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Teacher perception on positive behavior interventions and supports’ (PBIS) cultivation for positive teacher-student relationships in high schools: an evaluation study

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Teacher perception on positive behavior interventions and supports’ (PBIS) cultivation for positive teacher-student relationships in high schools: an evaluation study

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Teacher Perception on Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports’ (PBIS) Cultivation for
Positive Teacher-Student Relationships in High Schools: An Evaluation Study

by

Baldwin Pedraza

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2021

Copyright 2021 Baldwin Pedraza

ii
DEDICATION
To my wife and kids, for I have learned they are my greatest gifts.

iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thank you to my wife and children, who have always inspired me to be a better human
being, one day at a time. To my wife, whether standing beside me, in front of me, or behind me
(for that gentle nudge), I am grateful for your love and support. To my beautiful children, it is an
honor and privilege to see you continue to grow each and every day. Thank you, kids, for loving
your “old man”. To my mother, for always exemplifying hard work, dedication and love for her
kids. Thank you to all my professors and colleagues for the rich engagement and discourse we
have shared over the course of our program. I admire you all. Finally, to Dr. Emmy Min, thank
you for your dedication, patience, and persistence in seeing me through the process.

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Dedication…………………………………………………………………………………………ii
Acknowledgements…………..…………………………………………………………………..iii
Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………………....iv
Tables and Figures………………………………………………………………………………..vi
Abstract…………………………...…………………………………………………………...…vii
Chapter One: Introduction……………………………………………………………………...…1
Introduction to the Problem of Practice………………………...…………………………1
Statement of Purpose…………………….………………………………………………..2
Organizational Context and Mission……………………………………………………...3
Organizational Goal………………………………………………………………..……...6
Related Literature………………………………………………………………………....6
Importance of the Evaluation……………………………………………………………..8
Description of the Stakeholder Group…………………………………………..….……..8
Stakeholder Group of Focus………………………………………………………..……..9
Purpose of the Project and Questions………………………………………………..…..11
Methodological Approach and Rationale………………………………………………..12
Clark and Estes Analytical Framework…………………………………………...……..14
Definitions………………………………………………………………………….……15
Organization of the Project………………………………………………………………16

Chapter Two: Review of the Literature………………………………………………………….17
Review of the Literature…………………………………………………………..……..17
PBIS in Schools………………………………………………………………………….18
Teacher-Student Relationships…………………………………………………………..24
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Influences…………………......29
Conceptual Framework: The Introduction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation
and the Organizational Context………………………………………………………………….51

Chapter Three: Methodology…………………………………………………………………….55
Participating Stakeholders…………………………………………………………….…55
Interviewing Sampling Criteria and Rationale…………………………………………..56
Qualitative Data Collection and Instrumentation……………………………………..…58
Credibility and Trustworthiness…………………………………………………………61
Ethics………………………………………………………………………………….....62

Chapter Four: Results and Findings………………………………………………………….….64
Study Participants and Study School Sites…………………………………………..…..64

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Results…………………………………………………………………………………...67
Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences………………………………..78
Synthesis…………………………………………………………………………….….107
Chapter Five: Recommendations……………………………………………………………….111
Introduction and Overview……………………………………….…………………….111
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan………………………………….…….128
Summary………………………………………………………………………………..139

References…………………………………………………………………………………...….142

Appendix………………………………………………………………………………………..156

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LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
Table 1. District, School, and Staff Data Information…………………………………………....5
Table 2. Organization Stakeholder Performance Goals………………………………………….11
Table 3. Knowledge and Skills Influence and Assessment Measurements……………………...36
Table 4. Motivational Influences and Assessment Measurements……………………………....43
Table 5. Organizational Influences and Assessment Measurements…………………………….50
Table 6. Teacher Participants…………………………………………………………………….67
Table 7. Validation of Assumed Influences Criteria……………………………………………..78
Table 8. Findings for Knowledge Influences……………………………………………………..79
Table 9. Findings for Motivation Influences………………………………………………….….90
Table 10. Findings for Organization Influences………………………………………………...101
Table 11. Knowledge Influences and Recommendations………………………………………112
Table 12. Motivation Influences and Recommendations………………………………………..119
Table 13. Organization Influences and Recommendations……………………………………..123
Table 14. Level 4 Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes……..130
Table 15. Level 3 Critical Behaviors, Metrics, and Timing for Evaluation…………………….131
Table 16. Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors……………………………………..132
Table 17. Evaluations of the Components of Learning for the Program……………………….136
Table 18. Level 1 Measure Reactions…………………………………………………………..137
Figure 1. Knowledge, Motivation, Organization (KMO) Conceptual Framework………………52

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ABSTRACT
Establishing a safe and effective learning environment is a preventive practice that can
promote positive teacher-student relationships. Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports
(PBIS) is a framework that includes tiered levels of prevention and intervention supports for
student behavior. The purpose of this study was to evaluate high school teacher perception of
whether PBIS cultivated positive teacher-student relationships. Through the Clark and Estes
(2008) gap analysis framework, an evaluation of knowledge, motivation, and organization
(KMO) influences related to teacher and organization PBIS implementation was conducted to
further understand PBIS’ role in supporting positive teacher-student relationships. This study
provides a review of the literature, followed by a qualitative examination of the assumed KMO
influences. Teacher interviews served as the instrument of data collection. The New World
Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) served as the impetus for an
implementation and evaluation plan to further support the recommendations aligned with the
KMO influences.

1

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Introduction of the Problem of Practice

Many school discipline policies and practices implemented in public education continue
to be reactive in nature and include high numbers of exclusionary discipline measures. This
has resulted in the call for more preventive and less reactive approaches to school discipline
(Public Counsel, 2020). Data has revealed that a large number of out-of-school suspensions in
California were not related to issues of school safety, but rather for ill-defined and ambiguous
interpretations of maladaptive behavior (California Department of Education). These included
instances where students were disciplined for such behavior as dress code violations and talking
back to a teacher. These aforementioned instances of “willful defiance and/or disruptions” made
up nearly 31% of all suspensions and 2% of all expulsions in California during the 2014-15
school year (California Department of Education). Research is satiated with studies outlining a
variety of negative outcomes associated with such disciplinary policies and practices (Beck &
Muschkin, 2012; Fabelo, Plotkin, Carmichael, Marchbanks, & Booth, 2011), including lower
academic achievement and involvement in the juvenile justice system. It is therefore necessary
for schools and districts to take a closer look at existing discipline practices and look to
restructure them with evidence-based practices aimed at including alternatives to exclusionary
acts of discipline. Both federal legislature (20 U.S.C. §1465) and California policy (AB 1729)
support this effort and provide guidance for schools in looking to develop systems and
frameworks of intervention. One of these frameworks, Positive Behavior Interventions and
Supports (PBIS), will be the focus of this study.

2
PBIS is a systems approach to establishing the social culture and behavioral supports
needed for all students in a school to achieve both social and academic success (Horner, Sugai, &
Lewis, 2015). PBIS is a framework, not a curriculum, with an approach that defines core
elements that can be achieved through a variety of strategies (Horner et al., 2015).
Within the PBIS framework are evidence-based teacher strategies that look to support
those outcomes schools seek to improve. Some of these specific teacher strategies include
effectively designing the physical environment of the classroom, developing and teaching
predictable classroom routines, defining and teaching positive classroom expectations, using
active supervision and proximity, using behavior-specific praise, and using specific error
corrections to respond to problem behavior (Simonsen et al., 2015). A deeper description of
PBIS will be provided in Chapter 2.
Statement of Purpose
Schools are complex communities that play a role in supporting social development for
our culture. Schools with effective systems in place provide students with access to both good
instruction and a social culture that supports engagement, community, and success (Flannery,
Guest, & Horner, 2010). A positive school culture and climate has been linked to multiple
student behavioral, academic, health, and social-emotional outcomes (Bradshaw, Waasdorp,
Debnam, & Johnson, 2015). The purpose of this study is to evaluate how a district, committed in
its strategic plan to developing a positive learning environment, the personal skills, and academic
skills of its students, has adopted the PBIS framework as means for improving social and
personal skills for all learners, as well as, academic outcomes for its students.

3
Organizational Context and Mission
The participating organization for this study is a district located in California. The
district includes two high schools that are currently in full implementation of PBIS. The district’s
mission statement declares a supportive learning environment without sacrifice of rigor and
where high expectations are held for all learners. This is seen as part of the district plan for
ensuring student success. For purposes of this study, the district shall be referenced as District
X, while the study’s participating high schools from District X shall be referred to as High
Schools A and High School B, respectively.
As of the 2017-2018 school year, District X is a K-12 district that serves 43,163 students.
In addition, the district also serves a number of preschool and adult students who qualify for
special education services. The district enrollment demographic data shows a student population
53.4% Latino or Hispanic, 34.6% Asian, 7.6% White, and 1.2% Filipino. African-American,
Pacific Islanders, and Native Americans each represented less than 1% of the total enrollment
population.
High School A and High School B are both comprehensive high school sites within
District X and were chosen for this study based on the fact that each, respectively, is in current
implementation of the PBIS framework. In addition, both high schools share some similarities in
both student and teacher demographics.
High School A, with a total enrollment of 1,818 students, is 58.2% Hispanic, 31.1%
Asian, 6.4% White, and 1.8% Filipino. African-Americans, Native Americans, and Pacific
Islanders each represented less than 1% of the total enrollment population. Gender data for High
School A reported a student population of 826 female students and 992 male students.
Approximately 73% of students at High School A reported low socioeconomic status.

4
High School B, with an enrollment total of 2,037, is 82.9% Hispanic, 13.1% Asian, and
1.8% White. African Americans, Native Americans, Filipinos, and Pacific Islanders each
represented less than 1% of the total enrollment population. Gender data for High School B
reported a student population of 973 female students and 1,064 male students. Approximately
82% of students at High School B reported low socioeconomic status.
In addition to highlighting both enrollment and demographic data for the research study
schools in District X, it is also important to take note of the number of teachers at each site.
Because there is limited research on the effectiveness of PBIS on teacher efficacy at the high
school level, it is important to consider the number of teachers at each respective school site. A
high school site typically has a much larger teacher and student population than that of an
elementary or middle school. The teacher learning community at a high school can be a complex
entity, often times limited in the amount of collaboration across the entire teaching staff and
potentially causing a barrier to developing a strong sense of community among staff (Flannery &
Kato, 2017). Research does indicate that a strong sense of self-efficacy among teachers can be
predicted when teachers report a sense of community among staff (Kelm & McIntosh, 2012).
As of the 2017-2018 school year, District X employed 2,035 teachers, with 1,601 reported
female and 434 male teachers. High School A had 79 teachers and High School B had 92
teachers. Both High School A and High School B were supported by an administrative team that
consisted of one principal and three assistant principals. Table 1 shows District X, High School
A, High School B, demographic, and teacher data.

5
Table 1.
District, School, and Staff Data Information

District X High School A High School B
Total Student Enrollment 43,163 1,818 2,037
Student Demographics %
Hispanic 53.40% 58.20% 82.90%
Native American N/A N/A N/A
Asian 34.6 31.10% 13.1
Pacific Islander N/A N/A N/A
Filipino 1.20% 1.8 N/A
African American N/A N/A N/A
White 7.60% 6.40% 1.80%
Total Teachers
2,037 79 92
Male 434 27 34
Female 1,601 52 58
Teacher Demographics #
Hispanic 289 16 21
Native American 1 NR NR
Asian 344 9 20
Pacific Islander 12 1 2
Filipino 26 NR 2
African American 25 2 1
White 1316 50 44

N/A= less than 1%.
NR= none reported
# = number total
% = percentage

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Organizational Goal

In the 2013-14 school year, District X launched its strategic plan to move them forward at
a time that saw changing state standards and a changing state accountability model. Developed
with input from students, parents, and staff, District X’s strategic plan was developed as an
equation that included three primary goals: that academic skills plus personal skills, will lead to
lifelong success. It is under the district’s strategic plan Goal 2: Personal Skills where the
implementation of PBIS works to support the fostering of a positive school culture and climate.
The district’s Goal 2 is a commitment to supporting student growth, both academically and
socially, through support in building resiliency, perseverance, and the continued growth for
socio-emotional health and wellbeing. In addition, on-going progress on the strategic plan goals
is shared with all stakeholders through an annual report, as well as, survey data from all
stakeholders. Therefore, data collected from this study is important for District X to guide
decisions and determine if modifying current practices of implementation or re-direction in the
allocation of resources is appropriate.
Related Literature
Zero tolerance policies permeated the educational landscape in the late 1980s and early
1990s, serving in a similar capacity as the United States’ approach to its antidrug policies in
which all offenses, regardless of severity, resulted in harsh and severe punishment regardless of
the situation or circumstances (Skiba & Rausch, 2006). Within school systems, the belief was
that the removal of students who demonstrated disruptive behavior would deter others from
disruption (Goyette-Ewing, 2000) and enhance a more positive climate for those students who
remain (Public Agenda, 2004). Research conducted over the last two decades has indicated
increases in the number of exclusionary practices, such as suspensions and expulsions, and

7
disproportionate numbers of expulsions and suspensions of people of color from 1993 to 2007
(U.S. Department of Education, 2018). This research served as the impetus for both federal and
states to consider better alternatives to school discipline approaches in the hope of addressing
what the research was unveiling.
California legislators, with guidance from the United States Department of Education,
passed legislature amending a number of disciplinary education code policies. These policies
were re-structured to include guidance for schools to consider the use of alternatives to
exclusionary practices of discipline. Federal guidance included the passage of 20 U.S.C. §1465,
which included support in establishing, expanding, or increasing the scope of behavioral supports
and systemic interventions by providing for effective, research-based practices. Further guidance
was given with the passage of 20 U.S.C. §1465, which includes supporting activities such as
joint training for administrators, parents, teachers, related services personnel, behavioral
specialists, and other school staff on effective strategies for positive behavioral interventions and
behavior management strategies that focus on the prevention of behavior problems. In 2014 the
state of California passed education code that students in grades K-3 could no longer be
suspended for “disruption” or “willful defiance” as defined in California Education Code section
48900(k). This policy also indicated that students in any grade could not be expelled for these
same offenses. Shortly before in 2012, California Assembly Bill 1729 was passed and
established policy to provide effective interventions for students that were engaged in acts of
problematic behavior to help them modify their behavior and avoid exclusion from school. In
summarizing, legislative decisions made at both the federal and state levels clearly indicated that
schools must have in place, clear and evidence-based systems of prevention and intervention,
and not rely solely on exclusionary measures of school discipline (FixSchoolDiscipline.org).

8
One such evidence-based framework is PBIS. Its evaluation and ability to work towards meeting
new federal and state policy will be looked at further.
Importance of the Evaluation
It is important to evaluate the organization’s performance in relationship to their
performance goal that all learners develop the personal skills necessary to achieve academic and
social goals for a variety of reasons. District X’s strategic plan inclusion of personal skills
recognizes the importance that establishing a positive school culture and climate can have on
supporting both the social and academic success of all students. In order to support its
commitment to improving school climate by developing all learners’ personal skills, inclusive of
the reduction in exclusionary acts of discipline, District X has looked to establish a PBIS
approach in many of its schools. It is important for District X to evaluate the effectiveness of its
schools’ implementation fidelity of PBIS. Equally as important with any systems-level change
effort, such as PBIS, is the use of outcome data to inform decision-making (Sugai & Horner,
2006). With the expectation that school or districts can and will adopt and implement evidence-
based programs or frameworks with fidelity, implementation is too often poorly carried out in
real-world settings (Pas & Bradshaw, 2012). For purposes of this study, evaluation activities will
focus on the implementation of PBIS and the teacher stakeholder group.
Description of Stakeholder Groups

There are three major stakeholder groups within District X that directly contribute to and
benefit from the achievement of the goals identified in the district’s strategic plan. The
stakeholders include parents, students, and teachers. Further, support from all three stakeholder
groups is needed for PBIS implementation with fidelity and sustainability (McDaniel, Kim,
Kwon, & Choi, 2018). Informed and involved parents are a necessary component for effective

9
PBIS implementation. Lack of parental involvement and the knowledge of positive, proactive
teaching approaches at school can create barriers and inconsistency of expected behaviors across
home and school environments (McDaniel, Kim, & Guyotte, 2017). In addition, student
participation and involvement are necessary throughout the development and sustainability of the
PBIS framework. Because this study looks at PBIS implementation at the high school level,
where the developmental level of the students allows for their larger role in active decision-
making, incorporation of the student voice can be impactful (Martinez, Kern, Hershfeldt,
George, White, Flannery, & Freeman, 2019). Finally, staff support and buy-in for the
implementation of PBIS is needed. Teachers, administrators, counselors, and other school site
staff are responsible for establishing the needed personnel, structures, supports, and resources
that outline school-wide PBIS implementation (Flannery, Guest, & Horner, 2010).
Stakeholder Group of Focus

The stakeholder group of focus for this study will be teachers. The district’s commitment
to the preparation of all students to be provided a rigorous and supportive academic experience,
motivating them to meet high expectations, and ultimately experience lifelong success, is rooted
in its ability to support both academic and personal skills. A student’s school day is primarily
composed of numerous teacher-student interactions. Therefore, teachers’ ability to facilitate an
enriching, safe, and effective learning environment not only includes their instructional
pedagogy, but also their ability to foster positive teacher-student relationships (Hamre, Pianta,
Downer, DeCoster, Mashburn, Jones, & Hamagami, 2013). Creating a positive learning culture
and climate through the cultivation of positive teacher-student relationships promotes the
acquisition of personal skills such as motivation and socio-emotional well-being. To support this
assertion, a recent study (Raufelder, Scherber, & Wood, 2016) revealed a positive association

10
between students’ general perceptions about positive-student relationships and intrinsic
motivation and academic self-regulation. Emerging research is beginning to show not only the
correlation between the integration of social emotional learning for students and student
outcomes, but the role teachers play in this correlation (Scales, Roehlkepartain, & Shramko,
2017). In concluding, the district has included the roles of personal skills and a positive culture
and climate as factors in student academic and life-long success. Because of the daily and on-
going interactions between students and teachers, it would be a risk to the district’s ability in
achieving its strategic plan goal for developing personal skills of all learners if it did not support
both students and teachers in this area. Socially and emotionally competent teachers not only
develop encouraging and supportive relationships, but also work to establish and implement
behavioral guidelines designed to build student intrinsic motivation (Jennings & Greenberg,
2009). The district’s performance goal in all learners developing the personal skills necessary to
achieve academic and social goals by 2024 is in direct correlation with its plan to have all district
schools in implementation of PBIS by 2024. Because of the district’s plan to have all schools in
implementation of PBIS by 2024, all district schools will report a reduction in exclusionary
discipline (e.g. discipline referrals, suspensions) from the previous year, as measured by district
records. With the systems in place by 2024, it will then be the goal by 2025, By June 2025, in
schools where PBIS is implemented, improved perception of teacher efficacy in fostering
positive relationships with students, through elements of classroom PBIS, will be reported by
teachers as measured by a survey. Finally, with systems in place by 2024, and teacher responses
on the district’s strategic plan reflecting positive outcomes in regards to personal skills by 2025,
the district’s goal by 2026 will be to have 100% of its parent stakeholder group’s responses to be

11
“agree” or “strongly agree” with regard to personal skills questions on the strategic plan survey.
Table 2 outlines the stakeholder performance goals.
Table 2.
Organization Stakeholder Performance Goals
Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Organizational Mission
To ensure student success, we will provide a rigorous and supportive academic experience that
motivates all learners to meet high expectations

Organizational Performance Goal
All learners will develop the personal skills necessary to achieve academic and social goals by
2025

Parent Goal Student Goal Teacher 3 Goal
By June 2026, the district’s
strategic plan parent survey
questions regarding students’
personal skills positive
outcomes will reveal 100%
responses of “agree” or
“strongly agree”
By June 2024, all district
schools will report a
reduction in exclusionary
discipline (e.g. discipline
referrals, suspensions) from
the previous year, as
measured by district records.
By June 2025, in schools
where PBIS is implemented,
improved perception of
teacher efficacy in fostering
positive relationships with
students, through elements of
classroom PBIS, will be
reported by teachers as
measured by a survey.

Purpose of the Project and Questions

The purpose of this project is to evaluate the degree to which the district is meeting its
strategic plan goal in developing personal skills for all learners through the support of a positive
and safe learning culture and climate. The analysis will focus on knowledge, motivation and
organizational influences related to achieving the organizational goals. While a complete

12
performance evaluation would focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes the stakeholder
group of focus for this analysis will be teachers.
As such, the questions that guide this study are the following:
1. To what extent is PBIS at High School A and B cultivating the development of positive
teacher-student relationships in support of meeting the district’s goal?
2. What are the stakeholder knowledge and motivation influences necessary for all teachers
to cultivate positive teacher-student relationships?
3. What is the interaction between organizational support around PBIS and teacher
development of the knowledge and motivation to implement elements of classroom
PBIS?
Methodological Approach and Rationale
The research questions driving this study look to analyze gaps in the knowledge and skill,
motivation, and organizational influences at High School A and B with the intended outcome of
gaining perspective on its teachers’ perception on the building of positive teacher-student
relationships through the implementation of the PBIS framework. In looking to answer the
research questions, research data can be taken through one of three approaches: qualitative
research, quantitative research, or a mixed methods research approach. For this evaluation
research study, a qualitative research model was chosen as the methodological approach. While
it is important to note the rationale for the methodological approach chosen for this study, it is
important for the reader of this research to first understand the research approach, which is
briefly explained below.

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Methodological Approaches
Research approaches guide the procedures for research that connect the steps from broad
ideas to narrowing inferences to finer detailed methods for data collection, analysis, and
interpretation (Creswell, 2014). Creswell (2014) further asserts that the decision for the
researcher in choosing a research method rests on a number of influences including the audience,
personal experiences of the researcher, and the topic of study.
Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is an approach for exploring and understanding the meaning
individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem (Creswell, 2014). Unlike quantitative
research, which studies cause-and-effect principles, qualitative research aims to understand
meaning, considers context and process, and looks to collect data in the participant’s natural
setting (Samkian, n.d.-a). In addition, qualitative inquiry relies on words and images; aims to
describe, interpret, understand social phenomena in a naturalistic way; and does not examine
variables (Samkian, n.d.-a). With an inductive approach, qualitative research can evolve during
the study and includes instruments such as interviews (Creswell, 2014). It is also important to
note that within a qualitative method of inquiry, the researcher is seen as an instrument of data
collection and interpretation (Creswell, 2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
For this research study, the researcher has selected to conduct a basic qualitative research
design case study. Because this case study aims to evaluate and analyze the extent to which PBIS
cultivates positive teacher-student relationships in high schools, qualitative measures of data
collection in the form of stakeholder interviews support the ability to construct more in-depth
meaning and understanding of the experience for the stakeholder group. Merriam and Tisdell
(2016) refer to this understanding of meaning as Constructivism, which refers to individuals’

14
interaction with their social worlds and how they construct reality from this interaction. Because
the researcher has shared in the experiences of PBIS implementation in a high school setting and
experienced numerous interactions with students, the researcher explored his own dimensions of
these experiences in part to become aware of personal prejudices, viewpoints, and assumptions
prior to conducting interviews (Merriam and Tisdell, 2016). As previously stated, the purpose of
this case study was a program evaluation of PBIS and teacher perception of its extent in fostering
positive teacher-student relationships. In the program evaluation, the researcher is interested in
using the information collectively to better understand the program in which the stakeholder
group is a part (Alkin, 2011). As further described, the purpose of the evaluation is to support
data-driven decision-making, while also judging the merit and worth of PBIS (Alkin, 2011). For
this evaluation, the researcher used a modified version of the Gap Analysis by Clark and Estes
(2008) that looked at knowledge, motivation, and organizational (KMO) influences on the
stakeholder goal. A description of the framework is provided below.
Clark and Estes (2008) Analytic Framework

The Clark and Estes (2008) analytic framework serves as an approach for bettering
performance and effectiveness within organizations. As a gap-analysis model, the Clark and
Estes (2008) framework serves as a problem-solving model for addressing issues and considers
not only learning and motivation theories, but also organizational features (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Once gaps have been identified through a systematic analysis, performance gaps will be further
evaluated to establish those KMO influences that will necessitate changes and adjustments
(Clark & Estes, 2008). First, knowledge influences to be considered include those factual,
conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive (Krathwohl, 2002). Following, motivational
influences considered include self-efficacy, attributions, levels of intrinsic and interest

15
motivation, and the value of utility to serve motivation (Rueda, 2011). Lastly, consideration of
organizational factors and influences includes exploration, examination, and research into
organizational culture, as well as, organizational structures, practices, and policies (Clark &
Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011).
Following in Chapter 2, each of the foundational possible influences found within the
Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis approach (KMO) will be further explored to determine those
influences for teachers to meet their performance goal of cultivating positive-student
relationships through the implementation of PBIS. First, those knowledge and skill influences
will be examined. Following those knowledge and skill influences, motivational influences will
be further investigated. Finally, those organizational influences will be examined. The
methodology chosen to analyze the knowledge and skill, motivation, and organizational
influences will be discussed with further detail in Chapter 3.
Definitions
The following terms that require definitions for this study are listed below:
Climate: Inferences organizational members make based on the policies, practices,
procedures, and routines that they are subject to, as well as on the kinds of behaviors that are
expected and that get rewarded and supported (Schneider, Brief & Guzzo, 1996).
Culture: Organizational culture concerns the firmly implanted beliefs and values of
organizational members, it resides at a deeper level of people’s psychology than does climate.
Culture captures a less conscious, more subtle psychology of the workplace. Whereas climate’s
policies, practices, and rewards are observable, the beliefs and values of culture are
not so directly visible (Schneider, Brief & Guzzo, 1996).

16
Exclusionary school discipline: Out-of-school suspensions and expulsions (Anderson
&Ritter, 2017).
PBIS (Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports): Implementation framework for
maximizing the selection and use of evidence-based prevention and intervention practices along
a multi-tiered continuum that supports the academic, social, emotional, and behavioral
competence for all students (www.pbis.org).
Self-Efficacy: Judgments and self-perceptions that individuals hold about their
capabilities to learn or to perform courses of action at designated levels (Pajares, 2006).
Teacher-student relationships: Conceptualized by teachers as consisting of warmth,
absence of conflict, and appropriate help-seeking behaviors from students. Students also
recognize the willingness to approach their teachers for help as a sign of a good student-teacher
relationship (Sabol & Pianta, 2012).
Organization of the Project
The remaining chapters of this case study are organized in a way to demonstrate the
background and rationale that provided direction for this research project. A general literature
review is provided and aims to add a historical perspective of PBIS in schools with a closer
examination of its implementation in the high school setting. In addition, a review of existing
research on teacher-student relationships will also be discussed. Following the literature review,
a more detailed explanation of the study’s conceptual framework will be provided, including a
closer look at those KMO influences that drove the research project. Once a review of the
literature and conceptual framework has been established, the nature of the study will explore the
study’s participants as well as, an analysis of the qualitative data collection with considerations
of validity and reliability.

17

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Review of the Literature
Disparate academic and disciplinary outcomes for students have been the impetus behind
school reform policies (Beck & Muschkin, 2012). It has been the challenge for school system
reform to look towards evidence-based practices in addressing the academic and disciplinary
discrepancies that continue to exist across student populations. This study focuses on a systems
approach to supporting student behavioral and academic outcomes through the implementation
of the PBIS framework and aims to measure teacher perception of its effect on cultivating
positive teacher-student relationships. When a systems approach looks to address discipline
disparities through the alignment of daily practices, policies, training, and resources, students
within the system are better supported (Swain-Bradway, Loman, & Vincent, 2014). The research
review begins with a brief historical perspective of PBIS in schools, then shifts to the emerging
literature on the implementation of the PBIS framework in high schools. Next, the review will
turn to elaborating further on teacher-student relationships while looking deeper into its
correlation with PBIS practices and school culture. This section will also include current
research that has identified the essential contextual influences in high schools that need to be
taken into consideration when seeking to implement PBIS. Finally, following the general
research literature, attention will turn to the Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analysis Framework,
with emphasis on the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that effect teachers’
ability to cultivate positive teacher-student relationships through full implementation of the PBIS
framework.

18
PBIS in Schools
Traditionally, exclusionary measures of school discipline, such as expulsions and
suspensions, have been the pillar of practices for schools in decreasing undesired behaviors
(McNeill, Friedman, & Chavez, 2016). Research continues to exploit the notion that
exclusionary discipline practices are ineffective and highlight disproportionate rates of
suspensions and expulsions for minorities (McNeill et al., 2016). Whereas exclusionary
discipline practices could be seen as reactive and punitive in nature, a move was made to look at
a more proactive and systematic framework of practices that would work to meet the academic
and social needs for all students. PBIS emerged as a systematic framework that supported an
implementation model for positive and effective practices to support students’ academic and
social development (Sugai & Horner, 2009).
The PBIS Framework
PBIS is generally described as a multi-tiered system and continuum of behavioral
supports that aim to support social, emotional, and academic success for all students (Horner,
Sugai, & Fixsen, 2017). The PBIS framework consists of three tiers of prevention and
intervention supports. First on the continuum of supports are those prevention or universal
supports that are provided for all students, often referred to as Tier I. Secondary tier supports,
often referred to as Tier II, are described as those supports provided for students not responding
to Tier I supports. Finally, tertiary supports or Tier III supports are those interventions for
students whose behavior has not responded to the established Tier I or Tier II supports.
tier 1. Tier I level supports serve as the foundation for which Tier II and Tier III level supports
are built. Tier I level supports are implemented school-wide and are available to all students.
One of the most important features of Tier I level supports are the clearly defined school-wide

19
behavioral expectations that are instructionally taught and acknowledged when met. In addition,
procedures are also established and put in place to discourage problem behavior. Also, included
in Tier I supports, are the development of classroom expectations and routines that are aligned
with the school-wide behavior expectations (Horner, Sugai, & Anderson, 2010). Tier I level
supports additionally include the establishment of a PBIS leadership team who consistently
reviews behavioral and academic data for decision-making and regular review of implemented
PBIS components. It is through Tier I supports that a foundation for prevention is fostered in the
quest to establish a positive school climate (Horner & Macaya, 2018).
tier II. Tier II supports are designed to support those students who have not responded to Tier I
level supports and require additional support greater than Tier I, but not quite Tier III. Tier II
level interventions target small-group supports for those and include interventions such as social
skills groups, Check-In/Check-Out, and attendance support. While students are receiving Tier II
level interventions, they also are continuing to receive those Tier I level supports. Students
referred to Tier II level interventions should have rapid access to these supports. Data for
students referred to Tier II level interventions is reviewed often so that the interventions can be
adjusted if needed. In addition, Tier II level support includes frequent student feedback to
increase the instruction and recognition of positive student behaviors (Horner & Macaya, 2018).
tier III. Tier III level supports are individualized intervention supports for those students in
greater need of more intensive interventions. While students should still be receiving both Tier I
and Tier II level interventions, those students needing more intensive supports are often seen
with physiological, emotional, and social needs that necessitate more individualized intervention
(Horner & Macaya, 2018). Tier III level supports may require more functional behavior analysis
or the support of individualized behavior plans or wrap-around services. Data collection and

20
decision-making are even more frequent and adapted to the unique needs of the student (Horner
& Macaya, 2018).
Historical Perspective and Purpose of PBIS in Schools
Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (PBIS) is a framework that has served to
support schools in establishing positive school climates and effective learning environments for
all students. PBIS is currently implemented in over 25,000 schools across the United States and
focuses on improving student behavior by teaching students prosocial skills and redesigning the
school environments to discourage problem behavior (Flannery & Kato, 2017; Sugai & Horner,
2009). PBIS was developed in response to more preventative and less reactive approaches to
discipline in schools (Flannery & Kato, 2017). Current research on the effectiveness of PBIS in
schools looks at examining both behavioral and academic outcomes.
Implementation of PBIS with fidelity has been linked consistently to positive social
outcomes for students, but less consistently with positive academic outcomes. It is important to
note that higher levels of PBIS implementation with fidelity are significantly associated with
positive behavioral and academic student outcomes (Freeman, et al., 2016). These positive
effects include lower levels of discipline referrals and lower suspension rates (Noltemeyer,
Palmer, James, & Petrasek, 2019). School culture, inclusive of student prosocial behavior,
organizational health, and a sense of staff affiliation, have been found with PBIS implementation
(McIntosh, Girvan, Horner, Smolkowski, & Sugai, 2018; Noltemeyer et al., 2019). Significant
academic outcomes have also been shown to be affected by the level of fidelity in which PBIS is
implemented. Studies have generally revealed that when there is implementation of PBIS with a
high level of fidelity, behavioral and academic outcomes are more positive (Bradshaw, Mitchell,
& Leaf, 2010; Noltemeyer et al., 2019; Freeman, et al., 2016; Pas & Bradshaw, 2012).

21
PBIS Implementation Study
The aspect of PBIS implementation for this study will focus on elements of classroom
PBIS and the reduction of exclusionary discipline practices, such as disciplinary referrals to the
office. Studies have demonstrated that when the key and essential PBIS foundational classroom
strategies (e.g. designed physical environment, established routines, established expectations,
frequent and specific feedback, and responding to problem behavior) are applied, a positive
outcome includes a reduction in disciplinary office referrals (Goodman & Theisz, 2015; Swain-
Bradway, Lewis, & Frerks, 2015).
PBIS in High Schools
Much of the existing research supports that elementary and middle schools can
implement PBIS with fidelity and obtain positive behavioral and academic student outcomes
(Bradshaw, Koth, Thorton, & Leaf, 2009; Horner et al., 2009). Research is emerging that aims
to study the effectiveness of PBIS implementation at the high school level (Flannery & Kato,
2017).
There is little research on the implementation of PBIS in high schools, but the number of
studies is growing. Although there are over 25,000 schools implementing PBIS in the United
States, as of the 2014-15 school year, there were only 2,664 high schools implementing the PBIS
framework (Flannery & Kato, 2017). While most of the empirical work in establishing the
positive impact of PBIS on student outcomes have been conducted in elementary and middle
schools, high school investigations have been very limited in scope and any longitudinal studies
conducted have not included many high schools (Flannery, Frank, Kato, Doren, & Fenning,
2013). In studying the emerging research of PBIS in high schools, a common consideration made
is the context of a high school and the variables that hold for PBIS implementation.

22
PBIS in a High School Context
Flannery and Kato (2017) have indicated the importance for considering the context
(environment, people, culture) in which an initiative is implemented. There are contextual
features of a high school that have influenced the implementation of PBIS (Flannery & Kato,
2017). High school contextual features that differ from those of an elementary and middle school
include the size, culture, and developmental age of students, all which influence the
implementation of key PBIS framework features (Flannery et al., 2013). Often times double the
size of elementary schools, a high school’s size influences the ability to coordinate and requires a
much-heightened level of effort from staff for implementation (Flannery et al., 2013). High
schools are characterized by a diverse teacher population made up of various departments and
pedagogical approaches that can pose challenges in communicating the PBIS initiative. To add,
high school age students can be seen to be more autonomous than those in elementary and
middle school, enhancing opportunities to lend voice and participation in the decision-making
process (Martinez et al., 2019). Therefore, in concluding, the high school contextual features
need to be considered for overcoming PBIS implementation barriers, including considerations
for adaptations (Flannery, Fenning, Kato, & McIntosh, 2013; Flannery et al., 2013).
Adaptations for PBIS in High Schools
In consideration of potential barriers for implementation of PBIS in high schools, further
time and attention to the framework’s foundational systems of collecting data, communication,
and leadership is required. To see significant change in the high school setting, studies indicate
that additional time for implementation is required in order to ensure PBIS foundational
components are in place, as opposed to elementary or middle schools (Flannery & Kato, 2017;
Flannery et al., 2013). Communication systems in high schools necessitate more time to support

23
implementation as presentations of new information are typically done through smaller groups,
such as departments and professional learning communities (Flannery & Kato, 2017). Studies
have further shown that school leadership, district, and district level support is needed for
implementation guidance, training and allocation of resources. Also included for consideration of
high school PBIS implementation is the alignment of data systems that play a crucial role in the
decision-making process (Flannery & Kato, 2017; Flannery et al., 2013). While there are high
school adaptations that are considered for high school implementation, there are also adoptions
of strategies for considerations that work to secure stakeholder buy-in and sustainability.
Implementation of PBIS in high school needs to adopt strategies that work to secure
stakeholder buy-in and sustainability. As previously mentioned, the high school contextual
features such as the size of the school, organizational culture, and developmental level of high
school students are considerations for successful implementation of PBIS in high schools
(Flannery & Kato, 2017). With this acknowledgement, high school students need to be engaged
as a part of the development, implementation, and sustainability plan for implementation
(Flannery et al., 2013; Flannery & Kato, 2017; Martinez et al., 2019). A series of interviews
conducted with high school PBIS teams by Martinez et. al (2019) also identified further
strategies to overcome high school PBIS implementation barriers, such as opportunities for
sharing ongoing discipline data, dedicated time for reflection of data, and having presentation of
information conducted in smaller groups such as department chair meetings or professional
learning communities.
The developmental level of high school students and their increased desire for autonomy
leads to an increased desire to be more actively involved in decision-making, especially if the
decisions will impact them in some way (Flannery & Kato, 2017). Steinberg & McCray (2012)

24
has noted that the adolescent brain is continuing to develop socially, emotionally, and
cognitively during students’ high school years. Research (Casey & Caudle, 2013; Dumontheil,
2016; Steinberg & McCray, 2012) point to adolescence as a time of growth in developing a full
understanding of consequences for actions taken, peer influence on acceptance, and development
of behaviors that support self-regulation. The research supports the notion that adolescents will
need guidance and monitoring from adults in their development. Flannery and Kato (2017)
further assert teacher-student interactions play a pivotal role in guiding and supporting
adolescent students in their continued development.
Teacher-Student Relationships
Teacher-student relationships are seen as central to the process of learning (Hamre et al.,
2013). Defined as the generalized interpersonal meaning students and teachers attach to their
interactions with each other (Claessens, et al., 2017), teacher- student relationships have
substantial significance (Rose, 2019) in student development. Several research studies have
looked at experiences of both teachers and students to better understand the perceptions,
associations, and outcomes of teacher-student relationships.
The Importance of Positive Teacher-Student Relationships
Positive teacher-student relationships have been associated with positive teacher and
student outcomes (Rose, 2019). Wilkens’ (2014) focus on positive teacher-student relationships
revealed that positive teacher-student relationships correlated with increased student motivation,
academic achievement, high rates of attendance, and attitudes towards school. The research also
shared that teachers who had positive relationships with students reported few discipline
problems and saw such a relationship as serving instructionally beneficial purposes. Yu,
Johnson, Deutsch, & Varga, (2018) also indicated that positive teacher-student relationships

25
supported adolescents in meeting the personal and environmental demands of high schools.
While supporting the impact of positive teacher-student relationships on teacher and student
outcomes, research also reveals various factors that are important to the cultivation of positive
teacher-student relationships. In relation to PBIS, the PBIS approach entails central components
that call for systems to be in place for supporting both social and behavioral outcomes, according
to the Office of Special Education Programs (2015). As these systems work towards supporting
student learning and success for social and behavioral outcomes, Hamre et.al (2013) point to the
importance of teacher-student relationships in the process of learning. The National Research
Council (2004) found that the most important factor in student development, inclusive of high
levels of engagement and motivation, is their connection with adults.
Influences of Positive Teacher-Student Relationships
Both teachers and students have identified differing factors that are important in
cultivating positive teacher-student relationships. Teachers identified student demonstration of
engagement and interest in school work; being respectful, rule-abiding, cooperative, and
demonstrating positive social behaviors as important to building positive teacher-student
relationships (Wilkens, 2014). Teacher perception further revealed (Wilkens, 2014) that
students’ ability to accept teachers as individuals and showing respect for the school
environment as additional factors in building positive teacher-student relationships. Finally,
teachers’ perceptions of what conveyed a positive teacher-student relationship also included the
factor of students’ willingness to talk to teachers in a non-academic context (Wilkens, 2014).
While research has studied the factors teachers believe may contribute to the cultivation of
positive teacher-student relationships, studies have also looked to study the student perspective
on teacher-student relationships. Studies (Martin & Collie, 2019; Yu et al., 2018) have shown

26
that students point to everyday, simple interactions, such as calling on students in class, giving
them nicknames, and initiating informal “free” conversations as indicators their teachers
genuinely cared for them as individuals. To further add, research conducted (Yu et al., 2018)
also found that teacher investment, defined as moving beyond surface-level means for interaction
and connection with students through the encouragement of learning and growth, was a factor in
building positive teacher-student relationships. Examples of teacher investment included the
offer of extra help, accommodations to student needs, listening effectively, and investments of
time outside the classroom. While research has studied the importance and factors related to
teacher-student relationships, studies have also looked to determine the risks that can be
associated with poor teacher-student relationships.
Risks of Poor Teacher-Student Relationships
Poor teacher-student relationships can have detrimental effects to both teachers and
students (Rose, 2019). Research (Wilkins, 2014) studying teacher-student relationships has
shown that poor teacher-student relationships can decrease teachers’ commitment to their school
organization, negatively impact school climate, and lead potentially to teacher burnout. Wilkens
(2014) further revealed that when teachers are emotionally withdrawn, their reactions towards
student behavior is punitive in nature and can further trigger non-compliant student behavior.
Research has also shown the detrimental effects on students when teacher-student relationships
are poor.
The effects of poor teacher-student relationships have been shown to have detrimental
effects on students. The absence of a positive teacher-student relationship can lead to feelings of
non-connectedness to the school community, which can increase the risk of negative behavior,
poor attendance, and discipline problems (Chhuon & Wallace, 2014). Research (Chhuon &

27
Wallace, 2014) has also shown that predominantly negative teacher-student relationships in high
school have been correlated with a decrease in student school engagement and connectedness.
Whereas positive teacher-student relationships can positively impact students academically,
negative teacher-student relationships can lead to poor academic outcomes, a negative impact on
student persistence, and less supportive peer relationships (Chhuon & Wallace, 2014; Claessens
et al., 2017). While examining teacher-student relationships and the factors that research has
shown to exist for both teachers and students, closer examination will look at PBIS and how
these factors are seen in the high school setting.
The PBIS framework and Teacher-Student Relationships in High School
High school contextual features impact the cultivation of positive teacher-student
relationships. As students move into the high school setting, students’ opportunities for teacher
interactions increases as student schedules reflect the assignment to multiple teachers in multiple
content areas. The physical geography of most large high schools can lead to an impersonal
atmosphere, while the specialized organizational pattern of high school life can make the ability
to support connections between teachers and large numbers of students difficult (Wilkens, 2014).
Closer examination of teacher-student relationships in high schools also reveal that
organizational structures of secondary schools can make it difficult for secondary teachers to feel
personally connected with their students. Teachers experience more alienation from students and
more often feel unknown and stereotyped by their students (Spilt, Koomen, & Thijs, 2011). In
further looking at teacher-student relationships, the ability to implement PBIS with fidelity has
been examined to further review its role of impact on cultivating positive teacher-student
relationships.

28
Implementation of PBIS with fidelity correlates with positive teacher-student relationships.
Studies have revealed that PBIS implementation facilitates positive student behavior through its
structured framework, promoting positive teacher-student relationships and a positive school
culture (McPhee et al., 2017). The very structural components of the PBIS tiers of intervention
include a foundation of behavioral expectations that are clearly defined and reinforced.
Implementation of strong classroom management strategies that reinforce the school’s PBIS
behavioral expectations is seen as an essential component of the framework (Bradshaw et al.,
2015). Therefore, when teachers demonstrate the ability to build relationships with their high
school students and create a structured classroom that also still supports student self-expression
and autonomy, these students are more likely to be receptive to corrective feedback (Gregory,
Clawson, Davis, & Gerewitz, 2016).
Classroom PBIS
Classroom PBIS can be attributed to those positive and proactive classroom management
practices demonstrated by teachers in support of all students (Olsen, 2015). Olsen (2015) further
asserts that those foundational PBIS classroom practices focus on establishing positive teacher-
student interactions. These foundational classroom PBIS practices include the design of the
physical environment, establishing classroom routines, establishing classroom expectations,
teaching and reinforcing expectations, responding to problem behavior, and engaging students.
An additional strategy that can also be incorporated into classroom PBIS and further provide for
a structured learning environment is Restorative Practices. Strategies built within these
foundational elements will be the focus of this study’s look at those knowledge skills,
motivation, and organizational influencers that are aimed at supporting positive teacher-student
relationships.

29
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Influences
This scholastic literature review aims to present a foundation for the knowledge,
motivation, and organization influences necessary for high school teachers to meet their
stakeholder performance goal. By 2020, the high school teacher performance goal looks to
secure 100% of teacher responses that “agree” or “strongly agree” to teacher strategic plan
questions which specifically target outcomes in positive teacher-student relationships. The
performance goal specifically targets high school teachers in schools that are in implementation
of PBIS and its three tiers of interventions. Clark and Estes (2008) reveal that people’s
knowledge and skills, motivation to reach a goal, and organizational influences are three
essential factors during an analysis of performance gaps. While the members of an organization
interact within overlapping internal systems, it is the knowledge and motivation systems that
can impact work performance within the organizational environment (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Knowledge and Skills
The development of knowledge and skill expertise is needed for teachers’ abilities to
meet the identified performance goal. When it comes to learning and teaching, the knowledge
dimension is complex in practice, particularly, when looking to identify precisely what should be
known and what should be done (Rueda, 2011). Mayer (2011) also shares that in order to make
learning meaningful, knowledge construction is needed, especially in learning concepts and
strategies. When looking to improve performance within any given organization, Clark and
Estes (2008) note that when diagnosing particular performance gaps, people’s knowledge and
skills should be analyzed. They further note that people are often unaware of their own lack of
knowledge or skills in certain areas and are thus, hesitant to acknowledge the deficits of others.
A purposeful outcome of PBIS implementation is that positive teacher-student

30
interactions exceed negative. Furthermore, through more positive teacher-student interactions, a
conclusion can be drawn that a strong foundation for the establishment of working relationships
between teachers and students has developed. In order to implement the PBIS framework with
fidelity and establish an environment for high school teachers to support positive teacher-student
interactions, there are specific skills and knowledge teachers need to be able to demonstrate with
effectiveness.
A cognitive approach to learning through the knowledge dimension focuses on four
different types of knowledge and are cited in the works of Krathwohl (2002) and Rueda (2011):
factual knowledge, conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge and metacognitive knowledge.
The factual knowledge type is commonly known as facts and are discrete, isolated content
elements. Examples include items such as terminology and details of a specific context or
domain (Krathwohl, 2002). Secondly, conceptual knowledge is knowledge of categories,
classifications theories, and other complex, organized forms of knowledge pertinent to a
particular area (Krathwohl, 2002). The third type of knowledge is procedural knowledge, which
is knowing how to do something. It can also refer to methods of inquiry and very specific or
particular techniques of a methodology necessary to complete specific tasks (Krathwohl, 2002).
The final knowledge type is metacognitive knowledge. Metacognitive knowledge is the
awareness of one’s own cognition and cognitive process. It allows one to know when and why
to do something (Rueda, 2011; Krathwohl, 2002).
Knowledge and Understanding of the PBIS Framework
In order to achieve their performance goal, teachers need the knowledge and the full
understanding of the PBIS framework structures within their school. The PBIS framework is
meant to establish a school culture that supports positive social and academic outcomes through

31
the development and adoption of three tiered levels of support (Flannery, Frank, Kato, Doren, &
Fenning, 2013). These three-tiered levels of support are intended to serve as evidence-based
proactive, preventative, and responsive interventions to student behavior (Flannery et al., 2013;
Flannery & Kato, 2017). As previously mentioned, the primary tier or universal tier, is designed
to communicate and teach expectations to all staff and students. The secondary tier includes
targeted interventions that are designed to meet the needs of students needing further support
beyond those at the universal level. Finally, the third tier of intervention provides more intensive,
individualized support (Flannery & Kato, 2017; Flannery et al., 2013). Characterized as a
framework that bases decision-making on a data management system, the PBIS framework
operates in a context that best meets the needs of a particular school. The PBIS framework has
predominantly been implemented in elementary and middle schools, however, a recent trend has
seen the number of high schools adopting the PBIS framework, increase over the last several
years (Flannery & Kato, 2017; Freeman, Simonsen, McCoach, Sugai, Lombardi, & Horner,
2016). Current research has revealed that implementation of PBIS at the high school level looks
different and takes longer to implement than elementary or middle schools.
Analysis of PBIS implementation at the high school level has focused on various factors
and the contextual structures that can pose challenges for complete buy-in. PBIS implementation
with fidelity requires the commitment of all teachers to teach identified school-wide behavior
expectations, along with recognizing and reinforcing positive student behavior. Teachers need to
possess the knowledge of the PBIS framework that works within their school, including the
teaching, reinforcement, and response to violations of the school-wide behavior expectations.
The knowledge influences necessary for teachers to effectively implement the PBIS framework
requires attention to their classroom management practices. Teacher PBIS classroom practices

32
will be further broken down to specific knowledge influences and further explored.
implementation of effective classroom management strategies. A factual knowledge influence
that teachers need to reach their performance goal is the knowledge of how to implement
effective behavior management strategies. Research has revealed that maintaining positive
teacher-student relationships involves the adoption and intentional use of practical behavior
management strategies (Simonsen, Fairbanks, Briesch, Myers, & Sugai, 2008). In order to
maximize learning and social outcomes, it is necessary that teachers not overlook the importance
of facilitating and establishing a safe learning environment. Effective classroom management
strategies and practices include, but are not limited to well-defined routines, clear expectations,
effective feedback, active engagement in learning, and a physical layout that is functional to
learning. With effective classroom management practices in place, student sense of
connectedness and safety increases the likelihood for student motivation towards academic gains
(Verschueren & Koomen, 2012). School teachers in District X need to maximize their
effectiveness to implement evidence-based classroom strategies and can only do so when
classroom and school-wide behavior expectations are linked (Simonsen et al., 2015).
effectively designing the physical environment of the classroom. A procedural knowledge
influence that District X teachers need to support meeting their performance goal is the
knowledge of how to effectively design the physical environment of the classroom. Ensuring the
foundational practices of PBIS in the classroom begins with the implementation of effectively
designing the physical environment of the classroom (Simonsen & Freeman, 2015). Research
has identified certain features and critical components of arranging a classroom environment that
when implemented, can further support teachers’ ability to provide a positive learning
environment that promotes learning (Wong &Wong, 2009; Archer & Hughes, 2011). These

33
features include designing the classroom to smoothly transition to typical activities, easy
movement between students and the teacher, using assigned seating, and options for students’
personal items (Simonsen et al., 2015). Research conducted with several middle-school and high
school students garnered results that suggested the varied, adaptable nature of flexible learning
spaces coupled with the use of student-centered teaching practices, facilitated a higher proportion
of student interaction, collaboration and engagement with the lesson content during class time
(Kariippanon, Cliff, Lancaster, Okely, & Parrish, 2019). District X teachers need to take a
preventive measure and work to ensure their classroom learning environment is effectively
designed in a manner that maximizes student engagement and provides a predictable
environment, while minimizing the chances for disruptions and disorder.
teaching classroom expectations. A procedural knowledge influence that teachers need to reach
their performance goal is the knowledge of how to establish and teach classroom expectations.
PBIS implementation begins with creating a foundation for common language centered on
universally defined behavior expectations. Studies have shown that effective teachers
communicate classroom performance and behavioral expectations with students (Simonsen et al.,
2008; Lupascu, Panisoara, & Panisoara, 2014). Teachers’ abilities to demonstrate this type of
procedural knowledge have been linked to greater student achievement and student belief of
safer learning environments (Stronge, Ward, & Grant, 2011; Scrivner, 2009). When discussing
the instruction of teaching student expectations, this includes the creation of structure and
predictability of practices for teaching, reviewing, reinforcing, and providing feedback on
expectations (Simonsen et al., 2008). Effective implementation of PBIS in the classroom
recognizes that establishing classroom routines and procedures early provides structure and a
predictable environment for students (Simonsen et al., 2015). District X teachers need to be

34
consistent with their use of clear routines and established procedures in order to keep their
students engaged and to decrease the likelihood they demonstrate problem behavior.
At the time of this writing, District X students, including those enrolled at High School A
and High School B, were participating in distance learning and virtual learning environments due
to the COVID-19 pandemic. District X teachers had transitioned from their physical classrooms
to virtual classrooms and other online learning platforms. In order to reach their performance
goal, District X teachers’ need the metacognitive knowledge to establish classroom behavioral
expectations, which also need to be extended to online learning environments, such as virtual
classrooms. Rueda (2011) states that metacognitive skills allow a person to not only know when
to do something, but why to do something. Therefore, District X teachers need to know that
establishing and teaching behavioral expectations can and should be done in various learning
environments. The same evidence-based teaching practices used in physical classrooms can also
be implemented to generate safe, predictable, and positive online learning environments (Center
on PBIS, 2020).
providing student feedback. Teachers need to know the metacognitive knowledge skill of how
to reflect on their own effectiveness when dealing with inappropriate student behavior. The
ability to communicate constructive feedback is necessary to the teaching and learning process
(Altmiller, 2016). Within this study, it is an identified procedural knowledge influence for
teachers, identified as a knowledge influence in cultivating positive working relationships with
students (Lupascu et al., 2014). An integral part of PBIS implementation are the universal
supports and procedures in place for communicating, teaching, reinforcing, and providing
feedback to students about behavioral expectations. Studies have identified effective feedback as
a factor in support of better student outcomes- both academically and socially (Whitcomb,

35
Sheera Hefter, & Barker, 2016; Lupascu et al., 2014). District X teachers need to be able to
demonstrate effective feedback loops with students and are delivered in a manner that works to
improve academic and social outcomes.
teacher reflection when responding to inappropriate student behavior. The metacognitive
knowledge influence of self-reflection when responding to inappropriate student behavior is a
needed skill for teachers. Teacher reflection is defined as the process of examining beliefs,
goals, and practices to improve student learning (Noormohammadi, 2014). The reflection
process for teachers involves examining their own practices, reflecting on problems, analyzing
effectiveness, and adjusting their practices towards continued improvement (Calan, 2016;
Kaunisto, Estola, &Leiman, 2013; Noormohammadi, 2014). Many studies examining teacher
reflection in improving teaching practices have often times looked at instructional pedagogy,
however closer examination for this study will focus on teacher reflection when responding to
inappropriate student behavior. As part of the implementation for PBIS practices in the
classroom, District X teachers need to reflect on their preventive and responsive practices to
student behavior, determining if adjustments are needed in their practices.
Table 3 exhibits the knowledge influences necessary to meeting both the organizational
and stakeholder goal. Identified on the table additionally, is each of the knowledge types and the
knowledge influence assessment tool of measurement.

36
Table 3.
Knowledge and Skills Influences and Assessment Measurements
Organizational Mission
To ensure student success, we will provide a rigorous and supportive academic experience that
motivates all learners to meet high expectations
Organizational Global Goal
All learners will develop the personal skills necessary to achieve academic and social goals by 2025
Stakeholder Goal
By June 2025, in schools where PBIS is implemented, improved perception of teacher efficacy in
fostering positive relationships with students, through elements of classroom PBIS, will be reported by
teachers as measured by a survey.

Knowledge Influence Knowledge Type Knowledge Influence Assessment
Teachers need knowledge of
effectively designing the physical
environment of the classroom
Factual Teachers will be asked to provide a
description of their physical
classroom environment and probed
to explain further why
Teachers need to know how to
establish and teach classroom
expectations in both physical
classrooms and in online learning
environments
Procedural Teachers will be asked to explain
how they teach classroom
expectations
Teachers need to know how to
provide effective feedback to students
Procedural Teachers will be asked (interview)
to describe times they provided both
positive and corrective feedback

Teachers need to know how to reflect
on their own effectiveness of dealing
with inappropriate student behavior
Metacognitive Teachers will be asked to explain an
experience in providing feedback to
a student who was not meeting
classroom expectations (interview)
and what they learned from the
experience

Teachers need to know when and why
to establish behavioral expectations in
various learning environments,
including in-person or online learning
environments.
Metacognitive Teachers will be asked to share their
experiences with transitioning to
distance learning and an online
learning environment during the
COVID-19 pandemic and its impact
on PBIS implementation

Motivation
For teachers to be able to meet their identified stakeholder goal, they need to see
utility value of providing academic engagement for all students as a positive indicator for

37
cultivating positive teacher-student relationships. Motivation is what gets people going, ignites
those to action, and helps determine the necessary effort to complete tasks (Clark & Estes, 2008;
Rueda, 2011). Both Clark and Estes (2008) and Rueda (2011) site research that have worked to
identify motivational factor processes. The first factor is active choice and is described to occur
when people decide to act in goal pursuit. The second factor is persistence and is present when
people, regardless of distractions or the presence of other goals, continue to move forward even
in the face of obstacles or distractions. Finally, the third motivational factor is mental effort.
When people invest the mental effort in the pursuit of goals, confidence can be built and serve as
a foundation to succeed in the face of unexpected challenges. Collectively, these three
motivational factors, in conjunction with knowledge and skills, keep motivational levels high for
meeting established goals (Clark & Estes, 2008).
When diagnosing performance gaps, it must be noted that a complete assessment and
plan to improve organizational performance must have established equal attention to knowledge
and skill gaps, as well as, motivational factors. One without the other will only delay and derail
progress and stifle individual and organizational growth. Rueda (2011) notes that far too often in
the field of education, motivational factors and dimensions are not considered frequently enough
in school and district initiatives. Therefore, when studying organizational goals, and those
individuals or groups within the organization that will be responsible, motivational factors must
be considered.
The expectancy value motivational theory presented by Jacquelynne Eccles builds upon a
motivational model that aims to answer two particular questions regarding a task: “Can I do the
task?” and “Do I want to do the task?” When engaging with the question of whether someone
believes he or she can do the task, consideration of a person’s self-efficacy beliefs is factored.

38
Self-efficacy and the beliefs associated can be defined as judgments individuals hold about the
capabilities to learn and perform specific courses of action or tasks at designated levels (Pajares,
2006). When considering a task or activity to do, four value constructs are determined: intrinsic
value, attainment value, utility value, and perceived cost (Eccles, 2006). Intrinsic value focuses
on the enjoyment one feels when doing a task (Eccles, 2006; Rueda, 2011). Attainment value is
seen in the needs, personal interests, and personal values that a task or activity can fulfill (Eccles,
2006). Utility value focuses on how useful a person believes an activity or task is for achieving a
future goal (Rueda, 2011). Finally, the perceived cost factors include time and effort needed for
the task. In addition, cost factors could also include anxiety, fear of failure, and fear of the social
consequences of success (Eccles, 2006; Rueda, 2011). In conclusion, it is imperative that the
answer to both the expectancy component question “Can I do the task?” and the value
component question “Do I want to do the task?” is “yes” if engagement in learning is to take
place (Eccles, 2006).
The following section will discuss in further length, the two motivational beliefs of
expectancy value motivational theory and self-efficacy theory. These two motivational
influences for teachers will be examined further through a review of current research. It is the
goal that by linking the motivational theory with its corresponding motivational influence for
teachers, the appropriate methodology for assessing each of the teachers’ motivational influences
can be illuminated.
expectancy-value motivational theory. The first motivational influence that teachers need to
meet their goal is based on the expectancy value motivational theory. When studying the
motivational influences on teachers’ implementation of academic strategies, Foley (2011) found
the values teachers placed on the academic strategies correlated positively with their reported

39
implementation levels. As previously stated, the expectancy value motivational theory aims to
link achievement-related choices to two sets of beliefs: expectations for the individual’s success
and the importance or value the individual places to available options (Eccles, 2006). Rueda
(2011) points out a prominent motivational principle centered on the importance an individual
places on a task. Rueda (2011) elaborates further indicating that the more an individual values a
task or activity, the more likely the person will be to persist and engage in it.
Research data has shown that negative teacher-student relationships undermines student
engagement and performance in school (Cook, Coco, Zhang, Duong, Renshaw, & Frank, 2018).
Adding to this, research conducted by Hargreaves (2000) revealed a threat to the personal well-
being of secondary teachers who reported conflictual or alienated relationships with students.
Further research has identified student engagement as an evidence-based classroom management
practice (Simonsen et al., 2008). The PBIS framework recognizes that effectively keeping
students actively engaged in learning is a goal for school PBIS teams when developing
procedures for teaching classroom-wide behavioral expectations. Eccles (2006) sites that
feelings of belongingness in classrooms and being part of a supportive learning environment
increases engagement and school learning.
teacher self-efficacy. The second motivation influence teachers need in order to meet their
stakeholder goal is self-efficacy. Bandura (2000) has defined self-efficacy as judgments that
individuals hold about their capabilities to learn or to perform courses of action at designated
levels; self-efficacy beliefs are the self-perceptions that individuals hold about their capabilities.
High efficacious teachers have been linked to positive outcomes for teachers and students (Zee &
Koomen, 2016; Shahzad & Naureen, 2017). High efficacious teachers reported higher levels of
overall well-being and job satisfaction, perceived ability to address challenging students, and

40
increase their use of data decision-making within their classrooms (Perera, Granziera, &
McIlveen, 2017; Shahzad & Naureen, 2017; Zee & Koomen, 2016). Student outcomes include
reports of better working relationships with teachers, positive achievement, and motivation
(Gehlbach, Brinkworth, Harris, 2011). In relation to the outcomes associated with teacher self-
efficacy and PBIS, research has shown positive effects (Sorlie, Ogden, & Olseth, 2016; Kelm &
McIntosh, 2012).
Pajares (2006) shares four sources of self-efficacy beliefs: mastery experience, vicarious
experience, social persuasions and physiological reactions. Mastery experiences includes
interpreted results of one’s own performance. Secondly, people may observe, vicariously, the
successes and failures of peers perceived to be similar in capabilities. Third, whether intentional
or accidental, self-efficacy beliefs can also be influenced by verbal messages and social
persuasions received from others. Finally, self-efficacy beliefs can be informed by one’s
physiological and emotional states such as anxiety and stress (Pajares, 2006). Self-efficacy
beliefs play a vital role in determining the amount of effort one will put towards a task. They
also can reveal the level of perseverance and resiliency someone might show when faced with
challenges and obstacles (Pajares, 2006).
Teachers need to believe they are capable of taking an intentional approach to cultivating
relationships and restoring them when conflict or disagreements arise. If teachers have strong
self- efficacy beliefs, then the proposed results are positive teaching practices, which in turn,
enhance student learning (Klassen & Tze, 2014). It is believed that through the practices and
strategies promoted within the PBIS framework, teachers’ can build their self-efficacy beliefs. A
study that examined perceptions of teacher self-efficacy between schools that implemented
school-wide positive behavior supports (SWPBS), such as PBIS, and those that did not, revealed

41
that teachers at SWPBS reported significantly higher levels of teacher self-efficacy beliefs than
those teachers at non-SWPBS schools (Kelm & McIntosh, 2012). Teachers and students amass a
large number of hours in interactions and over time, build significant relationships that work to
achieve student goals. Teachers lead the way, carrying the heavy load in facilitating these
relationships (Shefi, 2015). With an emphasis on behavior instruction, such as intentionally
teaching social emotional skills, teaching expectations, and routines within the PBIS approach,
an effect is the enhanced self-efficacy beliefs of teachers (Kelm & McIntosh, 2012). Kelm and
McIntosh (2012) further elaborated that because teachers are provided with effective
instructional strategies when implementing PBIS, the result may be improved instructional skills
in general.
Self-efficacy beliefs can result in positive outcomes. Strong self-efficacy beliefs will
view difficult tasks as challenges to be mastered, rather than a roadblock that cuts the motivation
and commitment to a course of action (Pajares, 2006). Pajares (2006) also notes that those with
low self-efficacy can be burdened with feelings of anxiety, stress, depression. Also affected is
the ability to effectively problem-solve. Teachers’ role in supporting PBIS implementation
includes classroom PBIS practices where identified school-wide and classroom behavioral
expectations. Effectiveness of PBIS implementation includes teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs in
their abilities to address violations of classroom and school-wide expectations in a way that
promotes social learning. Kelm and McIntosh (2012) have noted that teachers with a sense of
high self-efficacy beliefs are more than likely to demonstrate resiliency and persist in supporting
students deemed difficult to work with, hold higher expectations for students, and support the
inclusion of students with disabilities in the general education classroom setting.
Table 4 exhibits the motivation influences necessary to meeting both the organizational

42
and stakeholder goal. Identified on the table additionally, is each of the motivational influences
and the motivation influence assessment tool of measurement.

43
Table 4.
Motivational Influences and Assessment Measurements
Organizational Mission
To ensure student success, we will provide a rigorous and supportive academic experience that
motivates all learners to meet high expectations
Organizational Global Goal
All learners will develop the personal skills necessary to achieve academic and social goals by
2025
Stakeholder Goal
By June 2025, in schools where PBIS is implemented, improved perception of teacher efficacy
in fostering positive relationships with students, through elements of classroom PBIS, will be
reported by teachers as measured by a survey.

Assumed Motivation Influences Motivational Influence Assessment

Expectancy Value- Teachers need
to see value in implementation of
PBIS classroom practices
Interview items:
“Explain the value of implementing PBIS
“Tell me about a time you had to deal with inappropriate
student behavior. What steps did you take?”
(probe from question above), what did you learn from
this experience?
“What value do you put on classroom management?”
Talk about some of the classroom management strategies
you may utilize in your classroom.
Describe the impact of PBIS practices in your classroom
management
Describe your classroom culture?
Share how you establish a safe learning environment for
all students.

Self-Efficacy- Teachers need to
believe they are capable of taking
an intentional approach to
building and strengthening
meaningful relationships with
their students.
Interview item:
“Share an experience you had with a student when
providing positive feedback.”
“Share an experience of providing feedback to a student
who was not meeting classroom/school expectations.”
What did you learn from the experience?
“How do you feel about your school's response to
inappropriate student behavior?”
tell me about the procedures for students who violate
your school-wide expectations
Do you believe these procedures promote positive
teacher-student relationships? How?

44
Two of the three causes of performance gaps include people’s knowledge and skills, as well as,
their motivation to achieve a goal (Clark & Estes, 2008). If a teacher outcome in the
implementation of PBIS is to enrich teacher-student relationships, then it is necessary to consider
factors such as knowledge, skills, and motivation in reaching this outcome. The final cause of
performance gaps as reported by Clark and Estes (2008) includes the diagnosis of possible
organizational influences.
Organization

Organizational influences cannot be ignored, nor their importance minimized in high
school teachers’ need to reach organizational goals. Even for those within an organization who
have knowledge and skills and motivation, organizational gaps in performance can impede the
ability to achieve performance goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). In looking further into
organizations, areas of attention that need to be contemplated are organizational culture,
structure, and practices (Rueda, 2011). Schein (2017) defines culture as a shared learning of a
group as it solves its problems of external adaptation and internal integration. The accumulated
learning is a pattern or system of beliefs, values, and behavioral norms that come to be taken for
granted as basic assumptions and eventually drop out of awareness. Further elaborating on
culture, and important in this study’s look at organizational influences, are the concepts of
cultural models and cultural settings.
Culture in Organizations
A group cultural perspective believes cultural patterns can be changed by changing the
beliefs and knowledge of groups of people at work (Clark & Estes, 2008). Any group that has a
shared task, constant membership, and some common history of learning together will have its
own subculture within the culture of the bigger organizational unit (Schein, 2017). The group

45
cultural perspective is important to acknowledge given that a high school setting is made up
different academic content departments that share tasks and can be characterized as having a
common history learning together. The individual as a cultural body can be analyzed in terms of
artifacts, espoused beliefs and values, and underlying basic assumption (Schein, 2017).
Important aspects for the culture in individuals include a person’s determination of what work
processes are effective for them and how and why they do things, and each person’s motivational
patterns about what their skills are, what is worth doing, and what makes them successful (Clark
& Estes, 2008). The individual culture is considered given that a common characterization of a
high school teacher’s job entails an extensive level of daily autonomy within their classrooms.
Agocs (1997) notes that individuals are said to resist change because of habit and inertia,
fear of the unknown, absence of the skills they will need after the change, and fear of losing
power. Organizations are said to resist change because of inertia, sunk costs, scarce resources,
values and beliefs, conformity to norms, and inability to perceive alternatives. If teachers are to
reach their stakeholder goals for positive teacher-student relationships, they will need to be open
to the changes that implementation of the PBIS framework may call for in environment, group,
and individual culture perspectives.
cultural models. Cultural models are the shared mental schema or normative understandings of
how the world works, or ought to work (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Gallimore and
Goldenberg, (2001) further describes cultural models as often invisible and unnoticed, dynamic
rather than static traits, and expressed through cultural practices. A cultural model that can be
seen to have shaped the high school culture, but what PBIS implementation looks to challenge, is
a typical belief that students behave in class and if they become disruptive, they are then sent to
the office. The implementation of the PBIS approach looks to redefine some older, established,

46
systematic approaches to classroom disruption by including steps for school PBIS teams to
develop definitions of what are classroom- managed behaviors and what are deemed office-
managed behaviors. Traditional responses to most disruptive and problem behavior focused
primarily on exclusionary student measures, whereas the PBIS approach looks to establish a
progression of steps in managing classroom behavior violations with the goal of keeping students
in classrooms and considering other means of correction before considering the need for
exclusionary measures of discipline.
other means of correction. A cultural model that the organization needs to support is the
establishment and the consideration for the use of other means of correction when addressing
students who violate either school-wide or classroom behavior expectations. As previously
stated, schools have often relied on exclusionary acts of discipline such as suspensions and
expulsions. Numerous studies have revealed that exclusionary acts of discipline have a negative
impact on student outcomes and the learning environment (Skiba & Sprague, 2008). In addition,
Skiba & Sprague (2008) also revealed that school factors have traditionally been an influence on
the rate of suspensions and expulsions. These factors included the attitudes of staff, from
administrators to teachers, all playing roles in establishing, and to an extent, sustaining a culture
of how school discipline was handled. With a PBIS approach, Horner and Macaya (2018) assert
that schools work to set a foundation for a positive learning community. Schools then work to
define behavior expectations, teach those expectations, and provide instructional correction for
behavioral errors. The PBIS framework was established to provide a new approach to an
established discipline culture. District X teachers need to believe that the organization is
committed to providing schools the tools and resources for establishing and sustaining the PBIS
framework with fidelity.

47
restorative practices. A cultural model influence that the organization needs to adopt and
that can align within the PBIS framework is Restorative Practices. Restorative practices is an
emerging social science that studies how, within communities, relationships can be strengthened
and better social connections can be established between individuals (www. iirp.edu).
Restorative Practices is rooted in restorative justice, an approach that looks to repair the harm
done to people and relationships instead of a focus on punishing offenders (Costello, Wachtel, &
Wachtel, 2010). Those harmed by an offense or crime are brought together to reveal the impact
the incident had on all people. With a problem-solving mindset, the parties discuss and identify
the actions needed in order to repair the harm. There are a range of formats that Restorative
Practices processes can be practiced. On this continuum are actions such as impromptu meetings,
groups, circles, and formal conferences (Costello, Wachtel, & Wachtel, 2010).
restorative practices, school discipline, and PBIS. Restorative Practices has more
frequently been adopted by schools as a tool in addressing school discipline, lowering
exclusionary measures of school discipline, and providing ways to better build relationships in
school systems. Research has emerged showing lower rates of exclusionary measures for
students in schools implementing Restorative Practices (Gonzalez, 2015; Riestenberg, 2013). To
add, when school systems integrated Restorative Practices within the PBIS framework, lower
rates of exclusionary measures for students were also recorded (Jain, Bassey, Brown, and Kalra
,2014).
restorative practices and teacher-student relationships. According to Costello, Wachtel,
and Wachtel (2010), Restorative Practices not only helps deal with misbehavior, but the use of
proactive circles before problems occur can initiate the process of improving school climate. On
the Restorative Practices continuum, proactive circles can be utilized by teachers in support of

48
building healthy relationships and community within their classrooms. When teachers use
Restorative Practices circles, they foster inclusion, community, accountability, and responsibility
that works on building connectedness for students (Costello, Wachtel, & Wachtel, 2010).
Research is emerging and promising in the area of Restorative Practices and student-teacher
relationships. Findings in research done by Gregory, Clawson, Davis, and Gerewitz (2016) show
that teachers who implemented Restorative Practices with fidelity had more positive
relationships with their diverse students. The research indicated that students perceived them as
more respectful and issued fewer exclusionary discipline referrals compared with teachers who
implemented Restorative Practices with less fidelity. In addition, the study found that teachers
who implemented Restorative Practices with high levels of fidelity issued fewer discipline
referrals to Latino and African American students compared with those teachers that
implemented Restorative practices with less fidelity. District X needs to see the value of
imbedding Restorative Practices into the culture of school systems’ PBIS framework as a
strategy for supporting teacher practices.
cultural settings. Where cultural models are seen as unnoticed or even invisible, cultural
settings are seen as visible artifacts and phenomena that can be seen, heard, and felt (Schein,
2017). Cultural settings are the who, what, when, where, why, and how of the routines which
constitute everyday life (Rueda, 2011). Examples include formal descriptions of how the
organization works (Schein, 2017). It is also necessary to consider cultural perspectives from
environmental, individual, and group standpoints. The environmental culture approach sees the
development and change of a culture within an organization influencing performance change
(Clark & Estes, 2008). This culture approach is necessary to acknowledge especially when

49
looking to implement a new school-wide initiative such as PBIS in a large-scale organization
such as a high school.
professional learning culture. Because of the organizational culture of high schools, it
can take at least three years to implement PBIS. As previously acknowledged, the size of high
schools and its larger and more diverse faculty population can make PBIS adoption difficult. Mc
Daniel, Kim, and Guyotte (2017) explored the challenges that can come within organizations
when implementing PBIS. The research participants shared that challenges included the ability
to provide on-going support, professional development, alignment with existing cultural norms,
and administrative support. District X teachers need the support of the organization to provide
the necessary resources to successfully implement PBIS.
supporting classroom PBIS. Along with establishing school-wide expectations for
student behavior, teachers also build and establish classroom expectations for student behavior.
The emphasis for teachers is on planned, proactive, and preventive practices that are designed to
establish healthy environments, encourage language interactions, and develop caring and trusting
relationships (Sugai, Simonsen, Freeman, & Everett, 2015). District X teachers need to establish
classroom behavior expectations that maximize and promote student pro social and academic
outcomes.
Table 5 exhibits the organization influences necessary to meeting both the organizational
and stakeholder goal. Identified on the table additionally, is each of the organizational types and
the organizational influence assessment tool of measurement.

50
Table 5.
Organizational Influences and Assessment Measurements
Assumed Organizational Influences

Organizational Influence Assessment
(Cultural Models)
The organization needs to create a culture
that considers other means of correction
and not just exclusionary measures of
discipline when addressing student
misconduct
● Interview Questions
Tell me about a time you had to address a student’s
violation of a school-wide expectation What steps did you
take?
How do you feel about your school’s response to
inappropriate student behavior and why do you feel this?
Tell me about the procedures for students who violate
your school-wide expectations.
● Artifacts
Discipline data: suspensions, referrals to office

(Cultural Models)
The organization needs to establish a
culture that values a Restorative Practices
approach for building positive teacher-
student relationships
● Interview Questions
Tell me about ways you provide positive feedback to your
students.
Share an experience when you provided feedback to a
student who was not meeting classroom/school
expectations.
Describe how your school has provided professional
development opportunities for teachers in support of PBIS
implementation.
Tell me about the procedures for students who violate
classroom expectations? Do you believe these procedures
promote positive teacher-student relationships? How?
● Artifacts
Professional Development Information

(Cultural Settings)
The organization needs to provide
professional learning opportunities for
teachers to receive professional
development in supporting PBIS
implementation

● Interview Questions
What are your thoughts and perceptions about how other
teachers feel about PBIS? Explain the value in
implementing PBIS.
● Artifacts
Professional Development calendars

(Cultural Settings)
The organization needs to establish the
use of PBIS classroom practices to
include addressing problem behavior,
fostering positive teacher-student
interactions
● Interview Questions
Talk about some of the classroom management strategies
you utilize in your classroom.
Has PBIS implementation impacted your classroom
management? If so, how?

51
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation and
the Organizational Context
In designing a case study, it is important for the researcher to stay structured and focused.
Attention to identifying a conceptual framework allows the researcher to be guided in structuring
or framing the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The conceptual framework of a study-the
system of concepts, assumptions, expectations, beliefs, and theories that supports and informs
your research- is a key part of any research design (Maxwell, 2013). Essentially, the conceptual
framework is built, not found, through the existing literature on the topic of interest. The
researcher identifies common theories, key words, and recurring concepts that ultimately,
informs the rest of the study design and supports refinement of goals, development of realistic
and relevant research questions, selection of appropriate research methods, and the identification
of potential validity threats to the conclusions (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). An
important function in identifying the conceptual framework is to serve as an influence in the
development of research questions, accompanying methods for data collection, analysis of the
data, and the justification for the research (Maxwell, 2013).
The disciplinary orientation is the lens through which the researcher views the world
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Identification of the conceptual framework for this particular study
looks to support the field of education. In the field of education, improving or evaluating
performance in schools is a complex task in which a more comprehensive approach is often
necessary, but often neglected (Rueda, 2011). As noted in the research questions above, three
key concepts serve to guide this study for the stakeholder group: knowledge and skills,
motivation, and organization dimensions. However, as Rueda (2011) reiterates, it is important to
note that none of these dimensions in isolation are sufficient to address the complexities and

52
range of issues that may serve to guide a study, especially in education, therefore a more
comprehensive and multidimensional approach is needed and will be included in this study to
demonstrate how each of these three concepts interacts with one another. Clark and Estes (2008)
note that people participate in a number of separate, but interacting systems in organizations, but
the knowledge and motivation systems are the most vital facilitators or inhibitors of work
performance. Clark and Estes (2008) further elaborate that these internal systems must cooperate
effectively to handle events that occur in the organizational environment. Focusing on one of the
systems (knowledge, motivation) or the organizational environment alone will only seize part of
the cause and ultimately, only part of the solution.

Figure 1. Knowledge, Motivation, Organization (KMO) Conceptual Framework

Organization
Cultural Settings and Cultural
Models
clearly defined school-wide
expectations and development of
PBIS tiers of interventions, time for
teacher collaboration, clear
policies/procedures for addressing
student problem behavior

Knowledge
factual, procedural, metacognitive
knowledge and skills related to
effective PBIS classroom
practices(establishing behavioral
expectations, designing physical
classroom environment, student
feedback strategies, addressing
inappropriate student behavior)
and the (Motivation) expectancy-
value and self-efficacy in cultivating
positive teacher-student relationships
By June 2026, the district’s strategic plan survey
questions regarding Goal 2 Personal Skills
positive outcomes will reveal 100% responses of
“agree” or ‘strongly agree”

53
As seen in Figure 1, in order for the teachers to meet their stakeholder goal, the outside
circle, which represents the organizational environment, outlines the necessary conditions that
research has shown must be present if the internal systems, represented by the internal circle, can
be realized. As previously stated, the organizational system or structure interacts with the
knowledge and motivation in a way that if organizational barriers exist, such as for this particular
study, if school-wide behavior expectations are not clearly defined or a lack of clear policies and
procedures for addressing problem student behavior is the present condition, then it will be
difficult for teachers to see utility value or feel a sense of self-efficacy in their abilities to
cultivate positive student relationships.
Cole and Walker (1989) previously pointed out that a lack of school structural supports,
such as PBIS, can prevent teachers from their ability to meet the social demands of their jobs and
may result in a negative teacher experience characterized by conflict, confusion, and stress in
their professional roles. To further elaborate on the research regarding the organizational
environment, necessary components of implementing the PBIS framework requires schools to
focus on establishing strong foundational organizational systems that identify school-wide
outcomes, and systems that support implementation and sustainability (Flannery, Frank, Kato,
Doren, & Fenning, 2013). These foundational systems, which also include implementation of
evidence-based behavior management strategies to create a positive social climate and learning
environment, are necessary organizational building blocks needed for schools to implement PBIS
successfully (Flannery et al., 2013).
Looking further into the inner circle, where teachers look to gain or build upon their
knowledge and skills for cultivating positive teacher-student relationships, the conceptual
framework reflects the literature’s focus on theories centered on not just gaining the knowledge

54
and skills, but also identifying the influences for teacher self-efficacy and utility value in
cultivating positive teacher-student relationships. Again, the interaction between the
organization and influences on teacher self-efficacy and utility value is supported by research
(Eccles, 2006) that reveals motivation to engage in the demands of any particular situation or
setting (in this case study PBIS) is influenced by the extent to which the setting provides
opportunities to experience autonomy, social relatedness, and a sense of competence.
In concluding, the conceptual framework concepts for this study-knowledge and skills,
motivation, and organization dimensions- do not act in isolation or in silos, but interact with one
another and will be further examined in this case study’s analysis.

55
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Participating Stakeholders
A selected sample of teachers from both High School A and High School served as the
stakeholder population of focus for this study. Criteria for teacher selection was high school
teachers in schools that were currently implementing PBIS for at least two years. Both High
School A and High School B matched the school criterion. Because this study looked to
evaluate the extent to which PBIS cultivates positive teacher-student relationships in high
schools, the settings for this study required current teachers in high schools that were
implementing the PBIS framework. Participants interviewed for this study were selected using
purposeful sampling. Purposeful sampling assumes that the researcher wants to discover,
understand, and gain insight and thus, must select a sample from which the most can be learned
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In addition, criterion-based selection was utilized in order to
determine what selection criteria were essential in choosing the teachers and school sites to be a
part of the study. Criterion- based selection is the process of selecting what attributes of the
sample are crucial to a study, finding the people and sites, directly reflecting the purpose of the
study, and emphasizing an in-depth understanding of the specific case (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016).
Criterion developed in the selection sample of high school teachers for this study
included the consideration that teacher beliefs and the differing levels of teacher expectations for
student performance could contribute to student outcomes. Teacher expectation research has
been revealing. Teachers who hold high expectations for their students foster a nurturing learning
environment, highlighted by the use of mixed cooperative learning groups, student input in
choosing classroom activities, and clear learning goals according to research by Rubie-Davies

56
(2008). Rubie-Davies’ (2008) findings also revealed that teachers who held low expectations for
students, grouped students by ability, created specific activities for high and low ability students,
and believed they should solely decide what students should learn. Further research findings
indicated that teachers with higher academic performing students resulted in higher teacher
expectations of those students, while teachers with lower performing students, resulted in those
teachers having lower expectations for their students (Timmermans & Rubie-Davies, 2018).
Therefore, to better support this study’s acquisition of a well-represented teacher sample,
teachers will be selected from two distinct categories:
1. Core Content Subjects/Electives: these courses meet the basic requirements for
graduation (e.g. English 1, Algebra 1, U.S. History, Biology), and introductory
level elective courses.
2. Advanced Core Content Subjects/Electives: these courses include advanced level
core subject areas (e.g. AP English, Calculus, AP U.S. History, AP Biology) and
advanced elective courses (e.g. Culinary Arts II, AP Spanish).
The rationale for developing two distinct categories in selection of the teacher sample can
be further explained by considering teacher expectation research and acknowledging that the
diversity of course offerings at a high school may offer differing classroom experiences for both
teachers and students. In addition, this sampling strategy as described by Maxwell (2013) works
to create a microcosm of a diverse high school setting.
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion
The teachers interviewed had at least five years of teaching experience and were teaching
at one of the selected high school sites during the PBIS development and implementation

57
process. This allowed the researcher to collect data that could evaluate teacher perception of the
organizational culture and climate around addressing student behavior prior to PBIS
implementation. In addition, the researcher also considered the impact that the contextual
features of the high school setting had on establishing a foundation for procedural and factual
knowledge of PBIS.
Interview Strategy and Rationale
As previously stated, participants interviewed for this study were selected using
purposeful sampling. Teachers who met the criterion were identified. Through purposeful
sampling, eight teachers from High School A and eight teachers from High School B were
invited to participate in interviews. Of the 16 teachers invited, eight teachers across High
School’s A and B consented to participating in the study: five teachers from High School A and
three teachers from High School B. Teachers that participated in the study represented both the
core content area/elective category and the advanced core content subjects/electives category.
The average number of teachers between the two schools is 86. With a smaller sample of
teachers, one to one interviews, collected via the Zoom online conferencing platform, were
chosen as the data collection method (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In addition, interview inquiry
allowed the researcher to gather richly descriptive data that provided better learning of the
phenomenon (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Explanation for Choices
The choice of using interviewing as the method for data collection allowed the researcher
to collect rich information. Given the phenomenon of evaluating teacher-student relationships,
face-to-face interviews allowed the researcher to control the line of questioning and allowed for

58
the collection of needed qualitative data that allowed for better understanding of the phenomenon
for this study (Creswell, 2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Qualitative Data Collection and Instrumentation
The choice of using interviews as the method for data collection allowed the researcher to
collect data that was both authentic and information-rich. The purpose of the study aimed to
evaluate the perception of teacher-student relationships. Face-to-face interviews, collected online
synchronously, allowed for the collection of needed qualitative data aimed at providing for a
better understanding of teacher perception on PBIS and positive teacher-student relationships
(Creswell, 2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Interviews provided data around all the K, M, and O
influences. In concluding, Maxwell (2013) further asserts that through interviewing, the
perspectives and goals of actors could be better understood (Maxwell, 2013).
At the time of writing, all schools in District X, including High School A and High
School B transitioned to distance learning and online learning environments as a result of the
COVID-19 pandemic. Nevertheless, practices that were implemented in physical classrooms
could be just as effective in a virtual classroom (Center on PBIS, 2020). Even in a distance
learning environment, establishing expectations for behavior in a virtual classroom, setting
routines, providing concise and specific feedback, and continuing to use the common language
for behavioral expectations could be valued across physical and online settings (Center on PBIS,
2020). Interviewing worked to capture the teacher experience with adjusting to the COVID-19
situation and its impact on adapting effective teaching practices to an online learning
environment.

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Interviews
interview protocol. The type of interview protocol utilized for this study was a semi-structured
approach. Given that the researcher had existing knowledge and background in the educational
setting, relevant questions could be framed. The use of a semi-structured approach allowed for
some flexibility in questioning and wording. It was important to create an opportunity for the
interview questions to lead to opportunities for further in-depth perspectives and so leaning
towards more open-ended interview questions better supported the collection of authentic data
about the phenomenon. The conceptual framework concepts for this study-knowledge and skills,
motivation, and organization dimensions- did not act independently of one another nor in
isolation, but rather meshed and interacted with one another. For this reason, questions were
simpler and more open-ended in nature to allow for further probing and better opportunities for
more detailed data around how the K, M, and O influences factored into teacher perceptions of
PBIS and teacher-student relationships. Weiss (1994) supported how the development of further
information from respondents could be obtained by using simple phrases that allowed for more
detail and for extending the answers of the respondents.
interview procedures. Interviews for this study were conducted once a relationship had been
established between the researcher and the teacher. The first priority was to establish a good
interviewing partnership (Weiss, 1994). Glesne (2011) further asserts this importance by sharing
that when research participants trust the researcher, the researcher invariably receives the
privilege and burden of learning things that are problematic at best and dangerous at worst.
Interviews served as an opportunity to collect firsthand accounts of the phenomenon being
measured. Eight teachers were interviewed via the Zoom online conferencing platform in a one
to one setting format. Each interview lasted approximately 45 minutes to one hour. It was the

60
researcher’s goal to interact with each of the respondents prior to the actual interview in order to
build trust and rapport. The researcher was able to correspond with the teacher participants via
email, communicating the study’s purpose, involvement, and measures for confidentiality. It
was thoroughly explained that anonymity of the respondents would be secured by the use of
pseudonyms in any subsequent reports, and that their responses would not result in any punitive
repercussions. It was also explained that their interviews would be both video and audio-
recorded to ensure their responses could be accurately recorded. Merriam and Tisdell (2016)
assert that verbatim transcriptions of recorded interviews provide the best database for analysis
engagement.
Documents and Artifacts
Both documents and artifacts were collected in order to gain further perspective for
drawing conclusions and recommendations. For District X as a whole and for Schools A and B,
three-year discipline data was collected and included suspension rates, and attendance rates. In
addition, information for each school site outlining the amount of professional development over
the last three years provided to teachers in support of the school’s PBIS framework was
collected. An additional artifact that was requested from both School A and School B included
classroom matrices of those teachers interviewed. The classroom matrices helped the researcher
gain insight into the school PBIS framework for classroom behavioral expectations and
determine if they aligned with the established school-wide behavior expectations. Determining
the authenticity and relevant history of the matrices is part of the research process (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Therefore, the researcher collected the matrices prior to the interviews and
worked to collect information regarding its history, including how it was created, and when it
was created as part of the interview process. Reviewing the matrices further provided insight into

61
the development of identifying classroom behavioral expectations that connect to both the O and
M influences. Discipline data collected and reviewed over the last several years supported the
researcher’s considerations for one of the outcomes associated with implementation of PBIS with
fidelity- lower suspension rates and improved attendance rates. This data review helped provide
insight into the O influences. Collecting data on the professional development opportunities for
teachers served the purpose of shedding light on the K influences and the O influences for this
study, determining each school’s approach to professional development and whether these
opportunities supported teachers with the identified skills needed to promote positive teacher-
student relationships. In concluding, the documents and artifacts collected for review were
important for the assessment of authenticity and utility value (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Through the researcher’s interviews, it was important to determine if the findings could draw any
correlation between the teacher’s lived experiences and data collected from artifacts and
documents.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
In order to maintain credibility and trustworthiness throughout the study, strategies and
steps were taken to help ensure that the data collected was credible and representative of what
resulted from the interviews. One strategy that was implemented was the reconstruction of
dialogue taken from field notes. Bogdan and Biklen (2007) note that the conversations that go on
between subjects be recorded. Bogdan and Biklen (2007) further state that it is important to make
the subject's own words bountiful, quoting the subjects. A second strategy the researcher
implemented included ways to support respondents’ development of information during
interviews. The researcher, when seeking further information or elaboration during the interview,
worked to extend information and fill in further details by using such sentence frames as, “What

62
happened next?” and, “Could you walk me through it?” (Weiss, 1994). A third strategy that was
utilized by the researcher in order to maintain credibility and trustworthiness is what Merriam
and Tisdell (2016) define as triangulation. The triangulation type employed by the researcher
was the use of multiple sources of data. The researcher compared and cross-checked data
collected from artifacts, documents, and interview data collected from people with different
perspectives (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Ethics
The researcher’s responsibilities to the human participants within the research study
included establishing informed consent, ensuring their safety, and maintaining honesty. Rubin
and Rubin (2012) assert that the research relationship must assure the interviewees that no harm
will come to them as a result of participation in the study. In order to meet these
responsibilities, the researcher worked to maintain informed consent, ensure interviewees that
their participation was voluntary, secure and ensure confidentiality, and gained permission to
record.
The researcher worked to develop an informed consent form that truly outlined the
purpose of the study, clearly, and concisely. To ensure participation was voluntary, the
researcher sent invitations to participate via email, ensuring that respondents understood that
participation was strictly voluntary and that all results would remain confidential.
It was important to note the role of the researcher within the study’s organization. At the
time of this case study, the researcher was a district-level director in charge of PBIS within the
case study’s organization. Although the researcher did not directly supervise the stakeholder
group that was a part of the study, his role as a high district-level administrator was well-known
throughout the district. Therefore, approaches of honesty, confidentiality, and safety from harm

63
were essential for the researcher to not only establish, but maintain throughout the process
(Rubin & Rubin, 2012). This included ensuring interviewees that confidentiality would be
maintained in the research by the use of pseudonyms and not real names. It was also important
for the researcher to honor the confidentiality and safety of those interviewed (Rubin & Rubin,
2012).
In order to ensure no harm was done to the interviewees, it was important for the subjects
of the study to fully understand the researcher’s role. The researcher communicated that in no
way, through interviews, would the data collected be used as a tool of evaluation for teachers nor
would any publications result in disciplinary action. The role of the researcher was explained to
be one described as an investigator, looking to gather the input and the experiences of teachers
with the purpose of working towards findings that could provide further guidance in supporting
teachers, program implementation, and/or better allocation of resources.
As the direct supervisor overseeing PBIS implementation and at one time, a site
administrator who played a key role in implementing PBIS at a high school within the
organization, it was necessary for the researcher to maintain a keen awareness to not allow any
bias to permeate his role in this study due to previous experience (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). As
the interviewer, it was necessary for the researcher to assume neutrality with regards to the
respondents’ knowledge and avoid arguing, debating, or otherwise letting personal views be
known, (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
In conclusion, the researcher’s role as an interviewer was to establish informed consent,
ensure teacher safety, and maintain honesty. These responsibilities within conducting the
research, allowed for authentic, honest, and in-depth data to be collected.

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CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS
This section provides a summary of the study’s participants, the school sites where
participants worked, and identified study themes. Considerations for the relationship between
the identified themes and the existing and related literature are also included in this section. The
data collection instrument was designed to inform the researcher of information as it relates to
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences, while also working to provide revelations
centered on the questions that guide this study:
1. To what extent is PBIS at High School A and B cultivating the development of positive
teacher-student relationships in support of meeting the district’s goal?
2. What stakeholder knowledge and motivation influences are necessary for all teachers to
cultivate positive teacher-student relationships?
3. What is the interaction between organizational support around PBIS and teacher
development of the knowledge and motivation to implement elements of classroom
PBIS?
Study Participants and Study School Sites
In order to meet the purpose of this study, which was to determine teacher perception of
whether PBIS cultivates positive teacher-student relationships in high schools, the study
participants consisted of high school teachers from comprehensive high school sites where PBIS
was in full implementation. Teachers shared their experiences with PBIS development and
implementation at their respective high schools. Further, teachers also provided context to their
pedagogical practices and experiences within a PBIS frame of reference. Teachers who
participated in this study were selected across two comprehensive high school sites, comparable
both in size of student body and socio-economic status. Appropriate to this study, each high

65
school was in current and full implementation of the PBIS framework.
High School Site Selection
Both High School A and High School B are comprehensive high school sites within
District X and are in current, full implementation of the PBIS framework. Prior to PBIS
implementation, High School A and High School B both assigned a school leadership team to
attend and participate in the county school district’s three-year PBIS training program. Each
high school serves students in grades 9-12 and offers an array of academic courses and extra-
curricular activities, including sports and student clubs. Likewise, both high school sites are
supported by an administrative team that consists of three assistant principals and one principal.
Although each high school’s PBIS leadership team (small team consisting of an administrator,
teachers, and selected staff) attended and participated in the county school district’s PBIS
training program, each school’s PBIS leadership team worked with their own respective
administrative teams to develop and implement the PBIS framework in a manner that meets the
needs of the school. Conversely, while working to meet the particular needs of each of their
respective schools, each school also works to implement their PBIS framework under the context
of meeting District X’s strategic plan goal of providing a positive culture and climate, inclusive
of positive relationships amongst all stakeholders.
Teacher Participants
Teacher participants were selected using purposeful sampling along with the use of a
criterion-based selection process. Explained in further detail in Chapter Three, this study’s use of
purposeful sampling based on a criterion-based selection process worked to better support this
study’s acquisition of a well-represented teacher sample. Driven by teacher expectation research
(Timmermans & Rubie-Davies, 2018), it is acknowledged that the teacher and student

66
experience can vary due to the diverse and rich course offerings that are typical for
comprehensive high school sites. Therefore, teachers were selected from two distinct categories
that included core content subject areas and elective courses as well as advanced core content
subject areas and elective courses (see Chapter Three). It should be noted that eight of the sixteen
selected teachers participated in the study (eight remaining teachers chose not to participate in
the study).
Although the teacher sample size was small, teacher participants for this study included a
rich representation of teacher experience in a variety of high school course offerings. All
teachers had at least five years of teaching experience. Five teachers from High School A
participated in the study, and three teachers from High School B participated in the study. The
study consisted of six female and two male teacher participants.
In addition, the teacher sample size included teaching experience in a variety of subject
areas. Four teachers teach core content areas that include English language arts, world history,
and biology. Two teachers were special education teachers, one for students with mild to
moderate disabilities and another who taught students with moderate to severe disabilities. Two
other teachers taught elective courses that included health and Advancement Via Individual
Determination (AVID), a self-regulatory course. One teacher also taught an advanced core
subject area, Advanced Placement Biology. Finally, at least three teachers had been sponsors of
a club or a coach for an athletic program at their respective school. Table 6 outlines the
participant’s school, subject category, and years of teaching experience.

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Table 6.
Teacher Participants
ID

School Subject(s) Taught Teaching
Experience
T1 High School A AVID
Academy
English
7 years
T2 High School A Special Education-
(Moderate/Severe Disabilities)
16 years
T3 High School A World History
Athletic Coach
7 years
T4 High School A English 5 years
T5 High School A Special Education- Mild/Moderate
Disabilities
21 years
T6 High School B AP Biology
Biology (Inclusion)
32 years
T7 High School B World History 16 year
T8 High School B Health Education 13 years

Results
The data outlined below is organized in two sections. First, identified themes that
emerged from the teacher interviews are described. Following the identified themes, data is
presented by knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences.
Identified Factors
Coding and analysis of transcripts taken from the one-to-one interviews with teacher
participants identified many factors that correlated with the supporting research outlined in
Chapter 2. These correlations included consideration of high school contextual features when
implementing PBIS as well as the correlation between positive teacher-student relationships and
student engagement and motivation. Teachers confirmed their implementation of those
foundational PBIS classroom practices that research indicated were central to maximizing
engagement and connecting with students (Wilkens, 2014; Simonsen & Freeman, 2015).

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Teachers additionally confirmed that they held high expectations for students throughout their
classes, whether they were in lower ability classes or higher ability classes. T7 indicated that
“You want to see my classroom where everything is laid out. No question about what we are
doing today… having the orderly classroom you know will remediate some of the stress in the
kids.” This revelation is counter to the research that indicated lower-performing students resulted
solely in teachers’ having lower expectations for their students (Timmermans &Rubie-Davies,
2018). Many teachers confirmed their classroom expectations were linked to the school-wide
behavioral expectations, resulting in a more consistent, safe, and productive learning
environment, as indicated in the research (Olsen, 2015) that ideally, PBIS practices in the
classroom are aligned with school-wide PBIS systems. There was also feedback from teachers
regarding the contextual features of a high school that posed challenges for PBIS
implementation.
Five teachers pointed to many of the contextual features of high schools that research
indicated could make the implementation of PBIS a challenge to implement in a high school
setting (Flannery & Kato, 2017; Wilkens, 2014). Teachers acknowledged that they knew of other
teachers who had mentioned being “too busy” with their content to familiarize themselves with
implementing PBIS practices in the classroom. In addition, two teachers acknowledged that they
found students did not prefer to be publicly recognized for meeting school-wide expectations at
lunch but rather preferred being recognized in a smaller setting, such as in the office with a few
staff members. Public recognition for meeting school-wide expectations may occur more
frequently at many elementary schools. However, the developmental age of high school students
lent itself to a different way of recognizing students who met school-wide behavioral
expectations. While teachers confirmed the research recognizing that the contextual features of a

69
high school can impact the implementation of PBIS, it is also important to point out that teachers
also confirmed that PBIS classroom practices correlated with having more positive interactions
and relationships with students.
Research revealed that the cultivation and sustainability of positive teacher-student
relationships relies in part on a teacher’s ability to effectively use effective classroom
management practices (Simonsen et al., 2008; Verschueren & Koomen, 2012). Such practices in
place, according to research, provide students a sense of safety and connectedness that increase a
student’s potential to make academic and social gains. Seven teachers reported having positive
relationships with students and attributed their ability to provide a safe and predictable learning
environment as a factor in support of cultivating these positive relationships. In addition to the
use of effective and evidence-based classroom management practices, such as developed,
defined, and established classroom routines and expectations, teachers also shared their
reflections of past practices in response to inappropriate student behavior and the adjustments
they made.
Calan (2016), Kaunisto (2013) et al., and Noormohammadi (2014) indicated that the
reflection process for teachers included the ability to examine their practices, reflect on what
could be improved, analyze the effectiveness, and then adjust practices towards continued
improvement. Seven teachers articulated specific incidents in their past practices and early
teaching years when addressing inappropriate student behavior and further shared the problems
those responses produced. To add, eight teachers shared the role of PBIS in their approach to
addressing inappropriate student behavior. Organized below, are the identified themes based on
the responses of this study’s teacher participants.

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Identified Themes
The identified factors that correlated with the research outlined in Chapter Two can be
organized into identified themes. These themes identified by the researcher helped characterize
perceptions and experiences shared by the teacher participants and demonstrated relevancy in
answering the study’s research questions. Below, are four identified themes highlighted by the
researcher’s findings.
theme one: partial clarity for the purpose of PBIS. Clarity can be defined simply as the
quality of being easily and accurately understood (Martin, 2018). However, Martin (2018) goes
deeper to reveal that clarity exists in multiple forms: as an organizational value, a state of being,
and an outcome. Further, clarity requires effort in the form of clear communication, succinct
information, and coherence. All the teachers interviewed were asked to share their perspective on
the purpose of PBIS. All 8 teachers touched on some key aspects of those guiding assumptions
of PBIS, such as processes for recognizing positive student behavior and establishing an overall
positive school culture and climate around student behavior. For example, in one interview, T3
shares his response to a question about the purpose of PBIS:
I look at PBIS as a way to get student instant buy-in in the process, and also not only that,
but it also has the rewarding aspect of PBIS, you know, keeping those rewards out,
recognizing kids are doing great things.
In this interview, the teacher recognizes the PBIS feature of acknowledging students who meet
the established behavioral expectations. In another example, T5 reveals that the purpose for
implementation of PBIS includes a positive culture around student behavior expectations with a
defined framework:
How it benefits them (students) to be more responsible, to be more accountable to make

71
positive behavior choices. It is not because you are being told to do so by an adult, an
authority figure, but have students internalize like this is a positive thing for my life, not
just here at school, but it is going to affect how I get a job, how I do in college, and how I
treat people around me.
Here, the teacher touches on PBIS as a motivator for students to not just demonstrate positive
behavior out of compliance, but to look beyond and recognize that demonstrating positive
behavioral expectations can have a positive impact on future settings and other relationships
students may have with others. T7 also acknowledged PBIS in supporting school culture and
climate around student behavior:
I love spreading positivity and I am the one (teacher) that is going to want to do the talent
show. I think part of PBIS is just making the school someplace you want to be having
kids want to be there, support them, and love them.
Here, again, we see the teacher mention PBIS in the context of supporting a positive school
culture and climate. All teachers in this study mentioned some key assumptions that guide PBIS,
including building systems that regularly recognize students when they meet established
behavioral expectations. In addition, teachers also pointed to a fundamental theme that PBIS
supports and cultivates a positive culture and social climate (Horner & Macaya, 2018). Overall,
teachers described PBIS in a way that works to build schools as places where students are
motivated to be and can develop and meet social behavioral expectations they will take with
them even outside of the school setting. Although teachers emphasized the positive social
outcomes that can result from effective PBIS implementation, this is only a partial definition for
the purpose of PBIS. Not mentioned, was how the framework for a continuum of behavior
prevention and intervention strategies supports academic success (Olsen, 2015; Horner, Sugai, &

72
Fixsen, 2017).
theme two: staff involvement and professional development focus on PBIS development,
less on sustainability. Eight teachers revealed that their level of involvement in PBIS
development occurred during time allotted in staff meetings. According to all eight teacher
participants, all-staff meetings at High School A and High School B were scheduled to occur at
least once a month. Teachers revealed that during staff meetings, the PBIS leadership team led
the staff through various activities in the initial PBIS development stage and included staff
involvement when creating school-wide expectations. Teachers did not mention whether any
PBIS implementation activities were conducted during content area department meetings.
PBIS sustainability is conceptualized as those activities and professional development
opportunities for teachers that were designed and scheduled for specific PBIS foci. These
specific professional development activities are defined as specific release days for teachers to
focus on collection and use of data for decision-making about behavior support or training for
teachers in implementation of classroom PBIS practices. Teachers revealed that aside from time
dedicated to PBIS development during staff meetings, dedicated release-time for teachers was
not provided to support in implementation of effective PBIS classroom practices. T3 confirmed
this perspective:
As far as like our framework of how we approach the kids and like the you know, we
have got the responsibility of accountability of it like the mnemonics, that was all hashed
over in a variety of staff meetings. We had wordsmithing and a survey, pair share all of
those things that were used with kids, we did that in staff meetings.
In this interview the teacher explained that it was during staff meetings where development of
school-wide behavioral expectations took place. Through the dedicated time during staff

73
meetings, it was revealed that teachers participated in smaller group activities to share ideas and
provide input in PBIS development. In another example, T8, from a different high school
confirmed this:
For interventions we tried to figure out what kinds of things can we do that we focused
on that kind of stuff. Then we would have faculty meetings where we asked for input
along the way. We created school dollars…we started doing things with tardies and we
did like this public Fast Pass Friday.
As the above examples illustrate, teachers revealed that it was dedicated time during all-school
staff meetings where much of the PBIS activities were focused. While teachers revealed that
PBIS specific-activities were delegated primarily during all-school staff meetings, teachers also
indicated a lack of dedicated teacher-release time for support of teachers’ implementation of
PBIS classroom practices or to collect and use data for decision-making about behavior support.
T2 indicated, “I know that the PBIS leadership team went to meetings…I do not recall any
training time”. As seen from this teacher example, teachers indicated that they remembered the
PBIS leadership teams being involved in release days for PBIS development and
implementation, but outside of the implementation training, there were no organization-
sponsored teacher release time to focus on PBIS classroom practices or data decision-making.
T1 also confirmed the lack of professional development opportunities outside of staff meetings
and outside of initial PBIS framework development:
For teachers, there was not a whole lot, but there was one meeting for teachers who are
going to be mentors for like two to three students…but it was usually after faculty
meetings so there was never like full trainings or professional development.
Here, T1 indicated there was a meeting when the school was looking to establish a mentor

74
program as part of a targeted intervention, however this was held before or after school and was
more focused on explaining the program, rather than any teacher release time dedicated to
providing training for teachers in PBIS classroom practices.
As the above teacher examples highlight, most PBIS professional development
opportunities for teachers were performed during staff meetings and mostly focused on PBIS
framework development. Teachers reported that any full-day release time was typically
dedicated to those a part of the PBIS leadership and focused on PBIS training for the initial
development of the framework. All teachers indicated that their organization did not provide any
release time with a focus on implementation of classroom PBIS practices. This runs counter to
research highlighting the approach that for sustaining school-wide positive behavior support,
training capacity needs to be built within a school district and adequately support the adoption of
school-wide positive behavior support, such as the PBIS framework (Sugai & Horner, 2006).
theme three: teacher reflection, feedback, and student involvement in problem-solving.
Research has revealed that effective teachers not only provide meaningful feedback to students,
but also facilitate time and opportunities for students to respond and participate in problem-
solving (Olsen, 2015; Simonsen et al., 2008). Overwhelmingly, teachers in this study described
practices and instances where, after reflection, they worked to provide students feedback and
followed a process that allowed students opportunities to reflect. In these instances, teachers
made correlations where they attributed the implementation of the PBIS framework as having an
impact on their approach. For example, T7 shared a perspective:
We stepped outside (teacher and student) to talk things out, usually not something maybe
I did before. I will usually try to settle the situation with the student instead of handing it
off like, for example, to an administrator. I mean, I know they are there and stuff, but

75
they are also busy, but that’s not what is in my head. In my head is like, “You’re an adult.
You could talk to a student and work things out”.
Here, the teacher is demonstrating metacognition by sharing a reflection on past practices and
how more commonly she referred students to the office or administrator to handle any behavioral
issues. The teacher then describes her current approach to managing student behavior, evident in
self-reflection and the desire to manage the behavior by working through the situation with the
student. These reflective practices are described to be effective strategies for clarifying thoughts,
optimizing learning, and putting into context, prior learning (Barley, 2012). T8 also shared an
instance where a student was not performing his duties and responsibilities as part of a small
cooperative learning project and the teacher had to address this with the student, which included
providing the student feedback and an opportunity to actively participate in problem-solving:
I had a girl text me privately and was like, “I was the only one in my group that did
anything and I hoped my grade wasn’t going to be bad, so I ended up doing everything”.
So, I gave the other group members half-points, gave her full credit, and the next day,
when I had them in small breakout groups, I went privately to the other two group
members. I said, “Hey, listen, I am just checking in with different kids randomly and so I
am going to go to your group and just tell me what part you completed on this
assignment”. I started with one student, “What numbers did you complete?” Complete
silence. The student replied, “Well, I just did really kind of just talked to my group”.
(Teacher) “So you didn’t really complete any of these questions is not right. So, tell me
something. What do you think your grade should be?”
Up to this point, T8 shared how she set up the opportunity to address this with the
group members who did not fulfill their roles and responsibilities as part of the work group.

76
Rather than just addressing the group members’ lack of work in their grade, the teacher moved
this situation into an opportunity to allow for student reflection and participation in problem-
solving, while also providing feedback to students:
“Do you think you should get full points?” (Student) “Well, I’m being honest, probably
not. It goes I didn’t really understand it. (Teacher) “Thank you for being honest…I really
appreciate being honest and I’m grateful that you felt comfortable to tell me you didn’t
do what you should have done.”
T8’s description of supporting opportunities for students to reflect and be provided opportunity
to be involved in finding a solution, was a typical response of teachers’ when ask to reflect and
share how they provide students feedback. Teachers reflected on instances that were usually
described as moments where they worked with students to problem-solve difficult situations.
Accordingly, research on positive teacher-student relationships, where students described those
tenets that supported good working relationships between students and teachers, revealed that
students identified both formal and informal conversations with teachers as helpful in resolving
conflict or navigating through difficult situations (Krane et al., 2017).
theme four: restorative approach. Research continues to emerge that supports the
implementation of Restorative Practices as an effective approach to addressing racial disparities
in school discipline, as well as, fostering positive relationships in schools (Smith et al., 2015;
Gregory et al., 2016). The descriptions teachers gave in explaining their management of student
behavior included aspects of what is revered in research to be effective preventive and
responsive Restorative Practices elements for positive behavior management. These include the
use of affective statements, working towards doing things with, not for or to others, and seeking
student input when outcomes affect them (Mansfield et al., 2018). T5 shared this context:

77
We try to be more creative working with kids…like I said, with the matrix like it is right
there next to his desk and we can talk about what we are going to do better and we are
talking with them about it.
Here, T5 explains that as the school has worked towards PBIS implementation, a shift in the
school discipline approach has also been rooted. The teacher references the matrix, which
highlights school-wide or classroom expectations, as a tool when working with students in
reinforcing behavior expectations. T7 shares the school’s responsive practice that acknowledges
a restorative approach:
Another thing they have been doing is rather than doing suspension, we have been doing
in-house suspension where they are doing kind of more like a restorative program. There
was a specific substitute who was in charge of the in-house and then rather than being
suspended at home, students had like a series of assignments that they had to complete,
answering questions like “What did you do?” and “How can we make it better?”. I think
that is a part of PBIS, having the kids reflecting.
In this example, T7 shares a school-wide approach to responding to violations of school-wide
expectations. Whereas the response may have often times resulted in students being sent home
for suspension, an alternative to an at-home suspension has been described and includes the
opportunity for the student to remain on the school campus and participate in reflective and
Restorative Practices that include acknowledging the incident and having to reflect on how to
repair the harm. Reflective questions that call for a student to engage with what has happened
and reflect on how to repair the harm done to others is an element of Restorative Practices
(Costello et al., 2010).
It is important to note that although most teachers shared approaches and practices that

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could be attributed to having a restorative approach, none revealed that they had ever attended
nor completed formal Restorative Practices training.
Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
Guiding this study were research questions that looked to identify to what extent
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences were supporting teachers’ implementation
of PBIS, and cultivating the development of positive teacher-student relationships. What are the
stakeholder knowledge and motivation influences necessary for all teachers to cultivate positive
teacher-student relationships? What is the interaction between organizational support around
PBIS and teacher development of the knowledge and motivation to implement elements of
classroom PBIS? These questions served as the impetus in evaluating those knowledge,
motivation, and organizational gaps that may be preventing teachers and the organization from
attaining performance goals. Analyzed through the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis model,
data in the form of feedback from interviews with teachers was collected to help identify those
influences. Knowledge, motivation, and organization assumed influences were validated as a
need, emerging, or not validated as a need, but rather was an asset. Table 7 outlines the criteria.
Table 7.
Validation of Assumed Influences Criteria
Validated as a Need? Description
Need Validated 5 teachers or less have obtained the assumed
influence
Emerging At least 6 teachers have obtained the assumed
influence
Asset 7 teachers or more have obtained the assumed
influence

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Knowledge Results
Described previously and in more depth within Chapter 2, the four knowledge categories
are factual/declarative, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. Chapter 2 also describes in
more detail, the knowledge within these categories that teachers would need in order to cultivate
positive teacher-student relationships within a PBIS framework context. Through teacher
interviews, the research sought to identify what knowledge teachers possessed and what
knowledge teachers may be missing in cultivating positive teacher-student relationships.
Table 8 identifies the assumed knowledge influences and outlines a summary of findings for
each of the assumed influences.
Table 8.
Findings of Knowledge Influences
Assumed Knowledge Influence Need Validated, Emerging, or Asset
Teachers need knowledge of effectively
designing the physical environment of the
classroom
Asset. Teachers have knowledge of
effectively designing the physical
environment of the classroom, but can deepen
this practice to include knowledge of its role
in effective classroom PBIS.

Teachers need to know how to establish and
teach classroom expectations in both physical
(in-person) classrooms and in online learning
environments
Need validated. Teachers did not involve
student voice in establishing classroom
expectations, nor explicitly taught classroom
expectations to students.

Teachers need to know how to provide
effective feedback to students
Need validated. Teachers demonstrated some
knowledge on effectively providing feedback
to students.
Teachers need to know how to reflect on their
own effectiveness for dealing with
inappropriate student behavior
Need validated. Teachers demonstrated some
knowledge on self-reflection on their
effectiveness when addressing student
behavior.

Teachers need to know when and why to
establish behavioral expectations in various
learning environments, including in-person or
online learning environments
Need validated. Teachers demonstrated some
knowledge for knowing when and why to
establish behavioral expectations.

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factual/declarative knowledge. In order to support teacher buy-in and implementation with
fidelity, a strong foundational knowledge of PBIS is needed for teachers. Especially for teachers,
they should understand the “why” of PBIS and the positive impact PBIS, when implemented
with fidelity, can have on social, emotional, and behavioral outcomes for students. Although
most teachers interviewed correlated the purpose of PBIS “loosely” with a better and safer
school environment and social outcomes, no teachers intentionally pointed out that PBIS entailed
positive outcomes for all adults in the school environment, nor recognized that PBIS classroom
proactive measures are an integral part of the framework’s Tier I universal preventions for all
students. T3 shared his perceptions of PBIS based on his experience and discussions with
administrators:
…rather than bringing the hammer down, just talking to the kid, finding out what is going
on…it is more of the reality of today. I look at it as a multi-tiered system of support
(MTSS) structure, structured like something you do at home with your kids rather than an
immediate hammer for being in trouble or for a punishment. It is a “look let us talk about
this, why did you do it, and then okay we understand”.
Here, we see T3’s interpretation of the PBIS structure as a greater part of an MTSS model.
Although he recognizes PBIS’ approach to discipline that includes other means of correction,
there is no mention of the systematic or tiered approach that is integral to PBIS implementation.
Responses from teachers highlighted, potentially, partial clarity as to the overall purpose
of PBIS and the goals it aims to attain, however, teacher responses declared that not enough
information has been provided or articulated as to the role of the classroom teacher. T3 indicated
that, “PBIS was a process that was dictated to us by the PBIS crew…they did most of the work
and did most of everything, although some teachers had a say it what was going on…”. As seen

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here, one of the teacher’s experiences revealed that much of the PBIS development and
implementation was coordinated by a small dedicated team with some teacher input. Clark and
Estes (2008) point out that too many organizations fail to connect the high-level organizational
goals to specific individual work goals. While teachers may have a general sense as to the
purpose of PBIS, teacher responses did not reveal that teachers were clear as to how important
the teacher’s role was in implementing PBIS in the classroom. PBIS classroom practices are part
of Tier I universal prevention and intervention practices, therefore, when schools effectively
implement PBIS, 80% of students will respond to Tier 1 supports without additional
interventions (Olsen, 2015).
Equally as important is the need for teachers to understand the factual knowledge of the
critical components of PBIS in the classroom. Teachers need to understand that as a universal
Tier I proactive and preventative measure, effective PBIS in the classroom can have relevant
outcomes for teacher well-being and student success, both academically and socially (Olsen,
2015; Swain-Bradway et al., 2015). All teachers interviewed indicated that outside of time
dedicated during staff meetings, there was no specific professional development opportunities for
teachers around skills that correlated with PBIS in the classroom. T8 indicated, “We do a lot of
stuff with each other like our site lead people, but I do not know that I can say that there was
specific training that supports PBIS specifically”. T2 shared a similar sentiment, “I know that
(PBIS team member name) went to the meetings…there was a PBIS team and I know there was
a lot of discussion, but I do not recall any specific PBIS training time”. Clark and Estes (2008)
indicated that training is essential when working to achieve a goal and the goal is just new
enough that people will not just benefit from a job aid or an item checklist.

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In addition, no teachers intentionally pointed out that PBIS entailed positive outcomes for
all students and adults in the school environment, nor recognized that PBIS classroom proactive
measures are an integral part of the framework’s Tier I universal preventions for all students.
Rather, teacher responses centered on the PBIS foundational principle for acknowledging
positive behavior. T3 highlighted a purpose of PBIS:
It (PBIS) also has the rewarding aspect, you know handing those rewards out weekly,
recognizing kids are doing great things, which is all cool.
Here, T3 focuses on the acknowledgement systems in place at his high school, recognizing
students for meeting behavior expectations. Further, T1, when asked about classroom
management practices and its alignment to PBIS, also mentioned the acknowledgement systems
in place:
We are ready to scan the kids who showed the behaviors that we wanted in every week.
They would have a different behavior focus and my kids all wanted to be scanned…it
was definitely and enticement. I was like, “Okay, whoever has their planner out is
engaged in writing their agenda, and I will scan you” and so everyone would do it.
Here again, T1 reiterates a focus in the classroom for acknowledging students who meet
behavior expectations or are compliant. More than just acknowledging when students meet
behavior expectations, classroom PBIS practices entail a larger range of foundational principles.
Olsen (2015) reiterates that in classrooms where PBIS is implemented effectively, the learning
environment is predictable, consistent, and conducive to academic and behavioral success.
In supporting positive teacher-student relationships, an additional factual/declarative
knowledge needed for teachers as part of effective classroom PBIS practices is the
factual/declarative knowledge of effectively creating a physical classroom learning environment

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to support a safe and predictable space for students. Effectively designing the physical layout of
the classroom environment creates structure. Creating an effective physical layout in the
classroom includes organization of desks or tables that support group work or independent work,
minimal crowding and distractions, tools or resources that are visible to students, and space for
regular classroom routines to take place (e.g. classroom supplies, transitions) (Olsen, 2015;
Simonsen et al., 2008). All eight teachers shared some common practices and considerations in
the physical layouts of their classrooms. Three teachers shared how desks were set up in
quadrants and allowed for cooperative learning groups. One teacher shared how she had a
bulletin board dedicated to resources for students where they could find support for mental
health, tutoring, and other school-related information. All of the eight teachers mentioned that
the school-wide behavior matrix was on the wall of their classrooms. T8 mentioned that there
was a dedicated place in the classroom where students could grab some supplies if they needed
it, without having to disrupt or interrupt during instruction (e.g. staplers, extra pencils/pens,
paper). Interestingly, when asked about the transition to distance learning following the physical
closures of schools due to the COVID-19 pandemic, three of the eight teachers shared how they
learned over time to utilize breakout rooms through video conferencing platforms (e.g. Zoom,
Google Hangouts) for group work in a similar way desks were set up in quadrants for
cooperative learning groups in a physical classroom. T8 shared her perspective:
It has been great having breakout rooms. I love it digitally like this because if I need to
talk to kids, I have been also able to go and talk about modifications or accommodations
clearly private, without kids walking by in the hallway at school.
procedural knowledge. Procedural knowledge is defined as how to do something (Krathwohl,
2002). Assumed procedural knowledge influences included the need for teachers to know how to

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establish and teach classroom expectations in both physical classrooms and in online learning
environments, and the need for teachers to know how to provide effective feedback to students.
Both of these assumed influences are needed in order for teachers to build positive relationships
with students. Olsen (2015) identifies establishing classroom expectations as a foundational
practice for PBIS in classroom, and further declares that in order for students to buy in, students
should have an active voice in developing and defining these expectations. The point to include
the student voice is especially important when implementing PBIS in high schools. Martinez et
al., (2019) reiterates that incorporating student voice in meaningful ways in high schools is
critical for building stakeholder support. Upon further analysis of the data collected from teacher
responses, needs in both assumed procedural knowledge influences were validated.
All teachers shared how school-wide behavioral expectations were developed at their
school, including time dedicated during staff meetings. T8 shared her experience:
Our logo for school-wide expectations was 10 letters, with each standing for a word, a
total of 10 words. What we learned was that was too much. So now it is down to three
words (school-wide expectations) …then we had faculty meetings where we asked for
input.
Here, T8 shares how school-wide expectations were developed by the PBIS leadership team and
vetted to the rest of the staff during dedicated time in staff meetings. To add, only one teacher
mentioned any input from students in the development of the school-wide expectations. It was
also noted that no teachers had indicated students were involved or had a voice in developing any
specific classroom expectations that may or may have not been aligned with school-wide
expectations. This revelation reveals the need for procedural knowledge to include a step that
incorporates a level of student voice engagement.

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Although it was apparent that the student voice may have been lacking in establishing
behavioral expectations at the school-wide level, all teachers alluded to the establishment of a
certain level of expectations within their classrooms. No teacher explicitly explained or
described that behavioral expectations were presented to students nor explicitly taught. Six
teachers mentioned times of responding to student misbehavior and reverting to the school-wide
behavioral expectations during these times as part of their response. T8 mentioned how she
established expectations and defined roles for students when working in a group. T6 mentioned
she does not have many class rules other than the school-wide matrix, which outlines school-
wide behavioral expectations, and a rule that there is no cell phone use in the classroom. Four of
the eight teachers mentioned systems in place for recognizing students when behavior
expectations were met, for example, the use of an application for behavior tracking. At the time
of these interviews, both High School A and High School B were holding all classes via distance
learning environments. Two of the eight teachers mentioned that, at the time of the interviews,
their schools were beginning to work towards ways for recognizing positive student behavior
during distance learning. T3 shared his experiences:
So PBIS last year, at the end of the year, let us be real here, we were just trying to figure
out what the heck…but this year, PBIS is starting back in our Associated Student Body
(ASB)…but PBIS itself is just getting ready to start back up.
Here, T3 shares his experiences with transitioning to distance learning in the spring of 2020 and
that PBIS was not a focus. However, for the 2020-2021 school year, a focus on PBIS returned.
Therefore, because teacher responses did not reveal that a high percentage of teachers explicitly
described or explained behavioral expectations, high school teachers in this study did not obtain
the procedural knowledge for knowing how to establish and teach classroom expectations in both

86
physical classrooms or in online learning environments. If high school teachers obtain the
procedural knowledge for establishing and teaching classroom expectations, whether in physical
or online learning environments, aligning them with those established school-wide behavioral
expectations as part of the PBIS framework, then teachers can better recognize their vital role in
Tier I preventative and proactive practices.
Another procedural knowledge high school teachers need to cultivate positive
relationships with students is effectively providing feedback to students. Providing feedback
effectively to students is a vital foundational element of PBIS classroom practices, as well as, a
noted practice towards building positive relationships with students (Olsen, 2015; Yu et al.,
2018). A common example of feedback revealed by teachers during interviews was verbal
feedback provided to students, including praise and thankfulness related to work completion, and
in personal one to one conversations with students. Three out of eight teachers also
acknowledged providing feedback to students in written form, on both physical written
assignments and digitally through online learning platforms. T6 shared her use of an app that is
a part of the online learning platform and allows for leaving a voice message that is connected to
student work:
So, when I see kids go above and beyond, I will leave a comment. We have a lot of
grading, so we cannot comment on everything else. …an app that is connected to Google,
you just speak and the kid present hears your voice and whatever you said, so it is kind of
cool.
Here, T6 shares how she utilizes an app that allows her to record small messages for students.
In this case, she shares how she has used it to provide some feedback to students about their
work. All teachers shared examples of conversations with students where they provided feedback

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to students when addressing student misbehavior. Teachers, when describing their feedback to
students in a one to one setting, acknowledged doing so in a safe manner, whether outside the
classroom or in a breakout room while on a digital conferencing platform. Two of the eight
teachers shared that their feedback to students had grown to be more specific and felt they were
able to learn more about students’ personal interests as a result of moving to distance learning
platforms due to the COVID-19 pandemic. T4 acknowledged she learned that a student played
the guitar after seeing a guitar behind a student while on camera during synchronous learning.
T4 further acknowledged that this led to a small, impromptu conversation that allowed the
teacher to learn more about the student’s personal interests. T7 indicated that rather than just
saying, “Good job!”, she has been trying to be more intentional and specific with her feedback to
students. Having the procedural knowledge on how to effectively provide students feedback, and
not just in relation to academic work, but in any academic, social, and behavioral situation, can
further promote positive teacher-student relationships. Therefore, upon analysis of teacher
responses, the high school teachers displayed some procedural knowledge in giving feedback to
students, however the assumed influence was still established as a need.
metacognitive knowledge. Simply, metacognitive knowledge is knowledge of cognition in
general as well as awareness and knowledge of one’s own cognition (Krathwohl, 2002). To add,
the International Association of Metacognition is even more specific, describing metacognition
as “knowing about knowing”. Barley (2012) believes that strategies in building metacognition
are valuable in reduction of biases, clarification of our thoughts, optimization to learn from new
experiences, and utilization of prior learning. Assumed metacognitive knowledge influences
included the need for teachers to know how to reflect on their own effectiveness when dealing
with inappropriate student behavior and the need to know when and why to establish behavioral

88
expectations in various learning environments, including in-person or online learning
environments. When considering reflective practices, and in this case teacher reflective
practices, responses by teachers could be described to be in the category of reflection on action, a
component of reflection proposed by Schon (1983). This type of reflection occurs after an event
and involves a meticulous examination of the experience, action, interactions, and emotions
(Barley, 2012). Barley (2012) further asserts that details are recalled and analyzed, while also
serving as the impetus for prompting new knowledge or reaffirming what is already known.
Three of the eight teachers shared reflections from instances where they addressed student
misbehavior, but acted in a way they believed did not address the situation well or result in a
positive interaction with students. These three teachers shared reflections of these practices that
occurred earlier in their teaching careers and shared how in examining their actions, they worked
to take different approaches that effectively addressed student misconduct in a manner that was
respectful and supportive of students. T7 reported that earlier in her teaching years, she would
confront students in the middle of instruction if they had their phones out and often times it
ended in power struggles or students being sent to the office and being suspended. The teacher
shared her reflection and what she learned from the experiences and now has taken a different
approach that works to manage such behavior in the classroom as opposed to excluding the
student. T8 shared an incident where she inadvertently took steps that acted as antecedents to
maladaptive behavior of a special needs student and further escalated the situation by yelling in
the class. After time in reflecting on the incident, she recognized that she needed to better
understand the student’s disabilities and work to accommodate where appropriate for the student.
The procedural knowledge of the metacognitive practice of reflection these teachers revealed
during their interviews shared their ability to transform their experiences into new learning and

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pedagogical approaches. Therefore, upon analysis of teacher responses, high school teachers in
this study have obtained some metacognitive knowledge for reflecting on their effectiveness
when dealing with inappropriate student behavior, but the assumed influence was established as
a need.
Another area of metacognitive knowledge that is essential for high school teachers in the
study was the need to know when and why to establish expectations in various learning
environments. As previously mentioned, when teachers have established expectations within
their classrooms, positive outcomes for students, both socially and academically, can be
attributed (Park & Lynch, 2014; Simonsen et al., 2008). However, besides knowing those
evidence-based practices and how to implement those practices that support the establishment of
expectations, understanding why to establish expectations is imperative as well. Smith et al.,
(2015) reveals establishing clear procedures and expectations are an important part of safe and
positive learning environments, while supporting teachers’ opportunities to facilitate prosocial
behaviors among students. A scientific study of teaching by Hamre et al., (2013) for
understanding classroom processes that contribute to student learning and development through
teacher-student interactions found that these interactions comprise of a classroom organization
domain that includes a teacher’s ability to present clear expectations, and minimizing time spent
on behavioral issues. Four teachers in this study attributed, in part, their ability to nurture
positive relationships with students, with students’ understanding of expectations within their
classrooms. T8 shared her expectations to her students:
Give me the best, greatest version of yourself. I expect you to follow the rules, I expect
you to speak up and advocate if there is a problem. Let me know and I will talk about it

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with you…come see me if you are upset, if you are having a bad day, let me know how I
can help. Always communicate.
As revealed, setting expectations is a fundamental part of creating the learning environment, and
accomplished through interactions with students. Therefore, upon further analysis, the high
school teachers in this study have obtained some metacognitive knowledge for knowing when
and why to establish behavioral expectations in various learning environments, including in-
person or online learning environments, but the assumed influence was validated as a need.
Motivation Results
The motivational theories that guided this study’s look into PBIS’ cultivation of positive
teacher-student relationships in high schools were the expectancy value motivational theory
(Eccles, 2006) and self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 2000). Both of these theories explore a
person’s value and motivation towards tasks, while also examining those self-perceptions about
their capabilities in performance of those tasks. Consideration for these theories could provide
better context for high schools when developing support for teachers in implementation of PBIS.
Table 9 identifies the assumed motivation influences and outlines a summary of findings for each
of the assumed influences.
Table 9.
Findings for Motivation Influences
Assumed Motivation Influence Need Validated, Emerging, or Asset
Teachers need to see value in implementation of
PBIS classroom practices.
Need validated. Teachers demonstrated some
value in implementation of PBIS classroom
practices.

Teachers need to believe they are capable of
taking an intentional approach to building and
strengthening meaningful relationships with their
students.
Asset. Teachers demonstrated an intentional
approach to building and strengthening
meaningful relationships with their students and
can deepen these practices as part of PBIS
implementation.

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expectancy-value theory. Eccles (2006) tries to advance position that the value someone places
on learning is determined by four constructs: intrinsic value, attainment value, utility value, and
the perceived cost of engaging in the activity. Each of these constructs is outlined further in
Chapter Two.
utility value. In further looking at the construct of utility value, teachers would have to
recognize the value of PBIS classroom practices as a function of nurturing their relationships
with students. All teachers interviewed demonstrated a shared utility value, to some degree, for
implementing many aspects of PBIS classroom practices as evidenced in their descriptions for
setting expectations, providing feedback to students, and addressing student misconduct. In
elaborating, all teachers shared their experiences and interactions with students that worked to
further foster their relationships with students, including problem-solving and reflection.
However, it was revealed that little to no professional development opportunities with a focus on
PBIS classroom practices, were afforded to staff. Three teachers did point out that they believe
PBIS, in general, was making a difference, but could really not speak to any data that supported
their assertion, nor describe any systems that were in place at their high schools to measure
outcomes. Two teachers also confirmed during interviews that they knew of some teachers on
campus who deferred most behavior incidents to the office administration, as opposed to
working with students to problem-solve through incidents, because they “did not want to take the
time to deal with any issues”. Clark and Estes (2008) assert that features of improvement
programs and organizational change include a clear vision, goals, and ways to measure progress,
along with, providing adequate knowledge, skills, and motivational support for everyone.
intrinsic value. Eccles (2006) described the construct of intrinsic value as the enjoyment
one feels when doing the task or the enjoyment one expects to experience while one is engaged

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in the task. Eccles (2006) further compares intrinsic value to a related construct idea: intrinsic
motivation. Intrinsic motivation is an idea developed by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan. Deci
and Ryan indicate that intrinsic motivation is highest when someone is performing tasks that he
or she enjoy and find meaningful. T7 reported that she had been working in the high school for
her entire teaching career and that she understood that many of her students came from non-
supportive homes and that it was fun working towards building the school to be a place where
students wanted to be. Two teachers attributed the enjoyment and positive experiences they have
accumulated as a coach and club advisor, to building positive relationships with students. T3
indicated that he is motivated to support students in a manner he would want his own children to
be supported. All high school teachers interviewed, who varied in academic content specialties,
mentioned their subject matter vaguely throughout, however what was highly motivating for
them was their interactions with students and the relationships they worked to build with their
students so that they could succeed. Findings from a study with high school students conducted
by Chhuon and Wallace (2014) supported the notion that teacher-student relationships are quite
possibly, the most crucial relationship in school for students.
attainment value. Attainment value is referred to the link between tasks and someone’s
own identities and preferences. Conceptualized, attainment value is seen in the personal interests
and personal values a person places on an activity or a task. Six out of the eight teachers
interviewed shared their values for organizing structure within their classrooms, establishing
expectations, and taking steps to ensure all students feel welcome. In addition, all teachers
interviewed shared experiences problem-solving with students, through both academic and
behavioral conflicts. It has been revealed that communication of clear expectations can also be
considered an autonomy-supportive strategy that can support student motivation (Reeve, 2009).

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Hornstra, Mansfield, Van Der Veen, Peetsma, and Volman (2015) indicate that in classrooms,
teachers can facilitate autonomy for students by providing choices and allowing students to share
in the responsibility of the learning process. Autonomy-supportive strategies have been seen to
promote high intrinsic motivation and more positive learning outcomes, according to researchers
Jang, Reeve, and Deci (2010). Therefore, in implementation of PBIS practices, teachers also
support and nurture opportunities for students to build their own intrinsic motivation.
Three of the eight teachers also shared, specifically, the steps to be taken within their
classroom when responding to student misconduct. These established steps were developed as a
part of their school’s PBIS framework. T6 shared the following:
It was very clear what the steps were. If you have an issue with the kid, you are supposed
to talk with the kid to work it out.
According to T6, there are steps teachers need to take for minor behavior violations within their
classrooms. T5 acknowledged that school administration would review referrals to the office to
ensure that, if appropriate, remedial steps were taken by the teacher to manage the behavior prior
to the office referral:
We have our steps listed. Depending on the problem, when a teacher refers a student to
the office for misconduct, administration will ask questions such as, “Did you call
home?”, “Did you change seats for the student?”, and “What else have you tried?”
…PBIS gives a framework for people maybe who struggle with managing behavior...it
definitely helps give some structuring guidance.
For T5, personal value was placed on guidance the PBIS framework provided in working to
establish a school-wide approach to managing student behavior in the classroom. T5 also

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acknowledged the value it may hold for many teachers who may need further guidance with
managing behavior in the classroom.
Interestingly, three teachers acknowledged that as their school quickly transitioned to
distance learning environments due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the value for evolving and
transitioning the school’s PBIS framework to function in a distance learning environment was
low. T3 shared:
So PBIS, at the end of last year, kind of got lost just because, again, let us be real, here,
we were just trying to figure out what the heck we were doing.
Here, T3 acknowledges the abrupt stop to in-person learning early in March 2020 when the
pandemic began and the quick adjustments that had to be made for transitioning to distance
learning. It is also revealed that in trying to adjust to the new learning formats, the value for
evolving PBIS in the distance learning environments was a low school-wide priority.
A renewed sense of value for PBIS implementation and the motivation to evolve the
framework to meet the needs of the schools while in distance learning was reported by four of
the eight teachers interviewed. Teachers acknowledged that as the new 2020-2021 school year
has begun, their schools were working in evolving their PBIS implementation to meet the needs
of students and staff while still transitioned in distance learning. T3 shared:
We are now taking time every day now to just talk to kids and let kids share how they are
doing. PBIS is just starting back. Our ASB has been doing kindness days and other things
just like that.
Here, T3 shares the value of the PBIS culture with demonstration of practices such as connecting
with kids and allowing time for conversations with students to include opportunities for sharing
interests or how they may be feeling. It is also revealed by the teacher that the student leadership

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group, the Associated Student Body (ASB), was also facilitating activities to support a school
culture of kindness. T6 shared the change in value and perspective for PBIS from Spring 2020 to
the new 2020-2021 school year:
I mean in the spring, it was just a mess, like the way we left and everything, it was just
like everybody was just on their own. But, when we entered this year, they
(administration) kind of told all of us in our PLCs and in our department meetings to
come up with norms and expectations for our classes. I know in our conversation, we said
there should be school-wide norms if you are going for consistency. It is the only way it
is going to take hold and the kids are going to understand if it is the same, whether it is
their language or math or science or elective.
Attainment value, although not very influential to the schools as a whole as the pandemic forced
these schools to adjust to major teaching changes, for six of the eight teachers interviewed,
attainment value was more influential based on descriptions provided on how they took measures
to implement PBIS classroom practices through distance learning formats such as Zoom or
Google Meets. However, as schools and educators had more time to adjust and utilize the
summer to acknowledge that PBIS could be instrumental in supporting distance learning
environments, the attainment value has grown in influence.
cost value. Eccles (2006) shares that the value of a task is directly related to the cost of
participating in that particular task or activity. How much time will this task entail? How much
energy and effort will this task require of me? What if I exert all this effort and I do not succeed?
These are just some of the questions that people may ask when contemplating whether to
complete the task or avoid it. Implementation of PBIS classroom practices with fidelity requires
the commitment and effort on the part of the high school to implement and sustain these

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supports. The research has supported that the cost of time and effort in committing to
implementing PBIS practices increases overall teacher well-being, supports in the development
of positive relationships with students, and increases overall social and academic outcomes for
students (Ross, 2012; Freeman et al., 2016). Seven out of the eight teachers interviewed revealed
that they implemented in some capacity, at least some of the foundational PBIS classroom
practices without the intentional knowledge of the concept of “PBIS classroom practices” or
formal training in these practices. Seven of the eight teachers interviewed also reflected that
overall, relationships with students were positive and did not articulate a belief that fostering
these relationships came with a cost.
Perceptions of cost in implementing PBIS classroom practices could be seen through
teacher perspectives on the transition to distance learning brought on by the COVID-19
pandemic. To elaborate, T2, who taught students with special education services, shared how the
transition to distance learning was very difficult for her students. T2 indicated that due to the
unique needs of her students, there were challenges and barriers to meeting the academic and
social needs of her students in a distance learning environment. T2 shared how her physical
classroom had been designed to be a safe and predictable learning environment for her students,
but that she worked hard to integrate aspects of her regular routines and norms into distance
learning platforms:
For my kids who really relied on reinforcements with tangible items, moving to distance
learning really got this lost in translation. For one student, who worked to earn a Cup-O-
Noodles at the end of the day, I had to find different way of doing that. I told the student,
“Okay, when you come back to school, the whole wall right here will be set up for the

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Cup-O-Noodles you have earned over time. I am going to email you a picture of a Cup-
O-Noodle and just pretend like you are opening it”.
T2 shared she had good relationships with her students and the families she supported. She had
set up an incentive program in her classroom as part of recognizing students who met
expectations, and it was important to her that she worked to continue this practice, even evolving
it in a distance learning environment. For T2, recognizing students for meeting classroom
expectations was a way of building community and relationships within her classroom and the
value of this was of high, regardless of cost in effort, time, or energy. An average of two
teachers demonstrated some value in implementation of PBIs classroom practices, therefore the
assumed motivation influence was validated as a need.
self-efficacy theory. Bandura (2000) defined self-efficacy as those self-judgements individuals
hold for themselves surrounding their capabilities to learn and perform at a prescribed level.
Unless people believe that their actions will produce the desired outcomes, there is little hope to
persevere when faced with difficulties or barriers (Pajares, 2006). This study looked to gain
better perspective on the assumed motivational influence that high school teachers’ need to
believe they are capable of taking an intentional approach to building and strengthening
meaningful relationships with their students. Seven out of the eight teachers interviewed
demonstrated strong self-efficacious behavior through various teacher practices such as behavior
management, fostering positive teacher-student relationships, and practices of self-determination.
As previously outlined in Chapter Two, sources of self-efficacy beliefs typically come from four
sources: mastery experience, vicarious experience, social persuasions, and physiological
reactions. For the seven teachers who demonstrated strong self-efficacy beliefs, sources of these
beliefs generally came from mastery experience, vicarious experiences, and social persuasions.

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T2 demonstrated strong self-efficacy beliefs based on mastery experience as she revealed
excitement in the early stages of PBIS development and implementation, learning that a focus of
the PBIS framework rested on setting behavioral expectations, teaching those expectations, and
re-teaching those expectations when appropriate:
It got my interest. To me, this was awesome. Now the general education population
would be getting the things (PBIS behavioral framework) specialized that my kids
(students who receive special education services) are getting now. So now, I was really
excited about it, you know just those main pillars and tenets of PBIS, like clear
expectations, having a tiered framework, those things in place that we typically do for
special education kids to help them be successful, would be universal for everybody.
Here, we see T2’s mastery for behavior management practices revealed in her experiences
working with her student population, where many of those foundational PBIS practices are
already critical components of her existing pedagogical practices. Her strong self-efficacy beliefs
in behavioral management had primed her to implement PBIS in her classroom with a high level
of confidence.
Another teacher’s strong self-efficacy beliefs can be interpreted through vicarious
learning experiences by observing others perform tasks. During interviews, T3 revealed
aspirations of becoming an assistant principal in the future and so, in order to build his capacity
in working with students, he took time to observe and shadow an administrator counsel with a
student who had violated school-wide expectations:
Not all teachers want to help. For some teachers, one it leaves the classroom, that is it.
But for me, I want to be an assistant principal. I want to know how to interact with kids
and dig deeper so I can help all kids…I will go in and will sit in the meeting with the

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assistant principals there. They (assistant principals) would let me run the meeting, trying
to learn how to be an assistant principal…the first couple of times the assistant principal
would model (the interaction). Now I take those strategies that I learned in their offices
and when I have a graphic issue in my class, I will bring PBIS into the discussion and
say, “Okay, here is our school mnemonic, here is our matrix…are you meeting these
standards?”. I try have this so they can tell me what they did wrong.
Here, T3 acknowledges that there are some teachers that do not want to dedicate the time or
effort to interact with students in the midst of a behavioral incident, and would rather default to
the administrator to handle the situation. However, T3 describes his desire to be an assistant
principal and so as student misbehavior occurs in his classroom, he observes and shadows how
current site administration interact with students in order to build his capabilities to effectively
address student misbehavior. T3 also describes how these observations and practices of
interactions with students, when responding to student misbehavior, is built upon the context of
the school’s established behavior expectations through the PBIS framework.
Self-efficacy beliefs influenced by social persuasions were also described by T8 who
shared the impacts and effects to her pedagogical practices brought on by the COVID-19
pandemic. In her interview, T8 indicated how prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, she really did
not rely on much technology as part of her teaching practices. However, because of the need to
transition to distance learning, she would have to rely on technological resources to continue
teaching, something she was not comfortable doing:
In April, I cried for like 60 seconds. That day, I was falling apart because I had no tech
skills. I was trying so hard and it was dreadful because like I said, I never used Google

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Classroom, I did not know anything. I was too far into my career to know, I did not even
have a Chromebook cart so I never used it (technology).
Here, T8 described how because she had never relied on any means of technology as a part of
her regular practices throughout much of her teaching career, there was a great sense of fear for
the reality of being thrusted into a situation where all learning would be through distance
learning platforms as the COVID-19 pandemic struck in spring 2020. However, T8 shares how a
message received from one of her students, who received confirmation of a grade received at 1
A.M., was instrumental in confronting her fear of not being competent in technology:
…the other day, she sent me a private chat and she said, “I saw that you were grading our
assignment and was returned graded Friday night. Thank you, I know you are working
really hard”. It was the nicest private message. I thought, “Oh my gosh, one in the
morning, she got a notification alert of her grade…I didn’t realize students got an alert
when a grade was posted.
T8 further went on to explain how this message made her realize how important it was for her to
try her best to learn as much as she could about those technology tools that would help support
students during distance learning. T8 additionally shared how she is continuing to grow her
capabilities in using technology and even shared how she plans to continue to use many of these
tools even when there is a return to in-person learning. Here, we see confirmation that effective
persuaders, in this case students, help support and cultivate people’s belief in their capabilities
(Pajares, 2006). To conclude, the assumed motivation influence was considered an asset.
Organizational Results
In the analysis of performance gaps, a final dimension Clark and Estes (2008) point to are
those organizational features. These organizational features include the organization and

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structure of the setting, policies and practices that define it, and also the manner in which people
interact with each other within the setting (Rueda, 2011). Explained within the conceptual
framework illustrated in Chapter Two, organizational features are instrumental in fostering the
culture around PBIS, ensuring its development and implementation with fidelity, while ensuring
teachers within the setting are supported with the necessary resources for building those
necessary skills and cultivating those motivational influences in nurturing positive teacher-
student relationships. As a part of this study, teacher interviews were conducted to further look
at influences of organizational culture models and culture settings for High School A and High
School B. Table 10 identifies the assumed organization influences and outlines a summary of
findings for each of the assumed influences.
Table 10. Findings for Organization Influences
Findings for Organization Influences
Assumed Organization Influence Need Validated, Emerging, or Asset
The organization needs to create a culture that
considers other means of correction and not just
exclusionary measures of discipline when addressing
student misconduct.
Asset. The evidence suggests that the organization is
considering other means of correction and not just
exclusionary measures of discipline.

The organization needs to establish a culture that
values a Restorative Practices approach for building
positive teacher-student relationships.

Need validated. The evidence suggests that the
organization is taking a restorative approach towards
school discipline and further supports building positive
teacher-student relationships.

The organization needs to provide professional
learning opportunities for teachers to receive
professional development in supporting PBIS
implementation.

Need Validated. Teachers indicated that outside of
scheduled staff meetings, no teacher-release time for
professional development was afforded to teachers in
supporting PBIS implementation.

The organization needs to establish the use of PBIS
classroom practices to include addressing problem
behavior, fostering positive teacher-student
interactions.
Need Validated. Teachers indicated no opportunities
for professional development was afforded with an
intentional purpose of PBIS implementation in the
classroom.

cultural models. Rueda (2011) states that cultural models are seen as normative understandings
of how things work and are expressed through behavior, rules, or artifacts. Cultural models,

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while often unnoticed, are demonstrated through the organization’s values, practices, and
policies. They also help shape the ways that an organization is structured. Cultural models were
assessed through both the teacher interviews, as well as, through a review of course syllabi
provided by those teachers interviewed.
This study’s look at cultural model influences included the organization’s need to create a
culture that fosters consideration for other means of correction and not solely revert to
exclusionary measures of discipline when addressing student misconduct. Most teachers
described their school’s steps for addressing classroom behavior that included initial steps such
as verbal warnings, redirection, and opportunities for teacher-student conferences. The
development of school-wide expectations for addressing student behavior in the classroom is a
step in PBIS school-wide development and was present at both High School A and High School
B. Further, seven out of eight teachers described incidents where he or she counseled with a
student in addressing student misconduct. T2 shared how administration shared perspective on
classroom-managed behavior:
Our administration would say, “It is your classroom and so for us to come in and step in
every single time for you, you would be giving up your authority or giving up your
ability to work with this kid”. We will get some effective ways and strategies for them,
but it comes down to whether teachers will take the time to talk to kids and find out what
they really need or find out what is going on.
Here, T2 describes her administration’s perspective on teachers managing behaviors in their
classrooms, but also acknowledges that in doing so it will take time and effort.
Six teachers interviewed did however, acknowledge that there were several teachers on their high
school campus that felt school administration was not “tough” enough on students in regards to

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discipline or would rather send students, who misbehaved, up to administration for reasons that
included the lack of time to “deal with it” or the belief “that is what administration is for”. It was
clear in the description of their interactions with students that the teachers interviewed
maintained positive relationships with their students. To conclude, the assumed organization
influence was determined to be an asset.
Another indication that a culture to consider other means of correction prior to
exclusionary practices was present at these high schools was a review of course syllabi provided
by three teachers. Two of the three syllabi reviewed revealed student expectations for behavior
and outlined steps that would be taken in addressing student misconduct. Both syllabi listed
initial steps to include verbal re-direction and teacher-student conferences prior to any
consideration for referrals to administration. Interestingly, the one syllabus that did not list
behavior expectations or a list of steps to be taken in the event of misconduct, was an advanced
core subject area. Instead, on this syllabus there was a focus on academic expectations explained
in detail, including consequences for academic dishonesty. Although it is inconclusive that a
cultural model at the high school might exist that students in advanced classes did not need clear
behavioral expectations explained to them or outlined in the syllabus because, perhaps, it is
assumed they will not pose behavior issues, it is worth noting to consider the research on teacher
expectations outlined in Chapter Three. In this research, Timmermans and Rubie-Davies (2018)
shared findings that teachers with higher academic performing students resulted in higher teacher
expectations of those students, while teachers with lower performing students, resulted in those
teachers having lower expectations for their students.
Another assumed cultural model of influence was the organization’s need to establish a
culture that valued a restorative approach in building positive teacher-student relationships. As

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previously revealed, Restorative Practices is rooted in restorative justice and is an approach that
looks to repair the harm done to people and relationships instead of a focus on punishing
offenders (Costello, Wachtel, & Wachtel, 2010). Three out of the eight teachers interviewed
shared practices that could be described to fit a restorative approach. T8 shared that following a
major incident that concluded with the student being excluded from the classroom setting, she
met with the student prior to his reintegration into the classroom learning environment:
Before they came back to my class, I called them out privately for a conference. I sat
down and had a conversation with them and let them know, “Listen, you are coming back
and we are starting fresh. I still love you, but do not love what you did. We are cool and
we can commit to moving forward. Can we make a commitment to leave it behind us?
We are moving forward”.
Here, we see T8 conduct an impromptu conference to resolve a low-level problem that arose in
the classroom. As explained by T8, this impromptu conference fits the description of a signature
practice on the continuum of Restorative Practices that supports students in resolving situations
that threaten their relationships and cause a disruption to their learning (Smith et al., 2015). T3
described a scenario where he also took a restorative approach to build a relationship with one of
his students, who may have felt that all his teachers did not care for him:
He thought that all his teachers, including me, were out to get him, and so having that sit-
down (meeting) with him was important. Yes, he made a mistake, yes, he really messed
up in my classroom, but having that sit-down (meeting) with him, hearing him out, letting
him get everything off his chest and basically empty his bucket right there, letting me talk
to him and letting him hear me out and discuss what happened in my classroom, it
ultimately ended up leading to an understanding between the two of us.

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Here, T3 describes how an impromptu meeting with his student following an incident in the
classroom, allowed for healing of their relationship and a mutual understanding. This
description by T3 supports a premise of restorative practices in that students, staff, and teachers
are happier and more likely to make changes when those in authority do things with them, rather
than to them or for them (Costello et al., 2010). Although T3, T4, T7, and T8 revealed their use
of a restorative approach in their interactions with students, none received any formal training in
restorative practices, nor did any teachers reveal that a culture of restorative practices was
present at their high schools. Although teacher descriptions in their answers fit a restorative
approach, because of the lack of training, this assumed organization influence is validated as a
need.
cultural settings. Cultural settings or social contexts are where organizational policies and
practices are enacted (Rueda, 2011). Gallimore and Goldberg (2001) elaborate further by asking
to think about the more visible aspects of cultural settings (classrooms, playgrounds, or
administration offices) as places where cultural models are developed and played out. For this
study the organizational culture setting influences included the organization’s need to provide
professional learning opportunities for teachers to receive professional development in
supporting PBIS implementation. Professional learning opportunities for high school teachers in
PBIS implementation is needed to influence teacher behavior and further enhance the social
context of the classroom setting for supporting PBIS classroom practices. All teachers
interviewed shared that no formal professional development opportunities, specific for PBIS
implementation in the classroom, were provided for teachers. In addition, and previously
mentioned, no teachers interviewed attended any formal training opportunities in restorative
practices.

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It is important to note that when defining professional learning opportunities for PBIS,
the focus is on intentional PBIS classroom practices teachers can provide within their classroom
setting, while formal training in restorative practices would include a continuum of practices
teachers can utilize within the classroom to further support PBIS implementation and to further
cultivate positive relationships with students. Two teachers interviewed further clarified that
they were part of the PBIS leadership team and attended county-level trainings for developing
PBIS, but no formal professional training or dedicated teacher release time in PBIS
implementation specific to classroom PBIS was made readily available to teachers.
Another organizational cultural setting influence is the need for the organization to
establish the use of PBIS classroom practices to include addressing student misconduct in a
manner that fosters positive teacher-student relationships. Four teachers indicated that their high
schools had established steps for determining what was classroom-managed versus office-
managed behavior. All steps described included initial teacher responses such as reinforcing and
reteaching behavior expectations, as well as, teacher-student conferences. All teachers shared
scenarios where they interacted with students and worked to maintain positive interactions with
students, but again, none of the teachers indicated they actually received any specific training or
support in how to cultivate their relationship with students using any intentional approaches that
may be available through training, such as PBIS classroom practices or restorative practices. To
conclude, this assumed organization influence was validated as a need.
Seven teachers indicated that as their high schools transitioned to distance learning
environments as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic in the spring of 2020, PBIS cultural settings
dramatically changed. During this time, school-wide PBIS did not initially transition to any
online format as student, staff, and teacher priorities shifted to how academic instruction would

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be delivered. However, most teachers indicated that as the 2020-2021 school year has
progressed, both High School A and High School B have worked to integrate pieces of school-
wide PBIS into distance learning environments, such as systems for recognizing students who
meet behavior expectations.
Interestingly, absent from cultural settings at the high schools was the lack of any system
for data-decision making as a part of PBIS implementation. No teacher indicated or shared any
systems in place or any opportunities for the PBIS team to review behavior or discipline-related
data. In fact, T6 indicated in her interview that she did not clearly know whether or not
discipline-related data had improved following PBIS implementation:
Well, honestly, I do not know the numbers as far as my kids getting suspended and all
that. I am pretty sure that PBIS has made a positive impact. I think that it originally came
out of the excessive tardies. That is what we really wanted to cut back on, so initially.
Here, T6 reveals that she has not been a part of, nor is aware of, any discipline data review at her
school that could better inform the school’s direction with school-wide behavior support as a part
of PBIS implementation. This is especially important to note considering a core feature of a
school that is behaviorally effective includes the collection and use of data for decision-making
about behavior support (Horner & Macaya, 2018).
Synthesis
Interviews of eight high school teachers from two different high school provided data on
teacher perception and perspective on PBIS development and implementation, while also
measuring its cultivation on their relationship and interactions with students. Due to the small
sample size of study participants, case study findings would be limited in its ability to be
generalized. The implications of teacher background, personal experiences, and beliefs on

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cultivating positive teacher-student relationships varies on the part of individual teachers, as well
as, the school contextual factors. These are just some of the elements future studies could
explore. Nevertheless, the data collected helped inform the researcher in answering Research
Question One: To what extent was PBIS at High School A and B cultivating the development of
positive teacher-student relationships in support of meeting the district’s goal?
Themes and trends across this study’s findings were supported by current and emerging
research on PBIS and positive teacher-student interactions. Overwhelmingly, a finding from the
data collection was that teacher-student relationships were positive when teachers cultivated a
learning environment rich in effective and specific feedback, with established expectations, with
teacher reflective practices, and with attention to learning about their students. Across the
teacher sample, teachers’ belief in their own capabilities provided them the motivation to adjust
to the challenges and barriers of moving to distance learning due to the COVID-19.
Additionally, teachers across the sample also demonstrated the importance of reintegration into
the classroom and repairing relationships with students when a behavioral incident may have
occurred in their classroom and resulted in exclusionary acts of discipline. Interestingly, even
without formal training or specific organizational support through professional development,
teachers across the sample demonstrated practices that are consistently featured as evidence-
based foundational features for effective PBIS classroom practices, as well as, restorative
practices for positive classroom management.
Considering the high school teachers’ responses and parallels to current and emerging
research, providing the foundational practices and strategies demonstrated by these teachers
could be considered for application across those high schools implementing PBIS or those
considering developing the framework. Teachers across this sample reported very few concerns

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with student misbehavior within their classrooms. Teachers confirmed their use of preventative
practices such as the establishment of classroom expectations, specific feedback to students, and
clear expectations in creating safe learning environments. When addressing student misbehavior,
these teachers indicated practices such as reminding students of the established expectations and
working to repair the harm caused by the incident with impromptu conferences. Teachers across
the sample, in utilizing these practices and strategies, described, overall, having positive
relationships with students.
Through teacher interviews and collection of class syllabi, this study’s teacher participant
sample was able to provide those influences centered on those knowledge, motivation, and
organizational elements of PBIS implementation and its impact on the cultivation for positive
teacher-student relationships. Interestingly, even though each teacher’s high school was in full
PBIS implementation, this teacher sample overwhelmingly demonstrated many of those
evidence-based practices without any professional development or training specific to these
practices, nor with the intentional knowledge of their relation to PBIS classroom practices or
restorative nature. It appears that through their experiences, beliefs, and reflection, their
motivation and value to have safe educational environments and positive relationships with their
students was the impetus for seeing the utility value of these pedagogical practices.
In conclusion, this small teacher sample size demonstrated that positive relationships can
be better cultivated and developed through specific evidence-based practices and strategies that
are parallel to those foundational features of PBIS. However, it is important to note that high
schools implementing PBIS need to understand that a component of school-wide PBIS needs to
include support and specific training for teachers in what PBIS will look like in the classroom.
Given the contextual features of a high school, including students’ developmental stage, it is

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important for teachers to understand that the knowledge and motivation to implement PBIS
practices within the classroom are an integral part for both positive academic and social
outcomes for students. However, it is important to note that organizational support in the form of
the appropriate allocated resources is an essential ingredient. It is through organizational
support, that teachers can deepen their pedagogical practices around PBIS implementation and
further support teachers’ abilities to cultivate meaningful relationships with students through
their everyday interactions.

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CHAPTER FIVE: RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction and Overview
The data collected during interviews with teachers from High School A and High School
B served the purpose of identifying those knowledge, motivation, and organization influences on
PBIS implementation and teacher perception of its cultivation of positive teacher-student
relationships. The methods utilized for this study incorporated teacher interviews with questions
aimed at categorizing these influences and informing relevant recommendations and strategies
for high schools implementing or planning on the implementation of PBIS.
The Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis model serves as a basis for the recommendations
of the KMO influences outlined in this chapter, while the New World Kirkpatrick Model (2016)
serves as the approach for organizing the development, evaluation, and implementation of
professional organizational learning. Knowledge, motivation, and organization assumed
influences were validated as a need, emerging, or not validated as a need, but rather was an asset.
The table below outlines the criteria.
Knowledge Recommendations
Table 11 below highlights the assumed knowledge influences and validation of
probability based on answers collected during interviews and accompanying support found
through the literature review. Although data collection has yet to be completed for this study,
Table 10 nevertheless, reflects the anticipation that these influences have both a high probability
of being validated and being a priority for achieving the stakeholders’ goal. Included in this table
are those theoretical principles that serve as the impetus for recommendations for the influences.
Considerations for recommendations were also supported by those “active ingredients” that

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Clark and Estes (2008) have found to be highlighted in much of the recent research surrounding
the development of knowledge and skills.
Knowledge and Skills
Table 11.
Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Knowledge Influence

Principle and Citation Context-Specific Recommendation
Teachers need knowledge of
effectively designing the physical
environment of the classroom (D)
Self-Regulatory strategies,
including goal setting, enhanced
learning and performance (APA,
2015; Dembo &Eaton, 2000;
Denler et al., 2009)
Provide a job aid checklist that
outlines best practices and strategies
for deepening knowledge of these
practices and its role in effective
classroom PBIS.
Teachers need to know how to
establish and teach classroom
expectations in both physical (in-
person) classrooms and in online
learning environments (P)
Information learned
meaningfully and connected
with prior knowledge is stored
more quickly and remembered
more accurately because it is
elaborated with prior learning
(Schraw & McCrudden, 2006).
Build training that identifies prior
knowledge of behavior management
strategies and deepen this
knowledge to introduce recent
research in effective behavior
management strategies
Teachers need to know how to
provide effective feedback to students
(P)
Feedback that is private, specific,
and timely
enhances performance (Shute,
2008); Behavior that is
reinforced is strengthened (Daly,
2009).
Provide training to teachers about
evidence-based practices for
providing effective feedback and
structure opportunities for teachers
to demonstrate these practices
Teachers need to know how to reflect
on their own effectiveness for dealing
with inappropriate student behavior
(M)

The use of metacognitive
strategies facilitates learning
(Garrett, Mazzocco, Baker,
2006).
Provide teachers a job aid that
outlines information for them to
consider in reflection when
addressing students who have not
met established behavioral
expectations. The aid should
outline reflective questions that aim
to support teacher reflection
following future interactions.
Teachers need to know when and why
to establish behavioral expectations in
various learning environments,
including in-person or online learning
environments. (M)
To develop mastery, individuals
must acquire component skills,
practice integrating them, and
know when to apply what they
have learned (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).
Provide teachers information during
training that they need to know to
succeed on their own, for example,
explaining the “how” and “when” to
apply the strategies or procedures
for establishing behavioral
expectations in various learning
environments.

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increasing teacher knowledge of effectively designing the physical environment of the
classroom. The results and findings of this study revealed that 8 teachers had some declarative
knowledge of effective strategies and practices for designing the physical environment of the
classroom learning environment, but needed more declarative knowledge for a wider array of
strategies and their association with PBIS. Although not validated as a need, but an asset, it is
recommended that teachers can deepen these practices and further acknowledge them as
effective classroom PBIS practices. A recommendation embedded in social cognitive theory is
presented. Dembo & Eaton (2000) and Denler, Wolters, and Benzon (2009) asserted that self-
regulatory strategies enhance learning and performance. This revelation might propose that
supporting teachers in learning new strategies to manage their classroom learning environments
has value. The recommendation then is to develop a job aid in the form of a checklist that
outlines the considerations a teacher must make in designing the learning environment. The
checklist will serve as a self-regulatory strategy for teachers in consideration for controlling their
physical environment. In order to deepen teacher practices, additional time should be allotted for
teachers to reflect with one another about their classroom learning environments, engaging in
discourse that may include consideration for how the practices are supporting school-wide PBIS,
taking a closer look at the student perspective, or enriching engagement strategies within the
classroom learning environment that continue to meet the needs of all students.
Oliver, Wehby, and Nelson (2015) assessed whether the use of a self-monitoring
checklist by teachers would maintain initial high levels of implementation accuracy of an
evidence-based classroom management practice achieved. Following training performance
feedback, teachers began monitoring their own implementation of the practices they
implemented or did not implement, by using a self-monitoring checklist. Subsequent follow-up

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indicated that the use of the self-monitoring checklist by teachers maintained the initial high
levels of implementation accuracy achieved with training and performance feedback. The results
of this study support the use of a self-monitoring checklist as a job aid for teachers to monitor
their design of their classroom learning environments.
increasing teacher knowledge on how to establish and teach classroom expectations in

both physical (in-person) classrooms and in online learning environments. The results of
this study revealed that 6 teachers interviewed had some procedural knowledge of effective
strategies and practices for establishing and teaching classroom expectations in both physical (in-
person) and in online learning environments, but no teachers demonstrated procedural
knowledge for involving the student voice in establishing classroom expectations, nor how to
explicitly teach classroom expectations to students. In order to close this knowledge gap, a
recommendation embedded in information processing theory has been selected. Schraw and
McCrudden (2006) asserted that information learned meaningfully and connected with prior
knowledge is stored more quickly and remembered more accurately because it is elaborated with
prior learning. This revelation might propose that acknowledging teacher prior knowledge for
establishing and teaching classroom expectations, while introducing current research of
evidence-based behavior management practices, can support new learning for teachers. The
recommendation then is to develop teacher training that identifies prior knowledge of behavior
management strategies to include establishing and teaching expectations for the classroom
learning environments, and then builds upon this knowledge to introduce current research on the
positive outcomes for effectively establishing expectations in various classroom learning
environments.

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Mukeredzi, Bertam, and Christiansen (2018) as part of their study, looked at assimilation
knowledge learning or knowledge built upon existing knowledge. The researchers conducted
focus group interviews with teachers following a two-year professional development program
and found a number of respondents acknowledging their prior knowledge as an influence in
helping shape new learning, some even pointing to this assimilation as motivating in their
transfer of knowledge to their job duties. This study supports the recommendation to include
training for teachers that builds upon their prior knowledge when introducing new learning about
establishing classroom expectations.
increasing teacher knowledge of how to provide effective feedback to students. The results
and findings of this study revealed that 3 teachers interviewed demonstrated procedural
knowledge of how to provide effective feedback to students, but needed more procedural
knowledge for providing effective feedback to students in a variety of ways. In order to close
this knowledge gap, a recommendation embedded in social cognitive theory has been selected.
Shute (2008) asserted feedback that is private, specific, and timely enhances performance. This
revelation might propose providing timely feedback that bridges the use of the learning strategies
with improved performance (Shute, 2008). The recommendation then is to develop teacher
training that provides ample opportunity for teachers to receive feedback on their own practice of
delivering feedback through continued demonstration, modeling, and practice.
Research conducted by Hemmeter, Hardy, Schnitz, Adams, and Kinder (2015)
investigated the effects of professional development intervention that included training and
coaching opportunities with performance feedback on teachers’ use of social emotional
competency practices with students and whether teachers generalized and maintained their use of
practices. Findings in this study revealed that all teachers increased their use of targeted teaching

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practices. This study supports the recommendations that the training program for teachers
include opportunities for demonstration and modeling of the feedback practices and
opportunities for them to practice the learning while receiving feedback.
increasing teachers’ knowledge of how to reflect on their own effectiveness for dealing

with inappropriate student behavior. The results and findings of this study revealed that 3
teachers interviewed had metacognitive knowledge for how to reflect on their own effectiveness
when dealing with inappropriate student behavior, but need more metacognitive knowledge for
reflecting on their own effectiveness in addressing inappropriate student behavior. In order to
close this knowledge gap, a recommendation embedded in information processing system theory
has been selected. Garrett, Mazzocco, and Baker (2006) asserted that the use of metacognitive
strategies facilitates learning. This revelation might propose that the training program should
include opportunities for learners to engage in guided self-monitoring and self-assessment
(Garrett et al., 2006). The recommendation then is to develop a job aid that is a reflective tool.
The job aid should contain guiding reflection questions for teachers to consider following their
interactions with students when addressing student misconduct.
Parker and Heywood (2013) conducted research on student teachers’ metacognition
around professional development for science pedagogy. This study illustrated how student-
teachers in the initial stages of the professional development training were able to develop
metacognitive awareness of their own learning in a problematic area of science. Then utilizing
this in interpreting the related curriculum for primary students, formulated pedagogical insights
for teaching. This research highlighted the use of metacognitive reflective practices for teachers
to better inform and improve teaching practices; therefore, this study supports the

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recommendations that teachers receive a reflective tool in the form of a job aid and
accompanying guidance in how to utilize it for reflection when addressing student misconduct.
increasing teachers' knowledge of recognizing when and why to establish behavioral

expectations in various learning environments. The results and findings of this study revealed
that 4 teachers interviewed had metacognitive knowledge for recognizing when and why to
establish behavioral expectations in various learning environments, but need more metacognitive
knowledge for recognizing when and why to establish behavioral expectations in various
learning environments, including both in-person and online learning environments. In order to
close this knowledge gap, a recommendation embedded in information processing system theory
has been selected. Schraw and McCrudden (2006) asserted that to develop mastery, individuals
must acquire component skills, practice integrating them, and know when to apply what they
have learned. This revelation might propose that the training program should provide
experiences that help people make sense of the material rather than just focus on memorization
(Schraw & McCrudden, 2006). The recommendation then is, through various training
experiences, to provide teachers information during training that they need to know to succeed
on their own, for example, explaining the “how” and “when” to apply the strategies or
procedures for establishing behavioral expectations in various learning environments.
Piliouras, Plakitsi, Seroglou, and Papantoniou (2018) conducted a study discourse-
focused professional development program centered on engaging, participatory, explicit, and
reflective presentation. Findings of the study revealed that teachers involved in the professional
development and its provision of varying experiences promoting discourse and reflection,
retained content knowledge of the training. This study illustrated how teachers, when provided
training that is characterized by participatory experiences, such as discourse, inquiry, and

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reflection, is better supported to retain and practice new knowledge. This research supports the
recommendations that teachers are provided information during training that they need to know
to succeed on their own, for example, explaining the “how” and “when” to apply the strategies or
procedures for establishing behavioral expectations in various learning environments. In
addition, training should include opportunities for teachers to make sense of this new information
through experiences such as reflection, inquiry, and practice.
Motivation Recommendations
The assumed motivational influences for this study sought to find whether teachers saw
the value in implementation of PBIS classroom practices and whether teachers believed they
were capable of taking an intentional approach to building and strengthening meaningful
relationships with their students. Both assumed motivational influences have a high probability
of being validated as a gap. The motivational influences are rooted in the utility value and self-
efficacy principles of motivation. Rueda (2011) asserts that self-efficacy beliefs are influenced
by the amount of prior knowledge a person has related to a task and the amount of feedback a
person has received from others. In addition, a person will place a value on a task by determining
how and why the task should be done and the belief that the task will support achieving an
identified goal (Rueda, 2011). The assumed motivational influences and recommendations for
the stakeholder group are rooted in the expectancy value theory and the principle of self-efficacy.
These principles and recommendations are outlined in Table 12.

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Table 12.
Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Motivation Influence

Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Teachers need to see value in implementation of
PBIS classroom practices (EVT)
Rationales that
include a
discussion of the
importance and
utility value of the
work or learning
can help learners
develop positive
values (Eccles,
2006; Pintrich,
2003)
Provide and design
training that includes
the research behind
PBIS classroom
practices and potential
outcomes of
implementation,
teachers’ value on the
implementation of
PBIS classroom
practices would
increase

Teachers need to believe they are capable of
taking an intentional approach to building and
strengthening meaningful relationships with
their students. (SE)
Feedback and
modeling increase
self-efficacy
(Pajares, 2006)
Provide and design
training and
professional
development around
building teacher
capacity for building
positive relationships
with their students
that inclusive of
opportunities to
receive regular and
structured feedback,
modeling, and support

build value of classroom PBIS practices. Although all teachers shared their value of various
classroom management practices, 2 teachers clearly identified the significance of PBIS in the
classroom (Olsen, 2015). A recommendation rooted in the expectancy value theory has been
identified in order to close this motivation gap. Eccles (2006) and Pintrich (2003) both asserted
that a discussion of the importance and utility value of the work or learning can help learners
develop positive values. This would suggest that by providing and designing training that

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includes the research behind PBIS classroom practices and potential outcomes of
implementation, teachers’ value on the implementation of PBIS classroom practices would
increase. The recommendation is for the organization to provide and build professional
development that presents the research supporting the significance and impact of classroom PBIS
practices in support of answering the “why” of its implementation. Building this foundation for
classroom PBIS practices can boost its value to teachers by sharing relevant outcomes and its
implications for the classroom environment.
Rueda (2011) reveals that values are most influential in starting an activity, and that the
higher an individual values an activity, the more likely the person chooses, persists, and engages
in it. Findings from research conducted by Thoonen, Sleegers, Oort, Peetsma, and Geijsel
(2011) revealed that teachers’ engagement in professional learning activities, particularly
experimenting and reflection, is a powerful predictor for teaching practices. A sense of self-
efficacy teachers held for themselves appeared to be the most important motivational factor for
explaining teacher learning and teaching practices (Thoonen et al., 2011). Furthermore, findings
by Han, Bong, Kim, and Kwon (2019) confirmed that students’ perception of their teachers’
emotional support related positively to their perceptions of their teachers’ utility value and their
own utility value for history. From this theoretical perspective, it would then appear that
increasing the teachers’ engagement and opportunities for reflection during professional learning
activities will increase the value held for the practices, which in turn, can build value for their
students.
build teacher belief that they are capable of taking an intentional approach to building and
strengthening meaningful relationships with their students. Seven teachers demonstrated the
capability of taking an intentional approach to building and strengthening meaningful

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relationships with their students. Although not seen as a validated need within the teacher sample
from this study, 5 teachers interviewed did acknowledge there are a number of teachers at their
high school site that do not take an intentional approach to building and strengthening
meaningful relationships with their students. A recommendation rooted in self-efficacy theory
has been selected to support teachers where there may be a validated need and to deepen those
practices for teachers who better demonstrate these capabilities. Deepening practices in building
positive relationships with students can include opportunities for teachers to provide a safe
learning environment for addressing complex issues and real-world problems alongside students.
Pajares (2006) found that modeling and feedback increases self-efficacy. The recommendation
is to provide and design training and professional development around building teacher capacity
for building positive relationships with their students, inclusive of opportunities to receive
regular and structured feedback, modeling, and support. These mixed opportunities to engage
with, during and after training sessions will build self-efficacy. These opportunities also include
practices that can be modeled and practiced with feedback loops.
Clark and Estes (2008) share that building individual confidence includes projecting
genuine expectations that individuals will succeed. Bruce, Ross, and Beatty (2010) as part of
their study to investigate the effects of professional development on self-efficacy, defined clearly
to the test control group, how success would be measured. For instance, instead of defining a
lesson as successful, if most students obtained the correct answer by using conventional
methods, the researchers encouraged teachers to focus on (a) the depth of conceptual
understanding that students reached, (b) the extent to which students contributed to the
construction of their knowledge, and (c) their ability to communicate mathematics ideas. By
incorporating such collaborative activities such as modeling of effective practices, practice, and

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feedback, the professional development program had a positive impact on teacher efficacy
beliefs. An added finding also indicated that this math professional development program,
aimed at pedagogical practice, also had a positive impact on teacher efficacy surrounding their
ability to handle student misconduct in the classroom. Looking at this from a theoretical
perspective, it would appear that efficacy beliefs can have positive overlapping effects in many
domains.
Organization Recommendations
The assumed organizational influences for this study investigated organizational needs to
1) create a culture that considers other means of correction and not just exclusionary measures of
discipline when appropriate; 2) to establish a culture that values a Restorative Practices approach
for building positive teacher-student relationships, 3) to provide professional learning
opportunities for teachers to receive professional development in supporting PBIS
implementation; and 4) to establish the use of PBIS classroom practices to include addressing
problem behavior and foster positive teacher-student interactions. All the assumed
organizational influences had a high probability of being validated as a need. The organizational
influences were rooted in a variety of principles for culture and organizational change including
Schein’s (2004) culture concepts of stability, depth, breadth, and patterning or integration;
principles of improvement (Langley et al., 2009); principles of change to support organizational
self-discovery (Kezar, 2001); and foundational elements to strategic employee communication
presented by Berger (2014). Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) assert cultural models as shared
ways of thinking and perceiving over time built on shared values and experiences that are so
familiar, they almost go unnoticed; whereas, cultural settings are the actual occurrences and
occasions where people come together to carry out a valued activity. The assumed

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organizational influences and recommendations for the stakeholder group are organized in units
of cultural models and settings and outlined in the Table 13.
Table 13.
Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Organization
Influence

Principle and Citation

Context-Specific
Recommendation
The organization needs to
create a culture that considers
other means of correction and
not just exclusionary
measures of discipline when
addressing student
misconduct (CM)
Change management must understand how
employees view themselves within the
organization and be able to communicate the
value change will bring to them. Employees
will follow a leader that is trusted and
provides hope to them. Human capital must be
understood and incorporated within the
change. Change isn’t all about policy and
procedure. (Kezar, 2001)

Communicate with clarity to
site administration, its position
on school discipline policies
and approaches. District
leadership should
communicate regularly with
site administration regarding
resource allocation
The organization needs to
establish a culture that values
a Restorative Practices
approach for building positive
teacher-student relationships
(CM)
(Schein, 2004) Culture can be defined using
concepts of structural stability, depth, breadth,
and patterning. Individual behavior and
leadership is a driving factor because the
people must buy into the initiative.
Foster a culture that builds in
restorative practices in all
interactions with students to
better support positive teacher-
student relationships (admin,
teachers, students); a tiered
approach to training should be
created starting with
administrators, then teachers

The organization needs to
provide professional learning
opportunities for teachers to
receive professional
development in supporting
PBIS implementation (CS)
(Schneider, Brief, & Guzzo, 1996) Creating a
climate and culture for sustainable
organizational change. Models and methods of
Total Organizational Change (TOC)
District leadership will work
with schools in reviewing their
PBIS tiered fidelity inventory
to measure the extent schools
are applying the PBIS tiers of
intervention; District
leadership should then develop
professional development
based on the needs of schools.

The organization needs to
establish the use of PBIS
classroom practices to include
addressing problem behavior,
fostering positive teacher-
student interactions (CS)
(Langley et. al, 2009) Principles of
improvement and the importance of knowing
that improvements require actual changes to
occur
Provide teachers with training
for PBIS classroom practices
by using a Plan-Do-Study- Act
model for change and
improvement

increase a culture that considers other means of correction prior to exercising exclusionary
measures when addressing student misconduct. The organizational cultural model influence

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that the organization needs to create a culture that considers other means of correction prior to
exclusionary measures when addressing student misconduct was confirmed as an asset based on
the data collected. A principle rooted in change management has been selected to build upon and
deepen these practices. Kezar (2001) indicated that change management must understand how
employees view themselves within the organization and be able to communicate the value
change will bring to them. Employees will follow the leader that is trusted and provides hope to
them. Human capital must be understood and incorporated within the change. Change is not all
about policy and procedure. This suggests that school administrators must share with teachers
the value of working to keep students in class and address problem behavior by considering other
measures in lieu of exclusionary practices, such as suspensions. Administrators will have to
communicate the value of teachers’ abilities to manage classroom behaviors as a tool in building
relationships with students. The recommendation is for district leadership to communicate with
clarity, its approach and position on school discipline policies that highlight classroom-managed
behaviors. This can be accomplished by district support in working with school site PBIS teams’
review of their process for defining school-wide expectations and what is classroom managed
behavior versus what is office-managed behavior. In order to support teachers in deepening their
practices in the classroom, more time should be afforded to teachers to reflect on those times
when they must address students who have not met behavior or other classroom expectations.
Kezar (2001) states that research-based change principles include the promotion of
shared governance and collective decision-making, as well as, the creation of a culture of risk in
helping people to change belief systems. In the case of teachers working towards a culture of
managing certain identified classroom-managed behaviors, there would need to be a shift from
previous belief systems held that any student misconduct should result in a referral to the

125
administrator’s office to be managed. This was affirmed by research conducted by Sanchez,
Usinger, and Thornton (2019), who found a change in school culture surrounding student
discipline, evidenced by reduction in suspensions and expulsions, and strategies that included
regular teacher dialogue and collaboration on decision-making with improving instructional
practices.
increase the number of teachers to participate in restorative practices training. Although
three teachers revealed practices that could be described as restorative in nature, no teachers had
received specific training in formal Restorative Practices. Because of this, an organizational
culture of using a restorative practices approach to building positive teacher-student relationships
has not yet been established and was determined to be a validated need. A recommendation
rooted in principles of organizational change has been selected to close this organizational need.
Clark and Estes (2008) state that support necessary for organizational change processes includes
providing adequate knowledge, skills, and motivational support everyone. This suggests that a
greater number of teachers need to be trained in Restorative Practices in support of total
organizational cultural change. The recommendation is for the organization to foster a culture
that builds in restorative practices in all interactions with students to better support positive
teacher-student relationships (admin, teachers, students). A tiered approach to training should be
created starting with administrators, and then teachers. For example, given the contextual
features of a high school, the organization can build a plan teacher training in Restorative
Practices by content areas.
Rueda (2011) indicates that culture should not be seen as static, or monolithic, but as a
dynamic process that is jointly created and recreated by individuals in the course of negotiating
everyday life. In the case of fostering a school culture that looks at using a restorative approach

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in response to student behavior, organizational culture change is dependent on individual teacher
practices and behavior. This acknowledgement is evidenced in Mirsky’s (2007) examination of
schools’ adoption of Restorative Practices to combat rising rates of suspensions, truancies, and
unconnected students. Accounts from staff in the study indicated a positive change to school
culture with the adoption of Restorative Practices school-wide, but also acknowledged that that
teachers recognized that they needed to respect each other’s individual styles in order to move
towards transformational cultural change. Shaw (2007) also added that successful
implementation of restorative practices was attainable through a whole-school approach that also
depended on supportive and productive leadership for organizational change. Therefore, it
appears that the literature is supportive of the need to recognize the process of organizational
change includes attention to individual behavior and leadership.
increase professional learning opportunities for teachers to receive professional

development in supporting PBIS implementation. No teachers interviewed indicated that they
received professional development around PBIS implementation, outside of the initial training
needed for PBIS development. A failure to continue with professional development for teachers
following the initial training for PBIS development negatively impacts the ability for schools to
implement PBIS with fidelity and sustainability. A recommendation rooted in organizational
change principles has been selected to close this organizational gap. Clark and Estes (2008)
indicated that change processes most often require training in teamwork and process analysis.
This suggests that following initial training in PBIS development, teachers and school PBIS
teams will need continued professional development support for continued PBIS implementation
and sustainability. The recommendation is for the organization to support schools in helping
them utilize the PBIS tiered fidelity inventory to measure the extent to which the core features of

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PBIS are being implemented. Special attention will work to understand the resources that
teachers need to implement PBIS with fidelity and sustainability. With this knowledge, district
leadership should then develop professional development based on the needs of teachers and
schools.
Clark and Estes (2008) shared that the commitment and active involvement of top
management is another universal factor that turns up in reviews of successful organizational
change projects. Sugai and Horner (2020) affirmed this position in their revelation that
dedicating time to professional development and training, aligning training materials with other
initiatives, posting publicly professional development activities and events, conducting annual
orientation and refresher trainings, scheduling peer networking opportunities, and developing
internal training capacity were drivers in PBIS implementation.
establish the use of PBIS classroom practices to include addressing problem behavior,
fostering positive teacher-student interactions. Four teachers shared they implemental many
of the foundational practices of PBIS in the classroom, such as establishing classroom routines or
designing the physical environment of the classroom. However, less prevalent was the
intentional acknowledgement that PBIS classroom practices, such as teaching classroom
practices within classroom routines, reinforcing expectations, or engaging students, can further
support positive teacher-student interactions. Because of the partial attention to just some of the
PBIS classroom foundational practices, a need for this organizational influence was validated. A
recommendation rooted in the principles of improvement is made to close this organizational
need. These principles highlight the importance of knowing that improvements require actual
changes to occur. Clark and Estes (2008) further assert that another feature of effective
organizational change and improvement includes having a clear vision, goals, and ways to

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measure progress. Included, are clear work goals coupled with effective work procedures. This
suggests that the organization must be clear in communicating to teachers, the importance of
PBIS in the classroom, while providing clarity as to the procedures and supports that will allow
for teachers to reach those goals. The recommendation is for the organization to provide
teachers with training for PBIS classroom practices by using a Plan-Do-Study-Act model for
change and improvement. The organization can support teachers’ efficacy in implementing
PBIS in the classroom and improving teacher-student interactions by providing guidance in
planning it, trying it, observing the results, and acting on what is learned.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
The model for the implementation and evaluation framework is driven from the New
World Kirkpatrick Model. The New World Kirkpatrick model is an evolution of the original
four-level training evaluation model developed by Dr. Don Kirkpatrick in the 1950s (Kirkpatrick
& Kirkpatrick, 2016). Continuing with its four-level evaluation framework- Level 1 Reaction,
Level 2 Learning, Level 3 Behavior, and Level 4 Results- the New Kirkpatrick Model was
developed in 2010 as an enhanced version that considered the numerous changes taking place in
the workplace and in training (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
The New World Kirkpatrick Model takes a “backwards mapping” approach to planning a
program and reverses the order for which the four levels should be considered. Therefore, in
planning a program, the starting point would begin with Level 4 Results and work in reverse,
from Level 4 to Level 1. The purpose of this reverse ordering consideration is for the focus to
remain on what is most important-expected program outcomes (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick,
2016). Working backwards, in Level 3 Behavior, the degree to which participants apply what

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they learned during training once they are back on the job is the key. Level 2 Learning is defined
by the degree to which participants acquire the intended knowledge, skills, attitude, confidence,
and commitment based on their participation in the training. Finally, Level 1 Reaction looks to
the degree that participants find the training favorable, engaging, and relevant to their jobs
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Organizational Purpose, Need, and Expectations
Schools play an integral part in the support of students’ academic and social
development. A positive school culture is characteristic of effective systems in place that work to
promote engagement and school community. This study looked to evaluate one school district’s
commitment to promoting a positive school culture and climate through an initiative of adopting
and implementing PBIS in its high schools. A focus was on teacher perception of PBIS and its
cultivation for promoting positive teacher-student relationships. This evaluation included an
examination of the potential barriers to those knowledge and skills, motivational, and
organizational influences that may hinder the cultivation of positive teacher-student
relationships. The proposed solution, an extensive training and professional development
program, complete with sustainable on-going support and accountability, should achieve the
identified outcome- teacher perception that PBIS supports the cultivation of positive teacher-
student relationships.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators.
Table 14 demonstrates those proposed Level 4 Results and Leading indicators organized
by outcomes, metrics, and methods for the schools’ internal and external outcomes. If the
training and professional development for teachers produces the outcomes desired, then the
external outcomes should materialize.

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Table 14.

Level 4 Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes

Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
Decrease in parent
complaints about teachers
Number of calls or email
complaints from parents to
school administrators regarding
their child’s teachers
Monthly check-ins with school
administrators about the
number of parent complaints
about teachers
Decrease in suspension
rates of students
Number of violations of
education code that resulted in
student suspensions
Comparison of suspension data
from the previous three years
Student satisfaction of
their relationships with
the adults on campus
Student responses to key
questions
Compare annual strategic plan
survey results from previous
year
Internal Outcomes
Teacher satisfaction with
professional development
Feedback from teachers on key
questions
Survey data collected before,
during, and after professional
development
Improved attendance
records
The number of period absences
and full-day absences
Monthly attendance data
collected on students
Decrease in the number of
office-managed referrals
The number of office-managed
referrals by teachers
Monthly office-managed
referrals collected
Improved teacher efficacy Feedback from teachers on key
questions
Survey data collected from
teachers approximately 12
weeks after final professional
development training

Level 3: Behavior
critical behaviors. The stakeholder of focus are teachers engaged in the training and
professional development. The first critical behavior is to establish opportunities for students to
experience making choices. The second critical behavior is the teacher's use of affective
statements and questions. The third critical behavior is that teachers provide frequent feedback

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to students. The specific metrics, methods, and timing for each of these outcome behaviors is
provided in Table 15.
Table 15.

Level 3 Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical Behavior Metric(s)
Method(s)
Timing
Provide opportunities
for students to
experience making
choices
The number of
opportunities in the
classroom where
student voice
supported decision-
making
a) The training professional
shall take an opportunity to
observe the teacher and provide
feedback
b) The training professional
shall assign a peer from the
training to observe and provide
feedback (reciprocal)

During and in-between
training sessions-
approximately 30 days
following each training as to
provide time for the teacher
to practice.
Thereafter- monitoring by
site administrator, as needed
Use affective
statements and
questions
The number of
times affective
statement and
question language
is used
a) The training professional
shall take an opportunity to
observe the teacher and provide
feedback
b) The training professional
shall assign a peer from the
training to observe and provide
feedback (reciprocal)
During and in-between
training sessions-
approximately 30 days
following each training as to
provide time for the teacher
to practice.
Thereafter- monitoring by
site administrator, as needed
Provide frequent
feedback to students
The number of
times effective
feedback is
provided to students
a) The training professional
shall take an opportunity to
observe the teacher and provide
feedback
b) The training professional
shall assign a peer from the
training to observe and provide
feedback (reciprocal)
During and in-between
training sessions-
approximately 30 days
following each training as to
provide time for the teacher
to practice. Thereafter-
monitoring by site
administrator, as needed

required drivers. Teachers require the on-going support and coaching from their training
professionals, site administrators, and organization to transfer what they have learned in training.
With this support in place, teachers can apply what they have learned and enhance their success
in building positive teacher-student relationships. Meaningful rewards should be established to
recognize the achievements of performance goals and demonstrate the organization’s support

132
and commitment to building positive teacher-student relationships. Table 16 shares the required
drivers to support critical behaviors.
Table 16.
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing
Critical
Behaviors
Supported
1, 2, 3 Etc.
Reinforcing
Job aid including short instructional videos that review and
reinforce the critical behaviors

As needed/ Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Job aid including one-pager reference sheets that detail
main contents of critical behaviors (how to perform)

As needed/ Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Encouraging
Peer modeling and demonstration during collaboration
and/or staff meetings

Weekly/Monthly 1, 2, 3
Feedback and coaching from training professionals

As needed/ Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Rewarding
Selected staff recognition at a staff meeting by
administration

Once a month 1, 2, 3
Activity that allows students to recognize and honor their
teachers

Once a quarter 1, 2, 3
Monitoring
Training professional observations and feedback loop

During and following
training

1, 2, 3
Peer to peer observation and feedback loop During and 30 days
following training
1, 2, 3

organizational support. The allocation of the appropriate resources in order to implement the
organizational change plan will need to be provided at both the district and school site levels.
District leadership will need to communicate and demonstrate to school site administration its
commitment to providing the adequate training, support, and coaching for teachers. District
leadership will need to develop training across multiple days, allowing time in between for

133
teachers to practice the training they have received and for the training professionals and teachers
to engage in feedback loops based on observations. In addition, school site administrators will
need to play a critical role in execution of the required drivers. School site administrators will
need to incorporate the critical behaviors to be included as part of the focus for professional
learning communities, arranging to provide opportunities for peer to peer observations and
feedback loops. School site administrators will also need to establish a culture that encourages
and rewards the implementation of the critical behaviors by using collaboration and staff meeting
time to acknowledge those best practices. Establishing this culture should also include regular
opportunities for students to honor those teachers that have positively impacted them.
Level 2: Learning
learning goals. Following the completion of the recommended solutions, most notably
the training and instructional coaching, teachers will be able to:

1. Recognize the benefits of effective classroom PBIS practices,
2. Apply the steps to establishing classroom behavioral expectations,
3. Implement the use of affective statements and questions appropriately with
students,
4. Executing effective feedback practices with students,
5. Organizing situations where students can demonstrate autonomy and decision-
making,
6. Critiquing interactions with students when addressing student misconduct.
program. The learning goals listed in the previous section, will be met through a training
program that explores the continuum of classroom PBIS practices. The teacher attending the
training will examine a menu of PBIS practices, such as establishing classroom expectations that

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are aligned with school-wide behavioral expectations, providing effective feedback to students,
establishing classroom procedures and routines, responding to student misconduct,
teaching/reinforcing student behavioral expectations, and engaging students. The training
program will consist of one in-person training per quarter and coaching activities led by the
training professionals in-between each training to support teacher practice of the learning taking
place during training. The total of in-person training time will be 24 hours and four hours of
instructional coaching.
In support of promoting and supporting positive teacher-student relationships, four
training sessions will include an overview, explanation of, demonstration, and deeper learning
around foundational PBIS classroom practices. The first training session will include an
introduction of the foundational PBIS classroom practices, recognizing the importance of the
research behind implementing these practices. The initial training day will consider the prior
knowledge base teachers may have in regards to these practices, but will look to build upon this
acknowledgement in promoting new learning. Following the explanation of the “why” and
introduction of the practices, one PBIS classroom practice will be of focus for the remainder of
the first training day. It is important to note that the order for which the PBIS classroom
practices are presented will be from least difficult to most difficult as a strategy to build
confidence levels and efficacy beliefs of teachers attending the training program (Clark & Estes,
2008). Subsequent training, scheduled quarterly, will introduce one to two new PBIS
foundational classroom practices.
Following each training session, teacher practitioners will walk away from the training
with a job aid that will serve as a guide for reference and practice of the new learning. For
example, following the training on feedback, teachers will be provided with a job aid that

135
outlines numerous examples of feedback prompts to utilize with students, including various
situations such as students asking for help, answering questions during whole group instruction,
and feedback on completed assignments. Another job aid will include guiding questions,
considerations, and strategies for beginning the school year and establishing classroom
behavioral expectations. In addition, a job aid will be provided to teacher practitioners focusing
on strategies and practices for addressing student misbehavior in a variety of potential scenarios.
Following each training session and prior to the next training session, guided
instructional coaching by the training program team will be available for teachers needing
support or guidance in practicing the new learning strategies and practices. It is important to note
that training sessions will include a small teacher cohort of 3 to 5 teachers from the same school
site that will allow for some peer to peer observations and feedback loops centered on the new
learning skills. This is where site administration support will be needed for ensuring school site
resources are allocated for these small professional learning communities to have scheduled and
dedicated time to implement these peer-to-peer opportunities.
components of learning. Needed in the application of problem-solving processes, the
demonstration of declarative knowledge is seen as a precursor to learning. Acknowledging this,
the evaluation of learning for both declarative and procedural knowledge is important. It is
important that the learners value the training as a prerequisite to implementing newly acquired
knowledge and skills on the job. However, the learner must be confident in his/her ability to
transfer this new knowledge and skillset, while also demonstrating a commitment to using them
on the job. As such, Table 17 lists the evaluation methods and timing for these components of
learning.

136
Table 17.
Evaluations of the Components of Learning for the Program
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”
Knowledge checks using a “pair, share” and other small
group checks for understanding
Intermittently during in-person training sessions and
documented via presentation materials

Knowledge checks using polling Intermittently during in-person training sessions and
documented via presentation materials
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”
Demonstration and practice with real-time scenarios or
current issues teachers are dealing with (peer to peer)
(use of job aid for support)

During in-person training
Quality of feedback from peers following demonstration
and practice with real-time scenarios.

During in-person training
Real-time application and practice in classrooms (peer
to peer observations)

Following the in-person training and prior to the next
in-person training
Pre- and Post-training survey assessment asking teacher
participants about before and after the training
During in-person training, following training, and
following up at the next training (accounting for time
in-between where teacher practiced and applied skills
with peer to peer observations)
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Training professionals’ observations of statements
following open-ended questions regarding the utility
and benefit of what they are being asked to implement
on the job

During in-person training
Follow-up open-ended questions following simulation
and scenarios; discussion of value or potential benefits
of the skills, referencing the scenarios

During in-person training
Pre- and Post-survey question as part of the peer to peer
observation opportunities

Following the in-person training
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”
Polling and survey items using scaled items following each in-person training session
Discussions and feedback loops during practice
exercises

During in-person trainings
Scaled item survey feedback In-between in-person training, following peer to peer
observations (to be filled out as a reflection following
peer to peer observations
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”
Discussions following practice and feedback

During in-person training
Complete peer observation worksheet In-between in-person training (with peer from site
who attended the training)

Create a plan for practice During in-person training

137
Level 1: Reaction
reaction. Level 1 Reaction evaluation methods for this program will focus primarily on three
components: engagement, relevance, and customer satisfaction. A post-program survey will be a
part of summative evaluation; however, it will be a short and concise survey with very specific
questions that are learner-centered. More of a focus will be placed on formative evaluation
methods. Formative evaluation methods will allow for feedback to be collected more
immediately and allow for the training program to be adjusted to better support the learner
outcomes. Listed in Table 18 are components of Level 1 Reaction methods for the program.
Table 18.

Level 1 Measure Reactions
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
Training instructor observation

During in-person training
Dedicated observer (could be co-presenter or a
dedicated observer)

During in-person training
Program evaluation

Two weeks following the in-person training
Attendance

During in-person training
Relevance
Pulse checks (polling, open discussion) Intermittently during in-person training (breaks,
following sections); at the end of each in-person
training

Program evaluation

Two weeks following the in-person training
Customer Satisfaction
Program evaluation Following each in-person training

Pulse checks (polling, open discussion) Intermittently during in-person training (breaks,
following sections); at the end of each in-person
training

138
Evaluation Tools
immediately following the program implementation. Following each in-person training
session, a short survey will be administered to program participants in order to gauge the
relevance of the training content to the participants’ job performance and their satisfaction with
the overall delivery of the training content. The training professionals will review the data and
feedback collected in order to consider and determine if any additional modifications to training
sessions should be addressed to better meet the needs of the participants.
For Level 1, during in-person training sessions, the training professionals will
intermittently conduct pulse-checks by providing opportunities for participants to share the
training content’s relevance in their work, within their school sites, and learning environment.
Level 2 checks for understanding will include practice opportunities for participants to engage in
scenarios or their own real-life situations and provide each other feedback.
delayed for a period after the program implementation. In order to gather training
participants’ feedback on the training program, a Blended Evaluation approach will be used to
measure the participants’ perspective. Approximately twelve weeks after the implementation of
the training, the training administrators will conduct a focus group interview session containing
open and scaled items to measure, from the participants’ perspective, satisfaction and relevance
of the training (Level 1), efficacy and value placed on training application (Level 2), transfer of
the training to their performance in the classroom following opportunities to practice during and
following in-person training sessions (Level 3).
Data Analysis and Reporting
The Level 4 goal of teacher practitioners transferring new learning from the training
program will be measured by a combination of methods. One method will be to have teachers

139
demonstrate the new skills learned by gathering informal feedback from their site administrators.
An email from the district-level training professional will be sent to administrators whose teachers
attended the training program. The email will summarize that teachers just completed training and
will include highlights of what new skills and knowledge have been part of the learning. The
training professional will ask for the support of administrators in monitoring the fidelity of
implementation of the new learning. Administrators will be asked to conduct informal observations
of teachers who completed the training program and will be provided some key performance
indicators that they can reference when conducting the observations. Attached to the email will be
an excel spreadsheet that contains a short rating scale for each teacher to be observed. The
administrator will fill it out and send it to the training professional at the time to be determined.
The training professional will review the data and reach out to any administrator who may have
concerns and will offer further follow-up support if appropriate. Another method to be used to
measure the transfer of new skills will be to conduct focus groups in order to gather feedback
regarding the impact of the new learning. The district personnel training professional will review
the focus group data with the district-level team and reflect on the training program for any possible
modifications or adjustments for future training program sessions. Results will be shared with site
administrators as appropriate.
Summary
This study’s intention was to investigate the role of PBIS in cultivating positive teacher-
student relationships in high schools. Using the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework,
teachers were interviewed around an evaluation of those identified knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences. It was through teacher interviews and a review of the existing
literature that the assumed influences could be further examined. Recommendations presented

140
were constructed through data collection and analysis. In order to best support and optimize the
implementation of the proposed recommendations, all levels of the New World Kirkpatrick
Model were used to plan, implement, and evaluate the recommendations of the training program.
Each level of the New World Kirkpatrick Model entails equal attention and as a whole, and
allows for a process to occur where data is collected and analyzed along the way and not just at
the end of the program. It is expected that data collected in the process of the training program
will drive any adjustments or modifications that may be needed to the current training program.
The advantage of this is that it allows for immediate impact to the current program, while setting
the stage to maximize results in future programs.
One big outcome from this research study was a lack of organizational support for
teachers in the sustainability for PBIS implementation. Although teachers in this study
demonstrated some knowledge of those foundational principles for classroom PBIS, no further
professional development opportunities were provided for teachers that intentionally worked to
either strengthen or deepen classroom PBIS practices. Teachers articulated that they valued their
relationships with students as evidenced through interview responses. Teachers demonstrated a
high level of motivation to maintain positive interactions with students, even in the absence of
any specific professional development supporting classroom PBIS. Teachers indicated no formal
professional development opportunities for classroom PBIS or restorative practices had been
provided to them.
Considering that classroom PBIS and restorative practices can further support the ability
for teachers to strengthen or deepen pedagogical practices for cultivating positive teacher-student
relationships, implementation of the recommendations shared in this study can play a pivotal role

141
in the organization meeting its goal and addressing those knowledge, motivation, and
organizational needs.

142

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Appendix A
Interview Protocol

Interview Questions
Q1 Walk me through the process of how your school moved through the stages of
developing the PBIS framework?
Q2. Describe the PBIS development experience for you?
(pending response from above)
a) Did you feel that teachers had an active voice and shared in decision-making and why
do you feel that way?
Q3 What are your thoughts and perceptions about how other teachers feel about PBIS?
b) What do you define as the purpose of PBIS?
c) Explain the value of implementing PBIS in the classroom.
Q4 What value do you put on classroom management practices and why?
a) Talk about some of the classroom PBIS strategies you may utilize in your classroom.
b) Describe the impact of PBIS practices in your classroom management?
c) Share how you designed your physical classroom environment. Tell me why you chose
this strategy (probe other input).

Q5 Tell me about a time you had to deal with problem student behavior. What steps did you
take?
a) (probe from question above), what did you learn from this experience?

Q6 Describe your classroom culture.
a) Share how you establish a safe learning environment for all students.
b) What are your expectations of students?
Q7 (define ways of student feedback leading to this question) Tell me about ways you provide
feedback to your students. Share an experience you had with a student when providing
positive feedback.

Q8 Share an experience of providing feedback to a student who was not meeting
classroom/school expectations.
a) Do you think you learned in this particular experience?
b) Considering implementation of PBIS, did you or would you have done anything
differently?

Q9 Imagine you have a student who is talking with a peer while students are working
independently. What specific strategies would you use to address this? What things might you
consider?
Q10 Imagine you notice that during small group work, certain students are not always working
or that certain students seem to be doing the bulk of the work. What are some things you may
be considering? What steps would you take to address this?

157
Q11 How might you address the COVID-19 situation with your students? What are some
strategies you might use and why?
Q12 Describe how your school has provided professional development opportunities or
support generally for teachers in support of PBIS implementation school-wide and in your
classroom.
Q13 Let’s say you have a student who has arrived to your first period class tardy for the 5
th

time in the last two weeks. What are some steps you would take to address this with the
student? Share with me how that initial conversation will go. What are some considerations
you may be thinking?
Q14) How do you feel about your school's response to inappropriate student behavior and why
do you feel this? Describe how is this response the same or different from the time prior to
PBIS implementation.
a) Explain to me about the school procedures for addressing students who violate your
school-wide expectations.
b) Explain to me the procedures for addressing students who violate your classroom
expectations.
c) Do you believe these procedures promote positive teacher-student relationships?
How?
Q 15) How has the transition to distance learning and online learning environments impacted
you during the COVID-19 pandemic? Describe your online learning environments.
a) What role did your school’s PBIS framework play in transitioning to an online learning
environment? In your classroom?
b) Were you able to apply your classroom PBIS practices/strategies to your online
learning environment? If so, how?
Q16) Is there anything else that you would like to add?

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Asset Metadata

Creator Pedraza, Baldwin Jr. (author)

Core Title Teacher perception on positive behavior interventions and supports’ (PBIS) cultivation for positive teacher-student relationships in high schools: an evaluation study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 04/15/2021

Defense Date 04/14/2021

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag classroom PBIS,High School,OAI-PMH Harvest,PBIS,positive behavior interventions and supports,teacher-student relationships

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Min, Emmy (committee chair), Crawford, Jenifer (committee member), Moore, Ekaterina (committee member)

Creator Email baldwinpedraza@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-444133

Unique identifier UC11668421

Identifier etd-PedrazaBal-9467.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-444133 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-PedrazaBal-9467.pdf

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Document Type Dissertation

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Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

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