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Public administration and gerontology: Toward professionalization?

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Public administration and gerontology: Toward professionalization?

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Content PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND GERONTOLOGY TOWARD PROFESSIONALIZATION? by Steven Allen Epstein A Thesis Presented to the FACULTY OF THE LEONARD DAVIS SCHOOL OF GERONTOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fullfillment of the Requirements for the Degree MASTER OF SCIENCE IN GERONTOLOGY August 1977 UMI Number: EP58856 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. D i s s e r t a t i o n Mucwismng UMI EP58856 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 uHivtRsny Of southern califorwm LEONARV VAVfS SCHOOL Of GERONTOLOGV umvERsny park Gce.'TO'TN 'T8 LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 90007 El 9 G H ThÂJt tkoAÂJi, wnÂjtt(LYL by ____________STEVEN ALLEN EPSTEIN . _______________________ undeA t h z dU Azcto^ h is CommXXX.2,2,, and appn.ovQ.d by aJUi Ajt^ m mbcAS, kcu> bo,2,n p ^ z - ^ZYVt2,d to and ac,c,2.ptzd by th d V2,an 0^ Thz LzonaAd V a vts S a h o o t G eA on totogy, t n p a A tta Z ^uli^cZZm2.nt 0 ^ the A 2 , q i J U A m 2 , n t 6 i o A d o , g A 2 , z 0^ Master of Science ingerontology THESIS COMMITTEE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I ! The guidance, criticism and support of my Chairman, Professor Dan Fritz, and my committee member Professor j Robert Wiswell, are gratefully acknowledged. In addition, ; appreciation is due William C. Albert, Frank Adshead and : Dan Tiberi for their assistance during the course of this : study . I ; I am indebted to the respondents from the schools of | public administration for their cooperation and assistance throughout the data gathering phase of the study. I would also like to thank the National Retired Teachers Association and the American Association of Re- I tired Persons for funding this project. 11 TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.................................. ii LIST OF TABLES............................... vi CHAPTER I STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ....... 1 Introduction ..................... 1 Study of Public Administration . . 2 Research Problem ................. 6 II PROFESSIONALISM...................... 11 Introduction ..................... 11 Defining Profession ............... 12 Criteria of a Profession..... 17 Body of Knowledge.......... 17 University Education ........... 19 Professional Ideology ........ 21 Professional Associations . . . 24 Code of Ethics.............. 26 Self-regulation ............... 28 Public Sanctioning and Licensing 30 Operational Definitions .... 32 Conclusion ............. 34 Process of Professionalization . . 35 ‘ ‘ Conclusion..................... 41 III THE PROFESSIONAL STATUS OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION ................ 4 4 Introduction ..................... 44 Body of Knowledge.......... 46 University Education ............ 4 8 Professional Ideology ......... 50 Professional Association .... 54 Code of Ethics.............. 60 Self-regulation ............... 63 Public Sanction ............... 64 Conclusion..................... 67 111 CHAPTER IV THE PROFESSIONAL STATUS OF GERONTOLOGY.......................69 Introduction ..................... 69 Trends of Gerontology 7 0 Documentation of Needs 7 3 Professional Criteria ....... 78 Body of Knowledge: Gerontology . 7 8 Professional Education ........ 80 Professional Ideology ........ 84 Professional Associations . . . 86 Code of Ethics................ 88 Self-regulation ............... 91 Public Sanction ............... 92 Conclusion.................... 94 V THE INTERFACE BETWEEN GERONTOLOGY AND PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION ........... 98 Introduction ..................... 98 Interface in Organizations .... 99 Demographics . 101 Academic Trends in Public Administration . 102 Trends in the Practice of Public Administration . 103 Conclusion...................... 105 VI METHODOLOGY........................ 106 Introduction ..................... 106 Procedures for Entire Project . . . 107 Specific Procedures of the Public Administration Researcher . . . 110 Selection of Colleges and Universities ................... 112 Description of Survey Question naires ........................... 113 Treatment of the Data........... 115 VII RESULTS.............................117 Introduction ..................... 117 Narrative Description of Educa tional Institutions ........... 117 Additional Information from the Interview Data Collection Form . 12 6 Summary of Findings..............13 0 IV CHAPTER VIII IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY............13 2 Introduction ........................ 132 Overview of the S t u d y ........... 132 Some Implications............... 135 Suggestions for Future Research . . 136 Conclusion........................ 138 BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................... 139 APPENDICES A Outline of Areas to be Covered . . . .14 9 B Information Data Form ......... 150 C Information Collection Form ........... 155 D Data from Test-Retest for Reliability Question # 5 ............................ 160 E Data from Test-Retest for Reliability Question # 6 ......................... . 162 F Data from Test-Retest for Reliability Question #12 164 G Letter to Schools in Survey..........166 V LIST OF TABLES TABLE Summary Description of Educational Institutions ............... ..... 118 Attitudes About Aging 12 7 VI CHAPTER I I STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ! Introduction I This report is based on an exploratory study of the I educational trends of eight selected disciplines in their I I relationships to gerontology. This particular report I I focuses on the discipline of public administration. The I eight disciplines studied in the context of the entire i project are: adult education, counselor education, : dentistry, law, medicine, nursing, public administration, and social work. Course curricula, attitudes toward the relevance of gerontology for each discipline and prospects ; for the future development of courses in aging within each i discipline were examined. Licensing and/or credentialing i procedures were explored for those disciplines which have such procedures. A better understanding of how and why ' gerontological content is integrated into education cur ricula and how and if licensing bodies are testing for this knowledge are two goals of this exploratory study. The project was conducted by faculty and staff from the Ethel Percy Andrus Gerontology Center and by students from the Leonard Davis School of Gerontology at the Uni versity of Southern California. Eleven Davis School stu- | ■ dents were involved in this study to partially fulfill , I ^ the requirements for a Master's Degree. One student used ' the project for undergraduate research credit and another I sought graduate research credit. An outcome of this re- I search will be a report detailing the individual disci- ' plines, synthesizing the overall findings and making in- I ferences about the preparation offered in the educational I institutions studied. i Study of Public Administration i Each of the eight disciplines was investigated by one I i or more of the eleven master's students. Public admini- I stration was studied by the author of this report. While ! surveying the educational institutions which offer programs in public administration, the focus was on determining the : gerontological content, if any, of the curricula. Also of ' importance was the attitude toward gerontology expressed i by those interviewed at the schools of public administra- I tion. The educational institutions chosen for study were ^ those member institutions of the National Association of I Schools of Public Affairs and Administration (NASPAA) I located within California. .2. J As the American population experiences a demographic _ shift toward old age, it becomes important for administra tors in the public sector to be aware of gerontological issues, or, at least, have access to those individuals who | do. With the demographic shift comes a growth in public | services specifically designed for older adults. The Ad- : I ministration on Aging, an agency of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, initiated by virtue of the ' j Older Americans Act of 19 65 is an example of such an agency I The Administration on Aging does not provide services I I directly to older adults but its funds are dispersed to ‘ state and local planning agencies for provision of ser- : vices. I An area of gerontological concern for the administra- ; tor is the issue of retirement. Presently, mandatory re- I tirement at a prescribed chronological age prevails in the 1 I labor force. With exposure to gerontological information, I administrators may be better able to influence and alter ! ' retirement policy to the betterment of the organization and. its employees. Retirement is only one issue of many that , the administrator may face in relation to the older popula- 1 tion. Other issues include health care, transportation, housing, nutrition, second career employment, income main- ! tenance, and adult education. Very few administrators in the public sector would handle all of these issues which 3 : I directly affect our growing older population, but increas- , t I ing numbers of administrators may be expected to deal with I some aging issues as the previously mentioned demographic ' shift continues. , I ' i Administrators in the public sectors are not immune to| , the myths and stereotypes associated with aging which por- I ; tray the older adult as doddering, dependent, useless, ! though well meaning, individuals. By studying the litera ture of public administration and the schools of public administration in California, an effort is made to see how | I and if these stereotypes are alleviated. Certainly, the ' i j biased attitude of a program administrator may influence ‘ ' the degree of dignity, respect, and independence shown ' older clients. I I The question then arises as to how well prepared are I , potential administrators, as they graduate from schools of 1 public administration, to execute public policy affecting older adults. Does the public administration literature I discuss gerontological issues? Are the biases toward old i age alleviated among administrators? Are administrators ' aware of the older adults' varying historical perspectives I that may affect participation in the program and services ; offered? These questions and others will be addressed. : Further exploration of the relationships between public administration and gerontology is contained in Chapter V. Background This project was initiated by students of the Leonard Davis School who were concerned about the future develop- ! ment of the field of gerontology and its professional status. These students, who were members of the first ^ I class of the Leonard Davis School in 1975, were concerned : about whether their training would be accepted by profes sionals in other fields and whether gerontologists would I be considered professionals. i I In response to this concern, the faculty and admini- i I strators of the Leonard Davis School identified various professions that are likely to be serving the elderly. A 1 proposal to explore relationships between these disciplines : and gerontology was submitted to the National Retired I Teachers Association/American Association of Retired Per- I sons for funding and was approved. The students selected I I the discipline in which they were most interested and col- 'laborated with the entire group in preparing and refining the research design. The immediate goals of the study were to determine the current gerontology courses offered (both courses in aging ; and courses with aging content) in selected colleges and universities in California; the fieldwork experiences avail able through these schools; the attitude of faculty and ; staff within the selected disciplines toward the inclusion 5J of aging content in their curricula; and, the extent to which the licensing and/or credentialing boards screen candidates for expertise in aging. This project is an : initial step toward a long range goal to assist in the im- ’ provement of the quality of services offered to the retiredj I and aged by upgrading professional and technical education, J relevant licensing procedures and the accountability of I I educators in the fields of adult education, counselor edu- I cation, dentistry, law, medicine, nursing, public admini- I stration, and social work. ! Research Problem I The researchers have identified several variables that j require investigation, have devised instruments to quantify! j each variable and have made relevant assumptions regarding I the associations between the variables. Some of the more I important variables taken into consideration were : (1) the number of students in the department/school ; (2) the number i I and types of degrees within each department/school; (3) the I number of full-time faculty within the department/school; I I I (4) the number of doctorates held by faculty teaching I I courses with gerontological content ; (5) the number of ! faculty belonging to the Gerontological and Western Geron- I ■ tological Societies; (6) attitudes of faculty and admini- I ;stration toward the importance of gerontology to their [discipline; and, (7) the number of journals related to i gerontology which are subscribed to by the library of each j department or school. The researchers recognized that in an exploratory study of this nature it would be difficult to establish j cause and effect relationships. More basic data needs to j be collected through this and other studies before such ' cause and effect relationships can be established. How ever, associations between variables were observed during j this program and these were analyzed and reported. One 1 ! j association investigated was the respondent's attitude j toward the importance of gerontological curricula and is- ' sues and whether these attitudes were reflected in the , educational institution's course offerings. It was assumed^ that a rating of "important" or "very important" regarding I overall gerontological issues and curricula by the respond- I ent indicates an increased emphasis on courses in which ' aging content is offered. If the respondent rated the I : gerontological issues and curricula "not very important" I or "of no importance," then a decreased emphasis was f assumed. The organizations' plans to provide curricula : related to aging in the future and to provide continuing i education classes in aging were also analyzed according to : the attitudes of the respondents. ; Another area which required examination was the number of course offerings having gerontological content in rela- . tionship to the number of opportunities for field practica, especially in agencies which work with or on behalf of the older adult. As previously stated, a cause and effect re lationship was difficult to establish — did classes in ^ I aging proliferate due to the demand by the students workingj in the agencies, which were related to the older adult, or ' ^ did the classes with gerontological content create a demand, for field practica where this knowledge could be employed? ’ In the same manner, the number of gerontological courses offered and the number of students attending each ^ I institution were compared and evaluated. Did the course ! material on gerontology provide impetus for theses and dissertations relating to aging? Did the department offer I gerontology courses in response to student interest? Did I courses with gerontological content stimulate student in terest in the field of aging? Did the faculty, who were interested in gerontology, spark this interest in their students? Was the availability of aging related journals in the school/department library a significant factor in developing student interest in gerontology? Of course, these questions cannot be resolved through one study, but such relationships can provide a basis for new hypotheses which may eventually contribute to a better understanding of the causal relationship. ! The number of students and faculty in each department/ school were also correlated to course offerings in geron tology . Did a larger student population exist at those I i institutions with more specialization in gerontology (e.g.,| : more minors, dual degrees or emphases being offered)? | ^ Another parameter investigated was whether the size of the ! I faculty of the department/school was related to the avail- ' ability of aging related courses. Did the number of i I j teachers holding doctorates correlate in any way with the I I number of aging related courses? The status of a depart- ; ment/school is often determined by the number or proportion i of faculty holding doctorates. Is a school/department with ! high status more likely to offer specialized courses in aging? ! The statement of the problem, as presented, has speci fically reviewed the basic purpose and the course of this research effort. The remaining chapters present detailed ' information about the issues which were of particular con- : cern to the participants in this study. The literature I Î review will provide an in-depth analysis of the following ! topics : The criteria a discipline must meet to be con- i , sidered a profession will be discussed in Chapter II; whether public administration qualifies as a profession ■ according to the established criteria will be the topic of Chapter III; the advancement of gerontology along the con- ! tinuum of professionalism will be examined in Chapter IV. ; Public Administration and its relationship to the field of . I gerontology will be discussed in Chapter V. Chapter VI will discuss methodology or the process of operationalizing the research. Chapter VII will provide the results of the , I research effort described in the methodology chapter. The researcher will offer interpretations of those results. The concluding chapter. Chapter VIII,. will provide a sum- ! mary of the literature review, the methodology and the I ! ' findings. Implications of the research findings, the limi- 1 tations of the study, and recommendations for future re- I search will also be addressed in this final chapter. 10 CHAPTER II PROFESSIONALISM I I Introduction I Examining the concept of professionalism is difficult I I because the term is used to define a variety of traits, characteristics, and ideals of occupational status. Re viewing the sociological literature on professionalism reveals the amorphous, and oftentimes ambiguous explana- I tions which have developed in attempts to delineate the 1 limits of professional standing. It is the intent of this , paper to canvas the extant literature on professionalism I and formulate a reasonable clarification of the major con stituents of professional standing, as well as the pro cesses that can transform an occupation into a profession. ■ Three specific questions are answered in attempting to I provide a succinct picture of the nature of professional- i : ism. 1. What is a valid definition of a profession? 2. What are the requisite criteria needed for li achieving professional status? 3. What are the processes intrinsic to the development of a profession? ; Defining Profession ! The problem of developing a specific definition of I profession is complex because of the term's generalized utilization. Barber (1965) states that there is no abso- ; I lute difference between professional and other types of ' j occupational behavior, but only relative differences with ! I i respect to certain attributes common to all occupational I i behavior. There are different degrees of professionalism : and not all professions display the same characteristics. : In fact, some business organizations may encompass criteria I of professionalism without ever achieving professional I ' status. Therefore, while precise verbal definition about the term profession persists, we should think of occupa tions as falling somewhere along a continuum of profes sionalism, the continuum being made up of common defini tional traits (Goode, 1960). A profession is usually defined as an occupation which requires training in the liberal arts or the sciences and i . graduate study in a particular field. Manual labor is not ; considered to be one of the areas of professionalism. At I the professional level of employment, individuals often are ' assigned a large amount of responsibility based solely on __12J ' their past experiences within the setting and direct client I 1 I contact is most extensive. Professional status is not i I ; I gained by claiming it, but must be created as a result of , behavior. A professional works in an occupation that [ primarily serves people by contributing to and enhancing j , their potentials as humans. Profit motives are secondary to the concern for people (Stone & Shertzer, 1969). Cogan (1955) states that there is an almost insur- ; mountable controversy in trying to define profession. He j j I ' examines the development of a definition of professions at ' i three different levels : (1) historical and lexicological; (2) persuasive ; and, (3) operational. In the historical and lexicological interpretation, a profession is a voca tion whose practice is founded upon the understanding of ; a theoretical structure of some department of learning or I I I science, and upon the abilities accompanying such an under standing. This understanding and these abilities are ap- : plied to the vital practical affairs of man. The practices I ; of the profession are modified by knowledge of a general- , ized nature and by the accumulated wisdom and experience of : mankind, which serve to correct the errors of specialism. The profession, serving the vital needs of man, considers its first ethical imperative to be altruistic service to ' the client (Cogan, 1953). The persuasive definition of I profession has justified the existence of professional 13! occupations in society. These justifications keep the profession desirable by directing societal attitudes to the value of the services the profession offers, Opera- j tional definitions are designed to furnish the basis upon ! which individuals and associations may make specific de cisions as to the behavioral concommitants of a profession.^ They are guidelines for the practitioner in his day-to-day I ; work, and are the rules for professional conduct. They j mediate the practitioner's relation to the client, to his I colleagues, to the public, and to the professional associa- I I I tion. They set forth the specific criteria of general and I I specific education for the professional, the requirements ' for admission to practice, and the standards for competent I \ service. Cogan summarizes his discussion of the defini- . tional aspect of profession by stating that the promulga- I - ' I tion of a satisfactory definition has progressed little beyond the six elements proposed by Abraham Flexner (1915) : i (1) intellectual operations couples with large individual I responsibility; (2) raw materials drawn from science and ■ learning ; (3) practical application ; (4) educationally com- ; municable techniques ; (5) a tendency towards self-orienta- : tion; and, (6) an increasing altruistic motivation. Cogan (1953) also states that an important, though im plicit, criterion of professions is revealed through the study of dictionary definitions. The first point to be .ijJ I noted is that the professions are described as dealing with I the practical affairs of men. Also, the profession is . I traditionally applied specifically to the three learned professions of divinity, law, and medicine. Cogan con- ' eludes from an analysis of dictionary definitions that it may be observed that the traditional professions mediate ' man's relation to God, man's relation to man and state, and man's relation to his biological environment. Smith I (1958) discusses the diversity of professions and infers that they are complex social institutions which select I I I ! I people of varied skills, often from several social strata, i I and organize them into different levels of operation and ' diverse interest groups. Some authors have tried to define profession in a con-, ' cise and explicit manner. Greenwood (1957) adapts Hall's ! ' (1949) definition and sees a profession as an organized I group which is constantly interacting with the society that ! forms its matrix, which performs its social functions ' through a network of formal and informal relationships, and I which creates its own subculture requiring adjustments to : it as a prerequisite for career success. Any occupation wishing to exercise professional authority must find a technical basis for it, assert an exclusive jurisdiction, and convince the public that its services are uniquely trustworthy, and while there is a general tendency for 15 occupations to seek professional status, remarkably few of the thousands of occupations in modern society attain it ! (Wilensky, 1964). Hughes (196 3) states that a profession I delivers esoteric services — advice or action — to indi- , ' vidual organizations, or government; to whole classes of i ; f people; or to the public at large. The action may be ! ! manual, but the service still includes advice. The person j for or upon whom the esoteric service is performed, or the ; I I one who is thought to have the right or duty to act for I ! him/her, is advised that the professional's action is i necessary. Professionalism might be defined as a process by which an organized occupation, usually, but not always, I by virtue of making a claim to a specific estoteric compe- | ^ tence and a concern for the quality of its work, controls training for and access to it, and controls the rights of determining and evaluating the way the work is performed, j (Vollmer & Mills, 1966). ' It is clear that the concept of professionalism does I not lend itself to precise definition; however, certain i i occupational attributes are generally characteristic of ; professional status. The next section will examine in ! \ detail these criteria, revealed in a review of sociological I literature, which have been consistently ascribed to the I established professions. 16_i Criteria of a Profession Definining specific criteria of professional status is also a precarious task. Different authors list varying number of attributes which they consider essential to the I ; establishment of a profession, but it is evident that some i long standing professions do not comply with all of these ! ' requisites. Also, many occupations do possess some ele- 1 ments of professionalism without having professional > status. This section will closely examine seven attributes' I which most authors generally regard as constituents of pro- j fessional status. These criteria are as follows : body of ' I knowledge; university education; professional ideology; ' : ; I professional associations; codes of ethics; self-regula- i I tion; and, public sanction. ! Body of Knowledge All mature professions rest on a common body of know- i j ledge that can be utilized flexibly by practitioners in various types of interventive activities (National Associa- j tion of Social Workers, 1 9 6 4 ). Others supporting the need ! for a body of knowledge are Engel ( 1 9 7 0 ); Halmos ( 1 9 7 0 ); ! Schott ( 1 9 7 6 ); Lewis and Maude (1 9 5 2 ); Wickenden ( 1 9 5 0 ) ; ’ iBoehm (1 9 5 9 ); Turner and Hodge ( 1 9 7 0 ); Harries-Jenkins ( 1 9 7 0 ); Schein (1 9 7 2 ); Pavalko (1 9 7 4 ); Dearing ( 1 9 7 2 ); and,: Stone and Shertzer (1 9 6 9 ). The nature of this knowledge, ' I whether substantive or theoretical, . on which advice and . 17 action are based is not always clear; it is often a mixture of several kinds of practical and theoretical knowledge. But, it is part of a professional complex, and the profes- i sional claim, that the practice should rest upon some , branches of knowledge to which the professionals are privy , I I by virtue of long study and initiation and apprenticeship ; under masters already members of the profession (Hughes, I 1963). Greenwood (1957) states that the characteristic I 1 skills of a profession are derived from a source of know- I ledge which has been systematically organized into a body j of theory. This body is made up of abstract propositions I which describe in general terms the focus of the profes- : sion^s interest. Preparing for professional status is, I I therefore, an intellectual, as well as a practical experi- I ( ence. Wilensky (1964) refers to a technical base on which professional knowledge is supported. He differentiates "technical" from "scientific" in that both scientific and ■ non-scientific systems of thought can serve as a technical I base for professionalism, but the success of the claim is greatest where the society evidences strong, widespread < consensus regarding the knowledge or doctrine to be applied; Goode (1961) reports that a prolonged specialized : training in a body of knowledge is paramount to the success-r ^ ful development of a profession. The principles of this knowledge must be applicable to concrete problems. Pro fessionals must not only use, but help create this know ledge; the profession itself must be the final arbiter as to what is valid knowledge. Therefore, the profession con-j trois access to knowledge and hence, access to the profes- , sion. Society should believe that the knowledge can act- ^ ually solve existing problems and should also accept as ' proper that these problems be given over to some occupa- I I tional group for effective solution (Goode, 1969). ! University Education I Education clearly emerges as an important factor in ; determining whether or not a discipline is a profession I ' (Lewis & Maude, 1952; Wickenden, 1950; Harries-Jenkins, ■ 1970; Stone & Shertzer, 1969). The problem is that every- ; one has a different idea as to how much education really is : necessary. Moore (1970) regards it as extremely improbable that technically trained individuals with less than a I ! bachelor of arts or science degree could manage to attain I ! the relatively higher positions on any scale of profession- I alism. Goode's (1957) criterion of lengthy training in a I body of specialized abstract knowledge infers formal educa- ! tion at the graduate level. The training involves inquiry ; into an abstract body of knowledge, not the acquisition of ' : technical skills. Jackson (1970) believes the existence of , professionalism itself depends on the notion of the uni- 19j Tversity as the institution of the intellectual. Further more, he sees the rise of the professions as positively correlated with the rise of the universities. Traditionally, professions have been affiliated with organized educational institutions, and this has developed ; I into the concept of professional schools within the uni versity. Barber (1965) cites four major roles of the uni- ^ versity professional school. They are as follows: 1. Transmission to its students of the i generalized and systematic knowledge I I that is the basis for professional I performance; 2. Creation of new and better knowledge on which professional practice can i be based; I I 3. Ethical training of students, explicit I (codes) and implicit (behavioral aspects); I i 4. Improvement of existing codes. Barber concludes that the better the university profes- 1 : I sional school, the more likely it is to use resources from ; the other professional schools in the university and from I all the other departments of basic knowledge insofar as I ; they are relevant. The university professional schools are I the leading, though not the sole, innovators and systema- : tizers of ideas for their professions. The emerging or 20j marginal professions seek to locate in universities. Harries-Jenkins (1970) infers that professional educa-; tion is dependent upon training and knowledge required out side the employment setting while generalists receive their I ■ ; occupational preparation from within the employing organi- | zation. Carr-Saunders and Wilson (1954) state that a ! I sound general education in theoretical and practical know- ( ■ ledge and then specialized education in the specific dis- ' cipline, as in the professions, increases efficiency. ' Professional Ideology I Every profession has a professional ideology, which is I the basis for offering the best possible service in the ' ' I I public interest (Ritzer, 1973; Boehm, 1959; Harries-Jenkinsj i 1970; Pavalko, 1974; Bearing, 1972; Stone & Shertzer, ! I 1969). Elliot (1972) states that a professional ideal has ; three important aspects: ' 1. The notion of service; ; 2. An emphasis on professional j judgment based upon pro- I fessional knowledge ; ' 3. Belief in professional free- I dom and autonomy in the work j situation, (p. 2 3) I The service ideal may be defined as the norm that the I technical solutions which the professional arrives at I I should be based on the client's needs, not necessarily the best material interest or needs of the professional himself I .21.: or those of society. Further specifications of the ser vice ideal is inherent in its four subdimensions : 1. The practitioner decides upon the client's needs, and the occupation will be classified as less pro fessional if the client imposes his own judgment. | 2. The society actually believes that the profession not only accepts these ideals, but also follows them to some extent. 3. The profession demands real sacri fice from its practitioners as an ideal, and occasionaly, in fact. 4. The professional community sets up a system of rewards such that "virtue pays off." (Goode, 1969, p. 23) Wilensky (1964) reports that the success of the claim to professional status is governed also by the degree to which the practitioners conform to a set of moral norms that I I characterize the established professions. These norms j dictate not only that the practitioner do technically, ! high-quality work, but that he adhere to a service ideal- ! devotion to the client's interest more than personal or j commercial profit should guide decisions when the two are ' in conflict. In short, a major determinant of professional I i I status is the degree of adherence to the service ideal and I its supportive norms of professional conduct. Beatman (1952) feels that basic to professional matur ity are the knowledge essential to practice and the appro- 22 priate use of that knowledge. He goes on to say that, the hope of every profession is to have its practitioners embody the best of its knowledge, experience, skill, and ethics; that they will' j practice with dignity, confidence I ; and success ; and that the nature j and contribution of the practitioner . that its perpetuation and continuing | progress are assured. (p. 383 ) I The nature of professional practice is such that the I j practitioner must make many unique and special decisions on ! the singularity of any particular client-practitioner I ! transaction (Ritzer, 1973). Quality of service rendered j is of deepest concern to the client. He places his health ' ! and his fortune in the hands of his professional advisor, ; and he entrusts him with confidences of an intimate and personal kind. He is interested in the moral quality of service (Carr-Saunders & Wilson, 1964). Therefore, this ' problem is particularly complicated by the fact that the I I professional service is said to require not only special ^ skills from the practitioner, but also a particular kind of relationship between the professional and the client (Ritzer, 1973). Lewis and Maude (1952) state that the re- I ilationship of the client and the practitioner is the basis ; of professional morality. This relationship is between I individuals and it is fiduciary. The practitioner gives the best possible advice, which the client is not competent to criticize, and the practitioner acts according to his 23 j client's needs. Schein (19 72) stresses this point even ! further saying the very essence of professionalism is the ! I j delivery of a service in response to the need of a client. There must also be a clear identification as to exactly ; I whose needs are being met. Moore (19 70) maintains that an ; ' ! important professional qualification is commitment to a I particular calling. It is this commitment that lends I credence and stability to the profession's code of ethics. I The profession and all its requirements are treated as a ' lasting set of norms and behavioral expectations. The pro- \ fessional accepts these standards, identifies with his I colleagues and sees the profession as a whole entity. 1 ! These standards should come across.in the professional's ! dealings with his clients. Professional Associations Professional associations are necessary for the de- I velopment and continued growth of a profession (Goode, , 1960; Wickenden, 1950; Boehm, 1959 ; Harries-Jenkins, 1970; : Schein, 1972 ; Stone & Shertzer, 1969). The professional ; organization provides a framework and sanctions for this I complex of obligation and responsibility delegated to the ! established profession. In essence, it is disciplinary in : all its functions, especially the educational. It is con- I cerned with keeping its members accountable to the implied I contract with society. The organization also insures the , 24 provision of the best possible advice and service within existing knowledge, while protecting the public from the | I unqualified practitioner. The professional organization is the profession's ultimate measure of professional inde- : pendence. It is the association that defines the educa- I tional requirements, entry standards, and code of ethics ; of the profession (Lewis & Maude, 1952). Greenwood (1957) I proposes that professional associations exert control over I the profession's training centers and granting or denying I accreditation by one of the associations within a profes- I sion is the prime way the caliber of curriculum and in- ; struction and the location of professional schools is regu lated. Carr-Saunders and Wilson (1964) propose that generally I speaking, each profession is organized on a craft basis, ' aind though within a profession it is usual to find a number I of independent associations, relations between them are generally friendly and there is a clear tendency towards a ; dominating association or a closely cooperating group. I : i Part of the constitution of a profession is the spontaneous I coming together of the practitioners in associations. The j reasons for associations are protection and the desire to I : : hallmark the competent and to foster the study of the tech-! nique and give this technique such an importance that boundaries are clearly defined and stable. 25: Ritzer (1973) lists three characteristics of pirofes- sions which are basic to the justification for professional control over members. They are as follows: J ; 1. Assumed power of ethical codes. ; 2. The consequences of control over , recruitment and certification. I 3. The professional review boards and I their assumed control over practi- I j tioners. ' Code of Ethics ! Professional ethics arise from the codes of the most I I ancient professions : the Hippocratic oath; the inviolabil- I ity of the confessional; and the devotion of the lawyer to i ; his client's interest (Lewis & Maude, 1952). The codes of I ethics of specific disciplines are an integral component [in the establishment of a profession (Goode, 1960; Harries- i Jenkins, 1970 ; Schein, 1972 ; Pavalko, 19 74 ; Bearing, 1972 ; I i I stone & Shertzer, 19 69). Ethical conduct, proposed or values in the codes of ethics of the human services, per- ; tain to four major aspects of professional relationships (Levy, 19 74): 1. The practitioner, where codes insure competence, integrity, independence, impartiality and propriety. 2. The client, involving values of de- 26 votion, loyalty, objectivity, honesty, candor, confidentiality, autonomy, respect, punctuality, ;expêditiousness, and personal attention. 1 3. The professional colleagues, regard- I I ing etiquette, fairness, and profes sional orientation. i i 4. The society, insuring care in the use : of personal status, care of one's i personal associations, regard for j others, justice, obligation to be I concerned about social problems, and i social orientation. I Codes of ethics are at once the highest and the lowest j standards of practice expected of the practitioner; the ! j awesome statement of rigid requirements ; and the promo- j tional material issued primarily for public relations pur- i j poses. They embody the gradually evolved essence of moral I : I expectations, as well as the arbitrarily prepared shortcut , ' to professional prestige and status. At the same time, I ; they are handy guidelines for the legal enforcement of ' ethical conduct (Levy, 1974). I I Greenwood (1957) states that the profession's ethical , : code is part formal and part informal. The formal is the | written code to which the professional usually swears when ^ 27J I being admitted to practice. The informal is the unwritten j code, which nonetheless carries the weight of formal pre- i j scriptions. As a written document, the code of ethics I ! serves as a guideline of expected levels of service. Not only does it describe expected levels of quality and com- j potency, it also may remind members to refrain from com- | mercialism (direct competition with colleagues), as well as' state the professional's responsibility to the interests of : 1 : society (Marshall, 19 39). Contained within the code is a j ! strong altruistic commitment to the betterment of the ! ' i , larger society through the use of the professional's spe- ; cialized abilities (Cogan, 1953). Self-regulation Self-regulation refers to the monitoring of profes- I sional behavior by colleagues. In other words, the peer I group holds its members accountable and will invoke dis- 'ciplinary action when deviation from acceptable standards I has occurred (Posz, Jun & Storm, 1973 ). This type of moni toring system is distinguished from one in which the prin ciple monitoring tasks fall on a hierarchial organization, . the consumer of the service, or an external governmental i regulatory agency. Under true professionalism, monitoring and corrective action is performed by the peer group. In theory, the professional group itself is held accountable , for the action of its members (Wickenden, 1950; Lewis & | 28 Maude, 1952; Harries-Jenkins, 1970; Schein, 1972 ; Pavalko, 1974; Bearing, 19 72 ; Stone & Shertzer, 1969). One aspect of self-regulation is the level of autonomy attained by the j profession. j Ritzer (1973) states that the professional organiza tion rather than the society or the client defines the I nature of the expected service and the manner of its trans mittal because the profession claims to be the only legiti-l I mate arbiter of improper performance. In practice, auton omy exists when the leaders of a profession define or regulate the nature of the services offered in two ways: . (1) control over recruitment and certification of members ; ' I ,and, (2) setting standards of adequate practice (Ritzer, ' 1973). In discussing the idea of recruiting. Caplow (1954), I states that in the independent professions the entire re- :cruiting process, from the initial choice of candidates for ! training to the bestowal of honors at retirement, is under : the close control of the professional group. Although the I right to practice is generally conferred by a governmental I I board, this agency normally represents the profession and I has usually been kept free from political interference. I i Goode (1969) states that professional autonomy means I ; having one's behavior judged by colleague peers, not out- 1 siders. He adds that this is a derivative trait and is [ based on both the mastery of a field of knowledge and com- i 2 9 J ! mitment to the service ideal. This mastery of the profes- I sional person, because of his specialized training and the complicated nature of the problems being dealt with, has ^ the authority to dictate what a client should do. The ■ i rationale behind this authority is that the client lacks | I the needed theoretical background to diagnose his need or ! , prescribe any of the possible cures. This authority does not carry over to any other professions. One only has j i authority when one has knowledge of a certain specific areal ! (Greenwood, 1957). I 1 I An effective method of self-regulation is through the creation of what Goode (1961) calls the community profes- j sional. Although the profession cannot produce the next j I generation biologically, it can do so socially. A profes sion should and can control the selective process of its ^ professional trainees. After these trainees are selected I they are sent through the profession's adult socialization process. The profession is determining who will be market-, ing the services of the profession and, to an extent, the j [ way in which those services are marketed. The profession can better preserve its standards in this way. ' Public Sanctioning and Licensing Greenwood (1957) discusses the importance of community: sanction in the achievement of professional status. Other authors recognized this contention (Goode, 19 60; Engel, 30j { 1970; Schott, 1976; Lewis & Maude, 19 52 ; Wickenden, 1950 ; I Turner & Hodge, 19 70; Schein, 19 72; Bearing, 1972 ; Stone & ■ j Shertzer, 1969). Public sanction refers to the community's i formal and informal acceptance of a discipline's ability | ' to-best deliver necessary services in its area of exper- | tise. A profession may gain sanction from the community | by formal or informal means. Formal approval constitutes I reinforcement of professional standards by police power. i ’ I By formally sanctioning a profession, the community gives ] a profession a monopoly on performing a certain service. I i I The profession employs its association to convince the ! community that it will greatly benefit from the monopoly. Professions must be convincing on three factors: 1. Specialized education is necessary to j perform the specific skill. 2. Those who have completed this educa tion have capability to deliver ser vice superior to those who have not. 3. The target population of service is of sufficient significance in the community to warrant the superior performance. Greenwood notes that formal aspects of public sanctions : j take the form of approving of pro- i fessional-client confidentiality and ' 31 acceptance of a system of licensure. Licensure is the process by which permission to practice a profession is granted once the requirements of the legality are recognized. I The degree to which a profession is subject to state supervision depends upon the external constitution or legal status it has in society (Carr-Saunders & Wilson, 1964). j Licensing systems for screening applicants assures legal I j status. Thereby, the professional controls admission into : 1 the field (Greenwood, 1957). , Operational Definitions From the preceding literature review and for the pur pose of this study, operational definitions of the seven I criteria required for professional standing have been de- I veloped. They are as follows: I I 1. Body of Knowledge - an identifiable and I distinct set of theories, methodologies, and principles which form the technical base for professional practice. 2. University Education - the formal pro cess within an educational institution in which the professional body of know ledge is transmitted, usually at the graduate level. . 3 . 2 ] 3. Professional Ideology - the notion of service that is the basis for the profession's commitment to the field and which establishes the practitioner as the most appropriate individual to offer this particular type of service because of his train ing and knowledge of the discipline. 4. Professional Association - established organizations of professionals that set criteria for membership in the field, keep members accountable for their actions, insure the provision of the best possible services, exert control over the profession's training centers, and keep abreast of the cur rent legislative and political activity affecting the field. 5. Code of Ethics - written and formalized standards of professional conduct that establish the commitment of the pro fessional as well as insuring the com petence of the practitioner and the quality of his services. 6. Self-régulation - the professional .33, mechanism which maintains the ability of the discipline to autonomously govern and regulate its members, establish standards of service, en force the code of ethics, assume responsibility for any disciplinary action and be publicly accountable for the actions of its constituency. 7. Public Sanction - the formal and in formal approval which a community grants a discipline acknowledging the profession's ability to best deliver offered services and to be self-regu lating. Conclusion This discussion has delineated the criteria that have been found to be relatively universal in regard to profes sional characteristics. It should be noted that in addi tion to our defined criteria, the concept of autonomy is also associated with professional standing. The author of this study felt there are inherent problems in defining and measuring this concept. Therefore, I have integrated the notion of autonomy in the examination of seIf-regula tion , and will utilize these seven criteria in analyzing the professional status of my individual discipline. Process of Professionalization While there are definite criteria requirements for eligibility to professional status, the process by which an: occupation achieves this distinction is varied in the de- ' I velopment of each specific discipline. Certain steps are , common for professionalization in general, but the sequence! of events and the intensity of their implementation dif fers . This section will examine the processes that precede, professional standing. I Professions with a more substantial and more theoreti- I cal body of knowledge behind them are better able to con- ' vince society of the need for their particular services and I perhaps to persuade society of their right to take respons- : ibility for them. Reference must be made to a theoretical body of knowledge for decisions made by the practitioners of the profession. The professional's responsibility for I interpreting the body of knowledge and for considering, ! even deciding, the client's needs and solutions to them is I an important aspect of the autonomous development of the I individual profession. One way in which a profession may 1 first develop as a separate occupational group is when some i individuals recognize a social need and become committed ' to providing for it. These initial pioneers, entering the i I field from a variety of routes, will be united by this i common concern. The development of a new occupational 35 'group may open up new career possibilities for others in relatively marginal or terminal career positions. As time goes by and the process of professionalization continues, j qualifications will be laid down for entering to the occu pation and entry routes institutionalized. An occupation 1 with pretentions to professional status cannot afford to I serve as a refuge for the unqualified (Elliott, 1972). I I The emerging profession claims to be offering a unique I service not available elsewhere. It does not rely on open ! competition with those occupations closest to its field, : but is likely to proclaim openly that its rivals are either I improperly trained or illegal competitors. The economic ; success of a new profession is based on the normative ; acceptance it achieves — or how much right to a legally ; enforceable monopoly it can successfully claim. Profes sional services usually cannot be adequately evaluated by 1 laymen. Professionals admit that they need their client's ' cooperation for a good performance; for survival, they also need their client's faith (Goode, 1960). ! I Those taking the lead in striving for the advancement of professionalism within the occupational group and in claiming public recognition of its new status become the elite of that profession. They implement the following procedures according to Barber (19 65); 36 1. Acknowledge the inadequacies of their group but compare them to ones that formerly existed in estab lished professions -- express hope for progress. 2. Construct and publish a code of ethics. 3. Establish a professional association which will perform the following functions : a. self control; b. socialization; c. education ; d. communication with public ; e. defense of professional interest against infringe ment by the public or other occupational groups. 4. Leaders establish measures and titles of more or less professional behavior, hoping, of course, to use such presti gious titles as "fellow" as an incentive for the less professional to become more so. 5. Seek licensure from the state. 37 6. Seek to strengthen university pro- ' fessional schools. I 7. Information program for the general public. I I 8. Conflict resolution — with those j in the group who are less qualified | and with other professionals who may be charging them with encroachment, j As previously stated, there are differences of opinion I I about the subsequent processes of professionalization. , i ! I Wilensky (1964) enumerates five procedural elements of I professionalization. They are as follows : I 1. Start doing full time the thing I that needs doing. I 2. Establish a training school within I ■ a university. I 3. Combine to form a professional I I association with: a. further self-conscious de finition of core tasks; b. the contest between the home- guard who learned the hard way and are committed to the local establishment, on the one hand, and the newcomers who took the 38' prescribed courses and are com mitted to practicing the work wherever it takes them; c. the hard competition with neigh- j boring occupations. 4. Political agitation to win support of law for the protection of the job territory and its sustaining code of ! ethics: I a. licensing; i b. certification. i I 5. Establishment of rules to eliminate i the unqualified and unscrupulous, and ! rules to protect clients and emphasize the service ideal in a formal code of ethics. I j Caplow (1954) lists the following processes as in- ' herent to the achievement of professional status: I 1. Establishment of a professional association with definite membership ! criteria designed to exclude the un- I qualified. 2. Change of occupational name, which I serves the multiple function of re- j ducing identification with the pre- .39, vious occupational status asserting a technological monopoly. 3. Development and promulgation of a code of ethics which asserts the social utility of the occupation, sets up public welfare rationale, and develops rules which serve as a further criteria to eliminate the unqualified and un scrupulous; this imposes a real and permanent limitation on internal competi tion . 4. Prolonged political agitation, whose object is to obtain the support of the public power for the maintenance of the new occupational barriers, and also de velopment of training facilities directly or indirectly controlled by the professional society, particularly with respect to ad mission and to final qualification; the establishment through legal action of cer tain privileges of confidence and inviol ability, the elaboration of rules of decorum found in the code, and the establishment — after conflict — of working relations with related professional groups. 40 I Goode (1961) lists seven steps of professionalization ! which occur simultaneously: 1. Formulating a code of ethics. I 2. Founding of a professional association. 3. Promulgating favorable legislation. j 4. Establishing curricula for professional 1 training (preferably in a university). 5. Making appeals to foundations for funds I with which to develop new professional I knowledge. I 6. Writing articles to explain the unique contribution of the occupation. 7. Making protests against inaccurate stereotypes of the occupation. Conclusion 1 It is evident, from the preceding analysis, that pro fessionalism is not an easily defined characteristic. I While one can observe a well-established profession, such I i as law or medicine, and describe its component and deriva- ' tive traits, it is much more difficult to specifically de- ' lineate those elements which are mandatorily required for i ! achievement of professional status. Varying professions i ' may or may not possess all the aforementioned criteria, I and the degree to which a criterion is integrated into a ' profession also differs. Therefore, it must be concluded .411 that professionalism is a continuum of occupational status, with no definite demarcation between the profession and the non-profession. While some occupations are distinc tively recognized in the professional and non-professional loci, others seem to, arbitrarily fall between the two ; classifications. ■ Generally, there are seven criteria that are fre quently observed in professions. They are: 1. A specific body of knowledge. 2. Training and education within a university. 3. A professional ideology. 4. An organized professional association. I 5. A professional code of ethics. ■ 6. Self-regulation through occupational authority and autonomy. 7. Public approval, sanction, and licensure. . These seven criteria are often used as indicators of pro- ! ; fessional standing, but are not always present in all pro- ; fessions. i I The evolutional process which ultimately confers pro fessional status is also not a specific, well-defined para digm. Some events that usually occur are : 1. recognition of need; 42 2. recruitment of full-time workers to meet the need; 3. establishment of a body of know ledge that is transmittable through a university; 4. organizing a professional associa tion with the development of a code of ethics and a professional ideology ; 5. winning legal sanction through licensing and certification. In conclusion, it must be mentioned that these pro cesses often occur simultaneously rather than in a pre- i ; scribed sequence. Nevertheless, a general paradigm does ! I exist. This paradigm implicates a basic framework of i events that occur in the evolution of a profession. The t evaluation of our specific discipline will utilize the ; seven criteria in analyzing the professional statuses of nursing and gerontology. ! i , I ■ 43I CHAPTER III THE PROFESSIONAL STATUS OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION I Introduction I The professional status of public administration is an 'issue that is not easily resolved. Much discussion on the idegree of professionalism in public administration can be found in the literature. Harader (1977) , like Riggs (1968) , jWaldo (1968), and Ostrom (1974) indicate the existence of an identity crisis within public administration and the lack of a unifying theory. While Karl (19 76) maintains that public administration is professionalized and that the rigors of our modern bureaucracies require professionalism, Schott (1976) suggests that public administration is not a 'profession and has little chance of ever becoming one. One dimension of public administration's identity crisis is the lack of consensus as to whether it is a discipline or a sub discipline. As some academics grow isolated from the prac- | titioners, the professional or vocational boundaries grow ' even less clear (Harader, 1977). » ; ! I I 4 4 ' The discussion of the professionalism of public admin istration is further complicated by the use of an alternate definition of professionalism. This alternate definition does not coincide with the seven criteria of professional ism used in the present study. Mosher (1968) defines pro fession as "(1) a reasonably clear-cut occupational field, (2) which ordinarily requires higher education at least through the bachelor’s level, and (3) which offers a life time career to its members." (p. 106) Mosher considers his definition to be appropriate in terms of governmental pro fessional service, though he does agree that the defini tion is "liberal and loose" and thus not acceptable to all students of public administration. This lack of agreement even on the definition of the term indicates the lack of consistency to be found in attempting to study the profes sional status of public administration. For the purposes of this study, the seven previously mentioned criteria of professionalim will be used. By com paring public administration against the already described professional criteria, we may get a better grasp on an issue in public administration that is currently not settled. Once again, the seven criteria of professionalism are: (1) a body of knowledge; (2) university education ; (3) professional ideology ; (4) professional association ; (5) code of ethics ; (6) self-regulation ; and, (7) public sanction. 45 Body of Knowledge Waldo (196 8) contends that it is virtually impossible for public administration to identify and develop a coher ent body of systematic theory which would be substantially ' : independent of other social sciences, while at the same j ; time concern itself solely with the public aspects of ad ministration. Given the dynamic and chaotic world in which , public administration functions, public administration I cannot isolate itself by erecting conceptual boundaries. I j According to Waldo (1968), the contemporary university is ! an exploding intellectual-organizational universe with I which public administration must interact. I To deal with such a situation, Waldo (1968) proposes ’ that those in public administration try to act as profes- I sionals without actually being professionals. Though an ! 1 admittedly confusing thought, the explanation is that the I professional perspective is the only one broad and flex- I j ible enough to contain diverse interests, yet firm enough to provide some unity and sense of direction and purpose. I According to the President's Report (1975), from ; Harvard University, practitioners in a wide variety of 1 fields such as government, education, city planning, and * 'public health can benefit from a common body of knowledge | I and general skills that contribute to the education of I f I ; policy analysts and administrators. Certainly, a large 46 body of knowledge is associated with public administration, but the diverse interests and objectives of those in the field make determination of appropriate boundaries for the body of knowledge very difficult. In fact, according to | I Schott (1976), if public administration or the public ser- j vice have become professionalized, it is not because of ' public administration's contributions. Rather, it is the contributions from the sciences and professions whose ’ j members have entered into upper level adminstrative posi- ! tions. Because of this infusion of leadership from other j disciplines, public administration is dependent on the knowledge base of other disciplines, a situation which may I detract from public administration's efforts at profession alization. Efforts at increasing public administration's know- ; ledge base have been encouraged by organizations such as I the American Society for Public Administration (ASPA), ' Institute of Public Administration (IPA), National Associa- I tion of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration I I (NASPAA) and Public Administration Service (PAS). Improve-' I ments in public administration are encouraged through re- I j search, publications and conferences. In this way, the ; body of knowledge is augmented, discussed and more widely i ; ! disseminated. However, it should be noted that the largest of these groups, ASPA, has only 15,500 members nationally ' 47 which is a small proportion of all governmental administra tors, public officials, educators, and research workers. University Education Graduate programs in public administration are avail- ! able in universities throughout the United States. Such j advanced education, specifically in public administration, . is apparently not uniformly necessary for entrance into a ' public administration career. Schott (19 76) indicates that few top level public administrators have a degree in public administration. The majority received advance I I training in the sciences or other tradional professions J and then entered the top administrative levels of public Î ! service. Schott (19 76) does not intend to belittle the need for I : public administration programs as part of the nation's uni- ' verisities. On the contrary, a public administration edu cation may encourage a wider perspective in carrying out public policy objectives. Those not trained in public i administration may have their focus narrowed by profes- I , sional self-interest. Joint degree programs with public ; administration and, to a lesser extent, continuing educa- ; tion training in public administration may work to overcome the professional bias in the public service, i Schools of public administration perform an important I > societal activity, but increased interaction must occur 48; with those professionals currently in public service and with their professional schools. Public administration , education should complement training in other disciplines, ! not compete with it. Sherif and Sherif (1969) enlarge i ! : upon this idea by encouraging narrow specialization first j , and then experiencing exposure to various interdiseiplin- ' ary concepts. The objective is to have a field of experts whose expertise overlap and are linked to each other. By I creating such a linkage, critical interdisciplinary con- ' temporary problems may be resolved. The National Association of Schools of Public Affairs ! and Administration has adopted Guidelines and Standards of Pi:ofGssional Masters Degree Programs in Public Affairs/ Public Administration (NASPAA Adopts Standards, 1974). I i Comparable guidelines have also been developed for pro- 1 ! grams at the bachelor's and the doctoral level. The or- :ganization's purpose in providing these guidelines is to I"foster greater professionalization" by defining the quali fications and competencies of public managers in terms of knowledge, skills, values, and behavior as well as provid ing standards for educational institutions for program con tent and format. Such standards would also assist the potential student and the employer as they determine which ^ institutions best serve their needs. These standards are Î only intended as guidelines to goals, not requirements. 49 that are imposed on NASPAA member-institutions. The actual responsibility to improve education quality is left to each institution. University education in public administration is prevalent and efforts to improve the education are being made but these efforts do not include the establishment of an accrediting board in public administration. , Professional Ideology As mentioned in Chapter II, Elliot (1972) describes a I professional ideology as having three important elements : i ' 1. The notion of service, i 2. An emphasis on professional judgment ! based upon professional knowledge. 3. Belief in professional freedom and autonomy in the work situation. I ' The discipline of public administration does not com- ! pletely encompass these elements, nor does the literature , reflect a consensus as to whether the conditions will ever ; be met (Schott, 197 6). Public administration may owe much I I of the professional tone currently found in the public ser- i vice to the professional ideology of other established pro- , fessions whose members have entered into administrative ! positions. The discipline of public administration does not com- ! pletely encompass these elements, nor does the literature reflect a consensus as to whether the conditions will ever 50 J be met (Schott, 197 6). Public administration may owe much of the professional tone currently found in the public service to the professional ideology of other established professions whose members have entered into administrative | ’ positions. ' ^ Henry (1975) provides a review of five developmental I stages or paradigms of public administration that were pre- i I valent at different times during this century. The contin- I ually shifting focus of public administration indicates the I validity of the notion that public administration as a I unique field is relatively new. During the period of the I first paradigm (1900-1926), public administration was con- ; cerned with determining the appropriate location for the - use of public administration theory and technique. Public ! administration was limited to the execution of public I ' policy. Formation of policy or expression of the state's I will were considered the sole province of politics, not j public administration. Paradigm two, running from 19 2 7 to I 1937, focused not on where public administration was but on administrative principles that were allegedly universally applicable. From 1938 to 1950, dissent from the first two paradigms surfaced. This challenge left public administra- I tion without a distinct identity. Some say that an identity has yet to be found. Paradigm three (1950-1970) found public administration as a sub-discipline of political 51 I science but at roughly the concurrent time (1956-1970) public administration was viewed by others as an admini strative science. In the fifth and final paradigm, public administration is described as moving toward curricular ^ autonomy which can develop the uniqueness of the field. j Henry (19 75) encourages the trend toward autonomy for ' I public admiistration educational institutions. Public ad- i ministration will continue to redefine, in its own terms, I 1 I j the concepts from political science and administrative ^ science but without the need to carry along their excess I baggage that autonomy affords. I A notion of service, the first element of a profes- I sional ideology, is found in the field of public admini- I ; stration but an important qualification must be made, j While public administrators are dedicated to community ser- I vices, rather than acquisition of commercial profit, the 1 ; notion of service of a true professional is linked to serv- ^ ing the best interests of the individual client, as opposed I to the interests of the general public. A fine distinction I ' is drawn between serving the interests of individuals and serving the interests of the general public. Though the I ‘ public administrator is interested in the welfare of indi- , vidual clients, he or she is also concerned with the mate rial interest or needs of the society from which public funds are derived. For example, the government administra- 52 tor in charge of a transfer payment program may be con cerned with the interests of the individual recipient. However, that same administrator must also adhere to some- , j times frustrating and inefficient regulations protecting : the fiscal integrity of the program. Even if the result is, detrimental to the client, the administrator is responsible I for adherence to predetermined regulations. For the major- i j ity of administrators in the public sector, freedom and I autonomy in the work situation are conditioned by the need ; for organizational consistency. , j I Waldo (19 68) indicates that there is a lack of public ! j administration training among most middle and top level i I administrators in the public sector. This lack of exposurei I ' j may limit the administrator's judgment based on profes- I sional knowledge of public administration that is possible. I j Often, the professional knowledge base found at upper I I : levels of decision making reflects training in professions ! other than public administration (Schott, 1976). I Neither Waldo (196 8) nor Schott (19 76) strongly con- ! ; demn this trend in government administration. Because I training in public administration provides a philosophy and ; institutional base useful in counterbalancing the divisive pull of other professions, both authors call for continued i efforts at promoting dual degree programs. Schools of | public administration should emphasize their capability to > 53 broaden the perspective of those already highly trained in other technical sciences or professions. Continuing educa-i tion programs in public administration may be a learning ■ vehicle for infusing this effect into those already prac- I ; i ticing their profession in the public sector. An education; in public administration may beneficially complement the ' professional ideology acquired while training in another ’ profession. Public administration need not compete with : that ideology. I ; Professional Association j I Professional associations are probably necessary for the development and continued growth of a profession. Fisk (1977 ) describes the following organizations which deal fwith public administration issues in the United States. I j However, none of these groups set or enforce criteria for 1 entrance into the field. Public administration does not have an association with the authority to restrict entry, enforce a code of ethics, or otherwise take strong disci- 'plinary action against its members. t ! The American Society for Public Administration (ASPA), jfounded in 1939, has 15,500 members. It is considered a {professional society of governmental administrators, public t officials, educators, research workers and others in fields ^ related to public management as a career or profession ' (Fisk, 1977). The roots of the Society go back to the New .5.4J I York Bureau of Municipal Research, founded in 1906 (Stone, , I 1975). This early organization, whose first project was a I survey of street conditions in Manhattan, was based on the j concept that public services could be systematically ana lyzed and improved. Training for this type of work was j ,considered possible. The idea of an office for govern- : mental research within government structure spread to other ; city and state governments across the country, following I the pattern of the New York Bureau of Municipal Research. I In 1922, the Institute for Government Research, the I : I federal counterpart to a municipal research bureau, com- ! ;bined with the New York Bureau's Training School of Public . i ! Service to form the Institute for Public Administration i I(IPA) (Stone, 1975). IPA developed a tradition of initiât-. ing a competent administrative planning, budgeting, and personnel staff and system in each government agency it assisted. During the economic crisis of the 1930's, the I ,new agencies, such as the Social Security Administration and the Tennessee Valley Authority called heavily upon the I I administrative creativity and methods that flowed from the I traditions of the New York Bureau of Municipal Research and - I the Institute for Public Administration. Today, IPA con- :tinues as a private, non-profit research agency consisting ;of a research staff and a board of trustees. IPA directs research and education projects in public administration 55 and government policy problems. Government agencies still receive consultation and technical services from IPA, The Governmental Research Association (GRA) was formed' by the leaders of research bureaus located around the | ' country in 1915. GRA became a vehicle for the comparative ^ study of public administration. The proceedings from GRA ; meetings and the meetings of the International City Man- , I j agers Association (founded in 1914), provided training I materials for the growing numbers of public sector admini- ! I strators in the early decades of the 19 00's. Stone (19 75) , i refers to this group as a "new bread of professional prac- j titioners." (p. 84) Stone attributes this professionalism; ! ( to the governmental reforms and administrative innovations I I which were encouraged by the research bureaus, IPA and GRA. ; Stone (1975) discusses four factors that foreshadowed the creation of ASPA in 19 39. The first factor was alluded to above. The growth of professional groups and public in- j terest groups provided the environment for an affiliation Î I of all these groups at the University of Chicago with the help of the Public Administration Clearing House. These associations together brought about the spirit and sub stance of professional responsible public service. A second factor was the trend toward bringing the scholar and practitioner together as exemplified by the Committee on Public Administration of the Social Science Research 56 ! Council. The changed administrative climate of the 1930's i I was a third factor. The demands of the innovative New Deal programs created a need for new administrative talent. A fourth factor setting the stage for ASPA was a trend toward I reliance on publicly sponsored improvement efforts. This ^ trend indicated that governments were beginning to adopt ! some of the strategies and research results were being ; applied. I I Finally, at the 1939 conference of the American Polit-, 1 ical Science Association (APSA), an organization meeting I I for the new ASPA was held and the organization was born. Since then, ASPA has affirmed the idea that public admini- 1 stration in any jurisdiction can be analyzed, evaluated, , ! and improved and that a body of professional knowledge can ; be developed for both education and training as well as in ' assisting practitioners (Stone, 1975). Public Administra- I tion Review, the bimonthly scholarly journal published by ASPA, provides an important link between the scholar and , practitioner of public administration. I Affiliated with ASPA is the National Association of ' Schools of Public Affairs and Administration (NASPAA). Founded in 1970, NASPAA now has 180 member institutions ' consisting of universities and government agencies dedi cated to the advancement of education and training in pub- ' lie administration and public affairs. NASPAA serves as a 57 national clearinghouse of information, promotes standards for academic improvements, and lobbies for member institu tions in the formulation of national policies affecting public administration. Along with a newsletter, NASPAA i publishes a Guide for the Self Evaluation of Professional , I Degree Programs in Public Affairs/Public Administration and' ; Guidelines and Standards for Professional Degree Programs in Public Affairs/Administration, which calls for voluntary! I improvements in public administration education programs. The relationship between ASPA and NASPAA is not with- , out its conflicts. Thayer (1976) discusses the debate 1 I within the organizations on how best to carry out the edu- I I cational and training missions. Thayer sees a threat to IASPA in the growing strength and decision making powers of j NASPAA. He sees the strength and unity of ASPA weakened I by NASPAA, a "monolithic organization of deans." (p. 86) I Capron (1976) refutes the notion of a monolithic NASPAA by : describing NASPAA member schools as diverse and continually I expressing their own views within the NASPAA association. ! In reply to Thayer's concerns about NASPAA following the ipattern of business school credentialing in the future, I Capron (1976) states, "We are nowhere near a point in the development of our 'profession(s)' for it to make sense at ; all to look at the business school credentialing model or 1 anything like it." (p. 247) Capron would resist pressure 58 to credential schools. On the other hand, McDowall (19 76) I favors a credentialing process to protect schools of public administration from encroachment by other disci plines. The above exchange of thoughts is indicative of i organizations that do not exert control over their training : I ' centers. Agreement had not been reached on the degree of control that the organizations should attempt to exert. Control of the training centers is one of the requirements ^ to be met, according to our definition of a valid profes sional association. Though neither ASPA nor NASPAA are I professional associations, according to our definition of i that term, ASPA probably comes closest to meeting our I description of such an association. The following are j brief descriptions of two other associations in the public I administration field. Neither has a large membership. I The National Academy of Public Administration serves I j as a trusted source of advice and counsel to government I and public officials. It is concerned with detection of ; administrative problems and program performance evaluation i I in government. Founded in 196 7, the Academy's 19 6 members ' have been admitted on the basis of having made a "signifi- I cant scholarly contribution to public administration" and ! having accumulated "significant administrative experience , with evidence of sufficiently broad interest and reflective, nature to interpret that experience in a meaningful way." (Fisk, 1977, p, 328) ; ’ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________59j The Public Administration Service (PAS), founded in 1933, draws its limited membership from executive directors of international and national organizations of public offi cials and agencies. Through research, publications, and ' consulting services at all levels of government, including j foreign governments and international agencies, PAS pro- | motes improvements in public administration. The above organizations have some rudimentary com- I ponents of a professional association, but before they may > I be considered authentic professional associations, mechan- ; isms for controlling recruitment, providing certification i I and disciplinary action when necessary or appropriate must i I be developed. I ! i Code of Ethics i I As early as 1922, The Annals of the American Academy ! of Political and Social Science carried an article calling j for the establishment of a code of ethics for those in I public service (Beyer, 1922). Since virtually every voca- : tion is represented in the public administration service, 'however, it will likely be difficult to formulate such a code. Beyer (1922) indicates that four conditions need to ' be met prior to the development of a code for public ad ministrators: (1) spoils system must be eliminated; (2) workers must be organized; (3) workers must not be grossly underpaid ; and, (4) universities must inculcate .__60J ideals. Certainly these four conditions are better met today than in 1922, yet no such code exists. Five decades later, the main obstacle to a comprehensive code is the heterogeneity of objectives and interests found among those in public administration. The ideals that a university might impart may not necessarily come from schools of pub lic administration. According to Schott (1976), if the public service has been professionalized it has occurred through the leadership of people from professions and sciences other than public administration. Other profes- j jsion's codes of ethics prevail. I The American Society for Public Administration's Pro- Ifessional Standards Committee is calling for standards of I ethical conduct to be used as a means of self-assessment for the individual practitioner (Professional Standards I Committee, 1976). While the Committee is calling for the i development of a process for attaining high professional I standards, it must be stressed that such standards would be i ! clearly based on voluntary participation (Committee Cites I ■Needs, 19 74). Prior allegiance to a set of standards would jnot be required for entrance or practice in the field of I I public administration. I Wakefield (1976) makes a strong case for individual I rather than group responsibility as both a primary and I 'ultimate source of public service ethics. Creating ex- 61 ternal supports for ethical behavior is seen as a barrier I to development of solutions to problems. Creativity may be stifled in the course of adhering to standards. Once again, the question of how to meaningfully apply one set ! of standards to the varied types of public servants is j I raised. Wakefield (1976) advocates ethics courses in pub- ' lie administration schools as well as exposure to similar ' discussions for courses in ethics, for political appoin tees. Individual responsibility then is seen as the es sential component of integrity. Rohr (197 6) follows much the same premise as Wakefield ' by stressing that the bureaucrat has a moral obligation to i put himself in touch with American values while carrying , out his responsibilities and interpreting ethical princi- [ pies according to his own deepest belief. Supreme Court I opinions on such values as freedom, property and equality I I are suggested as the most appropriate means of studying I American values. Rohr (1976) does not wish to encourage a I lock-step set of values for bureaucrats. Rather, he calls ; for those in public service to have a dialogue with the political society he serves and to make personal interpre- ! tations compatible with his deepest moral beliefs. This ' approach to the ethical education of bureaucrats stresses ; I values rather than behavior, as found in the usual codes of ! conduct. The bureaucrat is required to reflect on conflictr 62: I ing values and is not supplied with ready answers. I SeIf-régulâtion I SeIf-regulation has been operationally defined as the I I professional mechanism which alows a discipline to autono mously govern and regulate its members, establish standards! I of service, enforce the code of ethics, assume responsi- ' bility for disciplinary action and be publicly accountable i for the actions of its constituents. No such monitoring mechanism exists in the field of public administration. I Most people in public administration are employed in , I I I ' hierarchical organizations where performance evaluation is i completed by a supervisor rather than by a peer group. No I ; professional association in public administration presently • regulates its members or assumes responsibility for dis ciplinary action. The American Society for Public Admini- I stration (ASPA) is attempting to put forth standards of I ! ethical conduct, but the standards would be observed on a voluntary basis with no mechanism for enforcement by peers ^ (Committee Cites Needs, 1974). The National Association of I Schools of Public Affairs and Administration met with op- ; position while attempting to adopt curricula guidelines in ; public administration (Thayer, 1976) . A major reason for the opposition to unifying guidelines is that such guide- ; lines were said to stifle creativity in curricula develop- : ment. Association approval of a school's curricula could 63 also become a political issue, a position all schools wish to avoid. The needs of public administration students are ' alledged to be too varied to tolerate national standards. This variety of student background and need is suggested as another reason to oppose national standards. In short, the professional allegiance of many in top administrative positions is to professions other than public administration. Most top administrators were trained in other fields. It is unlikely that regulation by administrative peers could supplant many already estab- : { lished self-regulatory mechanism for the professions in ! i which formal training occurred. I I I Public Sanction I Formal recognition or approval of public administra- j tion as a defined discipline by the community does not I exist. Such approval, if it were to exist, would take the ! form of legislation supporting licensure or certification I I for those in the field. ' Some question exists as to whether the community in- j formally approves of persons in public administration as I those best able to deliver offered services and to be self-' I regulating. The growth of public interest groups during 1 the past decade is a manifestation of this public question-i Iing. Schuck (1977) defines a public interest group as an "organizational entity that purports to represent very 64 broad, diffuse, non-commercial interests which tradition ally have received little explicit or direct representa tion in the processes by which agencies, courts, and legis latures make public policy." (p. 133) A public interest 1 I group focuses on a status or role held by all community members, such as consumers or taxpayers. ^ Though administrators are expected to serve the ;"public interest," they often fail to do so, according to :Shor (1977). Conventional wisdom holds that these short- I comings are caused by the domination of administrative i jagencies by powerful economic groups. The undue influence ! exerted by special interest groups has made government ! bureaucracies a prime target for the public interest move ments' reform efforts. Groups such as Nader's Raiders have ipressed federal administrators to respond to a broad range 1 j of community needs and social values. An important vehicle I demanded by public advocates is the opportunity to partici-. i I pate in proceedings on behalf of diffuse and poorly organ- I ! ;ized public interests. Today's public administrator ob- ^ viously does not have the full approval of the community he I or she is suppose to serve. ' ; Public interest in the workings of regulatory agencies is a relatively recent phenomenon. According to Schuck I (1977), public administration has lacked the drama, flashy I personalities and quick pace necessary to make it an attrac- 65 tion regularly watched and monitored by the American people. Schuck goes on to say that public administration, viewed from the outside, appears dull, bloodless, intensely rational, and plodding. Closer public scrutiny of the , equity and objectivity of our governmental administrators ^ is the result of efforts by Ralph Nader's groups as well : as our society. Such scrutiny is, at least in part, the result of a better educated populace, greater prosperity, ' a growing commitment of private foundations to financial I I support of broad-based social reform, and an increased i I 1 group of journalists and investigative reporting of moni- I I toring administrative actions. j Guttman (19 76) describes an area where public admini- ' strators may have abdicated some of the responsibility with i which they are entrusted. The area is the government con- I I suiting and contracting business. Some 80,000 full-time I I government employees administer $60 billion worth of gov ernment contracts with private industry. In some instances, the private sector organizations are poorly prepared and I I have little expertise in carrying out the requirements of I j the contract. Articles such as Guttman*s (1976) do little I to instill public confidence in the ability of the public ^ administrator to fulfill these demands. j 1 The picture is not completely bleak though. Shor i (1977) comments that the current trend toward public 66! scrutiny and participation in governmental administrative decision making may very well serve to initiate greater confidence in the fairness of administrative policies. I I Conclusion i ! Public administration is at the beginning of the pro- j ; fessionalism continuum when juxtaposed to the seven cri teria of professionalism as determined by our research I group. It is important to recall the professionalism de- | j I bate within public administration, the extent to which it I should strive to become a profession. The diversity of ' I I work settings in which public administrators work makes the I outlook for full professional status rather tenuous. The I variety of tasks necessarily limits the possibility for i group cohesiveness necessary for professionalization. The criteria in which public administration is most : developed as a profession are in the availability of uni- ' versity education in public administration and the exist- I ence of an extensive, if ill defined, body of knowledge. I Though university education is amply available, the major- i ity of public administrators have little formal training I in defined content areas of administration. Most admini strators have entered their roles through training in 1 other disciplines. The extent to which those in public administration, especially those in public administration education, can encourage entering and practicing admini 67. strators to familiarize themselves with the theories and techniques of administration remains to be seen. An in terest in dual degrees and continuing education programs is evident in the literature. I I ; Public administration is least developed in the cri- j teria of self-regulation and public sanction. No mechanism , presently exists to allow administrators to monitor and I ; discipline themselves. As shown earlier, the general I ; public does not have sufficient confidence to allow the I administrator to function autonomously. In fact, the ; j trend is toward more public participation in administrative; 1 1 decision making. I As our society grows more complex and the public I sector is called upon to meet more diverse responsibilities I the field of public administration will undoubtedly work ; to meet those needs by continued research, education and dialogue with other disciplines. The professional status of public administration will remain a question of debate for some time to come. 68 r' CHAPTER IV THE PROFESSIONAL STATUS OF GERONTOLOGY Introduction According to the operational definitions within the context of this study, a discipline meets professional standing if it meets with established criteria. These are: (1) body of knowledge; (2) university education; (3) pro- i fessional ideology ; (4) professional association; (5) code , of ethics ; (6) self-regulation; and, (7) public sanction. Ostensibly, medicine, nursing, and social work can be con sidered professions, whereas, public administration, coun- ! selor education, and adult education indicate that they are moving toward professional standing. Since increasing demographics and longevity have made the elderly a signifi cant and recognizable aggregate in our society, it is ques tionable whether or not these disciplines can adequately meet the needs of the aged. The field of gerontology could: address itself to these needs and has the ability to impie-! ment and provide for a uniform system of research, educa- 69 tion, and service delivery. The following chapter will examine the historical I trends in the field of gerontology, will support the need . for gerontology, and will examine whether or not gerontol- i ogy meets professional status according to the designated , criteria. Trends of Gerontology ! Gerontology, according to Breen (19 70), is a field of ^ ! discipline which is no longer than three decades old. It ' has taken at least this period of time for gerontology to : I * be thought of as "a systematic examination of data and ^ logical sets of conclusions concerning the aging process." ■ (p. 5) Gerontology has been defined in a variety of ways ! and involves a variety of disciplines. Clark Tibbitts (1960) has helped popularize the term "social gerontology." i Social gerontology focuses upon two points of view: one view is concerned with the scientific and psychological 1 forces upon the organism and the other is concerned with I how the environment and organizational structure of culture I influences the individual. Breen (19 70) identifies five separate stages in the development of gerontology as a dis- ' cipline. These include: the philosophical stage, biologi cal stage, psychological stage, social stage, and political stage. I I Philosophical concern in aging dates back to Aris- j _7_0- totle's time. Lengthy dialogues of Aristotle, Cicero, and Homer reflect upon the interest and concern of growing old, Cicero's "De Senectute" (106-43 B.C.) addresses the prob- :lems of old age and expresses that it is a time of joy I rather than a time of despair. : The biologic interest in aging dates back to the : 1800's. Birren and Clayton (1970) credit Quetelet as the I I first gerontologist. However, it was not until the late 1930's that an avid interest in aging began. During the 1930's the number of individuals age 65 increased 35 per- i cent as contrasted with an increase in the general popula- I Ition of 7.2 percent (Birren & Clayton, 1970). In 1939 a j group of British scientists became interested in age re- ;lated changes in cells, organs, and tissues, and decided to I form an International Club for Research on Aging (Tibbitts, ■I960). The publication of Cowdry's Problems of Aging in ! 1939 and the establishment of the Gerontological Society in 11945, illustrates the growing interest in the biological ! aspects of aging (Kleemeir, Havighurst & Tibbitts, 1967). j Psychological interest in the elderly evolved with the jdevelopment of institutional facilities. Long-term care jfacilities and interest in "senility" promoted the aware- i iness of the mental health needs of the elderly. The first [marked contribution was Stanley Hall's book on Senescence, 'published in 1923 (Kleemeir et al., 1967). The first 71 systematic attempt to investigate the psychological aspects of aging, however, occurred when the Stanford Later Matur ity Research Project conducted a study (Tibbitts, 1960). Social interest in the aging began when increasing numbers of aged affected various aspects of society. Issues such as housing, economics, and health became press ing social concerns. The establishment of the Journal of Gerontology in 1946 enumerated problems of aging in the social science areas. The National Conference on Aging, furthermore, was organized in 1950 and was devoted to social economic and related aspects of aging. The political stage of gerontology developed in the mid-thirties. While primarily an economic issue, the Social Security Act of 1935 was also indicative of politi cal interest in aging. A year before, Simmons published a work entitled. The Role of the Aged in Primitive Society and provided a basis for comparing the elderly in agricul tural and industrial societies. In 194 8 a report on Social Adjustment in Old Age indicated that sociologic interest in aging was beginning to carry itself through the develop mental stages of life. The 1950's, furthermore, revealed a proliferation of publications and continued research. At this time, eight sections of the first National Conference on Aging was organized and the Inter-University Training Institute in Social Gerontology was conceptualized and 72 supported (Tibbitts, 1960). In 1965 the first White House Conference on Aging and I I the passage of the Older Americans Act provided for the Administration on Aging and the Social Security Amendments. In addition, the establishment of the National Retired Teacher’s Association, American Association of Retired Per sons, the National Concil on Aging, the Senate Sub-commit tee on Aging, National Center on Black Aging, and the National Institute on Aging, are indicative of the growing interest and stature of the field of gerontology. Documentation of Needs The need to address the aged and their problems is be coming more apparent. Kleemeir (1965) states that today's belated attention now given to the problems of aging and the aged is a product of different perspectives of viewing the elderly, rather than the significant increase in the elderly population. Due to changing perspectives and demo- graphical statistics, the fact remains that there is a need for specialized training in working with older adults. Krauss (1963) and Kleemeir (1965) further substantiate this need. Krauss states that it is obviously becoming more evident that meeting the needs of the aged require a spe cialized body of knowledge in modern society. Kleemeir adds that there is both a need in society and science for a major visible investment of effort directed toward the 73 solution or alleviation of thé problems of aging. Certain problems, areas, methods, techniques, knowledge, profes sional personnel, and institutions should clearly be seen as having an intimate, predominate, or exclusive concern for aging with different disciplines contributing to a central area of concern. The need for special training in the area of aging was identified by the White House Conference on Aging in 19 61. A committee concerned with the role and training of pro fessional personnel designated four occupation groups which they felt needed gerontological training. These include : (1) Medical Services; (2) Social Work ; (3) Educational, Religious, and Recreational Services ; and, (4) Environ mental Planning and Administration. In addition, Clark Tibbitts (196 7) describes the following four categories of personnel needed to work with the aged : (1) direct pro viders of services ; (2) planners, administrators, and pro gram directors ; (3) researcher; and, (4) teachers. Present economic, housing, health, and legislative trends further support the requirement for gerontological training. The spread of technology and an industrial economy have presented unforeseen problems for the elderly. Retirement income for a person over 65 is provided by the Social Security Act. The original intent of Social Secur ity was to help the elderly meet the risks of old age and 74 unemployment (United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1973). Until recently, coverage excluded governmental, agricultural, domestic, casual and non-profit employees, and the self-employed. In the 1970's, however, coverage has been broadened so that 90 percent of the popu lation 65 and over is eligible for Social Security benefits (Fitzpatrick, 1975). Thus, Social Security is presently the major source of retirement income. The 19 68 study in dicates that over 60 percent of aged units received no other periodic retirement benefits (Koladrubetyz, quoted by Fitzpatrick). Private pensions were received by only 12 percent of the aged and these generally were people who re ceived higher Social Security benefits, as well (Fitz patrick, 1975). Although Social Security benefits have in creased within recent years, so has the cost of living and it is doubtful that the elderly can meet rising food costs, taxes, and medical expenses. The enactment of the Supplementary Security Income Program has provided additional monies on the basis of "need" rather than right. Presently, maximum Supplementary Security Income payments in the State of California are $259 for an individual and $488 for a couple. Payments vary, however, according to living arrangements and dis abilities. In addition, not all eligible people get the maximum payment amounts if they have other income. Conse- 75 ' quently, a substantial gap between minimum benefits and the ! living costs of the elderly exists. i I In 19 74, the median income for all American families was $12,836, while the median income for families 65 or older was $7,2 98 (Current Population Reports: Special Studies, May 1976). Realistically, approximately 50 per cent of the elderly are poor and have incomes less than $3,000 (United States Congress House Select Committee on Aging, March 1976). Low income makes home ownership and maintenance of homes difficult. As costs for repairs, , utilities, and property taxes rise, the elderly find them selves with a lack of resources. It was projected that by 1976 about 8.3 million elderly people would be living in 3.7 million sub-standard housing units (United States Congress House Select Committee on Aging, March 1976). The steady increase in the elderly population affects health trends. The elderly utilize health services more frequently since the rate of hospitalization and length of hospital stay both increase with age. One out of every four persons is likely to be hospitalized within a given period, and approximately 71 percent of persons 65 or older visit a physician at least once a year (Loether, 1975). Twenty-eight percent of the $80 billion spent nationally for personal health care in 197 3 was for older persons who constitute only 10 percent of the population. The per 76 capita health costs for an older person is $1,052 as com- ! pared to $385 per capita for younger adults (United States 1 Department of Housing Education and Welfare, 1976). Medi care insurance helps pay for hospital stays and certain post-hospital care of people 6 5 and over. As of January 1, 1977, the elderly are responsible for $124 deductible and are covered for 60 days. For a hospital stay over 60 days the patient will pay $31 a day for services. What this means is that the elderly will be responsible for paying 2 8 percent of doctor bills and related medical expenses and . the government will pay the balance (Medicare Increase, January 1977). This does not include, however, medical costs of the elderly not covered by Medicare or Medi-Cal. Legislative trends also indicate that an interest in the elderly is ever-growing. Governmental bodies such as the Veterans Administration and the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, the Administration on Aging, United States Senate Special Committee on Aging, Social Security Administration, and Area Agencies on Aging, are indicative of the interest in the elderly. Gerontology, hence, can provide a distinctive educa tional and research-oriented discipline which deals spe cifically with the phenomenon of aging. Social, economic, and legislative trends document the needs for specialized training in working with the aged and promotes the status 77 of gerontology toward professionalism. Professional Criteria ‘Body of Knowledge: Gerontology To state that gerontology does not have an identifi able body of knowledge would be erroneous. Kleemeir, :Havighurst, and Tibbitts (1967) note "the body of special ized knowledge is there and is accumulating." (p. 39) The task is to put it into a coherent framework rather than parcel the knowledge to other disciplines. The issue, hence, is not that social gerontology fails to meet the criterion of a recognizable body of knowledge. The issue is whether it should be given serious consideration as a separate discipline. Traditionally, gerontology is a multidisciplinary field, thereby borrowing knowledge from the sciences and social sciences. As previously mentioned, the historical development indicates the accumulation of theories, know ledge, and research. Breen (1970), Birren and Clayton (1970), and Tibbitts (1960) have documented the accumula tion of knowledge in the fields of philosophy, biology, sociology, physiology, and politics. University interest in gerontology dates back to the 1950's when several universities initiated gerontological programs. Cornell University developed programs in educa tion, industry, and business; the University of Chicago was 78 an innovator in pre-retirement programs; and, Duke Uni versity brought various departments in the uhiversity to- I gether to examine problems of the aged. In addition, the University of California developed a research program, the University of Iowa developed a Gerontology Institute, and the University of Michigan started its Institute of Geron tology. Each of the schools have done much to increase knowledge in the gerontological field. Recently, the University of Southern California has set precedent by establishing a separate School of Geron tology. The Leonard Davis School of Gerontology is dedi cated to developing and identifying a distinct set of theories, methodologies, and principles which form the technical base of professional practice. It offers courses which concentrate on biological theories, developmental processes, and psycho-social needs, as they relate to the aging individual. The creation of governmental bodies such as the Admin istration on Aging, the United States Senate Sub-committee on Aging (19 59), followed by the Senate Special Committee on Aging, the National Council on Aging (1960), the Admini stration on Aging (1965), the National Institute on Aging, and the National Institute on Child Health and Human De velopment, have added several dimensions to the current body of knowledge. They are subsidizing research, publish- 79 ' ing relevant literature, and have become strong advocates ' in the field. In addition, the proliferation of publica- : tions and governmental grants are also indications of an ever-growing body of knowledge that pertains specifically to gerontology. Professional Education At present, there are no specific courses required to be considered a "gerontologist." In the field of adult education, for example, many teachers are considered geron tologists having had no formalized training in the area of aging. Although the recent Ryan Act (1970) has made re quirements for receiving a credential much more stringent in California, educators of adults are still not required to take courses which deal specifically with the aging in dividual . Nevertheless, there is a growing consensus that a university education is necessary in the field of geron tology. The Gerontological Society, in 1956,sponsored a conference to consider the problems of training in the social science aspects of gerontology (Shock, 1957). As a result, the Inter-University Training Institution in Social Gerontology was established (Breen, 1970). Shock felt con cerned that professional workers had not received adequate exposure to the aspects of aging. In 1957 he stated, "there is a definite need for the organization of course 80 material on our knowledge about aging for presentation to ) undergraduate and graduate students. More systematic in- ; struction is imperative if we are to attract potential, competent research and professional workers into this field." (p. 175) There are several points of view on whether or not gerontology should eventually become a self-standing dis cipline or whether it should be incorporated into tradi- ' tional fields of study. Breen (197 0) questions whether one can have a separate scholarly discipline in gerontology and train specialists in the field. Some educators argue that training should be at a generalist level in gerontol ogy with scholarly training and specialization in tradi tional fields such as biology or sociology (Breen, 1970). Kuhlen, Kreps, Kushner, Osterbind and Webber (1967) em phatically state that specialization is possible and should be required within social gerontology. In 1957 Kleemeir took the position that gerontology could be considered a distinctive area of teaching and research. As a separate entity, he said, it could be contained within the univer sity with its own administrative authority, faculty, and academic rights and responsibilities. Within the last two decades, gerontology has become a recognized course of study in university education. A national survey in 1961 by the University of Michigan on 81 ' educational activities showed that progress was being made ^ in the field. From 1958 to 1961, 112 institutions and 116 I departments reported on 221 research projects in gerontol ogy, and 137 theses and dissertations were written. The dissertations were produced in the fields of sociology, psychology, and human development, and the greatest number of master’s degrees were in the field of social work. A survey in 1964, conducted by the Gerontological Society, identified 159 institutions giving some training in geron tology (Breen, 19 70). Of the total number of institutions,. I 80 were academic, 40 were medical or professional, and the rest were agencies. Research programs in gerontology had 19 9 students enrolled or had completed a program, while 1,089 students were in the applied programs. Recommenda tions were made to increase funding for research and train ing, and to develop facilities and resources. It was sug gested that interdisciplinary mechanisms and inter-univer sity cooperation should be undertaken. Breen (1970) con cluded that this report held great promise for the future of gerontology. In 1967, Donahue identified a number of programs, centers, and institutes of gerontology in university set tings which were multidisciplinary in nature and, in addi tion to research programs, offered graduate training. Ex amples given were as follows: Duke Center for Aging Re- 82 search and Human Development; University of Chicago Program of Adult Development and Aging; and. University of Southern , California Rossmoor-Cortise Institute for Study of Retire ment and Aging, and the University of Michigan-Wayne State Institute of Gerontology. More recently, the expansion of gerontology has spread to colleges and universities throughout the country. In 1976 the Association for Gerontology in Higher Education compiled a directory designed to inform educators, pro fessionals, and students of gerontology related courses, degree programs, research programs, educational services, and training programs. The study indicates that there are approximately 1,2 75 institutions in the United States which offer gerontology courses. In California alone 104 insti tutions offer gerontology courses. These institutions may be community colleges, vocational and technical institutes, colleges, universities, professional schools, or non-degree granting institutions (United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Human Development, Admini stration on Aging, Fall 1976). The interest in gerontology is exemplified through the proliferation of training schools in various institutions. More colleges and universities are recognizing the future • importance of gerontology. At the same time, however, there appears to be disagreement as to whether gerontology 83 ' should become a self-standing discipline. Presently, the majority of schools are incorporating gerontology into ■ traditional fields of study. Until this issue becomes re solved, individual institutions will have to decide if a separate and distinct school for gerontology is necessary. Thus, one must conclude that the educational requirements for gerontology are present in the state of development making a definite step toward professional standing. Professional Ideology A professional ideology should center around three important aspects : the notion of service, an emphasis on professional judgment based upon knowledge, and belief in professional freedom and autonomy (Elliott, 1972). Pre sently, a formalized written ideology for gerontology does not exist. There are indications, however, that the need and potential for establishing such an ideology is growing. As mentioned previously, housing, health, economic, and demographic trends support the need for special train ing in the gerontological field. In the past, governmental organizations and private organizations have recognized the responsibility for providing services to the elderly in these areas, however, as Kleemeir and Birren (1967) note, "...while this movement is discernible in many places and agencies, its essential gerontological character tends to be obscured, becoming identified with the fostering agency. 84 ' or in the case of instruction and research programs, with ' traditional scientific disciplines," Cp, 6) There is a I ' need, thus, for "a major, visible and unambiguous invest ment of effort directed toward the solution or alleviation of the problems of aging." (p. 6) Gerontology, as a self standing discipline would have a predominant and exclusive concern with the aged, thereby affirming the ideological interest in services. The study of gerontology has been present as a re search effort for several decades. The need for developing gerontology as a separate discipline in the area of aca demia, however, has been a recent development. In 1967 gerontology had cursory programs throughout the country. In 1975 the University of Southern California established the Leonard Davis School of Gerontology and set precedent by establishing a training and research center for the aged which was housed in a separate school of gerontology. Since July 197 6 a national directory published by the Association of Gerontology for Higher Education, listed 1,275 educa tional programs that dealt with the aged (Watkins, 1977). Thus, as Weg states, "The study of aging has come of age." (Weg, as quoted by Watkins, 197 7.) Since gerontology is so new, the need for qualified practitioners have been unmet. One can expect that very few specialists have had gerontological training. Due to 85 this phenomenon, an emphasis on professional judgment and, the freedom and autonomy to make choices are ideals which : have not yet been tested and/or attained. The field, as it exists in academia today, is newborn and thus special ists trained in gerontology are few in number. The in dications and potential for growth in the field, however, will eventually lead to more trained specialists who will be responsible for making sound, professional and autono mous judgments. Professional Associations In order for gerontology to be considered a profes sion, organizations which set criteria for membership in the field must be established. There are presently three organizations which deal specifically with gerontology. The Gerontological Society is the organization most com monly associated with the field. It is the authoritative voice as author and critic in the formulation of national policy and reflects upon the status of gerontology in modern society (Freeman, 1971). Jerome Kaplan (1970) states that the formation of the Gerontological Society in 1945 marks the most significant contribution on a national scope. The Society is devoted to research on aging and en compasses training and evaluation of services for older people. Research is conducted in biology, clinical medi cine, psychology, social sciences, and social welfare. 86 The Society publishes two journals: the Journal of Gerontology and the Gerontologist. The Journal of Geron tology publishes quarterly reports of original research in the affiliated fields mentioned above. The Gerontologist is also published quarterly and carries articles of general interest in the areas of medical care, recreation, housing, social welfare, employment and any other area which is re lated to aging. The Western Gerontological Society and Association for Gerontology in Higher Education are two organizations which have primarily an educational focus. The primary goals of the Western Gerontological Society is to work for the well being of all older residents of Western states by promoting communication, fostering better understanding of gerontol ogy, stimulating research, and by encouraging professional preparation for gerontological research. Currently, neither the Gerontological Society or Western Gerontological Society have professional require ments for admission. The Gerontological Society requires that one complete an application and have two standing members sign the form, while the Western Gerontological Society invites any individual or organization with an interest in aging to become a member. Both these societies represent rudiments of a professional association. How ever, if the societies are to exist as such, they must be- 87 I come increasingly regulative and set definite standards of admission. I In addition to the three organizations previously men tioned, there are other organizations which have vested in terests in aging. The American Association of Retired Per sons, American Association of Homes for the Aging, American Nursing Home Association, and the National Council on Aging are greatly involved with the elderly. The American Asso ciation of Retired Persons was founded by Dr. Ethel Percy Andrus in 195 8 and is dedicated to research, counseling and correspondence. The organization, furthermore, is volun tary, non-profit, and non-partisan. The American Associa tion of Homes for the Aging was founded in 19 61 and is dedicated to improving programs and standards of institu tions serving older people. The American Nursing Home Association sponsors educational meetings and seminars; and, the National Council on Aging is the leading national voluntary agency which provides professional services for those concerned with the elderly. Code of Ethics Many persons are working within the framework of ger ontology. Up to this point, all have primary allegiance to their own discipline. If the field of gerontology contin ues to move along on the continuum of professional status, and if professionalization is to occur, the necessity of 88 the formulation of a standardized code of ethics is appar ent. Cox (1976) notes that a lack of formalized standards of professional conduct severely limits the professional status of gerontology. Cox believes that the lack of ethical codes is difficult due to the diversity of skills, training, and tasks of membership. The diversity of skills and training is primarily due to the nature of gerontology. Gerontology is of a multi disciplinary nature; that is, a combination of specialized fields, and therefore fosters and produces generalists in this area. Many people who enter the field are already working in specialized areas and their gerontological in terest, therefore, becomes a part of their professional responsibilities. In addition, the fact that gerontologi cal associations have an extremely broad-based membership hinders a stringent code of ethics from developing. The need for ethical standards is quite apparent. The fact that human beings are involved in research and prac tice mandates that ethical standards be considered. Accord ing to Eisdorfer and Wilkie (1970), when one utilizes human subjects in research, three basic elements of technical practice are involved. These include : consent, confidence and standard or accepted procedure. Regulations of standards encompassing gerontology has not yet come about. Guinee (19 70) feels that standards may 89 I only develop when people begin to pay for professional ! services. Since there appears to be some question as to I whether or not gerontology can best provide for the needs I of the elderly, professional services have not yet been , recognized. Thus, people are not paying gerontologists i for services, but are paying those professionals who have ! vested interests within the field. Time and public recog nition of gerontology as the provider of needs and services I for the elderly will support and initiate the formation of i ! a code of ethics. I i The following are basic elements that could apply in i ! the formulation of a code of ethics for gerontology: the idea of services unrestricted by reason of nationality, ■ race, creed, color, or status; safeguarding the individ- : ual's right to privacy; safeguarding the individual from : incompetent or illegal conduct of any person; participa tion in research activities when the rights of the individ- ' ual are protected ; working with members of other profes sions to meet the needs of the public. I Gerontology has not yet reached the point where other of the elements apply, but would need to work toward estab- ; lishment of: maintaining individual competence in prac- I tice for individual actions and in delegating responsibil ities ; define and upgrade standards of practice and educa tion ; through professional organizations, establish and 90 maintain conditions of employment for high-quality service; refusal to endorse advertisements or promotion of commer cial products, services or enterprises. Thus, established professional codes of ethics can be used as guides if j gerontology is to formulate its own code. ' SeIf-regulation Self-regulation has been operationally defined as the ; professional mechanism which maintains the ability of the I discipline to autonomously govern and regulate its members, I j establish standards of service, enforce the code of ethics, I I assume responsibility for disciplinary action, and be pub- ! licly accountable for the actions of its constituency. At ' this point in time, there is no mechanism which controls ' self-regulation in the field of gerontology. Since admis- i sion to the Gerontological Society and Western Gerontolog- I ical Society is virtually open to all, regulation of their I members is non-existent. For example, many of the people : who work in the field are professionals or semi-profes- I sionals in some other field such as teaching, nursing, I social work, counseling, and so forth. As stated pre- I viously, their primary allegiance, thus, may not be di- 1 rected towards gerontology. The diversity of educational background and of services performed is likely to make it ; difficult for those in gerontology to meet a standard of self-regulation which would qualify them as professionals. 911 It is possible, as suggested by Finn and Carmichael (1974), that there will be a division in the field which will be broken down as follows : a) a broad group of paraprofes- 1 sionals of different degrees of skill who work daily with i the aged; b) an intermediate level of semi-professionals ; I and, c) an apex of highly trained academic and scientific ' personnel for research and trining. Future events will I show whether or not these highly differentiated groups will ' be able to unify to the extent necessary to advance geron- ' tology to the level of a profession. j Public Sanction I Since there is no legislation which regulates the i ' practice of gerontology by means of licensure or certifica- I I tion, formal approval by the community does not exist. I Nevertheless, an increase in publications, professional j organizations, governmental programs and community ser- I vices, indicates informal sanction by the public and a i growing awareness and interest in aging. I Mass media and publications help project an image in I the public eye. Several newspapers, magazines, and jour- , nals are currently disseminating information about the elderly. The Los Angeles Times, for example, has run a series of articles on nursing homes, retirement, attitudes ' and stereotypes toward the aged. Social Security benefits and legislation for the elderly, and so forth. Magazines l_2j which have recently published articles dealing with the aged are as follows: Saturday Evening Post, Psychology Today, New West, Ladies Home Journal, and McCall's. Sub- ' jects discussed dealt with sex after sixty, stress and ' ' ! I aging, death and dying, time and leisure, and housing. j Professional journals also help to relate facts and know- I ledge on aging. Examples of these include: Aging, Age and I I ■ : Aging, Long-term Care, Educational Gerontology, Journal of ' ' I Gerontology, Experimental Aging, and Research and Current ' Literature on Aging. i There are also a number of national and scientific I professional organizations which include an interest in the : aged. The American Public Welfare Association, for ex- I ample, has a section devoted primarily to the problems of the aged. The National Council for Homemaker Services, the I American Medical Association, Group Advancement of psychi- ; atry and the Adult Education Association also have divi- i sions working with the aged. In addition, the Division of I Later Maturity, established by the American Psychological I Association, the American Sociological Society, and the ' American Hospital Association, and the American Geriatrics i ; Society, all deal with age related issues. I As mentioned previously, governmental interest in the I aged stems back to the 1930's. The Veterans Administration I ' on aging. Commission on Aging, Senate Sub-committee on 93! Aging, the Social Security Administration, and Area Agen^ cies on Aging help boost the image of the elderly. In addition, the increase in community services for the eld- I erly illustrate the increasing importance of gerontological' : issues. The following represent a sampling of services ^ provided in the Los Angeles area: advocacy; counseling and' I social services; health care services ; home services ; in- ' formation and referral services ; legal services ; nutrition ; 1 ! services ; outreach; recreation; and, transportation are ; ! offered by several agencies. These agencies include : Re- I I tired Senior Volunteer Program; Los Angeles City Parks and i ! Recreation; Senior Citizens Centers ; Los Angeles City ' Office on Aging, and so forth. As evidenced by the increase in public services, aging ■ is a provocative and pressing issue in our society. How- I ever, whether the field of gerontology warrants public recognition as the provider of services remains an issue I I of debate. At present, the term "gerontology" and "geron- 1 ; tologist" have no specific meaning to the general public. Measures must be taken to define gerontological terms so that the public will support the field, as society * s advo- , ! cates for the elderly. Conclusion It must be concluded that gerontology is currently : recognized as a field of specialty with major educational 94 I and career emphasis still resting within the established I ^ professions. That there is a need for gerontological training is unquestionable, but whether or not the public sanctions gerontology as the discipline which best pro" ! vides for the needs of the elderly remains a controversial ; issue. Kleemeir et al. (1967) all agree that gerontology as a separate discipline requires professional education ' and that it can provide specialized training and skills I needed to work with the elderly. In order to ensure more I specialized personnel and quality programs, the following i I recommendations have been made. I. Training schools which place an emphasis on gerontology as a self-standing dis cipline must be established. Lenzer (1966) suggests four propositions which will help more universities integrate gerontology I within their system. They are as follows: I 1. The establishment of interdisciplinary I research centers at major universities across the country. 2. Involve distinguished senior scientists and teachers not currently engaged in the field. 3. Imbed aging into the curricula of uni- I versity schools and departments; make 95 curriculum material available at the least possible cost and incon venience to such schools; and, with a minimum amount of disruption of the existing institutional program. 4. Establish and increase contact with existing professional associations which help set standards for members ; of the profession. I ! II. If gerontology is to take the route of pro- I i fessionalization, immediate and long range goals need to be established. These are : I 1. Definition of the role and services I j to be provided by gerontologists. i j 2. Establish an organization with member- ; ship requirements based upon certain ^ minimums of specialized education and ■ training in gerontology or establish I a core of members having specialized training within the framework of ex isting gerontological societies. 3. Establish committees within the pro fessional organization to formulate standards of education and practice with a means of evaluation of the standards. 96 4. Evolvement of a code of ethics to ensure accountability and responsi bility for actions of gerontologists. 5. Formulation of a certification pro- | cedure to screen for gerontological knowledge as a basis for practice; this procedure to be devised by the organization to protect and maintain i ! autonomy. Certification can eventually I take the form of governmental licensing j to ensure legal protection and enforce- j ment, and to meet the criteria of public I sanction. ! I Gerontology, thus, lacks some of the designated I criteria needed to be considered a profession. Neverthe- I less, a growing public awareness, an increasing number of ! elderly persons, and pressing needs indicate that gerontol- ! ogy has a proclivity towards increasing structure, stand- I i ardization, and regulation of the field. 97 CHAPTER V THE INTERFACE BETWEEN GERONTOLOGY AND PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION Introduction Little formal relationship exists between the field of public administration and gerontology. Gerontological issues are not raised in the public administration litera ture . The generic approach to administrative problem solving taken by public administration is a likely explana tion for this omission. The generic approach offers gen eral techniques and solutions in administrative problem solving that may be applied to many organizational set tings. In contrast, the field of gerontology focuses on a specific age group and the relevant issues associated with that group. Though the public administration literature does not deal with the interface, many organizations, in practice, are functioning examples of the interrelation ships of gerontology and public administration. 98 Interface in Organizations The Social Security Administration is a prominent ex ample of an organization in which administrators in the public sector work directly and indirectly on behalf of ' older adults. Through the Old Age, Survivors, Disability j ^ and Health Insurance program, administered by the Social Security Administration, income that is lost when a worker retires, becomes severely disabled or dies is partially re- ! placed by cash benefits. Partial protection against the I high cost of health care during old age and disability is j j also provided. The following statistic indicates the mag- I nitude of the program's effect on older adults in this ; country. About 91 percent of the older adults in the ! United States are receiving monthly cash benefits or will j be eligible for their benefits when they, or their spouses, I I stop working (U.S. Dept, of Health, Education and Welfare, 1 I 1973) . Since January 1974 the Social Security Administra- I I tion has also been charged with administering the Supple- I mental Security Income (SSI) program. Rather than an earn- I ings based program, SSI is a transfer payment program sup plied by general revenue funds designed to establish a minimum income floor under the nation's elderly, disabled ■ and blind. Having replaced the Old Age Assistance program, ^ the administration of the SSI program has a major impact on our nation's low income older adults. 99 The Administration on Aging, established by the fed eral Older Americans Act of 196 5, as amended, is another example of a public agency administering programs that serve older adults. The Administration on Aging does not i provide direct services to older adults but, among its functions, it does administer grants provided by the Older Americans Act, arrange for research on aging, provide technical assistance and consultation to states and other j political subdivisions and develop basic policies and I priorities with respect to the development of programs and > I i activities authorized by the Act. The Administration on I Aging also carries on a continuing evaluation of the pro- I I grams related to the Act. Certainly, the administrators ' at the federal Administration on Aging level, the state I office level and at the Area Agencies (as set forth as I ^ local planning and coordinating bodies under the Older I Americans Act) are involved with gerontological issues on a 'daily basis though exposure to formal gerontological train- I ing is at a minimum (Woodruff & Birren, 19 74). I I At the local level, the interface between public ad ministration and gerontology is embodied not only in the Area Agency on Aging offices, which are specifically de signed to work with aging issues, but also in public hous- ; ing authorities. Many communities now have public housing for low income older adults and program administrators must 100 become more aware of the special housing requirements and preferences of the older resident. Though technically not in the public sector, nursing : home administrators are also concerned with issues of both I i gerontology and public administration. Financial depend- j i ency on government reimbursement programs (Medicare and ‘ Medicaid) for patient care and stiffer government regula- ; tion of the nursing home industry draw the nursing home I ever closer to the public sector as he or she confronts I gerontological issues on a daily basis. 1 Demographi cs ' Woodruff and Birren (1974) describe a study which ( found that 350,000 professional and technical workers are ' employed solely or primarily in the service of the elderly, I I yet only 10 to 2 0 percent of these workers have any formal i gerontological training. Projections indicate that by ! 1980 a need will exist for nearly one million more profes sionals and technicians specializing in aging. Included in . this group are administrators for institutions, community I organizations, and federal and state agencies. The number of adults age 6 5 and over will rise dramat- ' ically in the coming decade. By the year 2020, more than 40 million persons will be over age 65 compared with 22 million today (Woodruff & Birren, 1975). The greater num- f ber of older adults will require increased efficiency and .101 capability in service delivery, an area of concern for ad ministrators in the public sector. Academic Trends in Public Administration Schott (1976) calls on the field of public administra-! ' tion to be more modest in its claims to professionalism. | I The study of public administration provides a needed , breadth of view in administrative problem solving but, in I practice, the public service including its administrative ! functions has been professionalized by an influx of leader-' ^ ship from professions other than those who are formally i ' trained in public administration. Public administrators i lack the cohesiveness afforded by a similar educational ■background to be considered a full-fledged profession. ! Instead of emphasizing professionalism, Schott (1976) sug- 1 ! gests an enhancement of linkages with related disciplines, I Education is an area where linkages have already been ■ I initiated. Though Henry (1975) views public administration I I as intellectually prepared to build an autonomous educa tional curriculum to develop the uniqueness of the field, this uniqueness would not appear to preclude the develop ment of educational linkages with other disciplines, such I ! as gerontology. The University of Southern California has a dual degree program in which a student receives a ! master's degree in public administration as well as geron tology. The Continuing Education Division at the Andrus 102 1 ! Gerontology Center offers short-term training opportunities for administrators and other practitioners to become fam iliar with new and updated knowledge in gerontology. An : area of interest addressed at the two week 1977 Summer ' Institute for Study in Gerontology is the interface between, administration and gerontology. Institute course titles I include Social Policy, Politics and Administration for the Aging and Administrative Problem Solving in Long Term Care. ' j Such programs may raise the consciousness of administrators I toward the special needs of older client groups. The gen- ! i eric approach taken by public administration may then be j adapted to fit the situation and circumstances of the older I population. I I Trends in the Practice of Public Administration In their capacity as translators of social policy into 'actual programs, administrators are in the enviable posi- : tion of having the potential to influence how the greater I I community views the aging process. Through the functions of planning, coordination and evaluation, the administrator ,determines how the older population will be served. 1 Through his or her efforts, the amount of dignity accorded jparticipants will be largely determined. Even the level of client participation may be determined by the actions of the administrator (Lebowitz, 1976). The degree of partici pation by the elderly poor in the Supplemental Security 103j I Income program is not solely determined by the level of I j potential cash benefits. Another factor influencing pa.r-^ j ticipation is the extent to which the public is aware of I I ; the program. Though it sounds simplistic, a potential ! recipient must first be made aware of a program's existencej before he can avail himself of its benefits or services. ; ' The perceived degree of complexity of the administrative application process also affects participation levels. A lengthy and complex application process might easily dis- I I courage the elderly applicant. With awareness of the I special needs and concerns of the older adults, the sensi- : ' tive administrator can and will work toward informing the i public and providing a dignified atmosphere in which to apply for benefits. Certainly the administrator is con- , strained by program regulations and policy guidelines but I he may, if he is aware and chooses to, use his discretion- ! ary judgment to the advantage of the elderly recipients SSI j is intended to serve. i Another example of the special need for sensitivity by the administrator is offered by Libow (1974) who calls for the formation of a geriatric community health care system. I Under her plan, the administration of a community hospital would take the leadership role in the special planning needs of older adults in order to develop a system for co ordinating already existing services. Libow (1974) 104 j ' stresses that if the public sector does not improve its I efforts in delivering reasonable care, then the private sector will step in with the potential for abuse, exploita- ; tion, and the attendant regulatory problems such as those | found in the private nursing home industry. , I 1 Conclusion Human demand will change in future decades as our ; population undergoes a demographic shift toward old age. ! Our focus will shift from the problems of juveniles to I those of older adults. Through thoughtful planning, co- , I I ' ordination and effective evaluation, administrators in the ' : public sector may encourage and promote the dignity, I I respect and independence of older American. When success- ! ' ful, such programs can help lessen the ageist stereotypes I prevalent in American society. The need is for greater I I education of those in the public sector as to the special j problems of the older adult. The beginnings of increased I interaction and training between public administration and I I gerontology are in existence but continued effort in that I I direction is necessary to meet the demands of the coming decades. 105 I CHAPTER VI METHODOLOGY i ] Introduction I The previous chapters have presented information re- j garding professions in general, the discipline of public I administration in particular and the nature of gerontol ogy's association with public administration. Education j plays a vital role in the preparation of a professional, ^ ' therefore, a major part of this study deals with the educa- I tional training of personnel for practice in their respec- | ; tive disciplines. | I I One of the major purposes of this study is to assess j ; the gerontological content of curricula leading to a degree: ' I in the following disciplines at accredited colleges and universities in the state of California: adult education, I I ' I counselor education, dentistry, law, medicine, nursing, ■ 1 ! public administration, and social work. This chapter will discuss the procedures and methods used in collecting this I and related information. Due to the nature of the survey 106 design, no research hypothesis is formulated. Future studies in this area may formulate research hypotheses from the conclusions drawn here. This chapter has been divided into five sections : (1) Procedures for Entire Project; I I (2) Specific Procedures of the Public Administration Re- , searcher; (3) Selection of Colleges and Universities for Study; (4) Description of Survey Questionnaires; and, ; (5) Treatment of the Data. I Procedures for Entire Project The initial step of the researchers was to form groups I ; to Study the eight disciplines and the accredited educa- j tional counterparts of: adult education, counselor educa- I tion, dentistry, law, medicine, nursing, public administra-. I tion, and social work in the State of California. These ! disciplines were selected for study because relationships i I I between them and aging people exist. Student interest in I ' researching these disciplines was also a factor in the I . selection. With only two exceptions, the members of the I I groups in this study were using it as their master's pro- ' ject. Each group produced a thesis based upon the study of their discipline. Once the groups were selected, the researchers were given guidance in the form of an outline of seven areas to , ; i ; cover (Appendix A) . The first of these steps was an ex tensive review of the literature on professionalism. This 107 included a generic review of professions that included : definitions, criteria and development of professions, responsibilities within professions, between professions and to the public at large. The next step was a similar ! review of the literature respective to the disciplines | chosen by the groups of this project. Each discipline was related to the previous section on professions. This in- , eluded a history of the discipline and the processes lead- I ing to the development, establishment and activities of the ' discipline as a profession. The third step was an examina-! • ! I tion of the relationship of the individual discipline to I ! the field of gerontology. The fourth step was a study of , the relationships of the field of gerontology to the in- ; dividual discipline as each developed along the profes sional continuum. This step also included an examination : of gerontology as a developing profession. The first and ! I fourth steps were researched by all members of the project I and were incorporated into each thesis. The second and ! third steps were researched by individual groups and were ■ I I included into each thesis according to discipline. I The fifth step was a study of the educational institu tions and their curriculum in gerontology for each disci pline. Two separate, specialized questionnaires were de vised to collect the data. One was specifically con- i I structed for the purpose of recording material secured 108 through the 19 76-1977 catalogs and bulletins of the schools studied. (See Appendix B, Information Collection Form, IGF.) The second questionnaire was developed to record the information not available in the catalogs or which I ' needed clarification (See Appendix C, Interview Data Col- | lection Form, IDCF). A letter explaining the study (see I Appendix G) and a copy of the interview questionnaire was , sent to the dean of the surveyed departments. The letter : alerted the dean or his/her representative, that a research I team member would be in telephone contact within thirty I days to enable the completion of the enclosed Interview Data Collection Form. The researchers conducted a special I session with supporting faculty on interviewing techniques,; 1 ' before the interviews took place, as a major method to de- , monstrate and refine these techniques. This was to assure j maximum data return to meet survey goals. I ! Personal interviews were conducted if the participat- ' ing education institution was within a 100-mile radius of the University of Southern California. Otherwise, tele- I phone interviews were necessary to be cost-effective. The I protocol for the telephone and personal interviews was the I , same. In some cases, the Interview Data Collection Form was completed and returned to the researchers by mail be- , fore contact was made for an interview appointment. In ! other instances, respondents would not submit to an inter 109 view of any kind, but did complete and return the Interview Data Collection Form. In those professions where they exist, the licensing boards and credentialing procedures were studied to enable | completion of step six. This study included the require- j ments for gerontological knowledge needed for each type of : license or credential. The seventh and final step in- ' volved the establishment of the conclusions and proposals I for the profession of gerontology in the future as related I ■ to each of the eight disciplines. I ! Specific Procedures of the Public Administration Researcher Educational institutions locate the study of public i administration in various ways. At some institutions, ' public administration is a separate professional school. i I At others, a separate department of public administration I j is established within a social science division or college I of arts and sciences. Professional schools of public ad- : ministration are sometimes combined with another profes- ^ sional school such as a business school. Public admini- i stration programs are also found within political science ' departments. Because of this organizational variety, the 1 ! California institutions to be studied were taken from the membership roster of the National Association of Schools I of Public Affairs and Administration (NASPAA). Only NASPAA. member institutions located within California were studied. HQ] Seventeen such institutions made up the sample. The Interview Data Collection Form and the cover letter were sent to the dean, director, or chairperson of I the public administration program. The names of such per- ! sons were drawn from the NASPAA membership roster. Four j questionnaires were forwarded to other faculty members for * response. The Interview Data Collection Form from Cali- ' fornia State University, Long Beach was completed and re- i ! turned by mail with a note indicating that the survey is 1 ; actually more properly related to courses taught by other academic departments. Except for this one school, all other schools were contacted for a face-to-face interview 1 i or a telephone interview as already described. Face-to- face interviews were conducted with persons from these in- 1 stitutions: California State Polytechnic University, Pomona; California State University, Fullerton ; California : State University, Los Angeles ; Pepperdine University; Uni- ! versity of California, Los Angeles; University of Cali- I fornia. Riverside; and, the University of Southern Cali- ! fornia. These nine universities were interviewed by tele phone: California State University, Chicago; California . State University, Hayward; California State University, ! Sacramento; Golden Gate University; San Diego State Uni versity; San Jose State University; Stanford University ; ; ' University of California, Berkeley; University of Cali- ■ fornia, Irvine. : l l l J I I No licensing or credentialing board exists in the I field of public administration. The Professional Standards’ Committee of the American Society for Public Administration I (ASPA) has been working to develop a process to achieve I higher professional standards of public service. This pro-| cess is to be based on voluntary participation employing the tools of self-diagnosis and collection of data for , evaluation by ASPA. The voluntary nature of this program j and the relatively small size of ASPA membership, in com- ; ! parison to the total of those in public service, would ex- , elude the efforts of the Committee from being considered i similar to a licensing board. I Selection of Colleges and Universities Accredited California institutions of higher education j offering courses of study leading to degrees in the follow- Iing disciplines served as the sample population for this survey: adult education, counselor education, dentistry, law, medicine, nursing, public administration, and social I work. The dean of the school, department chairman or the program director served as the initial respondent for the study. In the event this person was unavailable, subse- I :quent contacts were made with a representative of that person. I The researcher in public administration selected the I 'sample institutions based on geographical location within 112J i California and inclusion on the NASPAA membership roster. Description of Survey Questionnaires As a result of extensive literature reviews on pro- , fessionalism and the eight disciplines included in the ! sample, two questionnaires were developed by a student- | I ' faculty group to obtain factual and attitudinal information' for the survey about schools granting degrees in each of I the eight disciplines and their programs. The goal was to I ; assess the availability of gerontological content and ger- I ontological exposure students receive in the schools offer-j I ing degrees in the eight mentioned disciplines. The ques- ' 1 I I tionnaires were developed in order to gather information in the following areas: degrees offered, courses with geron- ; tological content, field practice, student population, faculty population, continuing education, instructor mem- 1 bership in the professional gerontological associations, idissertations and theses written about gerontology, jour- I I nals subscribed to by the school library, plans for future gerontology courses, training of instructors in gerontology and attitudinal questions about the importance of gerontol- ■ ogy to the school. f Information was obtained from the 1976-1977 course catalogs by the researchers and was transcribed to the ; library questionnaire (IGF, Appendix B) . The variables in the questionnaire are : types of degrees/certificates 113 j offered by the department, courses in the departmental curricula as indicated in the course catalog that contain content related to gerontology, requirements by the depart ment of a field practicum, internship or traineeship, I I I ; student population of the institution, faculty population j I of the department, number of faculty holding doctorates within the department, researcher rating of the incorpora tion of gerontology in the departmental curriculum, con- I tinuing education offerings by the department, and con- ! I tinuing education classes with gerontological content. : The interview questionnaire (IDCF, Appendix C) was j developed to collect information not readily available in the course catalogs. An interview with the dean or a ' representative appointed by the dean was used to complete this questionnaire. The variables included in the inter view questionnaire are: number of students enrolled in the department courses offered within the department curricula I that contain gerontology content, instructors membership in, i I either the Gerontological Society or the Western Geron- I tological Society, number of agencies used for field practica, number of students in field practica, agencies I that provide students with the opportunity to work with or on behalf of older adults, numbers of doctoral disserta tions and master's theses related to aging written in the department since 19 71, aging journals subscribed to by the 114 ' school library, future plans for gerontology, percentage of I department faculty that teach aging related courses with gerontological training, and three attitudinal questions ! about the importance of gerontology to the department cur- ; riculum, the discipline, and to the future of the dis cipline. I In order to determine the reliability or dependability • i of the three attitudinal questions (numbers 5, 5 and 12) i I ; j on the interview questionnaire. A stability or test-retest ' interpretation of reliability was obtained in the follow- I ing manner. Three attitudinal questions were reproduced I on a single sheet of paper and were administered to 15 ; graduate students of the Leonard Davis School of Gerontol- ■ ; ogy at the University of Southern California. The subjects were given no more information than to answer the three , questions in relation to their own discipline. A week ! later, a retest of the same three questions was adminis- I ; tered to the same subjects. The three attitudinal ques- ' tions were found to be reliable. The data from the re- ! liability test is available in Appendices D, E and F. Treatment of the Data The 11 researchers attempted to quantify the amount of gerontology subject matter of courses leading to degrees in the eight disciplines, and other related material. The i purpose of the analysis was to assess any associations 115 i among the variables of the questionnaires. The data was I 1 treated with descriptive statistics and presented in nar ration, raw numbers, percentages, frequencies and tables or measures that were appropriate to examine the possible ' associations between variables within each of the eight disciplines, and between the eight disciplines. The researcher in public administration first presents , a summarizing table of the schools contacted, followed by a ! narration of each educational institution and its offer- i ings. A table was then prepared to depict the replies to I the three attitudinal questions on the Interview Data I j Collection Form. A narrative followed, describing other i information from the Interview Data Collection Form. The extent of gerontological content in the public administra- ; tion curricula was so minimal that presentation of data in I I graph or chart form would not be effective. .116J CHAPTER VII RESULTS I I Introduction ' Seventeen educational institutions offering study in I public administration were studied, especially as they re- ! late to gerontology. The results of that study are re ported here. A Summary Description of Educational Insti tutions is first presented in tabular form. A description i of each institution and its gerontological offerings is then presented in alphabetical narrative form. A table showing the attitude of the respondents toward aging is 1 Î presented, followed by additional information in narrative I form. No discussion of licensing or credentialing is in cluded because no such procedures exist in the field of , public administration. Narrative Description of Educational Institutions California State Polytechnic University, Pomona has a i total student population of 12,000. Forty undergraduate students are enrolled in the public administration option 117 o> _ o 0 3 TO C U t - TO cu 4 3 C U 4 - S - + 3 4 - C U 03 O C _ 3 C U C D s~ C U C U < t L_ _ c c + 3 C U 4-> c o - > - z & - c o 3 O CD h- CJ) < = C ZD 1 — t— oo z + 3 _ l 3 C U c n <=c O N CM z 03 o Li_ CO 1 — < C_) ZD c O o LU ■M 4-> U _ C 03 O C U o O • TO 3 O z < C 3 Q l CM o • 4 3 O D _ CO D _ t— CL. Q :: C_) CO L U C Q o > - 4-> 4-> o O O f c 03 o O C U TD 3 o O :s : 3 Cl CM CM ZD 4-> O CO to CL. 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X J eu eu 4- 43 4- 0 3 : 0 eu C D D f eu eu s - < c e n eu £ 3 4 3 c 43 eu 43 S c 0 C D c_> eu C D e n S - c 3 0 e n c _ )< c ; > y 4 3 3 eu 0 N 03 U _ c o C O +3 43 C t a <v I— • -o 3 CC 3 Q . • 43 O Q - CO C i- o s S -- c n O o S -. • I - Q - jû 4- » 3 c : Q_ a > E . o> cC en . 03 c û c • 03 43 3 O en JÛ • 3 Q Q - . • J3 4 - û _ o 5 — - > v ( U O 43 « l — C D I — or o 2i:a_ £ 3 Q - c o C D 03 £ 3 ' J 3 Q - « = C « C i - « = c : I 03 S - . 43 C D "O ‘ ^43* 4- S -. O C D O &_ QJ A ' ' 43 c: C D o 03 T- 4 3 0 0 s : C 3 J Z £3 - < C O - £ 3 CO C û ce D - CM CM L O CO C D e u >-- CM 00 en r— LO O L O 0 0 CM CM O 00 00 CM C 0 0 0 0 0 0 43 4 3 0 0 0 0 0 c 03 0 LO 0 0 eu X J 3 0 0 0 0 LO 3 £û_ CO CO 43 0 c o Q . eu X 3 eu eu C D C eu c : s - 0 3 > eu s - > e t >■ 4 3 X J cu t - 4 - 3 t - Cû S 0 4 3 0 4 - eu 4 3 C E C D 03 0 u u u 03 C 4 3 CO 3 > 3 > 3 ) 3 ) o o L O O o o en c S - . eu j c r 4 3 03 3 •!— ^ £ o " r - • 03 3> ( _ ) XJ eu C D 43 r O >■ eu S - . X I X I c r C D 0 03 S-. X : Q - 4 3 X J c 3 eu eu 0 4 3 E • r — 03 4 3 4 3 S -. 03 eu 0 3 ^ S -. S-. CD- 4 3 eu (D Q e t C eu c : O - ( j E 0 c eu X 3 C eu u < C 4 3 c : 03 ( j eu u S - C D c o 4 3 4 3 4 3 ( j C D C D C 3 c o 4 3 X 3 eu 0 3 0 S - 3 C X 3 CJ 4 - eu c c û _ 3 X J 0 4 3 ’ e 4 34 3 eu 03 4 - 4— "O 4 3 C D C D s - (J 0 0 e r 03 0 C D 0 0 4 - S-. S-. ( j S - 4 3 Q _ £D _ eu eu eu eu X : 4 34 34 3 > • C D eu e n ( j S -. C D C D x a S - S -. c 03 eu 03 03 3 sz eu CÛ u z r z : C l. 3 3 4 — 4 3 eu eu c XD s - eu > > C D eu e t : eu 4 3 4 3 (— c c o s - < e C l. c : eu eu eu e n s - Cû u s : s r û _ 3 ) c r S-. e t : 4 3 3 c CJ C D eu 0 E C D 4 3 s - 03 E c Q - 03 0 u eu S-. c £ 3 e n 0 4 3 ZD 0 03 eu s - 4 3 S-. 4 3 CJ Q - 03 4 3 03 sz S-. C D eu 4 3 • 1 — C D <=t: C D C 03 4 3 ( j C c o Ou C E c eu X 3 S - X 3 s r E c e > , 0 3 03 X 3 X : 4 - 4 3 0 eu e t C D £ û - t - C D X : C D eu 0 1 — 4 3 h - C D (J eu ( j C D 03 4 3 c c 0 U e t: i - eu 0 e t . X 3 C D • r - 4 - Ou Ou C D 3 3 ( j x r 0 s - 4 - û _ CÛ c o û _ 0 eu eu 0 03 0 0 X ) •r—' 4 - 4 — 4 — 4- 43 4 3 E S - C 0 0 0 0 - r - 4 - 0 S - C D 0 sz E 0 £ - £ - s - S - eu 4 - 0 eu eu 0 eu eu X I X : 4 34 34 34 3 > s - 4 34 3 ( j 0 C D C D 0 *1 - 3 03 03 0 03 03 0 c e n s 3 CÛ 0 Q s : s : £ 3 ZD 0 4 - C D 03 E 4 - eu 03 X I S - e n CÛ h - e n e n e t e t e t eu Q • 4 3 e t Q . Cû c o • U 0 03 X : . z CÛ U Q s : s ;- o . Z 3 4 c 119 i in the Political Science Department. The option leads to a B.A. in political science. The Department has nine faculty members of whom eight hold doctorates. The Dean suggested speaking with a faculty member he considered i I . : knowledgeable about gerontologically related curricula. ; That faculty member listed the following courses as having the potential for aging content at the discretion of the ; instructor. This gerontological content is not mentioned I in the course syllabi or school catalog. I j Courses related to aging Aging content i Public Administration 5 percent Public Policy 5 percent I * California State University, Chico has a total student I population of 12,000. There are 150 students enrolled in the Department of Political Science M.P.A. program and ' another 50 students in the Certificate in Public Admini stration program. The Department has 27 faculty members iof whom 23 hold doctorates. The courses related to aging I j and the aging content distribution is listed below. Courses related to aging Aging content ! Health Service Planning 5 percent Politics of Health Care Delivery 12 percent California State University, Fullerton, has a total | ' 1 student population of 22,000. Two hundred twenty-five grad- 120 I uate students are enrolled in the Department of Political I Science M.P.A. (Master of Public Administration) program. i One hundred additional students are working toward a B.A. I in political science with a concentration in Public Admini-, I stration. The Department has 2 4 faculty members of whom 21 hold doctorates. No courses contain aging content. J California State University, Hayward has a total I student population of 11,70 0. Five hundred graduate stu- I dents are enrolled in the Department of Public Administra- , i ‘ : tion which offers an M.P.A. degree. The Department has 13 ■ ' faculty members of whom three have doctorates. No courses I contain aging content. California State University, Long Beach has a total ' student population of 33,000. Four hundred seventy-six I ! graduate students are enrolled in the Center for Public I Policy and Administration. An M.P.A. is the degree offered. I The Department has seven faculty members of whom five hold I I doctorates. Courses related to aging and the percentage ; of class content devoted to aging issues follows : Courses related to aging Aging content Social Services Administra tion in the Public Sector 0-10 percent (varies) Seminar on Issues in Con temporary Public Administration 0-10 percent | i Research Methods in Public Administration 0-10 percent Special Topics in Public Administration 0-10 percent I ,X2lJ j California State University, Los Angeles has a student I j population of 21,704. Three hundred seventy-five students are in the Department of Political Science working toward I sn M.S. in Public Administration. Twenty-five undergradu- ; ates are working toward the Department's B.A. in Political | Science with a Public Administration option. The Depart- ; ment has 25 faculty members, all of whom hold doctorates. I No courses contain aging content. California State University, Sacramento has a student 1 population of 20,000. Two hundred fifty graduate students . I ' are enrolled in the Department of Public Administration in the M.P.A. program. Three hundred fifty undergraduates are working toward a B.S. in Public Administration. Of the seven faculty members three hold doctorates. No courses in I the department contain aging content. I . Golden Gate University has a total student population i j of 9,000. One thousand three hundred students are in the I Graduate School of Public Administration. The School I offers a D.P.A. and a M.P.A. degree. A B.A. in Public ^ Administration is available through the undergraduate College of Business and Public Administration. Of the 84 ' faculty members, 28 hold doctorates. No courses with aging' content are offered. ! I Pepperdine University has a total student population ' ,122j { of 2,000. Three hundred graduate stuents are enrolled in I the M.P.A. program offered through the Public Administra- i tion Department. A B.S. in Public Management is offered through the School of Business and Management. The total - number of faculty members and their educational background j I was not available in the school catalog. The description of the educational program itself was non-specific, when ; compared to descriptions offered by other schools. No I I courses with aging content are offered through the Depart- I ' ment. i ! San Diego State University has a total student popula tion of 28,000. Five hundred students are enrolled in the I School of Public Administration and Urban Studies. Degrees ’ offered in Public Administration include a Certificate in Public Administration, an A.B. in Applied Arts and Sciences : with a Public Administration major, and an M.P.A. The 16 faculty members all hold doctorates. No courses offered : aging content in the school. i San Jose State University has a student population of I ' 2 7,500. Two hundred fifty graduate students are enrolled in the M.P.A. program offered by the Department of Politi cal Science. Of the 21 faculty members an unknown number hold doctorates. No courses with aging content are of fered. 12 3. stanford University has a total student population of 11,400. Sixty-five graduate students are enrolled in the j Public Management Program of the Graduate School of Busi- j ness. The degree offered is an M.B.A., Public Management , Program. Of the 2 2 faculty members who teach in the , I I Public Management Program, an unknown number hold doctor- ' i I ates. No courses with aging related content are offered. 1 The University of California, Berkeley has a total i student population of 30,000. Eighty graduate students i • are enrolled in the Graduate School of Public Policy. The , I I degrees offered are a Master of Public Policy and a Ph.D. in Public Policy. Among the 12 faculty members, 10 hold doctorates. The following course may have gerontological content at the professor's discretion. I Courses related to aging Aging content I Research Methods and Communication 0-10 percent j ' The University of California, Irvine has a total stu- ' dent population of 8,500. Two hundred twenty-five gradu- i I ate students are enrolled in the Graduate School of Admin- I istration. The degrees offered are an M.S. in Administra- Ition and a Ph.D. in Administration. Fourteen of the 18 I faculty members hold doctorates. No courses with aging re lated content are offered. ,12_4_ ! The University of California, Los Angeles has a total I 1 student population of 30,000 students. Through the Depart ment of Political Science, 30 students work toward an I M.P.A. degree. The M.P.A. degree program is presently ' being phased out because of a changing focus in the Depart-, ment. The trend in this Department is toward a more theo retical, less practical emphasis. An M.A. in Public Admin istration will still be offered. In the Ph.D. program, one j of the four areas of specialties is Public Administration. I Of the 5 9 faculty members in the Political Science Depart- j ment, 52 hold doctorates. No courses with aging content ' are offered. i The University of California, Riverside has a total student population of 5,000. One hundred fifty students I I are in the Graduate School of Administration. The main j degree offered is a Master of Administration with four j major fields. One of the major fields is Public Admini- j stration for which 60 students have opted. A Certificate I ; in Administration is also offered. The number of faculty ; members is 13, of whom 10 hold doctorates. No courses with aging content are offered. j The University of Southern California has a total student population of 19,000. The School of Public Admini-i ' stration, with 1,500 students, offers several degrees. , Those degrees are a B.S. in Public Administration, an 125 M.P.A., an M.S. in International Public Administration (in I conjunction with the School of International Relations), a Ph.D. in Public Administration (through the Graduate j School), and a D.P.A., which is a professional, rather than: academic, doctorate. Of the 44 faculty members, 2 8 hold doctorates. Though no courses with aging content are ' offered through the School, the School does rely on the I Andrus Gerontology Center on the USC campus to provide ! classwork in gerontology to interested public administra- ' tion students. A dual mater degree program is presently ) functioning between the School of Public Administration and i the Davis School of Gerontology which is located within the I I i Andrus Gerontology Center. I Additional Information from the Interview 1 Data Collection Form In reply to the question concerning faculty membership I 1 in the Gerontological Society or the Western Gerontological f Society, no respondents answered affirmatively. This ques- ; tion was applicable to only the four schools that reported Some courses related to aging. It is interesting to note that of the four schools ; which reported some gerontological content in their cur- ; ricula (California Polytechnic University, Pomona; Cali fornia State University, Chicago; California State Uni versity, Long Beach; and. University of California, ; Berkeley), all four are publicly supported schools. Three I i 126 E O C3 CM (U JD ( T 3 C£ 5 43 VD <c: o ai *a I — r— C ZD r— ns O o C û o u o <c: ra to 00 43 c UJ fO o CD CD - I- =3 43 I — S I D I — I ai oi h- * 1- 3 I— > CZr <c: s - ai 43 43 CL. CL ^ E ^ E VD *1 — VD « I— >> 0 S-. S- S- 43 0 ) a i a i > c 43 0 0 43 ro ro a i ^ 43 43 s- 0 CL- CL E 43 E c •>- — , S 43 C c 0 O J to 43 c 0 43 ro 43 0 C D .. C D . CL E ' E e : cr> 0 c 0 co 43 CD 43 C T V C M ro C C O ro (O JC 0 — s JC E gj gi 43 3 E 10 c - E . 0 O J J= 0 3 3 co 3 43 00 0 t/î *r— to t/î 5 O J S-. C D S- ■0 S-. 3 en a i 3 a c c 0 43 ‘r— ^ 43 0 C D . OD O J C D . 0 E ro 0 E ai 0 C 43 jC 0) 0 ro 0 43 0 >> S-- ID S-. ro S-. e u S- to ^ e u 3 r - > LO > 0 ro 3 co > ^ 4 3 43 0 C 43 C 0 > > 0 0 ■0 a j Z z E ■ 0 U D 3 43 I— to 0 s- 3 O J 3 rO 0 4- CL 5t 0 43 a i s- c ■ a 43 Q . ro 43 C 43 43 C D . . ro S- CL. s- ro E 43 Z3 E 0 43 ■<- ^ 0 ^ 'r - C D . 0 CD 0 C M E 43 CO 0 C D . r — 0 C E 00 C s - ■ 1 — a i 3 3 4- 3 4 - 0 0 0 2 00 0 z z > > — 0 to ' O J >• to O ) cr X C / D t o O J 8 S- O to C o ro O E n 3 +-> S- O E to ro jC O o s- ai OD 4- o C ^ * ë c - I- ai 1 — 43 C L c - I- o o (_) to ai *o J C 4 3 s - 3 43 O « T 3 >ï 43 4- O ai oj ai s- 4 - 3 4 3 8 5 O J > ai c o 4 3 to O J 3 CD- D o e n 0 1 4 3 r- 0 0 E e n 4 3 ai 3 c X J 0 0 J C s- e u 4 3 O J J Z 4 3 e n 4 3 to r o 4 3 4 3 4- c 4 3 r o 0 s- O J 0 •a 4 3 4 3 c o 4 3 c t o 0 0 e n 4 3 ai ai C L 3 JZ c t o L O 0 e n O J e u 3 s- 0 s- 4 3 0 r o 4 3 -C 2 C D . O J 43 4 3 r o J D E c 3 ^ -1- 4 3 e u to C C L < 0 - 0 4 3 r o C M > > 4- s - C e u S - 0 c u O J L O O J CL X3 O J 43 > 4 3 C 43 C V D 0 r o s- o ; C L 0 0 0 D o to * 1 —4- S- eu x3 ai C s- c to C L 0 c e u 0 4 3 co S - Q C D . C M c 4 3 ai 4 3 r- E 0 E c r o <0 - r — ' e u 3 4— ' i — 0 to 0 I — to 3 C D . x r OJ 0 43 . p - C L 2 4 - c 0 E 0 s- ai to 4 3 s- s- 0 * 1 — r O C D . 3 s- X J to 4 3 x r 0 e u 4 3 C D . 4 3 S- C L aj E JZ eu e u r o LD 43 XI 4 3 4 3 V D c > > r o 4 3 C 4 - r o 0 ( U 43 0 4 3 c E r o > > -o 4 3 JZ e u 4 3 ^ e n c S- 4 3 s- ai LD • ! — 4 3 r o 3 co 1 — c C L e n 4 3 0 00 X r o e u c 3 0 4 3 -o • 1 — 4 - to to S - 0 s- U ai s- -o CL ( U J Z 3 c E O J 1 — 4 3 0 r o 4 - 4 3 ( U s- c 43 e u e u s- 0 C D . > s- c 4 - E g i O J 4- 2 C M to en 4 3 1 — C r o ^ 0 t o to c 0 0 c c O J r o c -1 - X J 0 to 4 3 0 4 3 4- s- S - • 1 — r o 0 0 4 3 3 0 4 3 0 to 0 C L to * 1 — XI O J 0 E ai 1 — s- 3 3 C L r o cr D o O ' E en to 0 4 - 0 ro 4- 4 3 0 2 0 43 0 C 4 3 to 4 3 Do to r o 4 - 4 3 c e n 4 3 4 3 0 0 1 — S- XI 3 s- 3 0 to to O J 0 to C D . e u en 43 a j E 0 s- c i- r- 4 3 0 O J r o s- O J to CL J Z J Z ai J Z r o S - 1— 4 3 en 1— J Z en 127 ! of the four schools are part of the California State Uni- I i versity system. j j Seven schools provided opportunities for students to I work with or on behalf of older adults in traineeship or : internship settings. The number of such settings ranged j from one to three with no more than three students working : in an aging related agency at any one time. The respondent ; from California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, in- ' dicated that experience working with older people was not I a primary goal of any of their placement settings, but con- j tact with older adults did occur in such settings as vari- ■ i ous city agencies, congressional field offices, and recrea- I tion and park departments. i Five schools of the seventeen reported some doctoral f dissertations or master's theses related to aging had been completed since 1971. California State University, Hayward I I reported one such master's thesis. Pepperdine University ' reporting by far the highest number, indicated that 15 master's theses had been completed on aging related topics I ' such as low income elderly needs assessment, utilization of services by the elderly, transportation problems. Medicare, , low income housing, and nursing home problems. San Diego State University reported one master's thesis on aging. The Graduate School of Public Policy at the University of California, Berkeley reported one doctoral dissertation on 128 early retirement and approximately eight master's theses related to aging. The University of Southern California reported one doctoral dissertation related to aging had been completed and indicated that more would probably be completed in the future because of the existence of the Andrus Gerontology Center on the University of Southern California campus. Of the seven schools that maintained separate depart mental or school libraries, three department libraries subscribed to aging related journals. One library re ceived one journal. Another library received three titles. The last library received four such journals. Aging was received by all three libraries and Industrial Gerontology was received by two of the libraries. The ten schools that relied on a main campus library had access to from four to nine gerontologically oriented journals. That these jour nals were present is not indicative of usage by the school or department of public administration. In fact, two respondents, specifically mentioned other departments on campus that were probably responsible for the acquisition of the gerontology journals. At the four schools indicating any aging related courses, no instructors who teach the courses were reported to have any specific gerontological training. None of the other 13 respondents reported having gerontologically 129 'trained faculty members. No school replied affirmatively to the question con- I earning plans to implement aging related courses into the school curriculum. No school of public administration in dicated plans to implement new aging related courses into the school curriculum. All respondents were reasonably certain of the absence of such plans during the next two years, but seven respondents expressed an inability to con fidently predict the potential curriculum changes three to ’ five years hence. Of these seven respondents who expressed an inability to forecast long range curriculum plans, six were doubtful that aging related courses would be insti tuted. The Professor at San Diego State University's School of Public Administration and Urban Studies saw such courses as a possibility, but added that the School relies on resources outside the School in the field of social work to offer gerontologically related course work. Summary of Findings The analysis of the data indicates that the schools involved in public administration education in California are not actively training students for work specifically with elderly clients. Of the 17 schools surveyed only four offered any gerontology course work. The gerontology course content did not exceed 12 percent for any one course. Though only 6 percent of the respondents perceived geron 130 tology as important in the current departmental curriculum, 65 percent of the respondents thought that gerontology had important implications for public administration in the future. Not only does this figure show an awareness of the demographic shift toward old age in the coming decades but it might also indicate a receptivity to become more fami liar with aging issues as the age shift occurs. Because of the minimal degree of gerontological content found in this study of schools of public administration, it is difficult to draw significant relationships between the amount of gerontological content found and other significant vari ables, such as student population size, faculty size, and educational background of the faculty. 131 CHAPTER VIII IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY j Introduction i This final chapter will provide an overview of this I project, discuss the implications of the findings, and j propose suggestions for further research in this area. A I brief overview of the study will be presented before ad- l I dressing the issues suggested by the results. I I Overview of the Study j This study attempted to identify criteria of profes- t I sionalism, examine the professional status of public ad- I ministration and gerontology, and investigate the academic , I ! and practical relationship between public administration and gerontology. First, a review of the literature on pro fessionalism was conducted to determine some explicit I criteria. Following that, a review was made to determine how public administration relates to the criteria of pro fessionalism. Similarly, gerontology was compared to the group-determined criteria of professionalism. An examina- 132 : tion was then made to determine the interface of public administration and gerontology, in both academic and work settings. California educational institutions with public administration programs were then surveyed to determine the extent of gerontological content in the public administra tion curricula as well as gain insight on the attitude of public administration educators toward the discipline of gerontology. Finally, a study of credentialing boards, their processes and expectations as to gerontology was to be conducted. No such licensing or credentialing activity is currently found in public administration. The literature review on professionalism resulted in the synthesis of a list of seven criteria of professional ism and it was determined that the professionalism of public administration is the subject of continuing discus sion in the public administration literature. The field itself is said to be undergoing a continuing crisis of identity. Public administration did not meet the profes sionalism criteria set forth by our research group. Those authors who did consider public administration a profession were using a different conceptualization of professional ism. One author admitted that his definition would be con sidered "liberal and loose" by many in the field. Not all authors agreed that the trend toward professionalism is the best path for further development and improvement in public 133 I administration, nor was there complete agreement as to whether public administration should aspire to become a I profession. The professional status of gerontology was also assessed. The authors concluded that gerontology still remains an area of specialization within the established professions, but that future developments in the field may assist in the formation of a new profession. Administrators in the public sector are involved in providing specific services to older adults (e.g., housing, transportation, income maintenance, medical benefits), though administrators may not perceive older population groups as having unique problems or concerns. In training institutions for public administrators, gerontological issues are little discussed. Of the 17 schools surveyed, only four had any courses with any gerontological content. The maximum percentage in any one class was only 12 percent. This omission may be significant in that administrators in the public sector do obtain positions that enable them to work with and for aging clients. No licensing process presently exists in the field of public administration. Such a procedure would appear un likely in the immediate future because of the diverse in terests, capabilities, training, and responsibilities of those who identify themselves as administrators in the 134 'public sector. The Professional Standards Committee of the ' American Society for Public Administration is currently working on standards of ethical conduct, but such standards will not have legal sanction and adherence will be on a voluntary basis. On the educational institution level, no public administration association has developed an accredi tation process, but the National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration (NASPAA) has adopted Guidelines and Standards of Professional Masters Degree 'Programs in Public Affairs/Public Administration (NASPAA ,Adopts Standards, 1974). Comparable guidelines have also been developed for programs at the bachelor's and the doctoral level. The organization's purpose in providing these guidelines is to foster greater professionalization, but it must be noted that these standards are intended as guidelines only and not as curriculum requirements imposed upon NASPAA member-institutions. Some Implications Professionalism of public administration will continue to be discussed in the literature. As a generic discipline, public administration is dependent on other social and natural sciences for information and leadership. Most high level administrators enter the public sector with training in disciplines other than administration. The continuing debate on professionalism and on the identity of public 135 ! administration itself is a reflection of the complexity and difficulty of the problem. The multidisciplinary nature of public administration makes the autonomy which is necessary for professionalization an unlikely occurrence. ' Rather than emphasize professionalism, public admini- ^stration may benefit from increasing its linkages with j other disciplines so that those who may enter the public I sector as a career will have the benefit of exposure to the I concepts of public administration even if it is not the I main course of study. Dual degree programs and, to a I lesser extent, continuing education programs may encourage I I a wider perspective by administrators carrying out public ; policy. Some administrators today are said to have too narrow a viewpoint resulting from the socialization process undergone at many professional schools. ! Suggestions for Future Research i I The current study suggests several areas for further I I research . Just as this study surveyed public administra- I ! tion in the academic setting, another target of study could be public administrators currently at work serving older jadults. The purpose of the study would be to determine the ^extent of gerontological background and training. Most im- ! portantly, an analysis of their attitudes toward the aging '.process in general and individual older clients in partic ular could be used in planning continuing education courses 1_35 I for those who serve older clients in an administrative I capacity. A segment of this study should attempt to deter- I I mine how administrators formed their attitudes toward older adults in order to best remedy the prejudice and pre vent its recurrence. , I In future research on attitudes toward gerontology and ; ,aging, an effort should be made to design the questionnaire (IDCF, Appendix C) so that the results will indicate ’whether the respondent is providing his answer in terms of his personal attitude, the attitude of his academic depart- Iment or his perception of how his discipline views geron- Itology. The reply may be different, based upon the refer- ; jence point of the respondent. The questionnaire used in I 'this study did not clearly make this distinction, j This study was limited to schools of public admini- I Jstration within the State of California. A survey, similar I in content, but nationwide in scope, would be beneficial in I I determining if the lack of gerontological content in schools of public administration is a condition common throughout the country. I The recognition of a formal relationship between public I ; administration and gerontology is at an early stage. It would be helpful to learn how other disciplines have suc- : i icessfully established linkages among themselves in the past. Knowledge of the methods used to overcome professional bias 1371 and fear of loss of professional autonomy would be useful. A sample population could consist of dual degree programs that have been instituted between various disciplines such as public administration and social work, or public admini-' I ;stration and public health. An in-depth analysis of the ’ ! program strengths and weaknesses would be beneficial in formulating and implementing dual degree programs between gerontology and public administration. I Conclusion I This study has provided an opportunity to examine the ! relationships between public administration and gerontol- jogy. The extensive literature reviews have identified the I extent to which public administration and gerontology have imoved along the professional continuum. The results from I ; the survey indicate that little gerontological training iexists within 17 public administration programs located at 'colleges and universities in California. At the present I time, no school reported plans to add gerontological content to their educational programs, reasoning that gerontological issues were discussed in other departments of the univer sity, or that their approach to public administration educa tion was generic and thus applicable to all situations. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Barber, B. Some problems in the sociology of professions. I In K.S. Lynn (Ed.), The Professions in America. Boston : j Houghton Mifflin Company, 1965. IBeatman, F.L. How do professional workers become profes- i sional? Social Casework, 1952, 2J7, 131-135. Beattie, W.M. Concepts, knowledge and commitment: The education of a practicing gerontologist. Gerontologist, 1970, 1 0 _ , 5-11. I I Beyer, W.C. Ethics in the Public Service Proposals for a I Public Service Code. The Annals of the American Academy I of Political and Social- Science, 1922, 101, 152-157. Birren, J.E. and Clayton, V. History of gerontology: In ; ! D.S. Woodruff and J.E. Birren (Eds.), Aging: Scientific I Perspectives and Social Issues. New York : D. Van I Norstrand Co., 19 70. 'Boehm, W.W. Objectives of the Social Work Curriculum of the Future Curriculum: Study I. New York : Council on Social Work Education, 19 59. Breen, L.A. The discipline of gerontology. In A.M. 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Dorr (Eds.), Understanding the Aging. New York : Appleton Century Crofts, 1975. Flexner, A. Is social work a profession. In Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Corrections. Chicago, 111.: Hildman Printing Co., 1915. 141 Freeman, J.T. Gerontology and the Gerontological Society. Gerontologist, 1971, _1, 162-170. Freidson, E. Profession of Medicine. New York: Dodd & Mead Co., 1970. Goode, W.J. Community within a community. American ! Sociological Review, 1957, 2^, 194-208. ! I _. Encroachment, charlatanism and the emerging pro- j fession: Psychology, sociology and medicine. American■ Sociological Review, 1960, 2^, 902-914. _. The theoretical limits of professionalization. In A. Etzioni (Ed.), The Semi-professions and Their Organization. New York: The Free Press, 1969. . The librarian from occupation to profession? Library Quarterly, 1961, 306-318. Greenwood, E. Attributes of a profession. Social Work, 1957, 2, 44-55. Guinee, K.K. The Professional Nurse. New York : Mac millan Company, 19 70. Guttman, D. and Willner, B. Flim-flam, double-talk, and hustle: The consulting industry. Washington Monthly, January 1976, l _ r 46-53. Hall, O. The stages of a medical career. American Jour nal of Sociology, 1949, 243-253. Halmos, P. The Personal Service Society. New York : Shocken Books, Cambridge University Press, 1970. Harader, W.H. Whither public administration? Public Administration Review, 1977, 3 1 _ , 97-102. Harries-Jenkins, T. Professionals in organizations. In J.A. Jackson (Ed.), Professionals and Professionaliza- tion. Great Britain; Cambridge University Press, 1970. , Henry, N. Paradigms of public administration. Public | Administration Review, 1975 , J5, 378-386. Hughes, E.C. Professions. Daedalus, 1963, ^(4), 655-668: 142 Jackson, J.A. (Ed.) Professions and Professionalization. Great Britain: Cambridge University Press, 1970, Kaplan, J. Voluntary organizations. In A. Hoffman (Ed.),! The Daily Needs and Interests of Older People. Chicago: Charles C. Thomas, 1970. Karl, B.D. Public administration and American history: ■ A century of professionalism. Public Administration | Review, 1976, 36^, 489-503. ' Kleemeir, R.W. Gerontology as a discipline. Gerontolo- gist, 1965, 5, 237-239, 276. Kleemeir, R.W. and Birren, J.E. Society and the study of aging. In R.E. Kushner and M. F. Bunch (Eds.), Graduate Education in Aging. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 196 7. Kleemeir, R.W., Havighurst, R.J. and Tibbitts, C. Social ! gerontology. In R.E. Kushner and M.E. Bunch (Eds.), Graduate Education in Aging. Ann Arbor: University of ; Michigan, 19 67. Koller, M.R. Recommended curricula in social gerontology., Geriatrics, 1962, 3^(4), 260-264. Krauss, T.C. Indoctrination of medical students in principles of geriatrics. Gerontologist, December 1963, 2, 152-155. Kuhlen, G.R., Kreps, J.M., Kushner, R.E., Osterbind, R. and Webber, I. Research in training in aging within the single discipline. In R.E. Kushner and M.E. Bunch (Eds.), Graduate Education in Aging. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1967. Lebowitz, B.D. Determinants of participation in federal programs: The case of the elderly. Social Security Administration. Unpublished paper, 1976. Lenzer, A. The role of the university in gerontological training. Gerontologist, 1966, 105-110. Levy, C.S. On the development of a code of ethics. Social Work, 1974, 19, 207-216. Lewis, R. and Maude, A. Professional People. London: Phoenix, House, 19 52. 143 Libow, L.S. A public hospital based geriatric "Community Care System." Gerontologist, 1974, l^# 289-290. Loether, H.J. Problems of Aging. Encino, California; Cikenson Publishing Co., 1975. Marshall, T.H. The recent history of professionalism in relation to social structure and social policy. Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science. 1 1939, 5, 325-340. j McDowall, R.L. Real and unreal issues. Public Admini stration Review, 1976, 36.' 339-34 (X Medicare increase. Senior Citizens Today, January 1977, 2. Moore, W.E. The Professions: Roles and Rules. New York : The Russell Sage Foundation, 1970. Mosher, F.C. Democracy and the Public Service. New York;' Oxford University Press, 1968, 99-133. NASPAA Adopts Standards for Master Degree Programs. News and Views,(American Society for Public Administration), June 1974, 14. National Association of Social Workers. Building Social Work Knowledge. New York: National Association of Social Workers, 1964. Ostrom, V. The Intellectual Crisis in American Public Administration. Alabama: University of Alabama Press, 1974. Pavalko, R.M. Sociology of Occupations and Professions. Florida : F.Ë1 Peacock Publishers, Inc., 1974. Posz, G.S., Jun, J.S. and Storm, W.B. Administrative Alternatives in Development Assistance. Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger Publishing, 1973. President's Report, Harvard University, The role of the university in educating students for careers in public service. Public Administration Review, 1975, 35, 399-403. Professional Standards Committee. News and Views, Ameri can Society for Public Administration, May, 1976, 26(5), 6. 144 J Riggs, F.W. Professionalism, political sciences and the scope of public administration. In J.C. Charlesworth (Ed.), Theory and Practice of Public Administration; Scope, Objectives and Methods. Philadelphia : American Academy of Politic and Social Science, 196 8. Ritzer, G. Professionalism and the individual. In E. ! Freidson (Ed.), The Professions and Their Prospects. Beverly Hills, Calif : Sage Publications, 1973. Rohr, J.A. The study of ethics in the public administra tion curriculum. Public Administration Review, 1976, 36, 398-406. Schein, E.H. Professional Education. San Francisco, Calif.: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1972. Schott, R.I. Public administration as a profession: Problems and prospects. Public Administration Review, 1976, 36, 253. i Schuck, P.H. Public interest groups and the policy ; process. Public Administration Review, 1977, 37, 132- 140. Sherif, M. and Sherif, C.W. Interdisciplinary Relation ships in the Social Sciences. Chicago, 111.: Aldine Publishing Co., 1969. Shock, N. Trends in Gerontology. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1957. Shor, E. Public interest representation and the federal agencies. Public Administration Review, 1977, 37, 131-132. Smith, H. Contingencies of professional differentiation. American Journal of Sociology, 1958, 6^, 410-414. Stone, D.C. Birth of ASPA : A collective effort in in stitution building. Public Administration Review, 1975, 35, 83-93. Stone, S. and Shertzer, B. Careers in Counseling and Guidance. Boston : Houghton Mifflin Co., 1969 and 1974. Strauss, A. Professions, Work and Careers. San Francisco; Calif.: The Sociology Press, 1971. 145 Thayer, F. The NASPAA threat. Public Administration Review, 1976, 3£, 85-90. Tibbitts, C. Development of gerontology. In C.B. Vedder (Ed.), Gerontology: A Book of Readings. Springfield, 111.: Charles C. Thomas, 1960. _____ . Social gerontology in education for the profes sion. In R.E. Kushner and M.E. Bunch (Eds. ), Graduate , Education in Aging. Ann Arbor : University of Michigan^ 1967. Turner, C. and Hodge, M.N. Occupations and professions. In J.A. Jackson (Ed.), Professions and Professionaliza tion . Cambridge, Mass.: University Press, 19 70. United States Congress, House Select Committee on Aging. Report by the Sub-committee on Housing and Consumer Interest. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Printing Office, - 1976. ; United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Human Development, Administration on Aging. National Directory of Educational Programs in Geron tology, First Edition. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Govern ment Printing Office, Fall 1976. United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Social Security Programs in the United States. Social Security Administration, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Govern ment Printing Office, 1973. United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Office of Human Development, Administration on Aging. Facts About Older Americans. National Clearinghouse on Aging. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976. Volimer, H.M. and Mills, D.L. (Eds.) Professionalization. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1966. Wakefield, S. Ethics and the public service : A case for individual responsibility. Public Administration Re view, 1976, 22/ 661-666. Waldo, D. Scope of the theory of public administration. In J.C. Charlesworth (Ed.), Theory and Practice of Public Administration: Scope, Objectives and Methods. Philadelphia: American Academy of Political and Social Science, 1968. 146 Watkins, B.T. Gerontology comes of age as an academic field. The Chronicle of Higher Education, March 21, 1977, 14 (4) , 10. Wickenden, W.E. Quoted from The General Manager. London: British Institute of Management, 1950. Wilensky, H.L. The professionalization of everyone. American Journal of Sociology, 1964, 137-158. Woodruff, D.S. and Birren, J.D. Training for professionals in the field of aging : Needs, goals, models and means. In A.N. Schwartz and I.N. Mensh (Eds.), Professional Obligations and Approaches to the Aged. Springfield, Illinois : Charles C. Thomas, 1974. 147 1 1 APPENDIX A APPENDIX A Outline of Areas to be Covered 1. Literature review on professionalism. I i 2. Literature review on the development of specific dis cipline as it moves toward (or how it became) pro- I fessional status. Relate to criteria from #1. I 3. An examination of the relationships between the dis- i ; ciplines and the field of gerontology, j 4. An examination of where the field of gerontology is I on the continuum of professional status. I 5. A study of educational institutions and their offer- i ings in your discipline. j 6. A study of credentialing boards and their processes 1 and expectations as related to gerontology. I ; 7. Conclusions, next steps and proposals for gerontology. I I 149 APPENDIX B 150J 1. What is your name and complete title, inclusive of discipline? (1- 2) 2. What is the number of students enrolled in your department/school? (3-5) __________# of students 3. If applicable, please list the course titles containing aging (i.e., gerontological) content within your departmental/school curricula, and please estimate what percentage of each course is devoted to aging content. (6-79, 80=5, 1-6) Course titles: % If applicable, do the instructors teaching the above courses hold ' membership in the Gerontological Society (GS), or the Wescem Gerontological Society (WGS)?, (7) I 1 GS 2 WGS 3 Both 4 Don't know I I 4. If your department requires a field practicum, traineeship, or intemship- I ■ What is the total number of agencies/settings being utilized? (8-9) ___________Total i f - of agencies/settings being utilized About how many students are placed in such agencies/settings ? (10-12) ___________if of students placed in all agencies/settings utilized END OF PAGE 1, PLEASE GO TO NEXT PAGE 151 Question # 4 (continued) About how many agency/settings, which provide students with the opportunity to work with or on behalf of older adults, are being utilized? (13-14) . _____# of agencies which provide students with the opportunity to work with or on behalf of older adults About how many students are placed in these agencies/settings? ' (15-17) ____ # of students placed in agencies/settings which provide opportunity to work with or on behalf of older adults If applicable, would you .please list the names of the agencies/ settings being utilized which provide students with the opportunity to work with or on behalf of older adults. (18, 19, 20-21) Names of agencies : How important would you rate courses with aging (i.e., geron tological) content, in relation •to your total departmental/ school curriculm?• (22) 1 Of no importance 2 __Not very important 3 __Somewhat important 4 Important 5 Very important How important would you rate aging (i.e., gerontological) issues, in comparison with all other issues your profession is concerned with? (23) 1 Of no importance 2 __Not very important . 3__Somewhat important • 4 ' Important 5 . Very important END OF PAGE 2, PLEASE GO TO NEXT PAGE 152 7. If applicable, about how many doctoral dissertations and masters theses related to aging (i.e., gerontology) have been completed in your department/school since 1971? (24-25, 26-27) ; ___________# of dissertations related to aging completed since 1971 # of masters theses related to aging completed since 1971 8. To which of the following journals does your departmental/school library subscribe? Please check all that apply. (28-50) Aging _Aging and Human Development American Geriatrics Society [Current Literature on Aging [Developments in Aging _Educational Gerontology _Experimental Aging Research Geriatrics [Human Development Industrial Gerontology Journal of Gerontology [Journal of Gerontological Nursing [The Gerontologist Any other aging related journals? IF YES, please list them. END OF PAGE 3, PLEASE GO TO NEXT PAGE 153 . 4 ,9. Do you plan to implement aging related courses into your departmental/ aehool curriculm within the next 2 years, or 3 to 5 years? C51) ' 1 Within next 2 years 2 Within next 3 to 5 years If.you do not plan to implement aging related courses into your school/ departmental curriculm, is it because of - (Please check all that apply.) (52-57) 1 ___Lack of money 4___Lack of faculty interest 2 Lack of qualified faculty 5 _Lack of relevance for your , to teach courses discipline 3_^__Lack of student interest 6 _Other reasons, please specify If you do plan to implement aging related courses into your school/ departmental curriculm within the next 1 to 5 years, in what topical areas of yOur discipline would such courses be implemented? Please list such areas. (57-79, 80=6, 1-40) Topical areas where aging related courses would be implemented: 10. If applicable, what percentage of your faculty, who teach aging related courses, have specific gerontological training? (41) 1 5-157, 2 15-257, 3 25-357, 4 35-507, 5 50-757, 6 757,+ 1 '11. If applicable, do you feel that faculty who teach your aging I related courses should have specific gerontological training? i 1____Yes 2 No ; 12. Do you feel that the content (i.e., subject matter) of gerontology i has imnortant implications for the future of your discipline? I (43) 1 It has very important implications I 2 _It has important implications I 3___Its implications are slightly important 1 4 The implications of gerontology have no importance for my discipline This interview was - (44, 80=7) 1 __Face to face 2 Over the telephone THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION 154 APPENDIX C A.55J I ! INFORMATION COLLECTION FORM - LD3 STUDENTS, PKOFESSIONALISM PROJECT 1. Name of institution (1-3) 2. Name of department/discipline (4-5) 3. Types of degrees/certificates offered by department Certi fi cates ; (6-20) Bachelors (21-30) Masters : (31-40) Academic doctorate (indicate speciality) (41-60) Professional doctorate: (61-70) (80=1) 156 I 4. Do courses in the departmental curricula - as indicated in the course catalog description - contain content related to gerontology? ( 1) 1 Yes 2 No IF YES, list course titles and check appropriate spaces: (2-76, 77, 78, 79) (80=2) Required Overview Graduate 157 I ■ I . 5. Does the department offer a dual degree, minor or emphasis in gerontology at the graduate level? Check all categories which apply. (1-4) 1 None 2 Dual degree 3 Minor 4 Emphasis 6. Does the department require a field practicum, internship, or traineeship? (5) 1 Yes 2 No 7. What is the student population of the institution? (6-8) ________ # of students 8. What is the total number of faculty members comprising the department? (9-10) _____ # of faculty members 9. What is the total number of faculty holding doctorates within the department? (11-12) __________ # of faculty members 10. On a scale from one to seven, using the information you have assimilated from reading the university catalog of your department, rate the extent to which this department incorporates .the subject matter of gerontology into its departmental curriculum, (13) Does not incorporate Does incorporate gerontological subject- gerontological subject matter matter 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 11. Is there anything else, not on this data collection form, that you would like to address yourself to in terms of how this department relates to the field of gerontology? Please respond freely. (14-79) (80=3) 158 ; 12. Does department/school have a division of continuing education? (1) i 1 Yes 2 No If yes, please list the course titles containing aging (i.e., gerontological) content within the continuing ed ucation curriculm. (2-78) Course titles: (80=4) 159 APPENDIX D 160 APPENDIX D . Data From Test-Retest for R eliability Question #5 H ow important would you rate courses with aging ( i . e . , geron tological content, in relation to your total department/school curri culum? Subjects 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Of no importance Not very important Somewhat important Important Very important Test Scores Retest 5 3 5 5 4 3 5 5 5 4 4 5 5 5 5 Spearman rank-order coefficient of correlation = r 4 - 1 - Difference 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 6D n(n-l ) 0.9953 At the .01 level of significance, the critical value is 0.715 The null hypothesis is rejected and a positive correlation is demonstrated between the answers given on the test and the retest for question #5. 161 APPENDIX E 162 APPENDIX E Data from Test-Retest for R eliability Question #6 H ow important would you rate aging ( i. e . , gerontological) issues | in comparison with all other issues your profession is concerned with?j 1 - Of no importance 2 - Not very important 3 - Somewhat important 4 - Important 5 - Very important ! Subjects Test Score Retest Difference j 1 5 5 0 i 2 4 4 0 I 3 4 4 0 4 5 5 0 5 4 3 1 6 4 3 1 7 5 5 0 ' 8 5 5 0 9 5 5 0 1 10 3 5 2 ; 11 4 4 0 ! 12 5 5 0 I 13 5 5 0 I 14 5 5 0 15 5 5 0 6D I Spearman rank-order coefficient of correlation r = 1 - ! r = 0.9893 At the .01 level of significance, the critic al value is 0.715. ^ The null hypothesis is rejected and a positive correlation is I demonstrated between the answers given on the test and the retest ; for question #6 16 3j APPENDIX F 164 1 APPENDIX F Data From Test-Retest for R eliability Question #12 Do you feel that the content ( i.e ., subject matter) of gerontology j has important implication for the future of your discipline? | I 1 - I t has very important implications ! 2 - It has important implications 3 - Its implications are slightly important 4 - The implications of gerontology have no importance for m y discipline Subjects Test Score Retest Difference 1 1 1 0 2 2 2 0 3 2 2 0 4 1 1 0 5 2 2 0 6 2 2 0 7 1 1 0 8 1 1 0 9 1 1 0 10 3 2 1 11 2 2 0 12 1 4 3 13 1 1 0 14 1 1 0 15 1 1 0 Spearman rank-order coefficient of correlation = r = 1 6D n(n-l) r = 0. 981 At the .01 level of significance , the critical value is 0.715. The null hypothesis is rejected and a positive correlation is demon- istrated between the answers given on the test and the retest for 'question #12 165 APPENDIX G 166 I E cttc. P n c r A kd«cj UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA ( 313) 74**^ G n o trro u c r Cs2frzjL TOfraaiTTPAXX LO* AKCSUS, C A lS tO tH U . y x x r j November 15, 1976 To; Deans, Directors, and Department Chairmen of Professional Programs Dear The Leonard Davis School of the Andrus Gerontology Center has been funded a grant by the National Retired Teachers Association / American Association of Retired Persons to examine several disciplines and their relationships to gerontology and professional ism. Students from the Davis School are involved in the data collection and analysis under the guidance of Margaret Hartford, Ira Hirschfield, William Albert, and myself. This project will be helpful in increasing our knowledge of the gerontological offerings of the colleges and universities in California and the expectations of professional credentialing boards. The study will facilitate the future planning of the involved disciplines and the advancement of services, research, and education of problems of aging. As part of this study, a group of graduate students and faculty are conducting a survey of the content on aging in professional curricula. Within the next few weeks, an attempt will be made by one of these groups to interview you either in person or by telephone. The research group has had the opportunity to review your current bulletin, and other materials to determine the nature of your program and evidence of content on aging. The interview will be for the purpose of filling in necessary data. The researcher will want to make inquiry about faculty teaching gerontology content, the extent of content, and the number of students participating in the classes with aging content. Enclosed Is a copy of the questionnaire for your perusal. We want you to know.that the school has authorized this study and that we hope that you can assist our students in producing the necessary information. Thank you for your time and consideration. Sincerely, /yames E Birren, Ph.D. Mar g___ A/Executive Director Director Andrus Gerontology Center Leonard Davis School of Gerontology MEH/jel E n d . Hartford, Ph.D. 167 :

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Asset Metadata

Creator Epstein, Steven Allen (author)

Core Title Public administration and gerontology: Toward professionalization?

School Leonard Davis School of Gerontology

Degree Master of Science

Degree Program Gerontology

Degree Conferral Date 1977-08

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,social sciences

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c37-402546

Unique identifier UC11657428

Identifier EP58856.pdf (filename),usctheses-c37-402546 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier EP58856.pdf

Dmrecord 402546

Document Type Thesis

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Epstein, Steven Allen

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA