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An examination of the role of high school counselors in assisting college-bound first-generation Latino/a Students in the San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles

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An examination of the role of high school counselors in assisting college-bound first-generation Latino/a Students in the San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles

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An Examination of the Role of High School Counselors in Assisting College-Bound First-
Generation Latino/a Students in the San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles
by
Steve Mejia

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

May, 2021

© Copyright by Steve Mejia 2021
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Steve Mejia certifies the approval of this Dissertation

David Cash
Alan Green
Rudy Castruita, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2021

iv

Abstract
With the rapid growth of the Latino/a student population across the United States, it is essential
for educators to prepare themselves to better serve this community. The purpose of this mixed-
methods dissertation study was to examine the role of secondary high school counselors when
assisting college-bound first-generation Latino/a students and the barriers they face. Data were
collected concurrently with 31 survey participants and five interviews. The research questions
that guided this study were (a) How do high school counselors in the San Fernando Valley of
Los Angeles, California, evaluate college readiness for first-generation Latino/a students, if at
all? (b) How are high school counselors in the San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles, California,
assisting college-bound first-generation Latino/a students in meeting college admissions
requirements? (c) What barriers (if any) prevent first-generation high school students from being
eligible to attend college as seen by secondary high school counselors in the San Fernando
Valley of Los Angeles, California? (d) What kind of programs (if any) do secondary high
schools in the San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles, California, implement to aid first-generation
students? The findings indicated that high caseload numbers, lack of family support/mentorship,
and SES all are noteworthy factors that affect this population of students. School counselors face
multiple barriers when aiding students throughout the college application process. Some are
combating this issue by proving mentorship in the form of organizations/clubs and by
disseminating critical information, thus educating parents and students alike. The results of this
study should be considered for educators, administrators, educational researchers, and the
community searching for strategies when assisting Latino/a first-generation high school students.
Keywords: counselor, first-generation, high school, Latino/a, mentorship, secondary,
socioeconomic status, students, support

v

Dedication
To Mama and Papa, perhaps if I would have listened to your advice more often, I would have
completed this in time for both of you to see it happen, together.

To my brother and sister, Luis and Sasha, thanks for setting the bar so high.

To my kids, Lucas and Rosie, papa owes you both so much time. Thank you for being so
understanding. I love you both more than you can imagine.

To my wife, Kelly, you have been without a doubt the most reliable and loving person in my life.
I kept the voicemail you sent me on my first day of school. I listen to it often to help calm and
motivate me. You made this possible. I love you more every day.

vi

Acknowledgments
I would like to take a moment to thank each of my dissertation committee members, Dr.
David Cash, Dr. Alan Green, and Dr. Rudy Castruita for their unwavering support and insightful
guidance throughout this long endeavor. Your collective knowledge in the educational field is
something I admire and strive for as a future educational leader. Thank you for constantly
pushing me throughout this process, for the feedback, and support.
A special thanks to my family, Kelly, Lucas, and Rosie for all the love and support.
Knowing that you were always cheering me on made this program that much easier, thank you.
Thank you to my boss Martine, for granting me an endless supply of leeway at work and
for your continuous encouragement over these last three years. Thank you to my countless
supervisors in the Air Force that persistently urged me to pursue and complete my education. It
was in the Air Force that I learned the foundations of leadership.
Thank you to my friends, colleagues, and especially my fellow cohort classmates. Lastly,
a big thank you to all the educators that participated in the study.

vii

Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. x
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ xi
Chapter One: Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1
Statement of the Problem .................................................................................................... 4
Purpose of the Study ........................................................................................................... 4
Research Questions ............................................................................................................. 5
Importance of the Study ...................................................................................................... 5
Limitations and Delimitations............................................................................................. 6
Definitions of Terms ........................................................................................................... 7
Organization of the Study ................................................................................................... 9
Chapter Two: Literature Review .................................................................................................. 10
Secondary Latino/a Students: Demographics ................................................................... 10
Retention and Dropouts in Secondary Schools ................................................................. 11
Barriers .............................................................................................................................. 13
Programs and Mentorship ................................................................................................. 18
Network of Support/Family .............................................................................................. 21
Theories............................................................................................................................. 24
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 27
Chapter Three: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 30

viii

Statement of the Problem .................................................................................................. 30
Purpose of Study ............................................................................................................... 30
Overview of Research Design .......................................................................................... 31
Sample and Population ..................................................................................................... 32
Instrumentation and Protocols .......................................................................................... 34
Data Collection ................................................................................................................. 36
Data Analysis .................................................................................................................... 37
Validity and Reliability ..................................................................................................... 38
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 38
Chapter Four: Research Results and Findings .............................................................................. 40
Purpose of the Study ......................................................................................................... 41
Demographics of Participants ........................................................................................... 42
Coding of Data .................................................................................................................. 45
Findings............................................................................................................................. 45
Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................. 64
Chapter Five: Discussion .............................................................................................................. 66
Statement of the Problem .................................................................................................. 66
Purpose of the Study ......................................................................................................... 66
Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 67
Methodology ..................................................................................................................... 67
Discussion of Results and Findings .................................................................................. 68
Implications of the Study .................................................................................................. 74
Limitations ........................................................................................................................ 74

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Recommendations for Future Research ............................................................................ 75
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 76
References ..................................................................................................................................... 78
Appendix A: Measures Used in the Dissertation Study................................................................ 88
Appendix B: Interview Protocol ................................................................................................... 90

x

List of Tables
Table 1: Survey and Interview Inclusion Criteria of High School Counselors ............................. 33
Table 2: Gender and Age Range of Participants ........................................................................... 44
Table 3: Race/Ethnicity of Participants ......................................................................................... 44

xi

List of Figures
Figure 1: Summary of Evaluation of College Readiness for First-Generation Latino/a Students
by School Type........................................................................................................................ 47
Figure 2: Summary of Tracking of Students’ Progression of Admissions Requirements for
First-Generation Latino/a Students by School Type ............................................................... 50
Figure 3: Summary of Barriers Faced by First-Generation Latino/a Students by School Type ... 56

1

Chapter One: Introduction
Multiple researchers have shown that the number of Latino/a secondary students in the
United States is rising (Caballero et al., 2017; Urdan & Herr, 2016). As the presence of Latino/a
adolescents increases inside U.S. school systems, so too do the role and responsibility of school
counselors to support these students in reaching their academic goals. Nearly one fourth of all
children in the United States are Latino/a, and Latinos/as likely will soon become the leading
ethnic minority group (Caballero et al., 2017). In 2013, 17% of the U.S. population was
Hispanic, and this percentage is expected to grow to roughly 28% by 2050 (Urdan & Herr,
2016). The overall percentage of Latino/a youth between the ages of 16 and 25 in California is
slightly higher than the national average, at 42% (Urdan & Herr, 2016). Yet, despite current
advancements in college enrollment, Hispanic students are less likely than their Caucasian peers
to enroll in 4-year universities (56% and 72%, respectively), receive bachelor’s degrees, go to a
selective university, or attend college as a full-time student (Fry & Taylor, 2013; Urdan & Herr,
2016).
At the same time, secondary high school counselors are dealing with an ever-growing
student-to-counselor ratio; thus, the number of Latino/a students (specifically first-generation)
they are supporting is likely to increase (DeKruyf et al., 2013). DeKruyf et al. (2013), stressing
the high student-to-counselor ratio, indicated that there is indeed justification to lower the overall
national averages in order for school counselors to adequately support the needs of students.
Though these researchers were primarily investigating the mental health needs of students, the
high number of students assigned to each counselor is impossible to ignore. The American
School Counselor Association (ASCA, 2019a) aims for a 250:1 student-to-counselor ratio in
order to ensure program effectiveness. Additionally, the ASCA recommends counselors focus
2

80% or more of their time in direct or indirect services to students assigned to their caseload.
Lastly, one of the ACSA’s primary directives for all counselors (at all levels) is to promote
student achievement.
In order to promote achievement and a college-bound trajectory within the Latino/a
community, one must first discover the barriers and complications associated with supporting
first-generation students. Rodriguez, Liberotti, and Jimenez (2015) showcased the difficulties
first-generation Latino/a students face when applying to universities. According to the
researchers, first-generation students are at a disadvantage because they do not receive the
benefit of the experiences/knowledge of a college-educated parent/guardian; thus, they have
lower college attendance and persistence rates. Rodriguez, Liberotti, and Jimenez acknowledged
the importance of supportive systems for first-generation minority adolescents that promote their
educational aspirations through mentorship programs, guest speaker lectures, parent education
opportunities, and leadership opportunities.
Collatos et al. (2004) showed the significance of intervention and several of the reasons
why disproportionately low numbers of Latino/a adolescents obtain access to higher education.
While studying how well California public secondary high schools prepared students for higher
education, they discovered many barriers affecting Latino/a students, including poor academic
achievement, low socioeconomic status (SES), and immigration status. Collatos et al. found that
in the program they observed, students participated in activities such as college access programs,
academic tutoring, college field trips, parental informational sessions, and assistance with college
applications. Of the 30 students participating in the Futures Project, 29 graduated from high
school; furthermore, 25 had gained acceptance to a 4-year university. Collatos et al. argued that
minority students (particularly those who are of low SES and first-generation) need
3

mentors/advocates to assist them in gaining college access, and that the mentoring process
should begin as early as freshman year.
Tello and Lonn (2017) highlighted the significant role secondary high school and college
counselors have in supporting the needs of Latino/a first-generation college-bound adolescents.
The researchers described specific characteristics of and information from Latino/a culture that
may be beneficial to counselors who assist college-bound students. Because secondary high
school counselors play a fundamental role in supporting Latino/a students in reaching their
college goals, Tello and Lonn advised designing interventions that aid in the development of
Latino/a cultural norms. Both college and high school counselors need to identify and tailor
college information and create specific interventions for these minoritized students. Executing
this task could potentially provide the psychological/emotional assistance Latino/a adolescents
need in order to bridge the gap between school expectations and counseling services for the
benefit of first-generation students.
Unverferth et al. (2012) addressed some of the obstacles first-generation students face in
pursuit of higher education. These students enter their universities unprepared, with less
knowledge and experience. Moreover, they enter universities with higher stress and few coping
mechanisms for dealing with the stress, and these challenges affect their ability to thrive and
perform well in college. Because first-generation college-bound students see themselves as
outsiders due to their diverse cultures, Unverferth et al. warned educators to be cognizant of the
specialized needs of said students and to guide/mentor them. While the researchers noted
academic advisors have a significant amount of influence on first-generation adolescents, they
also acknowledged that the students typically do not perform well in high school and will more
4

than likely experience frequent academic obstacles due to their lack of knowledge/skills, placing
them at additional risk of failing.
Statement of the Problem
With the anticipated growing number of Latino/a first-generation college-bound students,
current data are needed to ascertain what the role of secondary high school counselors in the San
Fernando Valley of Los Angeles, California, is and what barriers they face when supporting
these students. The objective of this study was to examine how secondary high school counselors
assist college-bound first-generation Latino/a students. Educational researchers must decipher
how school counselors in a secondary setting are combating the barriers that prevent Latino/a
first-generation students from attending 4-year/2-year universities and colleges.
Research studies have explored the issues first-generation college-bound students face
(Spiegler & Bednarek, 2013; Terenzini et al., 1996). According to Spiegler and Bednarek (2013),
first-generation adolescents are portrayed as students who are less prepared and less likely to
succeed; this study was intended to discover why this is the case and what can be done to prevent
this. Similarly, Terenzini et al. (1996) stated that, compared with their peers, first-generation
students are more likely to come from lower SES families, to be Latino/a, to have poorer
cognitive skills, and to have lower degree aspirations. It is critical that educators have a better
understanding of what challenges these students face in order to better support them and address
their failure rates, dropout frequency, and college ineligibility.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine the role of secondary high school counselors
when assisting college-bound first-generation Latino/a students and addressing the difficulties
they face. By understanding the needs of first-generation Latino/a students, school counselors
5

may be better equipped to support these minority students through the college admissions
process.
Research Questions
Using Spiegler and Bednarek’s (2013) definition of a first-generation student (FGS), the
following research questions were developed to guide the study:
1. How do high school counselors in the San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles,
California, evaluate college readiness for first-generation Latino/a students, if at all?
2. How are high school counselors in the San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles,
California, assisting college-bound first-generation Latino/a students in meeting
college admissions requirements?
3. What barriers (if any) prevent first-generation high school students from being
eligible to attend college as seen by secondary high school counselors in the San
Fernando Valley of Los Angeles, California?
4. What kind of programs (if any) do secondary high schools in the San Fernando
Valley of Los Angeles, California, implement to aid first-generation students?
Importance of the Study
The findings from this dissertation study may benefit students, school counselors,
administrators, teachers, educational researchers, and the community by increasing
understanding of the role school counselors play in assisting college-bound first-generation
Latino/a students. The data collected can serve as an area of concentration for secondary high
school counselors to focus on when training to work with college-bound first-generation Latino/a
students. It is significant to do so because Southern California has a large population of Latino/a
students (Urdan & Herr, 2016).
6

School administrators can utilize this study to empower their school counselors and
provide targeted training to better support first-generation Latino/a students. Principals, vice
principals, and directors of counseling can also use the strategies highlighted to adopt/implement
programs to better serve this increasing number of students. Clark and Estes (2008) suggested
that leaders who want to close performance gaps must first analyze the process and examine
people’s knowledge/skills and organizational barriers, such as inadequate work practices.
The research findings from this dissertation study can potentially enhance the body of
research on first-generation Latino/a students and the role secondary high school counselors play
when assisting them. Educational researchers could possibly identify the practices high school
counselors in the San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles, California, utilize and compare them
with those in other states that have large Latino/a adolescent populations. For example, in New
Mexico and Texas, roughly 50% and 40% of youth ages 16–25, respectively, are Latino/a (Urdan
& Herr, 2016).
Limitations and Delimitations
This dissertation study augments the understanding of the role of secondary high school
counselors when assisting college-bound first-generation Latino/a students and the barriers they
endure while supporting these students; however, certain limitations exist. First, the sample is
limited to participants from the San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles, California, which may
hinder generalizability. Next, the data were collected using a self-reported survey, which
assesses the participants’ perceptions of their supportive measures at only one point in time.
Furthermore, participants were surveyed first, then interviewed; thus, participants’ intended
responses may not be accurate due to elapsed time. Last, the data were not analyzed specifically
according to the ethnic groups of the counselors who participated; therefore, cultural
7

considerations were not accounted for in the analyses in this study. With the sample size being
specifically targeted to San Fernando Valley secondary high school counselors (31 participants
surveyed and five interviewed), the data did not allow for testing of intragroup differences (e.g.,
based on the ethnicity of the school counselors and the number of years in the profession).
The delimitations of this dissertation study were restricted to three areas: the grade level
of the counselors (all secondary high school counselors), the total number of high school
counselors surveyed and interviewed, and the geographical region of the continental United
States (the state of California).
Definitions of Terms
For the purposes of this dissertation study, the subsequent terms are defined as follows:
• Academic success refers to a combination of student GPA and how likely it is a
student will drop out of school (Martinez et al., 2004).
• Adolescence signifies a “long period [of] development transition that involves
physical, cognitive, emotional, and social changes and takes varying forms in
different social, cultural, and economic settings” (Papalia et al., 2009, p. 354).
• A-G subject requirements (A-G) are minimum admission requirements a student must
complete in secondary high school with at least a grade of C or better. Moreover, high
school courses must be A-G approved and fall into the following categories
(University of California Admissions, n.d.):
a. history, 2 years, with 1 year of world or European history, cultures, and
geography and 1 year of U.S. history or half-year of U.S. history and half-year of
civics or American government
b. English, 4 years of college-preparatory English; no more than 1 year of ESL (i.e.,
8

English Second Language) type courses can be used to fulfill this requirement
c. mathematics, 3 years of college-preparatory mathematics
d. science, 2 years of science including two of these three subjects: biology,
chemistry, or physics
e. foreign language other than English, 2 consecutive years of the same language
f. visual and performing arts (VPA), 1-year course (or two one-semester courses
from the same discipline) from the following disciplines: dance, drama/theater,
music, interdisciplinary arts, or visual art
g. college-preparatory elective, 1 year (two semesters) from courses specific to the
elective (G) subject area or courses beyond those used to meet the requirements of
the A-F subjects
• Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory is described as the individual student’s
behaviors being influenced by many rings of social structure, such as family, school,
community, and culture (Behnke et al., 2010; Bronfenbrenner, 1979).
• First-generation or FGS (first-generation students) is defined by Spiegler and
Bednarek (2013) as the first student within a family unit to attend a university. It also
includes the more encompassing definition of parents who have some college or
university experience (e.g., community college or associate’s degree) but not a 3-year
or more degree at a higher education college/university. Students may also have older
siblings who have attended a university/college.
• Grade point average (GPA) refers to the number representing the average value of
accumulated final grades received in a class, with the most common form being based
on a 4.0 scale (with additional points given to Advanced Placement and Honors
9

classes) (Great Schools Partnership, 2014).
• Socioeconomic status (SES) is described as “the social standing or class of an
individual or group. It is often measured as a combination of education, income, and
occupation” (American Psychological Association, 2019, para. 1).
Organization of the Study
In order to better understand the role high school counselors have in assisting college-
bound first-generation Latino/a students, and what barriers they face, it is necessary to review
previous studies/research. This dissertation study is organized into five chapters. Chapter One
provided an overview of the study, the background of the problem, the study’s purpose, the
research questions, definitions of key terms, and the importance of the problem. The subsequent
chapters will include Chapter Two, in which a review of current research on this topic related to
the research questions of this study is discussed. In Chapter Three, the design of the study is fully
explained and rationalized. In Chapter Four, an analysis of the data collected from the surveys
and interviews used for this study is presented. Chapter Five provides a synopsis of the preceding
chapters and recommendations for educators who could potentially benefit from the research
data presented.

10

Chapter Two: Literature Review
Because current research has shown that the number of secondary first-generation
Latino/a students is growing and that the educators who assist them face multiple difficulties, it
is critical to analyze the literature to decipher the antecedents of this issue (Caballero et al., 2017;
Rodriguez, Rhodes, & Aguirre, 2015; Urdan & Herr, 2016). The following is a review of the
existing research literature regarding the school counselor’s role in aiding first-generation
college-bound Latino/a students. First, statistics on Latino/a minoritized students are discussed.
Next, the issues of retention, the barriers these secondary students face, mentorship programs
available, a network of support/family, and theoretical perspectives are discussed. Last, a
synopsis of the research and the implications for research are reviewed.
Secondary Latino/a Students: Demographics
Los Angeles, California, is home to roughly 4.8 million people, San Fernando Valley
being a small urbanized valley within it, and the Los Angeles Unified School District (LAUSD)
is the country’s second largest school district (LAUSD, 2020). Within LAUSD, about 73% of
students are Latino/a (LAUSD, 2020). According to Data USA (2020), the population of Los
Angeles is estimated at 48% Latino/a or Hispanic as of 2017, and they are the largest race or
ethnicity living in poverty. In 2018, there were approximately 1.76 times more Latino/a or
Hispanic residents (1.95 million) in Los Angeles, and this group had the most students
graduating from 2- or 4-year universities, roughly 37% (Data USA, 2020). The U.S. Census
Bureau (2018) determined that in 2010, more than half of the Hispanic population in the United
States resided in California, Texas, and Florida, with California leading at 27%. These data
overwhelmingly suggest that there is a strong Latino/a presence within the United States, and the
11

number of Latino/a secondary students is significantly on the rise (Caballero et al., 2017; Data
USA, 2020; Urdan & Herr, 2016; U.S. Census Bureau, 2018).
Retention and Dropouts in Secondary Schools
As cited in Halx and Ortiz (2011), multiple researchers have concluded that the high
dropout rates among the marginalized Latino/a community continue to be problematic and an
unresolved issue in public education. Behnke et al. (2010) declared that, despite many studies’
analyses of the factors associated with dropout and retention, much is still unknown. Although
various studies have found potential reasons as to why this problem exists, the subsequent
sections will describe some of the common factors associated with retention and dropout among
secondary students.
Known factors linked to retention/dropout issues among secondary students are academic
and discipline-related problems. Given that Latino/a youth are more likely than any other ethnic
group to drop out of secondary school in the United States, Behnke et al. (2010) highlighted that
negative peer affiliations/relationships are a major factor in dropout intentions due to their role in
influencing the behaviors of Latino/a adolescents. Students with early assault/conduct infractions
are at an elevated risk for dropout and other issues such as substance abuse, violence, and
delinquency later in life (Suh & Suh, 2007). Stearns and Glennie (2006) discovered that internal
factors within a school system may function as a way to push adolescents out of school due to
disciplinary policies or conflicts with other students or teachers. Another noteworthy example is
suspension and/or expulsion school policies that punish students who have missed a certain
number of school days (Stearns & Glennie, 2006). In terms of academics, Suh and Suh (2007)
identified three major at-risk categories that contribute to dropout: low GPA, low SES, and
behavioral issues. Once students are exposed to multiple risk factors, they become less motivated
12

to do academic work and eventually drop out (Suh & Suh, 2007). Immigrant Latino/a students
often report struggling to complete assignments and classwork and that lack of English
proficiency made it difficult for them to be successful in class (Behnke et al., 2010).
In addition to disciplinary and academic issues, Latino/a adolescents tend to drop out of
school due to employment opportunities (Stearns & Glennie, 2006). Behnke et al. (2010)
postulated that a common reason Latinos/as drop out may be the desire to get a job and that, at
the national level, Latino/a dropout rates are correlated with socioeconomic status. Often,
economic concerns have a substantial impact on Latino students, especially males; such
economic need may be due to parent job loss, family immigration status, or pregnancy (Behnke
et al., 2010; Halx & Ortiz, 2011). According to Stearns and Glennie (2006), employment
prospects and family responsibilities are likely to lead older male students to seek employment.
Latina female students, on the other hand, are more often subjected to family care
responsibilities, including premature family formation and caretaking of siblings and elders
(Stearns & Glennie, 2006). Suh and Suh (2007) found that one risk factor leading to school
dropout is low SES status (along with academic failure and behavioral issues). Moreover, as
these adolescents accumulate risk factors, they become more likely to discontinue schooling, and
intervention efforts become less impactful. According to Halx and Ortiz (2011), all of the
participants in their study shared that, when given the opportunity to supplement their income
with additional work hours/shifts, they eagerly accepted. To counteract this prevalent issue, Suh
and Suh (2007) asserted that early prevention is one of the most frequently cited strategies for
retention and the reduction of dropout rates. Likewise, in the study conducted by Behnke et al.
(2010), the most frequently reported recommendation by students was academic support in the
form of tutoring, mentoring, and afterschool programs/activities.
13

Barriers
Socioeconomic Status
Socioeconomic status is one of the strongest predictors of academic attainment and
achievement (Barr, 2015). Ramirez et al. (2014) indicated high SES is positively correlated with
academic success and that parents from low-SES families who work considerable hours have
limitations on the quantity of support they can provide their students. Benner et al. (2016)
showcased the link between SES and adolescents’ academic outcomes, explaining that lower-
income and less-educated families tend to express lower educational expectations for their
students. Barr (2015) argued that the higher the SES of students in ninth grade and their families,
the less probable it was for them to experience serious health-related issues, thus stimulating
advancement in academic achievement. This is critical because researchers continue to study the
effects of SES and have shown that variations in the circumstances of a family’s SES can indeed
alter achievement trajectories (Barr, 2015).
The work of school counselors is influential, and it is counselors’ duty to disseminate
college information, especially to low-income Latino/a students (Holcomb-McCoy, 2010). Bohn
(2011) stated that, in California, Latinos/as have the highest poverty rate, at approximately 23%
(as cited in Chacon, 2013). Cilesiz and Drotos (2016) acknowledged that first-generation
economically disadvantaged students are less prone to earning undergraduate and graduate
degrees because socioeconomic and cultural constraints tend to limit their educational selections.
Conversely, students and parents with more information regarding college are far more likely to
accurately predict university costs (Holcomb-McCoy, 2010). Additionally, students of low SES
are less likely to have family who can assist them with academic work or understand the process
of applying for financial aid and college (Cilesiz & Drotos, 2016). Holcomb-McCoy (2010)
14

recommended that school counselors discuss college access and emphasize financial aid
awareness with low-income students of color and their parents. The effects of low SES can be
catastrophic. Ramirez et al. (2014) indicated that Latino/a students from low-income families are
at a disadvantage and may lack resources beneficial to achieving academic success. While all
students benefit from family involvement, low-income minority students in particular do
significantly better in acceptances to 4-year universities when families are involved (Holcomb-
McCoy, 2010).
Lack of Family Support
Much like SES, parental involvement is an important factor contributing to students’
academic achievement in high school. Yet, scholars and educators have directed considerably
less attention to it during high school compared with earlier grades (Shumow et al., 2011).
Suarez-Orozco et al. (2010) warned that, due to cultural differences among immigrant families,
parents may be unaware of the expectations of U.S. schooling to monitor their students’
education. Shumow et al. (2011) asserted that immigrant and minority parents with lower
education levels and incomes were less prone to be involved at school. Additionally, Shumow et
al. stated that parents of freshmen students were less likely to be involved and suggested that
these parents may require more encouragement and guidance on how to be actively involved in
the education of their students.
First-generation students must make larger advances from the social status of their
parents than second-generation students and must do so with scarcer resources and less support
(Billson & Terry, 1982, as cited by Cilesiz & Drotos, 2016). Latino/a families encounter
numerous barriers that may reduce, hinder, or discourage their participation in traditional school-
oriented activities and events (Marschall, 2006). Alfaro et al. (2006) remarked that high-
15

performing students reported having more sources of support within their families, whereas low-
performing students reported a lower availability of support at home. According to Marschall
(2006), a possible course of action to address the lower levels of Latino/a participation would be
for schools to provide much-needed resources to assist Latino/a parents in overcoming the
structural barriers that prevent them from participating. Examples of the types of services that
may aid Latino/a parents who may not be English proficient or have occupations that allow them
flexibility in their schedules are providing translation services, transportation, childcare, and
better adaptability in scheduling school events (Marschall, 2006).
Lack of Mentorship/Guidance
Despite a higher risk for school dropout, there are limited school-based mentorship
studies focused on Latino/a (particularly first-generation) students, and with the vast educational
incongruities and impediments, it is vital to explore the lack of Latino/a mentorship (Coller &
Kuo, 2014; Schueths & Carranza, 2012). Schueths and Carranza (2012) indicated that same-
ethnic mentorship is critical and that the underrepresentation of Latino/a educators has led to an
influx of recruiting future Latino/a teachers. Mentorship programs have the potential to create a
positive impact on Latino/a secondary students and may improve attendance, academic
performance, and positive feelings of self-worth and decrease high-risk behaviors (Coller & Kuo,
2014; Schueths & Carranza, 2012). Vela-Gude et al. (2009) found that lack of accurate college
information, inadequate advisement, lack of availability, low expectations, and lack of individual
counseling are barriers college-bound Latino/a students face. The researchers stressed the
importance of providing mentorship services to assist Latino/a students in pursuing higher
education due to their growing numbers and risk for dropout (Vela-Gude et al., 2009). Thus,
Coller and Kuo (2014) recommended the expansion of mentorship programs to schools currently
16

lacking this resource and stated that such programs could be effective and a relatively low-cost
strategy for the betterment of Latino/a students.
School counselors at the secondary level potentially hold the answer to help increase the
number of first-generation Latino/a students receiving postsecondary degrees. Unfortunately,
financial restraints at the administrative level may prevent schools from hiring more counselors
when needed (McKillip et al., 2012). Keating et al. (2002) found that mentoring was successful
in assisting with decreasing problematic behaviors, inferring that exposure to caring adults
facilitated students in feeling better about themselves and engaging in fewer destructive
behaviors. McKillip et al. (2012) pointed out that school counselors lack adequate time for
college preparatory assistance because of the unreasonably high student caseloads and the
limited amount of time counselors have throughout their day to devote to these activities. School
counselors are pulled into other roles so often that the American School Counselor Association’s
national model includes a list of inappropriate tasks that limit time helping students, including
but not limited to building the master schedule for the school, covering classes when teachers are
absent, supervising common areas/classrooms, and assisting with duties in the principal’s office
(ASCA, 2020). This is imperative to note because, although school counselors have the ability to
positively influence college-bound first-generation Latino/a students, students may have issues
accessing them (McKillip et al., 2012).
Bias Toward Latino/a Students
Latino/a students face numerous challenges in the school setting, including bias-based
bullying, ethnic discrimination, and hate-related speech directed at their ethnic background
(Toomey & Storlie, 2016). According to Stearns and Glennie (2006), male students are more
likely to be diagnosed with learning disabilities than females, and Latino/a students are more
17

likely than Caucasian students to be diagnosed overall. Dovidio et al. (2010) explored the
evidence of negative attitudes toward Latinos/as and indicated that it is probable that negative
attitudes toward undocumented immigrants extend by default to Latinos/as in general because of
the close association of these two groups. This is an issue to anticipate in every school system
because Latinos have surpassed African Americans as the largest minority group in the United
States (Dovidio et al., 2010).
An example of bias/racism experienced by Latino/a students daily appears in the form of
microaggressions (Perez-Huber et al., 2015). Racial microaggressions are defined as brief verbal
or nonverbal assaults directed toward minorities, whether intentional or unintentional, that
communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative insults toward people of color (Perez-Huber et al.,
2015; Sue et al., 2007). Researchers have found that these microaggressions reinforce
institutional racism, perpetuate ideologies of white supremacy, and can be damaging
psychologically/academically and that offenders of said microaggressions are often unaware that
they engage in such practices when interacting with racial/ethnic minorities (Perez-Huber et al.,
2015; Sue et al., 2007).
When applying to universities, undocumented Latino/a students are often required to go
through added steps in their college application process (Nienhusser et al., 2016). According to
Nienhusser et al. (2016), despite millions of undocumented students being enrolled in a
guaranteed free public K–12 education, their postsecondary opportunities are obstructed with
barriers such as discriminatory public policies, limited availability of college information, and
fear of immigration status disclosure. Discriminatory financial aid policies have created an
environment where students encounter microaggressions when applying for funding for college
and may fear exposing their immigration status (Nienhusser et al., 2016). As schools increasingly
18

serve students from a variety of ethnic backgrounds, these microaggressions can be found
throughout the educational system, even in higher education (Suarez-Orozco et al., 2015).
Therefore, researchers have advised that, for mental health purposes, it would be beneficial to
explore coping mechanisms used by people of color to counteract the negative effects of
microaggressions and examine college access for minoritized students (Nienhusser et al., 2016;
Sue et al., 2007).
Programs and Mentorship
What Is Offered
To further understand the techniques school counselors may utilize when assisting
college-bound first-generation Latino/a students, the programs that are currently available to
students, both in high school and at the college level, must be explored. AVID (Advancement
Via Individual Determination) is a nonprofit organization that helps schools train educators to
become more equitable and student centered. AVID (2020) is currently used in more than 7,000
schools in 47 states across the United States and in DoDEA (Department of Defense Education
Activity). Through lesson plans, professional development, and classroom activities, the program
aids educators in preparing students for college and careers (AVID, 2020). At the secondary
level, AVID targets underrepresented adolescents who have a desire to attend a university but
may not have the tools to be college ready.
Once students are admitted to 2-/4-year colleges, there are multiple programs available.
The First to Go Program at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), for example,
provides support specifically to first-generation students by offering resources, networking,
fostering community among members, and promoting academic success (First to Go UCLA,
2020). At the state level, the California State University (CSU) system offers the Educational
19

Opportunity Program (EOP), which was designed to provide access and retention services to
first-generation educationally disadvantaged and low-income students (CSU, 2020). EOP
provides mentoring, tutoring, and workshops exclusively designed to increase retention and to
produce higher graduation rates (CSU, 2020). Eligible students may additionally receive an EOP
grant and are authorized to attend summer programs that aid them in adapting to the university
environment (CSU, 2020).
The U.S. Department of Education offers the Federal TRIO Programs (composed of
Upward Bound, Talent Search, and Student Support Services), which provides services for first-
generation students from historically disadvantaged backgrounds (U.S. Department of Education,
2020). Upward Bound delivers support to low-income first-generation students as they prepare to
enter college. The goal of Student Support Services (SSS) is to increase college retention and
graduation rates of low-income first-generation students, as well as students with disabilities.
SSS provides multiple services such as tutoring, advice and assistance in course selection, and
financial aid information. The Talent Search program identifies and aids high school students
from disadvantaged backgrounds who have the potential to be successful in college. According
to the U.S. Department of Education (2020), the Talent Search Program gives academic, career,
and financial guidance to students and encourages them to complete high school and achieve
their postsecondary aspirations.
Teacher/Counselor Influence
Teachers support the developmental needs of their students and motivate them through
their instructional practices (Kiefer et al., 2014). In order to increase attendance to give educators
the opportunity to influence students, Close and Solberg (2008) reported that lower-income
Latino/a students had higher levels of autonomous motivation for attending school when there
20

was a connection to teachers. Halx and Ortiz (2011) found that students in their study desired to
develop a meaningful rapport with teachers and staff from their schools. Kiefer et al. (2014)
emphasized the need for high-quality teacher-student relationships, which are critical to
promoting learning. In building that connection, Halx and Ortiz (2011) strongly advised
educators to stress the real-world value of education on a daily basis and have it intertwined with
required course content in hopes of filling the gap of personal connection with teachers. To
achieve this, Kiefer et al. (2014) recommended teachers practice learner-centered instructional
methods to better support student developmental and motivational needs. Doing so could curb
the repeated expressed need for help with the complex activities of high school education as
Halx and Ortiz (2011) determined.
According to the American School Counselor Association, school counselors today are
licensed educators (typically with a minimum of a master’s degree) who are certified to address
all students’ academic, socioemotional, and career development through the implementation of a
school counseling program that promotes and enhances student success (ASCA, 2020).
Typically, a counselor’s role is to provide short-term individual and small-group counseling
services to students for a variety of different needs, with the ideal caseload ratio of 250:1
(ASCA, 2020). ASCA (2019b) indicated that, although students of color and from low-income
families benefit from having access to school counselors, there are not enough school counselors
throughout the nation. Across all schools in the United States, approximately one in five students
does not have access to a counselor in school, with the average student-to-counselor ratio being
464:1; in high schools, the number is 311:1 (ASCA, 2019a). Villalba et al. (2007) suggested that
a critical aspect of providing support to Latino/a students is determining an appropriate
21

counseling approach, one that establishes a respectful, empathetic, and genuine counseling
relationship.
School counselors have the unique opportunity to influence college-bound Latino/a
students and are in an ideal position to facilitate communication on career exploration with
parents and students alike (Behnke et al., 2010; Shillingford et al., 2017). According to Behnke
et al. (2010), school counselors assist in addressing academic, social, personal, and career issues
students may face while serving as a bridge between the home and school environments. Villalba
et al. (2007) implored that school counselors seek out and connect with students and parents,
providing services in Spanish and English. Moreover, counselors serve as advocates for
minoritized (including newly migrated) students and are leaders in aiding them in feeling
welcomed in the school system, especially when facing discrimination from others (Behnke et
al., 2010). Shillingford et al. (2017) also noted counselors motivate students to explore academic
course options in order to lead them closer to their respective career choices. During periods
when counselors do not have time to adequately assist students, they could also use peers as an
effective way to relay vital information and deliver socioemotional learning interventions
(Johnson et al., 2014). Johnson et al. (2014) proposed older peer student leaders (utilizing a
structured curriculum) could provide assistance to incoming ninth-grade students transitioning
from middle to high school. Therefore, school counselors are essential educational leaders who
should continue tackling systemic barriers that may hinder students’ ability to achieve academic
success and advocate for the families with limited resources (Shillingford et al., 2017).
Network of Support/Family
Culture
Latino/a students originate from a diverse variety of countries, each with its own identity
22

and culture that shapes the academic experience of students (Campos et al., 2013). According to
Zarate et al. (2005), permitting students to explain their ethnic label of choice allows for the
exploration of the significance of bicultural identities in Latino/a adolescence. In fact, most of
Zarate et al.’s participants elected multiple descriptive labels, which led to the conclusion that
Latino/a adolescents in the United States are indeed a heterogeneous group, and being simply
referred to under a single label such as Latino/a ignores their unique diversity. Campos et al.
(2013) recognized that while Latino/a groups share a heritage rich in culture, their most inspiring
quality is their extreme diversity of traditions/customs, language practices, immigration status,
and countries of origin.
Latino/a culture is significantly different from American culture, and educators must be
aware of the differences and similarities in order to promote academic success in first-generation
college-bound students (Campos et al., 2013; Marrero, 2016; Zarate et al., 2005). Latino culture
has been described by researchers as having a substantial practice of self-reliance, a significant
value on family, and a strong tradition of respect (Campos et al., 2013; Marrero, 2016;
Rodriguez, Rhodes, & Aguirre, 2015). Rodriguez, Rhodes, and Aguirre (2015) also pointed out
pertinent cultural influences that may factor into the disproportionately lower number of Latino/a
participation in college, such as the lack of understanding of the benefits of a 4-year degree, poor
financial planning, and a lack of guidance academically. Even acting outside culture norms is
discouraged, as Stearns and Glennie (2006) acknowledged; advancing with major life events in
the transition to adulthood, such as applying to college or doing well academically, is often
stigmatized as a White practice, which may discourage Latino/a students. Campos et al. (2013)
warned that cultural differences and migration are also linked, as the longer Latino students have
been in the United States, the more aware they are of social functions. This is a concern for
23

educators because, as Campos et al. (2013) pointed out, approximately 40% of all Latinos/as in
the United States are foreign born and immigrated with or without proper documentation.
Schools often assume that immigrant students are familiar with the functions of secondary school
systems and, at times, unfairly expect Latino/a immigrant students to adhere to the standards
(Campos et al., 2013). To counteract this, Marrero (2016) advocated for schools to understand
that the traditional American model may not be applicable to all Latino/a students and to
consider ethnicity and culture from an asset-based perspective. It is imperative for educators to
contemplate the ramifications of culture on education. As Zarate et al. (2005) showed, while all
of the students in the study demonstrated pride in their non-American ethnic heritage and some
expressed awareness of their ridiculed ethnic status in the United States, few ignored the
unavoidable implications of the American influence on their identity.
Family Influence
Comparable to culture, a student’s family dynamic is a factor to consider when servicing
Latino/a youth (Behnke et al., 2010). Typically, first-generation students come from an ethnic
minority or migration background and lower-income families; thus, they have a less
advantageous profile (Spiegler & Bednarek, 2013). Personal issues are not exclusively a Latino/a
problem; however, certain social difficulties may be intensified for immigrant students and their
families (Behnke et al., 2010). One example is that less-educated parents might have less time,
compared with more-educated parents, to devote to assisting their students in being academically
successful due to working more than one job (Plunkett & Bamaca-Gomez, 2003). Another
prevalent example is that when facing difficulties in life circumstances (e.g., low SES), Latino/a
parents and families play an especially vital role in shielding their students from experiencing the
negative consequences of these events (Martinez et al., 2004). Though Latino/a parents may
24

want to assist their students in succeeding academically and aid in planning for postsecondary
education, many of these parents may not be perceived by their children as having the ability to
provide assistance (Plunkett & Bamaca-Gomez, 2003).
While the parents of first-generation Latino/a students may be intensely oriented toward
education, Latino/a parents on average are less experienced traversing the U.S. educational
system and may become reluctant to be involved in the school environment (Behnke et al., 2010;
Spiegler & Bednarek, 2013). Plunkett and Bamaca-Gomez (2003) revealed that a large number
of Mexican-origin parents have received little formal schooling, which could affect their
students’ academic performance. Moreover, Martinez et al. (2004) asserted that Latino/a parents
had more unwelcoming experiences and barriers at their students’ schools than non-Latino/a
parents. Students who perceived that their families were interested in their education, expected
good grades, and asked questions regarding their schoolwork had a greater rating of academic
self-efficacy (Ramirez et al., 2014). Martinez et al. (2004) indicated that there is indeed an
essential need for schools to develop and introduce intervention strategies that could potentially
enhance the ability of parents to promote academic success for their students.
Theories
School counselors continue to be at the front lines supporting first-generation college-
bound Latino/a students, who encounter numerous obstacles. Two theories that are used to
document the issues Latino/a secondary students have both systematically and in their immediate
environments are critical race theory and Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory.
Critical Race Theory
Scholars have used critical race theory (CRT) as a way to highlight the bias toward and
discrimination of minorities (Anguiano et al., 2012; Delgado & Stefancic, 2013; Sleeter, 2017).
25

Delgado and Stefancic (2013) described CRT’s arrival in the mid-1970s as Bell and Freeman’s
initial work, stemming from their deep distress over the slow pace of racial reform in the United
States. Anguiano et al. (2012) identified the essential tenets of CRT as being that Whiteness and
racism are predictable, structural, institutional, mainstream, and common phenomena. Ladson-
Billings (1998) explained CRT starts with the notion that racism is normal in American society
and that CRT has a link to education in the areas of curriculum, instruction, assessment, school
funding, and desegregation.
When attempting to understand and combat structural racism in the school setting,
Blaisdell (2016) argued that researchers can utilize racial spaces analysis to comprehend and
model how educators recognize and challenge structural racism. Within the nation’s public
schools, structural racism exists, and the effects of poverty and insufficient/inequitable allocated
resources particularly obstruct the academic success of minoritized students of color (Blaisdell,
2016). Blaisdell (2016) acknowledged that structural racism is a condition perpetuated by social
establishments (like schools); additionally, a structural perspective of racism is crucial because it
may aid in explaining how factors outside of the school system affect students of color in and out
of a school system. Therefore, Blaisdell advocated for the use of CRT to analyze
schools/classrooms as a racial space to possibly uncover embedded racial hierarchy and thus
could potentially assist in highlighting teachers’ agency within the school system. Blaisdell
affirmed that when educators comprehend the structural level of racism in their school systems,
they can better recognize and counter the institutional practices that contribute to racial
inequality.
Relatedly, Peralta (2013) said that one dominant tenet of CRT is the examination of
multiple forms of oppression and that Latino critical race theory (LatCrit) is a theoretical branch
26

of CRT that addresses issues often ignored by critical race scholars, including immigration
status, language, ethnicity, sexuality, culture, accent, phenotype, and surname. Likewise,
Anguiano et al. (2012) stated LatCrit offers an ideal lens for studying environmental justice
issues affecting Latino/a communities that may have been ignored by CRT theorists. According
to Sleeter (2017), CRT helps expose various ways in which processes and structures of teacher
education that claim to be colorblind may in fact serve to perpetuate the Whiteness in teacher
education. An example of this is the pool of teacher candidates who are predominantly White
and could qualify for a social studies credential without receiving any content knowledge from
ethnic studies due to the limited references (Sleeter, 2017). Understanding the tenets of CRT
exposes how Whiteness, bias, and discrimination are embedded in teacher education systems
(Sleeter, 2017). Ladson-Billings (1998) proposed that if educators are serious about solving
social injustice issues and adapting a CRT framework in schools, careful study of race and
education must occur in order to expose racism in education and introduce solutions for
addressing it.
Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory and Microsystems
Curry and Milsom (2014) indicated that Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory is useful
in comprehending the importance of students’ environments on their journey toward college and
career preparation. Behnke et al. (2010) described Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) bioecological theory
as the individual student’s behaviors being influenced by many rings of social structure, such as
family, school, community and culture. According to Curry and Milsom (2014), Bronfenbrenner
declared, “A child’s own biology is the most important environment that affects his or her
development” (p. 12). Bronfenbrenner’s theorem implied that students’ immediate surroundings
27

(i.e., the microsystem) are composed of classroom peers and family/siblings who could
potentially mold the students’ development (Curry & Milson, 2014).
Alfaro et al. (2006) described the immediate influence of significant others (i.e.,
individuals within the adolescent’s microsystem) in Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory as
having an impact on the adolescent’s behaviors. Bronfenbrenner (1977) defined a microsystem
as “the complex of relations between the developing person and the environment in an
immediate setting containing that person” (p. 514). Curry and Milsom (2014) stated that
microsystems characteristically include the student’s family, school, and neighborhood;
furthermore, those relationships that exist within the microsystem are bidirectional, often
referred to as reciprocity. Bronfenbrenner believed that relationships existing within
microsystems are the most influential to a student and reinforced the significance of the
implementation and selection of interventions that take into consideration the student’s
developmental level, involving the people with whom the student interacts (Curry & Milsom,
2014).
Conclusion
In retrospect, although it is debatable whether education systems have made positive
strides in improving the quality of assistance educators provide to college-bound first-generation
Latino/a students, the fact still remains that Latino/a high school students are not achieving at the
level of their maximum potential and are not graduating at the rates of their peers (Halx & Ortiz,
2011). Throughout the reviewed research in this chapter, the connection between the role of
secondary school counselors in assisting college-bound first-generation Latino/a students and the
barriers they face has been documented. Also, the literature regarding the statistics on Latino/a
28

students, issues of retention, barriers these students must overcome, mentorship programs
available, the support network of family, and the theoretical perspectives was described.
There is indeed a great disproportion between the high school graduation rates of White
and minoritized students (Johnson et al., 2014). Johnson et al. (2014) also pointed out that
students between 16 to 24 years old from the bottom 25% of SES are seven times more likely to
have dropped out of high school than their counterparts from the top 25%. If students are
struggling academically, they may not expect to attend a 4-year university, but there are
numerous reasons that may lead to a student of color dropping out (Stearns & Glennie, 2006).
Halx and Ortiz (2011) enforced the notion that Latino/a students do understand the meaning and
value of achievement, but they may not necessarily consider educational achievement to be
worth the effort; thus, educators must inspire these college-bound students to understand the real
value of educational achievement.
The implications of the barriers Latino/a students face daily may potentially have life-
changing outcomes. Suarez-Orozco et al. (2010) advised school counselors to be sensitive to
immigrant students because they may never have experienced a U.S. school setting. Stearns and
Glennie (2006) noted minority students who drop out are at a disadvantage economically when
they enter the workforce, and these consequences translate into high social costs in the form of
costs for incarceration and income transfer programs if nothing is done. Halx and Ortiz (2011)
asserted that the future of Latino/a students depends largely on their academic success and they
should continue to pursue higher education.
The benefits of providing academic support to Latino/a secondary students are abundant.
Grant and Ray (2013) indicated that when families and educators collaborate and are engaged in
the education of their students, they are likely to earn higher grades, attend school on a regular
29

basis, have fewer behavior issues, adapt to school, and graduate. In identifying students who
display risk factors, school counselors actively need to involve parents and teachers in
collaborative consultation programs and must serve as advocates for students (Suh & Suh, 2007).
Moreover, it is in the best interest of educators to study the cultures represented within their
schools to obtain a better understanding of how best to serve the population (Marrero, 2016).
As seen in the research analyzed in this review of the literature, numerous factors are
involved in aiding college-bound first-generation Latino/a students. It is essential that educators
and the community are aware of how support is being given to this group of students, barriers
they face, and how the support ultimately affects them. Researchers have advised that the voice
of Latino/a students must be considered in the development of improving their educational
outcomes and that school counselors should encourage an open dialog with students and families
(Halx & Ortiz, 2011; Suarez-Orozco et al., 2010).
Examining the role of school counselors in assisting college-bound first-generation
Latino/a students and the difficulties they face is necessary for improving educational outcomes.
McKillip et al. (2012) requested that future research examine ways secondary school counselors
can help first-generation Latino/a students understand the college application process and
ultimately be successful academically. The research conducted for the present study adds to the
literature by analyzing a sample of school counselors from various high schools in the San
Fernando Valley of Los Angeles, California. In Chapter Three, the design of the study will be
explained by reviewing the statement of the problem, purpose of the study, selection of the
population/sample, instrumentation, data collection, and data analysis.

30

Chapter Three: Methodology
The goal of this dissertation study was to examine how secondary high school counselors
from the San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles, California, assist college-bound first-generation
Latino/a students and the barriers they face. A convergent mixed-methods design was chosen in
order to ascertain a better understanding of the issues these educators encounter while supporting
first-generation Latino/a students. In this chapter, the statement of the problem, the purpose of
the study, an overview of the research design, the sample/population, the instruments/protocols
used, data collection, data analysis, and, finally, a summary of the chapter will be addressed.
Statement of the Problem
There is a plethora of literature and research indicating that the number of first-generation
Latino/a students is increasing within the United States (Caballero et al., 2017; Data USA, 2020;
Urdan & Herr, 2016; U.S. Census Bureau, 2018). Moreover, multiple studies have explored the
issues and barriers first-generation college-bound students face (Spiegler & Bednarek, 2013;
Terenzini et al., 1996). Understanding the barriers these students face is necessary because it
may benefit school counselors in developing tailored interventions to better reach these
marginalized students and provide them with tangible steps to improve their possibilities of
college preparation, admission, and success (McKillip et al., 2012).
Purpose of Study
The purpose of this dissertation study was to examine the role of high school counselors
in assisting college-bound first-generation Latino/a students and the barriers they face. By
understanding the needs of first-generation Latino/a secondary students, school counselors could
be more adequately prepared to support these minoritized students while assisting them through
31

the college admissions process. As addressed in Chapter One, this dissertation study was framed
around four research questions:
1. How do high school counselors in the San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles,
California, evaluate college readiness for first-generation Latino/a students, if at all?
2. How are high school counselors in the San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles,
California, assisting college-bound first-generation Latino/a students in meeting
college admissions requirements?
3. What barriers (if any) prevent first-generation high school students from being
eligible to attend college as seen by secondary high school counselors in the San
Fernando Valley of Los Angeles, California?
4. What kind of programs (if any) do secondary high schools in the San Fernando
Valley of Los Angeles, California, implement to aid first-generation students?
Overview of Research Design
Methodology
A convergent (also known as concurrent) mixed-methods approach was utilized where
both quantitative and qualitative data were collected simultaneously to examine the four research
questions (Creswell, 2009; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). According to Creswell and Creswell
(2018), a mixed-methods design involves the combination or integration of qualitative and
quantitative research and data in a study. The methods used incorporated both quantitative
closed-ended data collection via a survey and qualitative data utilizing an open-ended, semi-
structured interview with secondary high school counselors from the San Fernando Valley of Los
Angeles, California. To enhance the understanding of the barriers affecting first-generation
college-bound Latino/a students, it was essential to interview and survey school counselors who
32

assist these students regularly. These high school counselors, who are subject matter experts,
potentially were in the best position to provide responses to the research questions. The four
research questions were developed to direct the design of both the interview protocol and the
survey questionnaire.
Mixed Methods
Applying the convergent mixed-methods strategy allowed the researcher to merge
quantitative and qualitative data in order to offer a comprehensive analysis of the research
problem by integrating the information in the interpretation of the overall results (Creswell &
Creswell, 2018). The researcher then analyzed the quantitative/qualitative data using Creswell’s
(2009) concurrent triangulation strategy (see Data Analysis section) together with the theories
described in Chapter Two. Various researchers have debated the benefits of a mixed-methods
design (Creswell, 2009; Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Merriam and Tisdell (2016)
noted that the convergent research design allows for both sets of data to be analyzed and
compared. Likewise, Creswell (2009) stated the mixed-methods research approach provides a
comprehensive analysis of the research problem. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) argued that by
applying both quantitative and qualitative components jointly, researchers may yield a greater
understanding of the subject matter under examination. The researcher used both critical race
theory and Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory as conceptual frameworks guiding this
dissertation study. These theories were the foundation of the development of the questions used
for both the survey and the interview.
Sample and Population
Data analyses were conducted using 31 secondary high school counselors’ self-reported
data for the surveys and five participants for the interviews. The population for this dissertation
33

study was composed of male and female participants serving as full-time school counselors at
their respective school sites. The inclusion criteria were counselors with at least one year of
experience at local charter, public, or private high schools in the San Fernando Valley of Los
Angles, California. Counselors who held administrative/supervisory titles (e.g., dean of
counseling, VP of counseling, director of counseling, or head counselor) were allowed to
participate in the research study as long as they held a current caseload (i.e., number of students).
Of the total number of high school counselors who participated, nine held an
administrative/supervisory title. All five interviewees were counselors who also participated in
the survey. Table 1 displays the survey and interview inclusion criteria for the high school
counselors.
Purposeful convenience sampling was used for the survey and interviews of high school
counselors in the San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles, California. Creswell (2009) justified that
in qualitative data collection, purposeful sampling is utilized in order to ensure the individuals
who are selected are experienced in the phenomenon occurring.

Table 1
Survey and Interview Inclusion Criteria of High School Counselors
Survey Interview
1. One year or more of experience as a high
school counselor
1. One year or more of experience as a high
school counselor
2. Serving in charter, public, or private high
school as a full-time counselor
2. Serving in charter, public, or private high
school as a full-time counselor
3. Serving in the San Fernando Valley of Los
Angeles, California
3. Serving in the San Fernando Valley of Los
Angeles, California
4. Must have completed the survey
34

Furthermore, Merriam and Tisdell (2016) explained that a type of purposeful sampling includes
convenience sampling and that it is an often-utilized strategy because it emphasizes a typical,
normal site that is not unusual. The researcher used convenience sampling for the study based on
the easily accessible location and availability of the high school counselors, in accordance with
Merriam and Tisdell’s (2016) strategy. Finally, Maxwell (2013) suggested a goal of using
purposeful sampling is to enable participants to best answer the research questions and provide
the best data for the study. A comprehensive breakdown of the demographics of the participants
is provided in Chapter Four.
Instrumentation and Protocols
Quantitative Instrument
A quantitative self-reported instrument (i.e., survey) was administered to 31 high school
counselors from schools in the San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles, California, in order to
provide numeric descriptions of trends within this sample population (Creswell, 2009). The
researcher administered an 11-point Likert-type scale as well as measures developed specifically
for this dissertation study in accordance with recommendations by previous researchers (Willits
et al., 2016; Xu & Leung, 2018). Willits et al. (2016) argued that at least four items are required
for evaluation; moreover, five to seven are typically suggested. Using more than seven categories
(e.g., very strongly agree, strongly agree, agree) can be awkward and unclear to the participants.
Instead, Willits et al. recommended labeling endpoints with numbered gradients in between to
incite participants to visualize and record their responses on a numerical scale, thus allowing
increased sensitivity of the measuring instrument. Congruently, Xu and Leung (2018) claimed
that an 11-point Likert-type scale (from 0 to 10) is slightly preferred due to its composite
reliability, and they utilized only two ended labels for the scales in their study. By adopting these
35

strategies, the researcher hoped to improve reliability and validity. The survey had a total of 18
questions, contained closed-ended questions, and was administered via Qualtrics (see Appendix
A). A sample item follows: “How much do you think each of the following are barriers for first-
generation Latinos/as?” Participants were asked to respond to each barrier (e.g., SES, lack of
family support, lack of mentorship/guidance, bias toward Latino/a students, and lack of
programs). Response choices followed the 0–10 scale: 0 = Not a barrier, numbers 1–9 =
unlabeled, and 10 = Extreme barrier.
Qualitative Instrument
The researcher utilized a semi-structured interview approach with open-ended questions
to gather information from five high school counselors who work closely with college-bound
first-generation Latino/a students. The semi-structured approach was applied due to the questions
being predetermined and the usage of probes (see Appendix B). Participants were asked 10
questions. The types of questions included, but were not limited to, experience and behavior,
opinion and values, feelings, knowledge, sensory, and background questions (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). Merriam and Tisdell (2016) affirmed that the use of semi-structured interviewing allows
questions to have flexibility yet still include a mixture of more- or less-structured questions.
Moreover, because specific data were desired from the participants, there was a more-structured
section to the interview; however, the order/wording was not predetermined, thus allowing for
the use of probes or clarifying questions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). By adopting these
strategies, the researcher aimed to make the qualitative instrument both reliable and valid. The
researcher conducted the interviews in person or online, annotating notes throughout the process
(Creswell, 2009). The participants were notified that the session might be recorded and obtained
their consent.
36

Data Collection
The Institutional Review Board at the university approved the study prior to data
collection, and the researcher presented and defended the proposal to the dissertation panel
consisting of Dr. Castruita (chair), Dr. Cash, and Dr. Green. To collect the quantitative and
qualitative data, the researcher used purposeful/convenient sampling methods in collaboration
with local secondary high school counselors from the San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles,
California. Applying a convergent mixed-methods design allowed the researcher to collect the
data simultaneously, analyze the data, and compare the results (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
In collecting the quantitative data, the researcher sent the quantitative survey to 81 high
school counselors via email, which included a cover letter that indicated the purpose of the study.
Thirty-one responded. The researcher kept the survey results on a password-protected computer
and analyzed them. No compensation was given to participants. Data were analyzed by using
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software and Microsoft Excel.
To collect the qualitative data, the researcher conducted interviews with five high school
counselors, all of whom completed the survey and agreed to participate. Interviews were done in
person or using web conferencing applications (e.g., Zoom or FaceTime), and were recorded and
transcribed with the participants’ permission. The duration of each interview was approximately
45 minutes, and the researcher informed participants that their involvement was voluntary and
that they were free to discontinue the interview at any time. Additionally, the researcher
informed the participants that notes may be taken during the process and that their responses
would be confidential. Bogdan and Biklen (2007) mentioned the importance of building rapport
with participants; thus, the researcher took the steps mentioned to ensure the confidentiality of
the participants’ responses. Rubin and Rubin (2012) noted that researchers need to be
37

straightforward with participants and that deceit is ethically wrong. Furthermore, the first ethical
obligation to the participants is to do no harm and not exploit them; thus, the researcher obtained
informed consent (Rubin & Rubin, 2012). As with the quantitative data, no compensation was
given to participants. The data were analyzed using coding and concurrent triangulation.
Data Analysis
This dissertation study used a convergent mixed-methods approach, integrating data from
both the surveys and interviews. The researcher designed and developed both the quantitative
and the qualitative instruments with the four research questions in mind. Upon completion of the
data collection, the researcher analyzed the data by applying the concurrent triangulation
strategy, coded the qualitative data, and analyzed the quantitative data by conducting statistical
analysis/descriptive statistics (Creswell, 2009; Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Merriam and Tisdell
(2016) highlighted the importance of coding; the researcher coded the qualitative data, which
aided in keeping track of his thoughts and avoiding jumping to conclusions or wrongful
speculations. Microsoft Word was used for the coding process of the interviews and the retrieval
of the codes. The researcher used SPSS and Microsoft Excel to analyze the quantitative survey data.
Creswell and Creswell (2018) suggested analyzing both the quantitative and the
qualitative data, then performing a side-by-side comparison. The researcher applied the
concurrent triangulation strategy, which compares the two databases in order to determine if
there is convergence or divergence (Creswell, 2009; Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Critical race
theory and Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory, along with the literature examined in Chapter
Two, were the foundation of this study and were linked to the qualitative/quantitative data
collected.
38

Validity and Reliability
Throughout this chapter, the researcher conscientiously adopted effective strategies
implemented by scholars and researchers alike to ensure adequate validity and reliability
(Bogdan & Biklen, 2007; Creswell, 2009; Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Maxwell, 2013; Merriam
& Tisdell, 2016; Rubin & Rubin, 1995; Willits et al., 2016; Xu & Leung, 2018). Maxwell (2013)
noted that triangulation involves using the different methods as a check on each other and using
this strategy reduces the risk of the researcher’s conclusions reflecting biases of a specific
method. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) advised that the use of triangulation “is a powerful strategy
for increasing the creditability or internal validity of [the] research” (p. 245). Lastly, Merriam
and Tisdell (2016) warned that researchers should consider their own biases. In this study, the
researcher acknowledged his personal biases so as not to affect the data analysis.
Summary
A mixed-methods convergent approach was developed and applied in this dissertation
study. Secondary high school counselors served as the participants for this study and contributed
in surveys and interviews. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected and analyzed to
address the four research questions:
1. How do high school counselors in the San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles,
California, evaluate college readiness for first-generation Latino/a students, if at all?
2. How are high school counselors in the San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles,
California, assisting college-bound first-generation Latino/a students in meeting
college admissions requirements?
3. What barriers (if any) prevent first-generation high school students from being
eligible to attend college as seen by secondary high school counselors in the San
39

Fernando Valley of Los Angeles, California?
4. What kind of programs (if any) do secondary high schools in the San Fernando
Valley of Los Angeles, California, implement to aid first-generation students?
Chapter Four will discuss and present the findings of this dissertation study.

40

Chapter Four: Research Results and Findings
This chapter provides an analysis of the data collected for this dissertation study, which
was designed to ascertain the barriers affecting Latino/a first-generation college-bound students,
and the complications school counselors face while assisting these minoritized students. The aim
of this dissertation study was to learn the counselors’ perspective, uncover potential barriers, and
highlight prospective strategies/best practices for assisting college-bound first-generation
Latino/a students. Research has shown that first-generation Latino/a students face multiple
barriers in secondary education and are at a disadvantage academically (Rodriguez, Liberotti, &
Jimenez, 2015; see also Spiegler & Bednarek, 2013; Terenzini et al., 1996). The findings/results
in this dissertation study were framed around the following research questions:
1. How do high school counselors in the San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles,
California, evaluate college readiness for first-generation Latino/a students, if at all?
2. How are high school counselors in the San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles,
California, assisting college-bound first-generation Latino/a students in meeting
college admissions requirements?
3. What barriers (if any) prevent first-generation high school students from being
eligible to attend college as seen by secondary high school counselors in the San
Fernando Valley of Los Angeles, California?
4. What kind of programs (if any) do secondary high schools in the San Fernando
Valley of Los Angeles, California, implement to aid first-generation students?
Quantitative data were collected with the use of a web-based survey (i.e., Qualtrics) that
was disseminated to 27 local high schools, with a total of 31 high school counselors responding
to the survey. Counselors surveyed had to have at least 1 year of experience, be a full-time
41

counselor, and have a current caseload of students. In total, 81 surveys were distributed with 31
answering the survey, which resulted in a 38% response rate. For additional information
regarding the survey, please see Chapter Three.
Qualitative data were collected by voluntary semi-structured web-based (i.e., Zoom)
interviews of five of the 31 high school counselor participants. Counselors interviewed had to
have completed the survey and self-volunteered via the last question on the survey in order to be
considered for the interview. The five interview participants are referred to as counselor Alpha–
Echo (A–E) for the purposes of this dissertation study in order to adhere to confidentiality. In
applying the semi-structured approach to the interview, the researcher was able to probe
participants and ask follow-up questions while still adhering to a quasi-consistent interview
protocol. For additional information regarding the interview protocol, please see Chapter Three.
The researcher applied a mixed-methods convergent data collection method in this
dissertation study for data analysis. The researcher used triangulation of the data from the
collected surveys and interviews of the high school counselor participants in order to develop
and support the findings/results. All school site information, as well as participants’ identities,
was kept anonymous and confidential in accordance with the IRB parameters.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this dissertation study was to examine how secondary high school
counselors from the San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles, California, assist college-bound first-
generation Latino/a students and study the potential barriers they face. Analyzing the responses
of secondary high school counselors in the San Fernando Valley can provide a clearer
understanding of the barriers experienced by these students while in high school as viewed by
the educators aiding them.
42

Demographics of Participants
The following is a breakdown of the demographical information of the participants in this
dissertation study. In total, 31 participants completed the survey, five of whom were randomly
selected to participate in the voluntary interview. The 31 participants were given the option to
indicate their school type (i.e., private, charter, or public). Of the 31 counselors who participated,
16 were from private schools (51%), nine from independent charter schools (29%), and six from
public schools (19%). Counselors surveyed had an average of 20.12 years of experience (SD =
7.41) and the majority (28 or 90%) had a master’s degree, with only three affirming they had a
bachelor’s degree (9%). The average student caseload number among the high school counselors
was 408.6 (SD = 456.36). This number is considerably larger than the recommended ASCA
model of 250 (ASCA, 2019a). On average, counselors surveyed stated they had been working at
their current school site for 6.54 years (SD = 5.45). Nine of the 31 participant counselors (29%)
stated they held an administrative position (e.g., vice principal of counseling, head counselor, or
director of counseling).
Interview-Specific Participants’ Demographics
In order to maintain confidentiality for the interview participants, they are referred to as
Counselor Alpha–Echo (A–E). Each interview participant also answered the survey, where they
voluntarily elected to take part in the interview process. Counselor A is a 34-year-old Latina
female with 4 years of full-time counseling experience. Counselor A holds an administrative title
of head counselor at her school site and earned a master’s degree. Counselor A’s current
caseload is about 250 students, and she works at a charter school. Counselor B is a 39-year-old
Latina female with 15 years of counseling experience. Counselor B holds an administrative title
of director of counseling at her school site and earned a master’s degree. Counselor B’s current
43

caseload is about 450 students, and she works at a private school. Counselor C is a 31-year-old
Latina female with 4 years’ experience as a full-time counselor. Counselor C has a master’s
degree, her current caseload is approximately 280 students, and she works at a charter school.
Counselor D is a 39-year-old Latino male with 15 years of counseling experience. Counselor D
holds a master’s degree, and his current caseload is the lowest, with only 135 students. Counselor
D works at a private school. Finally, Counselor E is a 31-year-old Latina female with 2 years of
full-time counseling experience. Counselor E has a master’s degree, her caseload is currently 490
students, and she works for a public school.
Gender and Age
Twenty-four of the participants specified they were female (77%), and seven (22%) were
male. The participants were between the ages of 27 and 59; one participant elected not to
disclose their age. Table 2 shows that the majority of counselors who participated were between
the ages of 36 and 40 (26%).
Race/Ethnicity
In an effort to diversify the cultural backgrounds of school counselors, the Council for
Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP, 2009) requires that
counselor educational programs implement systemic efforts to attract and actively enroll a
diverse group of students, including students of different ethnic and racial backgrounds.
Nonetheless, of the 31 counselor participants in this study, the majority were predominantly
Caucasian (51%). Latino/a counselors followed with 35%. Table 3 provides a breakdown of the
race/ethnicity demographics.

44

Table 2
Gender and Age Range of Participants
Gender Frequency %
Female 24 77.42
Male 7 22.58
Age range Frequency %
26–30
31–35
36–40
41–45
46–50
51–55
56–60
7
5
8
2
1
4
3
23.33
16.67
26.67
6.67
3.33
13.33
10.0
Note. n = 31 for gender. n = 30 for age (one declined to answer). Participants were on average
39.63 years old (SD = 10.01).

Table 3
Race/Ethnicity of Participants
Race/ethnicity Frequency %
African American 1 3.23
Asian/Pacific Islander 2 6.45
Caucasian 16 51.61
Latino/a
More than one race/ethnicity
Other
11
1
0
35.48
3.23
0.0
Note. n = 31.
45

Coding of Data
Maxwell (2013) asserted that the use of a triangulation strategy checks each method on
one another in order to reach a definitive conclusion/assertion. Additionally, it decreases the risk
of the researcher’s conclusions reflecting only the biases of a particular method, thus allowing
one to gain better comprehension of the issues under investigation (Maxwell, 2013). In order to
begin the triangulation strategy, the researcher first coded the qualitative data collected, while
also analyzing the quantitative data by conducting statistical analysis/descriptive statistics using
Qualtrics and Microsoft Excel (Creswell, 2009; Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
In accordance with the guidelines of Corbin and Strauss (2015) and Merriam and Tisdell
(2016), the researcher coded the data with the theoretical framework in mind (i.e., critical race
theory and Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory). The researcher utilized Corbin and Strauss’s
(2015) recommended three-phase approach to coding. First, open coding was used to designate
key words and phrases pertinent to the study (Corbin & Strauss, 2015; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Next, the researcher completed axial coding to gather relating/overarching categories, thus
cultivating the scheme (Corbin & Strauss, 2015). Finally, selective coding was used to derive a
core group and proposition/assertion (Corbin & Strauss, 2015; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) advised that once all data are coded and organized, intensive
analysis must begin. As each set of codes were reviewed and analyzed, the researcher formulated
associations and linked them to the dissertation study’s four research questions, which are
presented in the subsequent Findings section.
Findings
According to Merriam and Tisdell (2016), it is essential for the researcher to interpret the
data collected, report the consequent outcomes, and analyze the findings. This section
46

emphasizes each research question and offers an interpretation of the data that were collected
from 31 secondary school counselors. Both the interview and the survey data were applied to the
analysis as well as a consideration for the theoretical framework.
Findings for Research Question 1
Research Question 1 was “How do high school counselors in the San Fernando Valley of
Los Angeles, California, evaluate college readiness for first-generation Latino/a students, if at
all?” Of the 31 survey participants, 64% answered 6 or higher on an 11-point Likert-type scale,
with 0 being not at all, 1–9 being unlabeled, and 10 being evaluates every student, positively
evaluating college readiness among their Latino/a student population. Nine counselors (or 29%)
stated they evaluate every student, which had the highest response amount of all the categories.
When characterized by type of schools, charter school counselors (M = 8.55) indicated they were
positively evaluating college readiness of college-bound first-generation Latino/a students more
so than private and public school counselors surveyed (M = 4.12 and M = 6, respectively). Figure
1 displays the results of the survey question of evaluation of college readiness among college-
bound first-generation Latino/a students by type of school.
In addition to the quantitative survey, five secondary high school counselors were also
interviewed and asked specifically to explain the process of evaluating college readiness for first-
generation Latino/a students. Counselor A had this to say about her school’s evaluation process:
Our school is college prep and so we evaluate that way. What I mean by that is that our
students have to meet the basic minimum requirements to be able to apply to a 4-year
college or university, which means taking the PSAT, well, not this year, obviously
because of COVID-19. But they do have to pass every class with a C or better, taking all
of their required A-G classes, [and taking] the most rigorous courses available, if
47

possible, you know, so every student that graduates from [our school] has met the
minimum requirement to apply to a college. So, our goal as a school is to make sure that
they’re at least eligible to be able to submit that application.
Counselor D had similar sentiments regarding the evaluation process and the tracking of A-G
requirements:
I don’t think we have a process for evaluating anyone’s readiness outside of their
progression through our academic program because it’s such a rigorous institution. So
essentially, we need to make sure that our curriculum aligns with the requirements so
they wouldn’t be considered a full-time student or be able to move on to the next level
without meeting the [A-G] requirements.

Figure 1
Summary of Evaluation of College Readiness for First-Generation Latino/a Students by School
Type

Note. n = 31.
6
4.12
8.55
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Evaluates College Readiness
Charter Private Public
48

All five counselors, when asked about the evaluation of college readiness of first-
generation Latino/a students, stated they track A-G requirements. Counselor C said she uses the
A-G requirements as a way to motivate students into taking more challenging classes, thus
becoming CSU eligible. Counselor C also said she tracks students’ progress with Microsoft
Excel. Counselor B declared that while her school site does not specifically evaluate readiness or
track A-G for every student, her school site’s curriculum is considered college prep and follows
A-G. Counselor B further explained students are identified if they are not meeting requirements
and they strategize on how to get them back on track. Counselor E stated,
First, we go through their A-G and see what it is, if they’re meeting some of the
requirements or if they’re not meeting it, what can they do to meet those requirements
before the deadline or also to see if [the student is an] ELD student. As the student meets
the requirements, it gets fulfilled. So, it’s for high school graduation, but it’s also to
check the requirements for college. We do make sure that if it’s in their plan to go to
college, we make sure that the classes needed are there. We constantly track it with their
graduation requirements. . . . For seniors, it can be, it can vary, it could be once or twice
per semester that we check in, so it varies by student.
One of ASCA’s (2020) four model tenets is accountability, including data analysis of
student records and evaluation/improvement, which requires assessment of the school counseling
program as a whole to ensure effectiveness. The findings were consistent with the literature that
school counselors are indeed evaluating college readiness and therefore are assessing the state of
their respective school counseling programs by checking their students’ progress.
49

Findings for Research Question 2
Research Question 2 was “How are high school counselors in the San Fernando Valley of
Los Angeles, California, assisting college-bound first-generation Latino/a students in meeting
college admissions requirements?” In addition to evaluating readiness, the school counselors
surveyed and interviewed detailed how they also assist college-bound first-generation Latino/a
students by promoting retention and, as previously stated, by tracking A-G requirements. Ten of
the 31 school counselors surveyed (32%) stated they track the progress of every student at their
school site. Moreover, 70% of the counselors chose 6 or higher on a 11-point Likert-type scale,
with 0 being not at all and 10 being tracks every student, indicating they track the student
progression of college admissions requirements. Separated by school type, charter school
counselors (M = 7.88) narrowly edged out public (M = 6.66) and private (M = 5.75) school
counselors in tracking the progress of their students. Figure 2 shows the results of the survey
question that asked if counselors were tracking the progress of admissions requirements of
college-bound first-generation Latino/a students, by school type.
To ascertain how else secondary counselors were assisting first-generation college-bound
Latino/a students (i.e., other than A-G requirement tracking), the researcher asked interviewees
about their school’s retention efforts, how they personally assisted these students, and how they
are preparing to aid this growing population.
Retention
One of the main responsibilities of a school counselor is to monitor the progress of
students academically. Counselors A–E all reported regularly meeting with their students in
order to promote student achievement. This went beyond simply tracking the college admissions
requirements, as Counselor E detailed:
50

Figure 2
Summary of Tracking of Students’ Progression of Admissions Requirements for First-Generation
Latino/a Students by School Type

Note. n = 31.

So, I think what helps [with retention] is we get very involved with students. We call
them in, make sure that they, you know, if there is a red flag of attendance, if there is
something that we need to call them in for like grades, attendance, any of those sorts of
things, we call them in right away. And we do create like a bond with our students where
we regularly check in with them. We do monitor their grades, we do monitor their
graduation [progress], that is, if they’re behind, we do make sure that we send them to the
right place to get their credit recovery, and, you know, encourage them to graduate high
school.
Counselor B highlighted other efforts to ensure students stayed eligible and met requirements:
6.66
5.75
7.88
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Tracks Students' Progression
Charter Private Public
51

If the student tests are pretty low and we do have quite a number of students that are first
gen that test pretty low, what we do is we have a summer program they have to actually
do in order to meet or be ready for the college prep course that starts our freshman year.
If they start falling behind, we actually meet with our students every 5 weeks, we touch
bases with them. I also send an email to the teachers. We ask, can you send us a list of
students that you feel like it’s kind of, we need to have a little more additional support.
But we’re very grateful that we use a system here at our school called Canvas, and so I
get to see a lot of their grades there.
Teacher collaboration as well as intervention seemed to be tools effective school
counselors use to combat retention and academic issues. Behnke et al. (2010) stated that students
surveyed suggested the motivation of teachers/staff and having them be Spanish speaking would
improve the likelihood of staying in school. The counselors’ comments demonstrated that
checking student progress and finding meaningful ways to connect with them requires constant
effort. Counselor C said,
I think what helps [retention efforts] a lot is the fact that we build a relationship with the
students. I think that has been our biggest factor, not just the counselors, but the teachers
as well because it’s such a small school. So, if somebody is going through something or
they’re struggling with something else, we aren’t able to really work around it, so we
help them.
Retention efforts may appear similar at different school sites, yet counselors are still
aiding students in multiple ways as they navigate the college admissions process. This assistance
falls in line with the 80% timeframe ASCA recommends counselors spend focusing on direct
services (ASCA, 2019a).
52

Assisting Students
All counselors interviewed stated they spend a significant amount of time speaking with
their students on their caseload. The interviewees stressed the importance of building a
connection with their students. Coincidentally, all of the interviewees were Latino/a, all
mentioned having a cultural connection with the students, and most (four of the five) had been
first-generation college students themselves. All counselors interviewed also were fluent Spanish
speakers.
An imbalanced student-to-counselor caseload ratio can hinder the development of
connections, but there are ways to work around such limitations, as Counselor A detailed:
So, I am the college counselor, I’m college department office. I’m a one-man band
[laughs]. So, what I tried to do is I actually this last year, I’ve found kind of successful is
making sure that students can identify, like yes, I am a first-generation college student.
They’ve seen the benefit, like I can apply to these scholarships, these are, these are things
that I can put into my application that will make me look—make me a better candidate
for this school. And so, it’s more than just one on one [meetings] because since it is a
small school and yes, I don’t get to do, you know, all one-on-ones with students, but
through my presentations I reach them. So, one of the biggest ways that I [assist] is that I
actually do workshops with the kids where I actually work with them to do their
applications. I assist them, like one on one for the students that show up, I assist them
with information that they need to put on their [application], reviewing their tax
documents, answering questions about waivers, whether they’re eligible, checking GPAs,
checking, you know, if their courses [are] completed, all of that stuff. I do an audit with
them basically, the ones that do show up to these workshops; we do work through their
53

whole applications and making sure that things that are on there are done correctly, you
know, so that they have the best opportunity. I even meet with their parents at times, and
if needed, do so in Spanish.
Counselor D said his smaller, more manageable caseload number allows him to spend more time
with each student:
I’m privileged enough to have a small enough caseload, especially my senior caseload
being 32 kids, where I get to know my kids well, and I get to work with them one on
one. . . . The nice sizable caseload permits us to work with our students but also the
[department] is comprised of predominantly [counselors] of color. I think it also helps our
students when they see first gen. Right, a faculty of color. That is directly connected to
guiding their high school experience. So, for them to be able to kind of see that. And for
us to kind of be modeled for them, I think has also really helped with retention. I think
being able to relate to them on a personal level, and then also you know I’m a bilingual
Spanish speaker. So then being able to bring that piece in with my Spanish-speaking
families, and then my colleagues because I am going to the Spanish speaker on the
[counseling] team, they’ll bring me into conversations as well, with some of their
families, just to ensure that parents have all the answers.
Counselors A, B, C, and D described translating for other colleagues or meeting with
parents and students in the form of college application workshops. Counselor C further explained
how her time is spent communicating with parents on the phone to discuss financial aid, to help
them better understand, and how she shares her experiences with her students. Counselor E
explained the process used at her school site:
54

First of all, we have a senior meeting with my students. And if they express or if we talk
about college plans, that’s when I start, you know, gauging where they’re at and seeing
first if they want to do 4-year or community college. So, I basically help them set up a
plan since the first semester. If it’s a private school, I’ll make the letters of
recommendation for them; if, if it’s a UC, CSU, or community college, we go through the
process of each one and I kind of make a plan for that specific student to say, this is when
you have to apply for here, and then financial aid was a big, is a big topic to talk about
with students, especially the first-generation students that don’t know where to go, and
are kind of worried about their parents and how to apply and what information or
documents they need. So, in that case, I do, you know, research with them so they learn
how to get their information as well. I try to be more open to talking about college and
universities [with first-generation students], being more involved with those students
specifically because I am, I’m Latino myself. It’s easier for me to communicate with
these students because I, they feel more comfortable speaking Spanish with me, or they
see that I, and I just tell them my story. So, when I connect with students that are first-
generation, I always tell them I’m first-generation myself, and I lived in Mexico. So,
coming back [to the United States] and not going to high school, having to do my GED,
but still making it to this point, like I have my master’s degree . . . it means you can do it
as well, so just, you know, being empathetic with them and sharing my example to
motivate them that they can do it, too.
All counselors shared a desire to assist students and their families wherever they were in
the college admissions process. Though tracking of admissions requirements remained a focus,
the counselors shared an affinity for aiding students and connecting with them on a personal
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level. Time restrictions due to caseload were evident; nevertheless, counselors interviewed found
methods to assist in meaningful ways.
Findings for Research Question 3
Research Question 3 was “What barriers (if any) prevent first-generation high school
students from being eligible to attend college as seen by secondary high school counselors in the
San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles, California?” Five barriers were identified in this
dissertation study: socioeconomic status, lack of family support, lack of mentorship/guidance,
bias toward Latinos/as, and lack of available programs. These particular barriers were selected
based on the literature/research review and the systemic issues plaguing minoritized Latino/a
students and other students of color. The 31 secondary counselors chose answers from an 11-
point Likert-type scale (with 0 being not a barrier and 10 being extreme barrier) to determine
their perception of the barriers faced by first-generation Latino/a students. Lack of
mentorship/guidance was the most prevalent response (M = 8.16, SD = 1.67), with SES (M =
7.54, SD = 2.52) and lack of programs (M = 7.48, SD = 1.45) following. Bias toward Latino/a
students (M = 6.77, SD = 2.07) and lack of family support (M = 6.51, SD = 2.27) were the
lowest-scored responses. When categorized by school type, charter school counselors stated they
perceived lack of mentorship highest overall (M = 8.66), compared with public and private
school counselors (M = 8.5 and M = 7.75, respectively). Figure 3 highlights each barrier, sorted
by school type.

56

Figure 3
Summary of Barriers Faced by First-Generation Latino/a Students by School Type

Note. n = 31.

Five high school counselors from the pool of 31 survey participants volunteered to be
interviewed and were asked specifically what barriers may prevent first-generation Latino/a
students from being eligible to attend college and how these barriers were affecting these
students. Contrary to the survey question regarding barriers, interviewees made no substantial
comments concerning bias toward Latino/a students, lack of programs, and lack of mentorship as
barriers. Instead, counselors B and C referenced how they are mentoring their students by setting
an example and relating to them through their own experiences. When discussing mentorship,
Counselor B stated,
I think, if you can actually build a relationship with these students and identify them
quickly for mentorship . . . not just the students, but parents as well. Think of the parent
7.83
6.33
8.5
7
7.66
7
6.06
7.75
6.68
7.62
8.33
7.44
8.66
6.77
7.11
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
SES
Lack of family support
Lack of mentorship
Bias towards Latinos
Lack of programs
Barriers
Charter Private Public
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buying into the importance of academics, and sometimes, making financial sacrifices
because of the importance of academics, it really kind of brings that student to say, I can
do this, I have the same ability as the person next to me because I have the support of my
counselor who would guide me and the support of my parents.
Likewise, Counselor C revealed the process of mentoring students by sharing personal
experiences:
I’m starting to think through how to connect with the students and so how to make [their]
dream become an actual goal and become something that they’re actually working
towards. I also just share my own experiences with them too. And even with students
who maybe aren’t the straight A students, letting them know too like I was never a
straight A student in high school, you know, like, now I’m at a job that I love and I’m
working [in a career] that I truly am passionate about and I didn’t know that when I
graduated high school, and that’s okay. So, I mentor them and let them know it’s okay to
not know exactly what you want, but you do have to continue working towards
something.
All counselors interviewed identified SES and lack of family support (in addition to
attributing Latino/a culture) as the two main barriers affecting Latino/a first-generation college-
bound students. Each counselor described how SES and lack of family support affect their first-
generation Latino/a students.
Socioeconomic Status
Barr (2015) viewed SES as one of the strongest predictors of academic attainment and
success. When compared with their peers, first-generation students remain more likely to come
from lower-income households, be Hispanic, have lower degree aspirations, and take longer to
58

complete their degrees once in college (Terenzini et al., 1996). Due to these alarming realities,
all counselors interviewed stressed the real concern for students’ SES and the issues that arise
from it. To counteract this, Counselor A mentioned how her efforts have been focused on trying
to inform her parent population about financial aid and break misconceptions:
One of the big things that I have seen as a barrier is [a] lack of information for
parents. . . . I try to hold workshops for parents, scholarship applications of financial aid
workshops, and actually, because of COVID we’ve actually been doing our parent
meetings online, and our actual attendance has gone up like 300%, it’s crazy. Maybe now
you know we inadvertently discovered a way to tap into those parents that maybe can’t
make it because they have younger kids or can’t make it because they work late.
Counselor C shared similar sentiments and stated that in her last graduating class, lack of
knowledge (both parent and student), fear of money, and not realizing how much opportunity in
terms of scholarships was readily available were major barriers. Counselor E shared similar
views, declaring that the financial barrier is the predominant cause of 80% of her Latino/a
student population going directly to a community college instead of a 4-year university.
Counselor E said her students were unmotivated to go to a university or complete the application
process because they felt it was not possible for them or they had a fear of rejection due to
feelings of unpreparedness. Counselor D was also in agreement when asked about barriers he has
witnessed:
I think finances are obviously a barrier for many students and the idea of knowing where
to look for financial resources. There’s a misconception out there about what the price tag
actually means for a school, and how affordable it’s going to be for students. I try to
59

demystify the financial aid process [by] helping them understand how sometimes the
most expensive school can actually be the most affordable school for them.
The findings suggest that financial issues, SES, and a lack of financial knowledge are
obstacles that first-generation Latino/a college-bound students continue to face today. Suh and
Suh (2007) explained that students who come from low SES backgrounds are more likely to drop
out due to lack of educational enrichment activities and resources. Each school counselor took
the time to discuss this barrier and how they were actively trying to combat the issue via
parent/student education. This is in direct alignment with Ramirez et al.’s (2014) suggestion to
educators that they consider the importance of parent and student education, especially for these
high-risk students. Students with low SES are considerably high risk and may have multiple
related issues associated with their financial status. The findings indicate that SES and a lack of
information could prevent college-bound Latino/a students from achieving their goals.
Lack of Family Support
Another critical barrier emphasized by all counselors interviewed was how a lack of
family support, and more specifically family dynamics, is a noteworthy barrier for Latino/a first-
generation students. Suarez-Orozco et al. (2010) stated that while most parents are indeed
enthusiastic to see their kids assimilate into mainstream American culture, they may disapprove
of certain aspects of this newfound culture, especially if they conflict with their traditional
values. Moreover, the student’s family as well as the school system itself fall within the student’s
microsystem, which holds developmental importance (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Counselor A
described the issues experienced by her students in terms of lack of family support:
Lack of [family] support is a problem, too. Especially in [parents of] girls. The parents
don’t want the girls to go anywhere, you know, they don’t want them to travel out of
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state, they don’t want them to leave the house, and it’s just a very culturally traditional
thing. The cultural barriers are really hard when because that’s something that you as a
counselor can talk your head off to the parent and let them know how things are going to
be fine, but you know you can’t provide them that type of reassurance that they need in
order to feel comfortable [with their child leaving].
Counselor D shared parallel thoughts regarding lack of family support among the families
of his students:
I think parents have a lot of misinformation, you know, with regards to what could
happen if a student goes to school in a certain place or, you know, we know that there’s a
ton of wonderful liberal arts colleges that maybe, a lot of these families haven’t heard of.
So, there’s that and the cultural aspect. I think there’s also the imposter syndrome that we
have to battle it with our students, the idea that sometimes they feel as though they’re just
happy to have a place in the table, and they’re not trying to, you know, push things too
far. I’m having to build them up a little bit more with, yes, you will go to college . . .
since they perhaps don’t hear it at home. I do think that there is a piece of culture, with
regards to kind of staying close to home, and taking care of the parents and really not
leaving your house until you’re married sometimes. I still see this in person recently in
Latinx households.
As with the previously discussed barriers, the interviewees described finding ways to
battle the lack of family involvement. One solution Counselor B chooses to implement to
counteract this lack of family support is by getting them more involved:
One major barrier is the lack of support, due to perhaps the language barrier, [parents] not
coming to our meetings, so not attending our junior/senior meeting that we have for all
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families. . . . I know some of these families either (a) feel uncomfortable or (b) don’t feel
or are not knowledgeable of their information. That is a barrier where we still are
working on how to bridge that gap. I try to communicate with families and let them know
we’re here for you as well.
Counselor E described positive changes related to this trend:
I think culture right now in this generation is a huge topic because I see that a lot of our
Latino and Hispanic communities are graduating. . . . There’s higher numbers of Latinos
and Hispanics graduating from universities, graduating from high school, and breaking
that stigma that you, you know, that any other cultures have more higher graduation [and]
rates are higher, you know, so I feel like the culture is shifting. It’s becoming the right
thing to do because Latino grandparents or older generations would think that work is
first, you know, you have to work and make that money. That education is not going to
pay your bills, but I think as we go it’s changing because my parents did tell me,
education first. But then I also hear other family members that say, you know, he needs to
get to work right away, instead of saying, he needs to get to school. So, I think that
there’s like a barrier, with the mentality of our people’s old way of viewing things.
In terms of lack of family support, there are multiple factors to consider. While the
findings suggest the barrier exists today, the interviewees also showcased how they are trying to
counteract its effect on Latino/a students. Suarez-Orozco et al. (2010) suggested secondary
counselors should be encouraging an open dialog with parents and listening to their valid
concerns. The findings are consistent with the research, yet the educators who participated are
also consistently heeding recommendations in order to respond to this ongoing barrier.
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Findings for Research Question 4
Research Question 4 was “What kind of programs (if any) do secondary high schools in
the San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles, California, implement to aid first-generation students?”
Rather than recognizing mentorship and lack of programs as a barrier, secondary high school
counselors interviewed emphasized some of the unique mentorship programs available at their
respective school sites. While only eight of the 31 survey participants (25%) stated they had a
program to assist first-generation college-bound students, the counselors interviewed explained
their innovative programs designed to support students. Programs are one creative way
secondary counselors across the San Fernando Valley support their students. Counselor D
described one example of an ongoing program specially targeted for Latino/a/Hispanic youth, a
free space where the students could share experiences:
The [club name] student organization helps students feel comfortable on campus and they
can feel like they have a voice, and they have a home. With our weekly meetings, where
they can come together, I think that that’s great space for them. We do [host] a sleepover
once a year, sometimes twice a year, in which all of the [club name] students are able to
return to the campus and sleep in our library. . . . We’ll do different team-building
activities and they’ll talk about what it means to be Latinx and have a really great
discussion, and at that point I step out of the room and I let them have their own space;
it’s really powerful. And I think, I think it’s important for them to hear from one another,
especially as we have a mixture of grades there, for the sophomores to hear what the
seniors have gone through, what they’ve experienced.
Some programs stemmed from the need to respond to disciplinary issues. Counselor A
described a program that was started to combat the growing issue of students with disciplinary
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infractions. As Halx and Ortiz (2011) explained, Latino male students seek genuine expressions
of care, even if it comes from an authority figure (e.g., an administrator). Counselor A’s school
program followed this premise:
A lot of our students are first-generation students, so our dean of discipline, actually he’s
our assistant principal/dean of discipline, you know, we’re a small school, so we wear
many hats. He recently started putting together a group of students because he’s really
advocating for mentorship programs. He has, you know, frequent fliers that he sees all
the time that are very smart students but they’re having issues and they act up. So, he
identified a group of like 12 kids that he actually was starting to see over the spring as a
group, kind of like a boy’s group. . . . Him and a few of the other coaches were doing a
mentorship program where they were just talking about what was bothering them. It was
a confidential space for [the students], so they were allowed to, you know, disclose
anything, so they were able to open up about things that they normally wouldn’t. All of
these kids actually had very interesting common denominators. They had no parental
figures, or parental figure that was detached because of divorce. They all had really
young siblings, which was very interesting that was one of the factors that came into
play. And they all obviously had major and minor infractions, you know, issues with
authority, things like disciplinary infractions. The impact of having a mentor for these
kids was substantial because they didn’t have a father-type figure in their life.
On the other hand, Counselor C utilized her school program as a reward system for
attendance and participation. Counselor C and the counseling staff at her school site incentivized
free dress, for example, as her students are required to wear uniforms. Counselor C said,
We have the mandatory [program name] program; we have a time where we’re able to
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talk to them about college and also scholarships. It’s not like directly for first-generation,
but most of our caseload is first-generation so it kind of goes in with it. And that’s when
we also encourage students to start taking college courses, while they’re in high school.
Our school has bought in on this; we have a specific time in our schedule for this.
Although student participation is compulsory, Counselor C said that most students have positive
experiences with the program and that it provides an opportunity to communicate with her
students in a group setting.
Throughout this research question, it was revealed that specific programs are indeed
useful when aiding college-bound first-generation Latino/a students and that they are needed.
Close and Solberg (2008) surmised that interventions such as these that promote self-efficacy
may enhance academic achievement and retention in students. While each counselor’s approach
varied in execution, their programs showed how they are attuned to the needs of their students.
Chapter Summary
This chapter presented the findings and results of this mixed-methods dissertation study,
with the intent of better understanding the issues school counselors face when aiding first-
generation Latino/a students and responding to each of the four research questions presented.
The data were gathered by surveying 31 school counselors and interviewing five of them to
further comprehend how they actively assist these students. Data were analyzed with the
theoretical framework and literature in mind; moreover, triangulation was utilized to discover
trends in the dataset.
The overarching theme in each of the research questions involved communication to both
students and parents alike. Additionally, the specific barriers of low SES and lack of family
support were prevalent throughout the conversations with each of the high school counselors
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interviewed. Despite being from different school types, the counselors identified these two
barriers as a substantial issue for first-generation college-bound Latino/a students. It was found
that lack of family support could stem from cultural differences in Latino/a households.
Moreover, mentorship is needed with these at-risk youths. This was supported by previous
research, the survey results, and interview findings.
The disparity between counselors with low caseload numbers and those with high
numbers was also noteworthy. In every aspect of their duties, from evaluating college readiness,
to providing programs and assisting these students, counselors made reference to high caseload
numbers as a hindrance to their practice. The findings suggest that the barriers the students face
only exacerbate the issue, which could potentially lead to lower retention rates. Lastly, the results
and findings gathered for this dissertation study revealed that secondary counselors are
committed to their role of aiding college-bound first-generation Latino/a students as they
navigate the college admission process. Chapter Five will include a summary/discussion of the
dissertation study, recommendations, and implications for future research.

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Chapter Five: Discussion
Secondary school counselors today face an ever-growing Latino/a student population and
increases to their overall caseload numbers (Caballero et al., 2017; DeKruyf et al., 2013; Urdan
& Herr, 2016). Throughout this dissertation study, the issues that continue to hinder first-
generation Latino/a students have been comprehensively discussed. This mixed-methods
dissertation study is significant because it could potentially fill the gap in the literature
concerning the barriers these minoritized students of color face and how educators today are
assisting them throughout high school. This chapter will include the statement of the problem,
the purpose of the study, research questions, the methodology used, a discussion of the findings
for each research question, implications, limitations, and concluding remarks.
Statement of the Problem
Studies have shown that the number of Latino/a students is expected to rise throughout
the United States (Caballero et al., 2017; Data USA, 2020; Urdan & Herr, 2016; U.S. Census
Bureau, 2018). Research has also identified the barriers that continue to plague this population,
and it is essential that educators better understand these issues (Spiegler & Bednarek, 2013;
Terenzini et al., 1996). Therefore, it is imperative that school counselors recognize these issues
in order to develop specific interventions to support first-generation Latino/a students.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this dissertation study was to examine the role of secondary high school
counselors when assisting college-bound first-generation Latino/a students and the struggles they
face. By understanding the needs of first-generation Latino/a students, secondary school
counselors may be better equipped to support these minoritized students as they assist them
through the college admissions process and throughout their high school experience.
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Research Questions
The following research questions were developed to guide this dissertation study:
1. How do high school counselors in the San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles,
California, evaluate college readiness for first-generation Latino/a students, if at all?
2. How are high school counselors in the San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles,
California, assisting college-bound first-generation Latino/a students in meeting
college admissions requirements?
3. What barriers (if any) prevent first-generation high school students from being
eligible to attend college as seen by secondary high school counselors in the San
Fernando Valley of Los Angeles, California?
4. What kind of programs (if any) do secondary high schools in the San Fernando
Valley of Los Angeles, California, implement to aid first-generation students?
Methodology
A convergent mixed-methods approach was utilized for this dissertation study.
Quantitative data were collected from 31 participants who were full-time counselors from the
San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles, California, via anonymous survey. The survey had a total
of 18 closed-ended questions and was administered through Qualtrics (see Appendix A). From
that pool of participants, qualitative data were collected from five voluntary counselors who were
selected for an interview. A semi-structured approach was utilized during the interviews, which
contained 10 questions. All data were analyzed using a convergent mixed-methods approach,
which integrated data from both the surveys and the interviews, while also keeping the
theoretical framework in mind. The triangulation of the data allowed for a side-by-side
comparison and was instrumental in determining if there was concurrence with the literature and
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in the theories used in the study.
Discussion of Results and Findings
The following section details a summary of the data that were collected and analyzed for
each research question in this dissertation study. The findings, presented in Chapter Four, are
connected to the literature and previous research.
Research Question 1: Evaluation
Despite the findings indicating that charter school counselors ranked above private and
public school counselors in more positively evaluating students, each of the interviewed
counselors stated they perform evaluation in some way (though not exclusively for first-
generation Latino/a students). Participants shared similar experiences regarding the evaluation
process, although they execute it in different ways. More so than simply meeting the A-G
requirements, participants’ college preparatory school programs aimed to instill readiness in each
of their students. Academic progression was consistently being tracked, according to
participants.
It is ultimately the responsibility of school counselors to find ways to improve the
achievement gap for all students (ASCA, 2020). The practices the participants shared would fall
in line with ASCA’s directives, which include accountability and assessment for improvement
(ASCA, 2020). Suh and Suh (2007) indicated early preventive actions are one of the most often
utilized strategies for school completion. By tracking students’ progression toward graduation
and A-G requirements, the participants demonstrated an interest in improving retention and
motivating their students as they advance through high school. As this population of students
continues to grow in the United States, it will become imperative that secondary counselors find
specific ways to influence and motivate first-generation Latino/a students. If nothing is done, and
69

students are exposed to several risk factors, they may become less motivated to complete
schoolwork, which could lead to an increase in dropout rates (Suh & Suh, 2007). Stearns and
Glennie (2006) stated that, despite every ethnic group having its highest dropout rates in ninth
grade and its lowest in senior year, this pattern is distinct for ethnic minorities. Considering these
statements, it would behoove secondary counselors to continue tracking and evaluating student
progress throughout high school in order to increase retention.
Research Question 2: How Counselors Assist
As highlighted in Research Question 1, participants were cognizant of their retention
efforts, as tracking of students’ progression was positively indicated, but this alone was not their
only concern. All of the interviewees mentioned in detail how they went beyond monitoring
progression of academics and were actively getting involved with students on their caseload.
Participants highlighted interventions/strategies such as weekly check-ins, building rapport,
monitoring grades, and collaborating with teachers, especially if students were falling behind
academically. These practices of direct services to students are in alignment with the
recommended timeframe ASCA suggests (ASCA, 2019ab).
In terms of building relationships with the students, all participants stated they spent a
substantial amount of time on this development. Marrero (2016) determined that Latino/a
students are in need of nurturing, trust-filled relationships with educators that are generated
through sincere interest and a mutual understanding. Connecting with the student’s culture and
sharing similar experiences was a strategy applied by all interview participants. The four
interview participants who disclosed they were first-generation themselves made it a point to
divulge that information to their students. Moreover, as all five interview participants were fluent
in Spanish, they were all able to connect to the students and their families on an intimate/familiar
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level. Hence, Marrero (2016) concluded that educators who serve Latino/a students must focus
on developing trusting relationships, establishing high expectations, and removing a
negative/deficit mind frame. Simply put, the counselors interviewed shared a devotion to
addressing students’ socioemotional and academic needs.
A major hindrance to achieving this connection was made apparent as the caseload
number each participant was responsible for vastly affected the counselor’s ability to assist
students. In one particular case, the educator was the only counselor at the school site. Yet,
despite this setback, an effective program was still being implemented and the counselor was still
able to establish meaningful connections with the Latino/a student population. When the
caseload ratio was more manageable, it became clear that there was ample time to fully develop
a connection and establish a more substantial rapport with students as described by participants.
The desire these school counselors exhibited signified a commitment to making the students’
needs first (especially for this critical population) and further showcases why their work is
essential in secondary schools today.
Research Question 3: Main Barriers
Of the five barriers mentioned in the survey (i.e., lack of programs, bias toward Latinos,
lack of mentorship, lack of family support, and SES), lack of mentorship and SES, respectively,
were the frontrunners and were identified by participants as most prevalent. However, all
counselors interviewed were much more concerned with SES and lack of family support. It could
be argued that lack of mentorship and family support is interconnected with the SES of the
student. Both barriers play a role in students’ microsystems in the sense that if students come
from a low SES, they may not have access to mentorship/family support; thus, this relationship
could adversely affect students’ development (Bronfenbrenner, 1977). Moreover, the reciprocity,
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or the bidirectional relationship, between the family and the school could be affected by these
barriers (Bronfenbrenner, 1977). Cilesiz and Drotos (2016) established that adolescents of low
SES are less likely to have family members who can help them with academic work or
comprehend the process of applying for financial assistance for college. To counteract this,
Holcomb-McCoy (2010) advocated for school counselors to discuss college access and
emphasize financial aid awareness to low-income students of color and their parents. In
accordance with the research, all counselors interviewed stressed the crucial concern for
students’ SES and made considerable efforts to educate not only students but also their families.
The lack of family support was emphasized by all participants interviewed as a notable
barrier. This, too, was directly tied to SES of the family; according to Shumow et al. (2011),
immigrant and minority parents with lower education levels and incomes were less prone to be
involved at school. Counselors interviewed also suggested that they are actively combating the
misinformation of parents and have to be mindful of cultural considerations when addressing
parents and students. Marrero (2016) advised educators to consider cultural differences between
Hispanics and mainstream culture, as not doing so may contribute to misinterpretation of Latino
parental engagement in education. In other words, despite the presence of traditional Latino/a
values in students’ families (e.g., females staying closer to home, helping out with younger
siblings, and working to help out the family), school counselors can still provide vital
information while being cognizant and respectful of a student’s culture. Marrero (2016) also
stated that parents who do not speak English could be shy and not engage with schools due to
experiencing emotions of inferiority and helplessness. All counselors interviewed stated they
dedicate time to holding parent workshops (often in Spanish, if needed), informing the family of
financial aid as well as offering assistance with the application process. Opening the dialog and
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being supportive with this community is in direct compliance with the recommendations of
current research. It is essential that school counselors who have a Hispanic/Latino/a population
work closely with this community in order to empower them, clear up any misconceptions, and
improve overall family involvement. These practices may help educators provide a welcoming
place for families to be engaged in the schooling of their children, while also delivering critical
information to college-bound students and families.
Research Question 4: Programs
The major takeaway from reviewing programs initiated by school counselors is that
despite a fairly low number of responses from survey participants (25%) stating they had a
program specially for first-generation Latino/a students, the three interview participants who
shared their programs reported they were effective and well received by students. Halx and Ortiz
(2011) cited that students had a desire to develop meaningful rapport with educators at their
school. While drastically different in approach and implementation, the three programs
highlighted showcase how each school site was able to find creative ways to develop rapport
with, inspire, motivate, mentor, and assist first-generation Latino/a students.
The first program mentioned involved building a safe space for Latino/a students to
express their respective cultures and embrace their heritage, while also providing a plethora of
information. The mixture of grades allowed upperclassmen to connect with incoming
freshmen/sophomore students and build a place of community and belongingness. The
interviewee stressed how an open dialog allowed students to discuss what being Latino/a/x
meant to them. The educators at this school site facilitated learning and bonding. This free space
model allowed for shared experiences and could be implemented at a relatively low cost.
The second program was not specifically for first-generation Latino/a students, but these
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students did make up the majority of the school’s population. Although mandatory, in this
program the school counselors set time aside weekly and incentivized rewards (e.g., free dress)
as a way to boost buy-in to the program. Once in group, students and educators were able to
discuss college and promote a college-going culture. This application is critical; McKillip et al.
(2012) indicated Latino/a adolescents who attended school sites where they felt counselors were
active in helping them make college plans were more likely to follow through on the plans
developed and apply to 4-year universities. This program could also be implemented at relatively
low cost; however, it did require set-aside time in the school day schedule.
The third program was heavily targeted, and one that came to fruition due to the specific
needs of the students. The counselor interviewed stated the program was created as a response to
growing disciplinary issues with Latino male students identified by the administration.
Surprisingly, the students had multiple similarities. All the students had no parental figures or
were missing a parental figure due to divorce, had younger siblings they were responsible for,
and had multiple disciplinary infractions. The mentoring provided by the administration/
counseling staff was vital in restoring the confidence of each student while also providing an
opportunity for them to realize their potential to graduate and attend college. Latino male
students often seek genuine expressions of care, even if it originates from an authority figure
(e.g., an administrator) (Halx & Ortiz, 2011). When using Latino critical race theory as a
framework, Peralta (2013) deduced that a strategy to counteract negative counter-stories is for
educators to provide spaces for students to learn from each other, strengthen their cultural wealth,
and ultimately foster intercultural activities and organizations at their school sites. These types of
spaces could offer students opportunities to develop a community and provide mentorship (Peralta,
2013). A similar mentorship program could be widely adopted at little to no cost.
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Implications of the Study
This dissertation mixed-methods study contributes to the literature regarding how school
counselors assist college-bound first-generation Latino/a students and the barriers they face. The
findings of this dissertation study could benefit secondary students, school counselors,
administrators, teachers, educational researchers, and the overall community serving college-
bound first-generation Latino/a students. The overarching themes and data collected in this study
can become an area of focus when developing interventions to better assist first-generation
Latino/a students. Lastly, school leadership and counseling departments across the United States
with a Latino/a student population may utilize the strategies mentioned by participants to
enhance or implement programs that better serve this growing population of minoritized
students.
Limitations
This dissertation study enhances the understanding of how secondary school counselors
assist college-bound first-generation Latino/a students; however, certain limitations were present:
1. The sample is limited to participants from the San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles,
California, which may hinder generalizability.
2. The data were collected using a self-reported survey, which assesses only the
participants’ perceptions of their supportive measures at one point in time.
3. The participants were surveyed first, then interviewed; thus, participants’ intended
responses may not be accurate due to elapsed time.
4. The data were not analyzed specifically by ethnic groups of the counselors who
participated; therefore, cultural considerations were not accounted for in the analyses
in this dissertation study.
75

Recommendations for Future Research
In surveying and interviewing secondary school counselors, many considerations were
exposed that should be investigated in future research. The subsequent recommendations are
suggested for future research when exploring secondary school counselors, Latino/a students,
first-generation students, student family support, and other struggles they all may face:
1. Additional research is needed on the second largest U.S. school district (i.e.,
LAUSD), as it holds a significant number of students and was excluded from this
dissertation study.
2. Further research is needed on the types of mentorship programs available to
minoritized first-generation Latino/a students, especially those with disciplinary
issues or with credit deficiency.
3. An introspective analysis is needed on counselor bias (if any) and the effects on
Latino/a students.
4. An investigation on perceived support from family members and educators should be
completed for Latino/a first-generation students who are in the process of applying to
college.
5. Further research is needed on the ASCA’s recommended caseload number of
counselors (at all levels) and how to reduce the number nationwide.
6. A best practices study on how to support first-generation minoritized students should
be completed in cities where the Latino/a student population numbers are high, in
order to prepare other cities for the exponential growth that is expected of this
population.
76

Conclusion
Throughout this dissertation study, the important role secondary school counselors have
in assisting college-bound first-generation Latino/a students, and the barriers they face, was
examined. It is evident through the statistical analysis of the quantitative survey data and by the
qualitative discoveries in the interviews that school counselors in the San Fernando Valley of
Los Angeles, California, are finding creative ways to combat the barriers affecting first-
generation Latino/a students today. This dissertation study sheds light on the work counselors do
daily in bridging the gap between Latino/a students and their postsecondary goals.
Even though the San Fernando Valley is a small subset of Los Angeles, the study
attempted to ascertain what issues may be deterring first-generation Latino/a students from
meeting their aspirational college goals and how school counselors aid them throughout the
process. Lynch (2018) requested that educators promote a college-going culture and share that
they are also first-generation when applicable. It became apparent in the findings that counselors
are indeed promoting a college-going culture and are developing meaningful relationships with
students by sharing their personal stories. Moreover, despite the vast differences in caseload
numbers, school counselors are attempting to evaluate student progress and track graduation/A-G
requirements to ensure students are prepared. Key barriers such as low SES, lack of family
support, and lack of mentoring are having a detrimental effect on schools’ retention efforts.
Although programs are being implemented by school counselors throughout public, private, and
charter schools, no unified approach was visible, only a specific desire to support students’
individual needs. Counselors are on the front lines dealing with the academic and socioemotional
needs of the students on their caseloads. It is critical that all school counselors with a Latino/a
population pay close attention to their particular needs. It is no secret that the largest minority
77

group across U.S. schools is composed of Latino/a students (Villalba et al., 2007). Thus, as this
population continues to grow, educators must adapt and reformulate their strategies for assisting
these minoritized students.
As a new, larger wave of first-generation Latino/a students enters secondary education
each year, it is imperative that school counselors find adaptive ways to combat the real and
troubling barriers affecting students today. This dissertation study may help current educators
become more adequately prepared as they carry out the task of assisting college-bound first-
generation Latino/a students. Preparation efforts will require buy-in from administration and
counseling offices alike in order to become effective. While complicated inequality and equity
issues still exist, dedicated school counselors are at the forefront of educators combating these
problems. The results of this mixed-methods dissertation study should be considered by school
counselors, administrators, teachers, and educational researchers attempting to improve their
school site curricula and programs.

78

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88

Appendix A: Measures Used in the Dissertation Study

1) What is your gender?
1. Female 2. Male 3. Other 4. Prefer not to answer

2) What is your age? __________

3) How many years of experience do you have as a full-time counselor? __________

4) How many years have you worked at your current school? __________

5) What is your caseload number of students? __________

6) Do you hold an administrative/supervisory position (e.g., VP of Counseling, Head Counselor,
Director of Counseling) in addition to your caseload?
1. Yes 2. No

7) What is your ethnicity/race?
1. African American 2. Asian/Pacific Islander 3. Caucasian 4. Latino 5. More than one race/ethnicity 6.
Other_________

8) What is the highest degree you have earned?
1. BA/BS 2. MA/MS 3. Doctorate/ Professional degree

9) My school type is best described as?
1. Public 2. Private 3. Charter

10) Does your school have a program to aid first-generation college bound students?
1. Yes 2. No 3. Not sure

11) When do you begin to speak to students about college?
1. Freshmen year 2. Sophomore Year 3. Junior Year 4. Senior Year

12) How much do you think each
of the following are barriers for
first-generation Latino/a
students?
Not a
Barrier

Extreme
Barrier
a. SES 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
b. Lack of Family Support 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
c. Lack of Mentorship/Guidance 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
d. Bias Towards Latino/a Students 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
e. Lack of Programs 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

13) Does your school evaluate
college readiness for first-
generation Latino/a students? Not at All

Evaluate
Every
Student
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
89

14) Do you track first generation
Latino/a students’ progression of
college admissions
requirements? Not at all

Track
Every
Student
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Note: Surveys administered via Qualtrics.

90

Appendix B: Interview Protocol
Semi-structured Interview Protocol
Introduction
Hello, thank you for taking the time to speak with me today. My name is Steve Mejia, I am a
doctoral candidate at the University of Southern California’s Rossier School of Education and I
am the principal researcher in this study. The purpose of this study is to examine the role of high
school counselors when they assist college bound first-generation Latino/a students and the
barriers they face. It is vital to understand what barriers these students face in order to better
support them on their journey towards higher education. I am interested in your experience in
aiding these students. Your participation is completely voluntary, and you may stop the interview
at any time. Portions of this interview may be recorded for data collection purposes, but your
name and information will be kept confidential and anonymous. I will not identify you or your
organization by name. The total duration of the interview should be around 30 minutes. This
study will focus on how you support first-generation Latino/a students as a high school
counselor. The information gathered today will be collected and used as part of the findings for
this study. Do you have any questions? Do I have your permission to begin recording and
continue with the interview questions?
Questions
1) How is your school promoting retention (if at all), among first generation Latino/a students?
2) What kind of programs (if any) does your school implement to assist first-generation students?
3) How do you assist college bound first generation Latino/a students?
4) Explain the process of evaluating college readiness for first-generation Latino/a students.
5) How do you track A-G requirements for Latino/a first-generation students (if at all)?
91

6) What are barriers that may prevent first-generation Latino/a students from being eligible to
attend college?
7) How are these barriers affecting Latino/a first generation students?
8) Preliminary findings in my study reveal that the number of Latino/a students is rising, how are
you preparing to assist these students (if at all)?
9) What recommendations do you have for high school counselors assisting first generation
college bound Latino/a students?
10) Is there anything else you would like to add?
Note: Interviews conducted via Zoom.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract With the rapid growth of the Latino/a student population across the United States, it is essential for educators to prepare themselves to better serve this community. The purpose of this mixed-methods dissertation study was to examine the role of secondary high school counselors when assisting college-bound first-generation Latino/a students and the barriers they face. Data were collected concurrently with 31 survey participants and five interviews. The research questions that guided this study were (a) How do high school counselors in the San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles, California, evaluate college readiness for first-generation Latino/a students, if at all? (b) How are high school counselors in the San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles, California, assisting college-bound first-generation Latino/a students in meeting college admissions requirements? (c) What barriers (if any) prevent first-generation high school students from being eligible to attend college as seen by secondary high school counselors in the San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles, California? (d) What kind of programs (if any) do secondary high schools in the San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles, California, implement to aid first-generation students? The findings indicated that high caseload numbers, lack of family support/mentorship, and SES all are noteworthy factors that affect this population of students. School counselors face multiple barriers when aiding students throughout the college application process. Some are combating this issue by proving mentorship in the form of organizations/clubs and by disseminating critical information, thus educating parents and students alike. The results of this study should be considered for educators, administrators, educational researchers, and the community searching for strategies when assisting Latino/a first-generation high school students.

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Staff members’ transfer of social capital to first-generation, low-income Latino/a students of Mexican descent

Asset Metadata

Creator Mejia, Steve M. (author)

Core Title An examination of the role of high school counselors in assisting college-bound first-generation Latino/a Students in the San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 03/15/2021

Defense Date 02/08/2021

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag counselor,first-generation,High School,Latino/a,mentorship,OAI-PMH Harvest,Secondary,socioeconomic status,Students,support

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Castruita, Rudy (committee chair), Cash, David (committee member), Green, Alan (committee member)

Creator Email steve.mejia21@gmail.com,stevemej@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-427024

Unique identifier UC11668094

Identifier etd-MejiaSteve-9318.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-427024 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-MejiaSteve-9318.pdf

Dmrecord 427024

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Mejia, Steve M.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA