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Professionalism of adult education and gerontology in California: Interrelationships, training, and implications

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Professionalism of adult education and gerontology in California: Interrelationships, training, and implications

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Content PROFESSIONALISM OF ADULT EDUCATION
AND GERONTOLOGY IN CALIFORNIA;
INTERRELATIONSHIPS, TRAINING, AND IMPLICATIONS
by
Ellis Monique Wallej:
and
Richard Keith Matros
A Thesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE LEONARD DAVIS SCHOOL OF GERONTOLOGY
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN GERONTOLOGY
June 1977
UMI Number: EP58848
All rights reserved
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a note will indicate the deletion.
Dissertation Publishing
UMI EP58848
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789 East Eisenhower Parkway
P.O. Box 1346
Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
LEONARD DAVIS SCHOOL OF GERONTOLOGY
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 90007
I J
Tkù> tkoAÂJ,, wnÀttdYi by
Ellis Monique Waller
Richard Keith Matros______ __________
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rented to and acczptzd by th z Vzan o i Tkz Leona/id
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THESIS COMMITTEE
Ckatnman
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to express our appreciation to the
Andrus Foundation, William Albert, Dan Tiberi, Robert
Wiswell, and all those individuals who have contributed
their time and suggestions to this thesis.
In addition, we would like to thank our fellow
colleagues for collectively writing Chapters I, IV, and V
Also, we would like to dedicate this thesis to Maura
Matros, Frank and Ann Waller, and Harry Grant, whose
patience and understanding have supported us throughout.
11
"H
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................ ii
LIST OF TABLES ..........................V
CHAPTER
I STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ............. 1
Introduction ..................... 1
Background ........................4
Research Problems ................. 5
Summary and Overview of
Remaining Chapters ............. 7
II PROFESSIONALISM ...................... 9
Introduction ..................... 9
Defining Profession ............... 10
Criteria of a Profession ..... 15
Process of Professionalization . . 32
Conclusion............ 39
III THE PROFESSIONAL STATUS OF
ADULT EDUCATION.......................42
Introduction.............. I . . . 42
Conclusion.........................58
IV THE INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
GERONTOLOGY AND ADULT EDUCATION . . . 60
Introduction.......... 60
Conclusion.......... 75
V THE PROFESSIONAL STATUS OF
GERONTOLOGY........................... 79
Introduction ..................... 79
Trends of Gerontology ............. 80
Documentation of N e e d s ............ 83
Gerontology.............. 88
Conclusion........................103
111
CHAPTER
VI METHODS AND PROCEDURES................. 106
Introduction ..................... 106
Description of the Hypotheses . . .10 7
Description of the Subjects .... 108
Description of the Research
Instrumentation........ .. . . 109
Procedures .......................113
Delimitations of the Study .... 115
Limitations of the S t u d y ..........116
Treatment of the Data.............. 116
VII RESULTS AND DISCUSSION . 119
Introduction ..................... 119
Section I - Descriptive Data
of Schools Surveyed ...... 119
Section II - Descriptive Statis
tics of Variables Investigated . 12 3
Section III - Findings of Re
lationships ................... 12 8
Discussion................ . . . 129
VIII SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS,
AND RECOMMENDATIONS ..........136
Summary ........................... 136
Summary of Findings . . 138
Conclusions . 140
Recommendations ................... 141
REFERENCES......................................145
APPENDIX
A
B
C
D
E
F
INFORMATION COLLECTION FORM .
INTERVIEW DATA COLLECTION
DATA FROM TEST-RETEST FOR
RELIABILITY - QUESTION #5
DATA FROM TEST-RETEST FOR
RELIABILITY - QUESTION #6
DATA FROM TEST-RETEST FOR
RELIABILITY - QUESTION #12
AREAS OF SPECIALIZATION IN EDUCATION
ON THE DOCTORATE & CERTIFICATE
LEVELS........................... .
LISTING OF CURRENT & FUTURE AGE
RELATED COURSES ................... .
154
159
164
166
16 8
170
172
IV
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE
1 Descriptive Data of Institutions
Surveyed . . 120
V
CHAPTER I
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Introduction
This report is based upon an exploratory study of the
educational trends and the status of eight selected dis
ciplines in their relationships to gerontology. The pro
fessional and technical schools studied include; adult
education, counselor education, dentistry, law, medicine,
nursing, public administration, and social work. Course
curricula, attitudes toward the relevance of gerontology
for each discipline and prospects for the future develop
ment of courses in aging within each discipline were ex
amined. Licensing and/or credentialing procedures were
explored for those disciplines which have such procedures.
Two goals of this study are to gain a better understanding
of how gerontological content is integrated into educa
tional curricula, and how and if licensing bodies are
testing for this knowledge.
The project was conducted by faculty and staff from
the Ethel Percy Andrus Gerontology Center and by students
from the Leonard Davis School of Gerontology at the Uni
versity of Southern California. Of the thirteen Leonard
Davis students who were involved in this study, eleven
participated to meet the requirements for a master's
thesis. One student used the project for graduate re
search credit, and one student used the project for under
graduate research credit. An outcome of this research
will be a report detailing the individual disciplines,
synthesizing the overall findings and making inferences
about the preparation in professional and technical schools
studied and possible unmet needs in the area of aging.
Each discipline was investigated by one or more of the
eleven master's students. The following study will explore
the area of adult education. Adult education is part of
the educational system which offers classes to people
eighteen years or older, but cannot be credited towards a
college credential. Recent demographic trends and declin
ing enrollment in colleges, high schools, and primary
grades have provided an impetus for developing classes
specifically for the aged. Classes for the elderly help
them cope with developmental tasks, provide outlets for
creativity and expression, fulfill contributive and in
fluential needs and provide a sense of accomplishment.
The adult 65 and older has the same potential and
desire to learn as younger students. However, physio
logical and psychological changes both affect learning
performance. Motivation, experience, physical stamina,
memory, pacing, and content are dynamics which can either
enhance or deter learning. Changes in sensory modalities
and capabilities affect each of these areas. If the in
structor can be made aware of the relationship between
gerontological issues and these dynamics of learning, then
learning can be facilitated. Gerontological knowledge can
make instructors aware of the approach to teaching, can
illuminate these subjects which the elderly prefer to
learn, and can provide a basis for designing educational
curriculum for the aged.
The need for gerontological training in the area of
adult education has been thoroughly documented. Whether or
not adult education recognizes this need and if geronto
logical training should be provided remain controversial
issues.
The literature review discusses the educational
trends and professional status of adult education and
gerontology, provides a rationale for educating the elderly
indicates the need for specialized techniques, and examines
whether or not gerontology should be developed as a self
standing discipline responsible for providing such train
ing .
Background
This project was initiated by students of the Leonard
Davis School who were concerned about the future develop
ment of the field of gerontology and its professional
status. These students, members of the first class of
the Leonard Davis School in 1975, were concerned about
whether their training would be accepted by professionals
in other fields and whether gerontologists would be con
sidered professionals.
In response to this concern, the faculty and admini
stration of the Leonard Davis School identified various
professions that are likely to be serving the elderly. A
proposal to explore relationships between these disciplines
and gerontology was submitted to the National Retired
Teachers Associâtion/American Association of Retired Per
sons — Andrus Foundation -- for funding and was approved.
The students selected the discipline in which they were
most interested and collaborated with the entire group in
preparing and refining the research design.
The immediate goals of the study were to determine
the current gerontology courses offered (both courses in
aging and courses with aging content) in selected colleges
and universities in California; the field work experiences
available through these schools ; the attitude of faculty
and staff within the selected disciplines toward the in
elusion of aging content in their curricula; and the ex
tent to which the licensing and/or credentialing boards
screen candidates for expertise in aging. This project is
an initial step toward a long-range goal to assist in the
improvement of the quality of services offered to the re
tired and aged by upgrading professional and technical
education, relevant licensing procedures, and the account
ability of educators in the fields of adult education,
counselor education, dentistry, law, medicine, nursing,
public administration, and social work.
Research Problems
Several variables which require investigation have
been identified. Instruments to quantify each variable
and relevant assumptions regarding the relationships be
tween the variables have been made. Some of the more im
portant variables taken into consideration were : (1) the
number of students in the department/schools ; (2) the
numbers and types of degrees within each department ;
(3) the number of faculty belonging to the Gerontological
Society and Western Gerontological Society ; (4) the im
portance of aging content in relation to total departmental
curricula; (5) the importance of age-related issues in
comparison with other issues ; (6) the number of schools in
tending to implement courses ; (7) reasons for not imple
menting courses; (8) the number of faculty who have spe-
cifie gerontological training; (9) whether or not geron
tological training is necessary; (10) the future importance
of gerontological content for a particular discipline; and,
(11) the number of agencies offering students the oppor
tunity to work with older adults.
Two separate questionnaires were devised to collect
the data on these variables. One was constructed for the
purpose of recording material secured through the cata
logues and bulletins of the schools studied (see Appendix
A, Information Collection Form). The second questionnaire
was developed to record the information which was not
available in the catalogues or which needed clarification
(see Appendix B, Interview Data Collection Form). The
instruments were sent to the educational institutions and
followed by a scheduled telephone call or a person-to-per-
son interview with the dean or his/her representative. In
several situations, when a telephone or personal interview
was not granted, the data was obtained by mail.
A study of an exploratory nature makes degrees of re
lationships difficult to ascertain. Nevertheless, four
relationships were examined and investigated. First, it
was assumed that there might be a close relationship be
tween the size of a particular department and the number
of course offerings. The larger the department the greater
the chance and number of age-related courses. Larger de-
partments often have the backing and resources to provide
for a larger range of interests.
Secondly, it was assumed that the number of course
offerings containing gerontological content would be
directly related to the level of importance given to age-
related courses. It was assumed that a rating of "impor
tant" or "very important" indicates an increased emphasis
on courses in which aging content is offered. Strong
faculty interest in aging, therefore, may or may not in
fluence the existence of gerontological programs.
The third relationship investigated was the level of
importance given to age-related courses and the number of
students placed in agencies dealing with the elderly.
Again, it was assumed that level of importance would deter
mine whether or not students would be provided with the
opportunity to work with elderly adults.
Lastly, it was assumed that there would be a signifi
cant relationship between the number of age-related courses
offered and the number of faculty. A larger faculty would
be able to provide a larger variety of course offerings
including gerontological classes.
Summary and Overview of Remaining Chapters
The statement of the problem has specifically re
viewed the basic purpose and course of this research ef
fort. The remaining chapters will contribute more de-
tailed information about issues which were of concern to
the participants of this study. The literature review will
provide an in-depth analysis of the following topics : the
criteria a discipline must meet to be considered a profes
sion; whether adult education qualifies as a profession
according to established criteria; adult education's pro
fessional relationship to gerontology ; and, gerontology's
advancement along the continuum of professionalism. The
chapter on methodology will recount the procedure of how
the research was operationalized, the findings chapter will
present the results, and the last chapter will present
interpretations, implications, and recommendations.
CHAPTER II
PROFESSIONALISM
Introduction
Examining the concept of professionalism is difficult
because the term is used to define a variety of traits,
characteristics, and ideals of occupational status. Re
viewing the sociological literature on professionalism re
veals the amorphous, and oftentimes ambiguous explanations
which have developed in attempts to delineate the limits of
professional standing. It is the intent of this paper to
canvas the extant literature on professionalism and formu
late a reasonable clarification of the major constituents
of professional standing, as well as the processes that can
transform an occupation into a profession. Three specific
questions are answered in attempting to provide a succinct
picture of the nature of professionalism.
1. What is a valid definition of a profession?
2. What are the requisite criteria needed for
achieving professional status?
3. What are the processes intrinsic to
the development of a profession?
Defining Profession
The problem of developing a specific definition of
profession is complex because of the term's generalized
utilization. Barber (1965) states that there is no abso
lute difference between professional and other types of
occupational behavior, but only relative differences with
respect to certain attributes common to all occupational
behavior. There are different degrees of professionalism
and not all professions display the same characteristics.
In fact, some business organizations may encompass criteria
of professionalism without ever achieving professional
status. Therefore, while precise verbal definition about
the term profession persists, we should think of occupa
tions as falling somewhere along a continuum of profes
sionalism, the continuum being made up of common defini
tional traits (Goode, 1960a).
A profession is usually defined as an occupation which
requires training in the liberal arts or the sciences and
graduate study in a particular field. Manual labor is not
considered to be one of the areas of professionalism. At
the professional level of employment, individuals often are
assigned a large amount of responsibility based solely on
their past experiences within the setting and direct client
10
contact is most extensive. Professional status is not
gained by claiming it, but must be created as a result of
behavior. A professional works in an occupation that
primarily serves people by contributing to and enhancing
their potentials as humans. Profit motives are secondary
to the concern for people (Stone & Shertzer, 1969).
Cogan (1955) states that there is an almost insur
mountable controversy in trying to define profession. He
examines the development of a definition of professions at
three different levels : (1) historical and lexicological,
(2) persuasive, and (3) operational. In the historical
and lexicological interpretation, a profession is a voca
tion whose practice is founded upon the understanding of a
theoretical structure of some department of learning or
science, and upon the abilities accompanying such an under
standing. This understanding and these abilities are ap
plied to the vital practical affairs of man. The practices
of the profession are modified by knowledge of a general-?
ized nature and by the accumulated wisdom and experience of
mankind, which serve to correct the errors of specialism.
The profession, serving the vital needs of man, considers
its first ethical imperative to be altruistic service to
the client (Cogan, 1953). The persuasive definition of
profession has justified the existence of professional
occupations in society. These justifications keep the pro-
11
fession desirable by directing societal attitudes to the
value of the services the profession offers. Operational
definitions are designed to furnish the basis upon which
individuals and associations may make specific decisions
as to the behavioral coneommitants of a profession. They
are guidelines for the practitioner in his day-to-day work,
and are the rules for professional conduct. They mediate
the practitioner's relation to the client, to his col
leagues, to the public, and to the professional associa
tion. They set forth the specific criteria of general and
specific education for the professional, the requirements
for admission to practice, and the standards for competent
service. Cogan summarizes his discussion of the defini
tional aspect of profession by stating that the promulga
tion of a satisfactory definition has progressed little
beyond the six elements proposed by Abraham Flexner (1915);
(1) intellectual operations coupled with large individual
responsibility; (2) raw materials drawn from science and
learning; (3) practical application; (4) educationally
communicable techniques ; (5) a tendency towards self-ori
entation; and, (6) an increasing altruistic motivation.
Cogan C19 53) also states that an important, though
implicit, criterion of professions is revealed through the
study of dictionary definitions. The first point to be
noted is that the professions are described as dealing with
12
the practical affairs of men. Also, the profession is
traditionally applied specifically to the three learned
professions of divinity, law, and medicine. Cogan con
cludes from an analysis of dictionary definitions that it
may be observed that the traditional professions mediate
man's relation to God, man's relation to man and state,
and man's relation to his biological environment. Smith
(1958) discusses the diversity of professions and infers
that they are complex social institutions which select
people of varied skills, often from several social strata,
and organize them into different levels of operation and
diverse interest groups.
Some authors have tried to define profession in a con
cise and explicit manner. Greenwood (1957) adapts Hall's
(1949) definition and sees a profession as an organized
group which is constantly interacting with the society that
forms its matrix, which performs its social functions
through a network of formal and informal relationships,
and which creates its own sub-culture requiring adjustments
to it as a prerequisite for career success. Any occupa
tion wishing to exercise professional authority must find
a technical basis for it, assert an exclusive jurisdiction,
and convince the public that its services are uniquely
trustworthy, and while there is a general tendency for
occupations to seek professional status, remarkably few of
13
the thousands of occupations in modern society attain it
(Wilensky, 1964). Hughes (1963) states that a profession
delivers esoteric services — advice or action -- to in
dividual organizations, or government; to whole classes of
people ; or to the public at large. The action may be
manual, but the service still includes advice. The person
for or upon whom the esoteric service is performed, or the
one who is thought to have the right or duty to act for
him/her, is advised that the professional's action is
necessary. Professionalism might be defined as a process
by which an organized occupation, usually, but not always,
by virtue of making a claim to a specific esoteric compe
tence and a concern for the quality of its work, controls
training for and access to it, and controls the rights of
determining and evaluating the way the work is performed
(Vollmer & Mills, 1966).
It is clear that the concept of professionalism does
not lend itself to precise definition ; however, certain
occupational attributes are generally characteristic of
professional status. The next section will examine in
detail those criteria, revealed in a review of sociological
literature, which have been consistently ascribed to the
established professions.
14
Criteria of a Profession
Defining specific criteria of professional status is
also a precarious task. Different authors list varying
numbers of attributes which they consider essential to the
establishment of a profession, but it is evident that some
long standing professions do not comply with all of these
requisites. Also, many occupations do possess some ele
ments of professionalism without having professional status
This section will closely examine seven attributes which
most authors generally regard as constituents of profes
sional status. These criteria are as follows: body of
knowledge; university education ; professional ideology ;
professional associations; codes of ethics; seIf-regula
tion ; and, public sanction.
Body of Knowledge
All mature professions rest on a common body of know
ledge that can be utilized flexibly by practitioners in
various types of interventive activities (National Associa
tion of Social Workers, 19 64). Others supporting the need
for a body of knowledge are Engel (1970); Halmos (1970);
Schott (1976); Lewis and Maude (1952); Wickenden (1950);
Boehm (1959); Turner and Hodge (1970); Harries-Jenkins
(19 70); Schein (1972); Pavalko (1971); Bearing (1972); and,
Stone and Shertzer (1969). The nature of this knowledge,
whether substantive or theoretical, on which advice and
15
action are based is not always clear; it is often a mixture
of several kinds of practical and theoretical knowledge.
But, it is part of a professional complex, and the pro
fessional claim, that the practice should rest upon some
branches of knowledge to which the professionals are privy
by virtue of long study and initiation and apprenticeship
under masters already members of the profession CHughes,
1963). Greenwood (1957) states that the characteristic
skills of a profession are derived from a source of know
ledge which has been systematically organized into a body
of theory. This body is made up of abstract propositions
which describe in general terms the focus of the profes
sion's interest. Preparing for professional status is,
therefore, an intellectual, as well as a practical, ex
perience.
Wilensky (1964) refers to a technical base on which
professional knowledge is supported. He differentiates
"technical" from "scientific" in that both scientific and
non-scientific systems of thought can serve as a technical
base for professionalism, but the success of the claim is
greatest where the society evidences strong, widespread
consensus regarding the knowledge or doctrine to be applied
Goode (19 61) reports that a prolonged specialized
training in a body of knowledge is paramount to the success
ful development of a profession. The principles of this
16
knowledge must be applicable to concrete problems. Pro
fessionals must not only use, but help create this know
ledge; the profession itself must be the final arbiter as
to what is valid knowledge. Therefore, the profession con
trols access to knowledge and henceforth access to the pro
fession. Society should believe that the knowledge can
actually solve existing problems and should also accept as
proper that these problems be given over to some occupa
tional group for effective solution (Goode, 1960b).
University Education
Education clearly emerges as an important factor in
determining whether or not a discipline is a profession
(Lewis & Maude, 1952; Wickenden, 1950; Harries-Jenkins,
1970; Stone & Shertzer, 1969). The problem is that every
one has a different idea as to how much education really
is necessary. Moore (19 70) regards it as extremely improb
able that technically trained individuals with less than a
bachelor of arts or science degree could manage to attain
the relatively higher positions on any scale of profession
alism. Goode's (195 7) criterion of lengthy training in a
body of specialized abstract knowledge infers formal educa
tion at the graduate level. The training involves inquiry
into an abstract body of knowledge, not the acquisition of
technical skills. Jackson (19 70) believes the existence
of professionalism itself depends on the notion of the uni-
17
versity as the institution of the intellectual. Further
more, he sees the rise of the professions as positively
correlated with the rise of the universities.
Traditionally, professions have been affiliated with
organized educational institutions, and this has developed
into the concept of professional schools within the uni
versity. Barber (1965) cites four major roles of the uni
versity professional school. They are as follows :
1. Transmission to its students of the
generalized and systematic knowledge
that is the basis for professional
performance.
2. Creation of new and better knowledge
on which professional practice can be
based;
3. Ethical training of students, explicit
(codes) and implicit (behavioral aspects);
4. Improvement of existing codes.
Barber concludes that the better the university profes
sional school, the more likely it is to use resources from
the other professional schools in the university and from
all the other departments of basic knowledge insofar as
they are relevant. The university professional schools are
the leading, though not the sole, innovators and systema-
tizers of ideas for their professions. The emerging or
18
marginal professions seek to locate in universities.
Harries-Jenkins (19 70) infers that professional educa
tion is dependent upon training and knowledge acquired out
side the employment setting while generalists receive their
occupational preparation from within the employing organi
zation. Carr-Saunders and Wilson (196 4) state that a sound
general education in theoretical and practical knowledge
and then specialized education in the specific discipline,
as in the professions, increases efficiency.
Professional Ideology
Every profession has a professional ideology, which is
the basis for offering the best possible service in the
public interest (Ritzer, 1973; Boehm, 1959; Harries-Jenkins
1970; Pavalko, 1971; Bearing, 1972; Stone & Shertzer,
1969). Elliot (1972) states that a professional ideal has
three important aspects :
1. The notion of service;
2. An emphasis on professional judgment
based upon professional knowledge;
3. Belief in professional freedom and
autonomy in the work situation.
(p. 23)
The service ideal may be defined as the norm that the
technical solutions which the professional arrives at
should be based on the client's needs, not necessarily the
best material interest or needs of the professional him-
19
self or those of society. Further specifications of the
service ideal are inherent in its four subdimensions:
1. The practitioner decides upon
the client's needs, and the
occupation will be classified
as less professional if the
client imposes his own judgment,
2. The society actually believes
that the profession not only
accepts these ideals, but also
follows them to some extent,
3. The profession demands real
sacrifice from its practitioners
as an ideal, and occasionally,
in fact.
4. The professional community sets
up a system of rewards such that
"virtue pays off." (Goode, 1960b,
p. 23)
Wilensky (1964) reports that the success of the claim to
professional status is governed also by the degree to which
the practitioners conform to a set of moral norms that
characterize the established professions. These norms
dictate not only that the practitioner do technically,
high-quality work, but that he adhere to a service ideal
devotion to the client's interest more than personal or
commercial profit should guide decisions when the two are
in conflict. In short, a major determinant of professional
status is the degree of adherence to the service ideal and
its supportive norms of professional conduct,
Beatman (1952) feels that basic to professional matur
ity are the knowledge essential to practice and the appro-
20
priate use of that knowledge. He goes on to say that,
the hope of every profession is
to have its practitioners embody
the best of its knowledge, ex
perience, skill, and ethics;
that they will practice with dig
nity, confidence and success; and
that the nature and contribution
of the practitioner that its per
petuation and continuing progress
are assured. (p. 383)
The nature of professional practice is such that the
practitioner must make many unique and special decisions on
the singularity of any particular client-practitioner
transaction (Ritzer, 1973). Quality of service rendered
is of deepest concern to the client. He places his health
and his fortune in the hands of his professional advisor,
and he entrusts him with confidences of an intimate and
personal kind. He is interested in the moral quality of
service (Carr-Saunders & Wilson, 1964). Therefore, this
problem is particularly complicated by the fact that the
professional service is said to require not only special
skills from the practitioner, but also a particular kind
of relationship between the professional and the client
(Ritzer, 1973). Lewis and Maude (1952) state that the re
lationship of the client and the practitioner is the basis
of professional morality. This relationship is between
individuals and it is fiduciary. The practitioner gives
the best possible advice, which the client is not competent
to criticize, and the practitioner acts according to his
21
client's needs. Schein (1972) stresses this point even
further saying the very essence of professionalism is the
delivery of a service in response to the need of a client.
There must also be a clear identification as to exactly
whose needs are being met. Moore (19 70) maintains that an
important professional qualification is commitment to a
particular calling. It is this commitment that lends cre
dence and stability to the profession's code of ethics.
The profession and all its requirements are treated as a
lasting set of norms and behavioral expectations. The pro
fessional accepts these standards, identifies with his
colleagues and sees the profession as a whole entity.
These standards should come across in the professional's
dealings with his client.
Professional Associations
Professional associations are necessary for the de
velopment and continued growth of a profession (Goode,
1960a; Wickenden, 1950; Boehm, 1959 ; Harries-Jenkins, 1970 ;
Schein, 1972 ; Stone & Shertzer, 1969). The professional
organization provides a framework and sanctions for this
complex of obligation and responsibility delegated to the
established profession. In essence, it is disciplinary in
all its functions, especially the educational. It is con
cerned with keeping its members accountable to the implied
contract with society. The organization also insures the
22
provision of the best possible advice and service within
existing knowledge, while protecting the public from the
unqualified practitioner. The professional organization is
the profession's ultimate measure of professional independ
ence. It is the association that defines the educational
requirements, entry standards, and code of ethics of the
profession (Lewis & Maude, 1952). Greenwood (1957) pro
poses that professional associations exert control over the
profession's training centers and granting or denying ac
creditation by one of the associations within a profession
is the prime way the caliber of curriculum and instruction
and the location of professional schools is regulated.
Carr-Saunders and Wilson (1964) propose that generally
speaking, each profession is organized on a craft basis,
and though within a profession it is usual to find a number
of independent associations, relations between them are
generally friendly and there is a clear tendency towards a
dominating association or a closely cooperating group.
Part of the constitution of a profession is the spontaneous
coming together of the practitioners in associations. The
reason for associations are protection and the desire to
hallmark the competent and to foster the study of the
technique and give this technique such an importance that
boundaries are clearly defined and stable.
Ritzer (1973) lists three characteristics of profes-
23
sions which are basic to the justification for professional
control over members. They are as follows :
1. Assume power of ethical codes.
2. The consequences of control over
recruitment and certification,
3. The professional review boards and
their assume control oyer practitioners,
Code of Ethics
Professional ethics arise from the codes of the most
ancient professions : the Hippocratic oath; the inviolabil
ity of the confessional; and the devotion of the lawyer to
his client's interest (Lewis & Maude, 1952), The codes of
ethics of specific disciplines are an integral component
in the establishment of a profession (Goode, 1960a;
Harries-Jenkins, 1970; Schein, 1972; Pavalko, 1971; Bearing,
1972; Stone & Shertzer, 1969), Ethical conduct, proposed
or values in the codes of ethics of the human services,
pertain to four major aspects of professional relationships
(Levy, 1974);
1. The practitioner, where codes insure
competence, integrity, independence,
impartiality, and propriety.
2. The client, involving values of de
votion, loyalty, objectivity, honesty,
candor, confidentiality, autonomy,
24
respect, punctuality, exeditious-
ness, and personal attention.
3. The professional colleagues, regard
ing etiquette, fairness, and pro
fessional orientation.
4. The society, insuring care in the
use of personal status, care of one's
personal associations, regard for
others, justice, obligation to be con
cerned about social problems, and
social orientation.
Codes of ethics are at once the highest and the lowest
standards of practice expected of the practitioner; the
awesome statement of rigid requirements; and the promo
tional material issued primarily for public relations pur
poses . They embody the gradually evolved essence of moral
expectations, as well as the arbitrarily prepared shortcut
to professional prestige ctnd status. At the same time,
they are handy guidelines for the legal enforcement of
ethical conduct (Levy, 1974).
Greenwood (195 7) states that the profession's ethical
code is part formal and part informal. The formal is the
written code to which the professional usually swears upon
when being admitted to practice. The informal is the un
written code, which nonetheless carries the weight of
25
formal prescriptions. As a written document, the code of
ethics serves as a guideline of expected levels of ser
vice . Not only does it describe expected levels of quality
and competency, it also may remind members to refrain from
commercialism (direct competition with colleagues), as well
as state the professional's responsibility to the interests
of society (Marshall, 1939). Contained within the code is
a strong altruistic commitment to the betterment of the
larger society through the use of the professional's spe
cialized abilities (Cogan, 1953).
Self-regulation
SeIf-regulation refers to the monitoring of profes
sional behavior by colleagues. In other words, the peer
group holds its members accountable and will invoke dis
ciplinary action when deviation from acceptable standards
has occurred (Posz, 1973). This type of monitoring system
is distinguished from one in which the principle monitoring
tasks fall on a hierarchial organization, the consumer of
the service, or an external governmental regulatory agency.
Under true professionalism, monitoring and corrective ac
tion is performed by the peer group. In theory, the pro
fessional group itself is held accountable for the actions
of its members (Wichenden, 1950; Lewis & Maude, 1952;
Harries-Jenkins, 19 70; Schein, 1972 ; Pavalko, 1971; Bear
ing, 1972 ; Stone & Shertzer, 1969). One aspect of self-
26
regulation is the level of autonomy attained by the pro
fession.
Ritzer (1973) states that the professional organiza
tion rather than the society or the client defines the
nature of the expected service and the manner of its trans
mittal because the profession claims to be the only legiti
mate arbiter of improper performance. In practice, auton
omy exists when the leaders of a profession define or regu
late the nature of the service offered in two ways ;
(1) control over recruitment and certification of members;
and, (2) setting standards of adequate practice (Ritzer,
1973). In discussing the idea of recruiting, Caplow (1954)
states that in the independent professions the entire re
cruiting process, from the initial choice of candidates for
training to the bestowal of honors at retirement, is under
the close control of the professional group. Although the
right to practice is generally conferred by a governmental
board, this agency normally represents the profession and
has usually been kept free from political interference.
Goode (196 0b) states that professional autonomy means
having one's behavior judged by colleague peers, not out
siders. He adds that this is a derivative trait and is
based on both the mastery of a field of knowledge and com
mitment to the service ideal. This mastery of the profes
sional person, because of his specialized training and the
27
complicated nature of the problems being dealt with, has
the authority to dictate what a client should do. The
rationale behind this authority is that the client lacks
the needed theoretical background to diagnose his need or
prescribe any of the possible cures. This authority does
not carry over to any other professions. One only has
authority when one has knowledge of a certain specific
area (Greenwood, 195 7).
An effective method of self-regulation is through the
creation of what Goode (1961) calls the community profes
sional. Although the profession cannot produce the next
generation biologically, it can do so socially. A profes
sion should and can control the selective process of its
professional trainees. After these trainees are selected
they are sent through the profession's adult socialization
process. The profession is determining who will be market
ing the services of the profession and, to an extent, the
way in which those services are marketed. The profession
can better preserve its standards in this way.
Public Sanctioning and Licensing
Greenwood (1957) discusses the importance of commun
ity sanction in the achievement of professional status.
Other authors recognize this contention (Goode, 160a;
Engel, 1970; Schott, 1976; Lewis & Maude, 1952;
Winchenden, 1950 ; Turner & Hodges, 19 70 ; Schein, 1972 ;
28
Bearing, 1972; Stone & Shertzer, 1969), Public sanction
refers to the community's formal and informal acceptance of
a discipline's ability to best deliver necessary services
in its area of expertise. A profession may gain sanction
from the community by formal or informal means. Formal
approval constitutes reinforcement of professional stand
ards by police power. By formally sanctioning a profes
sion, the community gives a profession a monopoly on per
forming a certain service. The profession employs its as
sociation to convince the community that it will greatly
benefit from the monopoly. Professions must be convincing
on three factors :
1. Specialized education is necessary to
perform the specific skill,
2. Those who bave completed this education
have capability to delivery service
superior to those wbo have not.
3. The target population of service is of
sufficient significance in the community
to warrant the superior performance,
Greenwood (1957) notes that formal
aspects of public sanctions take the
form of approving of professional-client
confidentiality and acceptance of a system
of licensure. Licensure is the process by
which permission to practice a pro
fession is granted once the require
ments of the legally are recognized.
The degree to which a profession is subject to state
supervision depends upon the external constitution or legal
status it has in society (Carr-Saunders & Wilson, 1964).
Licensing systems for screening applicants assures legal
status. Thereby, the professional controls admission into
the field (Greenwood, 1957).
Operational Definitions
From the preceding literature review and for the pur
pose of this study, operational definitions of the seven
criteria required for professional standing have been de
veloped. They are as follows:
1. Body of Knowledge - an identifiable and
distinct set of theories, methodologies,
and principles which form the technical
base for professional practice.
2. University Education - the formal process
within an educational institution in which
the professional body of knowledge is trans
mitted, usually at the graduate level.
3. Professional Ideology - the notion of
service that is the basis for the pro
fession's commitment to the field and
30
which establishes the practitioner
as the most appropriate individual
to offer this particular type of
service because of his training and
knowledge of the discipline.
4. Professional Association - esteiblished
organizations of professionals that set
criteria for membership in the field,
keep members accountable for their
actions, insure the provision of the
best possible services, exert control
over the profession's training centers,
and keep abreast of current legislative
and political activity affecting the
field.
5. Code of Ethics - written and formalized
standards of professional conduct that
establish the commitment of the pro
fessional as well as insuring the com
petence of the practitioner and the
quality of his services.
6. Self-regulation - the professional
mechanism which maintains the ability
of the discipline to autonomously govern
and regulate its members, establish stan-
31
dards of service, enforce the code of
ethics, assume responsibility for any
disciplinary action and be publicly
accountable for the actions of its con
stituency .
7. Public Sanction - the formal and informal
approval which a community grants a dis
cipline acknowledging the profession's
ability to best deliver offered services
and to be self-regulating.
Conclusion
This discussion has delineated the criteria that have
been found to be relatively universal in regard to profes
sional characteristics. It should be noted that in addi
tion to our defined criteria, the concept of autonomy is
also associated with professional standing. The authors
of this study feel there are inherent problems in defining
and measuring this concept. Therefore, we have integrated
the notion of autonomy in the examination of seIf-regula
tion , and will utilize these seven criteria in analyzing
the professional status of our individual discipline.
Process of Professionalization
While there are definite criteria requirements for
eligibility to professional status, the process by which
an occupation achieves this distinction is varied in the
32
development of each specific discipline. Certain steps are
common for professionalization in general, but the sequence
of events and the intensity of their implementation dif
fers . This section will examine the processes that precede
professional standing.
Professions with a more substantial and more theoreti
cal body of knowledge behind them are better able to con
vince society of the need for their particular services and
perhaps to persuade society of their right to take respons
ibility for them. Reference must be made to a theoretical
body of knowledge for decisions made by the practitioners
of the profession. The professional's responsibility for
interpreting the body of knowledge and for considering,
even deciding, the client's needs and solutions to them is
an important aspect of the autonomous development of the
individual profession. One way in which a profession may
first develop as a separate occupational group is when
some individuals recognize a social need and become com
mitted to providing for it. These initial pioneers, enter
ing the field from a variety of routes, will be united by
this common concern. The development of a new occupational
group may open up new career possibilities for others in
relatively marginal or terminal career positions. As time
goes by and the process of professionalization continues,
qualifications will be laid down for entering the :occu~
33
pation and entry routes institutionalized. An occupation
with pretensions to professional status cannot afford to
serve as a refuge for the unqualified (Elliot, 1972).
The emerging profession claims to be offering a unique
service not available elsewhere. It does not rely on open
competition with those occupations closest to its field,
but is likely to proclaim openly that its rivals are either
improperly trained or illegal competitors. The economic
success of a new profession is based on the normative
acceptance it achieves -- or how much right to a legally
enforceable monopoly it can successfully claim. Profes
sional services usually cannot be adequately evaluated by
laymen. Professionals admit that they need their client's
cooperation for a good performance; for survival, they also
need their clients' faith (Goode, 1960a).
Those taking the lead in striving for the advancement
of professionalism within the occupational group and in
claiming public recognition of its new status become the
elite of that profession. They implement the following
procedures according to Barber (1965);
1. Acknowledge the inadequacies of their
group but compare them to ones that
formerly existed in established pro
fessions -- express hope for progress.
2. Construct and publish a code of ethics.
34
3. Establish a professional association
which will perform the following
functions :
a. self control;
b. socialization;
c. education;
d. communication with public ;
e. defense of professional interest
against infringement by the public
or other occupational groups.
4. Leaders establish measures and titles
of more or less professional behavior,
hoping, of course, to use such prestigious
titles as "fellow" as an incentive for the
less professional to become more so.
5. Seek licensure from the state.
6. Seek to strengthen university professional
schools.
7. Information program for the general public.
8. Conflict resolution -- with those in the
group who are less qualified and with
other professionals who may be charging
them with encroachment.
As previously stated, there are differences of opinion
about the subsequent process of professionalization.
35
wilensky (19 64 ) enumerates five procedural elements of
professionalization. They are as follows:
1. start doing full time the thing
that needs doing.
2. Establish a training school within
a university.
3. Combine to form a professional
association with:
a. further self-conscious defini
tion of core tasks ;
b. the contest between the home-
guard who learned the hard way
and are committed to the local
establishment, on the one hand;
and the newcomers who took the
prescribed courses and are com
mitted to practicing the work
wherever it takes them;
c. the hard competition with
neighboring occupations.
4. Political agitation to win support of
law for the protection of the job terri
tory and its sustaining code of ethics:
a. licensing;
b. certification.
36
5. Establishment of rules to eliminate the
unqualified and unscrupulous, and rules
to protect clients and emphasize the
service ideal in a formal code of ethics.
Caplow (1954) listed the following processes as in
herent to the achievement of professional status:
1. Establishment of a professional associa
tion with definite membership criteria
designed to exclude the unqualified.
2. Change of occupational name, which serves
the multiple function of reducing identi
fication with the previous occupational
status asserting a technological monopoly.
3. Development and promulgation of a code of
ethics which asserts the social utility of
the occupation, sets up public welfare
rationale, and develops rules which serve
as further criteria to eliminate the un
qualified and unscrupulous; this imposes
a real and permanent limitation on internal
competition.
4. Prolonged political agitation, whose object
is to obtain the support of the public
power for the maintenance of the new occupa
tional barriers, and also development of
37
training facilities directly or in
directly controlled by the profes
sional society, particularly with
respect to admission and to final
qualification; the establishment
through legal action of certain
privileges of confidence and inviol
ability, the elaboration of rules of
decorum found in the code, and the
establishment -- after conflict ^ — of
working relations with related profes
sional groups.
Goode (1961) lists seven steps of professionalization
which occur simultaneously; ;
1. Formulating a code of ethics.
2. Founding of a professional association.
3. Promulgating favorable legislation,
4. Establishing curricula for professional
training (preferably in a university),
5. Making appeals to foundations for funds
with which to develop new professional
knowledge.
6. Writing articles to explain the unique
contribution of the occupation.
38
7. Making protests against inaccurate
stereotypes of the occupation.
Conclusion
It is evident, from the preceding analysis, that pro
fessionalism is not an easily defined characteristic.
While one can observe a well-established profession, such
as law or medicine, and describe its component and deriva
tive traits, it is much more difficult to specifically de
lineate those elements which are mandatorily required for
achievement of professional status. Varying professions
may or may not possess all the aforementioned criteria, and
the degree to which a criterion is integrated into a pro
fession also differs. Therefore, it must be concluded that
professionalism is a continuum of occupational status, with
no definite demarcation between the profession and the
non-profeSsion. While some occupations are distinctively
recognized in the professional and non-professional loci,
others seem to arbitrarily fall between the two classifica
tions .
Generally, there are seven criteria that are fre
quently observed in professions. They are :
1. A specific body of knowledge.
2. Training and education within a
university.
3. A professional ideology.
39
4. An organized professional association.
5. A professional code of ethics.
6. SeIf-regulation through occupational
authority and autonomy.
7. Public approval, sanction, and
licensure.
These seven criteria are often used as indicators of pro
fessional standing, but are not always present in all pro
fessions .
The evolutional process which ultimately confers pro
fessional status is also not a specific, well-defined para
digm. Some events that usually occur are:
1. recognition of need;
2. recruitment of full-time workers
to meet the need;
3. establishment of a body of knowledge
that is transmittable through a
university ;
4. organizing a professional association
with the development of a code of ethics
and a professional ideology;
5. winning legal sanction through licensing
and certification.
In conclusion, it must be mentioned that these pro
cesses often occur simultaneously rather than in a pre-
40
scribed sequence. Nevertheless, a general paradigm does
exist. This paradigm implicates a basic framework of
events that occur in the evolution of a profession. The
evaluation of our specific discipline will utilize the
seven criteria in analyzing the professional statuses of
adult education and gerontology.
A±
CHAPTER III
THE PROFESSIONAL STATUS
OF ADULT EDUCATION
Introduction
Adult education is becoming increasingly important
within our society. In 1970-1971 enrollment in California
adult schools consisted of 24 0,000 people and increased to
330,000 in 1973-1974 (California State Assembly, March
1975). In spite of this burgeoning field, no clear de
finition of adult education exists. As the following
chapter illustrates several definitions are applicable.
James Grote (1974) states that adult education has
developed many meanings and that education is based upon
the needs, interests, and the demands of the population it
serves. Smith, Aker and Kidd (1970) indicate that adult
education can be defined according to classification,
structure, or operation. Definition by classification is
concerned with that aspect of Adult Education which can be
considered the "genus" or "species" of learning. Defini-
42
tion by structure identifies the interrelationship and
function of the various components which make up adult edu
cation. The structural definition concerns organizational
leadership, content, processes, individual leadership,
agency basis, and clientele. Operational analysis de
scribes the processes and system of elements which allow
adult education to function.
Definitions are difficult to distinguish from one
another due to the vast amount of content which adult edu
cation covers. Basically, adult education is part of the
California educational system which offers courses for
persons who are 18 or older. Minors are allowed to enroll
in classes only if they will benefit from them and if they
receive special permission from the school district
(California State Department of Education, 19 72).
A variety of institutions offer adult education.
Smith et al. (1970) quote Jerome Ziegler who states :
One cannot speak of 'Adult Education'
as one speaks of the public elementary
and high school programs, and expect a
common understanding of what is meant
by the term. For in addition to the
range of activities which comprise
adult education, this branch of educa
tion has been and continues to be con
ducted by a multitude of contrasting
institutions and agencies, each provid
ing to its own plan (or) method. (p. 2 8)
As Ziegler notes, a common understanding of adult
education is difficult to attain due to the variety of
43
institutions which offer and sponsor such courses. Classes
for adults can be offered by high schools, evening high
schools, evening community colleges, and organizations.
A lack of consensus as to what adult education denotes
makes it difficult to assess professional standing. Arthur
Lloyd (19 74) notes that adult education does not have the
same prestige as elementary, secondary, and higher educa
tion. W.L. Ziegler (19 76) indicates that currently, adult
education is characterized by a search for legitimacy and
professionalism.
Obstensibly, courses for adult education contain a
vast area of interest and are offered by a variety of in
stitutions. Interests may deal with pre-retirement plan
ning, widowhood, death and dying, consumerism, nutrition,
and so on. The purpose of this study is not to determine
the content or number of classes being offered to older
adults, but rather to determine the expertise and/or train
ing of teachers who offer these courses. It is assumed
that gerontological knowledge is necessary to enhance and
facilitate learning of older adults. For this reason,
adult education has been operationally defined as those
credited courses offered within the established curriculum
of universities which provide knowledge and skills for
people who plan to teach adults 65 or older. These courses
must be offered by the school of education and may or may
A1
not be included within a department of adult education.
Education courses which are not included are those which
cannot be credited towards undergraduate, graduate, or
post-graduate degrees.
The remaining sections will review adult education in
the following areas: (1) body of knowledge; (2) university
education; (3) professional ideology; (4) professional
association; (5) code of ethics ; (6) self-regulation; and,
(7 public sanction. Professional standing will be assessed
in each of these areas.
Body of Knowledge
An extensive literature review indicates that the
existence of an identifiable body of knowledge which
focuses upon skills and concepts that train instructors
to work with older adults is incomplete. Methods,
materials, and principles of adult education are the only
two courses required of all instructors. These courses
may or may not deal with the individual over sixty depend
ing upon the objectives of the class.
Farmer (19 74) notes that inadequacies in the body of
knowledge exist. This may be due to the vast amount of
content, goals, and objectives which adult education util
izes. Fields of study, for example, include: elementary
subjects, English and speech, arts, foreign languages,
mathematics, sciences (natural and physical), social
45
sciences, Americanization, business education, community
development and special fields, crafts and decorative arts,
and lastly, health and physical education (California State
Department of Education, 19 72).
The vast amount of content that adult education covers
mandates that a variety of theories, goals, and techniques
be implemented. This, in turn, makes it difficult to de
velop a body of knowledge into a coherent framework.
Nevertheless, Du Bois (19 75) has indicated that an identi
fiable body of knowledge in adult education is growing.
In 1917 the first serious educational program directed to
wards the needs of older adults was established by Columbia
University. In 193 0 Columbia University established a
university program in adult education and was one of the
first schools to award doctoral degrees in this area. In
succeeding years, Ohio State University instituted a pro
gram and was soon followed by the University of Chicago,
New York University, and the University of Michigan. All
of these schools have added knowledge to the field.
The publication of the Adult Handbook and journals
such as Adult Leadership and Adult Education have also
added dimensions to the body of knowledge. In addition,
the establishment of the National Adult Education Associa
tion and local organizations such as, the Adult Education
Association of Los Angeles have conducted research and
46
experiments which contribute to an ever growing set of
principles and methodologies.
Demographic trends and educational needs provide
impetus for developing new theories and indicates that the
development of an identifiable body of knowledge in adult
education will be a future probability. However, at this
point in time, theories and principles are not placed
within a coherent framework, illustrating that there is
limited evidence that adult education contains a technical
base for professional practice.
University Education
To be considered a profession, university education at
the graduate level is usually required. Adult educators
can receive a credential through a variety of options and
therefore do not necessarily need a B.S. or B.A. degree.
The Ryan Act (1970) has been effective since September 15,
19 76 and credentials are issued if certain criteria have
been met. The criteria are as follows :
(1) Possession of a high school diploma
or the passage of an equivalency examination.
(2) Must meet with one of the following
requirements with regard to education
and/or training :
Education and/or Years of Work
Training_________________ Experience Required
a. High School diploma
or equivalent.................+5 yrs.
47
Education and/or Years of Work
Training Experience Required
b. One year of occupa
tional preparation
appropriate or re
lated teaching field . . .
c. Two years of occupa
tional preparation
appropriate or re
lated teaching field . . .
d. Three years of occupa
tional preparation
appropriate or re
lated teaching field . . .
e. B.A. degree with a
major in or related
to teaching field ....
f. Completion of an ap
prentice indentureship
or similar program in
accordance with in
dustry and labor
standards. There shall
be no academic equiva
lency for paid work ex
perience for instructors
of apprenticeship
classes ............... .
g. For non-vocational sub
jects in classes organ
ized primarily for adults,
a B.A. degree including
a minimum of 12 semester
hours of course work re
lated to the subject
taught ...................
(3) Applicant may have to indicate
proficiency through an examination.
A state or federal license, however,
will be acceptable as evidence of
mastery of skills.
(4) An approved program which
a minimum of 9 semester units
must be attended to provide in
includes
or 135 hours,
-service
48
training. The program must provide
several topics which improve under
standing and competencies. These
topics are designated by the Commission.
(5) The requirements set forth by the
provisions and principles of the United
States Constitution must be completed.
(Commission for Teacher Preparation and
Licensing, Title V, pp. 2-4)
As is evident, it is not essential that an adult
educator have a university education. Credentials are
issued on several levels of qualifications. Adult educa
tors must illustrate two areas of expertise : mastery of
content to be conveyed and mastery of instrumental tech
niques. All adult educators regardless of educational
background must comply with this requirement (see #4
above). These courses are usually provided through uni
versity extension courses and are not considered to be on
a graduate level.
Although the Ryan Act (19 70) has made qualifications
more stringent, it is doubtful whether training of adult
education teachers can be considered of a professional
nature. The issuance of a teaching credential is dependent
upon a college degree or equivalent experience and upon the
mastery of two courses. As a result, there is little in
centive and/or need for adult educators to pursue graduate
education.
Professional Ideology
The development of an ideology is an important aspect
49
of professionalism. Professional ideals should include a
notion of service, an emphasis on professional judgment,
and a belief in freedom and the autonomy to make decisions.
Adult education does not adhere to any one philosophy yet
at the same time upholds some of these ideals.
As Diekoff notes (quoted by Smith et al., 1970,
p. 12 2) "Like the American ideology, the philosophy of
education is tentative, changing, and eclectic." This,
again, is due to the vast area of content which adult
education embodies. Paul Bergevin (1967) and W.L. Ziegler
(1976) have both contributed their views on the ideology
of adult education.
Paul Bergevin (196 7) claims that all adult educators
must strive towards five goals. First, the educator should
help the learner achieve a degree of happiness and meaning
fulness. Second, the educator should strive to help the
learner understanding himself, his talents, limitations,
and relationships with other people. Third, the learner
should be made aware of the need for life-long learning.
Fourth, education for adults should provide conditions
which allow for spiritual, cultural, physical, political,
and vocational growth. Finally, the teacher must provide
education which is necessary for survival.
W.L. Ziegler (1976) feels that a social philosophy of
adult education can find its underpinnings by searching for
50
a "common enterprise." This enterprise deals with the
ability of adult educators to aid and abet controversy, to
support those who want to learn, and to sharpen competen
cies so that learners are able to reflect upon issues, con
flicts , and experiences.
The notion of service is common to both perspectives ;
Adult education should be provided to fulfill educational
needs. For example, most programs center around improving
overall literacy, providing sensitivity training, improving
family life and public responsibility, and providing educa
tion for vocational and technical training. More specific
examples of these areas are illustrated by classes provided
by the Los Angeles Unified School District. Citizenship,
Clock Repair, Clothing, Consumer Education, Contemporary
Issues, Governmental and World Affairs, and Industrial
Electrician are but a sample of the multitude of classes
offered (Los Angeles City Schools, 1976-1977).
The emphasis on professional judgment deals with the
ability of teachers to make sound and appropriate judgment.
This is ensured through the educational training of teach
ers. Instructors are required to have a certain amount of
expertise and training in order to teach- Teachers are
also expected to adhere to a code of ethics which sets
standards of appropriateness. The freedom and autonomy to
make choices is illustrated through the teacher’s ability
51
to determine goals, objectives, content, and methodology
of a particular course.
Thus, adult education has the underpinnings of a pro
fessional ideology. The notion of service and the ability
to make decisions are indications of this growth. Profes
sional judgment and appropriateness have been ensured
through educational qualifications and through adherence
to an ethical code. Nevertheless, until adult education
can be characterized by one ideology, it cannot be con
sidered to be of full professional standing.
Professional Associations
The establishment and structure of organizations are
indicative of the professional status of a particular dis
cipline. To be considered an association of a professional
nature, the organization must set criteria for membership,
keep members accountable for their actions, insure for the
delivery of services, exert control over educational train
ing centers, and must keep informed about legislative and
political activity. The organization which represents
adult education is the Adult Education Association. In
some areas the association can be considered to be of a
professional nature, in other areas it cannot.
Criteria for membership to the association has not
been established. Virtually everyone can join the organi
zation. Admission is open to the general public, profes-
52
sionals, organizations, retired professionals, and students
when signed by a professor. As a result of this broad-
based membership, accountability of actions, delivery of
services, and control over educational training centers
are not possible. However, the Adult Education Association
does play a role in society and is responsible for initi
ating legislation and increasing the number of learning
activities for adults on all levels (Wood, 1973). In addi
tion, the Association publishes two journals: Adult
Leadership and Adult Education. Both these journals keep
members informed of legislative and controversial issues
which affect the field.
Code of Ethics
A growing sense of professionalism is exemplified by
the adoption of a formal and written code of ethics. Adult
educators are subject to those rules and regulations which
apply to the entire educational enterprise. The code of
ethics of the Teaching Profession contains a preamble which
states the responsibility of the teacher to uphold ethical
standards. Three principles express ideals and obligations
of the teacher toward students, the public, and the pro
fession. Under the commitment to the student, the teacher
is expected to fulfill the following goals : (1) students
must be encouraged to independent action and must be pro
vided with varying points of view; (2) the teacher is ex-
53
pected to plan his lessons without distortion and within
'the designated limits of time; (3) the teacher is to honor
the integrity of the student ; (4) the teacher cannot take
advantage of students for his/her personal advancement;
and, (5) the teacher shall keep information from the stu
dent confidential.
A teacher's commitment to the public requires dedica
tion to the principles of democracy. According to the code
the following obligations must be fulfilled: (1) the
teacher has an obligation to support his profession and
must not misrepresent them in public. Due criticism must
not be distorted and the teacher must be careful to dis
tinguish private views from the official position of the
institution; (2) a teacher does not interfere with a col
league's exercise of political and citizenship rights ; and,
(3) a teacher's institutional privileges shall not be used
for private gain.
A teacher is also committed to the profession. He is
expected to: (1) raise professional standards ; (2) improve
his/her services; (3) promote a climate in which the use of
professional judgment is encouraged; and, (4) he is re
sponsible for encouraging trustworthy people to enter the
field of education.
The code adds that any violation of these ideals will
provide cause for suspension, revocation, or denial of a
54
certification document, or renewal thereof. These viola
tions include: jeopardy to student welfare, evident mal
ice, serious incompetency, bad judgment, or a consistent
pattern of misconduct (California Administrative Code,
Title V, Education Sections 5480-5485).
Self-regulation
James Farmer (19 74) notes that adult education is be
coming more professional because of the growing sense of
self-regulation. Self-regulation has been previously de
fined as the professional mechanism which maintains the
ability to autonomously govern and regulate its members,
establish standards of service, enforce codes of ethics,
assume disciplinary action, and to be publicly accountable
for the actions of its constituency.
One of the most important aspects of seIf-regulation
deals with autonomy. A discipline is autonomous if the be
havior and actions of the practitioners are judged by
peers. Rules and regulations, therefore, cannot be imposed
by outside forces such as state, local and federal govern
ment. To be considered a profession that maintains self-
regulation, a discipline must set standards by and for it
self.
The selective process of hiring a teacher is one means
of regulation. Teachers who apply for an adult education
position in California must complete several procedures.
55
An application, an interview, reference checks, credential
clearance, district enrollment, recommendation for employ
ment, and official acceptance by the local governing board,
is a systematic approach in recruiting and scanning the
qualifications and experience of adult educators (Cali
fornia State Department of Education, 19 72).
Evaluation of adult education programs also ensure the
maintenance and proficiency of the organization. Programs
are evaluated in relation to the accreditation standards
supported by the Western Association of Schools and Col
leges. Evaluation covers every aspect of the organization
and provides incentive for adult education to strive for
excellence and continued effectiveness (California State
Department of Education, 19 72) .
Adherence to a code of ethics is another method of
seIf-regulation. A teacher is expected to meet with desig
nated ethical standards. Non-compliance with those stands
ards leads to the disciplinary action mentioned previously.
Means of self-regulation are becoming more apparent
and are increasing the professional stature of adult educa
tion. Educational codes enforced through the Department of
Education help maintain standards of classes, adult schools,
and the administration of programs, and warrants that adult
education will meet the educational needs of the community.
56
Public Sanction
Public sanction is the formal and informal approval
that a community grants a discipline. This approval ack
nowledges the field’s ability to best deliver needed ser
vices . Community approval is one pf the major reasons why
programs for adults exist. Initially, Basic Adult Educa
tion came into being to improve the literacy of uneducated
Americans. In the 1960’s adult education became the direct
concern of federal legislation. Funds were appropriated
for manpower development, training, and vocational educa
tion for adults (Smith et àl., 19 70).
Basic Adult Education provides several opportunities
for older adults. These include providing opportunities to;
(1) develop a skill; (2) complete a cer
tificate, diploma, or degree; (3) to be
come better citizens; (4) to broaden wordly
views ; (5) to learn about health; (_6) to
develop skills in communication and human
relations; (7) to increase one’s income;
(8) to fulfill a requirement demanded by a
business, industry or profession; and, (9)
to provide meaningful opportunities for
people who have leisure time-(Smith et al-,
1970, p. 401)
Formal sanction of education occurs under the guise
of credentialing and through authorization by the Califor
nia Administrative Code and the Education Code. Since ser
vices are needed, a means of regulating the abilities of
the professional is pertinent. The Ryan Act of 1970 is
such a means of regulation and deals with the preparation
57
and training of teachers in California schools. With some
exceptions, only Ryan credentials have been issued since
September 15, 1975. Those people who were caught in the
middle of the transition had the option to obtain a pre-
Ryan credential up until September 14, 1976. Since this
time the preparation of teachers for adults has been up
graded. Life credentials are no longer issued and the
hours of in-service training as well as the number of years
of qualified experience, have been increased. The fact
that a credential is required assures the maintenance of
standards and is indicative of the formal sanction of ser
vices by adult educators.
Conclusion
Adult education does meet professional criteria in
three areas : adherence to a code of ethics, a means of
self-regulation, and public sanction. In addition, the
rudiments of a professional association, increasing stand
ards of expertise and the notion of service are indications
that adult education is evolving towards professionalism.
James Farmer (1974) further substantiates this by observing
three phenomenon :
(1) Increasingly trained specialists
and professionals are replacing amateurs.
(2) Specialized techniques and an in
creasing body of knowledge are being
developed. (3) Professional training
and in-service are being made more
available. (pp. 57-67)
58
Nevertheless, there is no clear understanding of what
adult education embodies. As a result, a coherent identi
fiable body of knowledge has not yet been fully developed.
This may make it difficult to convince society of the need
for providing educational services for the elderly. Until
adult education develops such a theoretical body of know^
ledge it cannot be considered to be of professional status,
59
CHAPTER IV
THE INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
GERONTOLOGY AND ADULT EDUCATION
Introduction
Gerontology and adult education are closely related
fields. The importance for life-long education has been a
recognized need since colonial days. Interest in adult
education was evidenced when men organized lyceums for de
bates and the discussion of issues. It was not until 1915,
however, that the National University Extension Association
was formed which was dedicated to the idea of continuing
education and the providing of public services (Axford,
1969) .
The goals of life-long learning are idealistic, in
strumental, and expressive and revolve around the overall
principle of "improving the quality of life." Paul
Bergevin (1967) expresses a philosophy of Adult Education
and delineates several ideals which buttress the need for
life-long learning. Education for adults is needed to help
the learner achieve a degree of happiness, to help
60
the learner understand his potential and limitations, to
provide opportunities for spiritual, cultural, physical,
political, and vocational growth, and to provide education
which will help adults cope with possible future events.
The growth of the education movement is credited to
Fredrick Keppel who is responsible for introducing the need
for a national organization of adult education. In 1926,
the American Association for Adult Education was founded
and funded by the Carnegie Corporation. The primary pur
pose of the association was "to provide for the gathering
and dissemination of information concerning, adult educa
tion aims and methods of work" (Smith et al., 1970, p 21 ) .
In 19 48, a structural change within the association
occurred. The Department of Adult Education of the
National Educational Association made motions of converting
itself to the direction of the entire field of education.
This motion threatened the structure of AAAE. In 1951, a
joint committee of both organizations recommended that the
association develop a new, unified organization. Thus, in
May 1951, the Adult Education Association was created and
Malcolm Knowles became the organization's first executive
secretary (Smith et al., 19 70).
As is evident, the historical development indicates
that adult education has been a long and recognized and
fundamental need. Today, this need is becoming more per
61
tinent and more pressing due to sociological and psycho
logical factors.
James Peterson (19 75) discusses sociological factors
which effect education. Demographic trends, for example,
will have an enormous impact on life-long learning. It is
estimated that the population 65 and over is growing at a
10.5 percent rate during the 1970's. This represents
nearly 2,056,000 elderly people in the State of California
and 22.7 million in the United States. Estimates predict
that there will be a 37 percent increase of older people
65 or older from 1975 to 2000 (Weg, 1976).
Peterson goes on to note that employment analysis and
technological advances make education for the elderly a
necessity. Over half the major industries in the United
States now have provisions for early retirement. In 15-20
years another ten million persons may desire to retire
earlier. Add this to the expected 2 5 million people who
will be retired at that time and the burdens and implica
tions upon society become apparent. Many of these individ
uals will wish second career training and adult education
could provide them with this need. Advances in technology,
furthermore, make it important that education focus upon
the upgrading of skills so that the elderly may lead mean
ingful and/or productive lives (Peterson, 19 75).
Robert Havighurst (19 76) delineates those psycho-
62
logical factors which confirm the need for adult education.
Every stage of life demands that an individual require new
skills. Education, therefore, should be an "instrument of
learning" rather than a "storehouse of knowledge." Adult
development, according to Havighurst (1976), can be viewed
in two ways: development requiring tasks or development
characterized by social roles. Developmental tasks are
determined by three sets of conditions: (1) biological
development; (2) social demands and expectations; and,
(3) personal ambition and aspirations. Social roles are
the various types of behavior which are appropriate to a
given position (Havighurst, 1976). Education geared to
wards developmental stages in adulthood can help the
elderly cope with new social roles and/or tasks. There
fore , education for older adults can help them cope with
the change in later life. Instrumental education is a
means to an end, whereas expressive education is an end to
itself. Instrumental education is preparatory, while ex
pressive education is gratifying and helps produce immedi
ate self-satisfaction.
Carroll Londoner (1971) expands Havinghurst's theory
by emphasizing that developmental tasks in later life are
characterized by a process known as "constriction." Con
striction is particularly visible in an older person's
diminishing ability to cope adequately with declining
63
physical and social status (Londoner, 19 71), Instrumental
education could lessen the effects of constriction and can
provide meaningful and psychological outlets. Education
can prepare people for new occupations, can upgrade skills,
even inform citizens of their rights, can teach them about
bodily changes and has the ability, therefore, to increase
adult performance.
Howard McCluskey (1971) utilizes a functional model
and identifies four categories of needs. The first need
he identifies is that of "coping." Education should be de
vised to help the elderly confront problems associated with
later life. This is similar to Havighurst (19 76) and
Londoner's (1971) explication of coping with developmental
tasks. McClusky (1971), however, does not exclude the im
portance of expressive education. Education addressing
"expressive needs" provides immediate satisfaction, and
allows for the liberation of talent, interests, and crea
tivity. The third category of needs, McClusky (1971)
identifies, are "contributing needs." Everyone has a need
to give; a need to feel purposeful and useful. Past ex
periences of older adults could provide knowledge and
skills which may have long been forgotten. The fourth
category of needs are "influence needs." Older people need
to feel that they have influence over their lives; that
they have the ability and right to make decisions. With
64
age comes a general decrease in physical, social, and
psychological powers. The loss of these powers, however,
does not mean that older people are not able to bring about
constructive change in society. The elderly should and do
have input into economic, health, and social issues.
Lastly, H.R. Moody (19 76) provides a philosophical
justification for educating the elderly. Moody (19 76 )
identifies four major attitudes which guide program de
velopment for older adults. The first attitude is "rejec
tion" and evolves around the principle that elderly are
"expendables" and "non-entities." From this viewpoint,
education would not prepare elderly for the future since
they have none. The second attitude deals with "social
services." This involves the assumption that elderly re
quire services and that the governmental bureaucracy and
professions can best provide these services. The third
attitude identified is the "participation" attitude. This
view holds that elderly are autonomous and dignified and
have the ability to make changes through political parti
cipation. The answer is not to provide services but to re
structure the institutions responsible for creating the
problems. The final attitude which Moody (1976) identifies
is "self-actualization." Psychological development is the
crucial assumption in this attitude. The ideal state would
be to teach people to be reconciled with their past.
65
thereby affirming the totality of their existence. Moody
(19 76) feels that there must be something uniquely possible
in old age. This is difficult to envision since our
society does not view aging as a positive stage. The im
plications for education as a means of self-actualization,
therefore, is extremely important since our culture does
not espouse a holistic view of life. Education for the
older adult is often geared towards "keeping busy" and may
include classes in basketweaving, sewing, arts and crafts^
and so forth. Self-actualization is necessary in order to
question and contemplate the meaningfulness of life.
Courses dealing with the humanities, and social sciences
nourish this quest. Philosophy, religion, psychology, and
literature encourages and promotes this search.
Unfortunately, few courses for the elderly deal with
this point of view. Many classes center around social
participation and social services. Legislation, advocacy,
crime prevention, and consumerism are examples of classes
concerned with providing services for the elderly and
allowing the elderly to provide for themselves. Moody
(19 76) recognizes the importance of these appj^oaches but
views courses dealing with self-actualization as the
philosophical justification for teaching the elderly.
In summation, demographic, technological, and employ
ment trends make education for older adults a necessity.
66
In addition, the developmental changes which occur in later
life demand that education be geared towards preparing
older adults for coping with future events. Roger Heimstra
(19 76) validates this point in a recent study. An experi
ment was conducted which divided types of courses being
offered to older adults into two categories; instrumental
and expressive education. Heimstra (1976) hypothesized
that older adults would prefer instrumental categories.
His hypothesis proved to be correct as 60 percent of all
selections were of an instrumental nature. Nevertheless,
the importance of expressive education cannot be denied.
Heimstra's (1976) findings also suggest that older adults
have a variety of educational preferences and that they
are engaging in a variety of learning projects each year.
Consequently, the needs for "influence" and "contributing"
cannot be diminished in significance for these too, are
valid and fundamental requisites. Lastly, the need for
self-actualization7 for the affirmation of the totality of
one's existence and for the improvement of one's life are
basic and human rights. As Immanuel Kant so appropriately
states, "Man becomes man through education; he is what
education makes him" (as quoted by Ecklund, 1969, p. 327).
Knowledge about gerontology is necessary if one is to
work effectively with older adults. Adult learners are
different from younger learners and require special con-
67
sidération which further substantiates the interrelation
ship between gerontology and adult education.
Malcolm Knowles (1972) claims that one cannot make the
same assumptions concerning young and "old" learners.
There is a difference, he claims, between pedagogy or the
art of teaching children, and andragogy, or the art of
teaching man. In teaching adults, one must be aware of
factors which are unique to the older learner. The first
factor concerns changes in self-concept. On the whole,
adult learners become more self-directed; they have gained
a sense of identity. With increasing age, however, this
may alter when losses cause a decrease in self-confidence
and an increase in anxiety. The role of experience is also
unique to andragogy. Since adults have a great deal of
experience behind them, the emphasis on teaching should be
utilizing experimental techniques. Lectures and assigned
reading tend to be less rewarding for the older adult than
discussions, simulations, field experiences, and other
"action learning" devices.
Readiness to learn and an adult's orientation to learn
are two principles which cannot be overlooked. The timing
for adult learning should coincide with developmental tasks
which aid in helping them cope with changes in their life
style. Orientation for adults should be geared towards
"problems," rather than "subjects." Emphasis should be
68
placed on learning, re-learning, and wanting to learn
(Ecklund, 19 69).
The need for specialized techniques becomes more
apparent when one considers the dynamics of learning.
Allan Knox (19 74) delineates the following components which
determine the teaching method utilized: performance,
motivation, meaning, experience, ability, memory, condition,
pacing, complexity, content, feedback, and adjustment.
Performance is an important aspect of learning. In
educational terms, learning encompasses a change and an
integration of knowledge skills, and attitudes towards im
proving performance. Consequently, subject matter must be
relevant, and appropriate, to needs. This is closely re
lated to Knowles' (1972) concepts of andragogy. The im
parting of knowledge must coincide with issues, tasks, and
expectations. Recent classes on pre-retirement, death and
dying, nutrition, and advocacy, thus, are not only appro
priate to a particular time of life, but are aimed towards
bringing about change; i.e., improving performance.
Motivation is the second component to learning. Since
older adults are voluntary learners, the activity must fit
expectations or the learn will lose interest. Closely re
lated to motivation is meaning. If subject matter is rele
vant then motivation will be greater. An experiment con
ducted by Walsh (19 75), discovered that motivation for
69
learning took place when adults were asked to learn rele
vant material.
As Knowles (1972) mentions, experience affects the
approach to learning. Experience may be both a positive
or a negative factor. It may provide enlightenment and
expertise, and on the other hand, it may prevent or inter
fere with new learnings. Not only should experimental
techniques be utilized, therefore, but programs should be
established to provide links with new learning and prior
knowledge and experience.
Ability is another aspect of learning. Learning abil
ity is generally stable between 2 0 and 50 years of age, but
gradually declines thereafter (Knox, 1974). There has been
much controversy over decline in intelligence with age.
Many people assume that intelligence decreases with the
life-span. Warner Schaie (1975) has indicated through re
search that this is a misconception. He discovered that
on the basis of longitudinal data, there is very little
change in intellectual ability. There are marked differ
ences in performance. Furthermore, health factors, level
of education, and socio-economic status as well as the
frequency or opportunity to utilize skills, all affect the
level of intelligence and performance (Ecklund, 19 69).
Memory also affects learning. Although memory appears
to be slightly impaired with increasing age, this is not a
70
universal phenomenon. Conditions which optimize acquisi
tion and retention of memory should be designed. An over
abundance of stimuli, for example, interferes with learning
processes and competition between events and experiences
may affect recall (Hulicka, 1967).
Condition plays an influential role in the educability
of older adults. With age there are age-related losses
which affect the ability to learn. Decrement occurs in
psychomotor skills, manual dexterity, tactile senses,
taste, smell, physical mobility, in basal metabolic rate,
cardiac output and strength, respiratory capacity, and in
reaction time. All affect adult performance (Ecklund,
1969).
Losses in sensory modalities greatly influence learn
ing and have essential implications when teaching the
elderly. Visual age changes affect a person's ability to
tolerate light. Increased opacity and thickness of the
lens, make transmitting and refracting of light more dif
ficult. In addition, increase opacity leads to yellowing
of the lens which may account for older people's inability
to distinguish between hues of wave leangths. This lack of
distinction often makes discrimination of blue, blue-green,
and violet more difficult (Hallburg, 1976).
The implications of these visual changes are important
to the adult educator. Eye changes suggest that visual
71
aids utilized in teaching older adults should be clearly
outlined, large, and simply portrayed. Also, tasks re
quiring the discrimination between blue, green, and violet
may prove difficult for the older adult.
A loss of auditory acuity can also be related to age.
A loss in the ability to hear high tones and a poor dis
crimination between consonants have important implications
for practitioners. Since it is not so much the intensity *
of the sound but rather the rate of sound which is more
important, practitioners must speak slower (less than 140
words per minute), and position themselves in relation to
the hearing ability of the older adult (Hallburg, 1976).
The rate of presentation, thus, may enhance and facilitate
learning.
Pacing is a very important aspect of learning. Adults
learn most effectively when they are allowed to pace their
own learning situation. Canestrari (1963) conducted sev
eral experiments involving paced and self-paced learning
conditions. He discovered that a limited time factor may
cause elderly people to become quite anxious which thereby
decreases their performance abilities. When older adults
were allowed to pace their own learning, however, better
performance took place.
Content and complexity of a learning situation take on
different dimensions when one teaches older adults. As
72
Knowles (1972) notes, content for older adults tends to be
problem-oriented rather than subject-oriented. According
to Heimstra (1976), older adults tend to utilize and prefer
classes of an instrumental nature. These classes often
deal with the developmental tasks of life; i.e., time and
leisure, widowhood, death, etc., and help the elderly
adjust to their situation. The complexity of the content,
furthermore, influences the learning situation as well. If
content is too complex, then older adults may feel over
burdened and overwhelmed. According to Knox (19 74) , the
elderly tend to learn difficult tasks less well and tend
to be bored if tasks are too simple.
Feedback and adjustment are the last dimensions of
learning. Knox (1974) discusses that all learners, re
gardless of age, respond best when feedback occurs. Im
mediate feedback, recognition, and reward lets the learner
know how he is progressing. The level of adjustment is
very important to the adult learner. Adjustment is usually
associated with anxiety and defensiveness. Those adults
with few recent learning experiences tend to be anxious and
afraid of failure. The teacher must do his/her utmost to
help the elderly student feel comfortable so optimal learn
ing can take place.
As is evident, learning for the older adult takes on
different dimensions. The dynamics of learning involve
_-7-3J
physiological and psychological changes which determines
whether or not learning takes place. Programs which make
practitioners as well as the elderly aware of these dynam
ics increase self-confidence, helps motivate the elderly
and provides opportunities which are conducive to learning.
Environment also has a crucial affect upon learning.
Age-related sensory losses often produce anxiety and an un
willingness to risk failure. The environment can often
alleviate these fears. Three dimensions of environment :
Environmental clues, stimulation, and support, can affect
behavior and help alleviate stress (Schwartz, 1975). En
vironmental clues help identify spaces, anticipate hazards,
locate people and utilities and thereby help reduce anxiety.
A stimulating environment, furthermore, enhances learning
while environmental supports provide "age appropriate" de
signs of furnishings. That is, door knobs which can be
easily opened by arthritics, straight and comfortable
chairs which are not too low, adequate lighting without
glare, etc. All of these factors allow comfort, satisfac
tion and self-confidence.
In addition to physical environmental factors, psycho
logical environmental factors can alleviate stress as well.
The climate for teaching older adults must be conducive to
the development of a non-threatening environment. One of
the ways a non-threatening environment can be attained is
J 7 _ 4 -
through a non-classroom atmosphere. Instead of the formal
institutions in which lectures, homework, and tests are
given, a more non-classroom atmosphere is often conducive
to learning. Discussions, simulations, a non-competitive
atmosphere, and the careful use of semantics might give a
more secure surrounding (Hixson, 1969).
In alignment with a non-threatening atmosphere one
must inquire whether or not older adults should be taught
in separate classes or with regular students. Although
this has been a controversial subject, it appears as if
older adults prefer segregated programs (Downey, 19 74).
One way to overcome obstacles is to provide an inter-
generational learning/teaching situation such as the Uni
versity of Oregon has implemented. Within their retirement
program, older adults became the teachers and shared their
experiences with younger students. The benefits of the
program were threefold: (1) it provided a non-threatening
role for seniors; (2) it provided an opportunity which
utilized the strength or past experiences; and, (3) it
gave the seniors control of the teaching/learning situation
(Scott, 1974).
Conclusion
There can be no mistake that gerontological knowledge
can be utilized to enhance learning for the elderly.
Physiological, psychological, and environmental changes may
75
promote or inhibit education. Knowledge of the aging pro
cess determines format, techniques, and subjects which are
taught. Lectures are not a good format to use when pre
senting materials. The elderly have lower energy capaci
ties and, therefore, become fatigued and uncomfortable
within a short period of time. Group participation in
which they contribute knowledge, experience, and opinions
promote social interaction and stimulates thinking and is,
therefore, a much better method to use. In addition, the
teacher must use "variety" when teaching the elderly. In
terest is maintained with the use of large, simply por
trayed audio-visual aids, role playing, and active partici
pation of students. If lectures are utilized they should
be short and incorporate knowledge which is both familiar
and new to the student. This is possible when a teacher
helps bridge prior knowledge and experiences with new
values, concepts, and skills. A course in sociology, for
example, may explore mores, traditions, and customs of past
generations with the mores, traditions, and customs of today
Subjects should center around the interests of the
elderly and should combine expressive and instrumental
elements. The elderly are willing to learn about a variety
of topics as long as they feel non-threatened by the
courses. The title and topic of courses will often deter
mine the success or failure of a particular class. If
76
titles are too complex, for example, "Physiological and
Neurological Age Changes," older adults may feel anxious
and threatened.
A survey held in 1972 determined that almost 50 per
cent of older Americans had not completed eight years of
elementary school. Of those 65 and over 12.2 percent com
pleted less than five years of school; 32 percent had four
years or more of high school education ; and, 7 percent of
the elderly population are college graduates (Weg, 19 76).
When one works with the elderly, they must be aware of
their educational background and must gear classes at the
level of expertise and experience of older individuals.
Teaching older adults can be easily justified. Demo
graphic, technological, economic, psychological, and
philosophical trends indicate that the elderly are viable
and contributing citizens of society. According to the
literature, knowledge of the aging process can help practi
tioners work more effectively with older adults. A few
school districts in California are beginning to recognize
this need. Los Angeles Unified School District, for ex
ample, is providing in-service training for teachers who
work with older adults. Teachers are being made more and
more aware of potentials and limitations of the elderly.
Whether the public or the entire educational enter
prise recognizes the interrelationship between gerontology
77
and adult education remains an issue of controversy. Ap
parently, adult education does not adequately test for or
require considerable gerontological knowledge from these
instructors who teach adults sixty years or older. Per
haps, gerontology as a separate and unique discipline could
better provide this training. In an effort to determine
if this is possible and if gerontology should be regarded
as a self-standing discipline the following chapter in
cludes an examination of where gerontology lies on the
professional continuum.
23.
CHAPTER V
THE PROFESSIONAL STATUS OF GERONTOLOGY
Introduction
The following chapter will examine where gerontology
lies on the professional continuum. The following areas
will be examined; (1) body of knowledge; (2) university
education; (3) professional ideology ; (4) professional
association ; (5) code of ethics ; (6) self-regulation; and,
(7) public sanction. Ostensibly, medicine, nursing, and
social work can be considered professions, whereas, public
administration, counselor education, and adult education
indicate that they are moving toward professional standing.
Since increasing demographics and longevity have made the
elderly a significant and recognizable aggregate in our
society, there is considerable discussion among members of
the disciplines concerned with the needs of the elderly, as
to whether those needs can be best met within traditional
disciplines or whether there is a need to develop geron
tology as a unique profession.
79
In an effort to understand the nature of gerontology
several areas will be investigated. These include:
historical trends, the need for gerontology, and whether
or not gerontology meets professional status according to
the designated criteria.
Trends of Gerontology
Gerontology, according to Breen (1970) is a field
which is no more than three decades old. It has taken at
least this period of time for gerontology to be thought of
as a "systematic examination of data and logical sets of
conclusions concerning the aging process"(Breen, 1970,
p. 5). Gerontology has been defined in a variety of ways
and involves a variety of disciplines. Clark Tibbitts
(1960) has helped popularize the term "social gerontology,"
Social gerontology focuses upon two points of view; one
view is concerned with the scientific and psychological
forces upon the organism and the other is concerned with
how the environment and organizational structure of culture
influences the individual.
Breen (1970) identifies five separate stages in the
development of gerontology as a discipline. These include :
the philosophical stage, biological stage, psychological
stage, social stage, and political stage,
Philosophical concern in aging dates back to Aris
totle's time. Lengthy dialogues of Aristotle, Cicero, and
80
Homer reflect upon the interest and concern of growing old.
Cicero's "De Senectute" (106-43 B.C.) addresses the prob
lems of old age and expresses that it is a time of joy
rather than a time of despair.
The biological interest in aging dates back to the
1800's. Birren (1970) credits Quetelet as the first geron
tologist. However, it was not until the late 1930 ^s that
an avid interest in aging began. During the 1930's the
number of individuals aged 65 and over increased 35 percent
as contrasted with an increase in the general population
of 7.2 percent (Birren, 1970), In 1939 a group of British
scientists became interested in age-related changes in
cells, organs, and tissues, and decided to form an Inter
national Club for Research on Aging (Tibbitts, 1960), The
publication of Cowdry's Problems of Aging in 19 39 and the
establishment of the Gerontological Society in 1945, illu
strates the growing interest in the biological aspects of
aging (_Kleemeir, Havighurst, and Tibbitts, 1967).
Psychological interest in the elderly evolved with
the development of institutional facilities. Long-term
care facilities and interest in "senility" promoted the
awareness of the mental health needs of the elderly.. The
first marked contribution was Stanley Hall's book on
Senescence, published in 1923 (Kleemeir et al., 1967). The
first systematic attempt to investigate the psychological
81
aspects of aging, however, occurred when the Standford
Later Maturity Research Project conducted a study
(Tibbitts, 1960).
Social interest in the aging began when increasing
numbers of aged affected various aspects of society.
Issues such as housing, economics, and health became press
ing social concerns. The establishment of the Journal of
Gerontology in 1946 enumerated problems of aging in the
social science areas. The National Conference on Aging,
furthermore, was organized in 1950 and was devoted to
social economic and related aspects of aging.
The political stage of gerontology developed in the
mid-thirties. While primarily an economic issues, the
Social Security Act of 1935 was also indicative of politi
cal interest in aging. A year before, Simmons published a
work entitled. The Role of the Aged in Primitive Society
and provided a basis for comparing the elderly in agricul
tural and industrial societies. In 19 48 a report on Social
Adjustment in Old Age indicated that sociological interest
in aging was beginning to carry itself through the develop
mental stages of life. The 1950's furthermore revealed a
proliferation of publications and continued research. At
this time, eight sections of the first National Conference
on Aging was organized and the Inter-University Training
Institute in Social Gerontology was conceptualized and
82
supported (Tibbitts, 19 60).
In 196 5 the White House Conference on Aging and the
passage of the Older American's Act provided for the
Administration on Aging and the Social Security Amendments,
In addition, the establishment of the National Retired
Teacher's Association, American Association of Retired Per
sons, the National Council on Aging, the Senate Sub-commit-
tee on Aging, National Center on Black Aging, and the
National Institute on Aging, are indicative of the growing
interest and stature of the field of gerontology.
Documentation of Needs
The need to address the aged and their problems is
becoming more apparent. Kleemeir (1965) states that to
day's belated attention now given to the problems of aging
and the aged is a product of different perspectives of
viewing the elderly, rather than the significant increase
in the elderly population. Due to changing perspectives
and demographical statistics, the fact remains that there
is a need for specialized training in working with older
adults. Krauss (1963) and Kleemeir (1965) further sub
stantiate this need. Krauss states that it is obviously
becoming more evident that meeting the needs of the aged
require a specialized body of knowledge in modern society.
Kleemeir adds that there is both a need in society and
science for a major visible investment of effort directed
83
toward the solution of alleviation of the problem of aging.
Certain problems, areas, methods, techniques, knowledge,
professional personnel, and institutions should clearly be
seen as having an intimate, predominate, or exclusive con
cern for aging with different disciplines contributing to
a central area of concern.
The need for special training in the area of aging
was identified by the White House Conference on Aging in
1961. A committee concerned with the role and training of
professional personnel designated four occupational groups
which they felt needed gerontological training. These in
clude : (1) Medical Services; (2) Social Work ; (3) Educa
tional, Religious, and Recreational Services; and, (4) En
vironmental Planning and Administration. In addition,
Tibbitts (1967) describes the following four categories
of personnel needed to work with the aged: (1) direct
providers of services; (2) planners, administrators and
program directors; (3) researchers; and, (4) teachers.
Present economic, housing, health, and legislative
trends further support the requirement for gerontological
training. The spread of technology and an industrial
economy have presented unforeseen problems for the elderly.
Retirement income for a person over 65 is provided by the
Social Security Act. The original intent of Social Secur
ity was to help the elderly meet the risks of old age and
84
unemployment (United States Department of Health, Educa
tion, and Welfare, 1973). Until recently, coverage ex
cluded governmental, agricultural, domestic, casual and
non-profit employees, and the self-employed. In the 1970's
coverage has been broadened so that 90 percent of the pop
ulation 65 and over is eligible for Social Security bene
fits (Fitzpatrick, 1975). Thus, Social Security is pre
sently the major source of retirement income. The 196 8
study indicates that over 60 percent of aged persons re
ceived no other periodic retirement benefits (Kolodrubetz,
quoted by Fitzpatrick, 1975), Private pensions were re
ceived by only 12 percent of the aged and these generally
were people who received higher Social Security benefits,
as well (Fitzpatrick, 19 75). Although Social Security
benefits have increased within recent years, so has the
cost of living and it is doubtful that the elderly can meet
rising food costs, taxes, and medical expenses.
The enactment of the Supplemental Security Income
Program has provided additional monies on the basis of
"need" rather than right. Presently, maximum Supplemental
Security Income payments in the State of California are
$259 for an individual and $488 for a couple. Payments
vary, however, according to living arrangements and dis
abilities. In addition, not all eligible people get the
maximum payment amounts if they have other income. Conse
85
quently, a substantial gap between minimum benefits ^nd the
living costs of the elderly exists.
In 1974 the median income for all American families
was $12,836, while the median income for families 65 or
older was $7,29 8 (Current Population Reports; Special
Studies, May 1976). Realistically, approximately 50 per
cent of the elderly are poor and have incomes less than
$3,0 00 (United States Congress House Select Committee on
Aging, March 1976). Low income makes home ownership and
maintenance of homes difficult. As costs for repairs,
utilities, and property taxes rise, the elderly find them
selves with a lack of resources. It was projected that by
1976 about 8.3 million elderly people would be living in
3.7 million sub-standard housing units (United States
Congress House Select Committee on Aging, March 1976),
The steady increase in the elderly population affects
health trends. The elderly utilize health services more
frequently since the rate of hospitalization and length of
hospital stay both increase with age. One out of every
four persons is likely to be hospitalized within a given
period, and approximately 71 percent of persons 65 or older
visit a physician at least once a year (Loether, 1975),
Twenty-eight percent of the $80 billion spent national for
personal health care in 1973 was for older persons who
constitute only 10 percent of the population. The per
86
capita health costs for an older person is $1,052 as com
pared to $385 per capita for younger adults (United States
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1975).
Medicare insurance helps pay for hospital stays and certain
post-hospital care of people 65 and over. As of January 1,
1977, the elderly are responsible for $124 deductibles and
are covered for 60 days. For a hospital stay over 60 days
the patient will pay $31 a day for services. What this
means in effect is that the elderly will be responsible
for paying 28 percent of doctor bills and related medical
expenses and the government will pay the balance (Medicare
Increase, January 1977). This does not include, however,
medical costs of the elderly not covered by Medicare or
Medi-Cal.
Legislative trends also indicate that an interest in
the elderly is ever growing. Governmental bodies such as
the Veterans Administration and the National Institute of
Child Health and Human Development, the Administration on
Aging, United States Senate Special Committee on Aging,
Social Security Administration, and Area Agencies on Aging,
are indicative of the interest in the elderly.
Gerontology, hence, can provide a distinctive educa
tional and research oriented discipline which deals speci
fically with the phenomenon of aging. Social, economic,
and legislative trends document the need for specialized
87
training in working with the aged and promotes the status
of gerontology toward professionalism.
Gerontology
Body of Knowledge
To state that gerontology does not have an identifi
able body of knowledge would be erroneous. Kleemeir et al.
(19 67) note "the body of specialized knowledge is there and
is accumulating." (p. 39) The task is to put it into a
coherent framework rather than parcel the knowledge to
Other disciplines. The issue, hence, is not that social
gerontology fails to meet the criterion of a recognizable
body of knowledge. The issue is whether it should be given
serious consideration as a separate discipline.
Traditionally, gerontology is a multidisciplinary
field, thereby borrowing knowledge from the sciences and
social sciences. As previously mentioned, the historical
development indicates the accumulation of theories, know
ledge, and research. Breen (1970), Birren (1970), and
Tibbitts (1960) have documented the accumulation of know
ledge in the fields of philosophy, biology, sociology,
physiology, and politics.
University interest in gerontology dates back to the
1960's when several universities initiated gerontological
programs. Cornell University developed programs in educa
tion, industry, and business; the University of Chicago was
88
an innovator in pre-retirement programs, and Duke Univer
sity brought various departments in the University together
to examine problems of the aged. In addition, the Univer
sity of California developed a research program, the
University of Iowa developed a gerontology institute, the
University of Michigan started its Institute of Gerontol
ogy. Each of the schools have done much to increase know
ledge in the gerontological field.
Recently, the University of Southern California has
set a precedent by establishing a separate school of ger
ontology. The Leonard Davis School of Gerontology is
dedicated to developing and identifying a distinct set of
theories, methodologies, and principles which form the
technical base of professional practice. It offers courses
which concentrate on biological theories, developmental
processes, psycho-social needs, as they relate to the
aging individual.
The creation of governmental bodies such as the Admin
istration on Aging, the United States Senate Sub-committee
on Aging (19 59), followed by the Senate Special Committee
on Aging, the National Council on Aging (19 60) , the Admini
stration on Aging (1965), the National Institute on Aging,
and the National Institute on Child Health and Human De
velopment have added several dimensions to the current body
of knowledge. They are subsidizing research, publishing
89
relevant literature, and have become strong advocates in
the field. In addition, the proliferation of publications
and governmental grants are also indications of an ever
growing body of knowledge that pertains specifically to
gerontology.
Professional Education
At present there are no specific courses required to
be considered a "gerontologist." In the field of adult
education, for example, many teachers are considered geron
tologists having had no formalized training in the area of
aging. Although the recent Ryan Act (197 0) has made re
quirements for receiving a credential much more stringent
in California, educators of adults are still not required
to take courses which deal specifically with the aging
individual.
Nevertheless, there is a growing consensus that a
university education is necessary in the field of geron
tology. The Gerontological Society, in 1956, sponsored a
conference to consider the problems of training in the
social science aspects of gerontology (Shock, 195 7). As a
result, the Inter-University Training Institute in Social
Gerontology was established (Breen, 1970). Shock felt con
cerned that professional workers had not received adequate
exposure to the aspects of aging. In 1957 he stated,
"there is a definite need for the organization of course
90
material on our knowledge about aging for presentation to
undergraduate and graduate students...More systematic in
struction is imperative if we are to attract potential,
competent research and professional workers into this
field." (p. 175)
There are several points of view on whether or not
gerontology should eventually become a self-standing dis
cipline or whether it should be incorporated into tradi
tional fields of study. Breen (19 70) questions whether one
can have a separate scholarly discipline in gerontology and
train specialists in the field. Some educators argue that
training should be at a generalist level in gerontology
with scholarly training and specialization in traditional
fields such as biology or sociology (Breen, 1970). Kuhlen,
Kreps, Kushner, Osterbind and Webber (1967) emphatically
state that specialization is possible and should be re
quired within social gerontology. In 1957 Kleemeir took
the position that gerontology should be considered a dis
tinctive area of teaching and research. As a separate
entity, he said, it could be contained within the univers
ity with its own administrative authority, faculty, and
academic rights and responsibilities.
Within the last two years gerontology has become a
recognized course of study in university education, A
national survey in 1961 by the University of Michigan on
91
educational activities showed that progress was being made
in the field. From 1958 to 1961, 112 institutions and 116
departments reported on 221 research projects in geron
tology , and 137 theses and dissertations were written. The
dissertations were produced in the fields of sociology,
psychology, and human development, and the greatest number
of master's degrees were in the field of social work. A
survey in 196 4 conducted by the Gerontological Society,
identified 159 institutions giving some training in geron
tology (Breen, 19 70). Of the total number of institutions,
80 were academic, 40 were medical or professional, and the
rest were agencies. Research programs in gerontology had
199 students enrolled or had completed a program, while
1,0 89 students were in the applied programs. Recommenda
tions were made to increase funding for research and train
ing, and to develop facilities and resources. It was sug
gested that interdisciplinary mechanisms and inter-uni-
versity cooperation should be undertaken. Breen (19 70)
concluded that this report held great promise for the
future of gerontology.
In 1967, Donahue identified a number of programs,
centers, and institutes of gerontology in university set
tings which were multidisciplinary in nature and, in addi
tion to research programs, offered graduate training. Ex
amples given were as follows : Duke Center for Aging Re
92
search and Human Development; University of Chicago Pro
gram of Adult Development and Aging ; the University of
Southern California Rossmoor-Cortise Institute for Study
of Retirement and Aging ; and, the University of Michigan-
Wayne State Institute of Gerontology.
More recently, the expansion of gerontology has spread
to colleges and universities throughout the country. In
1976 the Association for Gerontology in Higher Education
compiled a directory designed to inform educators, pro
fessionals, and students of gerontology related courses,
degree programs, research programs, educational services,
and training programs. The study indicates that there
are approximately 1,275 institutions in the United States
which offer gerontology courses. In California alone,
104 institutions offer gerontology courses. These insti
tutions may be community colleges, vocational and tech
nical institutes, colleges, universities, professional
schools, or non-degree granting institutions. (United
States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,
Office of Human Development, Administration on Aging,
Fall, 1976).
The interest in gerontology is exemplified through
the proliferation of training schools in various institu
tions. More colleges and universities are recognizing
the future importance of gerontology. At the same time.
93
there appears to be disagreement as to whether gerontology
should become a self-standing discipline. Presently, the
majority of schools are incorporating gerontology into
traditional fields of study. Until this issue becomes
resolved individual institutions will have to decide if a
separate and distinct school for gerontology is necessary.
One must conclude that the educational requirements for
gerontology are presently in the state of development
marking a definite step toward professional standing.
Professional Ideology
A professional ideology should center around three
important aspects: the notion of service, an emphasis on
professional judgment based upon knowledge, and belief in
professional freedom and autonomy (Elliot, 1972). Pre
sently, a formalized written ideology for gerontology does
not exist. There are indications, however, that the need
and potential for establishing such an ideology is grow
ing.
As mentioned previously, housing, health, economic,
and demographic trends support the need for special train
ing in the gerontological field. In the past, govern
mental organizations and private organizations have re
cognized the responsibility for providing services to the
elderly. However, as Kleemeir and Birren (1967) note:
"...while this movement is discernible in many places and
94
agencies its essential gerontological character tends to
be obscured, becoming identified with the fostering
agency, or in the case of instructional and research pro
grams, with traditional scientific disciplines." (p. 6)
There is a need, thus, for a "major, visible and unambigu
ous investment of effort directed toward the solution or
alleviation of the problem of aging." Gerontology, as a
self-standing discipline would have a predominant and ex
clusive concern with the aged, thereby affirming the
ideological interest in service.
The study of gerontology has been present as a re
search effort for several decades. The desire for de
veloping gerontology as a separate discipline has been a
recent development. In 196 7 gerontology had cursory pro
grams throughout the country. In 1975 the University of
Southern California established the Leonard Davis School
of Gerontology and set precedent by establishing a train
ing and research center for the aged which was housed in
a separate School of Gerontology. Since July 1976, a
national directory published by the Association of Geron
tology for Higher Education, listed 1,275 educational pro
grams that dealt with the aged (Watkins, 1977). As Ruth
Weg states, "The study of aging has come of age" (Weg, as
quoted by Watkins, 19 77, p. 14).
Since gerontology is so new, the need for qualified
95
practitioners has been unmet. One can expect that very
few specialists have had gerontological training. Due to
this phenomenon, an emphasis on professional judgment and
the freedom and autonomy to make choices are ideals which
have not yet been tested and/or attained. The field as
it exists today, is newborn and those specialists trained
solely in gerontology are few in number. The indications
and potential for growth in the field, howeverf will
eventually lead to more trained specialists who will be
responsible for making sound, professional and autonomous
judgments.
Professional Associations
In order for gerontology to be considered a profes
sion , organizations which set criteria for membership in
the field must be established. There are presently three
organizations which deal specifically with gerontology.
The Gerontological Society is the organization most com
monly associated with the field. It is the authoritative
voice as author and critic in the formulation of national
policy and reflects upon the status of gerontology in
modern society (Freeman, 1961). Jerome Kaplan (1970)
states that the formation of the Gerontological Society in
1945 marks the most significant contribution on a national
scope. The Society is devoted to research on aging and
encompasses training and evaluation of services for older
96
people. Research is conducted in biology, clinical medi
cine, psychology, social sciences, and social welfare.
The Society publishes two journals: The Journal of
Gerontology and the Gerontologist. The Journal of Geron
tology publishes quarterly reports of original research in
the affiliated fields mentioned above. The Gerontologist
is also published quarterly and carries articles of gen
eral interest in the areas of medical care, recreation,
housing, social welfare, employment, and any other area
which is related to aging.
The Western Gerontological Society and Association
for Gerontology in Higher Education are two organizations
which have primarily an educational focus. The primary
goal of the Western Society is to work for the well-being
of all older residents of Western states by promoting
communication, fostering better understanding of geron
tology, stimulating research, and by encouraging profes
sional preparation for gerontological research.
Currently, neither the Gerontological Society or
Western Gerontological Society have professional require
ments for admission. The Gerontological Society requires
that one completes an application and has two standing
members sign the form, while the Western Gerontological
Society invites any individual or organization with an
interest in aging to become a member. Both these
97
societies represent rudiments of a professional associa
tion. However, if the societies are to exist as such, they
must beome increasingly regulative and set definite stand
ards of admission.
In addition to the three organizations previously
mentioned, there are other organizations which have vested
interests in aging. The American Association of Retired
Persons, American Association of Homes for the Aging,
American Nursing Home Association, and the National
Council on Aging are greatly involved with the elderly.
The American Association of Retired Persons was founded by
Dr. Ethel Percy Andrus in 1958 and is dedicated to research,
counseling and correspondence. The organization is volun
tary, non-profit and non-partisan. The American Associa
tion of Homes for the Aging was founded in 1961 and is
dedicated to improving programs and standards of institu
tions serving older people. The American Nursing Home
Association sponsors educational meetings and seminars and
the National Council on Aging is the leading national
voluntary agency which provides professional services for
those concerned with the elderly.
Code of Ethics
Cox (1976) notes that a lack of formalized standards
of professional conduct severely limits the professional
status of gerontology. Cox believes that the lack of
98
ethical codes is difficult due to the diversity of skills,
training, and tasks of members.
The diversity of skills and training is primarily due
to the nature of gerontology. Gerontology is of a multi
disciplinary nature; that is, a combination of specialized
fields, and therefore fosters and produces generalists in
this area. Many people who enter the field are already
working in specialized areas and their gerontological in
terest becomes a part of their professional responsibili
ties. The fact that gerontological associations have an
extremely broad-based membership hinders a stringent code
of ethics from developing.
The need for ethical standards is quite apparent. The
fact that human beings are involved in research and prac
tice mandates that ethical standards be considered. Ac
cording to Eisdorfer and Wilkie (1970), when one utilizes
human subjects in research, three basic elements of tech
nical practice are involved. These include: consent,
confidence, and standard or accepted procedure.
Regulations of standards encompassing gerontology has
not yet come about. Guinne (1970) feels that standards may
only develop when people begin to pay for professional
services. Since there appears to be some question as to
whether or not gerontology can best provide for the needs
of the elderly, professional services have not yet been
99
recognized. Thus, people are not paying gerontologists for
services but are paying those professionals who have
vested interests within the field. Time and public recog^-
nition of gerontology as the provider of needs and services
for the elderly will support and initiate the formation of
a code of ethics.
Self-regulation
Self-regulation has been operationally defined as the
professional mechanism which maintains the ability of the
discipline to autonomously govern and regulate its members,
establish standards of service, enforce the code of ethics,
assume responsibility for disciplinary action, and be
publicly accountable for the actions of its constituency.
At this point in time there is no mechanism which controls
seIf-regulation in the field of gerontology. Since admis
sion to the Gerontological Society and Western Gerontolog
ical Society is open to all, regulation of its members is
non-existent. For example, many of the people who work in
the field are professionals or semi-professionals in some
other field such as teaching, nursing, social work, coun
seling, and so forth. As stated previously, their primary
allegiance, thus, may not be directed towards gerontology.
The diversity of educational backgrounds and of services
performed is likely to make it difficult for those in geron
tology to meet a standard of self-regulation which would
100
qualify them as professionals. It is possible, as sug
gested by Finn and Carmichael (197 4) , that there will be
a division in the field which will be broken down as
follows: (1) a broad group of paraprofessionals of differ
ent degrees of skill who work daily with the aged; (2) an
intermediate level of semi-professionals ; and, (3) an apex
of highly trained academic and scientific personnel for re
search and training. Future events will indicate whether
or not these highly differentiated groups will be able to
unify to the extent necessary to advance gerontology to
the level of a profession.
Public Sanction
Since there is no legislation which regulates the
practice of gerontology by means of licensure or certifica
tion , formal approval by the community does not exist.
Nevertheless, an increase in publications, professional
organizations, governmental programs and community ser
vices, indicates informal sanction by the public and a
growing awareness and interest in aging.
Mass media and publications help project an image in
the public eye. Several newspapers, magazines, and
journals are currently disseminating information about the
elderly. The Los Angeles Times, for example, has run a
series of articles on nursing homes, attitudes and stereo
types toward the aged. Social Security benefits and legis-
101
lation for the elderly, and so forth. Magazines which have
recently published articles dealing with the aged are as
follows : Saturday Evening Post, Psychology Today, New West,
Ladies Home Journal, and McCall * s. Subjects discussed
dealt with sex after sixty, stress and aging, death and
dying, time and leisure, and housing. Professional journals
also help to relate facts and knowledge on aging. Examples
of these include: Aging ; Age and Aging; Long-term Care;
Educational Gerontology; Journal of Gerontology; Experi
mental Aging; and. Research and Current Literature on
Aging.
There are also a number of national and scientific
professional organizations which include an interest in
the aging. The American Public Welfare Association, for
example, has a section devoted primarily to the problems
of the aged. The National Council for Homemaker Services,
the American Medical Association, Group Advancement of
Psychiatry, and the Adult Education Association also have
divisions working with the aged. In addition, the Division
of Later Maturity, established by the American Psycho
logical Association, the American Sociological Society,
and the American Hospital Association, and the American
Geriatrics Society, all deal with age-related issues.
As mentioned previously, governmental interest in the
aging stems back to the 1930's. The Veterans Administra-
102
on Aging, Commission on Aging, Senate Sub-committee on
Aging, the Social Security Administration, and Area Agen
cies on Aging help boost the image of the elderly. The
increase in community services for the elderly illustrates
the increasing importance of gerontological issues. The
following represent a sampling of services provided in the
Los Angeles area; advocacy, counseling and social ser
vices, health care services, home services, information and
referral services, legal services, nutrition services, out
reach, recreation, and transportation are offered by sev
eral agencies. These agencies include : Retired Senior
Volunteer Program, Los Angeles City Parks and Recreation,
Senior Citizens Centers, Los Angeles City Office on Aging,
and so forth.
As evidenced by the increase in public services, aging
is a provocative and pressing issue in our society. How
ever, whether the field of gerontology warrants public re
cognition as the provider of services remains an issue of
debate. At present, the term "gerontology" and "geron
tologist" has no specific meaning to the general public.
Measures must be taken to define gerontological terms so
that the public will support the field, as society's
advocates for the elderly.
Conclusion
It must be concluded that gerontology is currently
103
recognized as a field of specialty with major educational
and career emphasis still resting within the established
professions. That there is a need for gerontological
training is obvious, but whether or not the public sanctions
gerontology as the discipline which best provides for the
needs of the elderly remains a controversial issue.
Kleemier et al. (196 7) all agree that gerontology as a
separate discipline requires professional education and
that it can provide specialized training and skills needed
to work with the elderly. In order to promote the pro
fessionalism of gerontology the following recommendations
have been made :
1. In order to ensure accountability and
responsibility for actions, a code of
ethics must be developed. It is suggested
that since gerontology is a multidisciplin
ary field, ethics combined and integrated
from traditional fields of study may form
the basis for such a code.
2. It is urged that licensing boards be
established. Licensing boards testing
for gerontological knowledge would help
control the quality of programs and would
regulate levels of expertise and training
in the field.
104
Gerontology lacks some of the designated criteria
needed to be considered a profession. Nevertheless, a
growing public awareness, an increasing number Qf elderly
persons, and pressing needs indicate that gerontology has
a proclivity towards increasing structure, standardization,
and regulation of the field.
10 5
CHAPTER VI
METHODS AND PROCEDURES
Introduction
This chapter will present the methods and procedures
of this study. As evidenced in the literature review and
the research on professionalism and gerontology, several
important issues needed to be addressed in this study. The
gerontology content of curriculum within departments/
schools of education was assessed. In addition to this,
the researchers wanted to determine how well students were
being trained to teach older adults. Following these
issues it was clear that the next step should be to deter
mine the direction of the field of gerontology in relation
to adult education.
For presentation of the material, this chapter has
been divided into seven sections; description of the hypo
theses, subjects, research instrumentation, procedures,
delimitations, limitations, and treatment of the data.
106
Description of the Hypotheses
Four hypotheses were tested for this study, For the
first hypothesis, the researchers believed they would find
that larger departments would offer more gerontology re
lated courses than smaller departments. Stated in null
form this would be:
HO^: There will be no significant relation
ship between the size of a particular
department and the number of gerontology
related course offerings.
The second hypothesis stated in null form was;
HO^: There will be no significant relation
ship between the number of course
offerings containing gerontological
content and the level of importance
given to age-related courses.
It was expected that the number of gerontology related
course offerings increased as the level of importance given
to age-related issues increased.
The third hypothesis as stated in null form is as
follows ;
HO^: There will be no sigificant relation
ship between the level of importance
given to age related courses and the
number of students placed in agencies
dealing with the elderly.
107
It was expected that a positive relationship between these
two variables would be determined.
Finally, the researchers hypothesized that departments
with a large faculty would have more age-related courses
than those having a smaller faculty. This fourth hypothe
sis stated in null form is as follows:
HO^: There will be no significant relation
ship between the number of age related
courses offered and the number of
faculty in a particular department/
school.
Description of the Subjects
The population consisted of accredited California
institutions of higher education, offering courses of
study leading to graduate degrees in education or adult
education. Fifty-two schools in California fit this de
scription. Twelve of these schools offered courses with
gerontology content within the department/school of educa
tion. An additional twelve schools out of the remaining
forty not offering such courses were randomly selected.
Responses were received from ten of the twelve schools
offering age related courses, and from eight of the twelve
schools who did not offer courses having gerontological
content. This resulted in a total sample of eighteen in
stitutions .
108
In all cases, responses were requested from the dean/
chairman of each department/school. When the de^n was un
able to respond to the questionnaire, he/she delegated the
authority to an appropriate faculty or staff member,
Description of the Research Instrumentation
As a result of extensive literature reviews on profes
sions in general and adult education in particular, two
questionnaires were developed by a student-faculty group
to obtain factual and attitudinal information for the sur
vey of the schools granting degrees in education. The
library questionnaire, the "Information Collection Form,"
was answered by the researchers using 1976-1977 course
catalogues from the particular department being surveyed
(see Appendix A for the library questionnaire). This en
abled the researcher to become familiar with the institu
tion and department being surveyed as well as reducing the
number of questions that would need to be addressed on the
interview questionnaire, the "Interview Data Collection
Form" Csee Appendix B for interview questionnaire). The
interview questionnaire was completed with the dean/chair
man of the sampled school or a designee so appointed by the
dean/chairman.
The goal of the instruments was to assess the avail
ability of gerontological material, exposure, and training
received. This was achieved by gathering information on
109
the following items :
1. degrees offered;
2. courses with gerontological content ;
3. field practicums;
4. student population;
5. faculty population ;
6. continuing education;
7. instructor membership in professional
gerontology societies;
8. dissertations and theses written
about gerontology;
9. journals subscribed to by the
departmental library;
10. plans for future gerontology courses ;
11. training of instructors in gerontology;
12. attitudinal questions about the
importance of gerontology to the school.
Through the "Information Collection Form," the re
searchers collected data from the 19 76-19 77 course cata
logues. The questionnaire included the following vari
ables :
1. types of degrees/certificates offered
by the department;
2. courses in curriculum related to
gerontology ;
110
3. requirement by the department of
a field practicum;
4. internships or traineeships;
5. student population of the institution;
6. faculty population of the department;
7. number of faculty holding doctorates
in the department ;
8. student rating of the incorporation
of gerontology into the departmental
curriculum;
9. continuing education offerings by the
department and continuing education
classes with gerontological content.
The "Interview Data Collection Form" was developed to
collect information not readily available in the course
catalogues. An interview with the dean or a representative
appointed by the dean was used to complete this question
naire. The variables included in the interview question
naire are as follows :
1. number of students enrolled in the
department;
2. courses within departmental curriculum
containing gerontological content;
3. faculty membership in either the
Gerontological Society or the Western
Gerontological Society;
111
4. number of agencies used for field
practicums;
5. number of students in field practicums;
6. agencies that provide students with the
opportunity to work with or on behalf
of older adults ;
7. number of doctoral dissertations and
masters theses related aging written
in the department since 1971;
8. aging journals subscribed to by the
school/department library ;
9. percentage of faculty teaching aging
related courses who have had training
in gerontology ;
10. three attitudinal questions concerned
with the importance of gerontology to
the department curriculum, the discipline,
and to the future of the discipline.
In order to determine the reliability or dependability
of the three attitudinal questions (5, 6, and 12) on the
"Interview Data Collection Form," a stability or test-retesf
interpretation of reliability was tested in the following
manner. The three attitudinal questions were reproduced
on a single sheet of paper and were administered before
class to fifteen graduate students from the University of
112
Southern California. The subjects were given no more in
formation other than to answer the three questions in re
lation to their own discipline. A week later, a retest of
the same three questions was administered to the same sub
jects. The data was used to determine the reliability of
the three attitudinal questions.
The Spearman rank-order coefficient of correlation
was used to determine the relationship between answers on
the test and retest to the same questions. The null hy
pothesis is that no relationship exists between the
answers given on the test and retest. At the .01 level of
significance the critical value is 0.715. If the computed
statistic is greater than this value, the null hypothesis
is rejected and reliability of the questions is demon
strated. On the Other hand if the computed statistic was
less than 0.715, the null hypothesis is accepted and the
reliability of the three attitudinal questions is not
demonstrated. For all three questions, a positive corre
lation was shown to exist. The data is available in
Appendices C, D and E.
Procedures
The "Information Collection Form" questions were
answered from data available in the 197 6-77 course cata
logues for each institution. At the same time, the re
searchers sent a copy of the "Interview Data Collection
113
Form" to the Dean/Chairman of each school/ department of
education with an introduction letter describing the pro
ject and requesting their assistance. The letter also
stated that contact would be made in the near future for
an interview appointment. Before the interviews took
place, sessions on interviewing techniques were held. Role
playing was used to demonstrate both the personal and
telephone interview techniques.
A personal interview was attempted if the school
participating in the survey was within a 100-mile radius
of the University of Southern California, During the in
terview the researchers transcribed the respondent's
answers onto the interview questionnaire. The transcribed
answers were repeated by the interviewers to the respon
dent to assure that the correct response had been recorded.
The telephone interview was used when the school being
surveyed was more than 100 miles from the University of
Southern California or when the personal interview was
unable to be obtained. The protocol for the telephone
interview was the same. In some cases the questionnaire
was completed and mailed back to us before attempts to make
appointments were made. This combination of face-to-face,
telephone and mail interview techniques yielded a 75 per
cent completion rate for our sample population. In all
cases only the authors of this study conducted the inter
views .
114
Delimitations of the Study
I The scope of this study has been delimited in a
j number of ways. First, the study has been geographically
1 restricted to California. Second, the study includes those
colleges and universities which offer graduate degrees in
the school/department of education. From this sample of
52 schools, all of the schools offering courses dealing
with the older adults were selected. In addition, schools
not offering such courses were also selected. Since there
were 12 schools offering gerontology related courses, we
randomly chose another 12 out of the remaining 40 in the
original population. As a result, the present study is
only descriptive of universities which offer educational
degrees within established curriculum.
Lastly, the operational definition of adult educa
tion has also limited the study. Within the context of
this study, adult education has been defined as those
credited courses provided within the established curricu-
lums of universities which provide knowledge and skills
for people who plan to teach adults 65 or older. These
courses may or may not be included within a department of
adult education, but must be offered by the school of
education. Education courses not included are those which
cannot be credited towards undergraduate, graduate, or
post-graduate degrees.
115
Limitations of the Study
The study has been limited by certain extraneous vari
ables . Although face-to-face interviews would have pre
sented optimal results, this was often impractical due to
the geographical nature of the study. Consequently, phone
interviews and mailing procedures were utilized. Ques
tionnaires were addressed to chairpersons, department
heads, or deans. However, responsibility for completing
the instruments was often delegated to someone else in the
department. Differential effects that may have occurred
through techniques other than face-to-face interviews have
not been examined. Nevertheless, one must conclude that
methods other than face-to-face interviews will yield re
liable results due to the exploratory and demographichl
nature of the study.
The small number of schools which offer age related
courses further limits the study. Out of 52 schools in
California which offer graduate degrees in education, only
12 offer age related courses. Results, therefore, may not
be extrapolated to other areas due to the small sample
size.
Treatment of the Data
This being an exploratory study, the researchers
treated the majority of the data with descriptive statis
tics presented in the form of percentages. A Hewlett-
116
Packard calculator was used to determine the means and
standard deviation of these statistics and to analyze the
four relationships previously described in this chapter
using a measure of correlation and the Pearson R. Recog
nizing the fact that a small sample size can be difficult
to analyze, the researchers used the Pearson R. The ,05
level of confidence was employed for rejection of the
hypotheses. Following are the four hypotheses and the
statistical procedures utilized:
1. A measure of correlation was used to
determine the relationship between the
size of a particular department and the
number of course offerings.
2. The Pearson R was utilized to ascertain
the significance between the number of
courses containing gerontological content
and the level of importance given to age-
related courses.
3. The Pearson R, was again used to determine
the relationship between the level of
importance given to age related courses
and the number of students placed in
agencies dealing with the aged.
4. Finally, a measure of correlation was
used to assess any relationship that
117
existed between the number of age
related courses offered and the
number of faculty in a department.
118
CHAPTER VII
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Introduction
The following provides the findings of the variables
investigated. Since this study is of an exploratory
nature, descriptive statistics have been utilized for the
majority of variables investigated. Section I provides a
table of the schools surveyed. Section II provides statis’
tics for the variables previously mentioned, and Section
III provides an analysis of the relationships which war^
ranted further investigation.
Section I
Descriptive Data of Schools Surveyed
Table 1 provides an enumeration of the schools, gives
demographic information, includes the degrees and certifi
cates offered, indicates the number of courses currently
being offered, and specifies whether or not any courses
will be offered within the future. More detailed informa
tion on areas of specialization and topical areas of
119
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courses are provided in Appendices F and G.
Section II
Descriptive Statistics of Variables Investigated
1, The number of faculty belonging to the
Gerontological Society and Western
Gerontological Society was one of the
variables investigated. Eleven point one
percent of the sample reported that their
faculty belonged to both societies.
Twenty-seven point seven percent said
they did not know, and 50 percent of
the schools indicated that the question
did not apply and 11.1 percent gave no
answer.
2. Sixteen point six percent of the sample
felt that aging content had no important
implications in relation to the total
departmental curriculum. Eleven point one
percent felt it was not very important,
22.2 percent felt it was somewhat important.
Twenty two point two percent said it was
important; and 2 2.2 percent felt it was
very important. Five point five percent
of the sample gave no reply.
123
3. The importance of age related issues in
comparison with other issues a discipline
is concerned with was the third variable
to be examined. Eleven point one percent
of the sample reported that gerontology
was not very important; 22.2 percent felt
it was somewhat important, 50 percent felt
it was important, and 16.6 percent felt
it was very important.
4. The number of schools intending to imple
ment age related courses was the next
variable investigated. Forty-four point
four percent of the sample indicated that
implementation would occur within the
next two years. Eleven point one per
cent reported aging related courses
would begin within 3-5 years, and 44.4
percent had no plans to implement any
courses.
5. The schools not planning to implement
courses in gerontology indicated one or
more of the following reasons for not
doing so. Of 50 percent of the sample
that responded to this question, 55.5
percent reported a lack of qualified
12AJ
faculty, and 44.4 percent indicated
a lack of student interest. Twenty-
two point two percent stated that aging
lacked relevance to their discipline
and 22.2 percent gave other reasons.
Additional reasons for not implementing
courses included governmental resistance,
a poor job market, and an absence of
state requirements.
6. The number of faculty who have specific
gerontological training was another
variable investigated. Twenty-seven
point seven percent responded that 5-15
percent of the faculty had gerontological
training. Eleven point one percent indi
cated that at least 75 percent of the
faculty who taught age related courses
had gerontological training and 5.5 per
cent felt that only two percent of their
faculty had gerontological training.
Fifty percent felt this question was not
applicable and 5.5 percent gave no answer
whatsoever. The range of those faculty
who did have training is between 22-32
percent, implying that at least 68 per-
125
cent of the faculty have had no
formal training.
IVhether or not faculty should have
specific gerontological training was
examined. Forty-four point four per
cent felt that faculty should have
specific gerontological training,
whereas 5.5 percent felt it was not
necessary. Forty-four point four
percent stated that this question was
not applicable and 5,5 percent gave no
answer.
The future importance of gerontological
content for a particular discipline was
also examined. Fifty-five point five
percent of the sample felt it was very
important for their discipline^ 2 7,7
percent said it was important, 5,5 per
cent stated it was slightly important,
and 11.1 percent felt it had no importance
for the future of their discipline.
Another variable to be investigated dealt
with the number of agencies offering students
the opportunity to work with older adults.
Out of our entire sample 65 agencies offered
126
students the opportunity to work with
older adults. In addition, those
universities which have age related
agencies tend to have courses in
gerontology. With one exception, the
converse is also true. That is, uni
versities which do not offer courses
in gerontology do not utilize age
related agencies.
10. The last variables to be investigated
dealt with the intention to implement
gerontological courses and the degree
to which gerontology had important im
plications for the future of a discipline.
It was assumed that if a discipline felt
gerontology had important implications
for the future, then it would plan on
implementing age related classes. Fifty
percent of the sample indicated that
gerontology did have important implica
tions and would plan on implementing
courses. On the other hand 34 percent
of the sample also agreed that gerontology
had important implications for their dis
ciplines but had no intention of imple-
127
meriting courses. Five percent felt
gerontology held no importance, but
nevertheless intended to implement
courses, whereas 11 percent did not
think gerontology held important im
plications and, therefore, were not
planning on implementing courses.
Section III
Findings of Relationships
As mentioned previously, it is difficult to examine
relationships in a study of an exploratory nature. Never
theless , during the course of this study at least four re
lationships warranted further scrutiny. Measures of cor
relation were utilized to determine any significant degree
of relationship. The hypothesis examined are as follows:
1. It was hypothesized that larger
departments would have more age
related courses. Results indicated
a .043 degree of relationship which
was insignificant at the .05 level.
The null hypothesis has been accepted.
2. The second hypothesis dealt with the
number of course offerings and the im
portance of gerontological courses. It
was assumed that the number of course
offerings would correspond to the level
12_8_
of importance given to age related
courses. In order to be considered
significant at the .05 level, .497
is necessary. The degree of relation
ship in this particular case was .42
indicating a slightly significant re
lationship. The null hypothesis was
again accepted.
3. For the third relationship it was
hypothesized that there would be a
positive relationship between the
number of students placed in agencies
dealing with the aged and the level of
importance given to age related courses.
Again, no significant relationship at
the .05 level was found.
4. Finally, it was determined whether or
not a positive relationship between the
number of faculty and number of age
related courses existed. A .21 degree
of relationship was found. However,
this was not significant at the ,05 level.
Discussion
The analysis of the data has indicated no significant
findings. The following section includes a discussion of
129
those variables which warrant further interpretation and
provides possible explanations for statistical findings.
Out of the eighteen institutions surveyed only ten
schools offer classes dealing with the older adult. Super
ficially, it appears that the majority of the samples are
training teachers to work with the elderly. Careful
scrutiny indicates that this is a minority of schools since
the initial population contained 52 schools which offered
graduate degrees in the school of education. Out of this
population 11 schools or 19 percent indicated adult educa
tion courses. The remainder of the sample, was randomly
selected in order to determine attitudes and possible
future plans relating to the gerontological field. One may
surmise, therefore, that few schools are training teachers
to work with older adults. A possible reason for not pro
viding such opportunities may be due to the fact that many
educators do not feel or recognize that adult learners need
specialized techniques. This is readily examplified when
one considers the psychological development of older
adults.
Until recently, very few psychologists considered
that the elderly evolved through several developmental
tasks. Developmental psychology for children was well
known, but psychology for older adults consisted of two or
three tasks. The same may be true in the field of educa-
130
tion. Elementary, secondary, and college education are
areas of specialization at several colleges and universi
ties . Adult education, however, is offered at relatively
few colleges and universities which may be due to a lack
of recognized importance concerning the elderly person in
relation to the dynamics of learning.
Another possible explanation for not providing oppor
tunities which train instructors to teach older adults may
be related to the credentialing procedures of adult educa
tion. A university education is not necessary in order to
receive an adult education credential. Consequently, there
is little incentive to pursue education on a graduate
level within this particular field. Opportunities for
adult education, therefore, may not be profitable from the
university's and student's viewpoints.
Only 11.1 percent of the total sample belongs to the
Gerontological and/or Western Gerontological professional
associations. This may or may not indicate a lack of
participation in supporting gerontological professional
associations. The significance of this result can only be
ascertained when it is compared to the findings of other
disciplines. Standing by itself, the implications of the
result is difficult to determine.
Reasons for this lack of participation have not been
examined and may provide the basis for future investiga-
131
tion. Several explanations have been suggested and in
clude the following; (1) educators may simply not be aware
of the existence of these societies; (2) educators may not
recognize the need for gerontological knowledge in the
education field; and, (3) the respondent who answered the
question may not be aware of the professional membership
of fellow colleagues.
Approximately sixty-seven percent of the, sample in
dicated that courses with aging content were at least some
what important to total department curriculum. Eighty-
eight point eight percent reported that age related issues
were at least somewhat important in comparison to other
issues the discipline was concerned with. Demographic
trends and a growing public awareness have made the elderly
important and undeniable forces within our society. Never
theless, these results seem contradictory in light of the
fact that 55.5 percent of the sample are offering age re
lated courses. This suggests that certain barriers may be
preventing the implementation and expansion of such courses.
Several respondents supported this content and indicated
that a lack of trained faculty, student interest, relevance
to the discipline, money, and government support hindered
the development of classes which deal with the aged.
Fifty-five percent of the sample indicated gerontol
ogical related courses would be implemented in the future.
132
A more careful analysis will indicate that the majority
of those schools planning on implementing courses are al
ready doing so. Out of the schools that are not presently
offering gerontological related courses, only 37.5 percent
plan to implement such courses in the future. Those
schools not planning to implement courses indicate a lack
of qualified faculty as one of the most important variables
for not doing so. Thus, as mentioned above, certain
factors are deterring the expansion of age related courses.
Forty-four percent of the sample felt that faculty
should have gerontological training which indicates that
the need for such training is becoming of recognized im
portance. Respondents indicated, however, that 68 percent
of the faculty have had no formal training in the area of
gerontology. This may be due to the fact that geron
tological training is not readily accessible which supports
Shock's contention (19 57) that specialized training in the
gerontological field is necessary. The range of those
faculty who did not have gerontological training was be
tween 22 and 32 percent. The depth and extent of this
training is. questionable and signifies that the number of
courses and years of gerontological training may be im
portant variables for future investigation.
Approximately 83 percent of the sample felt that
gerontology had future importance in the field of educa-
tion. As indicated previously, only 55.5 percent plan on
implementing courses in the future; again, implying that
there is an acknowledged need for expansion of programs
but that a lack of support, resources, and other barriers
may be hindering this growth. Ironically, 5 percent of the
schools felt gerontology had no importance but were plan
ning on implementing courses. This may be explained by the
fact that some of the schools indicated that they plan on
offering Methods and Materials, and Principles in Adult
Education. These two courses are a requirement for re
ceiving a credential in adult education and may be offered
for that reason only, rather than as a result of interest
in gerontological issues.
Of the four relationships tested, only one slightly
significant finding was determined. For the first hypothe
sis it was assumed that there would be a direct relation
ship between size of the department and the number of age
related courses offered. It wa^ postulated that larger
departments would provide a better diversity of courses ;
some of which would be age-related. Since no significant
relationship was found, it was thought that courses within
education departments had more to do with attitude and
philosophy than department size. On this basis it was
hypothesized that there would be a positive relationship
between the number of age related courses and the level of
134
importance given to each course. The relationship was
significant at the .01 level of confidence indicating that
the department's attitudes may have some bearing upon the
availability of age related courses.
The third hypothesis assumed that there would be a
significant relationship between the number of students
placed in agencies dealing with the aged and the level of
importance given to courses dealing with gerontological
content. Again, no significant relationship was found.
This suggests that the level of importance from the uni
versity's perspective may not coincide with availability of
agencies and student demand. Student interest and the
number of agencies actually dealing with the aged, there
fore, are important variables to consider for future in
vestigation.
A final hypothesis investigated dealt with the re
lationship between the number of faculty and the number of
age related courses in existence. It was reasoned that a
large faculty would offer a variety of courses and would,
therefore, contain some courses of a gerontological nature.
No significant relationship was found. This may be ex
plained by the fact that gerontology is a new discipline
and specialized training may not yet be readily available.
X33J
CHAPTER VIII
SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS,
AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
The purpose of this study was to ascertain the pro
fessional status of adult education, gerontology, and their
interrelationship. In order to accomplish this goal, the
following variables were examined;
1. The number of students and degrees offered
within the field of education.
2. The attitudes toward the need, implementa
tion, and importance of gerontological
courses.
3. The number of faculty belonging to pro
fessional associations, the number of
agencies which provided students with the
opportunity to work with older adults, and
the number of faculty having specific
gerontological training.
The first step was to conduct a literature review
136
which examined the field of adult education and its historyj
the concept of professionalism, the interrelationship be
tween adult education and gerontology, and gerontology on
the professional continuum.
The information we collected from this exhaustive re
search aided us in the development of the survey question
naires, the "Information Collection Form" and the "Inter
view Data Collection Form." The former instrument was
filled out by the researchers utilizing 1976-1977 course
catalogues from the schools in our sample, while the latter
was used for interviews with the dean/chairman of the de
partment being surveyed. The sample itself consisted of 18
accredited California institutions of higher education,
offering courses of study leading to graduate degrees in
education or adult education. The data was collected using
personal interviews, phone interviews, and mail interview
techniques.
Four hypotheses were developed and analyzed using the
Pearson R and a measure of correlation. The remaining
majority of the data was treated with descriptive statis
tics presented in the form of percentages. The remainder
of this chapter will discuss the findings, state the re
searchers' conclusions, and present the recommendations of
this study.
.13J.
Summary of Findings
The following represents a summary of statistical
findings discussed within this study. Unless otherwise
indicated percents have been rounded off to the nearest
whole number.
1. Approximately 6 7 percent of the sample
surveyed recognized that gerontology
held important implications in relation
to total departmental curriculum.
2. Eighty-nine percent of the sample felt
that gerontology was at least somewhat
important in comparison to other issues
a discipline was concerned with.
3. Fifty-six percent of the total sample had
intentions of implementing courses within
the near future (2-5 years). From this
percentage 62.5 percent of the schools
are currently offering courses and are
planning on implementing more. Thirty-
seven point five percent of the schools
are not currently offering age related
courses but intend to implement them with
in the next 2-5 years.
4. Forty-four percent of the schools indicated
that they had no intentions of implementing
138
courses. Designated reasons for not
doing so include: (a) a lack of student
interest; (b) a lack of qualified faculty;
and, (c) a lack of relevance to the dis
cipline . Twenty-two percent of the sample
gave additional reasons for not implementing
courses.
5. Forty-four percent of the sample felt that
faculty should have gerontological training,
yet the range of those faculty who did have
training was between 22-32 percent; indicat
ing that at least 6 8 percent of the faculty
have had no formal training.
6. There was no significant relationship found
between the size of a department and the
number of age-related course offerings.
7. The relationship between the number of age
related courses and the level of importance
given to such courses was significant at
the .01 level of confidence.
8. No significant relationship was found be
tween the number of students placed in
agencies dealing with the aged and the
level of importance given to courses
dealing with gerontological content.
139
9. There was no significant relationship
between the number of faculty and the
number of age related course offerings
available.
Conclusions
Based upon the findings, the majority of the schools
indicated that courses with aging content were important
and would have a bearing on the future of their field. In
addition, more than half of the sample reported that they
would be implementing courses within the next 2-5 years.
Of those schools not planning on implementing courses,
certain barriers are hindering the expansion of age related
programs. Findings also indicate that few faculty members
have had formal gerontological training.
Apparently, the level of importance given to age
related courses influences the number and availability of
such courses to a slight degree. The size of the depart
ment and the number of faculty, however, have had no bear
ing upon the number of age related courses offered.
Lastly, the number of students placed in agencies has had
no bearing to the level of importance given to courses with
gerontological content.
It is apparent, therefore, that according to our find
ings few classes deal with the aged individual in the adult
education field. Instructors of older adults have little.
140
if any, gerontological training. Several reasons have
been cited and indicated that training may not yet be in
demand and that the need for such training is questionable
In spite of the lack of age related courses, the signifi
cance of gerontology for the future of adult education is
of recognized importance by the majority of schools; in
dicating that the future of adult education may be pre
venting further expansion and further specialization in
the gerontological field.
Recommendations
Based upon the interpretation and findings of this
study, several suggestions have been made. The following
includes recommendations dealing with the interrelation
ship of adult education and gerontology:
1. Since the percent of elderly population
is increasing annually and since ele
mentary and secondary enrollment is de
clining, there must be a reassessment of
existent priorities in the educational
field. Education for older adults can
help them cope with developmental tasks,
can fulfill expressive, instrumental,
and contributive needs and can help the
elderly maintain themselves as viable and
self-sustaining individuals.
141
2. Within our educational system specific
requirements should be necessary for
training students to work with older
adults. Institutions that are willing
to offer these courses need federal,
state, and local support.
3. The need for specialized techniques in
teaching the aged should be made more
apparent. These techniques should be
incorporated into educational curricula
and should be provided by those educators
who have had gerontological training.
4. To make the public more aware of the
elderly and their needs, it is suggested
that gerontological content be incorporated
on all educational levels; i.e., K-12,
undergraduate, graduate, and post-graduate
levels.
5. Training schools which place an emphasis
on gerontology should be established. As
indicated by the data, widespread oppor
tunity for gerontological training, the
need for specialized personnel and in
corporation of gerontological issues into
existing curriculum are desirable contin-
142
gencies. It is recommended, therefore,
that gerontology be developed as a self
standing discipline providing such oppor
tunities, training, and knowledge.
The nature, instrumentation, and method
of this particular study have presented
unforeseen obstacles and problems. Re
commendations which would contributed to
ward the future replication of this study
includes the following:
a. It is suggested projects be of a
smaller nature. The scope of the
project was too extensive and too
many individuals created conflict,
indecisions, and confusion.
b. The administration of tasks should
be more clearly delineated. Due to
the nature of the project, delegation
of tasks was unnecessarily duplicated,
and inefficiently completed.
c. The instruments utilized for this pro
ject may have sought biased answers.
For future reference, instruments for
each individual discipline should be
designed. Different operational de-
143
finitions meant that instruments
were not completely applicable to
each discipline,
d. The method of instrumentation also
needs improvement. Questionnaires
and face-to-face and/or phone inter”
views may lead to biased results.
Phone contacts may not be as reliable
since the dean/chairperson would often
delegate an assistant to respond to
the questionnaire. Results, therefore,
may not always reflect the reality of
the situation. It is suggested, thus,
that a better method of accessibility
for students be provided. Travel money
which would allow face-tO”face inter
views would be preferable.
Compliance with these recommendations will do much to
advance the fields of gerontology and adult education, The
interrelationship between these fields is undeniable. In
creased training, the development of a coherent body of
knowledge, and the establishment of professional associa”
tions, will support the professional growth of these dis^
ciplines and will lead to better delivery of services to
the elderly.
X44.

Ml 'XS
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153
APPENDIX A
154
INFORMATION COLLECTION FORM - LOS STUDENTS, PROFESSIONALISM PROJECT
1. Name of institution
(1-3)
2. Name of department/discipline
(4-5)
3- Types of degrees/certificates offered by department
Certi fi cates :
(6-20)
Bachelors t
(21-30)
Masters:
(31-40)
Academic doctorate (indicate speciality)
(41-60)
Professional doctorate:
(51-70)
(80=1)
155
4. Do courses in the departmental curricula - as indicated in
the course catalog description - contain content related
to gerontology?
(1)
1 Yes 2 No
IF YES, list course titles and check appropriate spaces:
(2-76, 77. 78. 79)
Required Overview i
(80=2)
Graduate
156
5. Does the department offer a dual degree, minor or emphasis
in gerontology at the graduate level? Check all categories
which apply.
(1-4)
1 MO ne 2 Dual degree 3 Minor 4 Emphasis
6. Does the department require a field practicum, internship, or
traineeship?
(5) •
1 Yes 2 No
7. What is the student population of the institution?
(6-8)
__________ # of students
8. What is the total number of faculty members comprising the
department?
(9-10)
■ ________ # of faculty members
9. What is the total number of faculty holding doctorates within
the department?
(11-12)
_________ § of faculty members
10. On a scale from one to seven, using the information you have
assimilated from reading the university catalog of your
department, rate the extent to*which this department incorporates
the subject matter of gerontology into its departmental
curriculum,
(13)
Does not incorporate Does incorporate
gerontological subject gerontological subject
- matter matter
11. Is there anything else, not on this data collection form, that
you would like to address yourself to in terms of how this department
relates to the field of gerontology? Please respond freely.
(14-79) (80=3)
157
12. Does department/school have a division of continuing
education?
(1)
•1 Yes 2 No
If yes, please list the course titles containing aging,
(i.e., gerontological) content within the continuing ed
ucation curriculm.
(2-78)
Course titles:
(80=4)
158
APPENDIX B
159
2. X'Thât is the number of students enrolled in your department/school?
(3-5)
# of students
3. If applicable, please list the course titles containing aging
(i.e., gerontological) content within your departmental/school
curricula, and please estimate what percentage of each course
is devoted to aging content.
(6-79, 80=5, 1-6)
Course titles : %
If applicable, do the instructors teaching the above courses hold
membership in the Gerontological Society (GS), or the Western
Gerontological Society (WGS)?
(7)
1 GS 2 WGS 3 Both 4 Don’t know
4. If your department requires a field practicum, traineeship, or
intemship-
What is the total number of agencies/settings being utilized?
(8-9)
_________Total # of agencies/settings being utilized
About how many students are placed in such agencies/settings? ,
(10-12)
________# of students placed in all agencies/settings utilized
END OF PAGE 1, PLEASE GO TO NEXT PAGE
160
Question # 4 (continued)
About how many agency/settings, which provide students with the
opportunity to work with or on behalf of older adults,, are being
utilized?
(13-14)
_____ # of agencies which provide students with the
opportunity to work with or on behalf of older adults
About how many students are placed in these agencies/settings?
(15-17)
__________ # of students placed in agencies/settings which
provide opportunity to work with or on behalf of
older adults
If applicable, would you please list the names of the agencies/
settings being utilized which provide students with the opportunity
to work with or on behalf of older adults.
(18, 19, 20-21)
Names of agencies :
5» How important would you rate
courses with aging (i.e., geron
tological) content, in relation
to your total departmental/
school curriculm?
( 22)
1 Of no importance
2 __Not very important
3 __Somewhat important
4 Important
5 Very important
6. How- important would you rate
aging (i.e., gerontological)
issues, in comparison with all
other issues your profession is
concerned with?
<23)
1 Of no importance
2
3"
4"
5"
"Not very important
Somewhat important
Important
Very important
END OF PAGE 2, PLEASE GO TO NEXT PAGE
161
7. If applicable, about how many doctoral dissertations and masters
theses related to aging (i.e., gerontology) have been completed
in your department/school since 1971?
(24-25, 26.-27)
__________ # of dissertations related to aging completed
since 1971
# of masters theses related to aging completed
since 1971
8. To which of the following journals does your departmental/school
library subscribe? Please check all that apply.
(28-50)
Aging
Aging and Human Development
_American Geriatrics Society
Current Literature on Aging
_Developments in Aging
"Educational Gerontology
^Experimental Aging Research
Geriatrics
Human Development
Industrial Gerontology
Journal of Gerontology
[Journal of Gerontological Nursing
[The Gerontologist
Any other aging related journals? IF YES, please list them.
END OF PAGE 3, PLEASE GO TO NEXT PAGE
162
4
9, Do you plan to implement aging related courses into your departmental/
school curriculm within the next 2 years, or 3 to 5 years?
Oi)
1 Within next 2 years 2 Within next 3 to 5 years
If you do not plan to implement, aging related courses into your school/
departmental curriculm, is it because of - (Please check all that apply,)
(52-57)
1 ____Lack of money 4___Lack of faculty interest
2 ____Lack of qualified faculty 5___Lack of relevance for your
to teach courses discipline
3 ____Lack of student interest 6 Other reasons, please specify
If you do plan to implement aging related courses into your school/
departmental curriculm within the next 1 to 5 years, in what topical
areas of yOur discipline would such courses be implemented? Please
list such areas.
(57-79, 80=6, 1-40)
Topical areas where aging related courses would be implemented;
10. If applicable, what percentage of your faculty, who teach aging related
courses, have specific gerontological training?
(41)
1 5-15% 2 15-25% 3 25-35% 4 35-50% 5 50-75% 6 75%+
11. If applicable, do you feel that faculty who teach your aging
related courses should have specific gerontological training?
(42)
1__ Yes 2 No
12. Do you feel that the content (i.e., subject matter) of gerontology
has important implications for the future of your discipline?
(43)
1 __ It has very important implications
2 __ It has important implications
3 __ Its implications are slightly important
4 __ The implications of gerontology have no
importance for my discipline
This interview was -
(44, 80=7)
1 __ Face to face
2 __ Over the telephone
THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION
163
1 ,
APPENDIX C
164
DATA FROM TEST-RETEST FOR RELIABILITY
QUESTION #5
How important would you rate courses with aging (i.e., geron
tological) content, in relation to your total departmental/school
curriculum?
Subjects
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
1 - Of no importance
2 - Not very important
3 - Somewhat important
4 - Important
5 - Very important
Test Score Retest
5 5
4 3
5 5
5 5
4 4
4 3
5 5
5 5
5 5
3 4
4 4
5 5
5 5
5 5
4 5
Spearman rank-order coefficient of correlation = r = 1-
Difference
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
6 D
n(n-l)
r = 0.9953
At the .01 level of significance, the critical value is 0.715.
The null hypothesis is rejected and a positive correlation is
demonstrated between the answers given on the test and on the
retest for question #5.
165
APPENDIX D
166
DATA FROM TEST-RETEST FOR RELIABILITY
QUESTION #6
How important would you rate aging (i.e., gerontological issues
in comparison with all other issues your profession is concerned with?
Of no importance
Not very important
Somewhat important
Important
Very important
Subjects
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Test Score
5
4
4
5
4
4
5
5
5
3
4
5
5
5
5
Retest
5
4
4
5
3
3
5
5
5
5
4
5
5
5
5
Di fference
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
Spearman rank-order coefficient of correlation = r = 1 - .
n (n-1)
r = 0.9893
At the .01 level of significance, the critical value us 0.715.
The null hypothesis is rejected and a positive correlation is
demonstrated between the answers given on the test and the retest
for question #6.
167
APPENDIX E
168
DATA FROM TEST-RETEST FOR RELIABILITY
QUESTION #12
Do you feel that the content (i.e., subject matter) of gerontology
has important implications for the future of your discipline?
1 - It has very important implications
2 - It has important implications
3 - Its implications are slightly important
4 - The implications of gerontology have
no importance for my discipline
Subjects
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Test Score
1
2
2
1
2
2
1
1
1
3
2
1
1
1
1
Retest
1
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
2
2
4
1
1
1
Difference
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
3
0
0
0
Spearman rank-order coefficient of correlation = r = 1 -
^D__
n(n-l)
r = 0.981
At the .01 level of significance, the critical value is 0.715.
The null hypothesis is rejected and a positive correlation is
demonstrated between the answers given on the test and the
retest for question #12.
169
APPENDIX F
170
APPENDIX F
Areas of Specialization in Education
on the Doctorate and Certificate Levels
Institution
Calif. State
University
Los Angeles
Claremont Grad
uate School
Holy Names
Loyola-Marymount
University of
Calif.
Berkeley
University of
Calif.
Los Angeles
Uni versi ty of So
California
Ph.D.
1. Special Education
Certificate
Higher Education
Curriculum and
Teaching
Reading and Language
Cross Cultural Studies
Growth and Development
u. Philosophy and History
7. Policy Research
8. Organization and
Administration
9. Education and Quanti
tative Analysis
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6 .
2.
3.
4.
1 .
2.
3.
1. Gerontology
2. Educational
Admini strati on
1. Inner City
Specialist
2. Guidance
3. Counseling
Humanistic and Policy
Studies
Curriculum and In
struction
Educational Psychology
Higher Education
Social and Philosophical
Studies in Education
Psychological studies
in Education
Organization and Admin-
strative Studies in Ed.
1. Philosophy
2. Health Education
171
APPENDIX G
172
Listing of Current and Future Age Related Courses
Institut!on
Age Related Courses
Currently Being Offered
Cal. State University
Long Beach
Cal. State University
Los Angeles
Cal. State University
San Diego
Cal. State University
San Francisco
Claremont Graduate College
Holly Names College
Special Topics
Education
in Adult
Methodology of Adult Education
Principles of Adult Education
Curriculum Construction for Adults
Counseling in Adult Schools
Organizing Adult Education
Principles of Adult Education
Methods and Materials in
Adult Education
Psychologi cal Foundati ons i n
Adult Education
Workshops in Adult Education
Seminar in Adult Education
Seminar in Method and Materials
in Adult Education
Planning Adult Programs
Adult Development and Aging
Socialization During Adulthood
Adolescent Development
Psychological and Sociological
Perspectives on Aging
The Aging Human Body
Seminar in Problems of the
Older Adult
Special Topics in Gerontology
Holistic Concepts in Aging
Field Experience in Gerontology
Methods and Materials in Adult
Education
Research
Thesis
173
Insti tution
Age Related Courses
Currently Being Offered
Pacific Oaks College
University of Cal
Berkeley
University of Cal
Los Angeles
University of Southern Cal
1. Human Development in Later Years:
2. End of the Life Cycle:
On Death and Dying |
3. Seminar in Human Development
in Later Years
4. Crises of Maturity
5. Study of Lives
6. Women's Studies
7. Human Sexuality
8. Marriage and the Family
1. Problems in Adult Education
2. Introduction to Adult Education:
Aging and the Aged
3. Sociology of Adult Education
4. Problems of Work and Leisure
5. Community Development
1. Seminar: Adult Education
2. Seminar: Adult Education in
other Countries
3. Principle of Adult, Vocational
and Technical Education
4. Research Practicum
5. Continuing Education
6. Innovation, Form and Practices
in Higher Education
1. Adult Education in the United
States
2. Educational Programs for
Older Adults
3. Seminar in Adult Education
4. Problems in Adult Education:
Individual Study
5. Community College
6. Higher Education in the
Uni ted States
7. Internship in College and
Post-Secondary Education.
174
Institution
Designated Areas of Future
Age Related Courses
Cal. State College 1. Psychology of Adult Learning
Long Beach 2. The Aging Culture
3. Counseling of the Aged
4. Psychology of Dying
Cal. State University 1. Research in Adult Learning
San Franci sco 2. Seminar in Adult Learning
Chapman College 1. Principles of Adult Education
2. Methods and Materials in
Adult Education
Claremont Graduate School 1. Higher Education
2. Life span Socialization
Holy Names College 1. Public Policy and Administration
2. Counseling
Pacific Oaks College 1. Specialization in the Field of
Aging
University of Cal. 1. Life-long Education
Los Angeles 2. Adult Change and Development
University of Cal. 1. Life-long Education
Los Angeles 2. Adult Change
3. Adult Development
175

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Asset Metadata

Creator Matros, Richard Keith (author), Waller, Ellis Monique (author)

Core Title Professionalism of adult education and gerontology in California: Interrelationships, training, and implications

School Leonard Davis School of Gerontology

Degree Master of Science

Degree Program Gerontology

Degree Conferral Date 1977-06

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education,OAI-PMH Harvest,social sciences

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Albert, William C. (committee chair), Wiswell, Robert (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c37-401289

Unique identifier UC11657434

Identifier EP58848.pdf (filename),usctheses-c37-401289 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier EP58848.pdf

Dmrecord 401289

Document Type Thesis

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Waller, Ellis Monique

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA