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The development of education and culture in the Dominican Republic since American occupation

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The development of education and culture in the Dominican Republic since American occupation

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Content THE
DEVELOPMENT CE EDUCATION AND CULTURE
IN THE
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC SINCE AMERICAN OCCUPATION
A Thesis
Presented to the Department of History
University of Southern California
In partial fulfillment
of the
Requirements for the
Degree of Master of Arts
By
Eslie Floreine Jewel
April 20, 1931
UMI Numbftr- EP59112
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T h is thesis, h a v in g been a p p ro ve d by the
special F a c u lty C om m itte e, is accepted by the
C o u n c il on G ra du a te S tud y and Research
o f the U n iv e rs ity o f S outhern C a lifo rn ia ,
in p a r tia l fu lfillm e n t o f the requirem ents
f o r the degree o f....M a B . t f i r . - O j f . . Art a . . ..
Secretary
Idean
D a te Joae. 6#. .1951.
Committee}
C#P. Hammond, Chairman
O.C. Coy
William Hi ce
PREFACE
ISy interest was first aroused in the Dominican Republic
when one day, quite by chance, I came across the statement
that the surest way to arouse a Dominican's ire was not to
slightingly refer to his race and call him a negro, but to
confuse him with his neighbor and refer to him as a Haitian.
Up to that time, I had considered both republics to be of the
same type, inhabited by people of the same race, with the
same ideals and customs. As I entered upon my study of this
little country with its mixed race, its Spanish culture and
its continual struggle, at first with the Spaniard and later
with Haiti, for freedom and independence, the story proved to
be more and more intriguing. I soon discovered that, although
much had been written about the Caribbean area in general and
about its various subdivisions, particularly Haiti, but little
had been written concerning the people in whom my interest
had been aroused.
An understanding of the early history of the island is
necessary before one can really appreciate what has been ac
complished by the people of the Dominican republic. The
Discovery of America by John Fiske and Discovery and Explor
ation by Alfred Brittain, were most helpful in their dis
cussion of the discovery, exploration, and settlement of the
island. Otto Schoenrich's Santo Domingo, which traces the
progress of the Dominican people through the period of
11
American occupation, is probably the best available author
ity on the middle period. All students of conditions in
Santo Domingo refer to him as their chief source of informa
tion.
The period of American occupation is the only part of
the story of which any critical study has been made. There
is an abundance of material, some favoring the action taken
by the government of the United States, some who try to be
unbiased, and others who are extremely critical. In this
discussion, I have relied almost entirely on reports made to
the government by those in control and by those sent to make
a special study of the work accomplished by the American
Maxines stationed there. Since this paper is neither a de
fense nor a criticism of American occupation but deals with
educational development during that period, I do not feel that
it is necessary to enter into a discussion of the merits of
that question.
For the years following the withdrawal of the Marines
from Santo Domingo, the period in which I was most interested,
I found the available sources very limited. It has been nec
essary to rely upon bulletins issued by the Pan American Union
and magazine articles written by such men as Guy P. Inman and
Sumner Welles, who have always taken a deep interest in the
Dominican Republic and its progress. Needless to say the ma
terial gathered from such sources although true is not a crit
ical survey of the situation as it exists in the Dominican
Republic today. This material has been extended by documentary
ill
material published by the Department of Justice and Public
Education of the Dominican Republic and official reports
of other administrative officers.
A truly accurate picture of school life in Dominican
Republic cannot be drawn from the available sources. Such
a description could only be given by one who had made a per
sonal study of conditions as they exist on the island and
who had collected his information concerning the organiza
tion, administration and inspection of the schools by study
ing the situation as it came under his direct observation.
After a study of the limited material at my disposal, I can
not help but feel that truly phenomenal progress has been
made by the citizens of the Dominoan Republic with the means
which they have had at their disposal.
iv
CONTENTS
CHAPTER Page
I. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS......................... 1
Physical features of the republic............. 2
Resources. 6
Transportation... ............................. 7
II. INHABITANTS....................................... 8
Races............. 9
National characteristics. ....... 12
Religion.................................. 15
III. DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION....................... 16
Second voyage of Columbus............ 17
Dissatisfaction of the colonists ....... 19
Arrival of Bobadilla............ 21
IV. CONDITIONS DURING COLONIAL DAYS.................. 24
Treatment of the Indians..................... 25
Attempts to colonize the island............... 26
V. STRUGGLES RESULTING IN FINAL INDEPENDENCE....... 30
Conquest by Toussaint L'Overture.............. 32
Haitian rule and its overthrow. ............ 34
Final independence............................. 36
VI. REPUBLIC OF SANTO DOMINGO AND THE DICTATORS 37
Eugenio Hostos and the organization of the
Dominican school system..................... 39
Condition of public schools in period pre
ceding American occupation............ 40
CHAPTER Page
VII. AMERICAN OCCUPATION............................. 4£
Reasons for American intervention 43
Accomplishments during American control 44
School system established................... 45
VIII. PUBLIC SCHOOLS...... 49
Organization of government school system.... 51
Curricula for secondary schools......... 53
School statistics showing development...... 56
IX. VOCATIONAL AND CORRECTIONAL SCHOOLS........... 58
Industrial training in private and semi
public schools ............ 59
Agricultural training....................... 61
Correctional schools................ 63
X. UNIVERSITIES AND PROFESSIONAL TRAINING........ 64
History of the university............... 65
Scholarships ........ 67
Professional training........................ 68
XI. CULTURE IN SANTO DOMINGO....................... 70
Artists. ........................... 70
Literary men............... 73
Academy of Letters. ..... 75
Libraries.................... 76
Newspapers and journals..................... 77
BIBLIOGRAPHY. . ................................ 80
vl
LIST OF MAPS
Page
ISLAND OF HAITI......................................... 4
CHAPTER I
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
The island of Haiti, or Espaîiola, as it was called by
Columbus, lies in the Torrid Zone, south and east of Cuba
and Jamica, and west of Porto Rico# It is a large irregu
larly shaped island of about 19,385^ square miles which has
been divided into two small republics# Santo Domingo occu
pies the eastern two-thirds of the island, guarding the Mona
passage, one of the Channels often followed in shipping to
Mexico, northern South America and the Pacific through the
Panama Canal# Its greatest length is 260 miles and its great
est width is 165 miles. Its coast line is irregular and mea
sures 1,000 miles in length»^ The other third of the island
is occupied by the Negro Republic of Haiti.
The Republic has a number of splendid bays and inlets
which afford excellent harbors for the largest ocean going
vessels. Samana Bay, which is the largest, is thirty miles
long, ten miles wide, and deep enough for large vessels to
enter; yet at the same time they are protected against storms
that frequent these regions.^ Forty years ago there were only
^L. S. Rowe and E. Gil Borges, Dominican Republic, Amer
ican Nation Series No. 8, p. 1.
^Ibid., p. 24#
^Ibid., p. 28.
five ports of entry,^ now there are ten. The chief port is
Santo Domingo City with a population of 50,000, the capital,
and the oldest town in existence in the western hemisphere.
San Pedro Macoris, a city of 25,000 is the next in impor
tance and is the principal sugar port of the Republic. Puerto
Plata on the northern side of the island is the outlet for
the City of Santiago which is the second city of importance
and is situated in the fertile and prosperous valley of Vega
Real. A Cuban line connects Dominican ports with Cuba, Porto
Rico, the Virgin Islands and other West Indian ports.^ French
and British lines furnish European service regularly, while
Spanish and Italian vessels touch occasionally. Regular
steamship lines from New York touch at several ports in the
Republic.^ It is also a port of call for the Pan American
airways and the sea planes of the Nybra line.
The chief physical features of the island are the four
almost parallel ranges of mountains which traverse the island
from east to west. The principal range, the Cordilleras
Cibao,^ cuts the island into two almost equal parts and rises
S. Rowe and E. Gil Borges, op. cit., p. 28.
£
Seoretaria de Estado de Fomento y Comunicaciones,
Dominican Republic. The Land Columbus Loved, p. 7.
^Consular Report, May 20, 1930, p. 1. The Santo Domingo
Consular district publishes periodically a report of condi
tions in general throughout the district. The most recent
report available is the one published in May, 1930. It may
be had by writing the Consular office in Santo Domingo City.
^L. S. Rowe and E. Gil Borges, op. cit., p. 3.
to a height of between eight and ten thousand feet. Mount
Tina, the highest peak in the Dominican Republic and the
West Indies, reaches an elevation of 10,300 feet. Foothills
extending from these principal ranges divide the country
into numerous small, fertile and well watered valleys. The
largest plain is the famous Vega Real^ so called by Columbus,
now known as Plain of Cibao. It is here that the best agri
cultural lands are to be found and the principal interior
cities are located. The coastal plain which averages twenty
to thirty miles in depth is very fertile and thickly popu
lated.
There are several streams of varying size, many of which
are navigable for small craft for a considerable distance and
furnish a cheap method of transportation. The Ozama river
which flows into the sea at Santo Domingo City is sufficiently
deep to receive vessels of considerable size for three miles
from its mouth.
The climate of the Dominican Republic, although tropical,
is so modified by the altitude of the interior and the trade
winds, which blow through out the greater part of the year,
that it can be said to be semi-tropical instead. The mean
annual temperature is 75 degrees Fahrenheit^ and is rather
ennervating along the coast. There are but two seasons, the
^L. S. Rowe and E. Gil Borges, op. cit., p. 26.
2
Consular Report for May 1930, p. 2.
HAMA MA
C[/HA
mB. O P TO^U&A
HAITI
S^
RIQ-UBY
ÔAOÎ^A [SLANP ^ZZ%
LEG-AND
MAP"
CONSTkpCTEP
DOMfMICAA^ ]^F^U 5LrC
rainy and the dry# ^ In nearly all parts of the island there
is sufficient rainfall to maintain plant life, the amount
depending upon the season. The Bay of Samana has the great
est rainfall and the surrounding country is said to be more
fertile than any other part of the island. Showers are fre
quent from May to November with a mean precipitation of about
fifty inches.^ During the winter months there is little
rainfall in the eastern part of the country or in the south
ern part up to the Nizao River. In the western part of the
Republic there is not sufficient rainfall to support plant
life. In this section irrigation has been sucessfully used
and the soil yields abundantly wherever sufficient water can
be had.
Nearly all products of the tropics and many of the tem
perate zone are raised in abundance. Americans introduced
corn and other grains which are now produced in abundance,
furnishing sufficient food for the poorer classes and some
for export to the neighboring islands. The total export trade
in 1929 amounted to $23,736,^ sixty percent of this went to
the United States and Porto Rico. Among the more important
exports are raw sugar, cacao, tobacco, pods of divi-divi
^Secretaria de Estado de Fomento y Comunicaciones,
op. cit.; p. 7.
^Consular Report for May 1930, p. 2.
r z
Secretaria de Estado de Fomento y Comunicaciones,
op. cit., p. 8.
^Consular Report for May 20, 1930, p. 2*
1
trees, and coffee. Indian corn, hides and skins, honey
and beeswax are exported in smaller quantities. The prin
cipal imports are manufactured goods although the upper
classes import large quantities of food stuffs. The island
is primarily agricultural and the people depend in a large
measure for their subsistence upon the cultivation of the
soil.
Dye woods, cabinet and hard woods exist in abundance but
the timber wealth of the island has scarcely been touched.
Some of the forests are being opened up now and the products
are being exported. Deposits of asbestos, amber, guano, gold,
silver and some of the baser metals exist in commercial quan
tities^ but have not been developed extensively because of
the lack of skilled labor, capital and transportation facil
ities. In the Neiba valley there are two remarkable hills of
rock salt, the larger being over two miles long. The salt is
of the crystalized variety and can be quarried in large blocks
and chemical analysis has proved it sufficiently pure for
commercial purposes.^ So, the quarrying and exporting of salt
is being developed.
One of the interesting developments of recent years is
the construction of highways.^ The first step was taken in
L. S. Rowe and E. Gil Borges, op. cit., p. 2.
^Ibid., p. 4.
, p. 28.
, p. 22.
1908, and ever since that time they have been extending the
main arteries or building feeder roads. At the present time
they have three main hard surfaced highways. The Duarte
highway, nearly 186 miles long extends the length of the
island from north to south connecting Santo Domingo City with
Monte Gristi. It traverses some of the richest cacao, to
bacco, and coffee districts and passes through some of the
most beautiful sections of the country. The Sanchez connects
the capital of Santo Domingo with the Haitian capital. Port
Au Prince. One hundred sixty-one miles of this highway lies
within the boundaries of the Dominican Republic. Recently
an agreement was reached by the two nations so that goods may
be sent over this highway without the intervention of customs
officers. This will greatly facilitate trade between the two
countries. The Me 11a is 109 miles in length and provides an
outlet for the city of San Pedro de Macoris and Seybo.
The railroads of the Republic have an extent of about 150
1
miles. There are besides about 225 miles of private lines
on large estates. The Dominican central railway, the most
important is government owned and operated. It connects
Santiago with its seaport Puerto Plata, and runs through rough
and mountainous scenery. In some cases the grade reaches
p
eleven percent.^ The other road extends from Sanchez to
Moca, a total length of eighty-four miles.
^L. S. Rowe and E. Gil Borges, op. cit., p. 20.
^Carl Kelsey, "Conditions in Santo Domingo and Haiti,"
Annals of American Academy, C (March 1922), p. 171.
8
CHAPTER II
INHABITANTS
The population according t o the 1921 census was
897,405^ hut since that time there has been a very rapid
growth in population due to natural increase, and to immi
gration from Europe, America and adjoining islands. The es-
o
timated population in 1930 was 1,085,314. The upper class
es, comprising about fifteen percent of the population, re
side in the cities and towns. The rural population lives
on small farms which they own themselves and on which they
raise cacao, coffee or food products.
Eighty-five percent of the people are a mixed race,
Negro and Caucasian, with a very small amount of Indian blood.
The people as a whole are very proud of their Spanish ances-
3
tory, intensely patriotic and free from racial sentimental
ity. They vary from the very blackest of negro type through
the various classes of mulattoes to those so light that they
would pass for Caucasians any place.^
5
Less than a fourth of the population are pure negro.
^L. S. Rowe and E. Gil Borges, Dominican Republic, Amer
ican Nation Series No. 8, p. 1.
^Consular Report, May 20, 1930, p. 1.
^Juan Gomez, "Gallant Dominicans,” American Mercury,
Vol. XVII, May 1929, p. 90.
^Otto Schoenrich, Santo Domingo, The country with a
Future. p. 168.
^Ibid.. p. 169.
9
The majority of these make their homes on the southern side
of the island. Many of them are descendants of negroes who
at the suggestion of Boyer, President of Haiti, which then
controlled the entire island, were sent over from the south
in the thirties and forties by abolition societies who favor
ed colonization as a method of solving the negro question in
the United States. Santa Barbara on Samana Bay is one such
town, established by an eccentric Southern planter who wished
to free his faithful servants and provide for their welfare
before his death. Their descendants call themselves Marse
Tinsley's boys. They own their own farms and have acquired
some wealth. They speak the English language, are Protes
tants, and keep out of politics rather scorning their more
politically minded neighbors. Negroes are found in all walks
of life but the strain of white blood is so strong that it
has elevated all mulattoes and negroes. The negroes have
produced men of real ability, many having held Cabinet of
fices and some have become President of the Republic.
The majority of the native population of white extrac
tion reside near Santiago^ on the north side of the island
and in some cases are the descendants of the old Spanish
familes which were not driven out during the period of Haitian
rule in Santo Domingo. In the cities, there are large num
bers of Caucasians, both Creole and Spanish, as well as
^H. A. Franck, Roaming through the West Indies, p. 218,
o
Otto Schoenrich, op. cit., p. 168.
10
people of other nationalities who have migrated to the
island. Immigration is urged by the Dominican statesmen
but only those of the white race are desired*^ No color
line is drawn in the Republic* All are received on an equal
ity. This is partly due to the fact that there has never
been the race hatred with its attendant massacres which is
so characteristic of its sister republic, Haiti and similar
countries.
The common manual labor is performed by the blacks, much
of it by the dark immigrants from Haiti^ who have been at
tracted there by the higher wages paid in Santo Domingo than
in Haiti. The banking, mining and shipping operations are
in the hands of Americans or Canadians, while French, Italians
or Porto Ricans operate the hotels and Spanish Jews have
charge of the department stores.^ There are many Syrians and
although these oriental tradesmen are much disliked they
largely control the retail trade and operate the small shops.
The Creoles, scorning anything like trade unless it is
on a wholesale basis, either operate plantations which they
have inherited from their Spanish ancestors, enter some of
the learned professions or enter politics.^ They are as a
rule very intolerant of those who hold opposite political
^Otto Schoenrich, op. cit., p. 168.
2
H. H. Foster, Combing the Caribbees, p. 276.
^Ibld., p. 230.
‘ ^Ibld.. p. 261.
11
views and are not above subterfuge, intimidation or force
to defeat their opponents at the polls.^ After gaining
power they are inclined to dispose of their political ene
mies rather summarily unless they are fortunate enough to
escape from the country.
Up to the time of American occupation those defeated or
out of power would foment a revolution and if successful
gain the power they sought. This unwillingness of the minor
ity to bow to the will of the majority and the tendency of the
majority to do their will irrespective of the rights of the
p
minority has tended to cause instability in the government
and thus hinder the economic, social and cultural progress
of the little republic.
The language is Spanish and is remarkably pure, but some
French and English is spoken. The population is thoroughly
Spanish in character, customs, and manner of thinking. This
is well illustrated by one rather black Mayor of an inland
city who made the following remark to an American Marine in
the course of a discussion, "Your argument is all right for
Anglo Saxons but we Latins are different.
The native population is very hospitable, and have re
tained the politeness so characteristic of the Spanish. They
^8. G. Inman, Through Santo Domingo and Haiti, p. 35.
^Otto Schoenrich, op. cit., p. 175.
^8. G. Inman, op. cit., p. 36.
12
are highly idealistic and fond of arguing on abstract the
ories. They worship the words patriotism and liberty but
individual liberty as we have it does not exist unless you
happen to be a member of the party in power*^ They have an
intense love for the beautiful and artistic and are very fond
of poetry*
The people are surprisingly temperate. Their worst vice
p
is gaming in its various forms. Lotteries are plentiful and
all from the richest to the poorest are interested when the
rz
drawings take place on Sunday afternoon in the Plaza. Most
of the proceeds from the lotteries go to support such local
4
charities as hospitals, schools for the poorer children, etc.
Bull fighting has been prohibited in the Dominican Republic
but cock fighting is a favorite pastime. Their social life
is largely centered around the various clubs where the men
meet to read, discuss political questions around their coffee
tables, and play billiards. The women as in all Spanish
countries, live in seclusion, appearing in the late after
noons or evenings to promenade in the plaza accompanied by a
chaperon, if unmarried.^ In recent years the women have been
asserting themselves more and are beginning to take some part
Otto Schoenrich, op. cit., p. 176
^S. G. Inman, op. cit., p. 57.
^H. H. Foster, op. cit., p. 279.
^Ibid., p. 282.
K _
S. G. Inman, op. cit., p. 37.
13
in industry and the commercial world*
Practically all the inhabitants are members of the
Roman Catholic Church* The women are faithful to the church
but the men are too occupied with politics and abstract
philosophical theories to take much interest in the church
and its activities.^ Their connection with the church is
merely formal and many of the men are openly avowed free
thinkers. Although Santo Domingo City is the seat of an
Archbishopric, there is no very close connection between the
Church and Rome. The clergy is secular and the majority are
graduates of the Dominican Theological Seminary. The Priest
hood of Haiti and adjoining countries are shocked at the il
literacy of the clergy of Santo Domingo and their lack of re
spect for the Papal authority.^ In the rural districts the
priests are held in the highest esteem and have great influ-
3
ence. The church has lost so much prestige that if it were
not for the popularity of Archbishop Nouel it would have but
little influence in the Republic. The rural population al
though ignorant and superstitious are quite free from voo-
dooism, witchcraft and other barbarous rites which are so
commonly practised in Haiti.^
S. Stowell, "In the Dominican Republic," Missionary
Review, Vol. ZLVIII, October 1925, p. 784.
^Otto Schoenrich, op. cit., p. 189.
^Ibid., p. 190.
^Ibid., p. 178.
14
The church is very tolerant of other religious faiths
but Protestantism does not seem to make very rapid progress
among the inhabitants. The foreigners and negroes who mi
grated to Santo Domingo from the United States or the British
West Indies, form the protestant population.
Various religious organizations such as the Moravians,
Methodists, Episcopalians, Wesleyan Methodists, African
Methodist and United Brethern have undertaken missionary work
on a small scale. The first protestant missionary effort was
made by Moravians in 1732,^ but it was not until the latter
part of the nineteenth century that the missionary boards
took the work seriously. The greatest work has been carried
on by the Free Methodist Church which has maintained missions
in Santo Domingo since the middle of the nineteenth century.
For many years they were the only ones working in Spanish
p
with inhabitants of the interior. They have established
schools as well as churches and have been quite successful
in so far as they were financially able. The oldest organi
zation is the African Methodist Mission which was established
in 1830. Its work has been principally among the English
speaking negroes. They have a strong church at Samana Bay
and two schools.
g
Since the Catholic Church was extremely weak, and so
S. G. Inman, "Cooperating in the West Indies," Mission
ary Review, Vol. L, January, 1930, p. 9.
^S. G. Inman, Through Santo Domingo and Haiti, p. 50.
^Ibld., p. 52.
15
little work had been done by protestantism, the field was
free for a new plan of action. The latest and most inter
esting attempt to reach the "blind spot" of American mis
sions, as Guy P. Inman refers to the work here, is to con
duct the work under the supervision of a United board.^
This board is supported by the Presbyterian, Methodist,
Episcopalian and United Brethern denominations. They have
planned a five year program which calls for the expenditure
of a million dollars or more. They called Rev. P. W. Drury
and some leaders in non-sectarian work in Porto Rico to take
over the work and organize it for them. A center was to be
established at Santo Domingo City and later one in Santiago.
Each was to consist of a church, a clinic, a hospital and
an industrial school. This plan has only been in operation
for a short time but has been more successful than any one
had hoped. The churches have grown to four and a new center
has been opened at Christobal consisting of a hospital, whose
cases exceed 1,500 a year, a baby clinic, milk station and
school.
S. G. Inman, "Cooperating in the West Indies," Mission
ary Review, Vol. L, January, 1930, p. 9.
16
CHAPTER III
DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION
A brief history of the island, not only would prove
interesting here but, is quite necessary if one is to appre
ciate the educational and cultural development of these
people. The Island of Haiti was discovered by Columbus on
his first voyage to the new world. As he skirted along the
coast, he was struck with the similarity of the new found
land to that of Castile, and when he landed on what is now
known as Cape Haitian, December 6, 1492, he called it Espanola,
In his diary, he speaks frequently of the apparent fertility
of the soil and the gentle nature of the natives.
Before returning home he had a blockhouse built at a
point known as La Navidad and left forty men there with plen
ty of provisions to last them a year.^ His purpose was to
find out more concerning the resources of the island and to
have some of the men become better acquainted with the lang
uage.
When the restraining hand of the Admiral was removed,
the Spaniards began to quarrel among themselves over authority
in the little camp. They, eager in their search for gold
were harsh and ruthless in the treatment of the natives, and
^Alfred Brittain, Discovery and Exploration, p. 162 et
2john Fisks, The Discovery of America, Vol. I, p. 458.
17
as a result, when Columbus returned November 1493, he found
that the garrison had been exterminated by the Caribbees.^
On this, his second voyage, Columbus brought about
fifteen hundred men, soldiers, adventurers and missionaries
among whom was Friar Boyle,^ a favorite of the queen, who
was made first Apostolic Vicar of the Indies and who later
caused Columbus difficulty in governing the island. He also
brought domestic animals, seeds and tools for the purpose of
establishing a permanent and prosperous colony. In making
these preparations, he won the ill will of Foncesca, who
later hampered the work of Columbus by interfering with his
plans and by weakening the faith which the Sovereigns had in
his ability. A new site was chosen and the town of Isabella
rz
founded in December 1493. Explorations were immediately
undertaken in hope that gold might be found in considerable
quantities. Some was found by Hojeda near Cibao, not in as
large quantities as had been hoped, but large enough to arouse
the cupidity of the Spaniards.
Reinforcements and supplies were greatly needed so
Antonio de Torres^ was sent home with enough gold to substan
tiate the reports of Columbus and bearing a very practical
^E. G. Bourne, Spain in America, p. 36.
Bjohn Fiske, op. cit., p. 462.
^E. G. Bourne, op. cit., p. 36.
4lbid., p. 33.
18
memorial setting forth the needs of the colony.^ Among his
proposals was the suggestion that contractors should be au
thorized by the Crown to furnish food supplies, since the
island was lacking in food plants and domestic animals, which
should be paid for with Indian slaves until the colony became
prosperous and self-supporting.
Columbus now determined to seek the mainland and find
more gold which the natives indicated lay to the westward.
Diego Columbus, brother of the admiral, with an executive
council was left in charge. Christopher Columbus returned
a few months later without having seen any signs of the wealth
reputed to the Great Khan, disappointed and so ill that he had
to be carried ashore. TJnon his return, he was delighted to
meet another brother, Bartholmew,^ who had arrived during his
absence with three ships loaded with supplies. The Viceroy
of the Indies conferred the title Adelantado of the colony
upon Bartholmew, making him governor of the island and next
in authority to himself.
During the absence and later illness of Christopher
Columbus, Hojeda had percipitated the first war with the
natives. Columbus with some difficulty succeeded in putting
the revolt down but had to resort to rather harsh measures.
He forced them to pay as tribute, one-half to two-thirds of
^Alfred Brittain, op. cit., p. 252.
^Ibid.. p. 254.
19
an ounce of gold, if near the mines or twenty-five pounds
of cotton*^ The colonists had become very discontented be
cause of the hard life, illness due to change of climate,
and lack of gold in large quantities. Illness among the
laborers caused Columbus to force the aristocratic colonists
to do some of the manual labor and they never forgave this
disgrace which the Genoese had inflicted upon them.
Certain of these dissatisfied individuals, among them
Friar Boyle, who had excited a popular insurrection during
the absence of the admiral, took the ships of Bartholmew and
set sail for Spain to lay their complaints before their
Majesties.^ As a result Juan Aguado was sent over in Octo
ber 1495, by the Sovereigns to gather information.^ All the
malcontents brought their complaints to him. He was present
ly won over by the Anti-Columbus group and Columbus decided to
accompany Aguado on his return in order to present his own
case to the Sovereigns.
Upon his arrival at Court, he found that his position
had been greatly weakened by his enemies but his gifts of
gold and his humility (Columbus came garbed in the robe of
a Franciscan Friar)^ with his persuasive arguments turned the
tide in his favor. Provisions and equipment for a third
T---------
Otto Sohoenrich, Santo Domingo, p. 9
^John Fiske, op. cit., p. 480.
^Ibid., p. 485.
G. Bourne, op. cit. , p. 45.
20
voyage were promised. Due to foreign entanglements, lack
of interest, the cooling enthusiasm of the Sovereigns, and
the machinations of Foncesca much time was lost in making
the preparations and it was not until late in the spring of
1498, that the fleet was ready.^ In order to man the ves
sels and obtain the colonists which he wished to take with
him, criminals were pardoned on condition that they go to
the colony and all types of people were gathered together
and placed on board.
In the spring of 1496, an expedition was conducted into
the interior and gold in valuable deposits was found.
Bartholmew, upon orders from Columbus in Spain, established
a new city naming it after Saint Dominic on whose day it was
o
founded. The city was located there so that it would be
nearer to the gold mines and more free from fevers. Barthol*
mew was looked upon as more of an outsider than the admiral
and was a more rigorous disciplinarian. When Columbus ar
rived after an absence of thirty months, he found that In
dian wars due to the harshness of Bartholmew were again dis-
turbing the peace of the colony and that Francisco Roldan,
a portege of the admiral who had been appointed Alcalde, was
the leader of a mutiny caused by the strict discipline of
Bartholmew and hardships of the life as a colonist.
^Alfred Brittain, op. cit., p. 256,
o
Otto Sohoenrich, op. cit., p. 10.
E. G. Bourne, op. cit., p. 49.
21
Bartholmew and Diego, the two brothers, were trying to
suppress the Indians who had found the tribute too heavy
and who had been aroused to open hostility by the activi
ties of Roldan. With the aid of Christopher Columbus they
finally succeeded in defeating the Indians and several of
their chiefs were captured.
Columbus, realizing the strength of the Spanish insur
gents, decided that the best policy would be to make terms
with them by which the insurgents were to receive supplies
and to be pardoned upon condition that they return to
Spain.^ By the time the vessels were ready most of them
had changed their minds and refused to go but sent letters
to the King complaining of his conduct and Columbus was
forced to restore Roldan and his friends to their former po
sitions and to distribute land and Indian slaves among them. ^
But, unrest and mutiny continually disturbed the peace of the
colony. Columbus finally found it necessary to imprison some
of the leaders and execute others before peace was actually
restored.
The Crown sent out Francisco Bobadilla,^ an arrogant
and tactless man, an ally of Foncesca, to investigate and re
port on conditions in the colony. When he reached the colony,
Columbus and his brother Bartholmew were away putting down a
^Otto Sohoenrich, op. cit., p. 11.
2]
'John Fiske, op. cit., p. 499.
"E. G. Bourne, op. cit., p. 50.
3
22
revolt in an outlying district. Bobadilla aroused at the
sight of seven Spaniards hanging from the gallows ordered
Diego, who was in authority, to release certain prisoners
and give him certain information. Diego refused.
The admiral’s house was seized and his property con
fiscated. Bobadilla made common cause with Roldan and sent
the admiral and his brothers back to Spain in chains. He
then proclaimed himself governor.
Upon his arrival in Spain, Columbus was ordered re
leased and the King^ agreed that his property was to be re
turned to him but he never was given political power again.
He was permitted to make a fourth voyage but only on con
dition that he would not touch at Santo Domingo.2 He was
wrecked upon the coast of Jamaica and finally rescued by the
Governor of Santo Domingo, and permitted to return to Spain^
where he died a broken, disappointed man.
Ovando,^ another tool of Foncesca who succeeded
Bobadilla, proved to be a good governor for white men. He
was a strict disciplinarian and his opponents were sent back
to Spain without even a trial. Ovando was later removed and
Diego, the son of the great admiral became a very capable
governor of Espanola. He had married a member of the royal
^John Fiske, op. cit., p. 501.
^Ibia.. p. 504.
Sibld.. p. 513.
^Otto Sohoenrich, op. cit., p. 13.
83
family and when he came to Santo Domingo City built a won
derful palace, the remains of which are still standing in
fairly good condition, and maintained a brilliant court.^
Otto Sohoenrich, op. cit., p. 17.
24
CHAPTER IV
CONDITIONS DURING COLONIAL DAYS
When Columbus first established Spanish control in the
Island of Espanola, the Indians who were quite docile, were
treated kindly. Because of the avarice and cruelty of cer
tain Spanish, the Indians revolted^ and when the revolt was
suppressed a tribute was exacted which soon proved to be too
burdensome for the Indians to bear and they revolted again.
The tribute was cut in half and finally at the suggestion of
a friendly Cacique was commuted to enforced labor.^ certain
Caciques agreed to furnish a stipulated amount of laborers
for a given length of time.
It was never the intention of the Spanish government
that the Indians should be oppressed unduly. But the Spanish
governors far from the home government in Spain, rather ig
nored their orders in this regard. Due to the influence of
Bartholomew de la Casas, the first missionary to the Indians,
3
a royal decree was issued in 1502. This decree proclaimed
that the Indians should not be oppressed with tribute or other
royal services more than the Spaniards who were living there.
They should help in the collection of gold but be paid to do
^Alfred Brittain, Discovery and Exploration, p. 254.
2e . G. Bourne, Spain in America, p. 206.
3pedro de Cieza de Leon, "New Laws of the Indies," in
N. A. V. eleven. Readings in Latin American History, p. 226.
25
so and they should never he so oppressed that they could not
be christianized.
Ovando soon discovered that if the Indians were left to
themselves they would not work even for wages. They withdrew
from all association with the Spaniards so that it was im
possible to christianize them. He allotted the Indians in
repartmientos,^ supposedly for the purpose of having them
given religious instruction but which in reality made them
vassals on the estate of some Spanish Grandee who was to give
them Christian instruction and provide for their daily needs
in return for services which they rendered him. In 1503,
Enoomiendos were established on which the natives were prac
tically made slaves to till the soil or were taken to the
mines and forced to work in groups of forty or fifty at al
most unrelenting labor.
War, famine, cruel and unusual punishments, (fifty or
sixty would be killed for the death of one Spaniard) and over
work killed many, but diseases brought in by white men caused
the deaths of many more.^ when the island was discovered,
there were supposed to be between 200,000 and 300,000 people
on the island. In 1508, there were but 60,000 and negro
slaves were being brought over to take their place. By 1574
there were 14,000 and 1548, Oviedo, the historian doubted
^H. E. Bolton and T. M. Marshall, Colonization of North
America, p. 22.
I. B. Lowery, Spanish Settlements within the Present
Limits of the United States, p. lOSi
26
if there were five hundred while in 1570, there were but
two small villages.
The earliest outline of a constructive colonial policy
for Spain in the new world was drawn up by Columbus shortly
before his second voyage.^ According to this plan, as many
as 2,000 households would be permitted to emigrate to Espanola
and three or four towns would be established with governments
similar to those of the cities in Spain. Churches and priests
should be provided for the colonists and care should be taken
to christianize the native population. In Columbus’ plan,
he favored restriction of commercial privileges to one or two
ports in Espanola and to Cadiz in Spain as well as close reg
ulation of the search for, mining, and shipment of gold. This
was the plan which to some extent was followed by the Spanish
2
in the colonial period of Espanola.
Large reservations and public monopolies were made for
the Crown but terms for agriculture were very liberal. Var
ious methods were used to induce the Spanish to come to
Espanola and establish plantations.^ Columbus was authorized
to allot lands to actual settlers who would live on the land
for four years. Some permanent settlers had come with
Columbus but most of those who came over with him did not
^E. G. Bourne, op. cit., p. 204.
^Ibld., p. 205.
I. B. Lowery, op. clt., p. 115.
27
stay. No one but natives of Spain and negroes born in
Christian lands were permitted to migrate. Ovando brought
over 2,500 colonists and adventurers when he came as gover
nor in 1502.^ This was the first real attempt to colonize
the island. Negro slavery was introduced at this time.
Ovando objected but since the negroes were more efficient
workers in the mines and had greater physical endurance they
scon were being brought into the colony in larger and larger
numbers regardless of whether they were from Christian lands
2
or not.
In 1518, still other efforts were made and awards offered
to settlers, such as one hundred and fifty dollars for the
first settler who would collect ten pounds of cinnamon or
sixty-five dollars for the first hundred-weight or rice, etc.
In 1529, they tried to encourage colonization through
establishing feudal holdings. If a settler brought over
fifty families and furnished them with supplies, seeds, and
domestic animals, built homes for them and provided a church,
he would be given a coat-of-arms and sixty square miles of
3
land with its mines and fisheries. So far as we know only
one person took advantage of this opportunity.
They offered to exempt from taxes those who would settle
^H. E. Bolton and T. M. Marshall, op. cit., p. 21.
2l. B. Lowery, op. cit., p. 111.
^H. E. Bolton and T. M. Marshall, op. cit=, p. 20.
28
on the island permanently and threatened with execution and
confiscation of property those who migrated from the island
to Mexico or other lands.^ All of this was futile. They
refused to settle in Espanola and if they did, soon left for
Mexico, Panama or Peru where wealth was more easily obtained*
In 1574, there were only ten Spanish villages with about
1,000 Spaniards who with the help of about 12,000 slaves were
engaged in the production of sugar and live stock.
As early as 1507, the towns of Espanola sent two dele
gates to Spain to petition the King for the privileges en
joyed by the municipalities of Spain. The request was grant-
2
ed, and coats-of-arms were given to fourteen towns. In 1510,
an independent court was established to hear appeals from the
decision of the Governor’s justices. In 1574, Santo Domingo
became a part of New Spain and was given an audencia by
Phillip IV.
Santo Domingo’s mines furnished annually, gold valued
at 2,231,000 dollars to the Spanish treasury as well as silver
and some other metals.^ So it was the first of Spain’s ter
ritories to send treasure ships. But its mines were rather
shallow and were exhausted long before Spain’s power was with
drawn from the new world, and it became an agricultural colony
of little importance to Spain.
^E. G. Bourne, op. cit., p. 248.
2h . E. Bolton and T. M. Marshall, op. cit., p. 21.
^I. B. Lowery, op. cit., p. 108.
29
It was the center of the Spanish Empire in the New
World for years. It was from here that Velasquez went to
conquer Cuba in 1508, and that Spanish power was extended to
include Jamaica and Porto Rico as well. From here Cortez
went to conquer Mexico.^ Ponce de leon, a renegade Domin
ican planter became governor of Cuba and discovered Florida.
Balboa went to Panama and discovered the great South Sea and
Pizarro went to Peru.
H. E. Bolton and T. M. Marshall, op. clt., p. 17.
30
CHAPTER Y
STRUGGLES RESULTING IN FINAL INDEPENDENCE
The English buocaneers in their search for Spanish
treasure ships, the French from their colony on the Island
of Tortuga, and the Dutch slave traders all carried on ma
rauding expeditions against the little island.^ In 1856,
Drake captured the City of Santo Domingo during the cruise
£
on which he captured most of the cities on the Spanish Main.
The Spanish finally decided that if they were to retain pos
session of the island it would be necessary for them to for
tify and defend it.
In the meantime the English and French had obtained a
footing on the western end of the island. They established
plantations and imported negro slaves. The settlements of
the French became so successful that they left the Island
of Tortuga and settled in Haiti.^ In 1697, Spain ceded it to
France. The French colony entered on a period of such great
prosperity that it became the richest country of the West
Indies while the Spanish part sank lower than ever, practically
abandoned by the mother country, its ports, the haunts of
pirates, and its commerce only contraband. This depression
^George c. Thorpe, "American Achievements in Santo
Domingo," in George H. Blakeslee, Mexico and the Caribbean,
p. 227.
2h . H. Foster, Combing the Caribbees, p. 285.
^S. G. Inman, Through Santo Domingo and Haiti, p. 20.
31
was largely due to the oommercial restrictions which were
placed upon the territory by Spain.^ When these were re
pealed the colony once more began to make progress.
After the English colonies had won their independence
and the French Revolution and the Napoleonic wars were be
gun, the island was once more open to the attack of the
English and others. When the mulattoes of Haiti heard of the
French Revolution they petitioned the National Assembly for
civil and political rights which were finally granted them
in 1791.2 This was met with resistance from the white popu
lation and a very bloody civil war was begun. Many negroes
and Caucasians were massacred. When France declared war upon
England and Spain, the Spanish authorities in Santo Domingo
offered refuge to the negro leaders and many of them entered
the Spanish army as officers.^ Among these was one, Toussaint
L’Overture, a very intelligent ex-slave who showed remarkable
ability. The English attacked the French colony and captured
Port au-Prince. The French then made overtures to Toussaint
to desert the Spanish forces and with his negro followers
come to the aid of the French in their struggle with the
English. They made their escape and were largely instrumen
tal in defeating the English. As a result the French placed
Toussaint in command of a large army and treated him with
^Otto Sohoenrich, Santo Domingo, p. 28.
. p. 30.
^Sumner Welles, Naboth’s Vineyard, Vol. I, p. 15,
32
respect.
By the treaty of Basle, Spain ceded to France the
Spanish part of the island. But the Spanish governor.
General Joaquin Garcia did not withdraw until 1801, when
Toussaint L’Overture, who was now in command demanded his
withdrawal. Governor Garcia had no alternative, and
Toussaint entered the capital with his troops and took for
mal possession. 2 This occasioned a general exodus of the
white families who feared what might happen under negro
rule. Santo Domingo lost over 40,000 of its inhabitants as
a result, most of whom settled in Cuba, Porto Rico, and
3
Venezuela.
Toussaint^ promulgated a constitution, confiscated the
property of those who had emigrated, proclaimed himself
President for life and asked for independence under French
protection. This was considered an affront by Napoleon who
sent General LeClerc over to take control of the island.
They divided their forces for the conquest of the territory.
General Louis M. Ferrand was given the task of driving Paul
1*Overture, a brother of Toussaint, out of Santo Domingo.
He had little difficulty in gaining control of the Spanish
portion. Paul 1’Overture was captured and his army defeated.
^Otto Schoenrich, op. cit., p. 31.
2s. G. Inman, op. cit., p. 22.
^Sumner Welles, op. cit. , p. 23.
*Ibid., p. 34.
33
LeClero was not so successful. Toussaint and his friends
were finally captured by treachery and sent to France in
chains but Jean Dessaline and Christophe took up the struggle
in Haiti. The French army finally withdrew their forces
from Haiti, weakened by the ravages of disease and the cli
mate, without having suppressed the revolting negroes who
were being aided by the English.
General Ferrand,^ the French governor of Santo Domingo,
tried to restore order in that war-torn little country. He
built schools, constructed roads and encouraged the re
settlement of the abandoned farms by persuading the families
who had migrated during Haitian control to return. Napoleon
was so pleased with his services that he sent Ferrand the
Cross of the Legion of Honor, and financial aid. Some trouble
was occasioned by British war vessels who attempted blockades,
but aside from this the country was very peaceful. The gover
nor was well liked but the inhabitants who were loyal to Spain
became discontented. The stories of Spanish resistance to
Napoleon’s rule, unfair taxation and fear of Haitian invasion
aroused the people to revolt. In 1809, under the leadership
of Juan Ramirez, with the assistance of the British and their
old enemy Christophe, they succeeded in driving out the French
and the country became a dependency of Spain once more. The
Spanish were so busy restoring order within their own borders
^Sumner Welles, op. cit., p. 36.
. p. 40.
34
and suppressing rebellion in other parts of Latin America
that they could not give Santo Domingo any attention. In
1815, Spanish control was recognized by the treaty of Paris
and the Congress of Vienna.
The Dominicans, inspired by Simon Bolivar,^ and resent
ing Spain’s indifference, revolted under the leadership of
Jose de Caceres, who hoped to make it a part of the Columbian
Republic. They established an independent republic called
Spanish Haiti and Caceres became President. An emissary sent
to Colombia for aid in maintaining their independence was not
successful and the small republic lasted but nine weeks.
Jean Pierre Boyer, a dark mulatto who had united French
Haiti under his rule thought that the island should comprise
one republic under the flag of Haiti.2 He invaded Santo
Domingo from both the north and the south. He easily con
quered the weak Spanish portion partly because they were un
prepared for war and partly because the inhabitants feared a
repetition of massacres of 1805, and dared not resist. In
1822, Jose de Caceres was compelled to open the gates of the
city to their dark-skinned invaders, and the Haitian republic
was recognized as sovereign.^ They maintained control over
the Spanish portion of the island for twenty-two years. This
was a period of economic and social retrogression instead of
^Otto Schoenrich, op. cit., p. 40
2ibid., p. 41.
^Sumner Welles, op. cit., p. 51.
35
progress. The Haitians were anxious to build up a strong
African State,^ so they encouraged the emmigration of the
white population and confiscated their estates. At the same
time they encouraged the immigration of negroes from the
British West Indies and the United States. They colonized
Haitian negroes on the Peninsula of Samana and tried in every
way to Haitianize the country.
During the rule of Boyer, the African Methodist Espioopal
Church started its missionary enterprises urged and supported
by the ruler. During the negro insurrection and Haitian rule,
the cultured wealthy families migrated in large numbers and
most of them did not return. In 1785, there were estimated
150,000 people including 30,000 negroes, ^ while in 1819, there
were 63,000 most of whom were colored. From 1844, until the
beginning of the twentieth century the population did not
change much through immigration or emmigration.
The opposition of the Haitians to Spanish customs and
language, and their disregard for the rights of the light mu
latto and white population led to a revolt under the leader-
ship of Juan Duarte and Francisco Sanchez. At the same time
a revolt began to spread in Haiti where President Boyer was
overthrown and driven from the country. The Dominicans once
^Otto Schoenrich, op. cit., p. 42.
2s. G. Inman, "America’s Task in Santo Domingo," Forum,
Vol. LXIV, September 1920, p. 217.
^F. H. Carvajal, "American Rule in Santo Domingo,"
Current History, Vol. XIII, March 1921, p. 396.
56
more won their freedom and in 1844,^ the Republic of Santo
Domingo was officially proclaimed. Within five months after
the proclamation of independence, the series of revolutions
which caused such untold harm to the Republic had begun.
A constitution patterned after that of the United States^
was adopted and the first constitutional President, Pedro
Sautana, a man of little education or culture, of Negro,
Indian and White ancestory was chosen. Foreign powers then
recognized it as an independent sovereign state.
T--------
Otto Sohoenrich, op. cit., p. 43.
^Ibia.. p. 47.
37
CHAPTER VI
REPUBLIC OF SANTO DOMINGO AND THE DICTATORS
Then followed years of dictators and revolutions. Many
of the leaders thought that the only way Santo Domingo could
have peace and prosperity would be under the protection of
some larger state. They first asked the United States to
assume the position of protector but we refused. They then
took up the matter with both France and Spain. They finally
placed themselves under the protection of Spain and were of-
1
fioially annexed during the American Civil War. We pro
tested this move as a violation of the Monroe Doctrine but
were in no position to make our opposition felt. Before the
Civil War was over, the Spanish had become so oppressive that
the people of Santo Domingo revolted and a Republic was again
established under the leadership of President Baez. They
then asked to be annexed by the United States. A commission
of three, Benjamin Wade, Samuel G. Howe, and Andrew D. White
were appointed by President Grant to investigate conditions. 2
After a hurried trip they reported favorably. A treaty of
annexation was drawn up by President Grant. Due to the in
fluence of Senator Charles Sumner, Chairman of the Foreign
^C. L. Jones, United States and the Caribbean, p. 8.
2m . M. Knight, Americans in Santo Domingo, p. 12.
38
Relations committee who bitterly opposed the proposition,
the Senate refused to ratify the treaty. Santo Domingo has
remained entirely independent ever since except for the eight
years of American occupation.
It was not the policy of the Spanish government during
colonial times to foster general education.^ It was con
fined entirely to the aristocratic class who employed tutors
or sent their sons to Spanish universities. The oldest un
iversity in the New World was in Santo Domingo City but its
doors were closed to all but the wealthy. The clergy were
often illiterate. Those who were educated, were taught in
the seminary in Santo Domingo City or in Spain. During the
checkered career of the little island, education was practic
ally allowed to lapse.
In the period preceding American intervention, the people
could easily be divided into three groups, those educated as
well as any, those with rudimentary education and the illit
erate. It was estimated that about ninety percent of the
population belonged in the last group.2 The well-to-do fam
ilies sent their children abroad to study, usually to France,
rather than the United States unless they could pass for
white. The aristocratic families traveled extensively and
were very adept as linguists, usually speaking French or
English fluently as well as the purest Spanish.
^Otto Schoenrich, Santo Domingo, p. 197.
2jbid.. p. 201.
39
When Eugenio Hostos oame to Santo Domingo in 1880, and
established a normal school, the educational or intellectual
renaissance of Santo Domingo may be said to have begun.^
His condemnation of old pedagogical methods and advocacy of
new ones gave rise to discussion, which awakened interest in
education and letters. After eight years of labor for edu
cational advance in Santo Domingo, he was forced to leave the
country and spend some time in Chile, but returned later and
again assumed control of education and carried on the work un
til his death in 1903.
The school code established by Hostos provided that pri
mary schools should be controlled by the municipality and
?
secondary schools by the state. Supreme inspection was given
to a member of the Cabinet to be known as the Secretary of
the Department of Justice and Public Instruction, assisted by
a superior board of education with inspectors in every prov
ince. There was to be a special board in each province with
the governor as chairman and school boards in the Communes and
Cantons. This general system is the one still followed by the
Dominican government.
In spite of his well laid plans, Hostos was not able to
accomplish much due to the poor financial condition of the
country and the lack of stable government. Inspection became
^Otto Schoenrich, op. cit., p. 198.
^Ibld.. p. 199.
40
a matter of form due to the lack of a properly trained per
sonnel and teaching force.
In 1915,^ the people of Santo Domingo did not own a
single school building. There were some public schools in
rented buildings. Often a teacher would conduct the school
in her own home under conditions which made it pedagogically,
2
hygienically and morally unsound. There were a few private
schools subsidized by the government, the amount of subsidy
depending on the amount of political influence the organiza
tion had.
Rural schools were practically unknown although some
agricultural associations were formed to establish private
schools. The teachers were so poorly paid, from #9.00 to
#50.00 per month, that "as poor as a schoolmaster" became a
by-word among the people. ^ Diplomas or certificates were
given with very little reference to qualification, and there
was no supervision of any kind.
There were numerous private secondary schools, all is
suing diplomas, none of which required proper preparation.
There were two institutes of social studies and one profes
sional institute, whose chief function seemed to be to
^S. G. Inman, "America’s Task in Santo Domingo and
Haiti," Forum, Vol. LXIV, September, 1920, p. 217.
^carl Kelsey, "Oonditions in Santo Domingo and Haiti,"
Annals of American Academy, Vol. GLXXII, March, 1922, p. 199.
3otto Schoenrich, op. cit., p. 200.
G. Inman, op. clt.
41
furnish salaried positions to the ambitious.^ The univer
sity was poorly equipped and inadequate. The government had
sent fourteen students abroad to study for the professions.
Commercial education was offered but never given in the
two commercial schools, and real vocational schools did not
p
exist. Cities did not make a budget and no records of ex
penditures for schools were kept.
About 20,000 children were registered in public or pri
vate schools with only about forty percent average daily
attendance.
Carl Kelsey, op. cit., p. 182.
2s. G. Inman, Through Santo Domingo and Haiti, p. 45.
^George C. Thorpe, "American Achievements in Santo
Domingo," in George H. Blakeslee, Mexico and the Caribbean,
p. 233.
42
CHAPTER VII
AMERICAN OCCUPATION
During her seventy years of national life, fourteen
new constitutions were promulgated, thirty-five presidents
held office, and twenty-three successful revolutions took
place.^ As a result of these frequent insurrections, an
enormous foreign and domestic debt had been contracted and
was constantly being increased through the floating of loans
by new dictators as they came to power. No payments were made
on the principal or interest, and foreign countries, partic
ularly Germany, became insistent that she be permitted to take
over the customs until her share of the debt was paid. Pres
ident Roosevelt finally, in 1905, intervened and negotiated
a modus vivendi with President Morales by which the Dominican
customs receipts were to be collected by the United States
officials and provisions were made for the payment of the na
tional debt.2
In 1907, a treaty drawn up by President Ramon Caceres
and President Roosevelt was approved by the Senate. Accord
ing to this treaty. United States was to send a financial
advisor to Santo Domingo who would take over the customs
houses and collect the revenue. He was to pay forty-five
^H. K. Norton, United States in the Caribbean, p. 115.
^George C. Thorpe, "American Achievements in Santo
Domingo," in George H. Blakeslee, Mexico and the Caribbean,
p. 229.
43
percent of the revenue to the Santo Dominican government
and the remainder was to be applied upon the foreign debt.^
Until 1911, the Dominican Republic had peace at home and
abroad and rapid progress was being made in payment of the
debts owed to foreigners. Then President Caceres was assas-
inated and a revolution resulted. We offered our good ser
vices and prevailed upon Monsignor Nouel, Archbishop of
p
Santo Domingo, to become President. He resigned in 1913.
Another revolution took place, and we again offered our ser
vices. Another President, J. J. Jimenez, was chosen. In
less than a year and a half, a coup was executed by Secretary
of War, Arias, during the impeachment proceedings by which
they had hoped to remove President Jimenez by peaceful means.
Another revolution was in progress. The marines landed under
the leadership of Captain H. S. Knapp and order was restored,
and an election was held by which Dr. Carvajal was elected
President. We refused to recognize him as President until
he agreed to a treaty similar to the one in effect in Haiti.
Dre. Carvajal refused and resigned. Captain Khapp then pro
claimed the marines in offical control and established mil
itary government. Rear Admiral Snowden was placed in command^
and with the aid of a Dominican council given the task of
administering the government of the Republic whose civil
^G. H. Stuart, Latin America and the United States, p. 22E.
^George C. Thorpe, op. cit., p. 230.
^Ibld.. p. 235.
44
officers had been supplanted by American marines and naval
officers. Colonel Rufus Lane occupied the position of
Minister of Justice and Public Instruction during the period
of American occupation and carried on his work in an unusual
ly efficient manner. In most cases the Americans were moved
by a high sense of their responsibility and acted with a de
sire to the best possible for the Dominicans. It is to be
regretted that all officers stationed there were not moti
vated by the same spirit. They were in control from November
1916 to 1924, when the marines were withdrawn completely
leaving a fairly stable government in control with an Amer
ican financial advisor. The Dominicans apparently have
learned their lesson and, except for a slight revolution this
past winter when Estrella Urena became President upon the
resignation of President Horacio Vasques,^ peace has reigned
undisturbed in the Republic.
The military government felt that one of its most im
portant missions was to promote education by establishing
p
vocational and primary schools. If the people were ever to
be able to establish and maintain a stable government, it
would have to be done by an educated and enlightened elector
ate. They also constructed roads, established an efficient
police force, stablized finances, cultivated a respect for
^Anonymous, "Revolution in Dominican Republic,” Literary
Digest, Vol. crV, March 8, 1930, p. 7.
^S. G. Inman, "America’s Task in Santo Domingo and
Haiti," Forum. Vol. LXIV, September, 1920, p. 217
45
law and order and placed property rights on their former
bases.^
In organizing an efficient school system, Colonel Lane
was assisted by a young Dominican educated in Baltimore. He
used the Dominican institutions of Hostos which he found
available and suitable to his needs. A commission of five
prominent Dominicans with Archbishop Nouel as chairman was
appointed for the purpose of investigating and reporting on
2
the existing condition of education and to make recommenda
tion for the establishment of a system which would best serve
the needs of the Republic. The committee made six recom
mendations.
1. Compulsory attendance law
2. Direction and supervision of public schools law
3. General studies law
4. Organic law on public education
5. Law for the Theological Seminary
6. University law
These were adopted and put into effect. The system followed
was based upon that established by the great Dominican educa
tor Hostos, i. e., primary schools should be established in
all municipalities and secondary schools wherever needed. The
military government established definite requirements for those
who desired to teach in the school, providing that a teacher
must have the title of normal teacher of secondary education,
normal teacher of primary education or hold a Bachelor of
^George 0. Thorpe, op. cit.. p. 233.
^Pan American Union, Bulletin, Vol. XLIV, March, 1919,
p. 333.
46
Arts degree.^
An agricultural school and experimental farms were es
tablished to give instruction, and agricultural experts were
sent out from the various experiment stations to teach the
people the best methods of cultivating the soil and to in-
2
troduce new machinery which the government sold at cost.
At first there were no Dominicans who could give this in
struction and twenty-five Porto Rican experts were brought
over for that purpose but through the agricultural school
they hoped to soon have their own men in the field.
Colonel Lane was very intelligent and keenly interested
in the matter of education. He won the love of the children
and the admiration of the teachers. ^ He did not advocate
schools which would train the boys and girls for some useful
occupation but felt that the main thing to be accomplished
was to teach the pupils to read and write. His favorite in
stitution was a correctional school^ where "wharf rats" had
been gathered in and were taught a trade. In this school
baseball proved to a strong reforming element. The game was
introduced into several other schools with equal success.
A system of rural schools was organized as rapidly as
possible and gardens were planned in connection with them so
^S. G. Inman, op. cit., p. 220.
, p. 218.
S. G. Inman, Through Santo Domingo and Haiti, p. 46.
^S. G. Inman, "America’s Task in Santo Domingo," Forum,
Vol. LXrV, September, 1920, p. 218.
47
that the children and their parents could be given practical
training in agriculture.^
To take care of this program the budget provided for
$1,500,000, one-third from the national treasury, one^third
from municipalities and one-third from special taxes, par
ticularly property tax. At the close of the period of oc
cupation, according to the report given by the Congressional
Committee of Investigation, there were 100,000 instead of
18,000 registered in school with an average daily attendance
of eight-five percent instead of forty percent and they es
timated that schools were needed for 100,000 more.^
The majority of schools were still in rented buildings,
although a school building program had been begun. The salary
schedule had been raised from a minimum of $8.00 and $60.00
a month maximum before occupation to $55.00 minimum and $150.
maximum per month.
According to the best statistics available for 1924, at
the close of American occupation, there were 195 primary
schools, seven secondary and normal schools, six industrial
schools for girls and others under formation, two schools for
Fine Arts, two correctional schools, and a university. There
were 647 rural schools with about one hundred more planned.
There were 1,500 teachers in service. Summer schools had
^George G. Thorpe, op. cit., p. 234.
^S. G. Inman, "America’s Task in Santo Domingo," Forum,
Vol. LXIV, September, 1920, p. 219.
48
been established for their training and certificates were
required.^ But there was still a lack of thorough inspec
tion and definite information concerning the actual progress
of pupils in school. The progress made in primary instruc
tions was probably our most noteworthy achievement. Lack of
a proper teaching staff, scarcity of funds and poor equip
ment and buildings prevented Colonel Lane from accomplishing
still greater things.
^George C. Thorpe, op. cit., p. 234.
49
CHAPTER VIII
PUBLIC SCHOOLS
The good work begun under American occupation was al
lowed to decline for a few years after the withdrawal of the
marines because of lack of finances. The land tax which had
been levied by the Americans for school purposes but which
the Dominicans found so objectionable had been immediately
repealed.^ Since 1926, the work has been pushed with all
speed possible under existing conditions and really remark
able progress has been made. That greater progress has not
been made is due to the lack of money and not to a lack of
interest on the part of the inhabitants who have in the past
and still are making the greatest sacrifices that their chil
dren may receive an education, even organizing private schools
and maintaining them out of their meager incomes where pub
lic schools are not available.^
Public education is classified as either public or semi
public depending entirely on whether they receive government
aid. The direction of public education in the Dominican
Republic is in the hands of a cabinet official who has the
^J. S. Stowell, "In the Dominican Republic," Missionary
Review. Vol. XLVIII, July, 1925, p. 784.
^F. H. Carvajal, "American Rule in Santo Domingo,"
Current History, Vol. XIII, March, 1921, p. 396.
50
title of "Secretary of state for Justice and Public In
struction."^ This official has jurisdiction over all the
schools of the Dominican Republic with the exception of the
Agricultural School, which falls within the province of the
Secretary of Agriculture and Immigration. The Ministry of
Justice and Public Instruction owes its creation to the
Constitution, which in Article 54 provides for the creation
of such offices for the administration of public affairs
which may be established by law. A further provision pro
vides for the establishment of cabinet officials among whom
are the Secretary of Justice and Public Instruction and a
Sub-Secretary. As the Dominican Congress has never appropri
ated money for the salary of a Sub-Secretary there is not an
official of this rank in the Ministry of Public Instruction.
The Secretary of Justice and Public Instruction is ap
pointed by the President of the Dominican Republic and holds
2
office during the pleasure of the executive. The appoint
ment is a purely political one and as a rule the officer has
had no previous experience in any type of educational work.
As the name of the cabinet official indicates he is provided
with dual functions, the first being the direction of the
Department of Justice of the Dominican Government and the
------ T-----------
Consular Report for March 20, 1926, p. 1. This is a
report of a survey of the Public School system of the Domini
can Republic which was made at the request of the Consul of
Santo Domingo and is on file in the office of the Consular
district.
Ibid.i p. 2.
51
second of the Department of Public Instruction*
In the Department of Public Instruction the functions
of the Ministry may be said to embrace the following head
ings:
1. Management and control of all the teaching centers.
2. The inspection and supervision of instruction in
the university centers.
3. Direction of museums.
4. The providing of furniture and equipment for schools.
5. The control and direction of public libraries.
6. The allotment of funds for the schools of the Re
public.
7. The inspection of all material relating to school-
houses.
8. The control and supervision of schoolhouses.
9. The maintenance of discipline between administrative
departments and teaching staff.
10. The providing for proper discipline in schools.
11. The artistic instruction in the Republic.
12. The preparation of all statistics relative to schools
13. The development of floral, Olympic and athletic games.
14. Direction and control of Dominican students who are
sent abroad by the Government.
15. The granting of diplomas for the exercise of liberal
professions.
The personnel of the Ministry is composed of the follow
ing officials:— chief clerk, special employees, auxiliary em
ployees of the first class and auxiliary employees of the
second class.^ In addition to the personnel employed in the
office of the Secretary of State for Justice and Public In
struction there also exists a National Council of Education
which is under the direction of the Secretary of State for
Justice and Public Instruction. This council has the supreme
control of public instruction in all of its aspects as well as
T"---------
Consular Report for March 20, 1926, p. 3,
52
of the University of Santo Domingo which is governed by a
President or Rector. Provision is also made in the law for
a General Superintendent of Instruction who is in charge of
the direction of the public schools of the Republic.
The Secretary of State for Justice and Public Instruc
tion is not invested with authority by law to decide as to
the number, location and kind of schools in the country. All
questions relative to the creation of schools, the allotment
of funds, the creation of new courses and the program of
studies are prepared in the office of the Secretary of State
for Justice and Public Instruction and then referred for ap
proval to the National Council of Education, of which the
Secretary of State for Justice and Public Instruction is the
presiding officer. Approval by this body is necessary for
all of the matters indicated above, before the policy out
lined can be legal. The office of the Secretary of State for
Justice and Public Instruction is principally administrative
in character. Its executive capacity is limited in its power
by reason of the extensive privileges conferred by law in the
National Council of Education.
There are departmental boards presided over by a gover
nor and local boards of education in communes and cantons
with limited powers.
Primary education is free and where educational facili
ties are available, all children between seven and thirteen
are compelled to attend.1 It is divided into two periods;
^Consular Report for March 20, 1926, p. 4.
53
the lower primary course of four years and an upper primary
course of two years. Such subjects as are usually taught
in American grammar schools compose the curricula for the
primary schools.
Secondary education is open to graduates of the upper
primary schools. The first part of the course which re
quires three years covers ordinary secondary subjects al
lowing considerable freedom in electives, among which are
commercial subjects and domestic science. In the second part
of the course to which three years also may be given, the
student specializes in physical and natural science, in phy
sical and mathematical sciences, in letters or normal train
ing. If the student completes the work of the first division
and one additional year he is entitled to a diploma. Those
who receive a diploma and complete the two other years are
given certificates.^
The program of studies followed in secondary schools
provides a very heavy course, corresponding to our secondary
school curricula combined with a two year junior college
p
course of studies.
Three years of Spanish, two years of English, Algebra,
Geography, Physios and Chemistry are all required. One more
unit is chosen from each of the following groups:— fourth
^Pan American Union, Bulletin. Vol. XLV, November, 1917,
p. 685.
Ibid., Vol. LII, October, 1921, p. 511.
54
year English, Elementary French, or first year Latin;
Biology or Anatomy, Physiology, Hygiene; Physical Geog
raphy or Geography of America, or General Geography; His
tory of Santo Domingo or America, or General History.
Electives— any three of the following: three years
of Drawing, Typewriting, two years of Shorthand, two years
of Bookkeeping, Commercial penmanship, two years of Domestic
Science.
In order to obtain the official certificate correspond
ing to the division of studies known as the Section of
Physical and Natural Science additional work is required in.
Advance Chemistry, Botany, Zoology, Geology, fourth year
English, second year French or second year Latin.
In order to obtain an official certificate in Physical
and Mathematical Sciences the following are required, Ad
vanced Physics, Trigonometry, Geometry, Advanced Algebra,
Mechanical Drawing, fourth year English, second year French,
second year Latin.
For the section of Letters— fourth year Spanish, History
of Civilization, Political Economy, Constitutional Law, So
ciology, fourth year English, second year French, second year
Latin.
To obtain one in Normal studies— Psychology, Pedagogy,
School Management, and School Hygiene.
Each course is given one full school year with at least
forty-five minutes recitation in academic work and ninety
55
minutes in manual work.^
The curricula of the various schools is being broaden
ed continually, Domestic Hygiene, Manual Training, Physical
Education; Military Training, Singing and Art are being
added as finances permit.^
All children in attendance at schools in the larger
3
cities have access to dental clinics and school physicians.
In Santo Domingo City and Puerto Plata courses in Domestic
Hygiene are being given under supervision of the Red Cross
chapters and committee of nurses.^
Private schools can be organized easily here without
permit or license. As a result, they are completely out
from under the control of the State, except that in private
elementary schools they must conform to the course of study
and use authorized texts. By complying with certain con
ditions, they may receive some state aid. By this, they
become semi-official and partly under the control of the
State. Public schools have not been established in outlying
areas to any large extent because of lack of funds. It is
the practice for groups of farmers to pool their interests
and establish a private school which usually is thrown open
^Carl Kelsey, "Conditions in Santo Domingo and Haiti,”
Annals of American Academy, Vol. CLXXII, March, 1922, p. 182,
^Pan American Union, Bulletin, Vol. LXI, December,
1922, p. 258.
Bibid., Vol. LVIII, January, 1924, p. 100.
^Ibid., Vol. LIX, December, 1925, p. 1177.
56
to all who wish to attend.^ Many social clubs and labor
organizations have organized private schools for their own
members or their children to attend.^ A comparison of the
budgets for school purposes at various periods might be
interesting as an indication of the progress that is being
made.
In 1916, there was $518,208 appropriated for public
3
schools.
In 1920, there was $943,888 called for in the budget.^
(This was at the time of American occupation.)
In 1926, it was #985,274. (Two years after occupation.)^
In 1930, it was #1,311,188.02.^
Another interesting comparison can be made in regard
to the number of pupils enrolled and the number of schools
in operation during the same period of time.
1906— 306 public schools with 12,792 pupils.*^
1915— -364 " ” « 14,585 ” .®
^F. H. Carvajal, op. cit., p. 396.
^Pan American Union, Bulletin, Vol. LVIII, December,
1924, p. 1057.
^Otto Schoenrich, op. cit., p. 382.
4pan American Union, Bulletin, Vol. LI, November, 1922,
p. 625.
^Ibid., Vol. LX, November, 1926, p. 620.
Gibid.. Vol. LXIV, November, 1930, p. 630.
?Otto Schoenrich, op. cit., p. 382.
8
Carl Kelsey, op. cit., p. 173.
57
Lls.^
1925— 505 " " " 44,871 "
1918— 777 public schools with 51,585 pupils.
2
1930— 841 " « « 90,366 "
In order to encourage interest and spread information
concerning schools, an Educational Review was established
in 1929.^ It is published by the National Council of Ed
ucation and it is hoped that it will occupy an important
position among the journals published at the capital.
Pan American Union, Bulletin, Vol. IXL, October, 1919,
p. 477.
^Ibid., Vol. LIX, November, 1925, p. 1189.
^Ibid., Vol. LXIV, November, 1930, p. 630.
^Ibid., Vol. LXIII, November, 1929, p. 738.
58
CHAPTER IX
VOCATIONAL AND CORRECTIONAL SCHOOLS
Probably one of the greatest needs of the people In
the Dominican Republic to-day is a better organized sys
tem of vocational schools to fit students to take their
part in the industrial world of which they are soon to be
come a part. Before American occupation, practically noth
ing of this nature had been atteinpted. There were two
schools which were supposed to give commercial training but
little or no work was done and but few students attended.
Colonel Lane felt that the training most needed was not vo
cational and spent what funds he had teaching them to read
and write so that they could take an intelligent part in
the operation of their government. Some advance was made
in teaching agriculture in the rural schools and by sending
trained agricultural experts into the fields to give prac
tical instruction and to hold demonstrations showing the
results of better methods of planting or cultivating the
crops.
At the present time there are thirty-three vocational
and industrial schools in the republic and plans are being
made to extend them and to establish new ones.^ The ma
jority of them are commercial schools offering free in
struction either day or night, to children and adults who
p. 620.
^Pan American Union, Bulletin, Vol. LXIV, June, 1926,
59
will avail themselves of this opportunity. Some of the
schools have been established by municipalities but the
larger number have been established by Clubs, Chambers of
Commerce, Labor Unions and private organizations. In some
cases, they receive state aid but it often is only a very
small amount.
Among the first vocational schools is one which was
organized in 1915,^ at Santiago by a labor organization to
train the children of its members and to give instruction
to adults in evening classes. The curriculum covering a
three year period contained such courses as Bookkeeping,
Languages, particularly English, and Commercial Law. The
Board of Trade in Santo Domingo City established and has
successfully maintained for a number of years a commercial
school with an enrollment of over one hundred pupils.^
Courses in Stenography, Typewriting, English, Commercial
Arithmetic, Bookkeeping and Penmanship are offered in both
day and night classes. Two other schools of similar cur
ricula were established by the Chamber of Commerce, Industry
and Agriculture with free instruction, in both day and
evening courses under the direction of Senor Alfredo Ricart
y Olives, a prominent business man of Santo Domingo City.^
^Pan American Union, Bulletin, Vol. XL, May, 1915,
p. 692.
2lbid., Vol. XLVII, December, 1918, p. 875.
Sibid., Vol. XLVIV, July, 1919, p. 104.
60
A similar school has been established in Las Vegas
by the Society of Amore de Estudio. Santiago de Cabelleros
boasts of a business school which has been particularly
successful, having shown remarkable progress in the ten
years it has been in operation. The San Jose Industrial
school for poor children in Santiago is a combination trade
and primary school.^ There is no tuition and night classes
have been established for adults. They also have an even
ing school for girls which specializes in domestic train
ing.
In June 1928, a vocational week was called by the
President of the Polytechnic Institute of Santo Domingo
for the purpose of arousing still greater interest in vo
cational training.^ Several distinguished persons gave
lectures on such topics as "Benefit Derived by the Commun
ity from Good Trade Practice,” "Influence of Technical
Training, Vocational Training, etc.”
Among schools for special training of other types is
a school of graphic arts, established in Santo Domingo
City.3 The work done here is equal to that of similar
schools in country of the same population. There is an
excellent conservatory of music. Schools for nurses
^Pan American Union, Bulletin, Vol. LVII, December,
1923, p. 629.
^Ibld., Vol. LXII, August, 1928, p. 744.
3
A. M. Gottschall, "Our Rule in Santo Domingo,"
Current History, Vol. XIII, February, 1921, p. 212.
61
training have been established in connection with both
private and public hospitals.
Much has been done during occupation and since to
further training in the field of agriculture. It is not
under the control of the National Council of Education as
are vocational schools receiving government aid but has
been placed under the supervision of the Department of
Agriculture and Immigration.
A college of Agriculture was established in April
1925, by order of the Secretary of Agriculture and Immigra
tion, using foreigners from the Agronomic Station (exper
imental farm) as instructors under the direction of Dr.
R. Ceferri.^ Two concrete buildings which had been con
structed in Haina during the American occupation were used
to temporarily house the school. Since the legislative
body had not appropriated sufficient funds to carry on a
full time school, a course in practical agriculture was
begun in June with only twelve pupils which later grew to
twenty-four.
At the beginning of the second school year, the college
was changed from Haina to Moca because the soil in that
section was better, it was a more healthful location and
there were much better accommodations for storing and mar
keting the various crops which might be raised.^ The year
^V. M. Cabral, Colegio de Agricultura, p. 3.
Ibid., p. 4.
62
ended well with ten students receiving degrees. The col
lege was officially recognized by law in April 1927, and
at the same time regulations were drawn up stipulating
the requirement for entrance and for graduation with the
degrees to be given.
In order to register in the school of Agriculture
one must be seventeen years of age and a graduate of the
primary school with the proper certificate.^
Some of the subjects required of a student are,
Entomology, Agricultural Botany, Zoology, Agricultural and
Technical Bacteriology, Physics, Mineralogy and Agronomy.
The degree of Bachelor of Agriculture is given to
those who complete the work required for the first five
years of the course and pass the examinations required by
2
law. This degree enables the bearer to enroll in higher
schools of agriculture. Upon the completion of one more
year of practical work in one of the branches specified by
law the degree of Perito Agronomio (Master’s degree) may
be received. After 1930, they are planning on changing the
school into an Institute of Agricultural preparation and
eliminating the Bachelor’s degree.
Through the college they are introducing blooded
stock, new types of grain and orchard trees and modern equip
ment which they sell at cost.5 As a result of these
^V. M. Cabral, op. cit., p. 5.
^Ibid., p. 4.
^Pan American Union, Bulletin,Vol.LX, April, 1927, p.188,
63
activities and profiting by Cuba’s experience, Santo
Domingo has adopted diversified agriculture instead of de
pending on one staple crop like sugar or tobacco.
Since 1929, the experimental farms have been abolished
and a staff of eight traveling inspectors go from farm to
farm for the purpose of teaching and advising the farmers.^
The President of the Agricultural School and the Secretary
of Agriculture and Immigration thought that by this plan they
would be able to give more practical aid to the farmer, where
and when he needed it most. In all rural schools, agricul
ture is one of the subjects taught. Small gardens are main
tained to give the children practical training and to help
parents wherever possible.
Two schools of correction have been established, one in
Santo Domingo City and one in Santiago.^ A reform school
has recently been established in connection with the peniten
tiary near Maguey to take care of more mature and hardened
delinquents. Boys may be placed in the schools of correction
by the court for minor crimes and misdemeanors or may be
placed there upon the request of the parents. They are given
primary instruction and are trained for some useful occupa
tion; courses are given in carpentry, shoemaking and tailoring.
^Pan American Union, Bulletin, Vol. LXIII, August, 1929,
p. 815.
^Ibld.. Vol. LDC, June 1925, p. 958.
64
CHAPTER X
UNIVERSITIES AND PROFESSIONAL TRAINING
It was never the policy of Spain to foster popular ed
ucation at home or in the colonies but those of the aristo
cratic class sometimes were highly educated, receiving their
training in schools maintained by the clergy.^ In Spain it
self there were several universities of note during the
medieval ages and at the time of the founding of colonies in
the New World, several were still flourishing. Some of them
were for the study of Science, Philosophy, and other cultural
subjects; but most of them were for the study of Theology
and were sponsored by the clergy.
The oldest university in the New World, University of
Santo Tomas of Aquino, was founded by Dominican Friars at
Santo Domingo City in 1558.^ It gave courses in Medicine,
Philosophy, Theology and Law, but specialized in Theology.
It was so renowned as a place of higher learning in early
colonial days that people came from surrounding colonies to
take advantage of the opportunities offered there. Thus
Santo Domingo became the center of learning and culture in
the New World. As the colony declined with the increasing
^Otto Schoenrich, Santo Domingo, p. 192.
2lbid., p. 194.
^G. S. Inman, Through Santo Domingo and Haiti, p. 44,
65
prominence of Peru and Mexico, the university also de
clined.
In 1747, Spain tried to restore the colony to its
former position as a leading province and a royal decree
was issued to restore the university and gave it the title
of Royal and Pontifical University of Santo Domingo.^
During the Napoleonic Wars, the Haitian rule and first
forty years of the Republic conditions were not propitious
to the spread of education and the university once more
declined and was finally closed. Except for the establish
ment of a Theological Seminary in 1848, nothing was done to
further higher education until 1888, when a professional
institute was established.^ The name was changed in 1914,
to the University of Santo Domingo and in 1915, the Royal
and Pontifical University of Tomas de Aquino was incorpor
er
ated with it. It occupies the building formerly used by
the University of Spanish days and confers degrees in Law,
Medicine, Pharmacy, Dentistry, Mathematics and Surveying.
Practically all the lawyers in the Republic are graduates
of the university and many of the pharmacists have studied
there.
Since in the early years of the university the govern
ment only appropriated #24,000 annually for its support.
^Otto Schoenrich, op. cit., p. 197.
2
Ibid., p. 200.
p. 192.
^Pan American Union, Bulletin, Vol. XL, January, 1915,
66
the equipment was necessarily meager.^ There were no
clinics or hospital facilities and those wishing to prac-
P
tice dentistry or surgery studied abroad. It did not
have a regularly organized faculty but lectures on various
subjects were given by men living in Santo Domingo City
who had made a marked success in their various professions
and who were willing to take time from their professional
work to help train those who would succeed them.
By 1919, a somewhat similar institution, known as the
Professional Institute of Cibao was organized at Santiago
under the leadership of Genarro Perez, with a faculty of
about seventeen to offer courses in Law, Medicine, Mathema
tics, Pharmacy and Dentistry.^
In 1928, an executive decree was issued which provided
that foreign professors, who were specialists in the field
of Medicine, Engineering, Agriculture and other technical
subjects were to be engaged to give instruction in their own
profession.^ A commission was appointed by the Board of Ed
ucation at the same time to reorganize the university making
it more efficient and modern in equipment and method.
Much was done by the Dominican government, both before
and after occupation by the United States to further higher
^Otto Schoenrich, op. cit., p. 200.
o
s. G. Inman, op. cit., p. 45.
^Pan American Union, Bulletin, Vol. XLÎX, October,
1919, p. 477.
^Ibid., Vol. XLII, January, 1916, p. 296,
67
education but particularly to further specialized or
technical training through the granting of scholarship to
deserving students.^ Those applying for scholarships were
required to take a competitive examination.^ Those who
showed the most promise were granted a scholarship in some
pi^ofessional school, usually Medicine, Law, Engineering,
and Agriculture. After 1925, those accepting a scholarship
were required to complete the course undertaken at the
university in which he was first placed. The scholarship
carried with it #100.00 a month for expenses during the
time they were at the school*^ In 1925, about #10,800 was
appropriated to send eleven students abroad to complete
their education.
In 1928, the government felt that the university as a
result of its reorganization was well enough equipped to
give this specialized work and the scholarships were dis
continued. The university was placed under the control of
the National Council of Education, which nominates the
President who is appointed by the President of the Republic,
regulates the curricula to be offered and enforces require
ments for graduation and admission. Dr. Romon de Tara is
now President and outlook for the university is bright, al
though the budget only calls for the appropriation of
^Pan American Union, Bulletin, Vol. LXII, July, 1928,
p. 723.
Zibid., Vol. XLV, July, 1917, p. 122.
3lbid., Vol. LIZ, May, 1925, p. 522.
68
,897.
Most of those receiving scholarships were enrolled in
French or German universities because the color line was
not drawn so carefully there as in English speaking coun
tries. They were anxious for their students in Engineering,
particularly to attend American universities but they did
not do so unless they could pass as a person of white race
any place.
Many of these students became famous in their various
professions not only in Santo Domingo but in Europe as well.
M. Belaneres is a good example of successful Dominican
1
student. He was made the head of the medical laboratory
of the University of Paris.
Up to 1918 not much had been done to standardize re
quirements for admissions to or graduation from the uni
versity. By an executive degree in 1918, the requirements
o
for degree of dental surgeon was definitely fixed.
In 1919, still further restrictions were made, this
time more general in nature.^ The time for examinations
were fixed and they required that a year must elapse be
tween the time you took an examination and when you took
an examination in the higher course. It also specified re
quirements for graduation in Engineering, Physics and
^Pan American Union, Bulletin, Vol. XLIII, August,
1916, p. 163.
^Ibid., Vol. ZLIX, December, 1919, p. 601.
^Ibid., Vol. L, March, 1920, p. 352.
69
Mathematics; fixed the requirements for entrance in courses
in Pharmacy and the increased requirements for practicing
Medicine, Dentistry, or Pharmacy.
In 1921, they required those who had completed the
course and held degrees in Medicine, Dentistry, or Pharmacy
from foreign universities to pass satisfactorily the ex
aminations given in the Dominican Republic before they could
practice their professions there.^
p. 298.
^Pan American Union, Bulletin, Vol. LII, March, 1921,
70
CHAPTER XI
CULTURE IN SANTO DOMINGO
The people of the Dominican Republic are artistic by-
nature and very fond of poetry, so it is not at all strange
that they have had many men who have been prominent among
the world's greatest artists, both painters and sculptors,
and men who have contributed much in the field of poetry.^
Among some of the outstanding painters are such men as
Arturo Grullon, whose pictures were exhibited in the Paris
Salon in 1890.^ Louis Desangles, exhibited paintings in
Madrid and St. Louis where he received prizes. Adriana
Billini has received recognition for paintings displayed
in Paris, Havana and at various places in Porto Rico.
Abelardo Rodriequez, a photographer in Santo Domingo
City who has received recognition in the field of sculpture
as well as in his chosen profession, conducts an Art
3
School. An art exhibit was held in Santo Domingo City at
which many of his students exhibited paintings and statuary,
copies of famous works of the great masters, colonial scenes
and other types of work. Many visited the exhibit and com
plimented Senor Rodriequez on the type of work done by his
^Otto Sohoenrich, Santo Domingo, p. 206.
^Pan American Union, Bulletin, Vol. XLV, September,
1917, p. 404.
^Francisco Henriquez y Garvajal, "American Rule in
Santo Domingo," Current History, Vol. XIII, March, 1921,
p. 395.
71
students.
The Dominican people are naturally musical and their
native songs and dances in which all participate on fes
tive occasions are full of harmony and rhythm. But there
are not many Dominicans who have become prominent in the
field of music. Jose Reyes probably holds the most prom
inent place among the Dominican musicians.^ He is a composer
of note. One of his contributions is the music for the na
tional ode, the words for which were written by a school
teacher, Emilio Prud'homme. Gabriel del Orbe won awards for
2
his work with the violin at Leipsic Conservatory. Among
the younger group, is Jose de J. Ravelo, whose work has at
tracted considerable attention. A few more might be men
tioned if time permitted. The number of musicians is rapid
ly increasing.
Several descendants of Dominican families, driven from
their homes by the conquest and occupation of the little
Republic by Haiti, have become noted literary men and have
contributed much to the literature of their adopted coun-
tries. Among these are such men as Heredia and Domingo
Delmonte, who have contributed much to Cuban literature,
others have contributed to the art and literary progress of
Porto Rico, Columbia and Peru.
^Otto Sohoenrich, op. cit., p. 205.
o
Francisco Henriquez y Garvajal, op. cit., p. 396.
S. G. Inman, Through Santo Domingo and Haiti, p. 40.
72
The Dominicans excel in lyric poetry in which they
show an unusual command of Castilian Spanish and express
great depth of feeling.^ The favorite topics are love and
the misfortunes of their country, particularly the civil
wars and the conquests of the Haitians. Felix Maria Del-
2
monte, intellectual leader of the Republic in 1844, wrote
the National Hymn echoing the bitter struggle against
Haiti. Beinvienido S. Nouel and Enrique Henriquez are writ
ers who emphasize the period of the civil wars. One of the
most outstanding poets was a woman, Salome Urena, who re
ceived a medal from the Society Los Amigos del Pais, be
cause of efforts for peace. The first volume of verse to
be printed in the Dominican Republic was a compilation of
3
the works of Angelo Guridi, a Colonel in the Patriot Army.
The love of poetry is not confined to those of the
educated class alone, but is general throughout the Republic.
Anyone when deeply moved will frequently attempt to express
himself in poetical form making an extensive use of des
criptive adjectives and hyperbole.
Juan Duarte, the Liberator, and Antonio Delmonte y
Tejada, the Historian, who wrote in the early years of the
Republic may be said to have initiated literary progress in
the Republic.^ The next generation furnished a somewhat
^Otto Sohoenrich, op. cit., p. 205.
p
S. G. Inman, op. cit., p. 41.
Otto oohoenrioh, op. olt., p. 204.
75
larger group of writers but their best works did not appear
until after 1880. Since that time the writers of the
Dominican Republic have produced so much of value that
Santo Domingo occupies a noteworthy place in Latin-American
literature.
Eugenio Hostos, probably one of the most famous and
certainly the most revered thinker and writer in Santo
Domingo, is of Porto Rican origin^ but he gave the best part
of his life to the country of his adoption. He was a great
educator, but he took time from his work in that field, to
write articles and books on such diverse subjects as con
stitutional law, literary criticisms of Shakespeare and
treatises on educational principles which contain some of
the most modern pedagogical theories. Forty volumes in all
o
were written by Hostos. He edited the first laws concerning
education to be passed in Santo Domingo and recently the
government of the Republic appropriated #600.00 to assist
in the publication of his speeches, lectures and works on
psychology and logic.
Federico Enriquez y Garvajal, president at the time of
the American occupation, is another outstanding writer and
journalist.^ Pedro Enriquez Urena wrote Horas de Estudio,
a group of studies on philosophical, political and patriotic
^S. G. Inman, op. cit., p. 94,
Bibid., p. 43.
^Ibid., p. 41.
74
subjects. He also is a literary critic and has written
numerous reviews. F. G. Godoy is the greatest living
Dominican novelist and literary critic.^ Another great
novelist, Manuel de Jesus Galvan, is the author of
Enriquillo, one of the best pieces of historical fiction
concerning Spanish America. Archbishop Carlos Nouel has
written a two volume ecclesiastical history of Santo Domingo.
p
Jose G. Garcia is another historian of note. Rodriquez
Armand, former Attorney-General, published a physical, polit
ical and historical geography of Santo Domingo and Haiti
which has been adopted as a text for use in the schools of
the Republic.
Many other essayists, historians, novelists and poets
of note, many of them women, might be mentioned if space
would allow.
One of the most prominent women at the present time is
Dr. Anna Paradas, an eminent lawyer and writer who has been
appointed as the representative of the Dominican government
to the International Educational Congress at Geneva.
Much has been done to further literary pursuits since
the establishment of the Republic by various clubs and or
ganizations. Contests in various lines of writing are often
held among the students and diplomas or medals given to
p. 100.
^S. G. Inman, op. cit., p. 42.
^Pan American Union, Bulletin, Vol. LXV, January, 1930,
75
those who make the best contributions. Sometimes these
contests take on an international character. In 1915, the
Colon Club held a literary and scientific contest with
awards offered in seven different fields, representatives
from Cuba and Porto Rico were invited to take part.^
The state, through awards, pensions or honors has
helped to encourage its citizens to follow literary or ed
ucational activities. Lie. Emilio Prud'homme was given a
life pension of $100.00 a month in recognition of forty
2
years spent as an educator.
In 1926, an Academy of Letters was created consisting
of twelve life members, two-thirds of whom must be residents
of the City of Santo Domingo.^ Any vacancy was to be filled
by the remaining members. Appropriations of $20,000 were
included in the government budget for the support of the
Academy which is planning on the creation of a national
library and a little later hope to be able to establish a
historical museum. With membership in the Academy of Letters
as a possible goal we may expect.
One of the biggest handicaps in the promotion of learn
ing and general information in the Dominican Republic is
the lack of library facilities and bookstores. In spite of
^Pan American Union, Bulletin, Vol. XLI, December, 1915,
p. 905.
^Ibid., Vol. LX, December, 1925, p. 935.
Sibid., Vol. LX, June, 1926, p. 620.
76
the literary achievements of the distinguished Dominicans,
there is but little available reading material. The first
public library was established in Puerto Plata and for many
years after the establishment of the Republic, up to 1919,
it was the only one in Santo Domingo.^ A few of the clubs
maintained libraries for the use of their members. But the
volumes were usually heavy leather bound volumes of philos
ophy and kindred subjects which were of little interest to
those who had the opportunity to use them. According to the
observations of Samuel Guy Inman in 1919, there were only
p
two bookstores worthy of the name in the entire island.
They had a few risque French novels for sale with a few works
on philosophy and kindred subjects. One of the interesting
features of these stores was that the longer the book was
on the shelves the higher the price which was charged the
buyer.
In recent years there has been a very active movement
to further public libraries. One was opened in Santo Domingo
City, October 14, 1922, and in 1928 a national organization
was formed to further the movement for a national library
and Atheneum. With the help of the Academy of Letters and
Arts, this project will soon be making rapid progress.
In 1929, the permanent Executive Committee of the
Otto Sohoenrich, op. cit., p. 202.
%. G. Inman, op. cit., p. 44.
^an American Union, Bulletin, Vol. LXII, June, 1928,
p. 744.
77
Columbus Lighthouse passed a resolution creating the
Columbus library.^ The department of foreign relations was
charged with the duty of interesting other American nations
in the project. The library will consist of twenty-eight
sections. Each section will be made out of materials native
to the state which volunteers to maintain one and will bear
the coat-of-arms of that state. In it will be placed copies
of the works of its great literary men. So many works have
been contributed already that several cases have had to be
purchased to temporarily house them. They hope to locate
the library in the old Castle of Diego Columbus or in a wing
of the Columbus Lighthouse, a memorial erected by the Amer
ican nations to the great admiral.
Since there is such a scarcity of books and library
facilities, the only source of reading material is the news
paper. There are a few good city papers, one at Santo
Domingo City, one at Santiago and one at Puerta Plata but
no rural or suburban ones.
The Listin Diairo of Santo Domingo City is the largest
and one of the oldest newspapers to be published in the
nation, being first published in 1889.^ It is a four page
daily with cable service and a circulation of about 10,000
copies. Most of the larger cities are supplied with at
^Pan American Union, Bulletin, Vol. LXV, January, 1930,
p. 100.
^Otto Sohoenrich, op. cit., p. 203.
78
least one daily paper which is usually published in the
afternoon so that the business men will find them available
to read when they go to their club after the morning's work.
The oldest paper published at the present time is El Pouvenir,
published in Puerto Plata. Many newspapers have been estab
lished but have not maintained themselves for long,^ some
because of threats of the governments but in most oases be
cause of financial difficulties due to the fact that they
cannot keep up their circulation without printing current
political news. The government keeps a close censorship up
on the opposition press and they have to carry on their at
tacks from some friendly neighbor. Whenever the government
has relaxed its censorship, the opposition has abused the
privileges granted to it so the lid is usually kept securely
fastened. Thus it is not possible in Santo Domingo for the
citizens to hear both sides of the case and form an unbiased
opinion.
In addition to the political newspapers there are sev
eral small reviews or gazettes such as the Cuna de America,
which are devoted to belles lettres. They reflect current
Dominican literature and give budding authors an avenue
through which to gain the attention of the public. They
usually contain poems, biographical, historical and philo
sophical extracts from new plays and books as well as
^Otto Sohoenrich, op. cit., p. 202,
79
original material. There are many reviews of a technical
and professional nature printed in the capital, giving in
formation concerning the latest developments in the various
lines of work.
80
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books
Bell, Archie, The Spell of the Caribbean Islands. Colonial
Press, G. H. Simonds Company, Boston, 1926*
Blakeslee, George H., (editor) Latin America. Clark Uni
versity Addresses, Strechert and Company, New York
City, 1924.
A collection of addresses delivered before a gathering
at Clark University. The one which was most helpful
for this dissertation was an address delivered by
J. H. Hollander, on the subject, "The Dominican Con
vention and its Lessons."
____________________, (editor) Mexico and the Caribbean.
Clark University Addresses, Strechert and Company, New
York City, 1920.
In this collection of addresses delivered at Clark
University were several which were of value: "The
Present American Intervention in Santo Domingo and
Haiti," by Otto Sohoenrich; "American Achievements in
Santo Domingo, Haiti, and the Virgin Islands," by
Colonel George G. Thorpe; and "The Present Situation
in the Caribbean," by S. G. Inman.
Bolton, H. E., and Marshall, T. M., Colonization of North
America. Macmillan Company, New York City, 1927.
Bourne, E. G., Spain in America. Harper Brothers, New York
City, 1904.
Brittain, Alfred, Discovery and Exploration. George Barries
and Sons, Philadelphia, 1911.
Alfred Brittain incorporates lengthy excerpts from the
diary of Columbus in his narrative of the discovery
and early settlement of the Island of Haiti.
81
eleven, Andrew N., Readings in Hispanic American History.
Ginn and Company, New York City, 1927.
Fiske, John, The Discovery of America. 2 vols. Houghton,
Mifflin Company, New York City, 1920.
Foster, H. L., Combing the Caribbees. Dodd, Mead and Com
pany, New York City, 1929.
A narrative of the personal experience of Mr. Foster
while he was touring the Island of Haiti and other
islands of the West Indies.
Franck, Harry A., Roaming the West Indies. Century Company,
New York City, 1920.
Relates the experiences of the author while on a plea
sure trip in the West Indies. Some time was spent in
the Dominican Republic.
Hazard, Samuel, Santo Domingo— Past and Present with a
Glance at Haiti. Harper Brothers, New York City, 1873.
Inman, S. G., Through Santo Domingo and Haiti. Committee
on Cooperation in Latin America, New York City, 1919.
An unbiased critical report of conditions in the
Dominican and Haitian Republics as they were observed
by the author on a trip through the island.
______________, Trailing the Conquistadores. Friendship Press,
New York City, 1930.
Jones, G. L. et al., United States and the Caribbean.
University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1929.
A collection of papers written by C. L. Jones, H. K.
Norton and P. T. Moon on American relations in the
Caribbean area.
Knight, M. M., The Americans in Santo Domingo. Vanguard
Press, New York City, 1928.
A description of American intervention in Santo Domingo.
82
Lowery, I. B., Spanish Settlements within the Present
Limits of the United States. G. P. Putnam and Sons,
New York City, 1901.
Manington, George, West Indies with the British Guiana and
British Houndras. Charles Scribner and Company, New
York City.
Robertson, W. S., History of Latin American Nations.
Appleton, New York City, 1925.
Sohoenrich, Otto, Santo Domingo, the Country with a Future.
The Macmillan Company, New York City, 1918.
A detailed study of the history of the Dominican Re
public from the discovery of the Island of Haiti by
Columbus to the date of publication. The material is
obtained from a study of original sources or from per
sonal acquaintance with the conditions and individuals
discussed. It is the best authority on the subject in
English.
Stuart, G. H., Latin America and the United States. Century
Company, New York City, 1928.
Verrill, A. H., Porto Rico, Past and Present and Santo
Domingo of Today. Dodd, Mead and Company, New York
City, 1914.
Welles, Sumner, Naboth's Vineyard. 2 vols. Payson and
Clark, Ltd., New York City, 1928.
A very critical study of American occupation of the
Dominican Republic. It is based on original sources
and is authentic history of Santo Domingo from the
period of the French Revolution to the present time.
Williams, Mary W., The People and Politics of Latin America.
Ginn and Company, New York City, 1930.
83
Magazines
Booth, E. L., ”A Fortnight in Santo Domingo." Freeman,
Vol. VIII, 228-31; 252-4, November 14-21, 1923.
Buell, R. L., "Intervention Policy of United States."
Annals of American Academy, Vol. CXXXVIII, 69-70,
July, 1928.
Bureau of Pan American Republics, "Bulletin of Pan Amer
ican Republics." Pan American Union, 1915-1931.
Garvajal, Francisco H. y, "American Rule in Santo Domingo."
Current History, Vol. XIII, 395-7, March, 1921.
Cestero, F. M., "American Rule in Santo Domingo." Nation,
Vol. CXI, 78, July 7, 1920.
Fiallo, Fabio, "Evacuation of Santo Domingo." Current His
tory, Vol. XIV, 291-4, May, 1921.
Foster, H. C., "Santo Domingo for Pleasure." Santo Domingo,
June, 1930.
Franck, H . A., "Santo Domingo, the Land of Bullet Holes."
Century, Vol. C, 300-11, July, 1920.
Gomez, Juan, "Gallant Dominicans." American Mercury, Vol.
XVII, 89-95, May, 1929.
Gottschall, E. A., "Our Rule in Santo Domingo." Current
History, Vol. XIII, 212-7, February, 1921.
Gruening, Ernest H., "Conquest of Haiti and Santo Domingo."
Current History. Vol. XV, 882-4, March, 1924.
Harding, G. L., "Dominican Bitterness." Current History,
Vol. XXI, 863-4, March, 1925.
84
Inman, S. G*, "American Occupation of Santo Domingo."
Current History, Vol. XIII, 501-6, March, 1921.
, "America's Task in Santo Domingo and Haiti."
Forum, Vol. LXIV, 216-27, September, 1920.
____________, "Cooperating in the West Indies." Missionary
Review of the World, Vol. Dili, 509-13, July, 1930.
______ , "Santo Domingo, Old and New." Pan American
Magazine, Vol. XXXII, 114-21, January, 1921.
Kelsey, Carl, "Conditions in Haiti and Santo Domingo."
Annals of American Academy, Vol. CLXXII, 170-185,
March, 1922.
Kern, L. D., "A Trip to Santo Domingo." Scientific Monthly,
Vol. XXIII, 529-38, December, 1926.
Knowles, H. G., "Santo Dominoan Bitter Protest." Current
History, Vol. XIV, 399-40, February, 1923.
_______________, "Santo Domingo to be Free." Current History,
Vol. XIV, 734-7, August, 1921.
Krippini, H. P., "Santo Domingo's Title to Independence."
Current History, Vol. XIV, 809-12, August, 1921.
Marvin, George, "Watchful Waiting in Santo Domingo."
World's Work, Vol. XXXIV, 205-18, June, 1917.
Norton, H. K., "American Imperialism in Santo Domingo."
World's Work, Vol. LI, 215-15, December, 1925.
Pullian, W. E., "Bare Facts about Santo Domingo." Current
History, Vol. XIII, 399, March, 1921.
_______________, "The Troubles of a Benevolent Despot."
Outlook, Vol. CXXVI, 758-60, December 29, 1920.
85
Stowell, J. S., "In the Dominican Republic." Missionary
Review of the World, Vol. XLVIII, 783-8, October, 1925.
Vance, J. L., "A Good Word for Santo Domingo." Current
History, Vol. XVI, 849-52, August, 1922.
Veatch, Robert, "Mr. Dawes in Santo Domingo." Nation,
Vol. C:QCIX, 110-12, July 51, 1929.
Welles, Sumner, "Santo Domingo, an Ideal Suraraer Resort for
American Tourists." Santo Domingo, June, 1930.
Bulletins
Bureau of American Republics, Pan American Union, Washing
ton, D. C., Dominican Republic, 1917; Dominican Republic
#52, 1924; Dominican Republic, American Nation Series
#8, 1928; Dominican Constitution, tr. by W. C. Wells;
Program and Rules of Competition for Selection of an
Architect by Albert Kelsey.
Department of Promotion and Public Works for Jamestown
Centenial Exposition 1907. Washington Press of B. S.
Adams, Washington, D. C.
Secretaria de Estado de Fomento y Communicaciones, The
Dominican Republic,— the Land Columbus Loved. Santo
Domingo City, Republics Dominicans.
Secretario de Estado de Agriculture y Immigracion, Collegio
de Agriculture. Santo Domingo City, Republics
Dominicans, 1927.
Secretary of Justice and Public Instruction. Translated
for the Archives of United States Consular Office.
86
Reports
Congressional Inquiry into the Occupation of Haiti and
Santo Domingo, Vol. I, 90-104. Library of Congress,
Washington, D. C. 1922.
Dawes, E. G., Dominican Economic Commission. Lakeside
Press, Chicago, 1929.
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Washington, D. C., 1908.
United States Commission of Inquiry, Government Printing
Office, 1871. Consular Report for May, 1930.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Jewel, Eslie Floreine (author)

Core Title The development of education and culture in the Dominican Republic since American occupation

School Department of History

Degree Master of Arts

Degree Program History

Degree Conferral Date 1931-04-20

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,social sciences

Format application/pdf (imt)

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Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Hammond, G.P. (committee chair), Coy, O.C. (committee member), Rice, William (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c37-416314

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Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

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