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German propaganda in the United States during the world war

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German propaganda in the United States during the world war

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Content GERMAN PROPAGANDA
IN THE UNITED STATES
DURING THE WORLD WAR
l4
â V
A Thesis
Presented to
the Faculty of the Department of History
University of Southern California
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Mast er of Arts
Constance Yi^Clark
May 1934
UMI Number: EP59264
All rights reserved
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UMI EP59264
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This thesis, w ritte n under the direction of the
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cepted by the C ouncil on Graduate Study and
Research in p a rtia l fu lfillm e n t of the require
ments fo r the degree of
/
/ /
Master of ^rts
\retary
D ean ^
D ate..
Faculty Committee
C hairmi
TABLE OP CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
Preface. ......... i
I. PROPAGANDA AND GERMAN-AMERICAN RELATIONS
PRIOR TO THE WORLD WAR.................. 1
The question of propaganda .................. 1
Germans and the United States prior to
World War......... 5
Necessity of German propaganda in the
United States. . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Pre-v/ar German propaganda in the United
States ........... 10
II. ORGANIZATION OF GERÎÆAN PROPAGANDISTS IN
THE UNITED STATES. ...... .............. 14
The German Embassy ........... 14
Mobilization of German propagandists ..... 16
Headquarters of German propagandists ..... 20
Organization of the propaganda cabinet .... S3
Leaders of the propaganda movement ...... 29
III. PHASES OP GERMAN PROPAGANDA................ 42
Objectives of German Propaganda. ....... 42
Control of German-Americans by the use
of propaganda............. 44
Extent of Propaganda in the United States. . . 51
CHAPTER PAGE
Inter-relation of German propaganda and
German secret service. .......
United States as a base of German
propaganda .............
IV. OUTCOME OP GERMAN PROPAGANDA IN THE
UNITED STATES. ......... ........
Early success of the propaganda movement .
Change in propaganda success ......
Reasons for failure of German propaganda .
BIBLIOGRAPHY ......... . ..................
81
92
96
96
99
100
105
PREFACE
The problem of this thesis is to present a study of
German propaganda in the United States during the World War.
Such a topic is wide in scope. It takes into consideration
a system established to influence public opinion and action
in this country. In order to present an accurate account of
this program, it has been essential to establish reasons for
the instigation of this type of work, to make a study of the
officials of the system and the plans which were formulated
and executed under their supervision, to present the various
fields in which control was extended, and to summarize the
success of the system as a whole. This study embodies an
attempt to give an account of the German propaganda program,
a program which became so entangled in the every-day lives of
the American people. *
It has been impossible to carry this study to its
greatest length because of a limitation of materials in this
particular locality. The subject matter which is available
is, in itself, mostly propaganda, written with a pro-German
or Anti-German bias. It has been essential to read all of
the procurable books, magazines, and investigation procedures
on this subject and to select from them Information which is
accurate. Propagandists of the Allied nations, the Central
Powers, and the United States are the main contributors to
11
this field of study* An investigation by the United States
Senate Judicial Committee has proven of great aid as a means
of establishing the actual facts of the propaganda system In
this country* The Official Bulletin, a publication of the
Committee of Public Information, has been valuable because it
contains various plot discoveries and the action taken by the
United States against the propaganda movement. In order to
gain the attitude of the period, the magazine articles written
during the war on this subject have been of great interest.
Material for this thesis has been obtained in the
University of Southern California Library and in the Los
Angeles City Public Library. In both institutions the
librarians and aides have given their most kind consideration
and help In obtaining and selecting subject material.
The topic of this thesis was chosen under the guidance
of Dr. Gilbert Giddings Benjamin, Professor of History at the
University of Southern California. His very able supervision
and interest has stimulated within the writer a curiosity in
this field. His criticisms and suggestions have proven
invaluable in this study. Dr. Clarence V. Gilliland, the
present head of the History Department and a Professor of
History at the University of Southern California, has, through
his interest in the subject, been of great service in the
final interpretation of this thesis. Dr. Albert Sydney
Raubenheimer of the University of Southern California, a
ill
Professor of Education, has given much aid and assistance in
the completion of this work. A sincere appreciation for the
supervisory work concerning this thesis is extended to these
professors whose services have been presented so graciously.
CHAPTER I
PROPAGANDA AND GERMAN-AMERICAN RELATIONS PRIOR TO
THE WORLD WAR
A treatise dealing with German propaganda in the
United States during the World War must have some kind of a
foundation upon which the action is to be based# A subject
by this title would be confusing unless a clear understanding
of the term ’propaganda* was given and the necessary back
ground of German and American relations was presented# First
of all, it will be necessary to have a more definite conception
of what propaganda really consists.
"The most effective means of forming and controlling
war-time public opinion is through organized propaganda#"^
This statement by Professor Lutz gives a general conception
of the term to be defined. However, it is not necessary to
confine propaganda to war-time use only, as it is a most
important factor in the formation of common beliefs at all
times. With the advent of the World War, propaganda became
more important than ever before. Used on almost world-wide
proportions, practically every country participating in the
war had some dealings in it. It is Impossible to conceive
the great programs put into practice by the various countries
I R. H. Lutz, "Studies of World War Propaganda."
Journal of Modern History (December, 1933), 496.
2
in order to win over other nations and states to certain
beliefs and actions#
If propaganda was so all-important in shaping the
events connected with the war, of what does it consist and
how is it put into practice? The conceptions of modern
propaganda are numerous. Mr. E. L. Bernays, in his book
entitled Propaganda, gives the following definition:
Modern propaganda is a consistent, enduring effort
to create or shape events to influence the relations
of the public to an enterprise, idea, or group.^
Mr# G. S. Viereck, editor of the Fatherland, a pro-German
newspaper, gives a more vivid account of the term#
What is it?
It lurks between the lines of every news dispatch.
It leaps at us from the screen# Sometimes it shrieks,
sometimes it whispers, but it never fails to intrigue
and captivate. It is in the sphere of politics and of
thought what advertising is in the sphere of commerce.*^
Also,
Propaganda is a campaign camouflaging its origin, its
motive, or both, conducted for the purpose of obtaining
a specific objective by manipulating public opinion.^
Webster's New International Pictionary presents the idea that
propaganda is any system which sets forth certain beliefs or
principles. These views are the general conceptions of
^ E. L. Bernays, Propaganda, 25.
G. S. Viereck, Spreading Germs of Hate, 7<
^ Ibid., IX.
3
propaganda today. In summarizing them, propaganda may he
any activity or program of activities which will be a means
of influencing and changing public opinion to different
channels of thought. It is a means by which one group may be
dominated by another in beliefs and actions.
The question of how propaganda was put before the
people is as important as to what it was. If it was a practice
of "creating circumstances and of creating pictures in the
minds of millions,how was this program going to be the
most effective? In order that the success of such a program
was to be assured, the ideas to be expounded had to be placed
before the public in every way conceivable— visual, graphic,
and auditory. It is necessary that the people to be
influenced must be in constant touch with the movement.
Newspapers are very important in shaping public opinion and
are one of the most resourceful methods in establishing
propaganda. By editorials, news columns, and stories, an
excellent beginning may be made upon which to base the
remainder of the work to be accomplished. Books, pamphlets, and
magazines are all of equal importance as influential reading
materials. Pictures, posters, and motion pictures make up
the graphic element of propaganda. The types of pictures
range from the comic and cartoon to those found in exhibitions
^ E. L. Bernays, op. cit., 25.
4
in art galleries. The use of posters as means of advertise
ment are of equal importance. Motion pictures, and also
still pictures, are important because of the great number of
people they reach. Lectures, debates, educational programs,
and campaigns are only a few of the ways by which the public
may be influenced through auditory methods. If all of these
methods of controlling public opinion are brought together,
it is impossible to conceive how any one person could escape
from being influenced.
In order that the program of information would be
carried on in a complete and successful manner, the governments
of the various countries during the war hired correspondents,
lecturers, novelists, and cartoonists. It was the duty of
these employees to present the desired subject material
concerning propaganda to the best of their ability in their
various fields. It was very important that these people should
work under cover and camouflage the real nature of their work.
If the public discovers that a definite program of indoctrina
tion is in effect, that system immediately becomes a failure
and all further attempts at influencing public opinion along
the same lines will be of no success.
Propaganda, as put into practice by Germany in the
United States during the war, was of a more varied character
than the type of propaganda presented in the preceding
discussion. The War Book of the German General Staff made no
clear distinction between incendiarism, criminal violence,
and the common conception of propaganda.^ The type of work
carried on was extremely varied. Organizations of societies
for peace, neutrality, and war were established; press alliances
were made; lecture tours were charted; political groups were
organized; newspapers, magazines, and pamphlets were published
under the direction of the propagandist Press Bureau; bomb
plots and incendiarism were resorted to; and many other fields
of endeavors were placed under control of the German workers.
All of the necessary machinery to handle such work was
established in the United States by the German Government at
the opening of the World War in 1914. Basing their work on
the slogan 'Deutschland uber allés,' the propagandists
endeavored to germanize America and to counter-balance the
work of the propagandists of the allied nations.
It will be essential to give a short account of the
conditions existing between the Germans and the United
States, in order to more fully realize the necessity of the
work of the propagandists in this country.
A common practice of the United States has been to
allow freedom to citizens of other nations within its boundaries.
Immigrants have been admitted to this country by the thousands.
This movement was more common during the period between the
^ H* U* Park, The Immigrant Press and Its Control, 422
Revolutionary and the Civil Wars than during the later part
of the nineteenth century. The great number of settlers in
this country, prior to the formation of a national government,
must also be included in any discussion concerning the foreign
element within this country.
The German element has always been a most important
part of the settlers and immigrants in the United States.
Many from the Rhineland provinces in Germany settled in the
Mohawk Valley and in Pennsylvania during the early days of
colonization. Throughout the latter part of the eighteenth
and the beginning of the nineteenth centuries, the Germans
continued to come to this country, settling on the eastern
coast, expanding to the mid-west and Texas, and even into the
western sections of the country. These settlers were given a
hearty welcome and soon adopted various professions and
businesses by which to make a livlihood. Hard and conscientious
workers, the German-Americans became a prosperous group. One
draw-back, however, to these immigrants was the fact that
most of them congregated in certain sections in the large
cities or in the country, and their mother tongue was the
language spoken and the old-world customs and ideals were
followed.
It was upon this element in the American population
that Germany had placed high hopes. Always proud of their
learning and culture, they desired to spread this Kultur
7
throughout the country.
Regardless of the fact that the Germans had been
received in this country very graciously, and had been
treated with all due respect, the sentiment of the Americans
towards Germany had been changing gradually toward a feeling
of anti-Germanism. In 1870, during the Franco-Prussian War,
the United States had been on very friendly terms with the
German states and had been a staunch supporter of the views
7
and beliefs of the Prussian state. However, by 1914 there
was more sentiment against .Germany than any other European
nation. It was this growth of an anti-German feeling that
necessitated the establishment of a program of German propa
ganda.
This change in attitude towards Germany was the result
of a steady growth of German imperialism and a desire to
extend influence over as much of the world as possible.
Every nation has this privilege of expansion, but the methods
by which it may be accomplished are varied and often involves
the growth of bitter feelings among countries.
The growth and development of the German Empire with
its military system marked the beginning of anti-Germanism
in the United States. Mr. H. E. Barnes, in his Genesis of
^ H. E. Barnes, Genesis of the World War, 590-1.
8
the World War, states that many persons attributed the
growing coolness of the two countries to the growth of trade
rivalry.® The expansion of Germany's imperial system brought
her colonial endeavors into conflict with the policies
expounded by the United States in the Monroe Doctrine.
American merchants and investors found a growing rivalry in
the Latin American states as a result of German intervention
in that region. The interference of a German naval commander
during Dewey's operations at Manila and the trouble in
Venezuela during the administration of Theodore Roosevelt
furthered the anti-German feeling among the people of the
9
United States. The news service of this country relied for
much of the foreign news upon the Harmsworth papers in
England* This system was notoriously pro-Entente, and the
news dispatches concerning Europe all tended to act against
Germany. The American press appeared very favorable to the
Entente news and after the beginning of the war many articles
were published which led the reader to believe that Germany
was the cause of the war and had failed to meet the attempts
of the other powers to make peace and avert war.
® Ibid., 591.
9
J. S. Bassett, Our War with Germany, 12; H.
Kirchhoff, a Study of German Policies wi-bh Reference to the
United States,""1871'^TOl3, 106, et passim.
9
The anti-German feeling was more prevalent among the
common people than among the governmental officials. In 1914
the State Department was on officially friendly terras with
the German Government. Many courtesies were paid the American
Ambassador and his corps of officials in Berlin, and a general
feeling of good will existed between the two countries. In
1913 the President of the United States extended heartiest
greetings to the Kaiser on the anniversary of twenty-five
years as ruler of the German nation. As a courtesy to the
German official, the New York Times published a special
section on this occasion.This article put forth the work
of the Kaiser in advancing world peace and the contributions
which Germany had made towards the culture of the world.
At the outbreak of the World War, the opinions of the
country towards Germany were well divided. The group of
German-Americans were, as a whole, on the side of their
Vaterland, although there were a few who stood by the beliefs
of the country in which they lived. The majority of the
Americans were on the side of the Allies* The government was
on officially good terms with Germany.
Because of the unfriendliness among the American
people, Germany was faced with the problem of bringing about
conditions which would change the trend of public opinion.
H* E. Barnes, op. cit., 593.
10
Prior to the outbreak of the war, Germany had made several
attempts to alleviate this feeling against her policies*
This European nation realized the importance which the United
States would attain in case of a war in Europe. The United
States, which had been cut off from continental affairs to a
great extent, would be of great aid to any nation because of
the agricultural and industrial resources. As a friendly
neutral, the United States would also play an important role.
It was, therefore, the desire of Germany to build up
a standing friendship with the American people to insure her
of some of the benefits which would be obtainable from this
country. The set-up of German propaganda in the United
States during the World War was not new. Some use had already
been made of propaganda schemes in this country, and the new
program was to be based on previous experiences. The older
system had been of considerable value in an attempt to over
come American prejudices and had gradually come into being
during the years just preceding and just following the
opening of a new century.
By various means, such as the use of exchange
professors, gifts, visits of German royalty, and the
distribution of pensions and medals, Germany hoped to build
up friendship among the people of the United States.
H. E. Barnes, op. cit., 592; J. S. Bassett, pp. cit.,
30. --- -—
11
In 1902 Prince Henry visited this country in order to
establish closer relations. Immediately following this visit,
new impetus was given to the formation and growth of German
societies which had never attained much importance before
that time. An increasing number of German teachers and
professors were added to the facualties of the American
schools and colleges. German newspapers grew in popularity,
and new ones were established; many such papers were edited
12
by Germans who had never been naturalized.
The influence of the visit by Prince Henry, the brother
of Emperor William II, was felt widely in all parts of the
United States. The outcome was such a success that the
process of making the Americans German-conscious was continued
with greater impetus. In 1905 a gift of the statue of
Frederick the Great was made. Professors from Germany, such
as Hugo Munsterberg, began interpretations of German culture
for the American people. In order that the German societies
would be of greater value in furthering the German cause,
state-wide and even national alliances were made. The main
organization of this type was the German-American National
Alliance which had a membership of at least two million people.
H. Goltz, My Adventures as a German Secret Agent, 216
13 Ibid., 218.
12
The work of the propagandists was particularly
successful among the German-Americans whose devotion to their
home country became very pronounced. This successful endeavor
marked the foundation upon which further propaganda could be
built. Also, it brought out the fact that such success could
not have been arrived at unless there had been some organiza
tion and thought given to the whole system. It is evident,
therefore, that the German propaganda program did not begin
with the' visit of Prince Henry but goes back to the period in
which the United States became important enough to enter into
world politics by virtue of trade and commercial endeavors.
Most of the writings on the subject of German
preparation for a coming conflict of nations present the
belief that Germany had established policies in all of the
important countries which would be of service to her policies
in the advent of such a war. If this is the case, German
propaganda was of much greater importance than the people of
this country realized. Horst von Goltz presents the following
information on this subject:
. . . Ten years ago (approximately 1907) the course
which German agents should adopt toward the United States
in the advent of a great European War, had been determined
with a reasonable amount of exactness by the German
General Staff . . .14
Further evidence of preparation by Germany for the
14 Ibid., 212-213.
13
establishment of propaganda in the United States was made by
the visit of General Bernhardi to this country in 1913. All
of the important cities were included on his tour, and in San
Francisco a meeting of three hundred Germans was called
together by the, German Consul.General Bernhardi told of
thé coming war and of the necessity of all of the faithful
Germans to be ready for such an event.
Thus, at the beginning of the World War, the United
States appeared as an excellent place for the furtherance of
German propaganda. With a large group of German-Americans
upon which reliance seemed probable; a hold on the universities
and schools; a control of numerous papers, one estimate
given is that there were "532 German papers, the editors of
which were unquestionably more or less under the influence of
the 'new German spirit', the way of the propagandist
seemed particularly well in hand. Based on the pre-war
propaganda, the war time program of shaping public opinion
was put into action immediately at the opening of the World
War.
^3 w. H. Skaggs, German Conspiracies in America, 92.
Ibid.
R. E. Park, op. clt., 417.
CHAPTER II
ORGANIZATION OP GERMAN PROPAGANDISTS IN THE
UNITED STATES
The declaration of war in Europe in 1914 marked the
beginning of real organization of German propaganda in the
United States. Before the war had been in progress six
months, this country was besieged with a group of German
propagandists who were working with their utmost abilities
to present the German ideas and views of the war. Their work
was under the control and guidance of leaders who were
assembled in this country for this particular purpose. The
organization and the functions of these propagandists constitute
the subject material of this chapter.
The foundation of the German propaganda system was
based, to a great extent, upon the German Embassy at Washington.
These officials, familiar with the American people and the
affairs of the country, were able to direct propaganda into
the proper fields and channels. The embassy group was composed
of four executives. These were the ambassador, the financial
agent, the military attache^, and the naval attache. The
ambassador, the leader of the group, was the legal representative
of the German government in this country with full authority
to carry on diplomatic enterprises under the supervision and
direction of the Foreign Office in Berlin. He also had charge
15
of and full responsibility for the execution of Germany's
diplomatic dealings in other countries, especially in the
western hemisphere and the far east# Count J. H# von
Bernstorff occupied this position for nine years, a period
which included a few years prior to the war and all of the
years of German representation in this country during the
war. The financial or fiscal agent of the German embassy
had control of all of the financial business of the German
government in this country. During the war this position was
held by Dr. Heinrich Albert, a former Privy Councillor of
Germany. The financial representative was to keep in constant
touch with the business and trade interests of this country.
The duties of the military and naval attaches were very
similar* The military attaché^. Captain Franz von Pap en, had
as his main objective the study of the United States Army in
connection with his official duties in representing his
country in the American government. Captain Karl Boy-Ed, the
naval attache, had the problem of making a complete study of
naval affairs in this country. He was to familiarize himself
with the officers and leaders of this system, the plans of
naval expansion, the source and amount of supplies, the
strategy used, and the power and strength of the coast
defenses.
At the declaration of war, these men turned their work
to the best interests of their home country. Count Bernstorff
16
was to enlighten the United States government and the people
in regard to the German viewpoint of the war# Dr. Albert
was to gain control of as much of the business interests of
this country as possible. He also had charge of directing
the financial dealings of the German propaganda as well as
for matters of state. The two attachées were to gather
together their many followers who had proved willing to aid
any German cause# They were to put into practice ways and
means of controlling or over-shadowing the military and naval
operations which they had been studying. In order that all
of these duties would be carried out to the greatest degree
of efficiency, it was necessary to establish a greater control
over all of the embassy and consular officials. If Germany
was to be successful in spreading Germanism throughout the
western hemisphere, and, at the same time, keeping the
United States on friendly terms with the German government,
it was evident that much diplomacy and tact and cooperation
would be necessary to cope with the situation.
The opening of the war brought to the United States
groups of officials from various parts of the world who were
to aid their colleagues in spreading German ideals. The
embassy at Washington and the consular posts in the various
cities proved to be important assembling places for these men.
Upon reaching their stations for reporting for duty, they
received assignments for their work in this country or in
17
Germany# This mobilization program was not a surprise to the
German officials# Germany had notified her employees of the
possibility of a coming war and the necessity of being
prepared to enter into any service that might be needed#
Captain von Papen, who happened to be in Mexico at the
outbreak of the war, was responsible for the first work of
organization among the propagandists# Leaving Mexico at the
1
first word of war, he arrived at Washington on August 5, 1914#
With the assistance of Captain Boy-Ed, there was assembled a
large group of secret agents, German army reservists, scientists,
diplomatic officials from countries with which diplomatic
relations had been severed, and all those who were interested
in furthering a German cause# These men were prepared to
gather information and execute any order given them by the
German officials# To this group was added a number of people
from Germany who had had experience in dealing with the people
of this country#
Consultation headquarters were established in New
York by von Papen, and it was from this center that the first
attempts were made to influence public opinion in the United
States during the war# Connected with Captain von Papen in
this work was Captain Karl Boy-Ed, Dr. Heinrich Albert, and,
later, Franz von Rintelen# These men constituted the leaders
^ J. P. Jones and P. M. Hollister, The German Secret
Service in America, 29.
18
of the underground system which was to play such an important
2
part in this country* Basing their work on a plan to render
the United States useless as a supply hase for Germany's
enemies, a campaign of violence was put into action*
Sedition, strikes, in munition plants, attacks upon
ships carrying supplies to the Allies, the crippling of
transportation facilities, bomb outrages--these are a
few of the main elements in the campaign to render the
United States useless* •
Closely connected and running parallel to the above
plan was another program which embodied the use of publicity.
Horst von Goltz, in his book on ^ Adventures as a German
Secret Agent, states the following:
But ultimately of far more importance was a program of
publicity that should not only present to the German-
Amerloans the viewpoint of their fatherland (an entirely
legitimate propaganda) but which was aimed to consolidate
them into a political unit which should be used, by
peaceful means if possible— such as petitions and the
like— and if that method failed by 'absolute armed
resistance', to force the United States government to
declare an embargo upon shipments of munitions, and food
stuffs to the Allies, and to compel it to assume a
position, if not of active alliance with Germany ( a hope
that was never seriously entertained) at least one which
should directly favor the German Government and cause
serious dissension between America and England.
This plan of influencing public opinion was the real program
of propaganda to be instilled into the United States. The
group of officials who were to have control of and take part
o
H. Goltz, ^ Adventures as a German Secret Agent, 218-
® Ibid., 218.
4 Ibid.. 220.
19
in this system arrived in the United States soon after the
opening of the war» Dr. Heinrich Albert and Count Johann
Bernstorff arrived in this country August 15, 1914, accompanied
by a group of about thirty men also in the service of the
5
German government. Dr. Bernard Dernburg, the German
historian and financier, who arrived from Germany a few days
later, and the two German embassy officials made up the main
staff of the propaganda group. Dr. Dernburg was the leader
of the organization during the first year of the war; Dr.
Albert was in control of the finances to be used for propaganda
work; and Count von Bernstorff was the so-called silent
partner because of his relations with the United States which
necessitated his aloofness from all affairs which would
implicate German officials in undiplomatic relations.
The aim of the program of education of the American
people as set up by Dr. Dernburg was to reach and spread
control through the intellectual classes. It was hoped that
this group in turn would carry the desired material and
information to other groups. The program of v/ork which was
inaugurated had as its foundation the system of propaganda
which had been functioning in the United States prior to
the World War. Newspapers, societies of German professors
and teachers, social societies of various types among the
E. E. Park, The Immigrant Press and Its Control, 422,
20
German-Americans, lecture tours, political campaigns, and
many other devices were used in order to spread the material
by which control was to be established over the minds and
opinions of the American people.
The assembling of the propagandists at the opening of
the war brought to the United States a group of men who were
of great ability and training. The leaders of the program
had had a great deal of experience in their particular careers
and were capable of carrying on any type of work, regardless
of its difficulty. Each leader had a particular course of
service which he was to follow in order to insure success for
the plan as a whole. As Mr. Jones and Mr. Hollister state in
their work on the German secret service:
Let Boy-Ed destroy the ships, von Papen dynamite the
factories and railways, Rintelen run his mad course of
indescriminate violence--the smooth financial agent
(referring to Dr. Albert) would undertake only those
great business ventures in which his shrewdness and
experience could have play.°
Include with such a program the work outlined by Dr. Dernburg
and his associates by which the American public was to be
educated to Germany's cause, and the result is a carefully
constructed plot to enforce Germanism on the United States.
The main centers from which the work was to be directed
were located in Washington and in Hew York. Washington was
J. H. Jones and P. M. Hollister, 0£. cit., 206-
21
the governmental capital of German operations. It was
through the embassy headquarters in this city that a control
was kept over the affairs in the various consular posts
throughout the United States and Central and South America.
A great amount of work could be carried on with secrecy
because of the courtesies extended to embassy officials in
their diplomatic relations*
New York proved to be the most important of these two
cities. The main offices of Dr. Dernburg, Dr. Albert, Captain
7
von Papen, and Commander Boy-Ed were located there. These
headquarters were supposed to be entirely separate and
independent of any consular post. Count von Bernstorff had
a suite of rooms at the Ritz Carlton Hotel in New York from
which he was able to keep in touch with the other officials
and their numerous enterprises. Another important establish
ment in this city was a German Information Bureau which was
under the control of Mr. M. B. Claus sen, the publicity agent
of the Hamburg-American line.^ This group of offices was the
focal point for all German work in America. Their locations
were such that an accurate check could be kept on the trade
and business interests. Besides these official meeting places.
^ J. Bernstorff, ^ Three Years in America, 41.
Q
R. E. Park, op. cit., 422,
22
there were in Hew York a number of clubs and hotels which
were used after office hours. It was at these places that
influential business men and the German agents could assemble
and discuss new programs to be put into practice. Many of
these clubs were used as storage rooms for the various types
of materials needed in carrying out certain projects. Follow
ing is an account of the activities of one of these meeting
places :
There is a typical German club in New York--the
Peut3Cher Verein on Central Park South. During the war
ithas been used as a sub-office of the German General
Staff. It was here that von Papen used to store the
dynamite that was needed in such enterprises as the
Welland Canal plot. It was here that conspirators used
to meet for conferences . .
In the smaller cities the consulates served as the
bases for directing affairs. German sympathizers aided the
problem of having enough office space and storage room by
supplying such available rooms as they had for the use of the
propagandists. Headquarters were established in every type
of a place which could be secured. This is illustrated by a
statement taken from the German Secret Service in America;
Headquarters of every character dotted the country from
salons to saloons, from skyscrapers to cellars, each an
active control in the manipulation of Germany's almost
innumerable enterprises.^^
^ H. Goltz, op. cit., 226.
J. H. Jones and P. M. Hollister, 0£. cit., 25-
23
In Chicago, termed the "American stronghold of
Germanism" by Mr. Skaggs, meetings were held which were
typical of most other cities having a reasonable number of
11
German-Americans in the population. The meeting places
were decorated profusely with German flags and emblems.
German songs were sung at the meetings, and the Kaiser was
lauded to a degree of almost idol worship. It seems only
natural that such meetings should take place as an expression
of loyalty to their mother country in the time of war.
However, these assemblies were not held merely as an
expression of the patriotism of the German-Amerleans, but
also as a means of fostering this patriotism among those
people who had failed to show interest in the whole affair--
an excellent means of propaganda.
San Francisco was the leading propaganda stronghold on
the Pacific# Through the German consul in that city, close
touch was kept with the other programs in action as well as
carrying on a definite plan of propaganda of its own.
The four cities of Washington, New York, Chicago, and
San Francisco were typical of the manner in which influence
was exerted over the Americans by the Germans. Controlled
from New York and Washington, propaganda was spread throughout
the United States. Of no less importance were the smaller
W. H. Skaggs, German Conspiracies in America, 146.
24
cities who had to be certain that their particular part in
the system was carried out to the best of their ability.
This wide-spread system did not leave one section of the
country without some kind of a controlling factor.
In order that the work of the propagandists would be
consistent in its action, a so-called Propagandist Cabinet
was established in New York# It was through the work of
this group that the plans were carried on which spread
Germany's. views and ideas to the Americans. The cabinet was
formed after the arrival of Dr. Dernburg and others from
Germany during the summer of 1914. Soon after the leaders of
the movement had assembled in this country, a meeting was
held which has been described by Mr. G. S. Viereck, a member
of this group;
Meeting the steamship men, and other influential
pro-Germans at a New York club on Central Park South,
Germany's newly-arrived ambassadors of propaganda,
flanked by Embassy officials, adopted a program of
cooperation. Out of the negotiations grew the
propaganda cabinet of 1123 Broadway, where Viereck,
Dr. Dernburg, and Dr. Puehr occupied offices . .
The first propaganda cabinet established by this meeting
consisted of:
. . . The head of a German shipping concern in New
York and his publicity man; Captain Edward Hecker, of
the German Red Cross; Puehr, Mecklenburg, Meyer-Gerhardt,
Albert, Dernburg, Hale, Viereck, and one of Viereck's
G. S. Viereck, Spreading Germs of Hate, 51.
26
13
associates, a banker • . .
Dr. Dernburg was in charge of the first meeting. After a
few weeks, Meyer-Gerhardt and the German shipping men dropped
out of the organization and much of the responsibility was
placed upon Puehr for the direction of the propagandist
bureau. Although Count Bernstorff attended no meetings of
this group, the various members conferred with him at
Washington or at the Ritz Carlton Hotel in Hew York. The
attaches of the German Embassy were not regular members of
this cabinet but were called upon whenever their services
were needed for some special information.
The aim of this group of propagandists differed a
great deal from the aim of the organization under the control
and guidance of von Papen and Boy-Ed. This group fostered
peaceful attempts to change the attitude of the American
people toward the Germans, it consisted of fostering
propaganda and not crime. Sedition, bomb plots, and all acts
leading toward violence were in direct opposition to the work
which this group intended to accomplish. The necessity of
following such a program is evident. In the first place, if
any of the plots of destruction should be discovered as
having originated among German people in this country.
Ambassador Bernstorff v/ould be the first one to be questioned.
Ibid., 54.
26
His position as the legal representative of the German
government would not warrant any suspicion. In fact, it was
necessary for Bernstorff to give up the plan of expressing
his views on the war for newspaper articles because of the
diplomatic activities he had to carry on at Washington.
Another reason why the German propagandist cabinet turned
against acts of violence was because of the disastrous^
effects it had on their work. Progress by the use of the
press or by lectures was completely destroyed by bombings and
strike plots. Trying by peaceful methods to overcome the
prejudices of the American people, their work was greatly
hampered by any act which destroyed lives, property, or tended
to act against the policies of the government.
It became necessary for the propaganda cabinet to
organize sub-committees in order that the more important
fields of work would have special attention. The most important
of these special groups was the press bureau. Dr. Dernburg
was the leader of this organization, and it was under his
guidance that it developed into such an important part of the
propaganda system. Starting out on a small scale, he had but
two main assistants, Mr. M* B. Claussen and Dr. Alexander
Puehr. Mr. Claussen was the New York press agent of the
J. Bernstorff, o£. cit., 40.
Ibid., 49.
87
Hamburg-American line and acted as the only assistant in the
press bureau during the first days of the war. With the
entrance of Japan into the conflict, it was necessary for
Dr. Puehr, the interpreter of the Consular General in
Yokohama, to leave his post. He came to the United States
where he was used in the press bureau. He had much experience
in press work, and his knowledge of American affairs made him
a valuable man on the staff of this organization. With the
aid of a few minor assistants, a daily bulletin, known as
The German Information Service, was published. Mr. G. S.
Viereck states that the work of this paper was so complete
in minute detail that it would have done credit to the
German General Staff.The material published was composed
chiefly of translations from German newspapers with each
item carefully indexed, comments on daily events, interviews
17
with people who had just returned from Europe. Much of
this material was reprinted in the press, especially in the
small town newspapers. Maps, charts, and photographs were
also distributed by this same group for use. The subject
material presented by this paper proved of great interest to
the American press and its readers, and would have been more
widely used if it had not been for the strict British
G. S. Viereck, op. cit., 81.
J. Bernstorff, op. cit., 47.
28
censorship and if the material had not been so obviously
propaganda.
As the work of the press bureau increased by the
issuance of leaflets and pamphlets, it was necessary to add
more men to the staff. Mr. W. B. Hale, an American publicist,
who had shown pro-German tendencies in his various enterprises,
was chosen by Dr. Dernburg to aid in the work of issuing news
for the propaganda cabinet. Other men of less importance
were also added to the group.
As the importance and necessity of educating Americans
to the German viewpoint grew, the press bureau was enlarged
to include war-picture and war-film propaganda. Dr.
Mecklenburg and Mr. Plage were then added to the staff in
order to care for this new field.
Although the press bureau was extremely important in
directing public opinion, a large staff was never employed at
one time- County von Bernstorff, in Mg; Three Years in America,
claimed that "more than a dozen persons, including messengers,
have never been employed by the Press Bureau at one time.
In addition to having a press bureau to handle the
news service, the propaganda cabinet itself also directed a
kind of information service. The German Foreign Office
v/ould send long documents and articles which it desired to
have published by this group. Because of the length and
Ibid., 49.
29
formality of the material, newspapers would not accept it.
It was therefore necessary to have these articles rewritten—
this was done by members of the propaganda cabinet. Special
attention was given by this group to any article or book
written and published by a German professor or sympathizer,
and everything possible was done in order to insure the
success of such a publication.
The German propagandists and their organizations
throughout the United States were able to accomplish the
amount of work they did and with the amount of success which
accompanied their endeavors because of the fact of the type
of men in the service. The group of propagandists which
assembled in this country to lead the way for the German
sympathizers was a most able and efficient assembly of workers.
To more fully understand the achievements and the actual work
of the propagandist cabinet, the press bureau, and the
embassy, a brief study of the men of these various groups
would be enlightening.
Count Johann Bernstorff, German Ambassador to the
United States from 1908 to 1917, headed the German legation
in this country. A member of a family that had produced
many governmental officials, Bernstorff had a background
which was of great aid to his work. At the opening of the
war he was in Berlin on a short visit away from his
diplomatic duties. Prior to his sailing for the United
50
States, he received a number of instructions concerning the
type of work he was to carry on in regard to his position in
this country. According to his own statement these instructions
were as follows:
In the Wilhe 1mstrasse I had interviews with the
authorities, the substance of which was instructions to
enlighten the Government and the people of the United
States on the German standpoint. In doing so I was to
avoid any appearance of aggression towards England,
because an understanding with Great Britain had to be
concluded as soon as possible. ^
He was also informed of new additions to the German
Embassy and of the missions of Dr. Dernburg and Privy Councilor
Albert. Upon his arrival in New York and during the following
weeks, he claims to have made "an honest effort by daily
interviews of. the representatives of the leading daily
newspapers to explain the German standpoint to the American
public.However, Bernstorff realized that if he gave out
too much information or appeared to be too radically pro-
German, his diplomatic work would soon be ended. Concerning
this he stated;
The daily struggle Y/ith the Press was threatening to
undermine my official position and to compromise my
relations with the Washington Government so seriously
that I should not have been in a position to carry through
with success the diplomatic relations which v/ere likely to
be called for. I therefore considered it my duty to the
German people to give up, as far as I personally was
Ibid.. 36-37.
Ibid.. 39.
31
21
concerned, all propaganda in favor of the German cause.
This last statement should not be considered entirely true
because of the fact that evidence was later discovered which
proved that Bernstorff had many connections with the
propagandists and the German secret service.
In Washington, Bernstorff was in a position to have
easy access to Congress and to the German-American representatives
to that body. Prom this vantage point, he was also able to
do much work under the protection of his embassy position.
Continually working for the good of Germany and trying
to direct propaganda in that direction, Mr. G. S. Viereck
states that up to the time of the severance of diplomatic
relations, Bernstorff had played continually a dual role.
"He attempted to be both the Ambassador of the German Empire
and the Unofficial Spokesman of German Liberalism in
Washington. Count Bernstorff had an enormous task on his
hands. His two-fold program, tending to bring results of
opposite nature, was an impossible one with v/hich to deal.
Placing too much confidence in his official position, he was
unable to keep all of his relations and various negotiations
a secret. The outcome of his work will be discussed in a
later chapter.
21 Ibid., 39.
22
G. S. Viereck, op. cit., 108.
38
Ambassador Bernstorff was informed in Berlin in 1914
that Dr. Dernburg, a former Secretary of the States of the
Colonies, was to accompany him to this country as a representative
of the German Red Cross. Dr. Dernburg's chief task was to
raise a loan in the United States for a German company known
as the Central Purchasing Company# However, Dernburg was
unable to finance a loan because of the opposition of the
President to financing loans to companies in the countries
at war# This failure left him in this country with little
work to do as a representative of the German Red Cross. It
was because of this. Count Bernstorff claims, that Dr.
Dernburg began his press bureau. Professor R. E. Park says
that "Dr. Dernburg constituted himself a sort of unofficial
ambassador to the American people.Dernburg, himself,
claimed that "his propaganda activities were forced upon him
by the misrepresentations of Germany's f o e s ."24 However,
Germany was particularly interested in the press bureau as
established by him. Count Bernstorff was also very grateful
for the work of the bureau and realized the advantages of
such a program. He said:
In cooperation with the Foreign Office, Dr. Dernburg*s
New York Press Bureau, developed a solution of the
propaganda question which was exceedingly welcome to me.
As a private person Dr. Dernburg could say and write much
23 R. E. Park, op. cit., 428.
2"^ G. S. Viereck, op. cit., 44.
33
that could not be said officially and therefore could
not come from me. Consequently, I took it for granted
that— in spite of certain suggestions to the contrary—
Dr. Dernburg would not be attached to the embassy, which
would only hamper his work, and also that the Press
Bureau would retain its independent and unofficial
character.^3
As leader of the press bureau. Dr. Dernburg became a
leader in putting forth German propaganda. He had,
particularly, an ability of writing in an interesting manner
and,: in a conciliatory way, of stressing the German point of
view. His material was accepted by New York papers and
various press bureaus. Besides possessing the ability of
writing, he was a very fluent speaker. His main fault,
however, was that his speeches were too pro-German in text.
During the eight months of his work as leader of the
press bureau, his work was partly successful in counter-acting
the propaganda of the Allied nations. County Bernstorff
tells of this success.
He succeeded to a great extent, and within a
comparatively short time, in more or less cripplingly
the enemy propaganda, and at least in gradually rendering
ineffective the grossest misrepresentations of our
enemies. By his own writings and other methods of
spreading the truth, and particularly by the numerous
brochures and books, which at his suggestion were written
by American supporters of the German cause and distributed
in thousands directly or indirectly by the Press Bureau
and with the help of a skilfully compiled address-book,
he succeeded in exerting very considerable influence.
By keeping in touch with American journalists and other
influential persons he did much good work, particularly
in the first months of the war. 2o
25
J. Bernstorff, op. cit., 41.
26 Ibid., 55-56.
34
Dr. Dernburg was also successful in making friends and gaining
cooperation with the Irish leaders in this country. This
greatly strengthened the pro-German group in the United States
and would have been of more benefit if the German government
had realized the full importance of such an alliance.
The work of Dr. Dernburg in the United States was
brought to an end soon after the Lusitania disaster. At the
time of this event, he was engaged on a lecture tour. At
Cleveland, during the course of his lecture period, he
attempted to justify the action of the Germans in sinking the
ship because of the fact that it carried munitions. With
this justification of an act which took a toll of American
lives, public opinion and governmental suspicion became so
27
aroused that it was necessary for him to leave the country.
A means of safe conduct for his return to Germany was obtained
by the State Department under the supervision of the British
28
government.
After the return of Dr. Dernburg to Germany, his
position in the propaganda cabinet and press bureau was taken
over by Dr. Albert. Dr. Albert had been a member of the
party which came to the United States with the Ambassador on
his return in 1914. He had previously been known as Privy
2*^ R. E. Park, op. cit., 422; P. L. Pax son. War
Cyclopedia, 75; G. S. Viereck, op. cit., 66.
22 Ibid., 66.
36
Councillor Albert, of the Ministry of the Interior. He came
to this country as an agent of the Central Purchasing Company,
the company for which Dr. Dernburg was unable to secure a
29
loan. However, this position appears to have been used
merely as a means of getting into this country without
expressing his real reasons for coming. In a short while.
Dr. Albert became one of the busiest men under the German
control in this country. Some of his duties became apparent
after he had been in the United States for a period of time.
These included to
float German loans in the United States, to supervise
all financial deals involving German business interest^
to finance shipments of copper and cotton, to purchase
factories, and to advise the German embassy on all
commercial matters.50
Taking over the position of Dr. Dernberg, Albert
became the leader of German propaganda in connection with the
rest of his duties. With a large capacity for work and with
the duties of directing propaganda, controlling business, and
handling the money for the whole German Embassy, Dr. Albert
was one of the busiest men in the German delegation in the
United States. Under this wide scope of activities, he had
knowledge of all of the trade and economic resources of this
country, he was the paymaster of the German agents in this
country, he was the dominating factor of control outside of
29 J. Bernstorff, op. cit., 37.
G. S. Viereck, op. cit., 45.
36
the embassy. All of this information was discovered when
his brief-case, which contained enough material and documents
to prove the type of relations in which he had been engaging
during his stay in this country, was exchanged for a similar
case by the secret service men under the employment of the
United States.The publication of these documents brought
to light his many and varied activities of subsidizing
newspapers and various trade concerns. No official steps
were taken for his dismissal because of these activities,
and he remained in the United States under the protection of
the German Embassy until the severance of relations between
the two countries in 1917.
The two attaches of Washington, Captain Karl Boy-Ed
and Captain Franz von Papen, were connected more closely with
the German Secret Service Bureau than with the work of the
propagandists. However, these men met occasionally with the
propaganda cabinet when their services could be of any use to
that group. Captain Karl Boy-Ed had been in the German
Embassy in the United States since 1911. After having been
successful in building up the German navy to new proportions,
he was dispatched to this country to keep close touch with
the growth and development of the United States navy and its
J. H. Jones and P. M. Hollister, op. cit., 8-10*
37 ;
power as a means of defence of the coast. Boy-Ed kept ready
a group of reservists in this country which could be relied
upon for active cooperation in the case of any necessity of
*20
German action in the western waters. At the beginning of
the war, he aided in the organization of a group of workers
to carry on activities which would hinder the working of the
allied groups and which would hinder the United States from
giving aid to the Allied nations. As bomb plots, riots, and
strikes became more numerous in this country, suspicion
became so great toward his activities that he was asked to
cease all operations in this country. "He was dismissed by
our Government on December 4, 1915, for 'Improper activity in
naval matters *."35
In close connection with the work of the naval attach^
was the work of Captain Franz von Papen, the military attache.
Von Papen was a typical military man, quick and energetic,
and capable of forming daring plans* His work in the United
States prior to the World War consisted of a study of the
army and the military tactics used. Such interests brought
him into touch with Mexico where he soon became well known in
military circles. It was claimed that a group of German
sympathizers had been organized in Mexico in order to aid
Ibid.. 17.
P. L. Paxson, op. clt., 42.
38
Germany in a coming war. This hand of men were well drilled
and equipped for all types of manoeuvers. Acting according
to the similar principles of.Boy-Ed, von Papen had a group
of reservists which he could depend upon in need of support
for any pro-German activity. Working in connection with
Captain Boy-Ed, the program of sedition and violence was
worked out at the beginning of the war. Also, these two men
organized their own group of men which was to carry out their
plans. Suspicion was directed towards von Papen just as it
has been towards Boy-Ed, and he received his dismissal papers
on the same day for "Improper activity in military matters."34
Mr. George Sylvester Viereck, editor of the pro-
German newspaper. The Fatherland, was during the war a member
of the•propaganda cabinet and of the press bureau. His fields
of endeavor were the direction of propaganda among Americans
of German descent and publicity in general for the German
cause. His work brought him into close touch with a nation-
¥/ide system of correspondence and pro-German activities, as
well as with the work of the leaders of the propaganda staff.
Closely connected ¥/ith him in this work was Mr. William
Bayard Hale. Mr. Hale was hired by Dr. Dernburg because of
his pro-German tendencies and upon the suggestion of Mr.
34 Ibid., 205.
39
Viereck. When Dr. Dernburg called on Dr. Hale for the
express purpose of asking him to join the service of Germany
he
frankly explained that he proposed to conduct a
publicity campaign for Germany in the United States and
engaged Dr. Hale at a salary of approximately f16,000
per annum.
Working for the propaganda cause. Dr. Hale and Mr. Viereck
shared the publicity work of the propaganda cabinet.
The number of assistants in the pro-German movement
were numerous and those connected with publicity were regarded
as the most important. Dr. Hanns Ewers, an "exotic poet-
novelist and globe trotter,"36 wrote pro-German poems and
novels and delivered many lectures. His activities were
discovered, and he was interned at Port Oglethorpe. Dr. Hugo
îlunsterberg. Professor of Psychology at Harvard University
and one of the exchange professors in this country, wrote
books and articles explaining the culture and development of
Germany and translated German works which would be useful
for propaganda. One book was a discussion of the course which
Germany was pursuing in regards to her world affairs. His
work in this connection was important in that it reached into
the intellectual circles. Another German professor of
G. S. Viereck, op. cit., 53-54.
36
Ibid., 52.
40
importance. Dr. Bernhard!, was likewise engaged in the
profession of spreading pro-German literature in this country#
Dr. Bertling, the assistant director of the Amerika
Institut in Berlin, an organization for the purpose of
familiarizing Germans with American affairs, came to this
country at the opening of the war in order to engage in
certain fields of propaganda work. His duties consisted of
delivering pro-German speeches and preparing articles on
international questions for the press. However, his activities
did not prove of much use to the Germans because they were
too obviously propaganda. Not many of his articles were
published, and many of his lecture dates were postponed.
Dr. Puehr and Dr. Mecklenburg, members of the
diplomatic service of Germany, were connected with the
propaganda bureau in practically the same capacity as the
other members. 1/îuch of the responsibility of the propaganda
cabinet rested upon Dr. Puehr; it was through his hands that
much of the direction of the work to be accomplished passed.
Mecklenburg was one of the sponsors of the war-film program,
a plan which did not meet with much success.
A study of the leaders of the propaganda movement in
the United States reveals the great ability of these men and
the precision with which they carried on their various
activities in order to escape detection. Pew of the common
people realized the number of workers employed by the German
41
government for the sole purpose of spreading Germanism. The
rapidity with which the whole movement was put into action at
thé opening of the vjar proves that the work of the German
propagandist in this country prior to the conflict must have
been so organized that an enlargement of the amount of work
to be accomplished and the number of men to be put to work
had been figured out before there was any actual need of such
work.
The organization of the propagandists marked the way
for the beginning of actual work along certain well planned
paths of attack. How propaganda was actually instilled into
the people, the various objectives of this system, and the
control exerted over various groups and organizations is the
subject of the following chapter.
CHAPTER III
PHASES OF GERMAN PROPAGANDA
German propaganda was spread throughout the United
Stated by organized groups of agents for the sole purpose of
establishing control over public opinion. The work of the
propagandist was based on plans which had as their basis the
aim of presenting the German viewpoint of the problems at
hand. The exact type of program whichw as put into use has
been described by many authors, few agreeing as to the amount
of business to be carried on. Count Johann Bernstorff stated
that "the United States was neutral and wished to remain so.
The German propaganda was working for the same end.This
statement, so broad in its scope, gives the general plan of
the German system as established in this country. Other
writers, in giving their views of the various objectives of
the system, make two or more divisions of the program, thereby
presenting a more detailed account of the plan as presented by
Count Bernstorff. Mr. Horst von Goltz describes a two-fold
campaign.
. • .On the one hand active terrorism against private
industry insofar as it was of value to the Allies, re
inforced by the most determined plots against Canada; on
the other an insincere and lying propaganda that presented
the United States Government as a pretender of neutraility
which it did not attempt to practice— as an institution
controlled by men who were unworthy of the support of any
but Anglophiles and hyprocrites. 2
^ J. Bernstorff, ^ Three Years in America, 44.
^ H. Goltz, My Adventures as a German Secret Agent, 220
43
Mr. G. S. Viereck gives an account of the objectives of the
propaganda system in a more clear and concise manner.
The objective of German propaganda was three-fold:
to strengthen and replenish Germany; to weaken and
embarrass Germany’s foes; and to keep America out of the
war by spreading the truth as the Germans saw it. This
was the common end for which all pro-German forces
labored.^
The above statement does not take into consideration any
atterrpts to control the manufacture and sale of munitions,
that is, it is not clearly pointed out. Professor R. E. Park
presented the German plan as containing four separate parts.
(1) To prevent the shipment of munitions to the Allies;
(2) to spread pacifism; (3) to convert American public
opinion to the German point of view; and (4) to promote
discussion among various elements of the population.'^
Other writers have presented similar views. Mr. James D.
Whelpley, in an article in the Fortnightly Review for
September, 1915, stated that Germany was carrying on three
different campaigns in this country. These were to create
friction between America and the Allies, especially England;
to furnish support to a peace at any price party, and to
restrict munition trade with the Allies. In view of the fact
^ G. S. Viereck, Spreading Germs of Hate, 55.
^ R. E. Park, The Immigrant Press and Its Control, 422.
^ J. D. Whelpley, "The German War in America." The
Fortnightly Review, CIV (September, 1915), 454-464.
44
of the date on which this article was published, the work of
the German agents in this country must have been obvious to
anyone who had any interest at all in the affairs of the day.
In considering all of these viewpoints, the main
objectives of the German propagandists are evident. Their
program was to influence American life to such an extent as
to gain this country as a friendly neutral or an ally. The
means by which Germany hoped to gain this end were to control
the German-Amerlean groups and to spread pro-German ideas
through their various organizations in an attempt to counter
act the work of the Allied propagandist, and to carry on a
plan which would hinder the exportation of supplies and
materials to the Allies nations. In order to bring about the
desired results, it was necessary to spread Germanism to all
parts of the United States by all mediums possible. A program
of this type brought about the expansion of German culture,
customs, ideals, and ways of thinking. Various methods of
approach had to be made In order to appeal to the various
groups. Newspapers, educational institutions, and societies
of all types had to be placed under control. Just how far
the plan extended and the amount of work taken over by the
German agents will never be known exactly. The plan, as
organized in the United States, was only a part of a world-wide
scheme to further Germanism. Much of the work of this
wide-spread organization originated in this country.
45
necessitating an extra amount of control of conditions in
this section of the world#
The first attention of the German propagandists in the
United States was directed toward the German-Americans* This
group of people formed an important element in the population;
in practically every community there was a group of these
people who took an active part in the everyday affairs of
any importance. Business and professional men, societies, and
organizations all tended to further German feeling among
other people in these settlements.
In the years immediately preceding the war and during
the first part of the encounter, the number of German-Americans
decreased to some extent. In 1910 there were in the United
States ”8,282,618 persons who were born in Germany or born in
the United States with at least one parent born in Germany.
Mr. J. P. Jones estimates the number of German-Americans in
the United States in 1914 as nearly one-tenth of the population.*^
In 1917 a study was made by the Bureau of the Census which
showed that there were 2,349,000 men, women, and children
in this country who had been born in Germany. Of this number,
136,000 were male aliens of twenty-one years of age or over. 8
^ J. S. Bassett, Our War With Germany, 32.
J. P. Jones and P. M. Hollister, The German Secret
Service in America, 225.
® Anonymous, ”4,662,000 Aliens in the United States
from Germany and the Allied Nations»” Official United States
Bulletin (June 12, 1917), 3.
46
The decrease which'had occurred in these years was the result
of a large number of the male group who returned home to join
the ranks of the German army.
The German-Americans had the tendency of grouping
themselves together in small communities. By doing this,
many of the customs and ideals brought with them from Germany
were still followed. This brought about a condition particu
larly favorable to propaganda. With these groups already
organized, it was comparatively easy to locate them and to
begin a program of indoctrination.
The attitude of Germany towards these foreigners in
the United States changed a great deal when their help was
needed at home. Many of the German-Americans had come to this
country in order to escape political troubles and the
compulsory military system for which Germany had always been
so noted. Germany looked upon these emigrators as near-traitors,
leaving their country and adopting allegiance to another flag
and government. However, the opening of the World War brought
about a change of attitude in Berlin towards these Germans
living abroad. The governmental officials saw a change of
gaining control of large groups of people, and, through them,
a means of spreading influence.
The willingness with which the German-Americans turned
to their mother country in the time when support was desired
showed that they still regarded Germany as their country
47
regardless of the treatment they had received because of its
policies# Mr. G. S. Viereck states;
Pro-German-Americans were more pro-German than the
Germans themselves. They swallowed German propaganda
v/ith the same avidity with which Allied sympathizers q
imbibed the propaganda dished out to them by the Allies.
The means by which Germany encouraged sentiment for
the Fatherland among the German-Americans were numerous.
It has circulated pamphlets advocating the exclusive
use of the German language, not merely in the homes, but
in shops and street cars and all other public places. It
has lent financial support to German organizations in
America, and in thousand other ways has aimed to win the
hearts of the German-Americans’ . . .
It was when this program reached the practice of turning the
Germans in America against the United States that a real
menace arose. For the most part, the work as carried out was
not known very extensively, and many of the people involved
were not conscious of the system in which they were employed.
Germany chose the group of German-Americans as the
basis for her work in this country because she realized that
her subjects would not desert her in the time of need.
Because of the fact that sentiment is strong among people of
the same race, regardless of where they are located, Germany
sought to control this sentiment and make it into a useful
unit of power. Left completely alone, the sympathy of the
^ G. S. Viereck, op. cit., 75.
H. Goltz, op. cit., 217.
48
German-Americans would have been extended to Germany.
However, under the influence of a campaign of publicity,
these people became of greater value because of their intense
interest in the hoped-for success of their home country. The
desire to hear the truth about the war, the truth from the
German view-point, led to new subscriptions for nev/spapers
and periodicals which would give to them the war as they
desired. This led to a means of furthering propaganda.
With the success of the system so evident during the
first few months of the war, the propagandists were not wholly
satisfied with their work. Although the German-Americans
were supporting the German cause, the propagandists found it
hard to lead them into any positive defiance of the United
States. In order to overcome this condition, a new plan of
attack was adopted towards the unsuspecting German-Americans.
A program was to be inaugurated which would discredit this
group and by the hostility which would naturally result
between the Americans and this group, a greater control could
be established by the mother country. This work against the
German-Americans was nothing less than a betrayal of the trust
which they had placed in their country-men. The plan which
was to be put into effect was outlined as follows:
These millions of American citizens were to be given
the appearance of disloyalty, in order that they might
become objects of suspicion to their fellows, and through
49
their resentment at this attitude the cleavage between
Germans and non-Germans in this country would be ,^
increased and perhaps culminate in armed conflict.
Such a course of proceedings seems impossible but it was
based upon the psychological factor of race antagonism, a
factor which has always held groups of people of the same
nationality together.
This project was put into action by increasing the
distrust of Americans tov/ards the German-Americans by
propaganda methods. Enterprises which had no possible chance
of success were put into practice in order that the failure
would result in increasing suspicion of the Germans in
America. Mr. Horst von Goltz says:
I happen to know that during the first two years of thé
war many of the stories about German attempts upon Canada,
about German-American complicity in various plots,
emanated from the offices of Captain von Papen and his
associates. I know also that many plots in which German-
Americans were concerned had been deliberately encouraged
by von Papen and afterwards as deliberately betrayedJl^
By such designs, the German propagandist leaders could furnish
evidence that America was the scene of treachery' and plots for
the express purpose of undermining the stability of the nation.
The first to accept this evidence would be Americans and action
would be taken by them against any group appearing to be
connected with any kind of a plot against this country.
Ibid., 223.
1^ Ibid., 225.
50
The vfhole affair, as planned by the propagandists,
was in reality an attempt to prove to the world that the
German people, no matter where they were at the time, were
solidly supporting their fatherland. Reports were spread and
rumors were started which were without any foundation. Of
course, the newspapers, especially those v/ith anti-German
tendencies, played up these false reports. They attacked the
German-Americans as disloyal to this country, and the German
agents used these attacks as a means of gaining their desired
ends. Paced with a growing hatred among the American people,
the German-Americans acted as had been desired by the
propagandists. Beset on all side by slander, boycott, and
distrust, these people began to turn to the strongholds of
Germanism. They in turn counter-acted the movement against
them by subscribing to German newspapers, which of course
preached Germanism to the highest degree. They became more
closely connected with their societies, became more clannish
in their social relations. Merchants boycotted American
manufacturing establishments and business houses and dealt
with those of German affiliations. When these conditions
became actualities, the German propagandists had achieved
their aims in driving the German-Americans to the side of the
Germans, enough so that a mild hatred arose among many of the
German groups on America toward the government and the people
of the United States and could see only attempts upon their
51
rights as residents in a supposedly free country.
By 1916 the American public had been aroused to a high
pitch of distrust* The German conspirators had managed to
throw enough suspicion on a small group of German-Americans
which caused the whole group to be regarded as traitors and
conspirators. The dissension became so great that conditions
betv/een the German-Americans and Americans were almost at the
point of open combat. The plan had been very successful.
German nev/s papers increased their circulations and
advertising revenues, in many eases by more than one
hundred per cent. German banks and insurance companies
received money that had formerly gone to American
institutions and which now went to swell the Imperial
German War Loans. And the German clubs increased their
memberships and became more and more instruments of power
in the work of Germany.
With the success of this plan, it became evident that
the Germans could place full reliance upon the group of German-
Americans for support. With the control over such a large
number of people, the propagandists were able to direct their
work in other fields with greater ability and with more
assurance of success in the outcomes.
Propaganda, in order to be successful, had to be spread
to all parts of the United States and had to contain some
interest for each group over which it desired to gain control.
Ibid. , 227,
52
The programs of approach had to be varied in order to appeal
to different sections of the country and to various clubs,
societies, and organizations. Not only was it necessary to
have a varied set of ideals, but it was also essential that
the work to be accomplished should be directed to the fields
in which it would be of most value. Thus the propagandists
sought to spread their ideas especially to groups of
reactionaries and revolutionists, to those who had grudges
against an Allied nation such as Ireland had against England,
to the manufacturers and merchants who were affected by the
various embargo and tariff laws, to the pacifists who were
against war and desired neutrality for the United States, to
the people of outlying districts who did not have much interest
in foreign affairs but could easily be led to follow certain
beliefs. Thus, the field of the propagandists was wide and
varied; and in order that success v/ould be the outcome of the
work of the German agents, it was necessary that the plans to
be followed should be based on the same policy of variation.
Besides containing an appeal to special groups, it was
essential that propaganda should have influence over all of
the people in general. To bring about such results, the
propagandists spread their material into all phases of every
day life* It found its way into society where it could be
used to a great advantage. It was spread to the people of
the street, a very important strata of society for furthering
53
the controlling factors of public opinion. The crov/ds which
gathered in front of war bulletins were excellent groups in
which to spread pro-German thoughts. Propaganda was not only
the result of the hired German agents and their co-workers,
for more important than these, were the countless number of
volunteers, who, unknov/ingly, tried to make the country pro-
German because of their own personal beliefs.
To accomplish these tasks, the propagandists had to be
contradictory in many of their arguments. Thus the practice
of painting the glories of peace for the pacifists and the
glories of war for the pro-Germands, became- the course of
15
proceedings of the German agents. Any movement which
would be of any benefit to the Central Powers was accelerated
in the hope of gaining some benefits for the German cause.
The perman propagandists were constantly on the alert in the
hope of finding new fields and openings for their work. As
it was, evidence of German propaganda was found in societies,
in movements advising peace, in all of the various printed
materials, in education, in the church, in politics, in
lectures, in motion pictures, and in innumerable other fields.
The amount of success which resulted was due to an organized
system of procedure, similar to any type of German organization-
thorough in work and systematic in function.
G. S.. Viereck, op. cit., 32.
15 Ibid., 47.
54
The plan of influencing public opinion through
organized societies was one of the chief means of work by the
propagandists. Organizations mong the Germans were always a
feature of their social life in America. Clubs and societies
were formed as early as 1848, and Turnvereins had had a
national alliance since 1 8 5 0 . Associations among teachers
of German education became popular, and training schools under
the auspices of these groups were organized. German veterans
and reservists united, mutual aid and benefit societies were
formed, signing societies and various other social groups
were put into being by the German-Americans. These agencies
were used not only as means of promoting the German cause but
also as a means of influencing public opinion in matters of
purely American interest.
In order that these societies would be of aid to the
propagandist movement, they were brought under the control of
German agents as soon and as completely as possible. New
organizations were formed under the leadership of German
advisors for the purpose of directing the ideals and sympathies
of the German-Americans. Whenever any organization of any
type offered possibilities of usefulness to the German cause,
it has been found that ”a German agent has been on hand to
G. Ohlinger, "German Propaganda in the United
States." The Atlantic Monthly, CXVII (April, 1916), 539.
H. Goltz, o£. cit., 228.
56
offer gratuitous services, advice, guidance, and even
18
financial assistance." The control of these societies by
German agents was evident when the actual functioning of these
groups were investigated. The Labour’s National Peace Council
was connected with the work of Mr. H. von Rintelen, a notorious
spy under the German secret service. The Friends of Peace,
established for the purpose of advocating that the United
States remain a neutral nations, was organized by Mr. Albert
Sander, another German spy. In San Francisco there was an
organization known as the Friends of Peace and Neutrality
which was controlled by the German government through the
secretary, who was under the pay of the Germans. The Ifomen’ s
League for Strict Neutrality, the American Embargo Conference,
the American Neutrality League, and the American Truth Society
were only a few of the many organizations and societies formed
in this country which were under the control and domination
of the German government.
■ Perhaps the most important of the German organizations
in the United States was the National German-Amerlean Alliance.
Made up of German-Americans to a great extent and having a
membership estimated at three million people, it was organized
to awaken a sense of unity among the people of German origin
G. Ohlinger, loc. cit., The Atlantic Monthly,
CXVII (April, 1916), 543; G. Ohlinger, cit., 95-96.
J. P. Jones and P. M. Hollister, op. cit., 240
56
in America and to foster and assure friendly relations between
America and Germany. This organization was granted a federal
charter in 1907 and proved to be one of the most powerful
factors of spreading general propaganda in the United States.
Before the war, the Alliance had been active in extending
German influence. It was under the auspices of this group
20
that the visit of Prince Henry was made to this country.
The desire to spread the culture of the German race and to
influence the German-Americans to gather together into one
unified group were the special work assigned to the German-
American Alliance. Their program became more intensified
and the amount of work greatly multiplied at the opening of
the World War. Notices were sent out to the important centers
of this association containing instructions regarding the
necessity of setting up local press bureaus. An attempt to
control the type of printed material in regard to the stand
taken on German topics was made. German subscribers to
periodicals and newspapers were asked to have the editors of
these articles explain the reason for any unfavorable
criticism of Germany. If no answers were made to these
requests, the people were requested to withdraw their
subscriptions. With this type of work in progress, it is
apparent that If the members of the alliance were true to
Ante., 11; H. Kirchhoff, a Study of German Policies
With Reference to the United States, 18*^ 1-lÜTs, 105.
57
their society and the ideals upon which it had been founded,
control could be established to a minor degree by this group
over the newspapers of the country. A request was issued by
the society for all of the people who were interested in the
outcome of German influence in the United States to give aid
to the propaganda movement.
In 1915,under the auspices of the Alliance, the so-
called National Embargo Conference was held. This meeting,
under the control of the German-Americans and German leaders
who attempted to stay in the background, was called for the
purpose of trying to persuade Congress to pass a law forbidding
the export of munitions.Such an act was desired to stop
all traffic between the Allied nations and the United States
in armaments. In the presidential campaign and in the election
of 1916, an attempt was made to direct voting in such a way
as to benefit the German cause. Candidates were chosen who
would be partial to German success, and these men.were backed
by the Alliance and other groups in an attempt to gain some
control in the governmental machinery of this country. These
candidates were given the promise of support of the German-
American votes. In an effort to make certain that the chosen
men would be of value to the German cause, they had to sign
an agreement in which they stated that they were opposed to
J. P. Jones and P. M. Hollister, op. cit., 243;
G. Ohlinger, loc. cit., The Atlantic Monthly, CXVII (April,
1916), 545.
68
the administration in session and would support any movement
which would aid Germany. The Germans were opposed to the
policies of Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson. They were
willing to go to any extreme in order to escape a government
under their influence. All attempts at'prohibition were
feared by the German agents in the United States and especially
by the Alliance because of the fact that much of the revenue
of this group was derived from the income of the liquor
22
business.
The Alliance, carrying on a program of extending
influence over newspapers and periodicals, political campaigns
and elections, and groups of German-Americans throughout the
United States needed funds with which to function. Most of
the revenue was furnished by the German Embassy and by
contributions of the members of the group. The outbreak of
the war brought about a necessity of more funds and a closer
control over the members of the society. In order to
establish such conditions, the Alliance issued resolutions of
loyalty which were to be accepted by the members. This
resolution, even though it promised loyalty to the United
States, contained the following statement which was to be
adopted as the policy of the German-Americans. "Our duty
before the war was to keep out of it- Our duty now is to get
22 J. p. Jones and P. M. Hollister, op. cit., 244.
59
out of It. Always alert for new fields to which to spread
their control, the Alliance did not let any opportunity go by
which would be of any use to the German cause.
The use of societies was•prevalent in all fields which
had dealings in propaganda. In the movement for peace, in
educational circles, and in political fields this was the case.
These societies will be discussed later under their special
fields.
The importance of keeping the United States at peace
was one of the chief factors of the work of the German
propagandists in the United States. Count von Bernstorff and
his army of workers were active throughout the period of war
endeavoring to keep this country out of the war and at peace
with Germany* The program to be followed was to gain control
of munition manufacturing and the sale of armaments and to
spread propaganda favoring peace. Not only were the German-
Americans ardent followers of the peace movement but others
were greatly influenced and also advocated peace at any price.
Under the leadership of the American Truth Societies, the
advocates of peace found an organization which was capable of
directing and controlling such viewpoints. This society
sponsored pamphleteers and lecturers in various plans of
attempting to direct American thought to pacifism. Acting in
Ibid., 247.
60
connection with the National German-American Alliance, this
society aided in bringing about action directed against the
selling of munitions to foreign countries. Pamphlets with
the titles of Fair Play for Germany and A German-American War
were promulgated by this society. Close touch was kept with
the Congressional members in order to keep control of the
German element of the group.
Societies were very prominent in the peace movement.
Some of the following organizations have already been mentioned
but will bear repetition. The Friends of Peace, the American
Neutrality League, the American Inter-Independence Union, the
American Truth Society, and the Laborer’s National Peace
Council were the controlling parts of this program.The
cost of sponsoring such activities is evidenced by the fact
the Laborer’s National Peace Council cost the German government
"not less than $600,000.The peace program met with a great
deal of success, and the cost of the work was regarded only in
the light of a means of achieving more influence.
The Chemical Exchange Society may be regarded as one
of the peace sponsoring groups. Organized in 1915 for the
purpose of controlling the sale of carbolic acid, this society
R. E. Park, op. cit., 423.
25 Ibid., 423.
61
brought about a control of the munitions manufacturing houses.
From this chemical picric acid is produced, an important
element in T. N. T. and other high explosives. Although
organized by Dr. Hugo Schweitzer, Dr. Albert and the German
government were in reality the controlling factors. At a
banquet given in 1916, Dr. Albert clearly expressed his
connections with the organization by stating that
he felt he had rendered valuable .aid to the German
Empire and had saved many German lives by preventing
the allies from obtaining carbolic acid and by
converting it into harmless pharmaceutical products.
The numerous types of societies put into operation by the
German agents were a definite aid to the propaganda movement
in this country. By working secretly and under assumed names,
these groups did much to control public opinion during the
war in this country.
The usual and most profitable way of controlling
propaganda is through printed material* Newspapers, pamphlets,
magazine articles, and books are the media of this control.
In the United States the German press had always been strong;
Professor R. E. Park placed the number of newspapers of
27
German origin in the United States at 532. The Germans
26
Anonymous, "German Plot to Control Materials for
Manufacturing High Explosives Exposed by Alien Property
Custodian." Official United States Bulletin (October 19,
1918), 2.
27
R. E. Park, op. cit., 417; ante, 13.
62
recognized the Importance of the press in propaganda and
also the importance of the newspaper in the daily life of the
Americans. Count; von Bernstorff stated:
The American daily papers are more important as a
medium for influencing public opinion than as a medium
for reflecting it. The United States is the land of
propaganda par excellence. ’^^
The press bureau, under the direction of the propaganda
cabinet, played an important part in the control of press news.
It was under its supervision that personal relations were made
between the leaders of the propaganda group and the newspaper
men. In the early part of the war, editors and reporters were
only too anxious to obtain any information possible about
Germany and the method as described immediately above brought
about very favorable impressions among the press circles.
Through control of a news service and reporters who supported
the German viewpoint and by a close supervision of the German
propagandists, an appeal was made to the readers of the
newspapers in Germany’s behalf.
Soon after the opening of the war, a nev/spaper bearing
the title of The Fatherland was created. The first issue of
this paper was on August 10, 1914.^^ Up to this time little
German news had been included in the American papers and in
order to remedy this situation, Mr. G. S. Viereck and several
assistants organized a newspaper which would give the pro-German
28 J. Bernstorff, o£. clt., 33.
G. S. Viereck, cit. , 49.
63
news to the people. As the editor of this weekly stated:
The Fatherland was undiluted pro-Germanism. Arising
spontaneously in response to a world-wide need, it became
the spokesman in the English language of pro-Germans
everywhere. Its influence far exceeded its circulation,
it reached from North to South America. It stretched
across the ocean to Asia and Africa. Its American origin
enabled it to escape the English Censor.
Under the direction of George Sylvester Viereck, who was a
poet and a journalist, a group composed of a young banker, a
young chemist, and a young accountant was formed. It was
through the work of these people that the paper became very
important in dissemenating the news of the pro-Germans. Each
of these men pledged fifty dollars in order to print the first
issue, an issue which had to be reprinted many times in order
to supply the demands of the news-stands. The desire and
appreciation of this paper by the American people was clearly
shown by the number of contributions which were made for its
upkeep. The circulation increased rapidly and in a few weeks
reached over a hundred thousand copies. In order to meet the
increasing demands for the paper, it was necessary to enlarge
the staff. Mr. F. P. Schrader, an editor of a dramatic weekly
and an American newspaper man for many years, joined the
ranks of the workers. Mr. L. Sherwin of the New York Globe
entered the services of the paper but was forced to resign
his position after one week because such relations were
30 Ibid,. 49.
64
regarded with disfavor by the Globe. A Mr. Aleister Crowley,
a British poet of great merit, was one of the contributors of
the weekly, his work consisting of the usual propaganda
material.
Although this paper was supposedly founded as a means
of counter-acting the false statements issued by the Allied
propagandists, it soon became an important element of the
German propaganda movement. Mr. G. S. Viereck became a
member of the German propaganda cabinet. His close association
with this cabinet and the press bureau under the same
organization would influence his work in his own newspaper.
Many of the contributors to the weekly were men associated
with the press bureau. Some of these were Dr. Dernburg, the
leader of the propaganda group; Rudolph Kronau; Prank Kolster;
J. Bernard Rethey; Edmund von Mach; Ram Chandra, and many
others. All of these men were excellent newspaper workers
who had had much experience. The paper was regarded as an
important propaganda medium long before the sinking of the
Lusitania and other similar events began to have such wide
spread influence upon the minds of the American people.
After the publication of the papers of Dr. Albert’s portfolio,^2
the paper was regarded with suspicion and distrust. The
pro-Ally publications were particularly harsh in their
treatment of the weekly.
Ibid., 51.
Ante, 35.
65
Many papers, similar to The Fatherland, came into
being soon after the beginning of the war# Many of these
papers were under the leadership, supervision, and financial
control of the German Embassy or other mediums of German
influence. There were a number of Irish papers with pro-
German sympathies who made constant demands upon the treasury
bureau of the German Embassy for support. In Washington, D.
C*, a newspaper was in existence under the personal subsidy
of Count Bernstorff. Aid was also given to smaller
newspapers in the form of advertising. Actual ownership of
news services was not very common although several purchases
of less importance were made.
When the World War began, the Germans had no definite
means of controlling public opinion through their own
syndicate. The propagandists had to work on the basis of
subsidizing and granting financial support to the nev/s bureaus
and papers in order to gain any definite support for the
German cause. As time went, on it became evident that if any
success of any great degree of educating the American people
to an appreciation of the German point of view that a definite
control of some news syndicate was almost necessary. The
negotiations for such a purchase were directed from the
German Embassy. Several plans were set on foot by which
control would be gained over various papers. The New York
Sun, the Washington Post, and the Daily Mail were purchased
66
at a cost of $750,000. In addition to this much money had to
be expended in order to meet the various running costs of such
large enterprises.^^ The desire to control a larger news
syndicate was always present in the minds of the propagandists.
Through Dr. Albert, negotiations were made for the purchase of
such an establishment at the price of $900,000. Although the
temptation was great. County Bernstorff saw the folly of such
a purchase.
If, he said, it became known that a news agency is
controlled by German interests it would never be a success.
With the present animosity against Germany it would even
mean risking the whole enterprise. If, on the other hand,
we operate the news service in such a cautious manner that
the German interest cannot very well be discovered, it
will not be of much use at all.34
All negotiations were overthrown after this declaration, and
more concentration was placed on newspapers which could be
controlled by the German propagandists.
One news agency which was of particular Interest and
benefit to the German propagandists was the American Association
of Foreign Language Newspapers. This agency was under the
direction of Mr. Louis N. Hammerling, a man v/ho had gained
great prominence through the furtherance of political
propaganda before the war. After the opening of the World War
his activities were on a larger scale than had ever before
been attempted. For his services he received large sums of.
money from Dr. Albert. Mr. R. 2. Park states that his
33 R. E. Park, op. cit., 423.
34 Q. 8* Viereck, o£. cit., 88.
67
greatest coup was
. . . the publication, April 5, 1915, in all the
important English daily papers, of An Appeal to the
American People to stop, in the name of humanity, the
manufacture and shipment to Europe of munitions of war.
The appeal was signed or purported to be signed, by 450
publishers of foreign-language newspapers. For this
Hammerling received $204,900.35
Mr. Hammerling justified his actions in this connection before
an inquiry conducted by the Senate. The written report of
this action is known as the Brewing and Liquor Interests and
German Bolshevik Propaganda. In this investigation, Mr.
Hammerling stated that he published the article as an
advertisement and as these were very scarce at the time, he
did it for business purposes only. It was numerous cases
such as this which greatly aided the spread of German
propaganda.
The use of the English and German presses did not
completely satisfy the German propagandists. In order to stir
up dissensions among various racial groups within the United
States, control was established over many various types of
newspapers by the Germans. Mr. James K. McGuire was the
organizor of the Irish press and news service for the
propagandists. He was the owner of the Light in Albany, New
York, the Truth in Scranton, Pennsylvania, the Sun in
36
Syracuse, New York, and the National Catholic. These
R. E. Park, op. cit., 390.
Ibid., 428.
68
newspapers were placed at the disposal of the German
propagandists* By the use of this news service^ which
supplied a number of papers, control was established to a
minor degree over the type and amount of news published*
The Jewish press in the United States was also an important
medium of disseminating information to a large part of the
population of this country because of the number of this
race living within our borders. "Dr. Isaac Strauss was
brought from Germany for the express purpose of influencing
the Jewish Press. At first, the Jewish press was regarded
merely as a means of controlling public opinion to a small
extent. As time went on, however, the whole system of this
language paper became a regular systeramatic information
service. Through the use of another foreign language newspaper,
an attempt was made to direct interest to another part of the
world. An Indian nationalistic movement was promoted in
America at the instigation of the German propagandists. This
movement was particularly active in California. Under the
leadership of Har Dyal, the editor, the Gadho (Mutiny) was
published with the aid of German funds. Another attempt of
the German propagandists to develop racial feelings among the
people of this country was through, the use of the press to
develop discontent among the Uegroes. This system had no
definite results. The action of the propagandists in this
Ibid., 427.
69
country to foster nationalism among the various races in
the United States was a program of developing dissension
among them in order to divert their attention to other
problems than the World War.
The medium of the German immigrant press in the
propaganda field was felt mostly in attempts to foment
disorder among the various foreign groups. Little was
printed about the actual happenings of the war but articles
which were the basis of strikes in munition plants were very
numerous.
Newspapers played an important part in the scheme of
the propagandists in the United States. Printed matter of
all descriptions were put into use in the program of the
German agents in an attempt to control and direct the public
mind. The use of pamphlets was of no less importance than the
38
newspapers. This type of material was more favorable in
many instances because of the length of the articles. These
pamphlets were circulated through pro-German organizations
and information bureaus and were sold through news companies
and independent bookstores. The method of selling these
articles was shrewd psychology on the part of the propagandists
because of the fact that the average person will at least
look through something for which he has ^paid out money than
something which is handed to him or passed out in the form
38
G. S. Viereck, op. cit., 82-85.
70
of hand bills. The sale of these pamphlets also proved a
valuable source of the much needed income. The editions of
these booklets were usually ôf a large number, the smallest
was twenty-five thousand and some attained several hundred
thousand. One pamphlet denouncing the shipment of arms
reached more than three million readers. The German \¥hite
Book and a pamphlet known as the Case Against Armed Merchantmen,
both with twenty-five thousand copies for circulation, were
distributed primarily among legislators and editors. Another
article on the shipment of munitions, written by a former
government official, was circulated more widely throughout
the United States.
Dr. Dernburg was very active in the role of a
pamphleteer.- His ability as a writer was much greater than
in any other field of spreading propaganda. Some of the
pamphlets, written on the basis of his articles, attained wide
circulation. The Truth About Germany) Germany^s Just Cause,
Germany and the War, The Case of Belgium, Current Misconeeptions
about the War, and Germany * s Hou% of Destiny were only a few
of the leading ones.Millions of these pamphlets were
circulated among pro-German sympathizers, but their influence
was felt in much wider circles. Readers of these articles
Ibid., 82.
^ Ibid., 83
71
would spread the information contained in the writings among
their neighbors. In case of any arguments on various topics,
these booklets were referred to as sources of knov/ledge. Thus,
it was possible for one pamphlet to reach many people, a
condition which was desired by the propagandists. The War
Plotters of Wall Street was regarded by Mr. Viereck as the
41
most powerful pamphlet published. This article attempted
to show the relations between pro-Ally banks and pro-Ally
munitions manufacturers, and urged the readers to withdraw
their funds from financial institutions subscribing to Allied
loans. Pamphlets on the Lusitania incident were very numerous,
and the subject v/as discussed at great length. Pacifist
articles were distributed to all organizations. One of these
which was especially written for the clergy was Thou Shalt
Not Kill by Mr. Hale. The War Business in the United States
was a compilation of Mr. Viereck*s articles on munitions
shipments. The pamphlet A Trip Through Headline Land was
written and published to show the falsity of the news service
in this country during the opening part of the war. Based on
headline news, it showed the stand taken by so many newspapers
in regard to news from the German front. Dr. Hale wrote two
booklets which were very lengthy and contained much pro-German
material. These were entitled American Rights and British
Ibid., 83.
72
Pretensions on the Seas and Peace or War: The Great Debate
of Twenty-Six United States Senators and Eighty-Nine
Representatives in Congress. The first of these was presented
to universities, libraries, colleges, and to members of
Congress.
Pamphlets were also written for special groups. One
of these was written for historical students on the subject
of European politics during the years just preceding the war
by a Belgian diplomatist. Other studies were made primarily
for bankers. Warnings were issued to investors concerning the
dangers of investing money in certain enterprises in foreign
countries. Although some of these pamphlets were published by
neutral concerns, almost all of them were financed by some
way or other by the Germans.
Books published for the purpose of disseminating
propaganda were printed by various concerns which tended
toward pro-Germanism. Punk and Wagnalls; Macmillan Company;
Small, Maynard, and Company; the Jackson Press; Knopf and
Company; and a few others showed enough interest in pro-German
activities to support the printing of propaganda material.
One book, a critical review of the White Books of all the
countries having a definite bias written by Dr. von Mach, was
published by Macmillan Company. Delaisi *s The Inevitable War
was issued by Small, Maynard, and Company. Dr. Munsterberg*s
innumerable war books were published by numerous houses.
73
The Jackson Press issued in The Vampire of the Continent,
one of the most ferocious attacks upon England ever known#
Another enterprise which was aided by a loan from the German
Embassy was the printing and distributing of the German
Classics throughout America. This work was to consist of
twenty volumes edited by Professor Kuno Francke. Mr. James
K. McGuire issued books linking the fate of Ireland and England
and distributed them on a large scale#
The policy of issuing printed material as a means of
influencing public opinion was worked out on a large scale.
Practically all of the various phases of propaganda were based
on some kind of guidance which could be found in the press.
It is impossible to find a more direct means of campaigning
for certain ideals and beliefs than through the medium of
written material. Using this as one of the foundations for
their work, the German propagandists spread some control
over the minds of the people of the United States.
The control of the propagandists in politics was
particularly exercised in the elections during the period of
the war. Attempts were made by various German organizations
to control the nominations and the elections of various
municipal, state, and national officials. Such campaigning
was particularly strong in the Middle-west where there was
the greatest number of German-Americans. New York City was
also an important center of this type of work because of the
74
numerous German officials in that city. However, the
influence of Germans in American politics was felt throughout
the nation. In certain sections of the country, candidates
who desired the support of the pro-German vote had to sign
resolutions by which they pledged themselves to uphold the
rights of Germany* Representatives and Senators of Congress
were constantly watched over by the propagandists— a catalogue
was even compiled which had the members of Congress divided
into groups according to the stand they would take on certain
issues dealing with German relations* During the period of
discussion in Congress of the embargo bill, which would
prohibit the transportation of the various types of munitions
to the Allies, the German agents had many lobbyists present
in Washington who took an active part in discussions of the
question with the members of the legislative bodies. Requests
were made through societies and organizations for the people
to send letters and telegrams to their representatives in
Washington urging their support of the proposed bill. The
German propagandists saw means by which control could be
established over the American government. Their program was
to carry through plans which would result in favorable
conditions in this field for the German ideas* The amount of
success which such a program would attain controlled the
amount of success which the Germans would have in establishing
their principles in the United States.
75
The policy of distributing kultur throughout the world
has always been a dominant feature of the program of pan-
Germanism. Institutions had been established with the purpose
of spreading German thought and ideals. Professors were sent
from Germany to important countries to become a part of the
various educational systems. Mr. G. Ohlinger states this
program very clearly.
If . . . she could introduce her agents into the native
education, there disseminate doubt as to the validity of
native traditions and with regard to the adequacy of
established institutions, replace national spirit by a
shallow cosmopolitanism, and foster an admiration of
Kultur to the disparagement of national achievements,
then she could sap the very sources of moral resistance.
Prior to the outbreak of the war, many exchange professors and
teachers from Germany had been placed in American schools.
Upon the declaration of war, these German instructors were
banded together as a means of controlling and spreading
propaganda into their particular fields of v/ork. An appeal
was also sent out to "all those v/ho had studied in German
universities to inaugurate a propaganda on behalf of the
German cause.The German professors made no secret of
their stand on the question of the war; many made very active
use of their school rooms in fostering propaganda. Those
professors who carried their work to more of an extreme than
G. Ohlinger, 0£. cit., 15-16.
43
Ibid., 93.
76
others were given the duty of reporting on the work and
attitude of their colleagues in regard to their pro-German
tendencies#
The college professors were of equal benefit in fields
outside of their activities as teachers# Contributions v/ere
made by them to the various propaganda newspapers and lectures
were given under their instructions stressing the pro-German
view point. They were also members of the various German
societies. As the war progressed, the professors turned more
and more from their professions as instructors. Instead,
they tried to instill into their students their conceptions
of Germanism, Germany * s place in modern civilization, what
her ideals had been, and what she had contributed to the
world's cultural achievements.
In order to carry on their work to a greater degree,
societies were organized. The German!stic Society of America,
with headquarters in New York City, and the German!stic
Society of Chicago had as their objects the "promotion of the
knowledge of German civilization in Germany--and both ignoring
the latter object and devoting all their efforts to spreading
German ideas. The society in Chicago issued several
pamphlets favoring the German cause. However, the New York
society failed to respond to this method of influencing
Ibid., 34.
77
public opinion. The pro-German members of this organization
were asked to oust their leaders and elect new ones v/hich
would be of greater service to the German cause.
In New York, at a meeting sponsored by old German
students, the German University League was formed. Banding
together as a means of assisting their colleagues in war,
this group saw the need of presenting the righteousness of
Germany's cause to the American people. The professors of
this group were from Columbia, Chicago, Princeton, Vanderbilt,
Brown, and many institutions of equally high rank. These
societies were to dominate the academic world with propaganda.
The German University League became affiliated v/ith
the Inter-Collegiate League of German Clubs. According to the
usual custom, as soon as the organization was perfected, a
German agent was on hand offering his services as a secretary*
Working through the use.*of pamphlets, lectures, and correspondence
this society was influential in its work.
In connection with the organization of German
professors, there was also a movement which attempted to
foster the German spirit in connection with the academic
world. German houses were established at the larger universities,
an attempt to bring together those who were interested in German
activities. Discussion clubs were organized. At Cornell
University such a club "distributed war literature, conducted
discussions of war topics, and corrected misapprehensions as
78
to the righteous German cause.These various groups
were also incorporated into the Inter-Collegiate League of
German clubs. In 1915 this league came under the supervision
of German influence when three members were appointed to head
the group as the advisory board in place of the usual twelve
members. The newly appointed members were
. . . an exchange professor of violent pro-German
tendencies, now under indictment for treason (1919),
another professor from New York University, also
violently pro-German, and a member of Germany's subsidized
and official propaganda board.
Tendencies of propaganda came to characterize many of
the classrooms of the German departments. From this start,
many professors soon became active in the so-called German
movement in America.
Another type of propaganda carried on by the Germans
in the educational field was in textbooks. This was
particularly true in the type of textbooks used for study in
the German classes and in the courses of German literature.
In many of the mid-western towns, the school board was made
up completely or dominated by German-Americans who desired
that their children should have some German background for
their education. Books were used which had been printed in
Germany, bearing the seal of the German Imperial Government.
45
Ibid., 34.
Ibid., 34-35.
J. R. Rathorn, "Germany's Plots Exposed." World's
forlc, XXXV (February, 1918), 394-415.
79
Unconsciously, much propaganda had been given to the children
of school age. English spelling books often had lessons based
on German topics, praise for the Kaiser, or the German military
system was always common in any book which dealt with Germany.
The teaching of the great culture which had been attained by
Germany led many students to go to German universities for
their higher education. Although much of this type of work
was in reality a necessity for common school work, neverthe
less, the German teachers and professors explained topics
concerning the German institutions and their influence to a
. much greater degree during the war than prior to it.
A close companion to the propaganda in education was
the use of the lecture platform as a means of spreading German
ideals. German officials and professors were given chartered
lecture tours in order to spread certain pro-German beliefs.
Many of the speakers were able to converse in languages other
than German and English, a factor which greatly aided the
propagandists in reaching other foreign-born peoples in this
country. Dr. Dernburg was an important member of the lecture
group, although he became too pro-German for his own success.
Dr. von Mach and Dr. Hanns By'/ers, both capable speakers, v&rere
able to address their audiences in German and in English.
Professor Kuno Meyer, a great authority on the Gaelic language,
was able to address gatherings in Irish or German. Topics
of discussion by these lecturers would naturally concern
80
German culture, the growth of Germany, the position of Germany
in the World War, appeals to keep peace within the United
States, and any topic which vmuld be of benefit to Germany's
cause.
The church was another institution which did not
escape the menace of propaganda. The pulpit has always been
a leading factor in the advance of pacifism. As the war
became an actuality in Europe, the peace organizations began
their work in this country. Pamphlets and various types of
literature were sent to the heads of the church groups in
order that anyone delivering a sermon might have some informa
tion on which to base his arguments for peace with Germany.
Various news agencies also circulated material which was to be
included in the announcements made at the opening of the church
services. The German-American churches sought to establish
friendly relations with the other churches in their communities.
German protestantism was lauded because of the fact that
Germany had been the scene of the establishment of a new
religion which broke away from the pope and his control. As
in other fields, the church was an important place for the
furtherance of the study of German culture.
Another phase of German propaganda in the United States
was the use of motion pictures. This branch was initiated
under the leadership of Dr. Dernburg but was more fully
developed under Dr. Albert. At first, an agency was
81
Inaugurated to handle the distribution of imported films in
this country. However, it soon became apparent that the kind
of pictures sent here from Germany would be of little value as
propaganda. In view of this discovery, agents were sent to
Europe to supervise the type of material which would be of
greater value. Motion pictures appealed to the Germans as a
proof of the actual happenings in Germany and at the war front.
In order that this type of propaganda would be successful, the
American Correspondent Film Company was organized by Dr. Albert.
Included in this corporation were many workers from the
propaganda cabinet and the press bureau. Various types of
pictures were presented, most of which could be included under
educational films. There were also many films dealing with
actual war scenes. A few dramas were made in Germany which
proved to be very successful in this country* On the whole,
the public did not show much interest in the educational
pictures, and the war scenes embittered them more than ever
against the Germans. Censorship of film material was also
so strict that pictures dealing with war, other than those
which would be influential for the cause of the United States,
were not allowed to be shown.
In discussing German propaganda, it is almost impossible
to draw a line which will accurately separate real propaganda
from sedition and violence. In the United States, the leaders
of one program were engaged in the other program. Both plans
82
w e re directed towards the same goal of securing the support
of the United States as a neutral nation and the hindrance
of trade between the United States and the Allied nations.
Nothing had been overlooked in order to insure that the
outcome of the whole plan would be a success. Besides keeping
the United States a neutral country, an attempt was made to
change the public opinion of this land so that it would be
favorable in the support of Germany.'^®
German intrigue was so prevalent and common in the
United States during the war period, and because of the fact
that it was going on under the supervision of the propagandists
and the German Embassy, that it becomes necessary to give a
brief account of this phase of German activity. German
intrigue included
. . .the violation of the laws of the United States;
destruction of lives and property in merchant vessels on
the high seas; Irish revolutionary plots against Great
Britain; fomenting ill-felling against the United States
in Mexico; subordination of American writers and lecturers;
financing of propaganda; maintenance of a spy system under
the guise of a commercial investigation bureau; subsidizing
of a bureau for the purpose of stirring up labor troubles
in munition plants; the bomb industry and other related
activities.
The first of the sedition acts was the plot against
the Du Pont storehouse which was blown up at Prompton. New
Watchman, "The Germanization of the United States."
The Living Age, CGLXXXV (April 7, &915), 132.
Samuel B. Harding, The Study of the Great War, 65.
83
Jersey, on August 24, 1914.Up to September 1, 1915, thirty-
four lives were lost and twenty-two persons injured as a
result of the destruction or intended destruction of American
factories by German-American incendiaries.^^ During the first
two months of the war, many plans were made for destroying the
Welland Canal and the Canadian Pacific Railway. Agents had
been placed in various munition factories, and spies were
everywhere seeking possible points of vantage from which a
blow for Germany could be struck.
The opening months of the war saw very extensive work
of the seditionists. Plans for such affairs as mentioned in
the above paragraph were but a small part of the numerous
attacks which were instigated. A program whereby the St.
Clair Tunnel, running under the Detroit River at Port Huron,
Michigan, was developed but was not completed because of the
fact that the United States agents gained some knowledge of
the whole affair. Acts of violence were directed mainly
towards the boundary between the United States and Canada in
order that the Canadians would become to busy at home to pay
much attention to European affairs.
William H. Skaggs, German Conspiracies in America, 144.
T K - t ^ T ÆA
50
ILld., 144.
Horst Goltz, op. cit., 222.
84
The activities of the German agents were directed at
any act which would hinder the manufacturing programs in the
United States and thereby control trade. It has already been
pointed out how the foreign press was active in fomenting
strikes among the workers in munition plants. This was
especially true in the factories at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania,
53
and at Bridgeport, Gonnecticut.
Plans were also put into action which included the
manufacturing of bombs and other kinds of munitions which
would be successful in the destruction of property. A
particular type of bomb was originated by Mr. Pay vfhich was
fastened to the rudder of a steamer and was so timed that it
would explode when the ship was in mid-ocean. Various other
devices were inaugurated by the chemists employed by the
German secret service.
In close connection with the German agents was the
establishment of a passport bureau. Through the work of the
employees of this organization, German spies were able to
travel in Canada, Mexico, and Europe with no questions asked
as to their identity. During the early weeks of the war, when
photographs were not required for passports, the State Department
issued a considerable number of false passports without any
knowledge of the v/ork being carried out. However, suspicion
to such a system became aroused and the requirement of a
53
R» E* Park, op. cit., 429.
85
photograph of the bearer of the passport was added. The
Germans soon overcame this difficulty by a way of exchanging
54
the pictures so that such a change was not noticeable.
The functions of this group was disclosed upon the arrest of
Rurolde, one of the leaders of this group. This arrest,
however, did not put an end to the fraudulent passport
conspiracies. Captain Boy-Ed assumed the responsibility of
directing the work of this system after the arrest of Rurolde-
Under his supervision, men were hired for the express purpose
of securing passports. The ability of Boy-Ed in supplying
passports and directing the work of the spy system was most
successful. However, the relations between Mr. Stegler, an
employee of the passport bureau, and Captain Boy-Ed were
discovered; and it became necessary to change the system to
new locations and types of work. A study of the activities
of the passport bureau showed that as the vigilance of the
State Department became more pronounced the work of the
passport bureau became less and less active.
Through the work of the German secret service, aid was
extended to German naval vessels. This program was under the
f
auspices of Captain Boy-Ed. Through the services of the
Hamburg-American Steamship Line, arrangements were made with
54 j, p. Jones and P. M. Hollister, ojg. cit., 82-92,
55 Ibid., 97.
86
the German government which "provided for the provisioning,
during the war, of German ships at sea, using America as a
base.The contract containing this agreement was kept under
guard in the German Embassy at Washington. Dr. Karl Buenz,
the American head of this steamship company, had charge of
the work to be accomplished. It was the duty of Captain Boy-Ed
to chart the locations of the naval ships to be supplied.
Merchant vessels were chartered or purchased for the purpose
of taking supplies from the various harbors to the naval boats.
In order to secure clearance papers for the sailing of these
ships, it was necessary for the German agents to swear to
false manifestos of the cargo to be shipped. The activities
of this sort were put into practice three days after the
beginning of the war. The United States became an innocent
party by the issuance of these false clearance papers to
German naval operations.
The work of directing the. maneuvers of the supply ships
was under the direction of supercargoes bearing secret
instructions. As soon as the boats were outside the three-mile
limit, these men had authority to give navigation orders to
the captain and the crev/. These orders consisted of directing
the ships to the various locations of the German naval vessels
by wireless connections established between the fleet and the
supply boats. Most of this type of work was carried on from
Ibid. , 32.
57
Ibid., 33.
87
the Atlantic coast. However, minor plans under the direction
of the North German Lloyd Steamship Company were put into
practice on the Pacific coast. A transfer of funds from the
east to the west coast exposed the German operations in the
west, and also brought about the arrest of the German consular
58
staff in San Francisco. The discovery of the use of the
United States as a supply base for the German naval boats led
to various investigations which led to the dismissal of
Captain Boy-Ed from his duties at Vifashington.
The set-up of the wireless system in the United States
for use by the German government established one of the most
important means of communication between Berlin and the various
German agents in this country. The system had been inaugurated
by the German government prior to the World War. Subsidies
had been granted to various German electrical manufacturers
for the establishment of wireless stations throughout the
world. In the United States, companies vrere formed and financed
with American funds but were in reality run according to plans
submitted by the German Foreign Office. Under the guise of
the Atlantic Communications Company, the wireless system was
inaugurated in America. A site was chosen on Long Island for
the station, and in 1911 the apparatus was installed. Captain
Boy-Ed was very interested in the progress of the work at
Sayville, and because of his authority, he was able to take
Ibid., S9.
88
part in many activities concerning its development. His
familiarity with wireless placed him in frequent and cordial
relationships with the wireless departments of the United
States Navy and the Department of Commerce. Through these
connections he was able to learn much regarding the wireless
system in this country, which proved to be a great aid to
his work.
From the Sayville station, the plan of expansion spread
the establishment of plants to Mexico, Brazil, Dutch Guiana,
59
Columbia, and Peru. Besides the extension of so-called
commercial stations under the control of Germany, the founding
of many amateur stations was encouraged. Because of the fact
that the numerous German ships in American ports were equipped
with wireless apparatus, a wide net-work of inter-communication
was put into effect. At the opening of the war, the German
Embassy had at hand a system of information service v/hich
proved invaluable*
The United States government ordered the closing of
all private wireless systems in this country soon after the
outbreak of the war. Apparently, the various foreign concerns
and merchant ships obeyed this order because all external
evidence of wireless apparatus was destroyed. However, later
investigations revealed that
• • .apparatus apparently removed was often rigged in
Ibid., 47.
89
the shelter of a funnel, and operated by current supplied
from an apparently Innocent source. And the secret
service discovered stations also in the residents of
wealthy Hoboken Germans and in a German-American mansion
in Hartford, Connecticut.50
It was through these various wireless set-ups that much
propaganda material was received from Germany, and the position
of every ship on the ocean was known to the German naval staff
in this country* All material received over the numerous
sets was transferred to the Embassy office where the messages
were sorted and advanced to the proper offices and people.
The working of the wireless system was very successful until
the codes were ciphered by the United States secret service.
When this was accomplished, the German wireless system lost
its effectiveness and many of the stations were taken over by
the United States government.
The work of the German secret service in the United
States was so closely connected with the propaganda movement
that the discoveries of certain types of work in one field
would lead to the discovery of plots in the other. Not only
were the activities of the two systems inter-related, but the
leaders of German activity in the United States were often
closely connected in the two divisions. Captain Boy-Ed and
Captain von Papen were the dominating leaders of the spy
system. Under them were such men as von Hint el en. Tau s cher.
GO
Ibid., 49.
90
and von Igel, all under the control of the German government.
Very active in their work, it was under their guidance that
the various bomb plots were put into action, and the planning
of other seditious acts were manifested. Dr. Buenz, the
German ex-minister to Mexico; the German counsel at San
Francisco, and numerous officials of the Hamburg-American
and the North German Lloyd steamship lines were active in the
work of supplying German ships at sea. Under Captain von
Papen and Mr. von Igel, a program of making bombs was
introduced. Mr. Robert Fay was a member of this group, and
records show that he received money from the German secret
police with which to carry on his work*
In April, 1916, the so-called advertising office of
Mr. Wolf von Igel in New York was raided by United States
secret service men.His papers were seized and throughly
checked by the United States governmental officials.
Evidences of a direct chain between the German Embassy
and plotters who would bomb munition ships, who would
upset Ireland; checks that showed embassy payments to
Teuton helpers, such as foreign-language newspaper
editors; documents that convicted the Teutons of fomenting
the Sir Roger Casement Irish rebellion; along with offers
from Americans to do dastardly work, such as blasting
munitions plants.
The above statement shows some of the material found among
the papers in Mr. von Igel's office.
P. L. Paxson, War Cyclopedia, 114.
Ibid., 113.
91
Mr. Paul Koenig, a member of the staff of the
Hamburg-American Lines, developed, under the instigation of
German agents, a group of men who became useful for special
'investigations and crimes. The power of Mr. Koenig increased
as the success of his work became more apparent, and he soon
became a foreman of a large part of the work of the German
secret service in the east. His activities brought him into
connection with Bernstorff, Dr. Albert, Dr. Dumba, who was
the Austro-Hungarian Ambassador, and many other important men
under the influence of Germany. On various occasions he served
as a confidential messenger and made himself generally useful
63
in investigation work. Mr. Koenig had a book in which he
kept a record of the purpose and cost of assignments on which
he sent his men. Another book in his possession was a
carefully prepared record of his spies and of persons in
different cities who would be useful in furnishing him
64
information. When these two records were brought to light,
the large district under the control of the German secret
service and propaganda organizations was realized.
The German secret service had under its employ army-
reservists, German-Amerleans and Americans, clerks, scientists.
63
Ibid., 76.
J. P. Jones and P. M. Hollister, o£. cit., 75.
64
92
city and federal employees, and even a member of the police
department. These men were engaged in various occupations
such as swltch-board operators, porters, window cleaners,
bank clerks, waiters, and innumerable others. The spy
system, as organized in the United States by Germany, was a
very effective means of gaining knov/ledge of the various
activities of the officials of this and other countries. It
was a means whereby control could be established over the
sections of the country which were being dominated by agents
of other countries. Working hand in hand with the propagandists
it became evident that by cooperation, these two groups might
be able to establish a system of German control over the
United States. It was the discovery of the innumerable plots
which i led to the final failure of the plans.
Closely connected with propaganda to influence the
German-Amerleans and the Americans as one group, the Germans
also carried on propaganda which would be of interest to
certain racial groups. It was hoped that through this type
of work more sympathizers for the German cause would be
gained. Propaganda for action in other countries was
directed from Washington by Count Bernstorff. Some of these
enterprises were as follows:
. . .a revolution in India, a battle royal on the
Central American isthmus, a revolution in Mexico,
uprisings in the West Indies, a separate peace in France—
93
these were the ambitious undertakings. For three years
they v/ere cleared through Washington, D. G.
Acting on these principles, the United States proved to be a
base for German action towards other countries.
Plans for the invasion of Canada by German-Americans
was one of the projects of this type* Elaborate preparations
were made by which the troops could be transported to various
landing places on the Canadian border. However, action by
the United States against the recruiting of belligerents
within this country brought an end to such plans. The work
by which this plan v/as to have been carried through v/as so
carefully developed that it might have been successful if the
United States government had not realized the possibility of
such an attempt. Various seditious acts have already been
described which were instigated with the plan of injuring
66
commercial and shipping programs in Canada.
Germany was also active in work among the people of
Mexico. German agents had been at work in that country for
several years prior to the v/ar with the hope of arousing
feeling against the United States. During the war this work
was carried on to still greater fields. However, when
President Wilson revealed the plot of the Germans in Mexico,
65 Ibid., 319.
66 Ante. 81-88.
94
public opinion in this country became so aroused that the
probability of the entrance of the United States into the war
became more of a possibility than erer before.
The Irish in America was another group which was
brought under the influence of the Germans. Having a grievance
against England, the more radical elements of the Irish
population were only too eager to have some means by which
retaliation could be directed towards her. The Irish became
one of the most important groups in the United States through
which propaganda could be spread. The pro-German movement
was also carried into Ireland through means of the Irish press.
The importance of the alliance between the Irish and the
German agents in the United States was not realized by the
government in Germany, and the relations between the two
groups was not regarded as particularly beneficial.
German propaganda spread its influence to the very
foundations of the social and political institutions of this
country. An organization was put into effect with the express
purpose of controlling and directing American thought to
German ideals and beliefs. The.programs and plans by which
such work was to be accomplished had been worked out before
the v/ar by the German government under the auspices of the
German General Staff. The men who were to have control of
the system were chosen with a great deal of care--the work
v/hich they were to direct was extremely important in deciding
95
the stand which the United States would take during the
World War#
The decision which the United States made in 1917
proved that the program had been a failure. However, a certain
amount of success must be attributed to the organization because
of the fact that this country remained a neutral nation for
three years. The outcome of the work of the propaganda system
in the United States is the subject of the next chapter.
CHAPTER IV
OUTCOME OF GERMAN PROPAGANDA
IN THE UNITED STATES
The opening of the World. War brought to the United
States a group of propagandists who had as their duty the
task of spreading Germanism— the problem of making the Americans
realize the importance of the Germans in the world. In order
that such a program would be successful, organizations were
set up from which directions were issued as to the type of
work to be executed. The object of this chapter is to show
the outcome of the German propaganda system in the United
States.
During the first few months of the armed struggle in
Europe, the German propagandists were working in their numerous
fields, endeavoring to establish conditions which would insure
the United States as a peaceful neutral or an ally of the
Central Powers. German news, spread by agents, was printed in
newspapers. This type of propaganda was accepted eagerly by
both editors and readers at this time in order that some
knowledge might be gained of the war situation. Lectures by
prominent German-Americans were attracting favorable attention.
The first tasks of Dr. Albert were successful in their outcomes.
The control which was exerted over the German-Americans and
other less-important racial groups, from the propagandist’s
97
view-point, greatly aided the Germans in their work in this
country. Basing high hopes on this first success, plans of
a more varied nature were introduced. The American people
appeared to be very susceptible to press material so this
type of propaganda activity was greatly enlarged.
As the war progressed, the position of the propagandists
began to change. The American people v/ere apparently changing
their attitude toward accepting pro-German materials. That
which had appeared as success to the propagandists turned out
to be only a superficial victory. In actuality, the varied
programs and extensive work of the German agents were not
resulting in the amount of success which should have been
evident. In spite of the long period of building up of a
propaganda system, the effect which resulted was not of much
merit for such a program.
Later developments showed that the attempts at
newspaper and magazine propaganda of the early months of the
conflict had been hastily conceived. The mind of the people
became confused as to what they should believe about the war.
Stories, circulated by all of the propagandists in the United
States, were so contradictory that there was much doubt as to
the validity of any other statements made. Public opinion
began to accept what they wanted to be the right answer to the
many questions which arose concerning the war. Propagandists
did not have much of a chance to change such beliefs.
98
""In attempting to spread propaganda, the work of Dr.
Dernburg.and his colleagues was organized on a peaceful basis.
With the beginning of war time practices on the high seas by
the various European nations, it became evident that some
kind of protection should be taken in order to insure that
these tactics would not work against propaganda enterprises.^.
I
^The numerous plots which resulted in the loss of lives and
property in this country proved to be serious setbacks to the
activities of the agents of Germany. More important than
these acts was the inauguration of submarine warfare.j More
anti-German feeling was aroused by such acts than could ever
be overcome by the work of the propagandists. One move made
by the German agents against this menace to neutrality in the
United States was a warning issued by the German Embassy to
postpone all voyages to Europe. This notice was published
in the newspapers and bore the signature of the officials of
the members of the Embassy staff. The propagandists saw the
dangers which would result if ships, bearing American
passengers, should be molested by German submarines. This
article was published prior to the sailing of the Lusitania,
but few people took it very seriously and very few cancellations
were made on liners bound for Europe. The next sailing vessel
to leave the United States was the Lusitania; in fact, it was
the importance of this vessel that caused the issuance of
the warning. It was realized by the German propagandists that
99
all European bound vessels bearing any kind of supplies
were liable to attack by the German submarines. It was
therefore necessary by some means to try to prohibit the
sailing of people on these ships. The method used by the
propaganidists of printing material on the dangers of ocean
voyages made a sensation among the people, but not many took
heed.
- The sinking of the Lusitania proved to be the turning
point of the meager amount of success of the propaganda in
this country for the Germans. * The amount of publie indignation
could no longer be controlled by the workings of a staff of
propagandists. With the toll of many lives and the destruction
of property which had been of neutral ownership, almost the
entire world rallied against Germany.^ The work of the German
agents had to be shifted after this incident.
With the sinking of the Lusitania our propaganda of
enlightenment in the United btabes substantially came to
an end. Henceforward the principal aim of its activity,
which after Dr. Dernburg’s departure, came under the
direction of Privy Councillor Albert, was to keep the
United States out of war. . .The Press Bureau in New York
continued under the direction of Dr. Puehr, until the
breaking off of relations between America and Germany.
It concerned itself, however, apart from certain regular
literary contributions to certain journals, less with
propaganda work than with keeping an eye on the American
Press and the development of the news service to and from
Germany as well as South and Eastern Asia.^
^ G. S. Viereck, Spreading Germs of Hate, 65.
2 j, Bernstorff, W Three Years in America, 56-57.
100
Count; von Bernstorff turned all his attention to President
Wilson in an attempt to prevent the rupture of diplomatic
relations between the two countries. He was successful in
keeping the United States out of the war for a short period
but with all his efforts it was impossible to bring about any
lasting friendly relations between this country and Germany.
% With the severance of diplomatic relations, the
active work of German propaganda was brought almost to a
complete standstill.] With the leaders of the system on their
way home and many of the co-v/orkers interned in various prison
camps, the actual accomplishments of the propagandists became
of less importance.
‘With the declaration of v/ar by the United States, the
question arises as to the reasons for the unsuccessful attempts
of the German propagandists. Mr. G. s. Viereck states that
"German propaganda suffered from psychological, lingual, and
geographical handicaps.«The many blunders which were made
by the propaganda agents showed that the directors of the
system did not fully understand the minds cf the American
people, The work of the German agents in the United States
became too varied, working by different programs to establish
certain conditions, and all sense of co-ordination was lost.j
As the war progressed, it became evident that the propaganda
G. S. Viereck, 0£. cit., 25.
101
plan "sought rather to promote dissension among heterogenous
elements of the American population than to win sympathy for
I I4
the German cause. The Germans did not realize that the
war would endure for such a long period of time. Plans had
not been made which would last or continue to be successful
for a period of three or four years. As the war continued
with more fury than had been precedented, it became necessary
for the German propagandists to enlarge their field of
endeavor, an attempt v/hich was not logically co-ordinated or
systematically planned.
* As the State Department of the United States government
became more active in its work and a closer control v/as put
into effect over the American people, the discovery of some
of the German plots in this country led to the discovery of
many more. The system which the German agents used of keeping
itemized lists and notebooks of all their expenses, work, and
outcome of their endeavors, made it particularly easy for the
United States secret service men to unravel the intricate
system of propaganda. By gaining access to itemized material
of a few agents, the work of many more was easily discovered
by carefully examining the notes. | Such was the result of
the finding of Dr. Albert’s portfolio. He, himself, did not
realize the extreme importance of many of the documents
^ R. B. Park, Immigrant Press and Its Control, 425.
102
and statements and letters in his possession. The publication
of the contents of this brief-case brought to light many plots
which had not been put into action and, which was equally
important, the workings of many agents were brought to light.
As Mr. G. S. Viereck states:
The inner workings of the propaganda system were laid
bare. The exposure of Albertis activities destroyed the
element of camouflage, essential to propaganda success.
Dozens of persons who had never been associated in the
public eye with the German cause found themselves exposed
. * . Members of both Houses of Congress, distinguished
attorneys and journalists, who had no connection at all
with Germany, found it difficult to explain the fact that
their names figured in this correspondence. . . German
propaganda became German conspiracy.n
The failure of the propaganda plans of the Germans
became evident in every field of endeavor. Writers and
publishers with pro-German views were regarded with suspicion;
censorship of the press hindered the publication of pro-German
materials. Lecturers, under the services of Germany, became
too radical in their speeches for the American people, and
many of their tours were cancelled. The Germans were not
familiar with American politics, and all of their efforts to
control public affairs did not meet with marked success.
The strict censorship of motion pictures put an end to any
success that the Germans might hope to achieve in that field.
Warnings were issued by the State Department against the
showing of any films of foreign origin.^
^ G. S. Viereck, o£. cit., 71
^ Anonymous, "Warning Against Handling of Pictures of
Enemy Origin." The Official Bulletin (August 27, 1918), 7.
103
The work of the German secret service was successful
in its destruction of much property, but by this practice
hatred of the bitterst kind was aroused among the Americans
towards the Germans. The plan of supplying German ships in
mid-ocean entailed so much expense that the small amount of
goods actually loaded on the boats was not worth the risk and
money necessary for such an enterprise. The discovery of the
various codes used in the wireless system brought an end to
that type of communication between Berlin and German agents,
and also shed much light on the type of material which had
been relayed to this country.
The German agents worked on the assumption that their
plans would never be discovered. This basic principle brought
about the downfall of the German propaganda system. As has
been stated "the efforts of the German agents in the United
States have failed because they underestimated the intelligence
of the American people.
The declaration of war in 1917 brought to a close the
actual functioning of German propaganda. Whatever was carried
on after that time proved to be of little value. The United
States had made its choice as what was to be its attitude
towards the whole affair; such an attitude would be impossible
to influence.
G. Ohlinger, "German Propaganda in the United States."
The Atlantic Monthly, GXVIII (April, 1916), 645-546.
104
The Flag Day Address of Woodrow Wilson on June 14, 1917,
concerning the reasons why the United States entered the World
War, embodied a clear summary of the work of the Germans in
the United States. He said.
It is plain enough how we were forced into the war.
The extraordinary insults and aggressions of the Imperial
German Government left us no self-respecting choice but
to take up the arms in defense of our rights as a free
people and of our honor as a sovereign government. The
military masses of Germany denied us the right to be
neutral. They filled our unsuspecting communities with
vicious spies and conspirators and sought to corrupt the
opinion of our people in their own behalf. When they
found they could not do that, their agents diligently
spread sedition amonst us and sought to draw our own
citizens from their allegiance--and some of these agents
were men connected v/ith the official embassy of the German
Goyernment itself here in our capital. They sought by
violence to destroy our industries and arrest our
commerce. They tried to invite Mexico to take up arms
against us and to draw Japan into a hostile alliance v/ith
her— and that, not by indirection but by direct suggestion
from the Foreign Office in Berlin. They impudently denied
us the use of the high seas and repeatedly executed their
threat that they send to their death any of our people
who ventured to approach the coast of Europe. And many
of our own people were corrupted. Men began to look upon
their neighbors with suspicion and to wonder in their hot
resentment and surprise whether there was any community
in which hostile intrigue did not work. 9/hat great nation
in such circumstances would not have taken up arms? Much
as we have desired peace, it was denied us, and not of
our own choiee. This flag under which we serve would have
been dishonored had we with-held our hand.B
^ Woodrow Wilson, Flag Day Address, June 14, 1917.
105
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SOURCES
GOVERmüENT PUBLICATIONS
Melville, Lewis, "German Propagandist Societies," Senate
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Paxson, Frederick L., Edward S. Corwin, Samuel G. Harding,
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University Press, New York, 1918.
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Bernstorff, Johann, My Three Years in America. Charles
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Ill
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Asset Metadata

Creator Clark, C. Y. (author)

Core Title German propaganda in the United States during the world war

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Master of Arts

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,Social Sciences

Format application/pdf (imt)

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Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c37-433836

Unique identifier UC11657324

Identifier EP59264.pdf (filename),usctheses-c37-433836 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier EP59264.pdf

Dmrecord 433836

Document Type Thesis

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Clark, C. Y.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA