relationship between an individual who seeks help and another person who is pro fessionally educated to give this help" (Demos & Grant, 1973, p. 6). This is often broken down into the sub-topics of educational, professional, vocational, and personal counseling. Therefore, the counselor is involved in educa tion in a broad context that uses several disciplines to help enhance self-understanding and environmental under standing. Counselor education is defined as the educatory process which produces people who can counsel (McGowan & Schmidt, 1962). A counselor educator is professionally trained to assist with educational, career and personal- social choices and adjustments. Surveying the various definitions of counseling, we have come up with this list of principles which the authors cited agree upon as defining counseling : 60 1. The counselor may use small groups, but the relationship is usually one- to-one (Gustad, 195 3; English & English, 1958; McGowan & Schmidt, 19 62; Wrenn, 1965 ; and Demos, 1973). 2. The counselor helps the client learn more about himself and helps him to accept himself [Gustad, 195 3; McGowan & Schmidt, 1962 ; Wrenn, 1965; Blocher, 1966 ; English & English, 1958 ; Demos, 1973). 3. The counselor helps develop the whole person and the fullest realization of his potentialities for individual and social ends (Gustad, 1953 ; McGowan & Schmidt, 1962) . 4. Counseling is a continuous learning process (McGowan & Schmidt, 1962 ; Gustad, 1953 ; Demos, 1972). 5. The counselor has a responsibility to society as well as the individual (McGowan & Schmidt, 1962 ; Gustad, 195 3 ; Demos, 19 73) . 6. The client must make his own choices and take some constructive action on his own 61 behalf (May, 1939; McGowan & Schmidt, 1962; Demos, 1973). 7. Counseling influences behavior and affects the client's future behavior, but does not seek to change it in an authoritarian or persuasive manner (Tyler, 1961; McGowan & Schmidt, 1962 ; May, 1939 ; Demos, 1973). 8. Helping is the core principle of coun seling (McGowan & Schmidt, 1962 ; Tyler, 1961; Wrenn, 196 5; Patterson, 1959; Blocher, 1966; English & English, 1958; Demos, 1973). The employment setting determines, to a large extent, many of the specific tasks performed in the counselor's day-to-day work. Every setting and the clientele it serves have priorities related to their goals. So, in general, the counselor must share and attempt to meet institutional and client priorities (Stone & Shertzer, 1972). With these principles in mind, there are also certain objectives that a counselor seeks to realize in the counsel ing relationship: (1) A realistic balance of needs to be drawn between the aspirations and potentials of a client without harm to his self-esteem. (2) responsible independ ence is a primary objective. The counselor seeks to assist 62 the client to become self-directed and independent. (3) To detect talents. (4) To actualize talents. (5) It is necessary for the counselor to continue to improve and not be static so that he can be a good model. (6) Confiden tiality is essential. (7) A counselor should refer a client to another if the counselor feels he is better qualified. It is necessary for the counselor to know the scope of his professional abilities. (8) Public relations are important to enhance the public image of counseling and to inform the public of services (Demos, 1973). The American Personnel and Guidance Association (APGA) published the Standards (1961) to serve as a guide for counselors. In terms of a body of knowledge for counselors the Standards refers to a "common core" of information that is necessary for counselors to be knowledgeable in and to receive training in to qualify as a counselor. These "common core" areas are : (1) human growth and development; (2) social and cultural foundations ; (3) helping relation ship techniques ; (4) group process skills; (5) career and life-style development ; (6) individual appraisal techniques; (7) research and evaluation skills ; and, (8) professional orientation and ethics. They also state that environmental and specialized studies are necessary so that counselors are able to work in a variety of settings (Dash, 19 75) . Counselor education has a vast theoretical base of 63 knowledge from which to draw. The body of knowledge for counseling is incorporated into educational programs which are examined next. University Education Educational institutions have an important impact on the development of a profession. They serve as the primary repositories for theoretical knowledge, as research centers to uncover new information and as the dispenser of ethical awareness and professional identity for the students. Educational institutions which offer programs in counselor education are rapidly expanding in number, services and enrollment. Most institutions agree that counselor educa tion is a graduate program, but outside of this fact, a great deal of diversity exists in the content and emphasis of the various programs. Counselor education programs are interspersed among a variety of departments within universities. For example, within a single school, graduate programs which produced counselors were located in the school of social sciences, the department of psychology and the department of coun selor education. The results of a study performed in 1970 to survey all programs that claimed to produce doctorates with the label "counseling" indicated that, "There turned out to be over 100 departments with doctoral programs in departments of psychology, education, counseling, educa 64 tional psychology, counselor education and more" (McGowan, 1970, p. 95). Such confusion only serves to slow down the quest for a professional identity for counselors. The large increase in the complexity and number of counselor education programs led to the development of the "Standards for the Preparation of Guidance and Per sonnel Workers in Colleges and Universities" in 1969. Prior to this, standards had been written for elementary and secondary school counselors. In 1971, the Association for Counselor Educators and Supervisors (ACES) voted to combine the three documents into one set of standards. The purpose of the standards for the preparation of counselors is to assure that only qualified and competent counselors enter the counseling profession. The Standards have a direct impact upon the educational institutions which have counselor education programs. There are four major parts to the Standards document. Section I requires the institu tion to develop a philosophy of education and that the program objectives for the counselor education be consis tent with the philosophy. The philosophy and objectives are to be developed by the individual university. Sec tion II outlines the program of studies and supervised ex periences for the counseling program. A sequence of educa tional experiences is presented and prerequisites must be identified. Section III contains the standards for selec 65 tion, retention, endorsement, and placement of students. Section IV specifies the support, administrative relations, and institutional resources required for a program of counselor education. Taken as a whole, these Standards establish the minimum characteristics necessary for a pro gram which prepares counselors. Such supervision is necessary to assure quality training programs (Stone & Shertzer, 1974). The Standards list the "core courses" required for a student in counselor education to obtain a Well-rounded body of knowledge in counseling. In addition to absorbing a vast array of information, there are other essential characteristics of an effective counselor. Stone and Shertzer (1974) found that Krumboltz delineated four criteria for the desired behavior of students who partici pate in the counseling program: 1. The counselor should learn to specify the objectives of counseling in terms of changes in the client's behavior, desired by the client and counselor. 2. The counselor should learn to apply facts about the learning process to assist the client to modify his be havior. 3. The counselor should learn that the final 66 judgments as to the effectiveness of the counseling are left to the client and not the practicum super visor. 4. The counselor should read and be familiar with the research literature and participate in studies so that he finds better ways to help his client. From this description of the essential attributes of a counselor, it can be seen that a counselor must not only possess the knowledge but must also have certain skills of performance. The counselor education programs in the universities must refer directly back to the essential body of know ledge and skills required of all counselors if they are to effectively prepare counseling students. Most graduate counseling programs are designed for students to develop : (1) human relationship skills; (2) technical skills ; and, (3) conceptual skills to function as a professional. Blocher (1968) stated that counseling students have pro gram resources available which involve three response modes. First is the "immediate intuitive," or doing what feels right as the basis for behavior. The programs em phasizing the experiential process are sensitivity groups, communication feedback and awareness of interpersonal be 67 havior. Secondly, the "cognitive-theoretical" response mode is available. Programs characteristic of this mode are lectures, discussions, readings. The third response mode is the "empirical pragmatic," or determining behavior by predictable results. Programs to prepare for this response mode, concentrate in practicums and internship activities (Stone & Shertzer, 1974). If all three re sponse modes were integrated equally into counselor educa tion, a highly effective educational program would result. A difficult problem in counseling has been to develop a method to evaluate counseling skills. It is first necessary to agree upon a set of core competencies and generic skills that should be common to all counselors. The second step would be to devise a way to evaluate the competencies. In response to this need, many universities are now beginning to implement performance based counselor education programs (Miller & Engin, 19 76). Competency- based programs are designed to specify operational skills that enable students, counselor educators and the public to understand and define the role and function of a coun selor. Such programs would evaluate the efficiency of the counselor education training programs by evaluating the counselors as they function on the job. Also, another benefit would be the establishment of a more precise lan guage to improve communication between counselors, clients 68 and the public. Most importantly, society would be better protected from incompetent counselors. Presently, the only criterion for hiring counselors is the applicant's degree and the employer must judge for himself the ade quacy of the academic counseling program (Shoemaker & Splitter, 1976). No longer is the possession of a graduate degree sufficient license to counsel. In general, several criticisms have been leveled at the counselor education programs : 1. Lack of substantive subject matter. Critics say that the material is superficial and only persons who are unable to withstand the academic rigors of other programs choose coun selor education. To overcome this, it is necessary to strive to keep the objectives clearly stated, the programs genuine and the education valuable. 2. Lack of practicality; there is often an excess of theory and a lack of practical field work experience. Counselor education must be assessed in relation to the relevance for practitioners. 69 3. Lack of coherence; some schools teach students to memorize rather than extrapolate and to develop their own knowledge. A framework or guide for counseling programs needs to be established. 4. Overlap, repetition and boredom; there is a need for a careful study of the classes to see that there is no redundancy, yet maintain core courses. 5. Lack of responsibility of counselor educators ; some counselor educators fail to evaluate the professional ability of graduates. One of the criteria of a profession is to impose and enforce standards of admission to the field and the performance level of graduates. The need is to formulate clear guides for evaluation. 6. Lack of innovation ; critics say coun selor education needs to abandon the rigidity of its programs and expand the curriculum past didactic education. Students should be placed in a variety of work settings (Stone & Shertzer, 1974). 70 Counselor education continues to experience the in ternal changes and uncertainty characteristic of an emerg ing profession. The profession is aware of the problems in university education and steps are being taken to improve existing programs. It is time for counseling as a science to gain its own unique place in the graduate curriculum as it continues to develop as a profession. Professional Ideology For an occupation to be considered a profession, it must rest upon an ideology that stresses service to the client, professional judgment based upon professional knowledge, and professional autonomy in the work situation The prominent features of the ideology for the counseling profession are stated in the preamble to the Standards as follows : The American Personnel and Guidance Association is an educational, scientific, and professional organi zation dedicated to service to society. This service is committed to profound faith in the worth, dignity and great potentiality of the individual human being. Furthermore, a profession exalts service to the individual and society above personal gain. (Demos & Grant, 1973, p. 25) The counseling profession does have an ideology upon which to base more specific standards of ethical conduct. To offer the best service to the client, the personal values of the counselor must be compatible with his pro- 71J fessional ideology. A distinction can be made between per sonal conduct and professional conduct. Criteria appli cable to personal conduct is left to the choice of the in dividual based upon his own personal value system. It is understandable that there should be no serious conflicts between the professional and personal codes. To prevent such a conflict from occurring, it is necessary for a potential counselor to be aware of his values and how they relate to the profession of counseling. The fundamental consideration is that respect and protection must be given the counselee by counselors who exhibit honesty, integrity, and objectivity in their professional conduct. The main guide for practitioners to follow is to respect the dignity of the individual, i.e., his rights, privacy and interests. The service aspect of the professional ideology is expressed by counselors in a number of ways. Counselors serve their clients in a variety of areas. The categories of personal-social, educational, and vocational counseling tend to overlap, but they can be used to delineate ser vices counselors are qualified to give. For instance, personal-social counseling involves assisting people who need help making choices and adjustments in all problems not directly related to educational or career concerns. Problem areas that might confront a counselor in helping a client with personal-social concerns include: emotional. 72 financial, marital, mental, motivation, . needs, sexual, re creational and moral problems. The rights of the normal person to be helped must be recognized and it is usually in the personal-social category where their needs are most evident. Secondly, counselors offer their service in educational matters. Most educational counseling occurs in the schools and involves curriculum planning, school activities and program planning. Today, there is societal pressure to obtain more and more education. Counselors can serve their clients by having sufficient knowledge re garding the amount of time and education careers require and how they may best obtain such an education. More and more older adults are returning to school and require assistance with their special educational needs. Counse lors can be of great service at such times. Finally, vocational counseling involves assisting individuals in career selection or changing their vocation. The voca tional counselor serves his client by having a broad know ledge of some occupations and keeps abreast of the changing aspects of the world of work. It is necessary to be aware of the probabilities for future careers and how to prepare for them. All three areas of counseling are closely re lated, but integral to each is the notion of "service" to the client. The professional judgments of counselors based upon 73 their training extend into a wide range of situations. For example, the core principle of counseling is "helping." People who are naive, unknowing, troubled, unskilled may at some time need to see a counselor. The counselor's task is not to play God, but rather to give the person the type of assistance he desires. It is the personalized help the counselor gives that makes the counseling rela tionship unique in human relationships (Demos & Grant, 1973). Through judgments based upon his expertise, a counselor attempts to influence behavior. This does not mean to manipulate or persuade. Rather, the counselor presents facts and alternatives to consider so that the client can choose how best to resolve his difficulties. Helping people make choices is one of the most important aspects of counseling. The goal of such help is for the client to develop his own problem-solving methodology. A final concern of professional ideology is that the professional be autonomous in the work situation. This is evidenced in counselor education by the fact that counse lors are free to use whatever counseling methodology and techniques that best meet the needs of the client. Each counselor should be free to choose his own way of counsel ing as he relates to each client as a separate and unique individual. The properly educated, professional and ethical counselor will attempt to master the techniques 74 he must use for the particular type of counseling for which his education has prepared him. This means that he will use only those methods he is professionally competent to use. When he feels unqualified, a counselor should re fer his client to another counseling specialist. The importance of the professional ideology of coun seling cannot be understated. As counseling continues to grow in professional status; the impact on society and the individual increases. Therefore, a solid ideology is the basis for further ethical practices. Professional Associations Professionalism assumes specialization. If a pro fessional steps outside his area of expertise, he limits his effectiveness and does his client a disservice. For counseling to become a profession, counselors had first to be dedicated, informed and united in a group to promote their specialization. Several professional organizations joined together in 1951 to form the American Personnel Guidance Association (APGA). The National Vocational Guidance Association, the American College Personnel Asso ciation and Counselor Trainers all felt their interests could best be served by joining together as the American Personnel Guidance Association. Within the APGA there are ten specialty divisions: 1. American College Personnel Association 75 (ACPA). This section unites student personnel workers in colleges and their major journal is the Journal of College Personnel. Association for Counselor Education and Supervision (ACES). This section is for those involved in the profes sional preparation and/or local and state supervision of counselors. They have as their journal. Counselor Educa tion and Supervision. National Vocational Guidance Association (NVGA). This group focuses on work careers and vocational guidance practices. Their journal is Vocational Guidance Quarterly. Student Personnel Association for Teacher Education (SPATE). This section is for those who work in teacher education in stitutions. Their journal is by the same name, SPATE. American Rehabilitation Counseling Association (ARCA). The focus is for those counselors who are employed in rehabilitational settings. They provide a Rehabilitation Bulletin. 76 6. American School Counselor Association (ASCA). This group serves school counselors. They publish the journal. School Counselor. 7. Association for Measurement and Evalua tion (AME). This section is devoted to guidance measurement and publishes the journal. Measurement and Evaluation in Guidance. 8. National Employment Counseling Associa tion (NECA). This group was formed in 1966 to increase employment counselors. 9. Association for Non-white Concerns (ANWC). They formed in 197 2 to help eliminate prejudice. 10. National Catholic Guidance Council (NCGC). The APGA holds national conventions, publishes job oppor tunities and has a directory which provides lists of coun seling agencies which meet the professional standards established by the group (Stone & Shertzer, 1974). The American Psychological Association designated Division 17 as Counseling Psychology in 1951. By 1970 this was one of the largest specialty areas within the APA. To specialize, a counselor must first be a member of APA (Shertzer, 1974). Every counselor should belong to the 77 APGA. After that, it is valuable for the counselor to join an organization which focuses on his specialty area such as the Association for Counselor Education and Supervision (AGES) (Tyler, 1953). Specialized professional associa tions are necessary for counseling to gain proper recogni tion as a distinct profession. Code of Ethics A code of ethics must emerge from any vocational pur suit if it is to be termed "professional." Ethics may be defined as following formal or professional rules of right and wrong. Schmidt defines ethics as "the standards of right and wrong, that part of science and philosophy deal ing with moral conduct, duty and judgment" Demos, 1973, p. 2 4). A counselor must then internalize these ethics and obtain his own moral and philosophical code by means of which he relates with his client. If a counselor's per sonal value system deviates too radically from the pro scribed ethical system, then it may be necessary for him to re-evaluate his choice of career. Demos (1973) further notes that Schmidt defines "'ethical' as relating to what the counselor, morally, philosophically and otherwise, ex pects from himself as a counselor or limits himself to in his work with clients." (p. 24) There are six major areas of activity in which members of the APGA concentrate their expertise. The areas of 78 counseling are: testing, research and publication, coun seling, personnel administration, counseling and private practice and preparation for personnel work. Each separate area has ethical standards unique to that specialty that are set by the APGA. The code of ethics for the counsel ing section of the Standards follows: Counseling: This section refers to practices involving a counseling re lationship with a counselee or client and is not intended to be applicable to practices involving administrative relationships with persons being helped. A counseling relationship denotes that the persons seeking help retains full freedom of choice and decision making and that the helping person has not authority or responsibility to approve or disapprove of the choices or deci sions of the counselee or client. 'Counselee* or 'client' is used here to indicate the person for whom the member has assumed professional respons ibility. Typically, the counselee or client is the individual with whom the member has direct and primary contact. However, at times, 'client' may include another person when the other person exercises significant control and direction over the individual being helped in connection with the decisions and plans being considered in counseling. (1) The member's primary obligation is to retain the integrity and promote the welfare of the counselee or client with whom he is working. (2) The counseling relationship and in formation resulting therefrom must be kept confidential and consistent with the obligations of the member or the professional persons. 79 (3) Records of the counseling re lationship including interview notes, test data, correspondence, tape re cordings , and other documents are to be considered professional informa tion for use in counseling research, and teaching of counselors, but always under full protection of the identity of the client and full precaution so that no harm will come to him. (4) The counselee or client should be informed of the conditions under which he may receive consulting assistance at or before the time he enters the counseling relationship. This is par ticularly true in the event that there exist conditions of which the counselee or client would likely be aware. (5) The member reserves the right to consult any other professionally com petent person about the counselee or client. In choosing his professional consultant, the member must avoid placing the consultant in a conflict of interest situation; i.e. , the con sultant must be free of any other obligatory relation to the member's client that would preclude the consultant being a proper party to the member's ef forts to help the counselee or client. (6) The member shall decline to initiate or shall terminate a counseling relation ship when he cannot be of professional assistance to the counselee or client either because of lack of competence or personal limitation. In such instances, the member shall refer his counselee or client to an appropriate specialist. In the event the counselee or client declines the suggested referral, the member is not obligated to continue the counseling re lationship. (7) When the member learns from counsel ing relationships of conditions which are likely to harm someone over whom his in- 80 stitution or agency has responsi bility, he is expected to report the condition to the appropriate responsible authority. This should be done in such a manner as not to reveal the identity of his counselee or client. (8) In the event that the counselee or client's condition is such as to require others to assume responsibility for him, or when there is clear and imminent danger to the counselee or client or to others, the member is ex pected to report this fact to an appro priate responsible authority, and/or take such other emergency measures as the situation demands. (9) Should the member be engaged in a work setting which calls for variation from the above statements, the member is obligated to ascertain that such variations are justifiable under the conditions and that such variations are clearly specified and made known to all concerned with such counseling services . (Demos & Grant, 1973, p. 24) There are certain basic ethical principles that must be followed if counseling is to have a high professional standard. These may be overlooked because they are so basic. For instance, a counselor should complete his training before counseling. An example of a violation of this principle would be a school teacher who is assigned to counsel without the proper training. Also, a counselor should only practice in areas that he is specifically trained for. Proper referrals are essential when the task is out of the professional's level of competence. Another principle, confidentiality, is of utmost im- 81 portance. Since confidentiality is the basis of trust and trust is the basis of the helping relationship, some gen eral principles of confidentiality for counselors are necessary. They are as follows : 1. The obligation of confidentiality is relative rather than absolute, since there are conditions which alter it. 2. Confidentiality depends on the nature of the material, so that material which is already public or can easily become so is not bound by confidentiality in the same way as is the entrusted secret. 3. Material that is harmless does not bind the counselor to confidentiality. 4. Confidentiality is always conditioned by the intrinsic right of the counselee to his integrity and reputation, to the secret, and to resist aggression. Such rights can be protected by the counselor even against the law. 5. The material that is necessary for a counselor or an agency to function effectively is often released from the bonds of confidentiality. 82 6. Confidentiality is limited also by the rights of the counselor to pre serve his own reputation and integrity, to resist harm or aggression, and to preserve privileged communications. 7. Confidentiality is determined and limited by the rights of an innocent third party and by the rights of the community (Schneiders, 1963). It is essential that counselors be aware of the ethical and legal considerations that are inherent in their profession. A code of ethics is not meant to establish boundaries for what a counselor can get away with, rather to set up positive limits for professional behavior. When taken from a positive point of view, the code of ethics serves as a conscience to provoke deliberation. Counselors can gain perspectives on how to; (1) Maintain professional competence; (2) place counselee's interests ahead of his own ; (3) show concern for his colleagues ; and, (4) reflect standards of good practice (Stone & Shertzer, 1974). Pro fessional maturity can be gained by discussion and reason ing of the problems facing counselors. Self-regulation Counselors are unable to work at less than a profes sional level and fulfill the true nature of their role. To 83 reach such a professional level there needs to be a clear definition of roles so that there can be adequate prepara tion of counselors. The second step is the development of standards for criteria to measure counseling (Glanz, 1964) The quality of the service depends upon the quality of preparation. The establishment of standards should be used to judge students applying for counseling programs and also for the eligibility for certificates (Downing, 1968). For several years, the APGA has been involved in the development of standards for counselors. In 1960 a study was performed by ACES to determine what the essential elements are for counselor education. This led to the de velopment of standards for secondary school counselors. In 196 4 the APA listed standards for the professional prepara tion of counselors in all settings. In 19 67 the standards for secondary school counselors was adopted at the ACES convention. This led the way for the development of stand ards for elementary and college personnel workers. Thus, in 1964, standards were adopted for both college personnel workers and elementary counselors (Shertzer & Stone, 1974). In 1970-1971 the ACES requested that the three sets of standards be combined into one document. The reasons were first of all that the standards overlapped. Secondly, it was difficult to apply three separate sets of standards. The new standards document went as a ballot to ACES members 84 in November, 1973. There are four parts to the new standards : 1. The institution develops the philosophy and objectives for counselor education. 2. An outline of the program of studies and field work, classes and prerequisites. 3. Standards for the selection, retention and endorsement of students. 4. Support, administrative relations and institutional resources for counselor education programs (Shertzer, 19 74). This indicates the broad range of influence that the self regulation standards impose on counselors. There are six major professional areas which encompass the work of the members of APGA. Each area has ethical principles specific to it. In addition, there is a General Section which includes principles germane to the entire work of the counseling profession. The self-regulating principles for this section are as follows : (1) The member exerts his influence to foster the development and improve ment of the profession and continues his professional growth throughout his career. (2) The member has a responsibility to the institution within which he serves. By accepting employment, he also must agree with and support the institution's general policies and principles. Should he find that 85 he is unable to accept the ethical standards of conduct of his superiors he should end his affiliation with them. (3) The member must expect ethical be havior among his professional associates at APGA at all times. If he possesses information regarding unethical conduct of members, he must do whatever is necessary to rectify such conditions. (4) The member is obligated to concern himself with the degree to which the personnel functions of non-members with whose work he is familiar represents competent and ethical performance. Where there is a serious doubt regarding their ethical performance, it is his responsibility to attempt to rectify such conditions. (5) The member must not seek self enhancement through expressing evalua tions damaging to other ethical pro fessional workers. (6) The member should not claim or imply professional qualifications exceeding those possessed and is responsible for correcting any misrepresentations of his qualifications by others. (7) The member providing services for personal remuneration shall, in estab lishing the fees, take into account the charges made for comparable services by other professionals. (8) The member who disseminates informa tion to the public, subordinates, peers or superiors has the responsibility to see that the information is accurate and appropriate. (9) Information about clients shall be shared only with those who will use such information for professional purposes. (10) The member shall offer professional 86 services only through the context of a professional relationship. Testing, counseling, and other services are not to be provided through the radio, mail, newspapers, TV, or public performances.(Demos, 1973, pp. 25-26) Presently, the standards for self-regulation which have been adopted by APGA are open to interpretation and/or can be ignored by the staff. The only sanction against the institutions who do not comply with the standards is for the accreditation association or the profession as a whole to take official action (Dash, 1975). It is important for counselor professionals to renew their commitment to im plement the standards. The question of licensure for mental health profes sionals has been discussed in several states. Both the APA and APGA have been active in encouraging legislation for licensure. The APGA requested a position paper with the stated objectives: (1) to provide for the continual professional development of counselors; and, (2) to upgrade professional levels cf practice. The solution to the needs was cited as the need for "recertification" (Miller & Engin, 1976). A study was performed to survey different states* positions regarding licensure as opposed to certi fication of guidance counselors. Of the 42 states which responded, 9.5 percent say they now license guidance coun selors, 7.1 percent say they will license within three 87 years, and 83 percent do not anticipate licensure in the near future (Jones, 1976). Licensing and certification were developed by profes sions which offered unique services to guard the public health, welfare, and safety. They provide two primary services to the public: (1) recognize and identify quali fied persons; and, (2) define the services and responsi bilities of the person. There is a distinction between licensure and certification. Certification identifies qualified persons but does not delineate the services they may perform. Licensing, as well as identifying qualified persons, defines the practice and limitations of services (Cottingham & Swanson, 1976). For the purpose of this study, the following creden tials offered by departments which met the operational de finition of Counselor Education were examined: The Cali fornia Community College Counselor credential and the Student Personnel Worker credential. The counseling license examined was : Marriage/Family/ChiId Counseling License. Public Sanction Once the professional standards of self-regulation have been developed and adopted by the profession, the next step is the implementation of the standards into policies of accreditation. Official authorization of accredited 88 programs gives the assurance and confidence of program quality (Peters, 1969). A major component of professional ism is certification and licensure. It is the responsi bility of the counseling profession as a whole to see that its practitioners receive adequate training. This involves the consideration of the whole profession as to the certi fication requirements for each state. Presently, each state has the authority to set up its own laws regarding certification requirements. There are no uniform state standards for counselors at college and university levels (Peters, 1969). State certification standards were first adopted in 196 0 by Idaho and 196 2 by New York. By January 1966, studies showed that fifty-three states and terri tories out of 5 5 have school counseling certification. Re search performed in 1960 showed that 59 percent of the states have two separate levels of professional certifica tion; 64 percent included two years of teaching experience and 5 7 percent required adult work experience. The con clusions drawn from this research indicated that counselor certification should include; 1. Teaching certificate. 2. Adult work experience. 3. Broad areas in the academic education. 4. Personal attributes of importance in counseling. 5. The minimum of a master's degree. 6. Renewal of the certificate. 89 7. No additional teaching or work ex perience necessary for the renewal of the certificate (Peters, 1969). There are many difficulties exacting legal control over persons who perform "counseling" services. First of all, the helping professionals represent a variety of job settings, titles and various counseling services. It is difficult to specifically define a qualified helping pro fessional and to measure his competency. Also, counseling professionals come from diverse training programs with different academic training in departments other than psychology. Problems arise when counselors fill positions, for which they are not qualified. Also, inequities occur when counseling psychologist graduates are denied the right to take state licensing examinations because of the type of degree they hold or the department from which it was issued. This deprives the counselor of the right to practice and the public from necessary services (Cottingham & Swanson, 1976). New definitions of counselors are emerging as licensing and certification are sought. As the licensing standards are being enacted, curriculum modifica tions in the counseling graduate programs must be made to adequately prepare the graduate for the licensing examina tions . 90 Conclusion Two major issues emerge in the field of counselor education. First, general agreement indicates that there needs to be broader, more extensive training of counselors. This would mean professional preparation at a graduate level accompanied by an extensive undergraduate study pro gram. This would provide a more definitive view of who the counselor is and what he does (Shertzer, 1974). Sec ondly, it is generally accepted that credentialing is necessary. The question raised is, "How and by whom are the standards used to accredit the counselor education programs?" If the accreditation is left to individual in stitutions, it might foster inflexibility and decrease the number of counselor candidates, but external evaluation would impinge upon the freedom of the individual institu tion. On the other hand, if the standards were implemented by an external agency, the evaluation would not be biased or involved with internal politics. Many feel, however, that professionalism can be assured only when members of the profession assume the responsibility for quality pre paration of candidates (Shertzer, 1974). Presently, the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, established in 1954, has the task of insuring quality teacher education. One possibility suggested is for the ACES commission on standards and accreditation to work with 91 the NCATE to request that they include Counselor Education programs within their accrediting jurisdiction. To insure counselor representation, one counselor educator would be placed on each review team (Shertzer, 1974). The field of Counselor Education is so intertwined with other professions that it is difficult to see it as a profession in its own right. The code of ethics comes from the American Psychological Association. Some forms of counseling have certification or licensing and others do not. Counselors have their own society, the American Per sonnel and Guidance Association, within which there are eight divisions or fields of counseling. The literature states that counselors need specialized training and yet with so many counselors coming from different backgrounds, they do not state how to achieve this specialization. In spite of all this confusion. Counselor Education is con sidered a profession by many. Apparently this appraisal is a result of the close alliance with established professions and the vague boundaries that separate them. The initial step towards professionalism was establishing a Counselor Education department. Counselor educators point to several areas such as educational background, personality charac teristics, a professional society, a helping relationship and ethics when distinguishing themselves from paraprofes- sionals. In discussions which try to distinguish counse- 92 lors from psychologists almost the same areas are men tioned. Psychologists handle the more difficult clients, they have their own society and ethics, and the nature of the helping relationship is different. This may indicate that rather than one field, which can be considered a pro fession, there are instead, fields with varying degrees of professionalism. Where do counselor educators seem to be headed in the future? It seems likely that counselors will expand into a wide variety of work settings. During the past decade, county jobs have increased by 6 percent and projections are for a 3 percent increase in the future. This means that there will be an increased demand for non-school counselors in settings such as community action projects and Job Corps. Also, there will be an increased emphasis on pro fessionalism. Professional organizations will interpret the roles and functions of counselors. Improved training programs will result. Finally, paraprofessionals will be used by counselors directly and indirectly to facilitate and extend their work. This will allow for an increased impact by counselors (Shertzer, 1974). In conclusion, it seems that the field of counseling is fluid and evolving. There are possibilities for continued growth in many direc tions. The following chapter will examine the specialty of gerontology and where it lies on the continuum of profes sionalism. 93 CHAPTER IV THE PROFESSIONAL STATUS OF GERONTOLOGY Introduction According to the operational definitions used in the context of this study, a discipline has professional stand ing if it meets the established criteria. These are: (1) a body of knowledge; (2) university education; (3) pro fessional ideology; (4) professional association; (5) code of ethics ; (6) self-regulation; and, (7) public sanction. If one uses these guidelines, law, medicine, nursing and social work can be considered professions, while adult education, counselor education and public administration are moving toward professional standing. Inc^reased numbers and greater longevity have made the elderly a significant and recognizable aggregate in our society, and it is ques^ tionable whether these disciplines can adequately meet the needs of the aged. The field of gerontology could address itself to these needs and has the ability to implement and provide for a uniform system of research, education, and service delivery. 94 The following chapter will examine the historical trends in the field of gerontology, will support the need for gerontology, and will examine whether or not geron tology meets professional status according to the desig nated criteria. Trends of Gerontology Gerontology, according to Breen (1970), is a field which is no more than three decades old. It has taken at least this period of time for gerontology to be recognized as "a systematic examination of data and logical sets of conclusions concerning the aging process." Gerontology has been defined in a variety of ways and in volves numerous disciplines. Clark Tibbitts (1960) has helped popularize the term "social gerontology." Social gerontology focuses upon two points of view: (1) one view is concerned with the scientific and psychological forces upon the organism; and the other (2) is concerned with the manner in which the environment and the organizational structure of culture influences the individual. Breen (1970) identifies five separate stages in the development of gerontology as a discipline. These include the philo sophical stage, biological stage, psychological stage, social stage, and political stage. Philosophical concern in aging dates back to Ari stotle's time. Lengthy dialogues of Aristotle, Cicero, 95 and Homer reflect upon the interest and concern of growing old. Cicero's "De Senectute" (106-43 B.C.) addresses the problems of old age and expresses that it is a time of joy rather than a time of despair. The biological interest in aging dates back to the 1800's. Birren (19 70) credits Quetelet as the first geron tologist, although it was not until the late 1930's that an active interest in aging began to develop. During the 1930's the number of individuals aged 65 increase 35 per cent as contrasted with an increase in the general popula tion of 7.2 percent (Birren, 1970). In 1939 a group of British scientists became interested in age-related changes in cells, organs, and tissues and decided to form an Inter national Club for Research on Aging (Tibbitt, 1960). The publication of Cowdry's Problems of Aging in 19 39 and the establishment of the Gerontological Society in 1945 illu strate the growing interest in the biological aspects of aging (Kleemeir, Havighurst & Tibbitts, 1967). Psychological interest in the elderly paralleled the development of institutional facilities for the aged. Long-term care facilities and interest in "senility" pro moted the awareness of the mental health needs of the elderly. The first marked contribution was Stanley Hall's book on Senescence published in 192 3 (Kleemeir et al., 1967). The first systematic attempt to investigate the 96 psychological aspects of aging occurred when the Stanford Later Maturity Research Project conducted a study (Tib bitts, 1960). Social interest in aging began when increasing numbers of the aged affected various aspects of society. Issues such as housing, economics and health became pressing social concerns. The establishment of the Journal of Gerontology in 1946 evidenced interest in the problems of aging in the social science area. The National Conference on Aging was organized in 1950 and was devoted to social, economic and related aspects of aging. The political phase of gerontology developed in the mid-thirties. While primarily an economic issue, the Social Security Act of 19 35 was also indicative of polit ical interest in aging. In 1934, Simmons published a work entitled. The Role of the Aged in Primitive Society and provided a basis for comparing the elderly in agricultural and industrial society. In 194 8 a report on Social Adjust ment in Old Age indicated that sociological interest in aging was beginning to carry itself through the develop mental stages of life. The 1950's revealed a prolifera tion of publications and continued research. At this time eight sections of the first National Conference on Aging were organized and the Inter-University Training Institute in Social Gerontology was conceptualized and supported (Tibbitts, 1960). 97 In 19 65 the first White House Conference on Aging and the passage of the Older American's Act provided for the development of the Administration on Aging and the Social Security amendments. In addition, the establishment of the National Retired Teacher's Association, American Asso ciation of Retired Persons, the National Council on Aging, the Senate Sub-committee on Aging, National Center on Black Aging and the National Institute on Aging are indicative of the growing interest and stature of the field of geron tology. Documentation of Needs The need to address the aged and their problems is be coming more apparent. Kleemeir (1965) states that the be lated attention now given to the problems of aging and the aged is the result of changing perceptions of the elderly, rather than the significant increase in the elderly popula tion. Due to changing perspectives and demographical statistics, the fact remains that there is a need for specialized training in working with older adults. Krauss (1963) and Kleemeir (1965) further substantiate this need. Krauss (1963) states that it is obviously becoming more evident that meeting the needs of the aged requires a specialized body of knowledge in modern society. Kleemeir (1965) adds that there is both a need in society and in science for a major investment of effort directed toward 98 %he alleviation of the problems of aging. Certain prob lems, areas, methods, techniques, knowledge, professional personnel and institutions should clearly be seen as having an intimate, predominate, or exclusive concern for aging with different disciplines contributing to a central area of concern. The need for special training in the area of aging was identified by the White House Conference on Aging in 1961. A committee concerned with the role and training of pro fessional personnel designated four occupational groups which they felt needed gerontological training. These in cluded: (1) medical services; (2) social work; (3) educa tional, religious, and recreational services; and, (4) en vironmental planning and administration. In addition, Clark Tibbitts (1967) describes the following four cate gories of personnel needed to work with the aged : (1) di rect providers of services; (2) planners, administrators, and program directors; (3) researchers; and, (4) teachers. Present economic, housing, health and legislative trends further support the need for gerontological train ing. The spread of technology and an industrial economy have presented problems for the elderly. Retirement income for a person over 6 5 is provided by the Social Security Act. The original intent of Social Security was to help the elderly meet the risks of old age and unemployment 99 (United States Department of Health, Education, and Wel fare, 1973). Until recently, coverage excluded govern mental, agricultural, domestic, casual and non-profit em ployees and the self-employed. In the 1970's coverage has been broadened so that 90 percent of the population 65 and over is eligible for social security benefits (Fitzpatrick, 19 75). Social Security is presently the major source of retirement income and a 196 8 study indicates that over 60 percent of the aged received no other periodic retirement benefits (Krumboltz, 1966). Private pensions were re ceived by only 12 percent of the aged and these generally were people who received higher Social Security benefits (Fitzpatrick, 1975). Although social benefits have in creased within recent years, they have not kept up with escalating costs of living. Many of the elderly cannot meet rising food costs, taxes, and medical expenses. The enactment of the Supplementary Security Income Program has provided additional monies on the basis of "need" rather than right. Presently, maximum Supplementary Security Income payments in the State of California are $259 for an individual and $4 88 for a couple. Payments vary according to living arrangements and disabilities and not all eligible people get the maximum benefits. A sub stantial gap exists between minimum benefits and the living costs of the elderly. 100 In 1974 the median income for all American families was $12,836, while the median income for families 65 or older was $7,298 (Current Population Reports: Special Studies, 1976). Approximately 50 percent of the elderly are poor and have incomes less than $3,000 (United States Congress House Select Committee on Aging, 1976). Low in come makes home ownership and maintenance difficult. As costs for repairs, utilities and property taxes rise, the elderly find themselves with a dwindling supply of funds to cover these needs. It has been projected that by 1978 about 8.3 million elderly people will be living in 3.7 million sub-standard housing units (United States Congress, House Select Committee on Aging, 1976). The steady increase in the elderly population effects health trends. The elderly utilize health services more frequently, since the frequency of hospitalization and length of hospital stay increase with age. One out of every four persons is likely to be hospitalized within a given period, and approximately 71 percent of persons 6 5 or older visit a physician at least once a year (Loether, 19 75). Twenty-eight percent of the $80 billion spent nationally for personal health care in 1973 was for older persons who constitute 10 percent of the population. The per capita health costs for an older person are $1,052, as compared to $3 8 5 per capita for younger adults (United 101 States Department of Housing, Education, and Welfare, 1975). Medicare insurance helps pay for hospitalization and certain post-hospital care of people 65 and older. The elderly are responsible for paying 2 8 percent of doctor bills and related medical expenses and the government pays the balance (Medicare Increase, 1977). This does not in clude medical costs of the elderly not covered by Medicare or Medi-Cal. A growing interest in the elderly is indicated by legislative trends of the recent past. Governmental bodies such as the Veterans Administration, the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, the Administration on Aging, United States Senate Special Committee on Aging, Social Security Administration and Area Agencies on Aging are indicative of interest in the elderly. Gerontology can provide a distinctive educational and research oriented discipline which deals specifically with the phenomenon of aging. Social, economic, and legislative trends document the need for specialized training in work ing with the aged and promote the development of geron tology towards professionalism. Gerontology on the Continuum of Professionalism This study has operationally defined seven attributes which most authors regard as constituents of professional status. The seven criteria for professionalism are as 102 follows: (1) body of knowledge; (2) university education; (3) professional ideology; (4) professional associations ; (5) code of ethics; (6) self-regulation ; and, (7) public sanction. This section will examine the field of geron tology with respect to each of the criteria and determine the professional status of gerontology. Body of Knowledge Gerontology is in the process of developing an identi fiable body of knowledge. Kleemeir, Havighurst, and Tibbitts (196 7) note "the body of specialized knowledge is there and is accumulating." Traditionally, gerontology is a multidisciplinary field, which borrows knowledge from the sciences and social sciences. As previously mentioned, Birren (1970), Breen (1970), and Tibbitt (1960) have docu mented the accumulation of knowledge in the fields of philosophy, biology, sociology, physiology, and politics. University interest in gerontology dates back to the 1950's when several universities initiated gerontological programs. Cornell University developed programs in educa tion, industry and business ; the University of Chicago was an innovator in pre-retirement programs; and, Duke Univers ity brought various departments in the university together to examine problems of the aged. In addition, the Univers ity of California developed a research program, the Uni versity of Iowa developed a gerontology institute> and, the 103 University of Michigan started the first Institute of Gerontology. Each of the schools has made a significant contribution to knowledge in the field of gerontology. In 19 75, the University of Southern California set precedent by establishing a separate school of gerontology. The Leonard Davis School of Gerontology is dedicated to developing and identifying a distinct set of theories, methodologies and principles which form the technical base of professional practice. It offers courses which con centrate on biological theories, developmental processes and psycho-social needs as they relate to the aging in dividual . The creation of governmental bodies such as the Administration on Aging, the United States Senate Sub committee on Aging (195 9) , followed by the Senate Special Committee on Aging, the National Council on Aging (1960) , the Administration on Aging (1965) , the National Institute on Aging and the National Institute on Child Health and Human Development have added new dimensions to the current body of knowledge. They are subsidizing research, pub lishing literature, and have become strong adovocates in the field. In addition, the proliferation of publications and governmental grants are also indications of an ever growing body of knowledge that pertains specifically to gerontology. 104 Professional Education At present there are no specific courses required for one to be considered a "gerontologist." In the field of adult education, for example, many teachers are considered gerontologists even though they have had no formalized training in the area of aging. Although the recent Ryan Act (1970) has made requirements for receiving a credential much more stringent in California, educators of adults are still not required to take courses which deal specifically with the aging individual. Nevertheless, there is a growing consensus that a university education is necessary in the field of geron tology. In 1956 the Gerontological Society sponsored a conference to consider the problems of training in the social science aspects of gerontology (Shock, 1957). As a result, the Inter-University Training Institute in Social Gerontology was established (Breen, 1970). Shock (1957) felt that professional workers had not received adequate exposure to the aspects of aging and stated, there is a definite need for the organization of course material on our knowledge about aging for presentation to undergraduate and graduate students...More systematic instruction is imperative if we are to attract potential competent re search and professional workers into this field. (p. 10) There are differing points of view on whether geron- 105 tology should eventually become a separate discipline or whether it should be incorporated into traditional fields of study. Breen (1970) questions whether one can have a separate scholarly discipline in gerontology and train specialists in the field. Some educators argue that train ing should be at a generalist level in gerontology with scholarly training specialization in traditional fields such as biology or sociology (Breen, 1970). Kuhlen, Kreps, Kushner, Osterbind, and Webber (196 7) emphatically state that specialization is possible and should be required within social gerontology. In 19 57 Kleemeir took the position that gerontology could be considered a distinc tive area of teaching and research. As a separate entity, he said, it could be contained within the university with its own administrative authority, faculty and academic rights and responsibilities. Within the last few years, gerontology has become a recognized course of study in university education. A national survey on education activities which was con ducted in 1961 by the University of Michigan showed that progress was being made in the field. From 1958 to 1961, 112 institutions and 116 departments reported on 2 21 re search projects in gerontology and 137 theses and disserta tions were written. The dissertations were produced in the fields of sociology, psychology, and human development. 106 and the greatest number of master's degrees were in the field of social work. A survey in 1964, conducted by the Gerontological Society, identified 159 institutions giving some training in gerontology (Breen, 1970). Of the total number of institutions, 80 were academic, 40 were medical or professional, and the rest were agencies. Research programs in gerontology had 199 students who were enrolled or who had completed a program, while 1,089 students were in the applied programs. Recommendations were made to in crease funding for research and training and to develop facilities and resources. It was suggested that inter disciplinary mechanisms and inter-university cooperation should be undertaken. Breen (1970) concluded that this report held great promise for the future of gerontology. In 1967, Donahue identified a number of university programs, centers, and institutes of gerontology which were multidisciplinary in nature and offered graduate training as well as research programs. Examples given were as follows: Duke Center for Aging Research and Human De velopment; University of Chicago Program of Adult Develop ment and Aging; the University of Southern California Rossmoore-Cortise Institute for Study of Retirement and Aging ; and, the University of Michigan-Wayne State Insti tute of Gerontology. More recently, the expansion of gerontology has spread 107 to colleges and universities throughout the country. In 1976, the Association for Gerontology in Higher Education compiled a directory to inform educators, professionals, and students of available gerontology-related courses, degree programs, research programs, educational services, and training programs. The study indicates that there are approximately 1,2 75 institutions in the United States which offer gerontology courses. In California alone, 104 in stitutions offer gerontology courses. These institutions may be community colleges, vocation and technical insti tutes, colleges, universities, professional schools, or non-degree granting institutions (United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Human Develop ment, Administration on Aging, 1976). The interest in gerontology is shown through the pro liferation of training schools in various institutions. More colleges and universities are recognizing the future importance of gerontology. At the same time, however, there appears to be disagreement as to whether gerontology should become an independent discipline. Presently, the majority of schools are incorporating gerontology into traditional fields of study. Until this issue becomes re solved, individual institutions will have to decide if a separate and distinct school for gerontology is necessary. One must conclude that educational requirements for geron 108 tology are presently in a state of development which marks a definite step toward professional standing. Professional Ideology A professional ideology should center around three important aspects: the notion of service, an emphasis on professional judgment based upon knowledge, and belief in professional freedom and autonomy (Elliot, 19 73). Pre sently , a formalized written ideology for gerontology does not exist. There are indications that the need and poten tial for establishing such an ideology is growing. As mentioned previously, housing, health, economic, and demographic trends support the need for special train ing in the gerontological field. In the past, governmental organizations and private organizations have recognized the responsibility for providing services to the elderly. How ever, as Kleemeir and Birren (1967) note, "...while this movement is discernible in many places and agencies, its essential gerontological character tends to be obscured, becoming identified with the fostering agency, or in the case of instructional and research programs, with tradi tional scientific disciplines." (p. 6) There is a need for "a major, visible and unambiguous investment of effort directed toward the solution or alleviation of the problems of aging." (p. 6) Gerontology, as a self-standing dis cipline would have a predominant and exclusive concern with 109 the aged, thereby affirming the ideological interest in service. Research in the field of gerontology has been occur ring for several decades. The desire for developing geron tology as a separate discipline in the area of academia, however, has been a recent development. In 1967 geron tology had cursory programs throughout the country. In 197 5 the University of Southern California established the Leonard Davis School of Gerontology and set precedent by combining a training and research center for the aged which was housed in a separate school of gerontology. Since July, 1976 a national directory published by the Association of Gerontology for Higher Education, listed 1,275 educational programs that dealt with the aged (Watkins, 1977). Thus, as Ruth Weg states, "The study of aging has come of age" (Weg, as quoted by Watkins, 1977, p. 4) . Since gerontology is an emerging field, the need for qualified practitioners is still unmet. One can expect that very few specialists have had gerontological train ing. Due to this situation, an emphasis on professional judgment and the freedom and autonomy to make choices are ideals which have not yet been tested and/or attained. The indications are that the potential for growth in the field will eventually lead to more trained specialists who 110 will be responsible for making sound, professional, and autonomous j udgments. Professional Associations In order for gerontology to be considered a profes sion , organizations must be established which set criteria for membership in the field. There are presently three organizations which deal specifically with gerontology. The Gerontological Society is the authoritative voice as author and critic in the formulation of national policy and reflects upon the status of gerontology in modern society (Freeman, 1971). Jerome Kaplan (1970) states that the formation of the Gerontological Society in 1945 marks the most significant contribution on a national scope. The society is devoted to research on aging and encompasses training and evaluation of services for older people. Re search is conducted in biology, clinical medicine, psychol ogy, social sciences, and social welfare. The Society publishes two journals: The Journal of Gerontology and the Gerontologist. The Journal of Geron- tology issues quarterly reports of original research in the affiliated fields mentioned above. The Gerontologist is also published quarterly and carries articles of general interest in the areas of medical care, recreation, housing, social welfare, employment and any other area which is re lated to aging. I l l The Western Gerontological Society and Association for Gerontology in Higher Education are two organizations whose focus is educational in nature. The primary goal of the Western Gerontological Society is to work for the well being of older residents of western states by promoting communication, fostering better understanding of geron tology, stimulating research and by encouraging profes sional preparation for gerontological research. Membership in the Association for Gerontology in Higher Education is limited to institutions. Currently, neither the Gerontological Society nor the Western Gerontological Society have professional require ments for admission. The Gerontological Society requires that one complete an application and have two standing members sign the form, while the Western Gerontological Society invites any individual or organization with an in terest in aging to become a member. Both these societies represent rudiments of a professional association, but if they are to exist as such, they must become increasingly regulative and set definite standards for admission. In addition to the three organizations previously mentioned, there are other organizations which have vested interests in aging. The American Association of Retired Persons, American Association of Homes for the Aging, American Nursing Home Association, and the National Council 112 on Aging are greatly involved with the elderly. The American Association of Retired Persons was founded by Dr. Ethel Percy Andrus in 195 8 and is dedicated to re search , counseling, and correspondence. The organization is voluntary, non-profit and non-partisan. The American Association of Homes for the Aging was founded in 1961 and is dedicated to improving programs and standards of insti tutions serving older people. The American Nursing Home Association sponsors educational meetings and seminars and the National Council on Aging is the leading national voluntary agency which provides professional services for those concerned with the elderly. Code of Ethics Cox (19 76) notes that a lack of formalized standards of professional conduct severely limits the professional status of gerontology. Cox believes that the lack of ethical codes is due to the diversity of skills, training and tasks of membership. The diversity of skills and training is primarily due to the nature of gerontology. Gerontology is of a multi disciplinary nature, that is, a combination of specialized fields, and therefore fosters and produces generalists in this area. Many people who enter the field are already working in a specialized area and their gerontological in terest is a part of their professional responsibilities. 113 In addition, the fact that gerontological associations have an extremely broad-based membership hampers the de velopment of a stringent code of ethics. The need for ethical standards is quite apparent. The fact that human beings are involved in research and prac tice mandates that ethical standards be considered. Ac cording to Eisdorfer and Wilkie (1970), when one utilizes human subjects in research, three basic elements of tech nical practice are involved. These include: consent, confidence, and standard or accepted procedure. Regulation of standards encompassing gerontology has not yet come about. Guinne (1970) feels that standards may only develop when people begin to pay for professional ser vices. Since there appears to be some question as to whether or not gerontology can best provide for the needs of the elderly, professional services have not yet been recognized. Thus, people are not paying gerontologists for services but are paying those professionals who have vested interests within the field. Time and public recognition of gerontology as the provider of needs and services for the elderly will support and initiate the formation of a code of ethics. Self-regulation Self-regulation has been operationally defined as the professional mechanism which maintains the ability of the 114 discipline to autonomously govern and regulate its members, establish standards of service, enforce the code of ethics, assume responsibility for disciplinary action and be publicly accountable for the actions of its constitu ency. At this point in time there is no mechanism which controls self-regulation in the field of gerontology. Since admission to the Gerontological Society and Western Gerontological Society is open to all, regulation of its members is non-existent. For example, many of the people who work in the field are professionals or semi-profes sionals in some other field such as teaching, nursing, social work, counseling, etc. As stated previously, their primary allegiance is not directed towards gerontology. The diversity of educational background and of services performed is likely to make it difficult for those in gerontology to meet a standard of self-regulation which would qualify them as professionals. It is possible, as suggested by Finn and Carmichael (1974) that there will be a division in the field which will be broken down as follows; (1) a broad group of para professionals of different degrees of skill who work daily with the aged; (2) an intermediate level of semi-profes sionals; and, (3) an apex of highly trained academic and scientific personnel for research and training. Future events will show whether or not these highly differentiated 115 groups will be able to unify to the extent necessary to advance gerontology to the level of a profession. Public Sanction Since there is no legislation which regulates this practice of gerontology by means of licensure or certi fication , formal approval by the community does not exist. Nevertheless, an increase in publications, professional organizations, governmental programs and community services indicates informal sanction by the public and a growing awareness and interest in aging. Mass media and publications help project an image of gerontology to the public. Newspapers, magazines and journals are currently disseminating information about the elderly. The Los Angeles Times has run a series of arti cles on nursing homes, attitudes and stereotypes toward the aged. Social Security benefits and legislation for the eldOrly. Magazines which have recently published articles dealing with the aged are as follows ; Saturday Evening Post, Psychology Today, New West, Ladies Home Journal and McCalls. Subjects discussed dealt with sex after sixty, stress and aging, death and dying, time and leisure, and housing. Professional journals also help to relate facts and knowledge on aging. Examples of these include: Aging, Age and Aging, Long-Term Care, Educational Gerontology, Journal of Gerontology, Experimental Age, and Research and 116 Current Literature on Aging. There are also a number of national and scientific professional organizations which are interested in aging. The American Public Welfare Association has a section de voted primarily to the problems of the aged. The National Council for Homemaker Services, the American Medical Asso ciation, Group Advancement of Psychiatry and the Adult Edu cation Association have divisions working with the aged. In addition, the Division of Later Maturity, established by the American Psychological Association; the American Sociological Society, the American Hospital Association, and the National Association of Social Workers concern themselves with issues which involve aging. The American Geriatrics Society deals with medical issues which are related to aging. As mentioned previously, governmental interest in the aging stems back to the 1930's. The Veterans Administra tion on Aging, Commission on Aging, Senate Sub-committee on Aging, the Social Security Administration and Area Agencies on Aging give evidence of governmental involvement with issues relating to aging. In addition, the increase in community services for the elderly illustrates the current importance of gerontological issues. The following repre sent a sampling of services provided in the Los Angeles area; advocacy, counseling and social services, health 117 care services, home services, information and referral services, legal services, nutrition services, outreach, recreation and transportation are offered by various agencies. Among the agencies included are: Retired Senior Volunteer Program, Los Angeles City Parks and Recreation, Senior Citizens Centers and the Los Angeles City Office on Aging. This increase in the available public services gives evidence that aging is a challenging and pressing issue in our society. It is debatable whether the field of geron tology warrants public recognition as the provider of ser vices. At present, the terms "gerontology" and "geron tologist" have no specific meaning to the general public. Measures must be taken to define gerontological terms so that the public will regard the field as society's advo cates for the elderly. Conclusion This chapter has investigated the status of geron tology on the continuum of professionalism. At this point there are areas in which gerontology does not fully meet the standards set by the researchers to qualify as a pro fession. While there is increasing acceptance that a uni- verity education is needed to work in the field of geron tology, there is as yet no such requirement. Many people working with the aged have a strong commitment to service 118 to the elderly, but as yet there is no clearly developed ideology. It may well be that establishment of a code of ethics will provide the basis for development of an ideology. As the professional organizations in the field of gerontology develop more stringent membership require ments, it is likely that there will be emphasis placed on self-regulation. At present, there is no licensing re quirement to practice in the field of gerontology. In spite of this, there is developing public acceptance of gerontology as a discipline with recognizable status. The areas in which gerontology shows the most progress toward professional standing is in its proliferating body of knowledge and its active professional associations. Gerontology lacks some of the designated criteria needed to be considered a profession. It must be con cluded that gerontology is currently recognized as a field of specialty with major educational and career emphasis still resting within the established professions. Never theless, a growing public awareness, an increasing number of elderly persons and pressing needs indicate that geron tology has proclivity towards increasing structure, standardization and regulation of the field. In the follow ing chapter the relationship between counselor education and gerontology will be investigated. 119 CHAPTER V THE BASIS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF A RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COUNSELOR EDUCATION AND GERONTOLOGY Introduction At this time a structured, institutionalized relation ship between counselor education and gerontology has not been established. It appears that a relationship between the two fields is developing as counselors become more aware of the potential counseling needs of older adults. In our youth-oriented society, it has been easy to discount the needs of middle-aged and older people as being of no consequence. Sigmund Freud set a precedent in this field when he refused to offer psycho-analysis to older adults, because he felt that they could not change their behavior. This precedent has been difficult to reverse. Counseling is a relatively new field which has reached the point where many practicing counselors are now in their middle and later years. This, in itself, is a stimulus for counselors to extend their services to older adults, for 120 they are personally experiencing some of the losses which cause an older adult to seek counseling. Another reason for a growing pressure for counseling of older adults is that the present generation of adults entering the middle and later years is better educated, more sophisticated, and better able to accept the possibility of turning to a counselor for help in time of crisis. With the advent of the field of gerontology, knowledge about aging has been accumulating; this is slowly causing a change in the attitudes of counselors toward working with older adults. Relationships are often based upon a response to a set of needs. In this chapter we will attempt to demonstrate that for a counselor to function effectively with an older adult, he must have an understanding of the changes which occur as people age. An understanding of changing demo graphic and social conditions; of role changes ; of the losses, both physical, personal and social, which occur with age, will greatly benefit the counselor who is working with an older adult. This will contribute to the building of a working relationship between the fields of counseling and gerontology. Demography In the past 65 years, during which counselor education has evolved toward professionalism, dramatic changes have 121 occurred in the lives of most Americans. In 1900, less than 4.1 percent of the population of the United States was over 65 years of age, while in 1975 the percentage of in dividuals over 65 had increased to nearly 10.5 percent of the population of 22,400,000 people. Demographers predict that by the year 2000 there will be 31 million people over 65 years of age out of a total population of 2 62 million people. This will amount to 11.7 percent of the population of the United States (United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1976). If the present trend toward small families cbntinues, the age group over 65 may repre sent 13.1 percent of the population by 2020. While this seems a small percentage increase, it actually will repre sent a doubling in size of the older population within 50 years (Cutler & Harootyan, 19 75). The increase in the number of older people poses a challenge to the field of counselor education, for there are now many adults who retire and continue to live healthy lives for several decades. This should be an incentive for counselor education to expand its interests and consider effective means for assisting older adults with their unique problems. Developmental Aspects of Aging As developmental psychology has expanded in scope to cover the entire life span, its relevance for counseling 122 adults has increased. No longer is it possible to think of adult life as a stable and unchanging period followed by rapid deterioration. Just as there are developmental stages in childhood and adolescence, this same process of development occurs throughout the entire life span. Each stage may cause upheaval for the individual who is con fronted by the transition. As a result, each period con tains its own challenges and resources, and each period brings changes in the persons's psychological state; an in creased awareness of self, expanded sensitivity to others, a re-evaluation of one's abilities, a sense of increasing vulnerability and eventually a personal awareness of the inevitability of death. Many of these stages have been labelled developmental crises and have been classified as follows: (1) fear of an impending life stage. The person sees forthcoming changes as frightening. A housewife may experience this as she contemplates the exit of her chil dren from the home into lives of their own. (2) Reluctance to leave a gratifying stage. It is very possible that an older adult faced with retirement may find himself loath to leave the job which has provided him with a sense of worth and a feeling of being needed. (3) Trauma of unexpected environmental demands. The illness of an aging parent may cause the middle-aged child to react with stress and feel ings of resentment, as he strives to cope with the in- 123 creased pressure. (4) Unresolved earlier issues. A man who had unresolved conflicts with his mother may find him self unable to face his wife's aging. (5) Cumulative erosion of energies. A succession of crises such as delin quency of a child, financial problems, and illness may precipitate a breakdown as a result of the energy invest ment required. (6) Positive growth experience. Some adults will find that growth in one area has made them aware of limitations in another area; for instance, their satisfaction with their job may activate feelings of dis satisfaction with their marriage (Bocknek, 1976). An understanding of adult development greatly enhances the ability of the counselor to understand the problems con fronting aging people and to facilitate constructive solu tions to these problems. There is a constant need for decision making as the roles of older adults undergo change. Such changes may include children leaving home, a death of a spouse, a re turn to college during the middle or older years, a job change or a need to change one's place of residence. As people age, they begin to feel that they no longer have control over their own lives, because so many major changes occur in rapid succession. Counseling may help them to re gain a sense of control by guiding them through the deci sion making process. Decision making can be facilitated 12 4 through the process of anticipation and implementation. Anticipation involves role playing, dreaming about the future, fantasizing and attempting to decide what course of action one really wants to take. As one goes through these processes, it usually becomes possible to reach a de cision about future action. Implementation begins when one dares to enter a new role, gains a sense of self in the new situation and begins to function in an effective way (Schlossberg, 1976) . There are three primary areas, selected by the re searchers in this study, in which older adults are likely to find the services of a counselor beneficial to them. These are personal-social, education and rehabilitation. An attempt will be made to present examples of the issues faced in these areas and indicate possibilities for coun selor intervention. Personal-social It is difficult to separate personal-social losses, because they are so interrelated. A heart attack is a very personal experience, but it becomes social in the effect it has upon job retention and family interaction. A job loss is a social loss, but its effect may be to cause a personal loss of one's feelings of competency, value and signifi cance within the culture. The process of aging is inex tricably linked to change and many of these changes may be 12 5 placed in the area of loss. Possible social changes in clude children leaving home, job loss, retirement, divorce and a gradual disintegration of one's personal and social network as a result of death. Personal losses may include physical changes such as decreased hearing ability, a re duction in visual acuity, diminished muscle tone, and de creased efficiency of the cardio-vascular system. The im pact of these many changes is to cause one to experience "an increasing loss of control over one's environment and with it an increasing subjective sense of loss of impact upon and effectiveness within the environment" (Schwartz, 1974, p. 8). One of the areas within the personal-schema is that of mid-life crisis. It has been traditional in our culture for women to achieve their identities through their fathers, husbands, and children, while men have gained their feelings of self-worth through their ability to sup port their families in a satisfactory manner. These dif fering approaches cause conflicting mid-life crises for men and women. As men age they tend to become concerned with developing the nurturing side of their personalities. Women are likely to tire of the nurturing role and become interested in building a life based upon their abilities rather than upon the significant others in their lives. Changes such as these may cause conflict between couples (Schlossberg, 1976). 126 While it has been common knowledge in our culture that women experience mid-life emotional and physical reactions related to the hormonal changes of the menopause, it has not been commonly accepted that men, too, may undergo a climacteric. Apparently the pain which is experienced at this time is that which is caused by facing their own mortality, their gradually diminishing physical powers and the level which they can hope to attain in their profes sion. This realization of not having attained their goals and having little time or opportunity left to do so may be a devastating experience for many men (Comfort, 1972). Counselors can be of great help to people facing these crises of middle age, but in order to be an effective counselor of older adults, one must be aware of one's own feelings about the aging process. If one feels that cer tain behaviors are appropriate only to certain age groups, it limits one's effectiveness with an older adult who may need help in freeing himself from the constraints placed upon him by society (Neugarten, Moore & Lowe, 1968). His creativity and potential for growth may depend upon being free to make choices unfettered by the restrictions which society attaches to his place in the life span. A coun selor with a background in gerontology is more likely to be able to help older adults explore their potential and make realistic choices about their future lives. 127 Older couples may need help in accepting the inevit able changes which occur in their marriages. Numerous studies have indicated that couples experience less satis faction from marriage as they reach the later years (Peterson, Hadwen & Larsen, 1969; Pineo, 1961). Birren (196 7) conducted a study of older men in which it was dis covered that almost half were unhappy in their marriages. Marriages have always been broken in middle age, but in past generations, the decisive factor was death. In the recent past, divorce has become an increasingly common occurence in the middle years and beyond. It seems that as marriages mature and children leave home, partners may ex perience less shared pleasure. Some couples grow apart to the extent that divorce seems the only solution to their problems. The counselor who knows something of the develop mental stages of marriage may guide a couple through a difficult time simply by helping them to understand the process involved. Adults can frequently be helped by realizing that their feelings are not unusual, that other people in the society share them, and that these marital changes are part of a predictable pattern. In studies per formed by Peterson et al. (196 8) little or no relationship was shown between marital adjustment and life satisfaction. It appears that as couples age, they tend to accept their marriages and tone down their disagreements and love ex 128 pectations. In a study performed by Peterson (1974) , those couples who stay together until old age, report a higher degree of marital satisfaction than they did in middle age. This would indicate that a counselor who was fully aware of the processes which accompany an aging marriage might be able to guide a couple through a crisis and into a period of greater stability. Adjustment to widowhood or divorce is one of the most traumatic experiences which the older person must face; they are similar in the effect which they have upon the person who experiences them. In a study performed by Lopata (19 73), it was found that most wives do not develop their lives for single status. "Thus, in counseling divorced or widowed women, it is crucial to be alert to the multiplicity of the separating process and the ways women may not be prepared to be single" (Aslin, 1976, p. 39). Many will need help with finding available community re sources such as legal aid, social security, medical care, pensions, accountants, and financial consultants, for there are numerous new responsibilities in the areas of finances, social life, travel, car maintenance, household repairs, and so forth. Demographic studies show that the average woman is widowed at 56 years of age. During the past 20 years the number of widows in the United States has been growing by 129 more than 100,000 per year, while records show that in 1900 widows increased at the rate of 50,000 per year. In 1975, most older men (79 percent) were married, while 5 3 percent of older women were widows. There are five times as many widows as widowers in the age group over 65 years (United States Health, Education and Welfare, 1976). Since men usually marry younger women, and women on the average live seven years longer than men, this means that most women will be widows for the last decade of their lives (Univers ity of Michigan, 1975). Statistics are objective and im personal, but the emotional stresses which accompany these problems are not. The grieving person needs to be per mitted to express his or her emotions, sorrow, guilt, loneliness, and the whole gamut of sentiments activated by the death of a significant other — trained counselors should be available to allow the griever a personal rhythm of working out emotions and of gradually redefining life. (Lopata, 1973, p 271) In the absence of supportive family members, trained counselors may be invaluable in enabling the widowed per son to work through and resolve his/her grief. "The coun selor can assist women to develop from the wife role, through the traumatic 'no role' state of divorce or widow hood, to the establishment of independent personal ident ity" (Aslin, 1976, p. 37). It is very important that the person be permitted to develop her knowledge and gain con- 130 fidence in her own ability to make decisions. The elderly often face severe trauma as a result of change which occurs in the lives of their children. One such change may be that which occurs when children move far away to establish a new home as a result of job re location. Divorces of offspring can cause emotional dis locations for the aged, as they must suffer in silence while they are distanced from their children and grand children. The divorces of children may also cause feelings of failure for they see them as a reflection on their parenting (Peterson, 1974). It is possible, through coun seling or through a group experience, to gain an under standing that the problems which one is facing are not unique but are a fairly normal part of the life cycle. As a result of discussion, they may be able to accept the changes which are occurring in their lives and to adjust to those which cannot be changed. An area which lends itself to counselor intervention is that of facing one's own mortality and dealing with apprehensions about death. In a recent study, it was found that people aged 45-54 years experience the most fear about death. In this particular study, expressed fear of death decreased with age. It appears that fear of death is one of the major components of the middle age crisis (Bengston, 19 77). It is not unusual for older people to 131 discover that their families and friends are unwilling to listen to their thoughts about approaching death. In such a situation a mature and sensitive counselor can be a source of great comfort and can provide the elderly person with an opportunity to work through his feelings. It is important for the counselor to have philosophical insight into and acceptance of the inevitability of death. Only by having his own feelings and emotions worked through can he help others to accept and courageously endure their own confrontation with death. It is easy to overlook the stress which confronts the middle-aged child who is caught between the generations. He may find himself faced with responsibility for his parents whose health is beginning to fail, while at the same time he has the responsibility for adolescent children and all that is involved in trying to steer them through the teen years. His own health may be failing and he may be experiencing financial and/or marital difficulties (Dorrucci, 1974). All of these demands and changing re lationships may cause great stress during the middle years. At such a time a counselor with comprehension of the prob lems can enable the middle-aged person to come to terms with himself and with those with whom he is involved. One way of achieving this may be for the counselor to engage in inter-generational counseling in which the parents, their 132 children and the grandparents visit the counselor together in an effort to reach a solution of their problems which best suits the needs of all involved. The stress of nursing home placement on the parent and on the adult child can be tremendous. Older persons who must be insitutionalized may derive much help from dis cussions with an understanding and knowledgeable counselor. It may help allay some of the fear and confusion involved in such a major change in one's life. Our records are full of such various but all unhappy old folks (and their relatives and friends unhappy about them), all in our opinion needing counseling and understanding of their problems. Many more than are now recognized need (we are convinced) not institutional care in the narrow stigmatized sense, but residencies providing not only care, when needed, but also facilities, services, and companionships making the oldest years distinctively secure and pleasant. Choice of such a place and the move thereto should be made in advance of such a crisis. A counselor knowledgeable in such matters can be of great help. (Pressey & Pressey, 1972, p. 363) It is important that there be a professional person, such as a counselor, in the nursing home to explain its ser vices to the family, reassure them and help them feel that there is dedication and commitment to the patients en trusted to their care. In the personal-social area of counseling there is a need to expand services to provide adequate assistance for 133 the elderly. Older adults may require assistance in inte grating their past experiences in such a manner as to give them a feeling of worth, competence and fulfillment. They also need a realistic confrontation with their present potential and their capacity for meeting challenges and effecting change in their daily living. A valuable tool may be reminiscence and life review (Butler, 1968). Ini tially it is a way of integrating experiences and evaluat ing one's past performance with a view to improving one's actions in the future. In advanced old age, a life review may be the only way to preserve an identity that is no longer possible to validate in the present. Counselors with training in gerontology have an awareness of the im portance of such processes and are not likely to dismiss reminiscence as the thoughtless and garrulous ramblings of an aged person. "It has been argued that the old have various and many needs for counseling as do their rela tives..." (Pressey & Pressey, 1972, p. 363). Living and learning does not stop at some arbitrary age and older per sons present special concerns for counselor intervention. Education and Job Counseling The accelerating rate of technological change and the increase in longevity have brought about a need for career planning and development services for men and women in their later years. Harrison and Entine (1976) report that 134 the Program Advisory Service of the University of Cali fornia at Los Angeles has served over 20,000 people since its opening in 19 71. These people may be planning for retirement and focusing on self-actualization or they may be concerned with finding work in which they can engage after retirement. The education and job counselor can assist older adults in these areas. They can direct people to programs in the schools and colleges which will prepare them to participate in an effective and satisfying way in the later years of their lives. If counselor education is to meet the challenge of the adult learner in school, certain differences in the older adult must be taken into account. Adult learners see themselves differently than do younger students. They are likely to be more independent and want more involvement in the decision making process. Generally, older students are motivated to attend school because they wish to make immediate use of their learning. Older adults have more past experience to contribute to the learning process and may make valuable contributions to the classroom situation. This additional knowledge may also cause them to be skep tical of new and different approaches. Counselors who work with older adults need to use somewhat different techniques than they would use with younger people. It is helpful to be aware of the histor- 135 ical perspective of the older person. The counselor who acts as a developmental facilitator can serve effectively with older adults. His major task is to be a change agent, to help the client utilize resources which were not pre viously available to him and to assist him toward a "reality-based contact with his own competence, an ex perience which can only augment his sense of self in a solid way" (Bocknek, 1976, p. 40). Within the school system, there is a need for educa tional counselors to be aware of the older adult and the fact that he has unique needs which should be met by the educational experience. Education can enable an adult to feel more comfortable and to adjust more readily to the rapidly changing society in which he lives. Rapid technological change has caused a need for career planning and development programs for older adults. Job loss or retirement can be one of the most ego threaten ing experiences to occur to the middle-aged or older adult. A counselor who is trained in pre-retirement planning may help an older adult to anticipate this experience and make plans to ease the transition. He may also direct him to training which will help him to find new and satisfying employment. At this stage in life, assistance may be needed in the areas of legal and financial problems such as wills and 136 Social Security, health and welfare concerns such as Medi care, Medicaid, Supplementary Security Income, continuing education and new roles (Farmer, 19 71). An effective and well-informed counselor can guide older adults to community resources which will give them guidance and assistance with such problems. Older adults can also benefit from information per taining to the use of leisure time, for many of them have had little or no opportunity to develop satisfying leisure time activities. Long hours of idleness can contribute to feelings of uselessness and depression. A counselor who can stimulate an older adult to become involved and active has performed a very valuable service. Awareness of the many offerings of the community college system may well provide the stimulus which causes an older adult to become interested in a new and satisfying area of life. Counselors for the most part are pre pared to deal with secondary or college students. Few have the background or necessary training to deal with adults and most adult counselors have been siphoned from the ranks of school coun selors. There is a specific need for competently trained adult counselors. Our premise is that adult education is different because adult students are different. The concept of life-long learning implies coordinated planning, effective guidance and counseling, im provement in faculty training, and cur ricula that meet the demands of mature students.(Heonninger, 19 74, p. 60) 137 The above quotation is a challenge to the field of coun selor education and an indication that there is indeed a basis for developing a relationship with the field of gerontology. Although more schooling seems to be associated with less negative feelings toward the aged. Troll and Schloss berg (1970) , found that counselors who had taken general counseling courses were more likely to be age restrictive than those who had not. Apparently their studies had led them to believe that they knew more about aging than they really did. These attitudes could severely impede the de velopment of an elderly person who was seeing a counselor and who wanted to pursue some area of interest considered socially unsuitable for older people, A counselor working with the aged can, by his own failure to recognize his biases in this area, limit his effectiveness and hinder that client in his quest for greater self-understanding and effectiveness in his personal, social and business world. The above data point to the need for gerontological train ing for persons who will work with the aged. Rehabilitation Counseling As adults age, some inevitably find themselves ex periencing physical, social or emotional disabilities which interfere with the performance of their jobs. These losses may involve heart attacks, strokes, vision problems. 138 hearing deficits, memory problems, diseases of the central nervous system, a lessened sense of self-worth and many others. Rehabilitation counseling has emerged in recent years as a distinct profession concerned with actualizing the potential of disabled people. It emphasizes the social concept that the development of human resources merits a skillful and well-trained professional who wants to enable handicapped individuals to achieve more productive and satisfying lives. There is special emphasis on the de velopment of vocational and educational potentialities, while at the same time an attempt is made to help them to understand and accept their disabilities and limitations (California State University, Los Angeles, 1976), Unfortunately, the rehabilitation counselor has tended to ignore the problems of the older adult. It is ap parently felt that effort should be directed toward young persons who have more years left in which to benefit from the efforts of the rehabilitation counselor» Such an attitude does an injustice to the many older people who could benefit from rehabilitation. An increase in their ability to function effectively in society could be a source of great satisfaction to themselves and lift a great burden from the lives of their children and grand children. It seems that training in gerontology could help 139 to change these attitudes and bring the benefits of re habilitation to the aged. Conclusion In this chapter, an attempt has been made to show the basis for the development of a relationship between coun selor education and gerontology. It has shown that older adults who are facing the crises which accompany aging can benefit from the services of a we11-trained counselor with knowledge of the special needs of older people. If adults are to get proper counseling, some changes will have to be made in the content and techniques of counselor education. To be effective, the counselor needs to have a comprehen sion of the special needs of older adults and a clear know ledge of the most helpful way to be of service to his client. It is apparent that counselors will come into contact with an increasing number of adult clients, and will find themselves increasingly in need of the specialized know ledge which can be secured through a study of gerontology. There is much potential for providing counseling services for people in their later years. At the present time, little effort has been made to provide these potentially beneficial services. The stresses which accompany aging are many, and well-trained counselors can provide invalu able assistance in time of need. It behooves counselor 140 educators to incorporate opportunities for study of geron tology into their curriculum. This will benefit the po tential counselor as well as the older adult who will be coming to him for assistance in the future. At this point, the review of the literature is com plete, and the emphasis in the remainder of this paper will be to present the empirical data which was accumulated by the researchers. The need for gerontological training has been documented and an evaluation will be made of how ade quately the schools are responding to this need. There will also be an investigation of the credentialing pro cedures which are used in the selection of counselors. 141 CHAPTER VI METHODOLOGY Introduction The previous chapters have presented information on the nature of professionalism, on counselor education, and on gerontology as professions, and on the relationships between counselor education and gerontology. Since educa tion plays a vital role in the preparation of a profes sional, much of the remainder of this study deals with the educational aspects of training personnel for practice in their respective disciplines. One of the major purposes of this study was to assess the gerontological content of curriculums in courses of study leading toward a degree in the following disciplines at accredited colleges and universities in the state of California: adult education, counselor education, den tistry, law, medicine, nursing, public administration, and social work. This chapter will discuss the procedures and methods of collecting this and related information. Due 142 to the nature of the survey design, no research hypothesis was formulated. There is the hope that future studies in this area will formulate research hypotheses from the con clusions of this study. For the presentation of the material, this chapter has been divided into four sections: (1) procedures; (2) selection of colleges and universities for study; (3) description of survey questionnaires; and, (4) treatment of the data. Procedures for Entire Project The initial step of the investigation was to form groups to study the eight disciplines and the accredited educational counterparts of: adult education, counselor education, dentistry, law, medicine, nursing, public admin istration, and social work in the state of California. These disciplines were selected for study because relation ships between them and aging people exist. Student in terest in researching these disciplines was also a factor in the selection. With only two exceptions, the members of the groups in this study were using it as their master's project. Each group produced a thesis based upon the study of their discipline. Once the groups were selected, the researchers were given guidance in the form of an outline of seven areas to cover (see Appendix B). The first of these steps was an extensive review of the literature on professionalism. 143 This included a generic review of professions such as ; definitions, criteria and development of professions, responsibilities within professions, between professions, and to the public at large. The next step was a similar review of the literature respective to the disciplines chosen by the groups of this project. Each discipline was related to the previous section on professions. This in cluded a history of the discipline and the processes lead ing to the development, establishment and activities of the discipline as a profession. The third step was an examina tion of the relationship of the individual discipline to the field of gerontology. The fourth step was a study of the relationships of the field of gerontology to the in dividual discipline as each developed along the profes sional continuum. This step also included an examination of gerontology as a developing profession. The first and fourth steps were researched by all members of the project, and were incorporated into each thesis. The second and third steps were researched by individual groups and were included into each thesis according to discipline. The fifth step was a study of the educational insti^ tutions and their curriculum in gerontology for each dis cipline. Two separate, specialized questionnaires were devised to collect the data. One was specifically con structed for the purpose of recording material secured 144 through the 19 76-19 77 catalogues and bulletins of the schools studied (see Appendix C, Information Collection Form, IGF). The second questionnaire was developed to record the information not available in the catalogues or which needed clarification (see Appendix D, Introductory Letter and Interview Data Collection Form, IDCF). A letter explaining the study and a copy of the interview questionnaire was sent to the dean of the surveyed depart ments. The letter alerted the dean or his/her representa tive that a research team members would be in telephone contact within thirty days to enable the completion of the enclosed Interview Data Collection Form. The researchers conducted a special session with supporting faculty on in terviewing techniques, before the interviews took place, as a major method to demonstrate and refine these techn- niques. This was to assure maximum data return to meet survey goals. Personal interviews were conducted if the participat ing educational institution was within a 100-mile radius of the University of Southern California. Otherwise, telephone interviews were necessary to be cost effective. The protocol for the telephone and personal interview was the same. In some cases, the Interview Data Collection Form was completed and returned to the researchers by mail before contact was made for an interview appointment. In 145 other instances, respondents would not comply with an in terview of any kind, but did complete and return the Inter view Data Collection Form. A study of the credentials and licensing procedures was undertaken to enable the completion of step six. This included the requirements for gerontological knowledge needed for each type of license or credential. The seventh and final step involved the establishment of the conclu sions and proposals for the profession of gerontology in the future as related to each of the eight disciplines. Specific Procedures for Counselor Education Researchers Counselor education is treated in a different manner by various educational institutions. Some locate their counselor education programs in their schools of education. Others locate counselor education programs in departments of psychology or sociology. Still other institutions have separate departments of counselor education. For this reason, the team studying counselor education sent a copy of the interview questionnaire and an introductory letter to the deans of 23 departments, which specifically repre sented programs which educate people to counsel. These departments represented 17 accredited educational institu tions in the State of California. Counseling or counselor education departments are often found in schools of education, therefore, the Inter 146 view Data Collection Form and the cover letter was sent to the department heads or deans, rather than to the deans of the entire school of education. This lead to a tremendous response rate by the department heads themselves. Only three questionnaires were forwarded to other faculty members. Two departments, education psychology at Stan ford University and counselor education at the University of San Diego, did not respond to the questionnaire, despite several telephone contacts by the researchers. In one instance. La Verne College, the Interview Data Collection Form was answered and returned by mail. The researchers followed this up with a telephone interview to clarify ambiguous responses. Ten departments from the following educational institutions were interviewed in person: Chapman College; California State University at Fullerton ; California State University at Long Beach; California State University at Los Angeles; Pepperdine University ; Univers ity of California at Los Angeles ; and the University of Southern California. The remaining thirteen educational institutions interviewed by telephone : California State University at Hayward; California State University at Sacramento ; California State University at San Diego ; California State University at San Francisco, California State University at San Jose; Stanford University ; the Uni versity of the Pacific ; and, the University of Santa Clara. 147 The licensing board which effects counselors is the Borad of Behavioral Science Examiners, which grants the Marriage, Family and Child Counseling License. A telephone interview was conducted with a representative of this board. This interview included questions about the nature of the examination for the license and whether or not it required knowledge of gerontological data. At the present time, such data is not included on the examination. The two credentials which effect counselors are the California Community College Counselor and the California Community College Student Personnel Worker Credentials. There is a single application for both of these credentials and the application materials are included in Appendix E, Again, the regulations for the credentials do not require any special knowledge of gerontology. Selection of Colleges and Universities for Study Accredited California institutions of higher education offering courses of study leading to degrees in the follow ing disciplines served as the sample population for this survey : adult education, counselor education, dentistry, law, medicine, nursing, public administration, and social work. The dean of the school, department chairman, or pro gram director served as the initial respondent for the study. In the event this person was unavailable, subse quent contacts were made with a representative of that person. 14 8 The researchers in counselor education selected their sample on the basis of the following operational defini tions of counselor education programs at the graduate level. Counselor education is an educational curriculum which includes any of the following: (1) counseling courses preparing the student for a marriage, family and child counseling license; (2) a program leading to the following credentials : (a) the California Community College Counselor Credential ; and (b) the California Community College Student Personnel Worker; and (3) a program empha sizing vocational/rehabilitational counseling. The Pupil Personnel Services Credential has been excluded from our operational definition because it deals specifically with the school ages Kindergarten to Twelfth grade. The schools offering such programs in California were located by cross-checking The College Bluebook, Fifteenth Edition (19 75), with a reference called Careers in College and University Student Affairs (1973). Catalogues from the schools were examined to determine if the graduate curriculs fit the operational definition of counselor education. This led to a search of the curricula beyond counselor education per se. The counseling curricula were examined in the schools of education, departments of psychology, humanities and social science divisions. This required the inclusion of two or more programs within one educational 149 institution which fit the operational definition of coun selor education. For instance, a Marriage, Family and Child Counselor program was discovered in the school of education at the University of Southern California, while at Chapman College this same program is offered within the psychology department. On this basis, the following 17 in stitutions were selected: California State University at Fullerton, California State University at Hayward, Cali fornia State University at Long Beach, California State University at Los Angeles, California State University at Sacramento, California State University at San Diego, California State University at San Francisco, California State University at San Jose, Chapman College, La Verne College, Pepperdine University Malibu and Los Angeles, Stanford University, University of California at Los Angeles, University of the Pacific, University of San Diego, University of Santa Clara, and University of Southern California. Twenty-three departments were surveyed within these institutions. The dean from each department or their representative acted as the respondent for the research questionnaire. Description of Survey Questionnaires Following the literature review on professionalism and on the eight disciplines included in the sample, two ques tionnaires were developed by a student-faculty group. 150 These questionnaires were for the purpose of obtaining factual and attitudinal information about schools which grant degrees in each of the eight disciplines and the programs which they offer. The goal was to assess the availability of gerontological content and the gerontologi cal exposure students receive in the schools offering degrees in the eight mentioned disciplines. The question naires were developed in order to gather information in the following areas: degrees offered, courses with geron tological content, field practicums, student population, faculty population, continuing education, instructor membership in professional gerontological associations, dissertations and theses written about gerontology, journals subscribed to by the school library, plans for future gerontology courses, training of instructors in gerontology and attitudinal questions about the importance of gerontology to the school. Information was obtained from the 1976-1977 course catalogues and was transcribed to the library questionnaire (see Appendix C). The variables in the questionnaires are : types of degrees/certificates offered by the department, courses in the departmental curricula as indicated in the course catalogue that contain content related to geron tology, requirement by the department of a field practium, internship or traineeship, student population of the in 151 stitution, faculty population of the department, number of faculty holding doctorates within the department, re searcher rating of the availability of gerontology in the departmental curriculum, continuing education offerings by the department and continuing education classes with geron tological content. The interview questionnaire (IDCF, Appendix D) was developed to allow the investigator to collect information not readily available in the course catalogues. An inter view with the dean or representative appointed by the dean was used to complete this questionnaire. The variables included in the interview questionnaire are : number of students enrolled in the department, couirses offered within the department curricula that contain gerontology content, instructors membership in either the Gerontological Society or the Western Gerontological Society, number of agencies used for field practicums, number of students in field practicums, agencies that provide students with the oppor tunity to work with or on behalf of older adults, number of doctoral dissertations and master's theses related to aging written in the department since 19 71, aging journals subscribed to by the school library, future plans for gerontology, percentage of department faculty that teach aging related courses with gerontological training, and three attitudinal questions about the importance of geron 152 tology to the department curriculum, the discipline, and to the future of the discipline. In order to determine the reliability or dependabil ity of the three attitudinal questions (numbers 5, 6 and 12) on the interview questionnaire, a stability or test- retest interpretation of reliability was obtained in the following manner. Three attitudinal questions were repro duced on a single sheet of paper and were administered to fifteen graduate students of the Leonard Davis School of Gerontology at the University of Southern California. The subjects were given no more information than to answer the three questions in relation to their own discipline. A week later, a retest of the same three questions were administered to the same subjects. The three attitudinal questions were found to be reliable. The data from the reliability test is available in Appendices F, G and H. Treatment of the Data The purpose of the statistical analysis was to assess any associations among variables of the questionnaires. The data was treated with descriptive statistics using a programmable calculator (HP65) and presented in narration, raw numbers, percentages, frequencies and tables. The measures chosen were appropriate to examine the possible associations between variables, within each of the eight disciplines; and between the eight disciplines. 153 The investigators in counselor education first pre sent a narration of each educational institution and its offerings. Tables are presented that show statistical percentages in relationship to variables shown on the Interview Data Collection Form. Additional tables were prepared with descriptive and inferential statistics cor responding to the relationships between the Information Collection Form and the Interview Data Collection Form. Also presented, are the requirements and standards for the Marriage, Family and Child Counseling License, the Cali fornia Community College Counselor Credential and the California Community College Student Personnel Worker Credential. All data will be examined in the next chapter on results. 154 CHAPTER VII RESULTS Int roducti on This chapter will deal with a description of the re sults of this study. The data obtained from each educa tional institution and the course offerings is presented in alphabetical narrative form. The data obtained from the Information Collection Form and the Interview Data Collec tion Form is presented in a series of twelve tables. The final section will discuss the interview and data collec tion concerning credentials and licensing procedures in the State of California. This information will be presented in a narrative format. Narrative Description of Educational Institutions The study of counselor education across the State of California included 2 3 departments from 17 educational in stitutions : California State University, Fullerton; California State University, Hayward ; California State University, Long Beach; California State University, Los 155 Angeles; California State University, Sacramento; Cali fornia State University, San Francisco; California State University, San José; Chapman College ; La Verne College ; Pepperdine University, Los Angeles; Pepperdine University, Malibu; Stanford University ; University of California at - Los Angeles ; the University of the Pacific ; the University of San Diego; the University of Santa Clara ; and the Uni versity of Southern California. A narrative description of each institution will follow. These narratives will be in alphabetical order and will include: (1) the total student population of the educational institution ; (2) the total student population of the department; (3) the degrees offered by the department ; (4) the number of faculty members comprising the department; (5) the number of faculty members with doctorate degrees; and (6) the courses offered which relate to aging and the percent of aging content of each course. California State University, Fullerton has a total student population of 22,000. There are 380 graduate students enrolled in the Department of Counseling in the School of Psychology. The program, when completed, leads to a Master of Science in counseling. The department has 24 faculty members, with five holding doctoral degrees. The courses that related to aging and the aging content dis tribution are given below. 156 C ourses R e la te d to A g in g A g in g C o n te n t Explorations in Self-concept Personal and Professional 10 percent Pro-Seminar Personality Study: Human Development 8 percent Psychological Disorders I 8 percent Psychological Disorders II 8 percent Psychological Disorders III 8 percent California State University, Hayward, has a total student population of 12,000. The Department of Educa tional Psychology has 500 graduate students enrolled. A Master of Science degree in counseling is offered. There are 2 3 faculty members of whom 2 0 hold doctorates. The aging content of the courses is shown below. Courses Related to Aging Aging Content Adult Career Psychology 20 percent Career and Life-style Development Theory 5 percent California State University, Long Beach, has a total student population of 3 3,000. The Department of Educa tional Psychology and Social Foundations has 33 4 graduate students enrolled. The course of studies leads to a Master of Science degree in counseling. The department has a faculty of 74 of whom 68 hold doctorates. There are no courses which incorporate content on aging. 157 California State University, Los Angeles, has a stu dent population of 21,704. The Department of Counselor Education has 250 students. Degrees are offered in re habilitation counseling, in pupil personnel services, and in school psychology. There are 20 faculty members in the Counselor Education Department of whom 19 hold doctoral degrees. A single course entitled, Rehabilitational Counseling: Counseling the Older Adult, is being taught and has 100 percent aging related content. California State University, Sacramento, has a total student population of 424,000. There are 350 students en rolled in the Counselor Education Department. The depart ment offers a Master of Science in counseling. There are 12 full-time faculty of whom 11 hold doctorate degrees. One graduate "mini-course" is taught on weekends and is en titled, Current Issues and Aging and it has 100 percent aging content. California State University, San Francisco, has a total student population of 24,000. There are 300 students in the Department of Counseling. The Master of Arts is offered in educational counseling and the Master of Science degree is offered in rehabilitation counseling. There are 18 full-time faculty of whom 15 hold doctoral degrees. There are no courses with aging content at California State University, San Francisco. 158 California State University, San Jose, has a total student population of 26,000. Within the university, two departments and one program fit the operational definition for counselor education. The Department of Educational Psychology has 2 30 graduate students. A Master of Science degree in psychol ogy with an emphasis in counseling is offered. The depart ment has a faculty of 43, all of whom hold doctorates. There are no courses containing aging content. The Department of Counselor Education at California State University, San Jose, has 5 90 graduate students. A Master of Arts degree in education with a specialization in counseling and student personnel work is offered. The de partment has a faculty of seven, all of whom hold doctorate degrees. Numerous courses related to aging, with a degree of gerontological content are offered, as shown below. Courses Related to Aging Aging Content Life-span and Career Development Theory 2 8 percent Seminar in Professional Counseling 12.5 percent Seminar in Counseling Theory and Practice 12.5 percent Practicum in Life-span and Career Development 12.5 percent Practicum in Multi-cultural Counseling 7.5 percent Education and Career Planning 5 percent 159 C ourses R e la te d t o A g in g A g in g C o n te n t Seminar in Cultural Perspectives in Counseling 3,5 percent Dynamics in Behavior 3.5 percent Pupil Personnel Concepts and Procedures 2 percent The Marriage, Family, Child Counseling Program, also at California State University, San Jose, has an enrollment of 30 graduate students. A Master of Science degree in marriage, family, child counseling is offered. The program has no faculty of its own. There are no courses available with aging content. Chapman College is a private liberal arts college with a student population of 1,300. Three departments within the college prepare students who may work with older adults. The Psychology Department has 180 students working toward a Master of Arts degree in counseling. There are ten faculty members of whom eight hold doctorate degrees. The courses that relate to aging and the aging content dis tribution are given below. Courses Related to Aging Aging Content Adulthood and Aging 100 percent Advanced Developmental Psychology 20 percent The Counselor Education Department at Chapman College has 150 students. A Master of Arts degree is offered in guidance counseling and career counseling. There are nine 160 faculty members of whom seven hold doctorate degrees. This department offers one course related to aging en titled, Counseling and Guidance of the Handicapped which has 2 0 percent aging content. Through the Departments of Psychology and Sociology, and inter-disciplinary program is offered in marraige, family and child counseling. There are 170 students en rolled in this program which leads to a Master of Arts degree. There are ten faculty members of whom eight hold doctorate degrees. The aging related courses are listed below. Courses Related to Aging Aging Content Adulthood and Aging 100 percent Advanced Developmental Psychology 33 percent La Verne College has a total student population of 1,050, of whom 60 graduate students participate in the pro gram for the Master's degree in marriage, family and child counseling. There are two full-time faculty participating in the marriage, family, child counseling program, one of whom holds a doctorate degree. Other faculty members teach in the marriage, family, child counseling program, but they are full-time members of other departments on the La Verne campus. Courses related to aging are listed be low. 161 Courses R e la te d to A ging Diagnosis in Marriage Family Dysfunction Human Development (Socio- Psychological) Human Development (Physiological) Human Sexuality Aging Content 79 percent 25 percent 15 percent 3 percent Pepperdine University at Los Angeles has a student population of 2,6 82. There are 2 50 graduate students en rolled in the Psychology Department, The department offers a Master of Arts degree in clinical psychology, a Master of Arts in general psychology, a Master of Science in special education and a Master of Science in pupil person nel psychology services. There are 11 full-time faculty members of whom nine hold doctorate degrees. The courses related to aging are listed below. Courses Related to Aging Clinical Psychology Counseling and Therapy Introduction to Counseling Group Dynamics Assessment of Intelligence Personality Assessment A Personality Assessment B Seminar Aging Content 12 percent 5 percent 5 percent 5 percent 5 percent 5 percent 5 percent 4 percent Pepperdine University at Malibu has a total student 162 population of 1,600. The Social Science Division of Graduate Studies has 2 8 students enrolled. A Master of Arts degree is offered in community/clinical psychology. There are 11 faculty members of whom eight hold doctorate degrees. Three courses relate to aging, as noted below. Courses Related to Aging Aging Content Development Psychology 5 percent Community Mental Health 5 percent Graduate Program (One lecture) 5 percent Stanford University has a total student population of 12,478, has two departments within the School of Education which fit the researcher's definition of counselor educa tion. The Department of Educational Psychology offers the Doctor of Philosophy. All of the 18 faculty members hold doctorate degrees. The number of students within the de partment is unknown since there was no response to the interview questionnaire. There were no courses offered with aging content. The Department of Counseling Psychology at Stanford University has 15 graduate students. Two degree are offered, the Doctor of Education and the Doctor of Philoso phy. There are three full-time faculty members comprising the department, all of whom hold doctorate degrees. There are no courses offered with aging content. 163 The University of California at Los Angeles has a student population of 29,09 3. The Counselor Education Department has 60 graduate students. The degrees offered are the Master of Arts and the Doctor of Philosophy. The Counselor Education Department has six faculty members, all of whom hold doctorate degrees. There are no courses related to aging. The University of the Pacific has a total student population of 5,600. The Education and Counseling Psychol ogy Department has an enrollment of 100 graduate students. The graduate program leads to a Master of Arts in educa tional psychology with a counseling emphasis, a Master of Arts in education with a marriage, family, child counseling emphasis, a Doctor of Education in educational and counsel ing psychology with a marriage, family, child counseling emphasis. The department has a faculty of six of whom five hold doctorate degrees. The program contains no courses related to aging. The University of San Diego has a total student popu lation of 2,156. The Master of Education degree is offered in counselor education. There are two full-time faculty members, both of whom hold doctorate degrees. The Coun selor Education did not respond to the interview question naire. There were no courses related to aging. 164 The University of Santa Clara has a student population of 6,400. The graduate school has 300 to 400 students. A Master of Arts degree may be earned in counseling psychol ogy, in marriage, family, child counseling, and in pupil personnel services. There are nine faculty members of whom eight hold doctorate degrees. The courses related to aging and the percent of aging content are listed below. Courses Related to Aging Aging Content Clinical Gerontology 100 percent Suffering and Dying 80 percent Human Sexuality 2 0 percent Counseling for Contemporary Problems 20 percent Career and Life Planning 20 percent Psychopathology 10 percent The University of Southern California has a total student population of 21,000. There are 200 graduate stu dents attending programs in the Department of Counselor Education. The department offers a Master of Science de gree in education with an emphasis in rehabilitation coun seling, an advanced Master of Education degree in rehabili tation counseling, a Master of Science degree in college personnel work, the Doctor of Philosophy and Doctor of Education in rehabilitation counseling, rehabilitation psychology, rehabilitation program in administration, the 165 Dcotor of Philosophy and Doctor of Education in college student personnel work; and. Doctor of Philosophy and Doctor of Education in psychological counseling. There are 21 full-time faculty members of whom 20 hold doctorate de grees. There are no courses related to aging. Explanation of Tables Tables lA through IF examine relationships obtained from the Interview Data Collection Form (see Appendix D). Specifically, questions 3, 5, 6, 9A, 9B, 10, 11 and 12 were examined and explained. Tables 2 through 6 examine the relationships between variables on the Interview Data Collection Form and the Information Collection Form. Each of these associations is then explained. The final table. Table 7, examines the strength of some selected relation ships by way of a Spearmans* Coefficient of Correlation. Abbreviations Used on Tables DISC = Discipline Ed D. = Doctor of Education Degree GS = Gerontological Society IMPL = Implications IMPT = Important LK = Lack M.A. = Master of Arts Degree M.S. = Master of Science Degree NA = Not Applicable 166 Table lA Results From the Interview Data Collection Form Question 3 Question 3: I f applicable, do the instructors teaching the courses with gerontological content hold membership in the Gerontological Society or the Western Gerontological Society? Percentage G S 9 W G S 4 Both 4 Don' t know 26 N/A 30 Didn't hold membership 17 The results of Question 3 indicate that 73 percent of the re spondents are not aware of nor are involved in professional geron tological associations. Thirty percent of the respondents answered "not applicable" which meant that no gerontological course work was offered in their department. 167 Table IB Results From the Interview Data Collection Form Questions 5 and 6 Question 5: How important would you rate courses with aging content in relation to your total departmental/school curriculum? Percentage Of no impt. 17 Not very impt. 30 Somewhat impt. 17 Impt. 17 Very impt. 9 Question 6: H ow important would you rate aging issues, in comparison with all other issues your profession is concerned with? Percentage Of no impt. 4 Not very impt. 4 Somewhat impt. 35 Impt. 39 Very impt. 9 The results of questions 5 and 6 indicate that while 48 percent of the respondents thought that gerontology courses were important in th eir profession, only 26 percent thought that gerontology was im portant in their departmental curriculum. 168 Table 1C Results From the Interview Data Collection Form Questions 9A and 9B Question 9A: D o you plan to implement aging related courses into your departmental/school curriculum within the next two years, or three to five years? Percentage Within the next 2 years 35 Within the next 3 to 5 years 17 Question 9B; I f you do not plan to implement aging related courses into your department/school curriculum, is i t because of: Percentage Lk money 4 Lk qualified faculty 0 Lk student interest 13 Lk faculty interest 9 Lk relevance to disc 9 Other 13 The results of question 9, parts A and B, indicate that within the next two to five years, 52 percent of the departments surveyed are planning to implement courses in gerontology. Lack of student and faculty interest were the primary reasons given for not implementing gerontology programs. _169_ Table ID Results From the Interview Data Collection Form Question 10 Question 10: I f applicable, what percentage of your faculty, who teach aging courses, have specific gerontological training? Percentage 5-15 percent 43 15-25 percent 0 25-35 percent 4 35-50 percent 0 50-75 percent 0 75+ percent 0 N A 43 The results of question 10 indicate that 43 percent of the re spondents did not have faculty teaching gerontology courses. Another 43 percent answered "(5-15 percent)" of their faculty had gerontologi cal training. This la tte r result is misleading however, because many of the respondents answered "(0 percent)" and these answers were tabu lated in with the "(5-15 percent)" category. Therefore, many of the respondents were in departments whose faculty had l i t t l e or no geron tological training. 170 Table IE Results From the Interview Data Collection Form Question 11 Question 11: I f applicable, do you feel that faculty who teach your aging courses should have specific gerontological training? Percentage Yes 48 ^ No 0 N A 43 The results of this question indicate that the institutions which offer gerontological courses feel that instructors teaching those courses need gerontological training. An answer of "not applicable" indicates that no gerontological courses were offered. 171 Table IF Results From the Interview Data Collection Form Question 12 Question 12: D o you feel that the content of gerontology has im portant implications for the future of your discipline? Percentage Has very impt impl 48 Impt impl 35 Slightly impt impl 9 No impt impl 0 The results of question 12 indicate that a majority of respondents, 83 percent, fe lt that gerontology was important to the future of their di scipline. 172 Table 2 Attitudes About Aging and the Number of Courses Offered Importance of Gerontology in Relation to Curriculum (1-2) Not Important (3) Som e Importance (4-5) Important Offer Courses 26.08 percent 13,04 percent 21.73 percent D o not Offer Courses 30.43 percent 4.34 percent 4.34 percent Table 2 describes whether or not gerontological courses were offered by the department and how this may or m ay not effect the re spondents' attitude towards the importance of gerontology courses in the departmental curriculum. Table 2 indicates that offering gerontological courses did not make a difference in the respondents' attitudes toward the importance of gerontology in the departmental curriculum. 173 Table 3 Attitudes Toward Aging in Relation With a ll Other Counseling Issues and the Number of Courses Offered Importance of Gerontology in Relation to all Other Counseling Issues_______ (1-2) Not Important (3) Som e Importance (4-5) Important Offer Courses 8.69 percent 13.04 percent 39.13 percent D o Not Offer Courses 0.00 percent 30.43 percent 8.69 percent Table 3 indicates whether or not gerontological courses were offered by the department and how this may or may not effect the respondents' attitudes toward the importance of gerontology in re lation to other issues in his/her profession. The results of this relationship show that out of the total number of respondents, 52.17 percent offered courses in gerontology and thought that gerontology was important in relation to other issues in their discipline and only 39.12 percent f e lt that gerontology was important when their department did not offer courses. 174 Table 4 Types of Degrees Offered by the Department and the Number of Gerontological Courses Offered Types of Degrees M.A. M.S. Ed. D. Ph.D. Offer Courses 23.33 percent 23.33 percent 0.00 percent 0.00 percent Do Not Offer Courses 13.33 percent 20.00 percent 13.33 percent 6.66 percent Table 4 describes whether or not gerontological courses were offered and how this may or may not effect the types of degrees offered by the department. The results of this relationship show that the departments which offer doctorate degrees do not offer gerontological courses, and there was a non-significant relationship indicated by the equal distribution of Master's degrees between the departments which did and did not offer gerontological courses. 175 1 1 E 03 1 S- 03 & _ > > S-. 4-J 03 S . o CL JC 03 c n 03 y - £ 4-> c > - I — x r O O o O > - tA 03 4-J O O o 4-3 o r o r 03 O JC 5 c 2 f O O o c n > > c - o in XT <v 3 03 cn 03 4-3 o in 4-> 03 (A T 3 in (A 03 O 03 c C 03 4-3 4-3 s~ 3 3 03 c C i. 4-J O c n & _ o X > > Q . o o & _ 03 c n E tA 03 o y - o r S-- cn 03 o 4-3 03 SC o > > or JC 4-3 4-3 4-> I — C N J O o 03 u u 03 c 4-J t o O o s_ & _ J = c o 3 03 03 4-3 03 i - c n cn <3 o 4-3 .c r 03 03 0 ) 3 4-3 in 4-3 s c u C D y - 03 4-3 c CO to S - s - cn 03 y - -1 - (D C D 03 3 . 3 in O 1 — ^ —*. O J 4-3 03 O 03 Q . 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(A 4-> LO S- C D 4-3 c n to r — CO C -r - CL C D +-> s z S- 03 1 ‘ r— cn i - 1 4-J 03 03 4-3 cn o c <V C I — o «d- O LO 03 E in o 4-3 ^ O + J 1 — — ' O — ; & _ J 3 & _ y - U *r— o o c O 03 03 o o 4-3 tA S- 4-J s= + J S-. O l U 1 — JC 4-3 C 03 03 03 C < D S- (D o in c 03 tA <V U (A o 4-> (V O "ID s - 4-3 o 4-3 S-. to 3 < U S- 4-> E U J 3 03 s- S- 3 (V X 3 O < D 03 o C 3 03 3 03 O O O f UJ Q CO E C O 1 —I in tA tA cn CL. O 176 Table 6 Gerontological Field Work Opportunities and the Number of Course Offerings Option for Field Work With Older Adults N o Yes Offer Courses 38.09 percent 19.04 percent Do Not Offer Courses 23.80 percent 19.04 percent Table 6 indicates whether or not gerontological courses are offered and how this may or may not relate to opportunities for geron tological ly oriented fie ld experiences. The results of this table show that the option for fie ld work with older adults had almost no bearing on whether or not gerontological courses were offered. 177 Table 7 Tabulation of Spearmans' Rank Order Coefficient of Correlation on Select Variables Variables R ^ Number of Students in Department/school and Number of courses with aging content .28 Number of students in educational in stitution and Number of courses with aging content -.42* Number of theses and dissertations written in area of Gerontology and Number of courses with aging content -.09 * p .05 Table 7 presents an examination of the strength of some of the proposed relationships by way of a Spearmans' rank order coefficient of correlation. There was found to be a significant negative relationship at the .05 level, between the number of courses attending the educa tional institutions and the number of courses with gerontological content. 178 Abbreviations (Continued) Ph.D. = Doctor of Philosophy Degree WGS = Western Gerontological Society Credentials and Licensing For the purpose of this study, the single license examined was the Marriage, Family, Child Counseling License, which is the objective of some counseling pro grams. Also examined were the California Community College Counselor and the California Community College Student Per sonnel Worker Credentials. The requirements for the Marriage, Family, Child Counseling License are as follows: Section 17 804 of the MFCC Licensing Laws states: To qualify for a license an applicant shall have all the following qualifi cations : (la) At least a masters degree in marriage counseling, in social work, or in one of the behavioral sciences, including, but not limited to sociology or psychology, obtained from a college or university accredited by the Western College Association, the Northwest As sociation of Secondary Schools, or an essentially equivalent accrediting agency, as determined by the board. (2a) After September 1, 1975, an appli cant shall have at least a masters degree in marriage, family, child counseling or its equivalent, obtained from a school, college or university accredited by any of the above listed accrediting associa tions or aaencies. Equivalent degrees include, but are not limited to the 179 masters degree in social work and the masters degree in child develop ment and family studies, (2b) At least two years experience, of a character approved by the board, under the direction of a person who holds the marriage, family and child counseling license or at least two years experience of a type which in the discretion of the board is equiva lent to that obtained under the direc-i tion of such a person. (2c) Must be at least 18 years of age. Section 17805 states: On and after the effective date of the amendments to this section adopted at the 19 70 regular session of the Legis lature, every applicant who applies for a license as a marriage, family, child counselor shall be examined by the board. The examination shall be given at least twice a year at the time and place and under such supervision as the board may determine. The board may examine for knowledge in whatever theoretical or applied fields in marriage, family, child counseling as it deems reasonably appropriate. One may examine the candi date with regard to his professional skills and his judgment in the utiliza tion of appropriate techniques and methods. (Laws relating to the MFCC license, issued by the Board of Be havioral Science Examiners, 19 74, p. 2 5.) This last statement brought questions to the minds of the researchers. Would a candidate whom the Board knew has specialized training in counseling the aged be tested in this area? The researchers conducted a phone interview with a representative of the Board of Behavioral Science Examiners to discover the answer. The representative 180 stated that presently only a written examination was being given for the Marriage, Family, Child Counseling License. This examination is in the process of being rewritten for the upcoming examination on July 9, 19 77. He had no idea as to whether questions on counseling the older adult would be included, but he hypothesized that some of the new questions may follow those about practice with the aged asked on the examination for licensing clinical social workers. As of now, however, the only areas covered by the Marriage, Family, Child Counseling examination are the areas listed in sections 1830-1831 of the licensing regula tions. These areas are: The behavioral sciences including, but not limited to: Educational Guidance and Counseling Marriage Counseling Pastorial Counseling Psychology Social Work Sociology Speech Therapy Applicants qualifying on the basis of education and training in a discipline other than marriage, family, child counseling, social work, sociology or psychology shall submit proof satis factory to the Board that they have successfully completed at least five graduate units in one or more of the subjects set forth in the following subsections : 181 (a) Marriage and Family Life Education History of Marriage and the Family Family Life Education Education for Marriage Marriage and Family Problems Marriage and Family Adjustments Minimum units required.,......... 5 (b) Human Interpersonal Development Child Development Abnormal Personality Adolescent Development Adult Development Study of Life Cycles Minimum units required...........5 (c) Relationship Counseling Pre-marital Counseling Husband-Wife Interaction Parent-Child Counseling Family Interaction Minimum units required. ..... ,5 (d) Research, Tools and Methodology in Marriage, Family and Child Counseling Tests and Measurements Individual Study of the Family Research Methodology Family Research Minimum units required...........5 TOTAL minimum units required..,.20 The Board retains all written examina tions for at least one year following the date of the examination. The Board shall keep an accurate transcript of all oral examinations and keep such a tran script as a part of its records for at least one year following the date of the examination. An applicahfe who has qualified pursuant to the provisions of this chapter shall be issued a license as a marriage, family, child counselor in such form as the director may deem appropriate. (Laws 182 relating to the MFCC license issued by the Board of Behavioral Science Examiners, 19 74, p. 26.) New definitions of counselors are emerging as licens ing and certification are sought. As the licensing stand ards are being enacted, curriculum modifications in the graduate counseling programs must be made to adequately prepare the graduate for the licensing examinations. These modifications of curricula should include more courses in areas related to gerontology. The addition of geron tological curricula would better prepare the counselor education graduate for a career in counseling all sectors of our population. Suggestions for gerontological curric ula related to counseling, the implications of this change, the researchers' conclusions and a discussion of them will follow in the final chapter. 183 CHAPTER VIII DISCUSSION, RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE STUDY, SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Discussion Introduction In the final chapter the authors will provide con clusions and implications based upon the literature review and the results of the survey. The literature review has provided information about counselor education and geron tology, where these fields lie on the continuum of profes sional status and how these two fields interface. The re sults of this study have indicated two important facts for counselor educators to consider. First, even though there are very few programs which offer courses in aging, the interest and perceived need for such classes is rated highly important by counseling faculty. Secondly, adults facing the crises and developmental tasks of adulthood can benefit from specialized counseling. If adults are to get appropriate counseling, some adaptations will have to be 184 made in the traditional content and methods of preparation for counselor educators. To effectively meet the needs of the older adult, counselor educators must address them selves to the primary issues in the following areas ; (1) the training of educators and counselors; (2) curricu lum development; and, (3) innovative programs for counsel ing older adults and future research. In discussing the conclusions and implications, the researchers will address the above three areas as they relate to the literature re view and the variables presented in the tables of the re sults chapter. Training in Gerontology The variables involved in the preparation of counselor educators are very important to consider for the develop ment of a viable relationship between counseling and geron tology. Instructors teaching courses with aging content need a good background in aging as it relates to counseling so they can provide students with correct information. Also, instructors need to be kept informed of the latest developments in aging through membership in gerontological professional associations so that they can stimulate inter est in aging for future counselors. Referring to the re sults obtained from the Interview Data Collection Form (Appendix D), some interesting associations are evident. Questions three, ten, and eleven (Results chapter. Tables 185 lA, ID, and IE) refer to instructor membership in geron tological associations, the number of faculty teaching aging courses who have gerontological training and the im portance of gerontological training for faculty teaching aging related courses. In forty-seven of the schools which taught courses with gerontological content, 4 3 percent of the instructors had 0-15 percent specific gerontological training and only 4 percent had 25-35 percent training in aging. This indicates that of the schools sampled, less than half included courses with content related to aging and the vast majority of the instructors had little or no training in gerontology. In addition, question three in dicates that of the instructors who taught aging courses, only 13 percent held membership in either of the primary professional organizations for gerontology (i.e.. Geron tological Society or the Western Gerontological Society). Professionalism assumes specialization and a body of know ledge, as well as membership in professional organizations. If counselors are to continue to advance their professional status and incorporate gerontology into their curriculum, they must have the proper preparation and training for in structors and involvement with gerontological professional organizations. After examining the training and profes sional membership in gerontological associations of the in structors teaching courses with aging content, the question 186 arises whether or not counselor educators feel geron tological training is relevant or important. Question eleven specifically asks if instructors teaching courses with aging content should have gerontological training and the results indicate a unanimous 100 percent "Yes" (Re sults Chapter, Table IE). Therefore, it seems that coun selors recognize the importance of gerontological training for instructors but have not followed through with actions. There are strategies possible that could be easily imple mented into existing counselor education programs to over come the lack of training in aging for instructors. For example, an instructor who is interested in aging should be encouraged to acquire further preparation in gerontology by means of attending workshops and summer courses on aging, membership in gerontological professional associa tions, subscriptions to aging related journals and period icals, and involvement with community programs for the aged. As a result, he can disseminate information relevant to counseling and gerontology to members of the department as well as to counseling students. An important area in counseling programs where in structors assume a major role is in the selection of field work settings. Field work placements are meant to give students practical work experience where they might apply the didactic class information and enhance their learning. 187 I When the association between gerontological fieldwork opportunities and the number of aging related courses (Results Chapter, Table 6) was tested, the results were non-significant. It would seem that courses related to aging should stimulate student interest which would be further developed in working directly with older adults. An instructor trained in gerontology and having established community contacts in age related areas would be able to establish resources among a variety of gerontological settings in which students could complete their field practicum requirements. Thus, the relationship between counseling and gerontology could be further enhanced. Another important component of the educational train ing for counselor is to develop means to assure their accountability and competency. There have been many dif ficulties involved in developing a license to "counsel" and, thus, exact legal control over the profession. Pre sently, there is no single license that defines and governs a counselor. The present study has operationally defined counselor education programs to include only those who pre pare students for the Marriage Family Child Counseling license or the California Community College Counseling credential or the California Community College Student Per sonnel Worker credential. Regarding the regulations which govern these credentials and license, the researchers re- 188 commend that the licensing board and credential require ments test for gerontological knowledge. This would regu late the level of expertise and training in gerontology re quired for counseling professionals who will be working with older adults. Curriculum Development Counselor educators must first be aware of the rele vance of gerontology for counseling before specific steps will be taken to implement gerontology into the curriculum. Questions six and twelve of this survey (Results Chapter, Tables IB and IF) addressed this issue directly by asking respondents the importance of aging issues in comparison with all issues with which the counseling profession is concerned and the importance of gerontology for the future of counseling. The results indicate: (1) Eighty-three percent responded by stating that aging issues are somewhat to very important for the counseling profession; (2) Eighty-three percent stated that the content of gerontology has important to very important implications for the future of counselor education. This indicates that the counseling profession is aware of the relevance of gerontology for counseling, but do they see the need to expand counselor education programs to meet the need? To test this question the respondents were given question five which asked how important courses with aging content were to the department 189 curriculum (Results Chapter, Table IB). Forty-seven per cent responded that aging courses were not very important or of no importance to the departmental curriculum. The remaining 43 percent responded that aging was somewhat to very important to the departmental curriculum. These re sults did not support the former percentages, 83 percent, attesting to the importance of gerontology to counseling as a profession. Only speculations can be made regarding the seeming paradox of these results. Possibly counselor educators see the importance of gerontology as an emerging profession and in a general way how it might relate to counseling, but when it comes down to the details of how to integrate gerontology into counseling curriculum they feel unqualified. It also may be that it is easier to respond positively to potential changes when they seem far away than when action can be taken immediately to bring about change. Question nine (Results Chapter, Table 1C) sought to specifically determine if and when aging related courses would be implemented into the departmental curriculum. Fifty-two percent responded that within the next five years they will have age related courses within their curriculum. Of the 48 percent who do not plan to implement aging courses, 22 percent said their reason was lack of student and faculty interest. Only 9 percent said it was due to 190 lack of relevance for counseling. The fact that 5 2 percent of the departments sampled will implement aging related courses within the next five years demonstrates that counselor educators are beginning to respond to the need for information in the field of gerontology. Barber (1969) concludes that the better the university professional school, the more likely it is to use resources from the other professional schools in the university and from all other departments of basic knowledge insofar as they are relevant. This statement is significant in that 91 percent of the respondents sampled felt that gerontology was rel evant to the field of counselor education. The researchers agree with Barber (1969) that one aspect of a true pro fession is that it draws upon other fields of knowledge and expertise. The results are an indication that geron tology is being considered to be a profession with informa tion relevant to counseling. The researchers suggest that immediate steps be taken by counselor education programs to integrate gerontology into the curriculum. The statistics indicate that coun selor educators are aware of the importance of gerontology as an emerging area of concern for their profession, but that the necessary curriculum changes needed to train counselor educators in the area of gerontology are slow to come about. It is important to examine why counselor 191 educators have failed to meet the needs of older adults through adequate counselor training programs and what can be done to change the curriculum. The primary reason counselors stated for not implementing age related courses was lack of student and faculty interest. This could be easily eradicated by integrating aging information into existing courses. The problems and special needs of the elderly are increasingly coming to the attention of the public. Government funds are being channeled to alleviate such problems and new programs and job opportunities are opening up. Counseling students, who are made aware of the new directions aging programs are taking, might then choose to specialize in counseling the elderly. It is the task of the instructor to keep abreast of future trends relevant to his specialization and to disseminate such information to students. According to the investigator's observations, coun selor educators may have failed to incorporate gerontology into their curriculum because of a bias regarding aging. As indicated earlier, counselors need to confront their own potential age bias so that they can effectively counsel elderly persons. Correct information is one of the quick est ways to eradicate prejudice. A course on the myths and realities of aging would present the true facts concerning the aging process and dispel aging stereotypes students may 192 hold. Also, workshops and exercises to stimulate students and instructors to develop their own personal values re garding aging are necessary. Another observation as to why counselor education may have failed to incorporate gerontology into their curric ulum is belief in a generic form of counseling. Some counselors feel that once they learn counseling techniques, they are qualified to counsel anyone. This seems an ex treme position. Carl Rogers' (1951) proposition that the counselor must enter the frame of reference of the client to effectively counsel seems a more viable alternative. To understand older adults, counselors must be informed of the historical perspective of the elderly as well as the processes and effects of aging. Counselor educators need to confront their reasons for not including aging content in counseling programs and seek ways to bring about needed changes. Curriculum changes to include aging related content can occur in two primary ways. First, an entire course devoted to under standing the process of aging should become a part of the curriculum for would be counselors. This should be taugKt by someone interested and trained in the field of aging. The objectives of such a class would be to impart correct information regarding aging, dispel stereotypes and show the relationship between counseling and gerontology and new 193 directions for counseling to pursue in the field of aging. Secondly, aging information should be integrated into ex isting courses wherever it is relevant. For example, de velopmental psychology classes should not stop at adulthood but rather continue on to middle age and old age. Classes which teach techniques of counseling should include ways to improve counseling relationships with the elderly. For example, counselors need to be aware of the physical losses which occur with aging in such areas as hearing, sight, and mobility and to make accommodations for such losses in order to effectively help the older adult. In an article entitled, "Counseling the Elderly: An Emerging Area for Counselor Education" by Richard Blake and Leslie Kaplan (1975), listed specific strategies for counseling departments to take for an enhanced professional involvement in gerontology. For example, one suggestion was for the counselor education department to develop and offer a service course to non-counseling majors who want to improve their interpersonal relationship and communication skills for work with older persons. This would include clarification of personal values and attitudes regarding aging and older people and lead to the improvement of help ing relationships. In addition to these departmental tactics, other ways to increase the awareness of concern for the issues of gerontology are recommended for the 194 entire university (Blake & Kaplan, 19 75). Lenzer (1966) has suggested four proposals for inte grating gerontology into university curriculum. The re searchers feel that these same principles apply to coun selor education departments and would enhance the relation ship between counseling and gerontology. They are as follows : (1) The establishment of inter disciplinary research centers at major universities across the country. (2) Involve distinguished senior scientists and teachers not currently engaged in the field. (3) Imbed aging into the curricula of university schools and departments; make curriculum material available at the least possible cost and inconven ience to such schools and with a mini mum amount of disruption of the existing institutional program. (4) Establish and increase contact with existing professional associations which help set standards for members of the profession. (Lenzer, 1966, p. 105) A growing public awareness, an increasing number of elderly persons and pressing needs of the elderly indicate that counselor educators need to adjust their curriculum to incorporate gerontological subject matter. Recommendations for Future Research Counselor educators need to examine current programs and trends for counseling the elderly so that they may choose the best method for integrating gerontology into 195 counseling programs. Innovative programs are being de veloped for counseling older adults. In New York, a work shop on adult counseling recognized the need for an adult career and educational information dispersal system. For such a program to be effective it must be easily accessible and non-threatening to older adults. Their suggestion was for the library system to be the key agency to disseminate such a program. The public library system could serve the older adults by adding an adult counselor who specialized in mid-life vocational and educational counseling (Harrison & Entine, 1976). Across the nation, more novel programs to serve the counseling needs of older adults are beginning to appear. The University of Illinois has a computer assisted counsel ing network designed for adult clients. This program focuses on information for nontraditional adult needs. Also, the Career Education Project in Providence, Rhode Island in 19 72 published workbooks, manuals and computer based information which are helpful for adult counseling programs. The Washington State Legislature in 1975 con sidered a bill to set up career change centers. This would make it possible for the unemployed to make career changes for economic, technological or health reasons. This type of legislation gives needed support to adult counseling centers (Harrison & Entine, 1976). 196 The American Institutes for Research in 19 74 performed a national survey of adult career counseling programs. Of the 752 they identified, the programs were sponsored by the following agencies: (1) Four year colleges, 34 percent; (2) community colleges, 20 percent; (3) private groups and organizations, e.g. YWCA, YMCA, 18 percent ; (4) government agencies, 16 percent ; and, (5) adult schools, 12 percent (Harrison & Entine, 1976). The adult career counseling centers provide a variety of services and use many differ ent methods to reach their potential clients. They as semble information about vocational and educational oppor tunities for adults and release this information to the community and to clients to use as they wish. They may offer assistance with personal and family problems. Many different methods have been used to provide services to adults. Career planning and development may be provided through a workshop, class or seminars at unique times to serve working adults. Home services may be provided through the use of telephones, mobile vans, cassette tapes, and home-study correspondence courses. Pre-retirement planning, either in the direction of generating income or for purpose of self-actualization, is focused upon at some schools and universities (Harrison & Entine, 1976). The University of Southern California has an adult counseling center located in the Ethel Percy Andrus Geron 197 tology Center. An interview was obtained with one of the adult counselors, Margaret Hickey, who is also a doctoral student from the USC Counseling department. She stated that the adult counseling center is directed by two psychol ogists and staffed by twelve student counselors and fifteen peer counselors. The peer counselors are placed in a rigorous training program designed to screen candidates who would not make effective peer counselors. Acorrding to Ms. Hickey, from a group of ten potential peer counselors for each training session, an average of two would either drop out by choice or be asked to leave the program. The adult counseling center serves adult clients with a variety of problems. Many are adults with elderly parents and they require help in understanding the aging process their parents are experiencing so that they might cope with their own feelings. Other clients are widows and widowers who need to work through the grief process. Many older adults who come complain of depression and post-retiree blues. Ms. Hickey feels that for counselors to effectively work with older adults they need a course which would give them didactic information on gerontology, such as an introduc tion to gerontology classes. She feels special training is absolutely necessary to counsel the elderly. By examining the forerunners in adult counseling pro grams, counselor educators can have the increased insight 198 to select the most productive method they might use to en hance the relationship between gerontology and counseling. One of the results of this study was to highlight areas where further research might be considered to improve the relationship between counseling and gerontology. For example, the one statistically significant correlation re sulting from the data analysis is found on Table 7 of the Results chapter. The researchers note the -.42 Spearmans' rank order coefficient of correlation. This result in dicates that the smaller the student population attending the educational institution the more courses with geron tological content are taught. The researchers can only speculate as to what the reasons for this negative corre lation might be: (1) Possibly, the smaller institutions are more responsive to student and societal needs; (2) the smaller institutions may be looking for new programs of study so as to be competitive with larger and more renowned institutions which are often slower to change; (3) Geo graphical location, background of the faculty and student make-up may also be influential factors. It is also interesting to note that none of the coun selor education programs offering the higher degress of Doctor of Philosophy or Doctor of Education had courses in gerontology (Table 4 of Result chapter). The researchers can only speculate as to why this occurred. For instance : 199 (1) The Ed.D. and Ph.D. degrees may be so specialized that the schools offering them do not see the need to incorpor ate gerontological information into the curriculum, or (2) it may be that the curricula of a doctorate program is so entrenched in tradition that it is less responsive to student and public needs. Due to the interview nature of the study, possible re lationships and questions surfaced which the researchers were unable to document. For example, it was observed in the interview session that oftentimes the older the coun selor the more interested he seemed to be in the importance of gerontology. An interesting study might be to examine the age of the director of the counselor education programs and the number of age related courses in the curriculum. Some departments stated that their students could take electives in gerontology from other departments in the educational institution so they need not incorporate geron tology into their curriculum. Often the credits from such courses did not count towards the counseling degree. Thus, there was no incentive for students to take such aging courses. Another discovery was that the emphasis or direc tion of the counselor education program had significance concerning the attitude of the interviewee towards geron tology. For instance, vocational/rehabilitational coun selors often stated that working with older adults was not 200 their concern. They stated their goal was to put people into the job market and that older adults would not be able to obtain a job. It would be interesting to study the re lationship between a counselor's age bias and the impor tance of gerontology for the profession. Cause-effeet relationships are difficult to establish. Nevertheless, it is important for the future relationship between counseling and gerontology to concern themselves with the following questions; Would an emphasis on aging issues in counselor education programs result in an in crease in field practicums working with older adults? Would an increase in gerontology courses result in an in crease in theses and dissertations related to aging? Would student interest in gerontology be stimulated by workshops related to aging, instructors trained in and teaching aging classes and the availability of aging journals and period icals ? Limitations of the Study The researchers are aware of the limitations of the present study. Limitations present in this research are those common to survey design research projects as well as those specific to the subject matter of the project. The first drawback is the superficial nature of survey research projects in general. The project has been lengthy and as a result, student mortality (n = 2) has been a factor. The 201 length also has an effect on the intensity of devotion to the project by the researchers. By design, the project studied only accredited schools in California. The assump tion that only these schools provide trained gerontologists for community, state and federal programs is invalid. National implications of the findings are limited because of the omission of schools from states other than in Cali fornia. Due to the large sample size of some disciplines (e.g., nursing 100), a random sample was made. Omission of some important information may have occurred. Despite role play training in interview techniques, the researchers have different levels of interviewing skills, therefore, these varying skills may have elicited varying levels of answers from the respondents. Finally, there are only eight pro fessions being studied. Thus, the results cannot be generalized to professions beyond this group. Summary This research was conducted as part of a larger ex ploratory study of eight disciplines in the state of Cali fornia. The researchers of this section explored the dis cipline of counselor education in its relationships to gerontology. In order to evaluate the evolution and re lationship of the two disciplines as professions, a litera ture review of professionalism was undertaken. Seven steps were developed as prerequisites of a profession: (1) a 202 body of knowledge; (2) a university education; C3) ^ pro fessional ideology; (4) professional associations ; (5) a code of ethics; (6) self-regulations; and, (.7) public sanction. Using these steps, the researchers examined the fields of counselor education and gerontology as they move along the continuum of professional status. The development of the relationship between counselor education and gerontology is just beginning. The re searchers cite two main reasons for this development. One reason was the changing attitudes of counselors toward older adults. In order to assess some of these changing attitudes, two questionnaires were developed which ex amined educational curricula in departments of counselor education as well as credentials and licensing procedures. The first questionnaire concerned information in course catalogues and bulletins. The second questionnaire was sent to the deans of the counselor education departments in the state of California. This second questionnaire re garded attitudes toward the relevance of gerontology and prospects for the future development of courses in aging and was followed up by a telephone or personal interview. Twenty-three departments in accredited colleges and universities were included in the California survey, A counselor education department was operationally defined as a curriculum leading to; (1) marriage, family, and child 203 counseling; (2) California community college counseling and California community college workers; and, (3) vocational/ rehabilitational counseling. In analyzing the data, one result was statistically significant. This was a negative relationship between the size of the educational institu tion and the number of gerontological courses. The re spondents ' attitudes toward gerontology and the opportunity for field practicum, were found not to effect the number of gerontological courses offered. Conclusion In conclusion, the researchers found that it is necessary for counselor educators to become more respon sive to the needs of older adults. The major findings of this study were; (1) the smaller the student population at the educational institution the greater the number of gerontological couses; (2) the departments offering geron tological courses felt that their instructors teaching these courses should have training in gerontology ; and, (3) eighty-three percent of the respondents felt geron tology was important to the future of counselor education. As a result of this research effort the following points were found to be important ; (1) there is a need to study the feasibility of implementing courses in gerontology in training programs for counselors ; (2) the needs of older adults may be addressed by expanding adult counseling ser- 204 vices; and, (3) studies can be based upon the findings of this survey regarding the future of the professions of counselor education and gerontology and how they may con tinue to promote their relationship. It is apparent that there is a great need for under standing the special needs, problems, and potentialities of the later years of the life span. The result of coun seling should be that people are better able to take con trol of their own lives. Erikson (196 8) has succinctly indicated the need for concern with problems of aging, ...a civilization can be measured by the meaning which it gives to the full cycle of life, for such meaning, or the lack of it, cannot fail to reach into the beginnings of the next generation, and thus into the chances of others to meet ultimate questions with some clarity and strength. (p. 141) If we could give equal intensity to research oriented to ward understanding the needs of the aged, that we have to the needs of youth, life could be infinitely more reward ing for the aged as well as for their families, friends and for society as a whole. 205 BIBLIOGRAPHY 206 BIBLIOGRAPHY American Personnel and Guidance Association. 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Cambridge, Mass.: Schenkman Publishing Co., Inc., 19 73. Lowenthal, M.F., Thurnher, M., Chiriboga, D., and Associates. Four stages of life. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 1975, £(2), 197-199. Marshall, T.H. The recent history of professionalism in relation to social structure and social policy. Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science, 1939, 5, 325-340. May, R. The Art of Counseling. New York: Abingdon Press, 1939. McCully, C.H. Conceptions of man in the helping profes sions. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1966, ££, 912. McGowan, J.F. and Schmidt, L.D. Counseling: Readings in Theory and Practice. New York : Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1962. Medicare increase. Senior Citizens Today, January 197 7, 2 213 Miller, J. and Engon, A. Tomorrow's counselor: Competent or unemployed? Personnel & Guidance Journal, January 1976, 262-266. Moore, W.E. The Professions: Roles and Rules. New York: The Russell Sage Foundation, 1970. National Association of Social Workers. Building Social Work Knowledge. New York : National Association of Social Workers, 1964. National Vocational Guidance Association. Counselor Preparation. Washington, D.C.: Author, 1949. Neugarten, B., Moore, J.W. and Lowe, J.C. Age norms, age constraints, and adult socialization. In B.L. Neu garten (Ed.), Middle Age and Aging. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 196 8. Norris, W. More than a decade of training guidance and personnel workers. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1960, 39(12), 287-291. Patterson, C. Counseling and Psychotherapy: Theory and Practice. New York : Harper & Brothers, 1959 . Pavalko, R.M. Sociology of Occupations and Professions. Florida : F.E. Peacock Publishers, Inc., 197 4. Peters, H. and Shertzer, B. Guidance: Program Development and Management. Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co., 1963-1969. Peterson, J.A. Therapeutic intervention in marital and family problems of aging persons. In A.N. Schwartz and I.N. Mensh (Eds.), Professional Obligations and Approaches to the Aged. Springfield, Illinois : Charles C. Thomas, 1974, 220-241. Peterson, J.A., Hadwen, T. and Larsen, A.E. A Time for Work, A Time for Leisure : A Study of Retirement Community In-movers. Los Angeles : University of Southern California, Gerontology Center, 1969. Pineo, P.C. Disenchantment in the later years of mar riage. In B.L. Neugarten (Ed.), Middle Age and Aging. Chicago : The University of Chicago Press, 1961. 214 Polmantier, P. and Schmidt, L.D. Areas of preparation of school guidance workers. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1960, £9, 303-316. Posz, G.S., Jun, J.S. and Storm, W.B. Administrative Alternatives in Development Assistance. Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger Publishing, 1973. Pressey, S.L and Pressey, A.D. Major neglected need opportunity: Old age counseling. Journal of Counseling! Psychology, 1972, 1£, 363-366. Ritzer, G. Professionalism and the individual. In E. 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Counselor Education, 1976, 15, 267-273. Smith, H. Contingencies of professional differentiation. American Journal of Sociology, 1958, 63, 410-414. 215 stone, S. and Shertzer, B. Fundamentals of Counseling. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Co., 1968. Careers in Counseling and Guidance. Boston : Houghton-Mifflin Co., 1969 and 1974. Strauss, A.L. Professions, Work and Careers. San Francisco : The Sociology Press, 1971. Thomas, W.G. and Permaul, J.D. Careers in College and University Student Affairs. Fullerton, California: Personnel and Guidance Association, 1973. Tibbitts, C. Development of gerontology. In C.B, Vedder (Ed.) , Gerontology : A Book of Readings. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1960. _____. Social gerontology in education for the profes sions. In R.E. Kushner and M.E. Bunch (Eds.) Graduate Education in Aging. Ann Arbor : University of Michigan 1967. Troll, L.E. and Schlossberg, N. Explorations in age bias : A preliminary investiation of age Bias in the helping professions. A paper presented at the Gerontological Society Meeting, Toronto, Canada, 1970. Troll, L.E. and Nowak, C. "How old are you?" The question of age bias in the counseling of adults. The Counseling Psychologist, 1976, £, 41-43. Turner, C. and Hodge, M.N. Occupations and professions. In J.A, Jackson (Ed,), Professions and Professionalism. Cambridge, Mass.: University Press, 1970. Tyler, L. The Work of a Counselor. New York : Appleton Century Crofts, Inc., 1961. United States Congress. House Select Committee on Aging, Report by the Subcommittee on Housing and Consumer Interest. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976. United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Human Development. Administration on Aging. National Directory of Educational Programs in Geron tology. (1st Ed.) Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976. 216 United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Social Security Programs in the United States. 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Quoted from The General Manager. London: British Institute of Management, 1950. Wilensky, H.L. The professionalization of everyone. American Journal of Sociology, 1964, 7£, 137-158. Woodruff, D. and Birren, J.E. Training for professionals in the field of aging : Needs, goals, models and means. In A.N. Schwartz and I.N. Mensh (Eds.), Professional Approaches and Obligations to the Aged. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1974, 245-300. Wrenn, G.C. Crisis in counseling: A commentary and a contribution. In J.F. McGowan (Ed.), Counselor De velopment in American Society. Washington, D.C.: United States Department of Labor, 1965. 217 APPENDICES 218 APPENDIX A Definition of Terms The following are operational definitions of terms which are being used within specific parameters for the purposes of this study; Generic Terms 1. Gerontology is a multidisciplinary study of the processes and the phenomena of aging, including knowledge from the biological, psychological, sociological and the behavioral sciences. 2. A profession is an occupation which requires a liberal education and meets the following criteria (1) a body of knowledge; (2) a university educa tion; (3) a code of ethics; (4) professional associations ; (5) public sanction ; (6) profes sional ideology; and, (7) self-regulation. All criteria need not be fully developed, but the discipline must be progressing along the continuum of professionalism to be considered a profession. 3. References to the elderly, older adults, and the aged at all times refer to those persons sixty years of age and older. 219 Educational Terms 1. Course Offerings are those classes indicated in the course catalog or in response to the inter view questionnaire which are available to students in the institutions studied. 2. Required courses are courses which need to be taken in order to meet the specifications of the program as listed in the course catalog. 3. A major is the principal field of academic spe cialization of a candidate for a degree in a college or university. (The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, W. Morris (Ed.) New York: Houghton, Mifflin, 19 69.) 4. A minor is an area of specialized study of a degree candidate in a college or university which requires fewer class hours or credits than a major. (The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, W. Morris (Ed.) New York: Houghton, Mifflin, 1969.) 5. An overview course is an introductory course with no specified prerequisites. 6. An area of emphasis is not specified in the catalogue, but applies to twelve or more semester units in a subject which are taken by a student. 7. Graduate courses are those courses which are 220 offered beyond the bachelors degree and are usually specialized or professional. 8. Field experiences are supervised work situations in which theoretical material learned in the classroom may be applied in an out-of-classroom setting. University credit is usually but not always earned for field experiences. For the purposes of this investigation, practicum and in ternship are considered synonymous with field experience. 9. Dual degree is to mean that a student has earned, in addition to a degree in gerontology, another degree in a related area such as social work or public administration. 10. Doctoral degrees a. For purposes of quantifying data for this study, Ph.D.'s and D. Sci. degrees are being classified as academic doctorates b. All other doctoral degrees are being classified as professional degrees. 11. Faculty included in this study are limited to full-time teaching employees of the educational institutions as indicated in the university catalogues. 12. Gerontological or aging related courses are terms 221 used interchangeably to indicate classes which include subject matter which fits the definition of gerontology (number one on the list of Generic terms). 13. Counseling and counselor education are terms used interchangeably to indicate departments with curricula which leads to any or all of the follow ing : (1) counseling courses preparing one for the Marriage, Family, and Child Counseling License; (2) a program emphasizing vocational or rehabilitational counseling ; and, (3) a program leading to the following credentials: The Cali fornia Community College Counselor or the Cali fornia Community College Student Personnel Worker Credentials. 14. A department, a school, and an institution are differentiated terms. The first two are sub divisions of the latter. An educational institu tion indicates the entire university or college, such as the University of Southern California. A school is a large sub-division which includes many educational topics, such as the School of Educa tion which includes higher education, administra tion and supervision and counselor education. A department is specialized in one topic of educa- 222 tion, such as the department of counselor education which includes educational curricula mentioned in definition 13 above, but which does not cover such topics as administration and supervision. The questionnaires were sent to the deans or heads of departments. 223 APPENDIX B ETHEL PeSCT ANDSOS G e b o n t o lo c t C e n t e b D N IV E ItS tT T P E R K LOS AH C E LE S , C E U F O R M IE 9O OO7 UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA ( 3 1 3 ) 7 4& < o 6 o November 15, 1975 To: Deans, Directors, and Department Chairmen of Professional Programs Dear The Leonard Davis School of the Andrus Gerontology Center has been funded a grant by the National Retired Teachers Association / American Association of Retired Persons to examine several disciplines and their relationships to gerontology and professionalism. Students from the Davis School are involved in the data collection and analysis under the guidance of Margaret Hartford, Ira Hirschfield, William Albert, and myself. This project w ill be helpful in increasing our knowledge of the gerontological offerings of the. colleges and universities in California and the expectations of professional credentialing boards. The study w ill fa c ilita te the future planning of the involved disciplines and the advancement of services, research, * and education of problems of aging. A s part of this study, a group of graduate students and faculty are conducting a survey of the content on aging in professional curricula. Within the next few weeks, an attempt w ill be m ade by one of these groups to interview you either in person or by telephone. The research group has had the opportunity to review your current b ulletin , and other materials to determine the nature of your program and evidence of content on aging. The interview w ill be for the purpose of fillin g in necessary data. The researcher w ill want to m ake inquiry about faculty teaching gerontology content, the extent of content, and the number of students participating in the classes with aging content. Enclosed is a copy of the questionnaire for your perusal. W e want you to know that the school has authorized this study and that w e hope that you can assist our students in producing the necessary infohnation. Thank you for your time and consideration. Sincerely, /^ames E Birren, Ph.D. Margafét E. Hartford, Ph.D. ^/Executive Director Director Andrus Gerontology Center Leonard Davis School of Gerontology MEH/jel . End. 224 APPENDIX C INFORI-IATION COLLECTION F O R M - LD S STUDENTS, PROFESSIONALISM PR O JEC T 1. N am e of in stitu tio n (1-3) 2. N am e of department/discipline (4-5) 3. Types of degrees/certificates offered by department C e rtifi cates : (6-20) Bachelors; (21-30) Masters; (31-40) Academic doctorate (indicate speciality) (41-60) Professional doctorate: (61-70) (80=1) 225 4. Do courses in the departmental curricula - as indicated in the course catalog description - contain content related to gerontologyT ( 1) 1 Yes 2 No IF YES, list course titles and check appropriate spaces: (2-76, 77, 78, 79) Requi red Overview I (80=2) Graduate 226 5. Does the department offer a dual degree, minor or emphasis in gerontology at the graduate level? Check all categories which apply. (1-4) 1 None 2 Dual degree 3 Minor 4 Emphasis 6. Does the department require a field practicum, internship, or traineeship? (5) 1 Yes 2 No 7. What is the student population of the institution? (6-8) _________ # of students 8. What is the total number of faculty members comprising the department? (9-10) ■ I of faculty members 9. What is the total number of faculty holding doctorates within the department? (11-12) _________ i of faculty members 10. On a scale from one to seven, using the information you have assimilated from reading the university catalog of your department, rate the extent to which this department incorporates the subject matter of gerontology into its departmental curriculum, (13) Does not incorporate Does incorporate gerontological subject gerontological subject - matter matter 11. Is there anything else, not on this data collection form, that you would like to address yourself to in terms of how this department relates to the field of gerontology? Please respond freely. (14-79) ■ (80=3) 227 12. Does department/school have a division of continuing education? ( 1) •1 Yes 2 No If yes, please list the course titles containing aging (i.e., gerontological) content within the continuing ed ucation curriculm. (2-78) Course titles: APPENDIX D 1. What is your name and. tomblete title, inclusive of discipline? (1-2) 2. What is the number of students enrolled in your department/school? (3-5) ___________# of students 3. If applicable, please list the course titles containing aging (i.e., gerontological) content within your departmental/school curricula, and please estimate what percentage of each course is devoted to aging content. (6-79, 80=5, 1-6) Course titles : % If applicable, do the instructors teaching the above courses hold membership in the Gerontological Society (GS), or the Western Gerontological Society (WGS)? (7) 1_ GS 2 WGS 3 Bo th 4 Don ' t know 4. If your department requires a field practicum, traineeship, or internship- What is the total number of agencies/settings being utilized? (8-9) ___________Total # of agencies/settings being utilized About how many students are placed in such agencies/settings? . (10-12) ___________# of students placed in all agencies/settings utilized END OF PAGE 1, PLEASE GO TO NEXT PAGE 229 Question # 4 (continued) About how many agency/settings, which provide students with the opportunity to work with or on behalf of older adults, are being utilized? (13-14) ___________# of agencies which provide students with the opportunity to work with or on behalf of older adults About how many students are placed in these agencies/settings? (15-17) ___________# of students placed in agencies/settings which provide opportunity to work with or on behalf of older adults If applicable, would you please list the names of the agencies/ settings being utilized which provide students with the opportunity to work with or on behalf of older adults. (18, 19, 20-21) Names of agencies : 5, How important would you rate courses with aging (i.e., geron tological) content, in relation to your total departmental/ school curriculm? ( 22) 1 Of no importance 2 ___Not very important 3 ___Somewhat important 4 Important 5_^ Very important How important would you rate aging (i.e., gerontological) issues, in comparison with all other issues your profession is concerned with? (23) 1 Of no importance 2 Not very important • 3 _Somewhat important 4 Important 5 Very important END OF PAGE 2, PLEASE GO TO NEXT PAGE 230 If applicable, about how many doctoral dissertations and masters theses related to aging (i.e., gerontology) have been completed in your department/school since 1971? (24-25, 26-27) ___________# of dissertations related to aging completed since 1971 ___________ # of masters theses related to aging completed since 1971 To which of the following journals does your departmental/school library subscribe? Please check all that apply. (28-50) Aging Aging and Human Development _American Geriatrics Society Current Literature on Aging Developments in Aging Educational Gerontology _Experimental Aging Research Geriatrics Human Development _Industrial Gerontology Journal of Gerontology Journal of Gerontological Nursing The Gerontologist Any other aging related journals? IF YES, please list them. END OF PAGE 3, PLEASE GO TO NEXT PAGE 231} 4 9. Do you plan to implement aging related courses into your departmental/ school curriculm within the next 2 years,- or 3 to 5 years? (51) 1 Within next 2 years 2 Within next 3 to 5 years If you do not plan to implement aging related courses into your school/ departmental curriculm, is it because of - (Please check all that apply,) (52-57) 1 ___Lack of money 4___Lack of faculty interest 2 ___Lack of qualified faculty 5___Lack of relevance for your to teach courses discipline 3 ___Lack of student interest 6___Other reasons, please specify If you do plan to implement aging related courses into your school/ departmental curriculm within the next 1 to 5 years, in what topical areas of your discipline would such courses be implemented? Please list such areas. (57-79, 80=6, 1-40) Topical areas where aging related courses would be implemented: 10. If applicable, what percentage of your faculty, who teach aging related courses, have specific gerontological training? (41) l_5-157c 2 15-25% 3 25-35% 4 35-50% 5 50-75% 6 75%+ 11. If applicable, do you feel that faculty who teach your aging related courses should have specific gerontological training? (42) 1___Yes 2 No 12. Do you feel that the content (i.e., subject matter) of gerontology has important implications for the future of your discipline? (43) 1 ___It has very important implications 2 ___It has important implications 3 ___Its implications are slightly important 4 ___The implications of gerontology have no importance for my discipline This interview was - (44, 80=7) 1 __Face to face 2 __Over the telephone THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION 232 APPENDIX E Professional Study Outline of Areas to be Covered 1. Literature review on professionalism. 2. Literature review on the development of specific discipline as it moves toward (or how it became) professional status. Relate to criteria from #1. 3. An examination of the relationships between the disciplines and the field of gerontology. 4. An examination of where the field of gerontology is on the continuum of professional status. 5. A study of educational institutions and their offerings in gerontology in your discipliné. 6. A study of credentialing boards and their processes and expectations as related to gerontology. 7. Conclusions, next steps and proposals for gerontology. 233 APPENDIX F Credentials Section office of (he Chancellor California Comm unity Colleges 1122 S Street Sacram ento, California 95814 APP LIC A TIO N FOR A C A L IF O R N IA C O M M U N IT Y C O LLEG E C R E D E N T IA L (Please print or type) I. (M r.)(M rs.)(M iss)(M s.) CO UN TY/DISTRICT USE ONLY FILING DATE I V . First nam e M id d le n am e Last n am e M a id e n nam e F o rm e r n am e Your name as you want it typed on the credential; Birth date: Birthplace: M o n th D a y Y e a r Have you ever held a California Comm unity College Credential? ^ ^ File No. No [ ] Home address: N u m b e r and S tre e t C ity S ta te 2!ip C ode Telephones: Business Residence Mail credential to: Check the credential(s) you applying fpr: [ ] [ ] [ ] [ 1 Instructor [ ] Student Personnel Worker, partial fulfillm ent Instructor, partial fulfillm ent [ ] Limited Service Supervisor [ ] Special Lim ited Services Supervisor, partial fulfillm ent [ ] Chief Administrative Officer Librarian { ] Provisional Librarian, partial fulfillm ent { ] Certificate of Qualification for Adult Classes Counselor [ ] Health Services Counselor, partial fulfillm ent [ ] Health Services, partial fulfillm ent Student Personnel Worker [ ] Eminence [ 1 To he issued a credential on partial fulfillment of requirements you must agree to complete remaining requirements. Do you agree? / ] Yes / / No 111. SUBJECT M A T T E R A R E A . An applicant for an instructor or instructor, partial fulfillm ent or limited service or special limited services credential must list below the subject matter area(s) in which authorization to teach is being made (Only those subject matter areas listed on Page 3 of the General Instructions can be named on the credentials specified in this section.) CLASS. An applicant for a provisional credential or certificate of qualification for adult classes must list below the specific name of each class to be taught. O C C U P A TIO N A L E X P E R IE N C E . You must list and verify sufficient occupational experience to establish your eligibility for each credential and/or each subject matter area requested. (Refer to leaflets describing requirements for the credential(s) you are applying for.) __________ Employer____________ Location Dates Duties (OVER) 2 34 V. H IG H E R EDUCATION. You must list and verify sufficient higher education (course work and degrees) to establish your eligibility for each credential and/or each subject m atter area requested. (Refer to leaflets describing requirements for the credential(s) you are applying for.) Name o f Institution Location A ttendance Dates Depree or Diploma V I. Are you a high school graduate? [ ] Yes [ ] No All questions must be answered by placing “ X ” in proper box. Any “yes” answer must be explained fully, using extra sheet. A. Have you ever been arrested for any crime (other than a minor traffic violation) which resulted in a conviction or a plea of nolo contendere? If this has occurred, this question must be answered “yes” regardless of subsequent court action under Penal Code Section 1203.4 resulting in dismissal or “ expungement.” I f this has occurred with subsequent court action sealing the juvenile records under Penal Code Section 1203.45, this question may be answered “ no” ...................................................................................... B. Do you have any physical or mental handicap which could lim it your ability to fu lfill all duties authorized by the credential for which application is m a d e ? ....................................................................................................................... ... C. Are you addicted to the use of intoxicating beverages or to the use of narcotics or habit-forming drugs? ...................................... .......................... D. Have you ever had a certification document or credential re v o k e d ? ................ Yes No [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] V II. List names and addresses o f three persons who can attest to your moral character. They must be persons over 21 years o f age who have known you for more than one year and are not related to you by blood or marriage. _______________ Name Number and s t r e e t _____________City_______________ State____________ Zip code V III. List any federal or state license ( if held in field o f occupational experience). Type o f License______________Issuing Agency N umber Issue Date Expires O A T H -A F F ID A V IT / solemnly swear (or affirm ) that I will support the Constitution o f the United States o f America, the Cot:stitution o f the State o f California, and the laws o f the United States and the State o f California. / certify under penalty o f perjury that~the inform ation provided on this application is true and correct to the best o f my knowledge and belief. Completed this .day of 19 in the city o f , State of (Signature of Applicant)_ N O T IC E You w ill avoid processing delay by submitting a ll required materials and documentation with this application. Page 2 235 Credentials Section Office of the Chancellor California Community Colleges 1122 S Street (916) 445-2361 Sacramento, CA 95814 (916) 445-2361 GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR COMPLETING APPLICATIONS FOR CALIFORNIA COMMUNITY COLLEGE CREDENTIALS A. It is the applicant's responsibility to submit a properly completed application and all materials and documentation necessary in support of the credential request. B. Applications and supporting material should be mailed to the address above. C. A $15 fee is required for each credential requested and cannot be returned if an application is not completed or is denied. The fee should be paid by check or money order, made payable to "Board of Governors". D. One identification (fingerprint) card is required. Fingerprint impressions should be made by a local law enforcement agency. All information requested on the identification card must be completed, (including height, weight, age, sex, color of hair and eyes). E. No medical examination is required of applicants for California Community College credentials. F. Course work requirements are expressed in terms of semester units. To convert quarter units to semester units, multiply by 2/3. (3 quarter units = 2 semester units.) PLEASE READ BEFORE COMPLETING APPLICATION FORM CA-1 SECTION I: Complete personal information, legal name only. NOTE: Credentials are typed with SECTION II: Indicate the Community College credential you are applying for. SECTION III: If you are applying for the instructor, instructor on partial fulfillment of requirements, limited service, or special limited services acredential you must list the subject matter area(s) for which you are requesting authorization to teach. Only those sub- ject matter area(s) listed on Page 3 of these instructions can be named on a credential. If your application is for a provisional credential or a certificate for adult classes, you must list the specific name of each class to be taught. (Please read next page) FORM CA-la (Rev. 7/76) 236 SECTION IV: List all occupational experience which is necessary to establish your eligibility for the credential(s) and/or subject matter area(s) requested. Verification of occupational experience must be in the form of an original letter from your employer(s). Verification must include, but need not be limited to, dates of employment and a description of the duties performed. If employment was full-time, employer must so state. If employment was less than full-time, employer must state how much time (ig time, time, etc.). If employment was paid, employer must so state. Refer to leaflets describing requirements for the credential(s) you are applying for to determine occupational experience requirements, if any. SECTION V: List all institutions of higher education you attended which are necessary to establish your eligibility for the credential(s) and/or subject matter area(s) requested. Verification of higher education must be in the form of official transcript(s). An official transcript bears the signature in ink of the registrar and/or the impressed seal of the institution. Refer to leaflets describing requirements for the credential(s) you are applying for to determine higher education (course work and degree) requirements. SECTION VI: Check each question "Yes" or "No". Any "Yes" answer must be explained fully, using extra sheet. SECTION VII: List names and addresses of three persons who can attest to your moral character. They must be persons over 21 years of age who have known you for more than one year and are not related to you by blood or marriage. SECTION VIII: Please list any federal or state license(s) you hold in the field of your occupational experience. OATH-AFFIDAVIT: Read. Complete and sign. FORM CA-la (Rev. 10/75 237 credentials Section CL-6 California Community Colleges COMMUNITY COLLEGE STUDENT PERSONNEL WORKER CREDENTIAL* (FULLY SATISFIED) REQUIREMENTS An applicant is eligible for a Community College student personnel worker credential if he submits a complete application and satisfies the requirements of (I) or (II) below: I. A master's degree, or its foreign equivalent, in any subject matter area including professional education. II. A degree or course of instruction in an accredited institution of higher education, or their foreign equivalents, which the Chancellor finds to be equivalent to a master’s degree in any subject matter area including professional education. (Subject to Hearing Committee review and recommendation.) The intent of this section is to make several classes of persons eligible for this credential, including, but not limited to: a. Persons holding degrees in special fields which required higher education in excess of 120 semester units but are not master's degrees. b. Persons who are actively participating and have completed one year of course work in a program of instruction leading to a doctorate degree which omits or permits the omission of the master's degree. c. Persons who obtained their doctorate degree without receiving their master's degree. d. Persons who have completed all of the phases of a program leading to a doctorate degree except the dissertation. GENERAL PROVISIONS 1. The master's degree or higher must be completed in an accredited institution of higher education. 2. All statements regarding academic qualifications must be verified by official transcript(s) of record from the institution(sj at which the credit was earned. An official transcript bears the signature in ink of the registrar and/or the impressed seal of the institution. DURATION This credential is valid for the life of the holder. AUTHORIZATION FOR SERVICE This credential authorizes the holder to be employed to direct and be responsible for persons working in one or more of the following fields: (a) Financial Aids (b) Student Activities (c) Admissions and Records (d) Placement *A summary adapted from California Education Code and Administrative Code, Title 5. (REV. 10/75) 238 Credentials Section CL-5 California Community Colleges COMMUNITY COLLEGE COUNSELOR CREDENTIAL* (FULLY SATISFIED) REQUIREMENTS An applicant is eligible for a Community College counselor credential if he submits a complete application and satisfies the requirements of (I) or (II) below: I. A master's degree, or its foreign equivalent, with emphasis in counseling, guidance, student personnel, psychology, or social welfare. II. A degree or course of instruction completed in an accredited institution of higher education, or their foreign equivalents, which the Chancelier finds to be equivalent to a master's degree with emphasis in counseling, guidance, student personnel, psychology, or social welfare. (Subject to Hearing Committee Review and recommendation.) The intent of this section is to make several classes of persons eligible for this credential, including but not limited to; a. Persons who have completed 24 semester units of post baccalaureate, upper division or graduate level course work with emphasis in counseling, guidance, student personnel, psychology, or social welfare. Sin of the 24 semester units of course work may be met by verification of two years of recent occupational experience in counseling or guidance. b. Persons who are actively participating and have completed one year of course work in a program of instruction leading to a doctorate degree, with emphasis in counseling, guidance, student personnel, psychology, or social welfare, which omits or permits the omission of the master's degree. c. Persons who have completed all phases of a program leading to a doctorate degree, with emphasis in counseling, guidance, student personnel, psychology, or social welfare, except for the dissertation. GENERAL PROVISIONS 1. The baccalaureate or higher degree must be completed in an accredited institution of higher education. 2. All statements regarding academic qualifications must be verified by official transcript(s) of record from the institution(s) at which the credit was earned. An official transcript bears the signature in ink of the registrar and/or the impressed seal of the institution. 3. All statements regarding experience must be verified in the form of an original letter from employer(s). Verification must include, but need not be limited to, dates of employment, and a description of the duties performed. If employment was less than full-time, employer must state how much time (% time, \ time, etc.). 4. Course work requirements are expressed in terms of semester units. To convert quarter units to semester units, multiply by 2/3. (3 quarter units = 2 semester units). DURATION This credential is valid for the life of the holder. (Continued on Reverse) 239 CL-5 AUTHORIZATION FOR SERVICE This credential authorizes the holder to be employed by a district to provide one or more of the following services: (a) Guidance and counseling of students in the planning of their immediate future vocational and career plans. (b) Guidance and counseling of students in resolving problems arising out of their education and career plans other than providing tutoring services. (c) Consultation with students on personal problems and assistance in resolving these problems to the extent that the problems do not require psychiatric or medical investigation or treatment or t ' l i e practice of law. *A summary adapted from California Education Code and Administrative Code, Title 5. (REV. 10/75) 240 APPENDIX G Data From Test-Retest for Reliability Question 5 How important would you rate courses with aging (i.e.. gerontological) content, in relation to your total depart mental/school curriculum? 1. Of no importance 2. Not very important 3. Somewhat important 4. Important 5. Very Important Subjects Test Score Retest Difference 1 5 5 0 2 4 3 1 3 5 5 0 4 5 5 0 5 4 4 0 6 4 3 1 7 5 5 0 8 5 5 0 9 5 5 0 10 3 4 1 11 4 4 0 12 . 5 5 0 13 5 5 0 14 5 5 0 15 4 5 0 Spearmans ' rank order coefficient of correlation = r = 1- 6 D n (n-1) r = 0.9953 At the .01 level of significance. the cfitical value is 0.715. The null hypothesis is rejected and a positive correlation is demonstrated between the answers given on the test and the retest for question 5. 241 APPENDIX H Data From Test-retest for Reliability Question 6 How important would you rate aging (i.e. , gerontolog- ical) issues in comparison with all other issues your pro- fession is concerned with? 1. Of no importance 2. Not very important 3. Somewhat important 4. Important 5. Very important Subjects Test Score Retest Difference 1 5 5 0 2 4 4 0 3 4 4 0 4 5 5 0 5 4 3 1 6 4 3 1 7 5 5 0 8 5 5 0 9 5 5 0 10 3 5 2 11 4 4 0 12 5 5 0 13 5 5 0 14 5 5 0 15 5 5 0 Spearmans * rank-order coefficient of correlation = 6D r = 1 - n (n-1) r = 0.9893 At the ,01 level of significance , the critical value is 0.715. The null hypothesis is rejected and a positive correlation is demonstrated between the answers given on the test and the restest for question 6. 242 APPENDIX I Data From Test-retest for Reliability Question 12 Do you feel that the content (i.e., subject matter) of gerontology has important implications for the future of your discipline? 1. It has very important implications 2. It has important implications 3. Its implications are slightly important 4. The implications of gerontology have no importance for my discipline Subjects Test Score Retest Difference 1 1 1 0 2 2 2 0 3 2 1 0 4 1 1 0 5 2 2 0 6 2 2 0 7 1 1 0 8 1 1 0 9 1 1 0 10 3 2 1 11 2 2 0 12 1 4 3 13 1 1 0 14 1 1 0 15 1 1 0 Spearmans' rank-order coefficient of correlation = r = 1 - 6 D n (n-1 r = 0.981 At the .01 level of significance, the critical value is 0.715. The null hypothesis is rejected and a positive correlation is demonstrated between the answers given on the test and the restest for question 12. 243</u>

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Asset Metadata

Creator Little, Beverly (author), McCamish, Cheryl (author), Secord, Debra (author)

Core Title A study of professionalism as it relates to the field of counselor education and gerontology

School Leonard Davis School of Gerontology

Degree Master of Science

Degree Program Gerontology

Degree Conferral Date 1977-06

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education,OAI-PMH Harvest,social sciences

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c37-400804

Unique identifier UC11657926

Identifier EP58843.pdf (filename),usctheses-c37-400804 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier EP58843.pdf

Dmrecord 400804

Document Type Thesis

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Little, Beverly

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA