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Raising women leaders of Christian higher education: an innovation study

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Raising Women Leaders of Christian Higher Education:
An Innovation Study

by

Williana Purnama

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2021

Copyright 2021 Williana Purnama

ii
Dedication
To the Lord, God, King, and Savior, Jesus Christ, be the glory.
To Mom and Grandma.

iii
Acknowledgments
Praise be to the Lord, God, Jesus Christ, from whom all blessings flow. I am blessed for
the simple fact that I have the option and ability to engage in this educational pursuit. The Lord’s
hands have been evident throughout this journey as He surrounded me with a village that kept
me persevering through the difficult days and supported me through my self-doubts. While I
cherish this learning and accomplishment, I am most grateful for who I am in Christ – for I am
saved not by my works, but by His grace alone, through faith.
For the past few years, my family has been graciously supporting me and cheering me on.
When I began this journey, my son, Ezra, was only two years old and did not understand why his
mom had locked herself in the room and ignored his persistent knocking. Towards the end of this
journey, he has grown into a kind-hearted and thoughtful five-year-old, who regularly checked
up on my dissertation progress and asked, “Are you Doctor Mommy yet?” Ezra, my prayer is
that you would grow up embracing who God wants you to be and live to glorify Jesus. To my
husband, Danny, thank you for putting up with seeing less of me, for being the calm in the storm,
and for being the designated proofreader of my submissions. While I may not say it often, I
appreciate you. My dog, London, is a true companion who faithfully accompanied me through
the long nights of reading, researching, and writing. I must admit I often envy his carefree life.
To my parents, William and Firna, I am forever grateful for all the sacrifices you have
made. I cannot even begin to name everything my mom has taught me. Growing up, I watched
her pursue her master’s degree while working and caring for me and my brother. As a child, I
may not have understood what that was like for her, but as an adult, I cannot have been more in
awe of her strength. Mom, you are a leader and my superhero. To my brother, Charles, whom I
can always count on for a dose of humor and reality, thank you for being my partner in crime.

iv
In addition to having a job that is enjoyable and meaningful, I am blessed with a
supportive and prayerful community. The list is incredibly long, but Amanda, Dan, Keven,
Lauren, and Morene, you have truly redefined the meaning of colleagues; you are my second
family. To my “emotional support human,” Lindsay, thank you, friend, for the therapy sessions,
laughs, gifs, and gummies. To Wes, who is a constant support and advocate; thank you for being
a leader who helps break down barriers. To my dear friends, Ira and Indrawati, for being my
cheerleaders and prayer warriors. I cannot wait to return to spending time with you again.
I am thankful for the USC’s Rossier School of Education faculty and staff. Dr. Adibe, my
dissertation chair, granted me autonomy throughout this process and I appreciate his help in
developing confidence in my work. Two phenomenal professors and leaders, Dr. Kezar and Dr.
Muraszewksi, served as my committee members. They were pivotal in expanding my thinking
and pushing me to reflect deeply about my topic and conceptual framework. Their expertise,
thought-provoking questions, and insights have been critical in shaping and enhancing my study.
Both of you are truly an inspiration. I would be remiss not to mention Dr. Regur, who, as my
capstone chair, have provided me with writing support and timely feedback.
To Cohort 11 of the Organizational Change and Leadership program, I cannot imagine
how different this journey would have been without you. While I may not necessarily miss our
Tuesday and Thursday evening classes, I miss seeing you on a regular basis. Thank you for the
text messages, laughter, and friendship.
Last but certainly not least, this dissertation would not have been possible without nine
incredible women who graciously responded to my invitation and willingly shared their
experiences and insights as leaders. May you continue to do the good works that God has set
apart for you and inspire a new generation of women leaders.
v
Table of Contents
Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... iii
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... viii
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ ix
Chapter One: Introduction to the Problem of Practice.................................................................... 1
Global Context and Mission ..................................................................................................... 2
Global Goal and Current Status ................................................................................................ 2
Related Literature...................................................................................................................... 3
Importance of the Organizational Innovation ........................................................................... 6
Description of Stakeholder Groups ........................................................................................... 7
Stakeholder Group for the Study .............................................................................................. 7
Purpose of the Project and Questions ....................................................................................... 8
Methodological Framework ...................................................................................................... 9
Definitions................................................................................................................................. 9
Organization of the Study ....................................................................................................... 10
Chapter Two: Review of Literature .............................................................................................. 11
Women in Leadership ............................................................................................................. 11
Current State of Women in Leadership in Christian Higher Education Institutions ........ 12
Perception of an Ideal Leader ........................................................................................... 13
The Importance and Benefits of Women in Leadership ................................................... 15
Organizational and Cultural Challenges to Women in Leadership ........................................ 17
Structural Barriers in Higher Education ........................................................................... 17
Theological Challenges within Christian Higher Education Institutions ......................... 20
The Rise and Development of Women Leaders ..................................................................... 21
Practices, Policies, and Programs for Recruitment, Development, and Retention of
Women Leaders ................................................................................................................ 21
Leadership Attributes Supporting the Rise and Development of Women Leaders .......... 24
Summary of General Literature .............................................................................................. 25
The Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analysis Conceptual Framework ....................................... 26
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences .................................... 27
Knowledge and Skills ....................................................................................................... 27
Motivation ......................................................................................................................... 31
Organizational Influences ................................................................................................. 36
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge, Motivation, and the
Organizational Context ........................................................................................................... 41
vi
Chapter Three: Methods ............................................................................................................... 45
Participating Stakeholders ...................................................................................................... 45
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale....................................................................... 46
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale .............................................. 47
Document Analysis Sampling Criteria and Rationale ...................................................... 47
Document Analysis Sampling (Access) Strategy and Rationale ...................................... 48
Data Collection and Instrumentation ...................................................................................... 48
Interviews .......................................................................................................................... 49
Documents ........................................................................................................................ 51
Data Analysis .......................................................................................................................... 52
Credibility and Trustworthiness .............................................................................................. 52
Ethics....................................................................................................................................... 55
Limitations and Delimitations ................................................................................................. 57
Chapter Four: Results and Findings .............................................................................................. 59
Participating Stakeholders ...................................................................................................... 59
Research Question 1: What are the Knowledge and Motivation Factors Influencing Women’s
Aspirations for Leadership and Their Leadership Identity Development? ............................. 61
Knowledge Results ........................................................................................................... 61
Motivation Results ............................................................................................................ 68
Research Question 2: What is the Interaction between Organizational Culture and Context
and the Knowledge and Motivation of Women Leaders? ...................................................... 77
Organizational Results ...................................................................................................... 77
Summary ................................................................................................................................. 83
Chapter Five: Solutions and Recommendations ........................................................................... 86
Purpose of the Project and Questions ..................................................................................... 86
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences ................................................. 87
Knowledge Recommendations ......................................................................................... 87
Motivation Recommendations .......................................................................................... 92
Organization Recommendations ....................................................................................... 96
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan ................................................................... 102
Implementation and Evaluation Framework ................................................................... 102
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations ............................................................ 102
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators ......................................................................... 103
Level 3: Behavior ............................................................................................................ 104
Level 2: Learning ............................................................................................................ 107
Level 1: Reaction ............................................................................................................ 110
Evaluation Tools ............................................................................................................. 111
Data Analysis and Reporting .......................................................................................... 112
Summary ............................................................................................................................... 113
vii
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach ......................................................................... 113
Limitations and Delimitations ............................................................................................... 113
Recommendations for Future Research ................................................................................ 114
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 115
References ................................................................................................................................... 116
Appendix A ................................................................................................................................. 131
Appendix B ................................................................................................................................. 133
Appendix C ................................................................................................................................. 135
Appendix D ................................................................................................................................. 136

viii
List of Tables
Table 1: Knowledge Influence, Knowledge Type, and Knowledge Assessment ........................ 30
Table 2: Motivational Influences and Assessments for Analysis ................................................. 35
Table 3: Assume Organizational Influences ................................................................................. 40
Table 4: Participant Demographics .............................................................................................. 60
Table 5: Summary of Presumed Knowledge Influences and Evaluation Results ........................ 61
Table 6: Summary of Presumed Motivation Influences and Evaluation Results ......................... 69
Table 7: Summary of Presumed Organizational Influences and Evaluation Results ................... 78
Table 8: Summary of All Needs, Influences, and Evaluation Results ......................................... 84
Table 9: Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations ......................................... 87
Table 10: Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations ....................................... 92
Table 11: Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations ..................................... 96
Table 12: Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes ..................... 103
Table 13: Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation ............................ 105
Table 14: Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors ........................................................ 106
Table 15: Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program ..................................... 109
Table 16: Components to Measure Reactions to the Program ................................................... 111

ix
List of Figures
Figure 1: The Interaction of Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Culture in Women’s
Leadership Aspirations and Identity Development .......................................................... 44

x
Abstract
This study examined the lived experiences of women leaders who serve in Christian higher
education institutions with the purpose of addressing the paucity of women leaders within this
context. Using the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework, the study utilized a
qualitative approach that included interviews and document analysis to identify and analyze the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors influencing women’s aspirations for
leadership and their identity development. Findings from this study indicated the necessity of
addressing women’s knowledge and motivation influences pertaining to leadership. Additionally,
organizational factors identified demonstrated the need for alignment of organization’s cultural
model and practices. Solutions and recommendations to address the validated needs were
provided. Implementation and evaluation framework based on the Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick’s
(2016) New World Model were also included.

1
Chapter One: Introduction to the Problem of Practice
Women are underrepresented in leadership, including in the public and private sectors,
nonprofit organizations, and academic institutions (Eagly & Carli, 2007; Gangone, 2016; Kubu,
2018; Lennon; 2013; Madsen et al., 2015; Redmond et al., 2017; Shepherd; 2017). Gender parity
is even more pronounced within Christian higher education, particularly at the senior or
executive level of leadership. Reports by the Council for Christian Colleges and Universities
(CCCU) (Curry & Willeman, 2018) as well as the Association of Theological Schools (ATS)
(Gin & Meinzer, 2017) show a low number of women in leadership. Overall, women occupy
approximately 20% of all senior leadership roles within Christian higher education institutions
(Longman & Anderson, 2016; Gin & Meinzer, 2017; Curry & Willeman, 2018). Only 3% of
CCCU member institutions and 11% of ATS member institutions are led by female college
presidents or chief executive officers (Brown, 2016; Dahlvig, 2013; Dahlvig & Longman, 2014).
At present, the landscape of Christian higher education leadership remains unreflective of its
student demographic as well as the society it exists in and serves (American Council for
Education, 2017; Dahlvig & Longman, 2014; Longman & Anderson, 2016; Longman &
Lafreniere, 2012; Smith & Mamiseishvili, 2016; Woollen, 2016). Having quality leadership is
essential to organizations because leadership influences, changes, and moves organizations
(Northouse, 2016). Leaders establish direction, align people, as well as motivate and inspire
(Kotter, 1990). The lack of women leaders at the senior executive level will result in unequal
representation of all voices, failure to meet the needs of students and to serve society, and
compromise the institutions’ ability to carry out and fulfill their mission and vision as well as to
remain sustainable in this rapidly changing world.

2
Global Context and Mission
This study focuses on the underrepresentation of women in executive leadership among
Christian higher education institutions within the United States through the exploration of
women’s aspirations and leadership development identity. The organizations in this study are
colleges, universities, and seminaries that are rooted in the Christian faith. These institutions are
members of the CCCU and/or ATS. CCCU is an international association of Christian colleges
and universities comprised of 180 institutions, of which 143 are located in the United States
(CCCU Institutions, n.d.). CCCU member institutions are committed to integrate biblical truth
into all aspects of the institution, to the moral and spiritual formation of students, and to
graduating students who bring the good news of Jesus Christ and contribute to human flourishing
(About CCCU, n.d.). ATS is an association of graduate schools of theology in the United States
and Canada that prepare students for the practice of ministry, teaching, and research in
theological disciplines (About ATS, n.d.). Among member institutions, 178 identify with the
Christian faith and are located in the United States (ATS Member Schools, n.d.).
Global Goal and Current Status
The ultimate performance goal is to reach critical mass where there is equal
representation of women in Christian higher education leadership and the implementation of
support and development for emerging women leaders. An increased representation of women in
executive leadership roles to 30% by December 2025 will serve as a benchmark for progress.
Each institution’s specific goal and adoption of program will vary depending on its capacity,
size, and current state of leadership.

3
Related Literature
Women outnumber men in overall college student population and advanced degrees
earned, yet they are significantly underrepresented in leadership roles within academic
institutions, particularly Christian higher education institutions (Dahlvig & Longman, 2014;
Davidson, 2018; Longman & Anderson, 2016; Longman & Lafraniere, 2012). According to the
National Center for Education Statistics (2017), female students make up 59% of the student
body. The data gathered also show that of 1,894,934 bachelor degrees awarded, 57% were
earned by women; of 758,809 master’s degrees awarded, 60% were earned by women; and of
178,547 doctoral degrees awarded, 52% were earned by women. Despite more female students in
colleges and universities, female leaders within higher education remain scarce.
In the context of Christian higher education, there is an even larger disparity between
males and females in top level leadership positions. The percentage of women holding vice
president titles or higher within the CCCU member institutions is 20.2% and of those
institutions, only six of the institutions have female college presidents (Dahlvig, 2013; Longman
& Anderson, 2016). Longman and Anderson (2016) also highlight that a quarter of CCCU
member institutions do not have any high level leaders who are females. Leadership roles are
primarily occupied by males and often demand women to choose between their career and
personal obligations.
Many organizations, including academic institutions, are structured in a way that do not
align with women’s personal needs and values (Dahlvig & Longman, 2014; Hall et al., 2004;
Longman & Anderson, 2016; Longman & Lafreniere, 2012). Generally, one must spend long
hours and work with inflexible schedules in the process of attaining a leadership role as well as
when occupying a position of leadership (Longman & Anderson, 2016). Given that women
4
generally bear the majority of the responsibilities for child rearing and caring for elderly (Airini
et al., 2011; O’Neil & Bilimoria, 2005), many women find it challenging to invest more time at
work. Dahlvig (2013) conducted a narrative study of five women leading within the CCCU over
the course of three years. The women desired and strived for family-work balance but found it
extremely difficult to achieve. While teaching may provide some flexibility, administrative work
does not. Meetings, long to-do lists, college events, research, and planning, lead to a significantly
more demanding schedule. The demand and expectations of managing household responsibilities
is also exacerbated by the theology derived from the conservative evangelical worldview.
The traditional gender roles are often reinforced within the conservative evangelical
Christian worldview, emphasizing leadership as a role that rightfully belongs to males (Dahlvig,
2013; Joeckel & Chesnes, 2009; Longman & Anderson, 2011; Longman & Anderson, 2016;
Longman et al., 2011). Kim et al. (2010) state, “The irony of the evangelical worldview is the
elements contributing to discrimination are held simultaneously with beliefs that affirm the
equality of all people and the principles of justice and love” (p. 463). Sanctified sexism, sexist
explicit or implicit comments or behaviors based on a theological concept, are prevalent in
Christian academia (Hall et al., 2010; Longman & Anderson, 2016). The practice of not hiring
women faculty to teach the Bible, male students turning their back on a female speaker, and the
negative perception of mothers working long hours exemplify the notion of sanctified sexism.
While Christianity has a history of advocating for equality and social justice, it also gives rise to
a theological concept that fosters sanctified sexism, accepting discriminatory practices and
allowing harassment to go unchallenged.
The traditional church holds the belief and promotes that women’s submission to men is a
mark of godliness (Dahlvig & Longman, 2010). Eagly and Chin (2010) state that leaders are
5
generally expected to be confident, dominant, and ambitious, which are characteristics strongly
correlated with masculinity. Leadership is viewed as something that is naturally designed for
men, and therefore, in addition to women not being seen as leaders, they are also viewed as
rebelling against the natural order of their calling when striving for leadership. The conservative
Christian worldview calls women to be submissive, an expectation that is mirrored in the work
setting, where women are welcomed in supporting roles, but not in leadership roles.
Relationships are also pivotal in propelling women into leadership, but women lack
robust mentorship and a network of support that directly impact their advancement into
leadership positions (Dahlvig & Longman, 2014; Ibarra et al., 2010; Ibarra et al., 2013). These
researchers interview 16 women employed in administrative leadership within CCCUs and
conclude that role models are crucial in helping women recognize their potential for and shaping
their perception of leadership. Dahlvig and Longman (2010) also state that many women step
into leadership not because of their own ambition, and instead, they attribute their ascent into
leadership roles to other individuals, events, and situations that have facilitated and/or presented
them with such an opportunity.
Support and mentoring are critical to advancement for both men and women, but despite
having mentors, women continue to trail behind in promotions (Ibarra et al., 2010). Catalyst is a
global nonprofit organization that promotes women’s advancement to leadership. In its 2008
survey (N=3,013), 58% of women and 55% of men reported having an active mentoring, but
men received more promotions than women (Carter & Silva, 2010). Men are more likely to have
a CEO or senior executive as mentor. According to the Catalyst survey, 62% of men were
actively mentored by a CEO or senior executives while only 52% of women were mentored by
individuals at this level (Carter & Silva, 2010). Ibarra et al. (2010) discuss the difference in the
6
mentoring relationship of men and women and describe a special mentoring relationship referred
to as sponsorship. Men are more strategic with their selection of mentors and focused on their
career goals. While men’s mentors are more likely to help them get promoted, women’s mentors
tend to focus on personal growth and skills development (Ibarra et al., 2010; Ibarra et al, 2013).
Women lack access to influential colleagues and their network of support does not necessarily
involve top level individuals who advocate for their promotion.
Importance of the Organizational Innovation
Historically, leadership in Christian higher education has been characterized by
homogeneity. Executive leaders are predominantly White and male. Barton (2019) highlights
that academic institutions currently face complex challenges and unprecedented pace of change.
Rapidly changing demographics, technology, economics, federal funding, and student
expectations, as well as retirement of senior level administrators, present the need for a more
equitable, inclusive, and collaborative leadership. Increasing the representation of women in
leadership is critical for the future of the institutions.
While having women leaders is essential, few women aspire to lead and rise to senior
level positions. The role congruity theory asserts that there is a set of expectations and
perceptions about people and behaviors based on their social classes or categories (Eagly &
Karau, 2002). Leadership has traditionally been defined by traits, skills, and abilities, i.e.
characteristics associated with males or masculinity (Ibarra, 2015; Northouse, 2016). Women’s
physical attributes and tendency to be more collaborative and uncompetitive present incongruity
between the female gender role and leadership (Bierema, 2016). The male-norm culture is deeply
embedded in the Western culture and in both men and women (Ibarra, 2015). Therefore, efforts
to increase the representation of women leaders in Christian higher education require
7
understanding the interior life of women, their aspirations to lead and their leadership identity
development, along with factors influencing their motivation and ability to step into leadership
roles.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
Students, faculty, administrators, and board of trustees are major stakeholders in the
educational organization. Students are the recipients of the services provided by the institutions
and they also supply the leadership pipeline. Their education, advanced degrees, and experiences
will prepare and qualify them for leadership roles. Faculty role and responsibilities include
teaching, providing academic advising and mentoring to students, conducting research, and
producing publications. Administrators are individuals actively involved in the organization’s
operations and decision-making process. Along with hiring and training team members, these
administrators can empower and prepare team members for leadership roles. Both faculty and
staff provide direct services to students and they are also likely candidates for leadership. The
board of trustees provides oversight and ensures that the institutions’ practices align with its
mission and vision and that the institutions are achieving their goals.
Stakeholder Group for the Study
The stakeholder of focus in this study is women administrators at the mid and senior level
of leadership. Most women administrators in Christian higher education occupy and spend their
tenure at mid-level management. Therefore, the influences upon these administrators’ aspirations
and leadership identity are essential to understanding the shortage of women in executive
leadership. The few women who rise and advance into senior leadership will provide additional
insight and facilitate deeper understanding into this problem of practice. These mid and senior
level women administrators are the target population because they are direct influencers of their
8
institution’s vision and mission. As individual contributors, they are active participants of the
organization and are engaged in various aspects of the institutions’ operations. Additionally, they
are leaders and emerging leaders who shape the culture and future of their institutions. Women
administrators play a significant role in the recruitment, retention, development, and
advancement of highly qualified women into leadership.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this study is to address the underrepresentation of women in Christian
higher education leadership through the exploration of women’s aspirations to lead and their
leadership identity development. Few women seek and/or rise to executive leadership and it is
important to determine and understand the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
impacting this issue. In an era of globalization with rapidly changing demographics, society, and
technology, highly qualified leaders, as well as equitable and inclusive leadership, are critical to
Christian higher education institutions. As such, the questions that guide this study are the
following:
1. What are the knowledge and motivation factors influencing women’s aspirations for
leadership and their leadership identity development?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and the knowledge
and motivation of women leaders?
3. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions to the
barriers impeding women’s advancement into leadership?

9
Methodological Framework
This study utilizes Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework, a process of
investigating organizational performance gaps through the analysis of stakeholders’ knowledge,
motivation, and organizational context. Assumed influences contributing to the problem of
practice are generated through a review of current literature as well as the researcher’s personal
experience as a woman administrator employed in a Christian higher education institution. The
researcher will apply a qualitative approach to data collection. Individual interviews with
stakeholders and analysis of institutional documents provide insight into the lived experiences of
the stakeholders in relation to the knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors impacting
their aspirations for leadership and their leadership identity development.
Definitions
Aspiration. The desire to attain or achieve a particular goal.
Christian. Pertaining to the gospel and Christianity. For the purpose of this study, the term
Christian is used as an umbrella term for Protestantism and its various denominations; however,
Roman Catholicism is excluded. The term is used interchangeably with the term evangelical.
Christianity. Belief or faith in Jesus Christ as the Son of God, who came to earth, died on the
cross to atone for humans’ sins, and was resurrected; in salvation is by grace through faith; and
in the Bible as the inspired word of God.
Evangelical. Pertaining to the gospel and Christianity. In this study, the term is used
interchangeably with the term Christian.
Inclusive. Encompassing and representative of men and women.
Leadership identity. One’s perception of oneself as a leader; how an individual sees his/herself
as a leader.
10
Organization of the Study
This dissertation is organized into five chapters. The first chapter introduces the problem
of practice, the importance of the problem, the global context of the study and the stakeholder
group of focus, and key concepts and terminology used throughout the study. Chapter two
provides a review of the current and relevant literature related to the problem of practice as well
as the theories and factors influencing women’s aspirations to lead and their leadership identity
development. Chapter three details the methodology for exploring the knowledge, motivation,
and organizational influences related to the problem of practice. In chapter four, data and results
will be presented, analyzed, and discussed. Chapter five will present recommendations to
addressing the problem of practice.
11
Chapter Two: Review of Literature
This literature review will examine the root causes and key factors underscoring the
underrepresentation of women leaders within Christian higher education institutions. The review
begins with a general research on the importance of women in leadership. This is followed by an
overview of the current state of leadership, particularly within Christian higher education
institutions. The review will discuss the organizational and cultural influences that impede
gender diversification in leadership, delving into the structural barriers and theological
challenges women face that deter them from assuming leadership roles. Then, the review focuses
attention on leadership attributes that influence the rise and the development of women leaders.
This section also examines practices, policies, and programs that institutions can implement to
recruit and develop women leaders. Following this general research literature, the review turns to
Clark and Estes’ (2008) Gap Analysis Framework, and specifically, knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences on women’s leadership aspirations and leadership identity
development.
Women in Leadership
Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to
achieve a common goal (Northouse, 2016). According to Kezar and Wheaton (2017), leadership
is an evolving social construction. Once synonymous with the notion of authority, leadership, at
present has shifted towards collaboration and empowerment (Kezar & Wheaton, 2017).
Numerous research studies have highlighted the importance of women in leadership as they
bring skills and strengths that are characteristics of effective leadership (Hannum et al., 2015;
Ibarra & Obodaru, 2009; Kezar & Wheaton, 2017; Longman & Anderson, 2016; Nussbaum &
Chang, 2013). Beyond serving as role models, women’s social sensitivity contributes to higher
12
collective intelligence of groups and teams (Longman & Anderson, 2016; Woolley et al., 2010).
Women’s ability to harness multiple perspectives enhances culture and improves decision
making, which is essential in an increasingly pluralistic and interconnected society (Dunn, et al.,
2014; Kezar, 2014; Longman & Anderson, 2016). However, despite numerous research studies
that highlight the positive contributions women make in leadership, they continue to be
underrepresented at the senior and executive level (Lennon, 2013). The Association of
Theological Schools (ATS) reports that among its mainline Protestant schools, women occupy
25% of the president positions and 40% of the dean positions (Gin & Meinzer, 2016). According
to the Council for Christian Colleges and Universities (CCCU), women make up 20% of all
senior level positions. Among CCCU member institutions, only 29% of chief academic officers
and 7.6% of presidents are women. Sitting at the top of the hierarchical organizational level,
executive leadership bears the responsibility of casting vision and ensuring the attainment of the
institution’s mission and goals (Day et al., 2014; Herman, 2016). Hence, there is a critical need
for gender diversification in higher education leadership, particularly within Christian higher
education institutions.
Current State of Women in Leadership in Christian Higher Education Institutions
Women outnumber men in overall college student population and more women are also
obtaining advanced degrees, yet they are significantly underrepresented in leadership roles,
particularly within Christian higher education institutions. Data from the National Center for
Education Statistics (2017) show that women make up 59% of the student body. Of 1,894,934
bachelor degrees awarded, 57% were earned by women; of 758,809 master’s degrees awarded,
60% were earned by women; and of 178,547 doctoral degrees awarded, 52% were earned by
women. However, despite more women obtaining education, earning more advanced degrees,
13
and entering the workforce, women struggle to achieve top-level leadership roles in
organizations including higher education institutions, and particularly, Christian higher education
institutions.
A study conducted by the American Council on Education (2017) reveals that only 30%
of all college presidents are women, and only 8% of all female college presidents lead doctorate-
granting institutions. In the context of Christian higher education, there is an even larger
disparity between males and females in top-level leadership positions (Longman & Anderson,
2016). According to the Council for Christian Colleges and Universities (CCCU), a higher
education association of more than 180 Christian institutions around the world, women make up
only 20% of all senior level positions and only 6.7% of college presidents are women (Curry &
Willeman, 2018). This trend also manifests within institutions under the Association of
Theological Schools (ATS), “a membership organization of more than 270 graduate schools that
conduct post-baccalaureate professional and academic degree programs to educate persons for
the practice of ministry and for teaching and research in theological disciplines” (ATS, 2019).
ATS reports that women held about 20% of high-level administrator positions and 11.4% of
CEO role. Women leaders have greater representation within ATS mainline Protestant schools,
where 25% of the president positions are held by women (Gin & Meinzer, 2017). Despite the
widening pipeline, the paucity of women in Christian higher education leadership persists
(Kellerman & Rhode, 2017).
Perception of an Ideal Leader
Contributing to the scarcity of women leaders is the general perception of an ideal leader
that disfavors women. Effective leadership has traditionally been described and characterized by
agentic traits that are defined as masculine, such as confident, dominant, task-oriented, assertive,
14
ambitious, and competitive (Airini et al, 2011; Bierema, 2016; Eagly & Chin, 2010; Kubu, 2018;
Lowe, 2011). According to Bierema (2016), there is a strong underlying assumption that leaders
are White, male, and devoted to their work and the wellbeing of the organization. In a meta-
analysis study that incorporates 95 studies, Paustian-Underdahl et al. (2014) conclude that when
all leadership contexts are considered, leadership effectiveness is not contingent upon gender.
However, men and women often still prefer male leaders (Bierema, 2016). Men also tend to view
themselves as more effective leaders and male subordinates are more likely to hold negative
attitudes about women leaders (Ayman et al., 2009). Gendered roles are deeply embedded into
the culture that the notion of women leaders presents incongruity and conflict. According to
Ayman et al. (2009), there is a stereotypical belief that women occupy a lower status in society
and also should not have a higher status than men. Thus, women in leadership defies this
stereotype and result in ideological dissonance.
Leadership is often viewed as a top-down process and or executive authority. However,
Eagly and Chin (2010) caution that the top-down leadership style does not work in most current
contexts of a changing world. Perspectives on leadership have evolved and shifted from being
individual-centered to others-centered leadership (Lowe, 2011). Today’s leaders must take into
account the perspectives of their people who are of different backgrounds. They must also master
social skills, such as knowing when to talk and when to listen, using the appropriate language
and tone for a situation, and knowing what to say (Violanti & Jurczak, 2011). This calls for a
democratic and collaborative approach to leadership (Airini et al., 2011; Northouse, 2016).
Individuals, organizations, and society must break away from the limited view of leadership and
embrace practices for effective leadership beyond the traditional stereotypes (Kezar & Wheaton,
2017).
15
In Christian higher education institutions, conservative theological underpinnings
promote gender hierarchy, perpetuating gender inequity and a culture in which men lead and
women follow (Joeckel & Chesnes, 2009). There is a notion and view that as an extension of the
home and church, Christian colleges and universities adhere to the biblical mandate of requiring
the submission of women to the authority of men (Dahlvig & Longman, 2016; Longman &
Anderson, 2011; Longman & Lafreniere, 2012). Societal and evangelical institutional culture is
holding on to the ideal that women should be concerned with private and domestic life (Lowe,
2011). A study of leaders in higher education and nonprofit evangelical institutions reveals that
while both men and women support and affirm women in leadership, these leaders believe that
their peers do not share their view (Reynolds, 2016). Perceptions of leadership are evolving, and
more women are getting trained and educated, and also taking on influential positions in the
business and private sector, yet Christian higher education institutions remain at the dawn of the
journey to achieving gender parity in leadership.
The Importance and Benefits of Women in Leadership
Women possess skills and strengths that characterize effective leadership and critical in
meeting the new demands and complex problems that diversification and globalization bring to
organizations, including Christian higher education institutions. According to Ardoin, et al.
(2019), “Providing space for women to have the voice and representation they deserve adds
value to higher education and results in further critique, through a gendered lens, of policies,
practices, cultures, and climates that impact faculty, staff, and students” (p. 50). In their study of
female leaders at Christian colleges and universities who have successfully implemented
institutional change, O’Connor (2018) discovers that following the identification of a need or
problem, women engage in information gathering and collaboration in developing a vision for
16
the change. These are characteristics of transformational leadership, which seeks to inspire and
influence others through the sharing of power and participation rather than through a transaction
of rewards and punishments (Lowe, 2011).
Women are predisposed to building relationships (Lowe, 2011; Woollen, 2016). They
tend to be more process-oriented, use networks, and establish relationships to generate
cooperation from others. Woolley et al. (2010) conducted two studies with 699 people and found
that groups with three to four women yield higher collective intelligence. Each individual’s
intelligence was measured in the beginning of the study. In groups, these individuals perform
various tasks, such as solving visual puzzles, brainstorming, making collective moral judgments,
and negotiating over limited resources. The results show that collective intelligence, rather than
individual intelligence, exist and is critical to a group’s success. The researchers also found
correlation between collective intelligence and the proportion of women in the group. Women’s
social sensitivity and turn-taking conversation behavior are contributing factors to collective
intelligence. In addition to being interested in different perspectives, women have the ability to
harness them (Kezar, 2014). The role of leadership involves dealing and managing people both
inside and outside the organization, and as leaders must deal and manage people both inside and
outside the organization, women’s ability to develop social capital is extremely valuable
(Woollen, 2016).
Women’s internal drivers encompass their calling or sense of purpose, core values, desire
to contribute, concern for people and institutions, self-confidence, self-knowledge, and personal
strengths (O’Connor, 2018). They place high value on collaboration, harmony, relationship, and
the welfare of organization (Lowe, 2011). Not only do these characteristics align with the
Christian values, but they are also characteristics of transformational leadership, which exhibits
17
positive correlation with organizational success and employee satisfaction (Lowe, 2011).
Female leaders demonstrate desire and tendency to mentor and develop others (Eagly & Chin,
2010), which is essential to institutional success and sustainability. Thus, promoting women
leaders position Christian higher education institutions for growth and success.
Organizational and Cultural Challenges to Women in Leadership
Structural Barriers in Higher Education
The gendered structure and culture of academic institutions, much like many other
organizations, are biased against women, impeding their ascent into leadership. Advancement
and leadership demand a significant time commitment (Hannum et al., 2015) and women, who
are often the primary caretaker of family members, struggle to balance professional expectations
and personal responsibilities. In numerous instances, they are compelled to choose between their
family or career (Airini et al., 2011; Dahlvig & Longman, 2013). In Christian higher education
institutions, the conservative evangelical worldview promotes traditional gender roles that
manifests in judgment on women who devote time to their work rather than attending to their
family (Hall et al., 2004).
Women experience a double bind that extends to many layers and aspects of the
institution. Women who are content in their role are perceived as lacking in leadership quality,
yet those who actively seek leadership are penalized for being power hungry (Okimoto &
Brescoll, 2010). Women are paid less than their counterparts (Kim, Anderson, Hall, &
Willingham, 2010; Lowe, 2011), but those who seek salary increase pay the price of self-
advocacy (Amanatullah & Tinsley, 2013). Women are also perceived as being less visionary
(Ibarra & Obodaru, 2009). According to O’Connor (2018), women generally exercise a
18
collaborative leadership style to generate shared vision and credit the group for the visionary
thinking, but this, in turn, creates the assumption that women lack the vision to lead.
Institutional barriers and discriminatory practices foster a “chilly” climate and a working
environment that is not conducive to academic productivity and advancement (Kim et al., 2010).
A particularly challenging aspect of discrimination is that it is often covert, subtle, and a
“mindless” process that operate beyond people’s consciousness (Eagly & Chin, 2010). People
may believe that they are acting in an unbiased manner when deciding that a certain individual
does not qualify for leadership. Lowe (2011) states that there is a tendency for leaders to enforce
homogeneity by surrounding and hiring those who look, talk, and act like them. Fully qualified
individuals who do not seem to fit into the traditional stereotype of a leader (i.e., male and
White) are perceived as lacking in leadership qualities and dismissed. Furthermore, succession
planning within academic institutions often involves tapping the “good old boys” network in
order to hire those who look and think like the current leaders in order to ensure continuity
(Barton, 2019). Thus, when the White male leaders retire, they look to the familiar community
and eventually appoint those who look and think like them.
For women, barriers to leadership also include the lack of professional development
opportunities and support, discouragement, and exclusion (Hannum et al., 2015; Kim et al.,
2010). In addition to networking, developmental relationship plays an important role in
leadership identity development and advancement, but the scarcity of women leaders makes it
difficult for women to have mentors (Longman, 2019). Given this circumstance, male mentors
are not only important but also necessary. However, Stockton (2019) notes that there are also
complex and problematic nature of cross-gender sponsorship. A practice that is popular within
the evangelical community is what is often known as the Billy Graham rule, which is essentially
19
avoiding any situation that would compromise integrity and/or create suspicion of sexual
immorality (Stockton, 2019). The concern and stigma that may arise from such mentoring
relationship leads to the reluctance of male leaders to mentor women, putting women at a
disadvantage and denying them access to influential network.
The few women who rise to high-level leadership stands on a glass cliff (Brabazon &
Schulz, 2018; Peterson, 2016). The glass cliff refers to the phenomenon whereby women are
appointed to leadership or placed in a position of power in troubled institutions and/or turbulent
times (Ryan et al., 2016). The metaphor depicts how even when women are finally able to shatter
the glass ceiling and rise to leadership, they stand on a risky and precarious situation. Brabazon
and Schulz (2018) describes a female Vice Chancellor of a university who replaces a man under
investigation and is expected to repair the institution’s tarnished brand. The role that these few
women occupy come with heavy and intense scrutiny (Airini et al., 2011; Hannum et al., 2015).
Brabazon and Schulz (2018) also highlight a personal experience as Dean, in which Brabazon’s
nameplate is attached to the wall outside of her office at the university with a Velcro, so it can be
easily removed. In many cases, women’s leadership comes with the expectation of impending
failure.
Women encounter barriers at all levels within the organization and the repertoire of
metaphors for women leaders are exhaustive. In addition to the glass cliff described above, the
glass ceiling refers women’s inability to move into top-level leadership and the sticky floor
describes the strong gravitational pull hindering women from moving beyond entry-level
positions (Carli & Eagly, 2015). While Carli and Eagly (2015) acknowledge the validity of the
glass ceiling and sticky floor, they propose the labyrinth as one that captures the numerous
obstacles women face throughout their careers and also challenges that men do not face.
20
According to Meyerson and Fletcher (2000), “It’s not the ceiling that’s holding women back; it’s
the whole structure of the organizations in which we work: the foundation, the beams, the walls,
the very air” (p. 136). The institutional culture of Christian higher education is one that dismisses
women’s abilities and excluding women from access to leadership and leadership positions.
Theological Challenges within Christian Higher Education Institutions
The conservative evangelical worldview held by Christian higher education institutions
reinforce the traditional gender roles that emphasize leadership as rightfully belonging to males.
As a subset of Christianity, evangelicals believe Jesus Christ as the only way of salvation and the
Bible as the authority in which one learns about God and His commandments and finds guidance
on living out one’s faith (Gallagher, 2004). Two diverging views about the roles of men and
women exist within the evangelical worldview (Wood, 2009). The egalitarian perspective, held
by a minority of evangelicals and often fiercely challenged (Christerson et al., 2012), affirms
equality and the giftedness of all people and the complementarian perspective views men and
women as created with characteristics, abilities, and purpose specific and unique to their gender
(Dahlvig & Longman, 2016). The conservative evangelical theology aligns with the
complementarian perspective and reinforces the patriarchal culture seen in the biblical times,
where women are deemed more inferior than men. Additionally, the Apostle Paul’s exhortation
that a woman should not teach or assume authority over a man (1 Timothy 2:12, The New King
James Version) is used as validation of normative gender roles. The view of women’s
submission to men as a mark of godliness extends beyond the family and church, and into
society (Dahlvig & Longman, 2010).
Conservative religious institutions retain a “stained glass ceiling” due to church traditions
and use the Bible to justify gender discrimination (Dahlvig & Longman, 2010). In Christian
21
higher education institutions, inequality persists and discrimination against women is rife.
According to Eliason et al. (2012), acts of sexism are not always hostile or overt in nature.
Sanctified sexism, gender discrimination and harassment attributed to the Christian beliefs and
theologically based gender schemas, takes the form of sexist or implicit comments (Hall et al.,
2010). Adding to this is benevolent sexism, which hides discrimination and enforces patriarchy
behind positive attitudes toward traditional gender roles, such as an elevated view of the
nurturing characteristics of women (Christerson et al., 2012).
These deeply held theological convictions about gender roles overtly and subtly deter
women from aspiring to leadership (Longman & Anderson, 2016). Kim et al. (2010) highlight
the paradoxical nature of Christianity, stating that “the irony of the evangelical worldview is the
elements contributing to discrimination are held simultaneously with beliefs that affirm the
equality of all people and the principles of justice and love” (p. 463). The Bible calls for
Christians to act justly and love mercy (Micah 6:8, The New King James Version) but the
conservative evangelical worldview reinforces and justifies discrimination against women. The
emphasis on traditional gender roles give favor to male leadership and emphasizes women’s role
as follower. It is important for institutions to recognize discriminatory practices that are subtly
hidden behind positive attitudes toward traditional gender roles.
The Rise and Development of Women Leaders
Practices, Policies, and Programs for Recruitment, Development, and Retention of Women
Leaders
Advancing women into leadership requires institutions to have an understanding of how
women leaders negotiate the personal, professional, and organizational landscapes as well as the
implementation of practices, policies, and programs that are attuned to women, their leadership
22
potential and development process. Traditionally, college presidents rise to their position by
progressing through the academic hierarchy, starting out as faculty members, department chairs,
deans, and provosts (Woollen, 2016). However, Woollen (2016) believes that it is necessary to
consider broader career frameworks to identify and increase the number of potential women
candidates for presidency as there are other pathways in which one can gain organizational,
structural, and cultural competencies to lead academic institutions. The six women presidents in
Woollen’s (2016) study exemplify these nontraditional pathways. From rising through the
management ranks at a utility company and later serving as a board member of a faith-based
university, to starting out as a mental health practitioner and later becoming president of two
hospitals, these women demonstrate a diverse set of backgrounds that have allowed them to
develop the competencies, vision, and strategies necessary to assume the president role at a
higher education institution.
Institutions must balance the importance of recruiting and hiring talents through external
searches with proactively identifying, preparing, and developing potential leaders from within.
Rothwell (2015) calls this succession planning, a deliberate and systematic effort of identifying
and developing future leaders to ensure leadership continuity. In a study of companies, Jim
Collins found that 10 out of 11 “good-to-great” CEOs came from inside the company (Collins,
2001). Recognizing that internal candidates can be more successful than external hires,
Vaillancourt (2012) urges higher education to take cues from the corporate sector and to actively
identify and cultivate talents from within. Referring to the task of Christian leadership, McKenna
(2015) states, “Our legacy will be written not in the good things that we have done as Christian
leaders, but in the great things that our successor will do” (p.123). Academic institutions have a
history of neglecting succession planning, and in the current era of numerous and rapid changes,
23
failure to engage in succession planning is detrimental to the future of the institution (Bennett,
2015). Significant challenges that Christian higher education institutions face include rising
costs, technological advancements and innovations, changing student demographics, increasing
federal and state regulations (Hulme et al., 2016), as well as retirements of senior-level
administrators (Barton, 2019). Institutional leaders must develop diverse and capable individuals
to take the institutions into the future, to remain sustainable, and to thrive (Barton, 2019).
Furthermore, the increasing enrollment of female students in Christian higher education
necessitates having women represented in the senior leadership team and therefore, succession
planning must include the intentional development of emerging women leaders (Barton, 2019).
Support that is essential for women’s leadership and development encompasses structures
and empowerment. Organizational policies and practices can either help or hinder women’s
advancement. Longman and Anderson (2016) believe that if leadership legitimately supports the
advancement of women into leadership, institutional policies and verbal communications must
demonstrate that commitment explicitly and in writing. For working mothers, their children are
still a priority and they will likely forego their career to meet their family needs, and thus they
place high value in scheduling flexibility (Hall et al., 2004). Lester (2009) highlights work/life
balance as a factor deterring faculty from academic leadership and proposes career flexibility
initiatives, which looks beyond the rigid and linear academic career trajectories. Support also
comes in the form of empowerment, which builds self-confidence (Airini et al., 2018; O’Connor,
2018). A lack of clarity about what defines a leader, negative attitude towards women having
children or maternity leave or being ill, weak systems for dealings with accusations of
misconduct, and limited opportunities when existing leaders at the end of their careers stay on
their roles do not lend support nor do they encourage women to pursue leadership (Airini et al.,
24
2018). Institutions must provide opportunities for “stretch” goals and encourage these emerging
leaders to take risks, which is critical to developing leadership identity.
Cultivating mentoring cultures is equally important (Dahlvig & Longman, 2013) and
mentoring efforts can range from the informal to formal (Dean, 2009). Porterfield (2012) states
that “trusted mentors, colleagues, and key relationships are critical to your success as a leader…
Never underestimate the power of a trusted mentor or colleague who can provide perspective and
insight into your leadership and development” (p. 148). The more senior the mentor, the faster
the mentee’s career advancement (Ibarra et al., 2010). While essential and beneficial, not all
mentoring is created equal (Ibarra et al., 2010). Many women are mentored, but not promoted.
Ibarra et al. (2010) makes the distinction between mentoring and sponsorship, whereby the latter
actively advocates for advancement. The authors also urge sponsors to be trained on the
complexities of gender and leadership.
A careful examination of past and current practices and policies is necessary as they have
historically been more favorable to men. Practices, policies, and programs that recognize
women’s needs and desires to manage family life and contribute to the organization are critical
in harnessing women’s leadership potential and advancing them into leadership. Current women
leaders in higher education as well as men in influential positions are critical in the development
of women leaders (Ardoin et al., 2019). These leaders can significantly impact women’s
leadership identity and self-efficacy.
Leadership Attributes Supporting the Rise and Development of Women Leaders
Leadership that provides opportunity, supports, validates, and intentional are critical for
the advancement of women. Dahlvig and Longman (2010) discuss “defining moments,” a
turning point that propels one toward or away from leadership. Women generally do not seek
25
leadership, but they rise to the challenge because of a compelling cause or perceived injustice
(Dahlvig & Longman, 2010). This calls for institutional leaders to be aware of women’s
potential as well as to take proactive measures in helping these emergent leaders develop a sense
of purpose and internalize their leadership identity. According to DeRue and Ashford (2010),
leadership identity is socially constructed through individuals’ self-beliefs and relationships.
Affirmation and support from colleagues and authority figures contribute to women’s internal
confidence that is essential for them to embrace leadership role (Dahlvig & Longman, 2014;
Stockton et al., 2019) and also emboldens them to step out of their comfort zone, strive for
something higher, and achieve success (Ibarra, Ely, & Kolb, 2013). According to Sloma-
Williams et al. (2009), self-efficacy correlates with leadership aspirations. Thus, leadership that
promotes efficacy and support matter (Vongalis-Macrow, 2016). Additionally, leadership must
also provide the opportunity for women to lead even at the risk of resistance of those who did not
support such appointment (Airini et al., 2011).
Summary of General Literature
The literature shows that despite the values that women leaders bring, they continue to
remain underrepresented in higher education leadership, particularly in Christian higher
education institutions (Gin & Meinzer, 2017; Lennon, 2013; Longman & Anderson, 2016).
While many of the factors influencing women’s advancement into leadership roles are similar to
ones influencing women entering into leadership in general, theological beliefs and the
conservative evangelical worldview add to the complexity of the issue that contribute to the
problem of practice (Eliason et al., 2012; Hall et al., 2010; Kim et al., 2010; Longman &
Anderson, 2016). This chapter identifies the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
26
influences that impact the underrepresentation of women leaders and explores these influences
within the context of Christian higher education institutions.
The study explores the conceptual knowledge for understanding the value and awareness
of gender diversification in leadership, procedural knowledge of how to develop the skills
essential for leadership, and metacognitive knowledge for recognizing one’s identity, biases, and
abilities in relation to leadership. Motivation influences related to women’s aspirations and
capacity for leadership are assessed through the lens of expectancy value and self-efficacy
theories. Additionally, the study will examine organizational influences, such as culture and
leadership (cultural model) as well as policies and resources (cultural settings). The
Methodology section in Chapter 3 will describe the validation process of the study.
The Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analysis Conceptual Framework
Clark and Estes (2008) state that the first step organizations must take to close
performance gaps and achieve their goals is to identify the causes of the gap and then determine
the required improvement strategies. The gap analysis approach provides an analytic framework
that focuses on knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences as contributors to
organizational performance gaps (Clark & Estes, 2008). Knowledge is the most foundational
element in analyzing performance gaps and the four types of knowledge and skills include
factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011).
Motivation encompasses three facets: (1) choosing to actively pursue a goal, (2) persisting
through distractions, and (3) investing mental effort to solve problems and achieve the goal
(Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). Lastly, organizational influences that cause performance
gap and serve as barrier include work processes, material resources, and organizational culture
(Clark & Estes, 2008).
27
The Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework is central to this study. Its
application examines women administrators’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences impacting their aspirations for leadership and their leadership identity development,
which will then allow Christian higher education institutions to prepare and equip the next
generation of leaders that reflects gender diversity through the increased representation of
women at the highest level of leadership. The first section will examine the conceptual,
procedural, and metacognitive knowledge as the assumed knowledge influences, followed by
discussions of assumed motivational influences. This includes considerations of the motivational
principles expectancy value (Eccles, 2006) and self-efficacy (Pajares, 2006). The section will
conclude with the exploration of organizational influences.
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
Knowledge and Skills
Knowledge and skills are key in determining the actions that are necessary for women
administrators at Christian higher education institutions to take in order to aspire for leadership
and develop their leadership identity. Through the gap analysis framework, Clark and Estes
(2008) identify knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational barriers as three major
causes of performance gaps. Using the analogy of people as cars, the authors consider knowledge
to be the engine and transmission system, the most basic component for a car to operate. They
state that knowledge is first and foremost, a critical factor in accomplishing the intended purpose
of an organization. Adequate knowledge is necessary for understanding an existing gap, knowing
how to address the issue, and achieving organizational performance goals.
For women administrators in Christian higher education, it is important to examine the
knowledge influences in relation to leadership. Krathwohl (2002) and Rueda (2011) identify four
28
types of knowledge: factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. As the name implies,
factual knowledge is facts; it is the basic knowledge specific to disciplines or contexts, such as
terminology (Rueda, 2011). Conceptual knowledge is the interrelationships of the basic
elements, encompassing classifications, principles, generalizations, theories, models, and
structures (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). Procedural knowledge refers to the “how.” It is
knowing how to do something, including subject-specific skills and techniques, and
methodologies for accomplishing something (Krathwohl, 2002). While the first three types of
knowledge are derived from Bloom’s Taxonomy, Krathwohl (2002) expand it and introduce
metacognitive as the fourth type of knowledge. Metacognitive knowledge is the awareness of
one’s own cognition and cognitive processes. This knowledge is strategic, allowing individuals
to know when and why to do something as well as to take into account the context and
conditions surrounding a problem (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011).
Rueda (2011) cautions that an incomplete assessment, learning the what and how but not
the why or when, prevents the founding and implementation of effective solutions. A reflection
of knowledge influences and their classification provides an avenue for determining the
appropriate methodology of assessment in relation to women’s aspirations for leadership.
The Benefits and Barriers of Women in Leadership
Knowing and understanding the benefits women bring to leadership as well as the
barriers that women face in leadership is an important step in addressing the paucity of women
leaders. This knowledge influence is conceptual as it focuses on the interrelationships of the
basic elements and organizational structures. The senior leadership team at Christian higher
education institutions predominantly consists of White males and women are significantly
underrepresented at this level of leadership. As a first step, women must know and understand
29
the values they bring to leadership. In their study, Woolley et al. (2010) found that the proportion
of females in the group increase the collective intelligence of the group and improve decision
making. Strengths that women leaders bring include consultation, participation, team building,
integrity, empowerment, and harnessing multiple perspectives (Kezar, 2014).
Despite the advantages that women bring to leadership, there are numerous barriers and
challenges that women face in leadership. Across various sectors, women often find themselves
with conflicting work and family responsibilities (Airini et al., 2011; Hall et al., 2004; Longman
& Anderson, 2016; O’Neill & Bilimoria, 2005). Within Christian higher education institutions in
particular, a deeply rooted theological belief of the traditional gender roles often does not open
up opportunities for women to lead (Kim et al., 2010; Longman & Anderson, 2016). An analysis
of the organizational history, structures and systems will be insightful in navigating the process
of achieving the stakeholder goal. Interviews will be the assessment method utilized to determine
the women administrators’ knowledge of the benefits and barriers of women in leadership.
The Path to Growth and Leadership
In order to advance, women administrators must know how to develop the skills essential
for leadership. This knowledge influence is procedural knowledge as it addresses the how, or the
way of doing something, specifically how to grow and advance to leadership as well as to lead
effectively. Ironically, higher education institutions, which exist for the betterment of community
and humanity, tend to be an environment characterized by reinforcement of traditions and
resistance to change (Barton, 2019). Studies have shown that internal promotes perform better
than external hires (Bidwell, 2011; Collins, 2010) and with impending and future retirements of
senior leaders (Barton, 2009), women administrators have the opportunity to step up and disrupt
the homogenous landscape of Christian higher education leadership. Leadership is a
30
development process (Longman & Anderson, 2016) and while women enter the workforce
educated and skilled, they must know how to cultivate and diversify their talents, grow, and
develop the essential skills to lead.
Reflection on Identity Awareness and Ability
Efforts to address the underrepresentation of women leaders must include an evaluation
and reflection of women administrators’ awareness of their own identities, biases, and abilities in
relation to leadership. This is metacognitive knowledge, which is the awareness of one’s own
cognition and cognitive processes (Rueda, 2011). Reflection helps the senior administrators to
exercise and enhance self-awareness so that they become more aware of their own identities,
biases, and behaviors that may cause and/or perpetuate a problem (Dunn et al., 2014). Bierema
(2016) states that even women tend to prefer men as leaders, and thus, it is important for women
administrators to examine their own biases concerning leadership and to understand how their
behaviors can reinforce what Barton (2019) refers to as the “good old boys” network in higher
education institutions.
Table 1 summarizes the three knowledge influences, categorized by their knowledge
types, and includes the assessment methods for exploring the knowledge influences.
Table 1
Knowledge Influence, Knowledge Type, and Knowledge Assessment
Organizational Global Mission
The mission of Christian higher education institutions is to equip agents of transformation
rooted in the biblical faith through learning, research, and public service.

Organizational Global Goal
Gender parity in leadership through the increased number of highly effective and qualified
women who aspire and are equipped to lead and carry out the institutional mission and vision.

Knowledge Type Knowledge Influence Knowledge Influence Assessment
31
Conceptual

Women administrators
need knowledge of the
ways in which women
leaders contribute to the
stakeholders and
organizational benefits of
the institution.

Through interviews, women
administrators will be asked to
identify their contributions and
the value they bring to
leadership.
Procedural Women need knowledge of
how to develop the skills
essential for effective
leadership.

Through interviews, women
administrators will be asked to
discuss their career path, growth,
and development.
Metacognitive

Women administrators
need to evaluate and
reflect on their awareness
of their identities, biases,
and abilities in relation to
leadership.

Through interviews, administrators
will be asked about how their
gender and identity have
influenced their views of
leadership and their leadership
practices.

Motivation
Motivation is another dimension that is equally critical for the senior administrators at
Discipleship Seminary to achieve the stakeholder’s performance goal. Whereas knowledge
provides insight on how to do things, motivation is the driving force that propels individuals into
action, to invest effort, as well as to persist through completion of a goal (Clark & Estes, 2008).
There is a distinction between knowing how to do something and wanting to do something, and
the two do not always correlate (Rueda, 2011). According to Mayer (2011), motivation is
personal, activating, energizing, and directed. Motivation is an internal state and occurs within an
individual, and thus it is personal. Motivation activates or initiates behavior as well as energizes,
fuels behaviors, actions, and exertion of mental effort, which determines persistence.
Furthermore, motivation is directed, aiming at accomplishing a goal.
32
Rueda (2011) discusses three common indicators of motivation, which are active choice,
persistence, and effort. Active choice is the process in which an individual decides to actively
pursue a goal. Even if he or she may not have selected the goal himself or herself, the choice to
work towards the goal, rather than procrastinating or avoiding it, is an active choice (Clark &
Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). Persistence refers to the commitment to engage in the pursuit of a
goal in spite of distractions or challenges, and effort refers to the investment of mental work to
accomplish a goal (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). Ultimately, motivational problems
require solutions that address the underlying issues of active choice, persistence, and/or effort
(Rueda, 2011).
Rueda (2011) also states that motivation is the product of an interaction between people
and their work environment, and while there is not simply one single theory of motivation,
research and theories on motivation generally center on self-efficacy, attributions, value, goals,
and emotions. Discipleship Seminary will focus on two theories in examining the motivational
influences of its stakeholder group. The expectancy value theory and self-efficacy theory will
provide a basis for determining the appropriate assessment methods for achieving the stakeholder
goal.
Subjective Task Value
Subjective task value is a motivational influence factor derived from the expectancy-
value theory. According to the expectancy value theory, an individual’s expectation for success
(expectancy) and the importance or value an individual places on a task (subjective task value)
influence motivation (Eccles, 2006). Essentially, the two fundamental questions of motivation
are: “Can I do the task?” and “Do I want to do the task?” (Eccles, 2006). The desire to do the
task is driven by the perceived value of engaging in the task. The greater the perceived value, the
33
likelier it is for individuals to actively and fully engage (Eccles, 2006; Rueda, 2011). Therefore,
it is important for women administrators in Christian higher education institutions to take the
assess their perceived value of leadership.
Four components play a role in determining the perceived value of tasks: intrinsic
interest, attainment value, utility value, and perceived cost (Eccles, 2006). Intrinsic interest is the
enjoyment one experiences while engaging in a task. Attainment value refers to the consistency
between engaging in a task and one’s own identity. Utility value is the usefulness of a task in
achieving the goal and obtaining rewards. The perceived cost refers to the negative factors
associated with engaging in a task, such as the amount of time and effort required as well as
social consequences (e.g., rejection, discrimination, etc.).
Attainment value, the alignment of an individual’s self-image with the task at hand, is a
critical component to increasing the representation of women in leadership. Eccles (2006) lists
long range goals and plans, schema regarding men and women’s role within a culture group,
instrumental and terminal values, and ideal images of what one should be like, as several factors
that make up one’s self-image. Women’s collaborative and relationship building tendencies and
preferences are consistent with the idea of servant leadership. According to Northouse (2011),
servant leadership includes a commitment to the growth of the people and building a community.
For organizations rooted in Christian faith, this is a familiar notion and a leadership style thought
to have been modeled after Jesus’ way, i.e., leading to serve rather than to be served. O’Connor
(2018) describes internal drivers that shape how women lead. Among them are concern for
people and institutions, the desire to contribute, core values and calling or sense of purpose
(O’Connor, 2018). Given that women’s sense of calling permeates all aspects of their lives,
including work (French & Domene, 2010), recognizing that sense of calling combined with the
34
awareness of their unique gifts and strengths encourage women to embrace leadership
opportunities (Longman et al., 2011). The alignment between the tasks at hand and one’s self-
image results in high attainment value. Thus, women administrators are motivated to advance
and assume leadership roles when the work of leadership is consistent with their own self-image
and idea of leadership.
Another important component, utility value, is determined by how useful a task is in
fulfilling goals, plans, and needs (Eccles, 2006; Rueda, 2011). A task may not be particularly of
one’s enjoyment or interest, but the rewards and benefits from completing the task at the end
encourage individuals to engage in the task (Clark and Estes, 2008). Being in leadership may
lead to higher professional and/or social status and monetary rewards. However, most
importantly, women administrators must believe that being a leader fulfills their psychological
needs of feeling competent, connected, and having autonomy.
Self-Efficacy Theory
Derived from Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory, self-efficacy is people’s beliefs or
perceptions of their ability to learn or perform a task (Pajares, 2006). Self-efficacy beliefs are
predictors of persistence (Clark and Estes, 2008). It determines how individuals will respond in
the face of difficult tasks and how much effort they will put in. Believing that their actions will
result in the outcomes they desire will motivate individuals to persevere in the midst of
challenges (Pajares, 2006). Those with high self-efficacy approach tasks as challenges to be
mastered instead of avoided (Pajares, 2006). Just as students who believe they are able, they can,
and they will do well, are much more likely to persist, individuals with a strong sense of personal
competence will use effective self-regulatory strategies to work hard at a task and see it through
completion (Pajares, 2006). Clark and Estes (2008) also note that an adequate level of confidence
35
is key. Under-confidence deters people from active choice while overconfidence leads to
mistakes and can be destructive (Clark and Estes, 2008; Pintrich, 2003).
Self-efficacy differs from self-esteem and it is influenced by one’s prior knowledge,
feedback from others, and past successes and failures (Pajares, 2006; Rueda, 2011). Success
increases self-efficacy; failure lowers it. Having stretch goals or taking on new tasks that may
involve some degree of risk allows women to step up, gain experience, and exercise leadership
(O’Connor, 2018). In addition to mastery, self-efficacy is also formed through vicarious
experience, social persuasions, and physiological reactions (Pajares, 2006). People learn from
observing others (vicarious experience) and messages (social persuasions) can either empower or
discourage individuals. Both Ibarra (2015) and Porterfield (2012) stress the critical role of
mentors and individuals who can and will provide insight, speak the truth, and support. Women
administrators must be aware of their own experiences, skills, strengths, and abilities that they
can leverage to advance and lead.
Table 2 identifies the two motivational influences on the organization and its
stakeholder’s goal as aligned to the theories of motivation and outlines the assessment
mechanisms for exploration of these motivational influences.
Table 2
Motivational Influences and Assessments for Analysis
Organizational Global Mission
The mission of Christian higher education institutions is to equip agents of transformation
rooted in the biblical faith through learning, research, and public service.

Organizational Global Goal
Gender parity in leadership through the increased number of highly effective and qualified
women who aspire and are equipped to lead and carry out the institutional mission and vision.

36
Motivational Type Motivational Influences Motivational Influence
Assessment

Subjective Task Value

Women administrators need
to believe that the value of
leadership outweighs the
cost.

Through interview questions,
women administrators will be
asked about their career goals
and development, support, as
well as to share their passions,
considerations, concerns, and
also the challenges they
experience as a leader.

Self-Efficacy

Women administrators need
to believe that they can be
an effective leader.
Through interview questions,
women administrators will be
asked to discuss their
knowledge and skills in relation
to leadership.

Organizational Influences
Organizational barriers are roadblocks impeding women’s advancement and are
contributing factors to the paucity of women in Christian higher education institutions, and
therefore, examining and addressing them is critical to solving the problem of practice. Clark and
Estes (2008) equate organizational factors to the road conditions that make driving to the
intended destination easy or difficult. An organizational environment impacts the ability of
knowledge and motivation systems to interact effectively, and therefore, organizational barriers
may cause performance gaps and impede progress. Organizational barriers are defined as the
lack or absence of work processes and resources (Clark & Estes, 2008). Without the necessary
and proper structure, tools, equipment, materials, policies, practices, and resources, an
organization will be inefficient and ineffective. Additionally, examining organizational barriers
require attention and understanding of the organizational culture, which Clark and Estes (2008)
argue as the most important “work processes.”
37
Culture is the accumulated shared learning of a group, “a pattern or system of beliefs,
values, and behavioral norms that come to be taken for granted as basic assumptions and
eventually drop out of awareness” (Schein, 2017, p. 6). Schein (2017) categorizes culture into
three levels: 1) artifacts, those seen, heard, and felt as exemplified by the architecture, dress
codes, published values, emotional displays, observable rituals and behaviors, and climate of the
organization, 2) espoused beliefs and values, which encompass organizational goals, values,
aspirations, and ideologies, and 3) taken-for-granted underlying basic assumptions, where deeply
ingrained beliefs and values are unconscious but determine behavior, perception, thought and
feeling. Most culture is implicit, unconscious, and automated (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda,
2011).
In discussing culture, Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) focus on two units: cultural
models and cultural settings. Cultural models are shared mental schema or normative
understandings of how the world works, or ought to work (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001).
Often invisible and unnoticed due to their extreme familiarity, cultural models guide individuals’
interactions, interpretation of events, and understanding of the way things are and should be. On
the other hand, cultural settings are the social contexts in which cultural models occur, develop,
and interact (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001; Rueda, 2011). They are the more visible aspects or
the who, what, when where, why, and how of organizational processes (Rueda, 2011). To
accomplish its stakeholder’s goal, Discipleship Seminary will examine its culture and leadership,
policies, and resources.
Organizational Culture and Leadership
Higher education institutions are organizations characterized by complex belief systems
(Kezar, 2001). For Christian higher education institutions, theological factors are significant
38
components influencing their culture. The conservative evangelical Christian worldview draws
from the Bible passage that states that women should not be permitted to teach or assume
authority over man (1 Timothy 2:12, English Standard Version), and thus emphasizing the
preservation of traditional gender roles and defining of gender relations through the principles of
hierarchy and subordination (Longman & Anderson, 2016). These deeply held convictions
impact aspirations, limiting the extent to which women would consider leadership roles.
Furthermore, these beliefs, coupled with the association of leadership with power and authority,
set parameters and narrow leadership as a role reserved for males.
Culture is also closely intertwined with leadership. In fact, Schein (2017) argues that the
only important thing that leaders do is to create and manage culture. Leaders embed and transmit
culture through 1) what they pay attention to, measure, and control on a regular basis, 2) how
they react to critical incidents and organizational crises, 3) how they allocate resources, 4)
modeling, teaching, and coaching, 5) how they allocate rewards and status, and 6) how they
recruit, select, promote, and excommunicate (Schein, 2017). With multiple competing priorities,
Christian higher education institutions may lack the awareness and the ability to devote time to
address the underrepresentation of women in leadership. When individuals depart, they tap into a
familiar network and bring in new leaders who mirror the departing ones. In this way, leadership
reinforces the existing culture of valuing male leadership. Morrison and Milliken (2000) also
state that demographic dissimilarity between top managers and lower-level employees foster a
climate of silence. Women administrators may choose not to address the issue of gender
imbalance in fear of paying a costly price or being perceived as self-serving.
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Policies for Hiring, Developing, Promoting, and Appointing Women Leaders
Organizational structures, policies, and practices play an essential role and the lack of
well-defined policies for hiring and promotion is an organizational barrier that impedes the
organization’s ability to achieve its performance goal (Rueda, 2011). Clark and Estes (2008) note
the importance of aligning the culture of an organization with its policies, procedures, and
communication within the organization (Clark & Estes, 2008). Institutional leaders must be
interested in diversifying leadership. At the same time, it is important to note that the focus on
diversity must go beyond mere numbers or viewing diversity as an end in itself, but to practice
and achieve transformational inclusion where individuals are valued as a “vital component of the
organization’s success and competitive advantage” (Bradshaw & Fredette, 2012). Once the
vision and goals are established, the next step is for it to ensure that there are structures and
processes in place that supports progress towards the goal attainment. Policies serve as
reinforcement as well as stabilizing mechanisms, and they are secondary ways to shift culture
(Schein, 2017). The lack or absence of well-defined policies will continue to produce ambiguity
in relation to the hiring, developing, promoting, and appointing women into leadership roles.
Resources to Support and Advance Women
Policies and resources interact to support each other in closing performance gaps, and
therefore, having the necessary work resources is crucial (Clark & Estes, 2008). Inadequate
resource levels, which include human and material resources, are roadblocks for achieving
organization performance goal. Limited financial resources contribute to the vicious cycle of
staffing shortages and inefficient systems. It takes more time to accomplish tasks without
efficient systems yet at the same time, staffing constraints prevents the ability to work on
improving systems. The necessity to attend to daily operations also leaves little room for
40
investing in development and succession planning. Additionally, the problem of practice in itself
presents a challenge in such that there is a lack of female role models within the organization.
However, having someone in leadership and authority, regardless of gender, to support and
provide opportunities increases women’s awareness of and brings forth their leadership potential
(Dahlvig & Longman; 2010; Dahlvig & Longman, 2014). Developing the means to ensure
leadership development and succession is an essential step to transforming organizations (Kotter,
2007).
Table 3
Assumed Organizational Influences
Organizational Global Mission
The mission of Christian higher education institutions is to equip agents of transformation
rooted in the biblical faith through learning, research, and public service.

Organizational Global Goal
Gender parity in leadership through the increased number of highly effective and qualified
women who aspire and are equipped to lead and carry out the institutional mission and vision.

Organizational Influences Assumed Organizational
Influences
Organizational Influence
Assessment
Cultural Model The organization must embrace
an inclusive culture and has
leadership that accepts and
supports women leaders.

Through interviews, women
administrators will be asked
to describe their
organization’s views in
relation to women in
leadership and their own
leadership styles.

Cultural Setting The organization must devote
resources and engage in
practices that support women
and women leaders.

Through interviews, women
administrators will be asked
to share their experiences as
leaders within the
organization and discuss their
organization’s policies and
practices for supporting
women and women leaders.

41
Analysis of documents, such as
institutional vision and
mission, strategic plan,
policies, employee handbook,
will provide insight into the
organization’s policies and
practices pertaining to
women in leadership.

Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge, Motivation, and the
Organizational Context
A conceptual framework is a visual or narrative that describes the research study and
illustrates the relationship between concepts, assumptions, beliefs and theories (Maxwell, 2013).
According to Merriam and Tisdell (2016), it is the underlying structure, scaffolding or frame of a
study that will guide the research process, including the research questions, research design,
sample and sampling procedures, data collection and analysis techniques, and interpretation of
findings. The purpose of a conceptual framework is to construct a research design that seeks to
understand the problem or phenomenon of interest, along with the factors influencing it
(Maxwell, 2013). The researchers’ disciplinary orientation and the literature review also
influence the construction of conceptual framework (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
This conceptual framework provides a model for studying the women’s leadership
aspirations and leadership identity development within the Christian higher education setting,
with the purpose of gaining a better understanding of the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences impacting it and developing the appropriate solutions. Figure 1
illustrates the interaction between the knowledge and motivation factors within the
organizational setting. While these influencers were previously presented independently, they do
not remain in isolation of each other. In order to address the underrepresentation of women in
42
Christian higher education leadership and develop solutions to the problem, it is important to
understand how these knowledge and motivation influencers interact with one another within the
context of the organization.
The conceptual framework depicts how individuals’ knowledge and motivation intersect
and are funneled through the organization. Clark and Estes (2008) cite knowledge and
motivation as the first two causes of performance gaps, and thus, the lack of women leaders in
Christian higher education institutions calls for an examination into the knowledge and
motivation of the women administrators. Knowledge and motivation influence one another.
Women administrators may not have knowledge of the significant impact they can have in
leadership roles, from serving as role models to the ability to harness multiple perspectives that is
critical to decision making (Kezar, 2014), and think that the best way for them to serve is as an
individual contributor, working directly with the students. This impacts their aspirations to strive
for leadership roles. At the same time, women administrators’ motivation to be leaders may be
impacted by self-efficacy. According to Pajares (2006), people’s beliefs or perceptions of their
ability to perform a task determine their response to approaching, taking on, and persisting
through a task. Believing that they are capable of adding value and leading influence individuals’
desires to seek out more ways to sharpen their knowledge and skills as well as opportunities for
development or to lead. This interplay of knowledge and motivation takes place within the
organization, and thus, organizational factors are an essential part of the process in achieving the
stakeholder’s goal.
Beyond a space where knowledge and motivation interact, organizational factors are
influenced by and also influence knowledge and motivation. Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001)
analyze organizations through the lens of cultural models and cultural settings. At Discipleship
43
Seminary, these include its culture, leadership, policies, and resources. As an institution with a
Christian evangelical worldview, the traditional view of gender roles permeates the
organizational culture and leadership. The association of masculinity with leadership or the
perception of leadership as a role for men does not foster a climate that supports women
advancement, which in turn negatively impact women’s self-efficacy as well as their interest to
lead. At the same time, having the necessary knowledge and motivation requires an
organizational environment that is conducive for these systems to interact effectively (Clark &
Estes, 2008). Without well-defined policies as well as adequate and appropriate resources to
ensure the development of women, the institution will fail to accomplish the desired outcomes.
However, the right blend of knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors will result in the
attainment of the stakeholder’s goal to establish a development program to prepare the next
generation of leaders that reflects diversity through the increased representation of women in the
highest level of leadership.

44
Figure 1
The Interaction of Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Culture in Women’s Leadership
Aspirations and Identity Development

45
Chapter Three: Methods
The purpose of this study was to address the underrepresentation of women in Christian
higher education leadership through the exploration of women’s aspirations to lead and their
leadership identity development. Few women seek and/or rise to executive leadership and it is
important to determine and understand the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
impacting this issue. In an era of globalization with rapidly changing demographics, society, and
technology, highly qualified leaders as well as equitable and inclusive leadership are critical to
Christian higher education institutions. As such, the questions that guided this study were the
following:
1. What are the knowledge and motivation factors influencing women’s aspirations for
leadership and their leadership identity development?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and the knowledge
and motivation of women leaders?
3. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions to the
barriers impeding women’s advancement into leadership?
Participating Stakeholders
In an effort to understand women’s aspirations for leadership as well as their leadership
identity development, the stakeholder group of focus for this study was women leaders from 2-3
Christian higher education institutions across the United States, where at least 20% of their
senior and/or executive leaders are women. These individuals played an active role in serving
students and were involved in strategic planning decisions related to recruitment, hiring,
retention and promotion practices. The lived experiences of this group of individuals provided
46
answers to the research questions and insight into solutions towards achieving gender parity in
Christian higher education leadership.
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1
Women in leadership roles as identified by the titles President, Provost, Dean, or
Director. These individuals were leaders within their institutions and are active participants,
contributors, and influencers of the organizational processes. They were key contributors in
strategic planning, budgeting, developing policies and procedures, as well as the recruitment,
hiring, retention, and promotion of staff and faculty members. Their lived experiences as leaders
provided insight into understanding how women’s aspirations for leadership and leadership
identity development.
Criterion 2
Women leaders in Christian higher education institutions accredited by the Association of
Theological Schools. The number of women leaders in Christian higher education, specifically
theological schools, was extremely low, and thus, focusing on the lived experiences and realities
of women leaders in this context would facilitate understanding and inform best practices to
support and advance women.
Criterion 3
Women administrators who had been employed at the institution for a minimum of one
year. These administrators had been part of the institution for an adequate amount of time to gain
an understanding of the organizational policies and procedures as well as to be exposed to and
experience the organizational culture, climate, and processes.
47
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
According to Patton (2015), “the logic and power of qualitative purposeful sampling
derives from the emphasis on in-depth understanding of specific cases: information-rich cases”
(as cited in Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Therefore, the researcher utilized purposeful sampling to
ensure that the participants selected were those who would yield rich data and help the researcher
gain a deeper understanding of the phenomenon of interest. With this goal in mind, the
administrators selected must be those in mid or senior level of leadership within a Christian
higher education institution, a woman, and had already been employed at the organization for at
least one year. The researcher also employed one of the most common forms of purposeful
sampling, often known as snowball or network sampling, where the early key participants, who
had been identified and interviewed, were asked to refer the researcher to other participants
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). According to Patton (2015), “by asking a number of people who else
to talk with, the snowball gets bigger and bigger as you accumulate new information-rich cases”
(p. 298). The researcher reached out to these individuals through a personalized e-mail
communication. This sampling was appropriate in relation to the conceptual framework and
research questions because the women administrators’ inner and outer experiences helped
uncover their knowledge and motivation, along with how these both influence and were
influenced by organizational factors in relation to their leadership aspirations and leadership
identity development.
Document Analysis Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1
Must be written or text based.
Criterion 2
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Must exist prior to research.
Criterion 3
Must not involve the researcher in its construction.
Document Analysis Sampling (Access) Strategy and Rationale
In addition to interviews, the study included analysis of organizational documents. Unlike
interviews, documents were easily accessible and were not influenced or altered in the presence
of the researcher (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). To gain a deeper understanding of the problem of
practice, the researcher observed what Johnson and Christensen (2014) referred to as secondary
or existing data. These data must be in the form of text-based documents, exist prior to research,
and one in which the researcher did not construct. The researcher sought official documents,
anything written or recorded by the organization (Johnson & Christensen, 2014), such as
strategic plan, annual reports, employee handbook. These documents were obtained through the
organization and government websites as well as human resources. This sampling reflected the
purposeful and convenience sampling strategy because the researcher was intentionally seeking
documents belonging to the organization that are available and accessible. Furthermore, this
sampling also supported the conceptual framework because these documents revealed the
organization’s knowledge and motivation, in relation to women in leadership. Furthermore, these
documents showed organizational factors that may or may not exist or lend support to women
advancement.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
This study sought to understand the influences on women’s aspirations for leadership and
advancement within Christian higher education. Using a qualitative approach, the methods used
for data collection were interviews and document analysis. Qualitative interviews have the power
49
to reveal a person’s inner world (Johnson & Christensen, 2014). Through semi-structured, one-
on-one interviews, the researcher unpacked and sought to understand the women’s experiences,
perspectives, intent, and aspirations in relation to leadership. These interviews allowed the
researcher to uncover and examine the women’s perceived knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences in relation to leadership. The document analysis primarily focused on
and verified the organizational factors that may be contributing and/or impeding women’s
aspirations and advancement to leadership. Both of these methods contributed to the researcher’s
ability of gathering meaningful data that led to the understanding of the women’s administrators
lived experiences.
Interviews
Interview Protocol
This study focused on the lived experiences of the women administrators in Christian
higher education and therefore, the qualitative design was the appropriate method of data
collection. The goal of qualitative research was to understand the phenomenon of interest
through the participants’ perspectives (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) and interviews allowed
researchers to obtain data from those with direct experiences as well as to access information that
was not directly observable (Patton, 2002; Weiss, 1994). In addition to getting an insider’s
perspectives on the experiences of these women administrators, interviews made it possible for
the researcher to tap into each woman’s thoughts, feelings, and interpretations of her lived
experiences. Due to time constraints and sampling of participants, which were drawn from
multiple Christian higher education institutions across the United States, the researcher
conducted one-on-one interviews. While the interview questions explored knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences, they were particularly critical in uncovering the
50
motivational factors impacting the women administrators’ aspirations for leadership. The
researcher conducted semi-structured interviews to get comparable data across subjects (Bogdan
& Biklen, 2007). The semi-structured nature of the interviews allowed for flexibility and
exploration of significant and/or novel topics brought up by the participants (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). Conversations had a semi-formal tone and the researcher had prepared and used an
interview protocol/guide that outlined a set of questions to be asked and issues to be explored
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The interview guide was reviewed by peers and faculty members to
ensure that interview questions are clear, unbiased, and not leading, were aligned with the
conceptual framework, and solicited responses that answer the research questions.
Interview Procedures
The researcher interviewed each participant once and the interviews lasted approximately
one hour. In case further clarification was needed, the researcher would reach out to the
participants and request for their availability and willingness to engage in a follow up. Whenever
possible, the researcher would meet with the participants in person at a location that was
convenient for the participants. However, due to the participants’ widespread geographical
locations and researcher’s budgetary limitations, as well as the global pandemic during which
this study was conducted, travel was not possible, and all interviews were conducted virtually.
The researcher utilized the online meeting software, Zoom, and the interviews were recorded and
transcribed. Recording will help capture the fullness of the participants’ perspectives (Patton,
2002) and vividness of respondents’ speech (Weiss, 1994). The recording allowed ethe
researcher to focus on the interviewees, listening, and taking notes. During the interview process,
taking notes could lead to noteworthy insights that may be relevant to pursue, and thus
leveraging on the emergent nature of qualitative study (Patton, 2002). Furthermore, notetaking
51
facilitated the data analysis process, allowing the researcher to locate important quotations with
ease (Patton, 2002). Overall, the researcher conducted interviews and collected documents for
analysis concurrently.
Documents
As a systematic procedure for reviewing or evaluating printed and electronic documents,
document analysis could provide data on the context in which participants operated and could
verify findings or corroborate evidence (Bowen, 2009). In this study, document analysis was
particularly useful in exploring the organizational influences impacting women’s leadership
aspirations, development, and advancement as outlined in the conceptual framework. Documents
included written, visual, digital, and physical material, such as public records and personal
documents (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). An important first step to the process was identifying and
determining what documents were relevant (Altheide & Schneider, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). The documents in focus were be public records, the official ongoing records of an
organization’s activities (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016), which included vision and mission
statements, strategic plans, policy manuals, and employee handbook. These organizational and
institutional documents were typically available across various academic institutions and they
were essential to understanding the institutions’ history, background information, values, and
practices.
The researcher developed a protocol that served to guide data collection from documents.
This consisted of a list of questions or items that allowed the researcher to capture definitions,
meanings, processes, and types (Altheide & Schneider, 2013). Document collection took place
before, during, and after the interviews. The researcher attempted to locate readily accessible
data, such as vision and mission statements, and policy manuals, which were typically posted on
52
institutions’ websites, prior to the interviews. According to Bowen (2009), documents could
suggest questions that needed to be asked, so obtaining these documents in advance contributed
to the development of interview questions. Some documents such as strategic plans and
employee handbook were not as easily accessible. Therefore, the researcher asked the
interviewees if they would be willing to share them for the purpose of the study.
Data Analysis
Data analysis began during data collection. The researcher documented thoughts and
comments during the interviews and document analysis process. Analytic memos were written
immediately after each interview and each observation. The researcher documented her thoughts,
concerns, and initial conclusions about the data in relation to the conceptual framework and
research questions. Interviews were transcribed and coded. In the first phase of analysis, the
researcher used open coding, looking for empirical codes and applying a priori codes from the
conceptual framework. The second phase of analysis consisted of aggregating empirical and a
priori codes into analytic/axial codes. In the third phase of data analysis, the researcher identified
pattern codes and themes that emerge in relation to the conceptual framework and study
questions. The researcher analyzed documents for evidence consistent with the concepts in the
conceptual framework.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
The purpose of research was to produce valid and reliable knowledge and thus, being
able to trust research results is extremely important (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Qualitative
studies must be credible and trustworthy. There were variations in the terminology used by
researchers; Maxwell (2013) uses “validity” for credibility and Merriam and Tisdell (2016) used
“reliability” for trustworthiness in a qualitative study. For the purpose of this study, the
53
researcher used the term credibility and trustworthiness. Credibility is concerned with how
research findings align with reality (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). People’s
constructions of reality, along with the researcher as the primary instrument of data collection
and analysis, are the premise of qualitative research and these can pose a threat to credibility
(Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Trustworthiness is concerned with the consistency
between the results and data collected (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The
fluidity of human behavior and subjective experiences of individuals can challenge
trustworthiness (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). To increase the credibility and trustworthiness of the
study, the researcher employed several strategies, including triangulation, maximum variation,
audit trail, reflexivity, and searching for discrepant and negative cases (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam
& Tisdell, 2016).
Triangulation involves the use of multiple investigators, sources of data, or data
collection methods to confirm findings (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This strategy reduces the risk
of chance associations and biases stemming from the limitations of a single method (Maxwell,
2013). Conducting interviews and document analysis allowed the researcher to compare and
cross-check the data collected. Documents contained descriptive texts that were categorized into
themes and categories (Bowen, 2009), allowing the researcher to advance new categories and
emerging themes, track changes and development, and confirm findings derived from the
interviews (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Connected to triangulation is maximum variation,
intentionally seeking variation or diversity in sample selection to allow for the possibility of a
greater range of application (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The researcher accomplished this by
using purposive sampling, drawing participants from multiple institutions of varying
54
denominations and geographical locations, with various administrative roles and length of
service.
Another method that the researcher used to increase credibility and trustworthiness was
audit trail. An audit trail is a detailed account of how data is collected, how categories are
derived, and how decisions are made throughout the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). An audit
trail is essentially a log and explanation of how researcher arrives at their results or conclusions.
Prior to commencing the study, the researcher had prepared a notebook as a way to keep a
research journal and record notes. The utilization of a recording device allowed the researcher to
focus on noting important statements and of decisions on topic or themes to pursue as the
conversation unfolds. Doing so created a trail, allowing the readers to follow the researcher’s
thought process, develop confidence in the researcher and findings, and authenticate the study
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
The researcher also employed the reflexivity method. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) define
reflexivity as a critical self-reflection by the researcher. This included monitoring assumptions,
worldview, biases, theoretical orientation, and relationship to the study (Maxwell, 2013;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Potential researcher biases in this study included sharing the same
gender as the participants and sharing similar role as an administrator at a Christian higher
education institution. Following Bogden and Biklen’s (2007) recommendations, the researcher
reflected on her ethical dilemmas and conflicts as well as her beliefs, cultural background, race,
gender, role, perceptions, and experiences throughout the study. The researcher’s thoughts and
comments were written down in the notebook and labeled with “observer’s comments.” The
researcher also engaged in the same process of reflection when examining the interview
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transcripts. This approach demonstrated the researcher’s transparency and increased the
credibility and trustworthiness of the study.
Lastly, the researcher searched for discrepant evidence and negative cases. This called for
identifying and analyzing data that do not fit the researcher’s conclusions (Maxwell, 2013). As
the researcher analyzed data, she compared data collected across the interviews and made notes
of and reflected on the exceptions to the common themes or patterns. The researcher also utilized
and referred to the literature review to confirm and highlight discrepant findings. If needed, the
researcher would reach out to the participants and request a follow up interview.
To ensure and increase credibility and worthiness of this qualitative study, the researcher
used triangulation, maximum variation, audit trail, and reflexivity. Applying these strategies
contributed to the rigor of the study and facilitated a deeper understanding of women
administrators’ leadership aspirations, development, and advancement in the Christian higher
education context.
Ethics
Conducting research, especially one that involves human subjects, requires the researcher
to be aware of his or her own ethics and thoroughly consider ethical issues surrounding their
study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Often times, ethical concerns occur during data collection and
in dissemination of findings (Glesne, 2011; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Therefore, to ensure the
research was conducted ethically as well as the participants’ rights and welfare are protected, the
researcher submitted the study proposal to the Institutional Review Board (IRB), a formal
committee established to provide oversight of research protocol and activities, at the University
of Southern California for review and approval prior to contacting participants for the study. The
safety of all participants in the study is the IRB’s goal (Rubin & Rubin, 2012). A consent form
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includes full disclosure of the purpose of the study and emphasis on voluntary participation with
the right to withdraw at any time (Glesne, 2011). However, in lieu of a signed consent form, the
IRB required the researcher to provide participants with an information sheet. Aligned with the
IRB’s guidance, all participants received an information sheet that outlined the purpose,
assurance of anonymity, and detailed information about the study. The researcher requested the
participants’ verbal permission to record the interview and informed them that confidentiality
would be maintained throughout the study. Any identifiers were avoided and the utilization of
password-protected laptop and hard drive allowed data to be stored securely. Additionally, the
researcher informed participants that no incentive will be provided, so as not to coerce them, and
let participants know that their participation is contributing to the understanding of the
underrepresentation of women in Christian higher education leadership. At the conclusion of the
study, however, the researcher planned on sending participants a thank you card to express
gratitude for their time and for sharing their insight and experiences.
In this study, the researcher was the primary instrument for data collection and analysis.
Since the participants in the study did not work with or report to the researcher, access and power
relationship that may occur when participants are in a subordinate role will not be an issue.
However, a few individuals may be colleagues of the researcher, and thus, there may be concerns
of the researcher’s friendly relations with the participants impacting the study. Glesne (2011)
cautions the ethical dilemmas that may arise from friendship, such as gaining intimate
information that may compromise participants’ privacy. To avoid deception, the researcher
would remind participants that they were participating in a study and/or asking them if certain
comments that may not necessarily be made in a formal setting is off the record (Rubin & Rubin,
2012).
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The role of the researcher was to understand the problem of practice from the participants’
perspectives, but human subjectivities could impact a study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). As a
female employee of the organization studying the underrepresentation of women in leadership,
the researcher must first examine her own assumptions and biases. Merriam and Tisdell (2016)
urged researchers to explore their own experiences in relation to the phenomenon of interest to
become aware of their prejudices and assumptions. Thinking through the researcher’s
experiences, perceptions, and position in the organization prepared the researcher to focus on the
participants and to truly listen to them. Transcripts from the interview recordings also allowed
the researcher to engage in a careful and thorough analysis while constantly monitoring her
biases in the process.
Limitations and Delimitations
The limitations and delimitations of this study included the small sample size, lack of
random participant sampling, demographic criterion, and researcher as the primary instrument of
data collection, as well as time constraints, scheduling conflicts, interview media. In an effort to
address the problem of practice at hand, the researcher chose to gain understanding of women’s
leadership aspirations and identity development within the Christian higher education context.
The stakeholder group of focus were mid and senior level women administrators, who are
currently underrepresented, resulting in a small pool to draw samples from.
In addition to being the primary instrument of this study, the researcher shared the same
gender as the participants, which may introduce biases influencing interviewees’ responses.
While the researcher had taken measures to minimize biases in the interview questions by having
them reviewed by peers and committee members, it was not possible to control for respondents’
truthfulness about their thoughts, opinions, and perspectives in relation to the problem of
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practice. As a field-based study, participants were drawn from various Christian higher education
institutions across the United States. Differing time zones may present a challenge to scheduling
and conducting interviews. The researcher also relied on technology, which could potentially
influence the nature or flow of the conversations as well as the comfortability level of the
participants and limited the researcher’s ability to observe participants nonverbal cues and
responses.
Delimitations included the number of questions and follow-up questions asked as well as
the number of individuals who agreed to participate in the study. The qualitative design of this
study gathered data through the lived experiences influencing women administrators’ aspirations
for leadership and thus, the broader organizational perspectives, such as male leaders or
colleagues’ point of views, were excluded. The use of purposeful and snowball sampling, as well
as the homogenous landscape of Christian higher education, the researcher anticipates the lack of
minority voice and perspectives. The intersection of identities, such as in the case of being a
woman and a person of color, subject individuals to challenges and marginalization within each
category (Crenshaw, 1991). This intersectionality added a layer of complexity that was beyond
the scope of the study.
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Chapter Four: Results and Findings
The purpose of this study is to address the underrepresentation of women in Christian
higher education leadership through the exploration of women’s aspirations to lead and their
leadership identity development. Few women seek and/or rise to executive leadership and it is
important to determine and understand the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
impacting this issue. In an era of globalization with rapidly changing demographics, society, and
technology, highly qualified leaders, as well as equitable and inclusive leadership, are critical to
Christian higher education institutions. As such, the questions that guide this study are the
following:
1. What are the knowledge and motivation factors influencing women’s aspirations for
leadership and their leadership identity development?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and the knowledge
and motivation of women leaders?
3. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions to the
barriers impeding women’s advancement into leadership?
Participating Stakeholders
The participants in this study were nine women administrators representing four
institutions. The length of tenure indicates the amount of time an individual has been employed
at the institution. Interviewees selected for this study were those who have worked for their
respective institution for at least one year because they are more familiar with and have
experienced the organizational culture, policies, and procedures. Motherhood was not a criterion
for participation in this study, but this factor allows for the exploration of its impact on women’s
aspirations for leadership. Participants were located in various locations within the United States
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and all interviews were conducted virtually using web conference software. Each interview
lasted approximately one hour. Given the purposive sampling that includes specific selections of
these institutions along as well as the scarcity of women leaders in Christian higher education
institutions, each of the participants is referred throughout the chapter as P+ the participant
number (e.g., P1) to ensure anonymity. Table 4 provides demographic information regarding
these participants.
Table 4
Participant Demographics
Variable Number
Institutions
A 1
B 3
C 2
D 3
Length of tenure within the institution
1-5 years 4
6-10 years 3
11-15 years 0
15+ years 2
Have a child or children
Yes 4
No 5
Race/Ethnicity
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Asian American 1
Black or African American 1
White or Caucasian 7

Research Question 1: What are the Knowledge and Motivation Factors Influencing
Women’s Aspirations for Leadership and Their Leadership Identity Development?
Knowledge Results
This study examined three knowledge influences through interviews of current women
leaders. Interviews were conducted to evaluate the women leaders’ conceptual knowledge of the
ways in which women leaders contribute to the stakeholders, financial, and organizational
benefits. Additionally, the interviews also assessed the women leaders’ procedural knowledge of
the paths to leadership as well as how to develop the skills essential for leadership. Lastly, the
women leaders’ metacognitive knowledge of how their identities, biases, and abilities impact
their predispositions to strive for leadership were explored.
Table 5
Summary of Presumed Knowledge Influences and Evaluation Results
Assumed Knowledge Influence

Influence Type Asset/Need
Women need knowledge of the ways in which
women leaders contribute to the stakeholders
and organizational benefits.

Conceptual Asset
Women need knowledge of how to develop the
skills essential for effective leadership.

Procedural Need
Women need awareness of and to reflect on how
their identities, biases, and abilities impact
their predispositions to strive for leadership.

Metacognitive Asset

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Conceptual Knowledge of the Benefits of Women Leaders
Interview participants were asked multiple questions to reveal their knowledge of the
ways in which women leaders benefit the stakeholders, financial, and organizational benefits of
the organization. At the core, the women leaders contribute to the organization’s benefits by
serving as representation and providing a voice (Broadhurst, Locke, & Johnson, 2019). Analysis
of the interviews revealed that the participants believed in the importance of having women
represented in leadership roles and knew how they, as leaders, make positive contributions to the
organization they served. In reference to men and women, P9 said, “God didn’t create one
inferior to the other, so in those gifts and talents that women bring are important and valuable.”
According to P1, “There is an empathy or compassion of storytelling that does tend to come
from a female perspective,” and she often provided a counterbalance to her male counterparts.
The presence of women leaders enriched the decision-making process by allowing organizations
to explore various perspectives, ideas, or solutions and consider how a decision would impact the
organization and its stakeholders.
The interviewees in this study also highlighted how other women leaders had impacted
them as well as the role they played in serving as role models for the stakeholders of their
institutions. P7 reflected on her educational and career journey and shared about a time when she
thought that being in academia or academic leadership was a farfetched idea due to the lack of
role model. However, learning that there were, in fact, women in these roles had a positive
impact on her:
The idea of being, you know, a woman professor teaching the Bible, teaching theology,
teaching how to teach theology in the Bible, in the church. I mean, you know, like how
many role models for that. But then the more we know that there are women theologians
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[who] have been writing and paving the way, trailblazing for us, and so that gets kind of
exciting.
P1 also echoed the importance of a female leader as role model, expressing that it was important
for students and faculty to be able to look up and see “a female academic in the highest ranks of
the academic segment.” Another women leader, P9, highlighted the importance of female
leadership in inspiring new generation women leaders:
I think having female mentorship has been incredibly important and having female, not
just women in the organization, but women in charge, because I think there’s a big
difference. I think that it’s incredibly important for organizations that are looking to
improve their female leadership [to have] women who have experienced women who
have been in positions of leadership.
As such, these women leaders recognized the impact of having a female leader as role model and
being a role model themselves.
The women leaders in this study exhibited preferences, qualities, and behaviors that are
characteristics of transformational leadership. The literature describes transformational
leadership as a form of leadership that involves a process of developing and empowering people
to accomplish more beyond what is typically expected of them; it is a form of leadership that is a
departure from the transactional process of rewards and punishments to a process of developing
and influencing people to accomplish the goal (Northouse, 2016). One of the characteristics of
transformational leadership is collaboration. One study participant, P1, said that she “leaned
towards service and relationships and community” while another participant, P5 said, “I would
rather have a collaborative approach.” P5 further shared that she would be co-chairing a
committee and planned on leading through collaboration, “We’re trying to come up with
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different ways to allow more voices to be heard… I think that would be helpful because you
know, there are fantastic ideas around the whole table.”
These preferences for collaboration and a collaborative style of leadership were also
shared by P2, who mentioned that one of the first actions she took upon taking on her new
leadership role was to do “input meetings.” She believed that it was necessary for leaders to
listen, to build trust, to care for the well-being of their people, and to know each team member’s
strengths. She also described utilizing various tools to help her develop a collaborative team:
Here’s our expectations of each other. Here’s how we work together. I used the “Now,
Discover Your Strengths.” We review each person’s strengths. We talk about how we
work together and it gave them a common language to say instead of this person is
driving me crazy, this is a strength that I’m seeing that’s happening for them.
P2 also expressed that while she desired to get things done and would be direct, she welcomed
dialogue and feedback. While collaborative in nature, transformational leadership is also
concerned with achieving the organizational and/or shared goals. According to P2, knowing her
team members’ strengths and how they could complement each other helped the team achieve
their shared goals.
In addition to being a voice, leading to accomplish organizational goals, these women
leaders discuss playing an active role in developing others. P4 discussed how some close family
members, professors, and colleagues have impacted her career journey and said, “Now I want to
play that role in other people’s lives. I want to be the person saying you can do it; absolutely you
can. You know, so I look for those kinds of opportunities.” Referring to how she interacted with
her team members, P9 said, “The ways I support you and leadership in growing your leadership
are going to benefit both the institution as a whole and society as a whole.” These women leaders
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had knowledge that exercising their social sensitivity and leveraging on their predisposition to
building relationships allowed them to harness different perspectives and skills that enhanced
culture and improved decision making. While they saw the positive impact on the organization,
they also believed that the benefits went beyond that and extended to the community and society.
As such, these findings showed that the women leaders recognized and understood the positive
contributions they made as leaders.
Procedural Knowledge
The stakeholders in this study had procedural knowledge of how to develop the skills
essential for leadership. The varied experiences of these women leaders showed that women’s
path to leadership were not always characterized by a linear path. However, a common thread
was that these leaders had knowledge of certain skills that were necessary to lead effectively and
knew that they had acquired and developed these skills during the course of their careers. P6
discussed how through her prior experience in a different industry, she had learned and was
skilled at budgeting and scheduling, which equipped her well when she assumed the role of an
academic leader. P3’s passion for, along with her educational background for and skills in math,
allowed her to lead in a way that ensured the well-being of the employees as well as the financial
welfare of the organization through the provision of health benefits and retirement plans.
Another interviewee, P8, shared her non-traditional path to leadership that at the same time, had
allowed her to develop skills:
I’ve always kind of had that hybrid executive assistant type of roles where part of my
work is, you know, what you may consider typical EA sort of work, like scheduling
meetings and travel and things like that. But the other part has often been, you know,
writing communication on behalf of the president or CEO and arranging like or creating
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the town hall presentations and other kind of communication pieces. I’ve also led a lot of
projects as a part of that.
According to P8, she had the opportunity to be the “right hand person” of the leader, to learn
about the organizational operations, and to share her opinions. At the same time, also hoped that
her role would pave the way for greater opportunities.
The need for being skilled in the work is noted by P4, who said, “Learn the job so that
you won’t be a magnet for criticism.” She talked about how it was necessary for a dean to be
familiar with basic information, such as measuring credit hour, and understanding accreditation
requirements. She proceeded to discuss leadership skills, such as supervising faculty and
supervising faculty who may not want to be supervised. P4 said:
I went to every single deans colloquies and deans conferences… I started meeting people
at professional conferences and learning the tricks of the trade… surrounding yourself
with peers in professional settings and conferences, when they can happen, are a great
place for that. And especially surrounding yourself with women peers, women
professional peers. You know, internally, in my institution, I don’t just hang out with the
women. I have to be fair to everyone, but when I go to conferences, I hang out with the
women because I want to learn from them.
For P4, it was equally important to know how to acquire and develop leadership skills, so she
actively and intentionally sought out opportunities to do so.
Metacognitive Knowledge
The women leaders of this study demonstrated metacognitive knowledge through their
awareness of and reflection on how their identities, biases, and abilities impact their
predispositions to strive for leadership. P6 described being presumed incompetent, experiencing
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barriers in obtaining employment, moving into leadership roles, as well as leading, due to the
color of her skin. Nevertheless, she knew that she had gifts and capabilities:
It’s good and right to exercise your God given gifts to the maximum possibilities…
there’s a biblical passage that was always meaningful to me early on, to whom much is
given, much is required. And that has been like an impulse in me, you know. I realized
that I was smarter than many or that things can, I got things quicker than others. So, no
matter what barriers I encountered, like I knew that I had been given much, so I was
always trying to maximize that.
Another stakeholder, P9, also displayed awareness of her identities, biases, and abilities
pertaining to leadership. She understood the double standards women were often judged by and
reflected on her own self-worth and what one could bring into leadership:
Don’t play down yourself; that’s part of who you are. You have accomplishments; you
have worked hard. You have worth. Your worth doesn’t come from your
accomplishments but think about all the things you had to do to get there. Think about the
resilience. You have to think about your intelligence. Think about the things you have to
put up with. You have worth because of who God created you to be and nobody can take
that away from you. And you have accomplished things because of who God has created
you to be and you should be excited about that and continue to pursue those things. We
want to live as whole beings on this earth.
P9 made careful distinction between self-deprecation and humility that encompassed recognizing
her identity as God’s creation, knowing her value and what she had to offer.

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Knowledge Results Summary
Knowledge results validated that conceptual procedural, and metacognitive knowledge
contributed to women’s leadership aspirations and leadership identity development. All
participants in this study were able to articulate the ways in which they contributed to their
respective organization (conceptual) as well as their awareness and reflection of the impact their
identities, biases, and abilities had on their decision to assume leadership (metacognitive). Thus,
conceptual and metacognitive knowledge were determined to be an asset. As the women leaders
shared their leadership journey, which was characterized by non-traditional or non-linear paths,
they also shared having acquired, learned, and developed essential leadership skills over the
course of their careers. This suggested the importance of procedural knowledge. As such, it has
been determined that procedural knowledge was a need. These knowledge influences are also
connected to the motivational influences of these women leaders that will be discussed in the
next section.
Motivation Results
The study evaluated two assumed motivational influences perceived to impact women’s
aspirations for leadership as well as the development of their leadership identity. Participants
were asked a series of questions pertaining to personal and professional experiences,
responsibilities, and commitments to understand the factors influencing their aspirations for
leadership and shaping their identity. Motivation serves as the driver in which one chooses to
engage in a task, persists through challenges, and exerts mental effort to accomplish the goal
(Clark & Estes, 2008). The motivational components probed included subjective task value and
self-efficacy theory and the results validated these assumed influences. Through interviews, the
stakeholders revealed that the perceived value of leadership outweighed the costs and
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demonstrated the belief that they can be an effective leader. Table 6 provides a summary of the
motivational influences studied.
Table 6
Summary of Presumed Motivation Influences and Evaluation Results
Assumed Motivation Influence

Motivation Influence Type Asset/Need
Women need to believe that the value of
leadership outweighs the cost.

Subjective Task Value Asset
Women administrators need to believe
that they can be an effective leader.

Self-Efficacy Need

Subjective Task Value
The stakeholders’ responses validated that the value of leadership outweighs the costs.
According to Wigfield et al. (2015), subjective task value is driven by four elements: intrinsic
value (i.e., personal enjoyment), attainment value (i.e., perceived importance), utility value (i.e.,
perceived usefulness), and cost (i.e., competition with other goals). The women leaders described
various challenges they have overcome and continually faced, acknowledging the high price of
leadership, but ultimately, they believed that the value of leadership outweighed the costs.
Intrinsic Value. The interview participants’ responses demonstrated that there was a
sense of enjoyment that is derived from performing challenging tasks, learning, and striving for
competence (intrinsic value). According to P1, “It’s actually for the learning and growth, and
I’ve always said, if I’m in a position where I’m not learning and growing, then I’m done.”
Leadership was a career progression that provided her with the opportunity to do good work and
grow, and she enjoyed it. Another leader, P8, described the breadth of experiences she had with
leading projects, chairing committees, spearheading new initiatives. She also discussed her
affinity for learning something new and problem solving:
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Something I also know about myself is I like working on different kinds of projects. I like
problem solving, so like repetitive jobs, for me, where I’m doing the same thing over and
over again really don’t hold appeal. I’ll do them for a little while, but then it’s kind of
like, okay, is there anything different I can work on? Just because I find that I’m really
good at problem solving and creating a process that then, you know, is better served by
someone else doing that process over and over again.
One of the things that P8 also shared was how she always wanted to be open to new
opportunities. There had been times where she was approached through social media and she
viewed this as a way to continue developing her skills, “If for no other reason than just to
challenge myself or keep interviewing skills well honed.”
The desire for engaging in enjoyable and meaningful work was also a theme in P5’s
responses. As someone who had experienced being in various roles, she shared how she had
stepped away from ones that did not bring her joy. However, her current role provided her with
the opportunity to be a problem solver and serve students, which she loved. Another stakeholder
shared her passion for helping, growing, and developing emerging women leaders. She said, “I
look for those kinds of opportunities.” As a leader, she was excited about the prospect of having
a new generation of women leaders who were skilled and prepared to lead and she was
intentional about and enjoyed developing others and helping them grow.
Attainment Value. Analysis of the interview responses demonstrated how these
stakeholders’ identity and preferences motivated them to embrace leadership. Eccles (2006)
states that the alignment between one’s needs, personal interests, and personal values, with the
tasks at hand increased attainment value. When discussing their family background, these
women leaders revealed family backgrounds and/or experiences that helped develop their
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schema regarding gender roles as well as their self-image. P2 shared that she grew up with strong
women around her, including her mother. P6 said that she grew up in a context where it was not
unusual for a woman to lead and her mother had also held management roles. Four stakeholders’
responses also indicated how their faith shaped her identity, which encouraged them to embrace
leadership. They mentioned a sense of calling and believed that God had given them gifts and
abilities to do good and also to utilize them to the highest potential. She also attributed
“stubbornness [that is] connected to vision” to the willingness to step into leadership.
All but one of the women leaders in this study shared a similar experience in which they
did not grow up seeking to be a leader nor did they do so as they begin their career. One
stakeholder, P4, shared about the time she was approached for an academic leadership role and
how she had expressed her reluctance and had initially declined it until one pivotal faculty
meeting:
… Every single name that was generated was male, and I remember very clearly sitting in
that faculty meeting, thinking, oh my goodness. If I don’t do this, there’s going to be a
whole other all men leadership team for another whole bunch of years. I have to do this.
P4’s decision to pursue leadership was driven by recognizing the existing paucity of women
leaders, how important it was to have a female voice and representation in leadership and
knowing and believing the difference and impact she could make. Her personal interests and
values as well as recognizing the convergence of her identity and the need at hand (attainment
value) compelled her to rise to the occasion.
Utility Value. The women leaders in this study discussed the perceived usefulness of
being in leadership (utility value). Leadership generally comes with some benefits, so it is often
viewed as useful or necessary for one to earn a higher professional status and compensation.
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However, these women leaders did not seek leadership for these reasons. P8 pointed out that
money was not a primary motivator for her. While she certainly would appreciate a salary
increase, she valued being able to make positive contributions to the organization and society
through her work more. According to P5, she wanted to use her gifts and abilities in a way that
other positions may not. Another participant, P6, believed that “work has dignity” and said that
“contributing to society and to the common good is every human’s responsibility; it’s good and
right to be, to exercise your God given gifts to the maximum possibilities.” Aligned with Eccles
(2006), the interviewees’ responses suggested that assuming leadership fulfilled their
psychological needs of experiencing autonomy, social relatedness, and a sense of competence.
Perceived Cost: Marriage and Motherhood. Of the nine participants who participated
in this study, four were mothers and five did not have any children. As leaders, these individuals’
work demanded time beyond the regular 40-hour work week. Those without children recognized
the slight advantage they had about having less to manage, but they still experienced difficulty
maintaining work life balance. P8 said, “Yeah, so I am married but we don’t have kids, so I think
that makes it easier for me. And I would say we’re both independent, so one of the things I’ve
always appreciated about us is that we don’t put a lot of pressure on one another.” Another
stakeholder, P1, echoed the same sentiment about possibly having it a little easier due to the fact
that she did not have a child. She expressed awareness that home and child rearing
responsibilities often fell heavily upon women:
I don’t know if you’re going home and also cooking dinner and also shopping and also
doing childcare and also doing, you know, fill in the blanks, for women… There’s just
extra, extra, extra job duties that women have.
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P1 also made a reference to the challenges that many women faced during the time this research
was conducted. Due to the global pandemic and efforts to minimize the spreading of virus, in-
person activities were reduced to the essentials only and most schools pivoted to distance
learning. This phenomenon had added another set of challenges for parents, particularly mothers,
where in addition to the existing challenge of managing work and home demands, they must take
on the role of teacher for their child(ren). For P3, this was a reality, as she shared feeling
overwhelmed by trying to do her job all day and helping her son with school.
The women leaders who were also mothers discussed struggling to prioritize their
child(ren), home life, and work. P6 shared how she viewed work as her first shift and then
coming home, tidying, cooking, doing the laundry, and grocery shopping, as second shift. She
was grateful for a supportive husband who shared some of their home responsibilities, but “it
was nowhere near equal.” This confirmed that regardless of the fact that both men and women
were employed, women were still the primary caretaker of most household responsibilities.
Another stakeholder dismissed the idea of women being able to “have it all.” For her, the cost of
leadership was the dissolution of her marriage. Despite the struggles, however, these women
leaders chose to lead. P6 summed up her experience, “I don’t have any regrets, but I was guilty,
the whole time.”
Perceived Cost: Physical and Mental Health. The study participants were asked
questions about their work responsibilities and they described long hours that go beyond the
regular 40-hour work week. Referring to work-life balance, one interviewee said that balance
was “an illusion that we set up for ourselves to make us always feel inadequate.” The women
leaders acknowledged the challenges of having leisure time given their numerous responsibilities
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as leaders, but they continue to make efforts that helped sustain them, such as engaging in
personal hobbies, praying, and spending time with family and/or friends.
The stakeholders’ responses also revealed how leadership impacted their mental health.
Leaders bear the burden of making decisions for their organization; thinking through, knowing,
and responding to the implications and impacts of their decisions on the organization as well as
the individuals serving the organization can produce high level of stress and anxiety. In P1’s
case, the time her institution must conduct layoffs was particularly stressful and heartbreaking
for her. Furthermore, one of the most important responsibilities of a leader is managing and
working with people, which is yet another source of stress and anxiety. To this point, P4 said:
Personnel is the hardest part of being a leader. It’s the people problems that keeps you
awake at night. Sometimes money problems too, but it’s the people problems. People that
are not doing their jobs or creating havoc in the system and it’s up to you to figure out
what to do about it and often, what it leads to [is] some kind of separation of some sort or
another, whether it’s straight out getting fired or whether it’s some kind of planned
departure, but it just about kills you to do these personnel things.
Another interviewee, P6, described encountering similar challenges, “I have all of those, you
know, all of the personnel things; the drama about health and marriage and performance issues,
and you know, a poor performance, trying to move people out; all of the staff conflicts.” She also
discussed the complexities of leading in a diverse context, saying that the number of complaints
around diversity and questions of equity felt endless.
Perceived Cost: Discrimination, Scrutiny, and Double Standards. The interviewees
were asked about the challenges they faced as a leader and particularly as a female leader. Their
experiences were characterized by discrimination, scrutiny, and double standards. Two of the
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women mentioned the phenomenon “presumed incompetent” and how that was a reality for
them. P6 recalled the process of her appointment to leadership. Following the interview, she had
heard that the committee doubted her ability to perform in the role. When she was invited to the
second round of interview, she proceeded to preparing a presentation in which she outlined her
leadership skills. P6 stated, “That was what I had to do to compensate for the disadvantages that
my social, that gender and race.” Having her competence doubted due to her gender and race
have been a recurring theme throughout her career journey:
I knew I could do it, and, but I, but I just got used to the fact that the sort of body I’m in
makes people doubt that. And so, I just have to, if they’ll let me, if they’ll give me a
chance, they’ll see that I will thrive, and that’s just been the pattern.
In addition to navigating through a perilous path to leadership, women continue to face
challenges when they are in leadership roles. P4 said that there was an undercurrent of patriarchy
in Christian higher education and “there’s not a question about it that [she] was resisted because
[she is] a woman leader.” Using the metaphor of swimming and being pulled down under the
water repeatedly, she expressed feeling drained by the subtle resistance she met as a female
leader. According to P4, “women’s leadership continues to be scrutinized” and she said, “I have
to prove again and again and again that I am called to this job; I have experience in this kind of
leadership and I’m able to do it.”
Self-Efficacy Theory
Self-efficacy principles assert that individuals who believe that they are capable of being
an effective leader will be motivated to lead (Pajares, 2006). While the women leaders in this
study demonstrated a high degree of self-efficacy, they also revealed that self-efficacy was a
process and discussed having experienced self-doubts. Some participants mentioned their family,
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particularly their parents, playing an essential role in developing their self-efficacy early on.
Referring to her parents’ beliefs about her, P9 said, “They always assumed that I would probably
do something where I would be in charge of something.” For P6, her mother was a role model
who showed her how to respond to and overcome barriers, refusing to “take no for an answer.”
At the same time, the majority of the stakeholders in this study shared that they did not
actively seek leadership roles but instead, the roles were brought to their attention and offered to
them by others and their initial response was characterized by self-doubts. However, these
women leaders discussed having mentors, supporters, and leaders, who recognized their gifts and
abilities, provided affirmations and opportunities, and helped them develop their own perception
of competence and leadership identity. P7 shared the time she was nominated to be the president
of the academic guild she was a member of and began asking:
Am I senior enough? Am I advanced enough in order to step up to this role? Don’t I have
to wait, you know, because there are other people more qualified, all the senior scholars
and whatnot, right? So, all those self-doubting questions, you know, inevitably pop up.
But what was true for me and what allowed me to step up into that role were the two
things that I described: it was a community of colleagues and friends and mentors who
say, “You know, this is a good moment when there’s a convergence of need and interests
and gifts and whatnot, and of the many people that can take this role, you are one.”
Another interviewee, P8, also shared how throughout her career journey, her supervisors and
leaders she worked with had invited her to be involved in and assigned her to spearhead various
projects and initiatives, which helped her expand her competencies, develop self-efficacy, and
embrace leadership roles. P6 also noted that her abilities and successes in previous roles gave her
the confidence and grew her sense of competence, “I have had enough yeses or enough
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affirmation of my abilities that I knew I could do this.” These women leaders’ responses showed
that their belief that they can be an effective leader was largely shaped by the feedback they have
received and by prior successes. According to Pajares (2006), high self-efficacy can positively
influence motivation, and thus, these women leaders affirmed the importance of women
believing that they can be an effective leader.
Motivation Results Summary
Motivation results validated that women need to have the motivation to lead. The women
leaders in this study were driven by their desire to utilize their skills and abilities and contribute
to their respective organizations and larger society. Despite the numerous challenges they face,
whether that be in leading itself, navigating the perils of being a female leader, or bearing the
consequences of leadership, all participants believed and expressed that the value of leadership
outweighed the perceived costs. Thus, the subjective task value of leadership is determined to be
an asset. Most of the stakeholders described stepping into leadership roles by invitation; some
even questioned their readiness or ability to lead. This suggested that developing and promoting
self-efficacy was a need. In addition to knowledge and motivation, analysis of organizational
influences is critical to understanding women’s aspirations for leadership and their leadership
identity development. These influences will be discussed in the subsequent sections.
Research Question 2: What is the Interaction between Organizational Culture and Context
and the Knowledge and Motivation of Women Leaders?
Organizational Results
The study utilized interviews and document analysis to examine organizational influences
impacting women’s aspirations for leadership as well as their leadership identity development.
Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) discussed culture as consisting of two components: 1) cultural
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model, a shared mental schema that includes rules, expectations, and norms that are valued and
considered ideal, and 2) cultural settings, the specific contexts or spaces where the existing
cultural model interact with the stakeholders. Table 7 summarizes the cultural model and settings
findings of this study.
Table 7
Summary of Presumed Organizational Influences and Evaluation Results
Assumed Organizational Influence

Organizational Influence Type Asset/Need
The organization must embrace an
inclusive culture that accepts and
supports women leaders.

Cultural Model Asset
The organization must devote resources
and engage in practices that support
women and women leaders.

Cultural Setting Need

Cultural Model: The Organization Must Embrace an Inclusive Culture that Accepts and
Supports Women Leaders
The stakeholders’ responses to questions assessing the culture of their respective
organizations highlighted the need for an inclusive culture that accepts and supports women
leaders. Historically, the cultural model of Christian higher education institutions has been one
that aligns with and reinforces the traditional gender roles. Drawing parallels between academic
institutions and the church, P7 said, “It’s a very gendered and racialized experience in the sense
that if you are in the church and you’re a woman, you serve, but you serve in many secondary
roles.” Two other stakeholders used the term “patriarchy” when discussing their organizations
and the leadership. The manifestation of patriarchy was not only in leadership roles or positions
alone, but also in more subtle areas, such as how more weight and attention were given to men
over women’s perspectives and/or ideas. Stakeholder P9 described the challenges she
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experienced working with a male leader who subscribed to this cultural model and recalled how
her ideas were constantly resisted and dismissed. Another stakeholder, P5, said:
A female will share an idea, people won’t hear it. A man will share the idea, you know,
take it as his own and share it, and then it’s the best idea that ever happened. So, I’ve seen
that and I have felt that in my current role.
Even though their institutions had more women in leadership compared to the majority of their
peer institutions, the representation of women leaders was still lacking and there continued to be
patriarchal underpinnings within the organizational culture.
Male leadership is a cultural model deeply ingrained in most organizations. More
specifically, leadership is often associated with White male. One stakeholder, who was a female
leader of color, described it as follow:
When you look at the top levels of leadership for theological schools, a lot of men, White
men, right? And then women, White women, right, so a lot of times in the literature, you
will hear that, yes, the model of successful or effective leadership, right? And so you’ve
got persons of color stepping into a big hot mess, right, or women stepping into a hot
mess and having to prove that we could do it… the reality is that the models of success,
the styles that define success, right, to navigate institutional challenges, is built on the
types, that archetypes that sometimes don’t look like me, and so then, how do I, how do I
kind of step into those archetypes and assert, you know, my own style, my own way of
doing it.
Another stakeholder highlighted the need for organizations to break away from the traditional
view of leadership and embrace a culture that accepts and supports women leaders. To this point,
she said:
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You know, organizations just have to open the door and invite women in and then
support them. And [for] organizations to say, oh, we don’t know of any good qualified
women or oh, there are no women [who] applied, it’s like, that’s because they know that
your organization is hostile or at least indifferent, so organizations have to get honest
about how they present themselves to the world and organizations that have a board of
trustees of 24 White males is, they’re not, they shouldn’t wonder that nobody applies,
that, a person of color or a woman leader. Their organization has to demonstrate that
they’re serious.
Culture is also closely intertwined with leadership. The role of a leader includes creating,
managing, reinforcing, and/or transforming culture (Schein, 2017). There must be leaders or
leadership who value women’s leadership and help redefine the gendered leadership norms. The
women leaders in this study affirmed the critical role leadership played in their career journey
and their rise to leadership. All of them had leaders who played a significant role in aspiring
them to lead as well as in their leadership identity development. They spoke about individuals in
influential positions/roles who recognized their abilities, supported them, and provided them
with opportunities to learn, grow, and lead. One participant shared that she worked for a male
leader who “laid those barriers down” for her while another participant said that one male leader
had “helped open doors” for her. This also means that there must be leaders who are willing to
call out microaggressions and demonstrate support of women leaders when it may not
necessarily be a popular course of action.
Analysis of documents available publicly revealed that three out of the four institutions in
this study had minimal discussions pertaining to women in leadership. All four institutions
highlighted their commitment to diversity, but the documents suggested that “diversity” was
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limited to race/ethnicity. This phenomenon aligned with one stakeholder’s observation, “I think
there’s an attentiveness to diversity and I think there’s eyes to race and ethnicity, more than there
is to gender.” One institution in particular demonstrated specific attention to women, dedicating
pages on its website to explicitly state its support and advocacy of women. Even so, the
interview participants from this institution said that there was still a gap between institution’s
stated commitments and the organizational practices.
Cultural Settings: The Organization Must Devote Resources and Engage in Practices That
Support Women Leaders
Interview responses indicated that institutions must align their organizational
environment and practices with their expressed commitments to supporting women leadership.
P4 said, “The door is sort of open and you can squeeze in, but then when you get in the room,
what is it like?” and “I think it requires insiders who encourage and that one of those people
would be me.” As the highest rank leader in the institution she serves, she recognized the pivotal
role of a leader as well as the leadership team in advancing women.
The study participants highlighted the need for equipping and empowering women.
According to P2, “I think professional development is very important, so I continually increase
my budget, professional development, for my staff.” The importance of providing resources is a
sentiment that P7 echoed:
As somebody who has the authority and the power to allocate resources, and I say that
both, you know, in the technical sense, you know, approving support allowances for
professional development opportunities, do I have that power and authority, but also in
the figurative sense, right. How do I help the women faculty to reallocate their own
personal energies and mental space and whatnot.
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P7 highlighted an important point that was often neglected. Pursuing professional development
opportunities seemed impossible at times due to family commitments as well as the heavy
workload women leaders were already responsible for. Therefore, organizations must consider
providing not just material resources, but also time resources. Another participant, P3, said that
she was granted “permission to put family first.” This support came in the form of flexibility,
where she was able to adjust her work schedule to meet the needs of her family. Furthermore,
this practice shaped her perspective that the organization cared about her and her well-being,
which in turn, motivated her to continue grow and contribute to the organization.
Another participant, P8, spoke to the need for organizations to align their practices with
their stated claims or commitments. Organizations may proclaim their support for women
leaders, but this may be futile if there continues to be the absence of women in leadership. P8
highlighted how important it was for leaders to be willing to let their high-potential female
employees step into bigger roles and advance to leadership. She shared that there have been
leaders who appreciated her work to the extent that they wanted her to continue to stay in her
role and continue supporting them. However, she believed that it was essential for leaders to
recognize emerging women leaders and encourage step into higher roles where they could make
further impact. For P8, this opportunity came from one leader who recognized her abilities and
potential and promoted her into a leadership role.
The researcher was limited to documents that were available publicly and analysis of
these documents suggested a lack of institutional mechanisms in supporting women leaders. One
interviewee explicitly stated the importance of policies. She stated that advancing and supporting
women leaders must be a shared organizational goal and it required the commitment of
leadership, including the board of trustees, as well as having this commitment in written
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documents. She also said, “I think women leaders are protected by good policies” and further
explained, “Policies are our friends when they are used. If they’re written up and stuffed in a
handbook and never used, well then, that’s just a waste of time. But if they’re good policies and
they are used, it protects everybody.” The fact that only one of nine participants explicitly stated
the importance of policies revealed the minimal attention placed on organizational policies and
procedures as a support system for women leaders.
Organizational Results Summary
The women leaders in this study expressed the critical role organizational
leaders/leadership played. All participants in this study described having a leader or leadership
that supported, encouraged, broke down barriers, and/or provided them with opportunities to
lead. Therefore, a cultural model that embraced and supported female leadership was determined
to be an asset. The women leaders also discussed the importance of and challenging aspects of
professional development. Additionally, while their current role within their respective
institutions demonstrated, to a certain extent, the acceptance of women in leadership, the
alignment of organizational practices and rhetoric remain necessary as well as an area of
opportunity. Thus, cultural settings were determined to be a need.
Summary
The study participants provided rich data related to their knowledge, motivation, and
organizational factors influencing their aspirations for leadership and their leadership identity
development. The participants’ responses revealed the presence of conceptual and metacognitive
knowledge, subjective task value, and cultural model (i.e., assets) and the need for organizations
to address procedural knowledge, self-efficacy, and cultural settings. The findings of this study
also suggested that knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors are interconnected and
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they also influence one another. Practices that support women leaders as well as having adequate
resources for professional development (i.e., cultural settings) facilitate learning and the
acquisition of knowledge and skills (i.e., procedural knowledge), which promotes competence
and self-efficacy. This suggested that addressing a need could potentially minimize or eliminate
another need. Chapter five will address the third research question and provide recommendations
pertaining to the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that impede women’s
advancement into leadership. Suggestions for future research is also included.
Table 8
Summary of all Influences, Type, and Evaluation Results
Assumed Influences Assumed Influences Type Asset/Need
Knowledge
Women administrators need knowledge of the
ways women leaders contribute to the
stakeholders and organizational benefits.

Conceptual

Asset
Women administrators need knowledge of the
paths to leadership and how to develop
the skills essential for leadership.

Procedural Need
Women administrators need awareness of and
to reflect on how their identities, biases,
and abilities impact their predispositions
for leadership.

Metacognitive Asset
Motivation
Women administrators need to believe that
the value of leadership outweighs the
cost.

Subjective Task Value

Asset
Women administrators need to believe that
they can be an effective leader.

Self-Efficacy Need
Organizational
The organization must embrace an inclusive
culture that accepts and supports women
leaders.

Cultural Model

Asset
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The organization must devote resources and
engage in practices that support women
and women leaders.

Cultural Setting Need
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Chapter Five: Solutions and Recommendations
This study examined the knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors influencing
women’s aspirations for leadership and their leadership identity development through interviews
of women leaders in Christian higher education institutions and document analysis. This chapter
answered the third research question by addressing the validated needs and assets as well as
presents solutions and methods of evaluation using the Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick’s (2016)
New World Model.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this study is to address the underrepresentation of women in Christian
higher education leadership through the exploration of women’s aspirations to lead and their
leadership identity development. Few women seek and/or rise to executive leadership and it is
important to determine and understand the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
impacting this issue. In an era of globalization with rapidly changing demographics, society, and
technology, highly qualified leaders, as well as equitable and inclusive leadership, are critical to
Christian higher education institutions. As such, the questions that guide this study are the
following:
1. What are the knowledge and motivation factors influencing women’s aspirations for
leadership and their leadership identity development?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and the knowledge
and motivation of women leaders?
3. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions to the
barriers impeding women’s advancement into leadership?
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Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences
Knowledge Recommendations
Table 9 include a complete list of assumed and validated knowledge influences based on
collection and analysis of data through interviews with the stakeholder group of focus. It also
indicates whether these influences are considered a priority in achieving the global performance
goal. Additionally, these influences are supported by the literature review of the problem of
practice as well as Clark and Estes (2008), who identify knowledge as the foundational
component of performance gaps. Recommendations based on theoretical principles are also
included.
Table 9
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Knowledge
Influence

Validated
as Asset
or Need

Priority

Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Women administrators
need knowledge of
the ways women
leaders contribute to
the stakeholders,
financial, and
organizational
benefits of the
institution. (C)
Asset No Social interaction,
cooperative
learning, and
cognitive
apprenticeships
(such as
reciprocal
teaching)
facilitate the
construction of
new knowledge
(Scott &
Palincsar, 2006).

Provide training in
which women
have the
opportunities to
network with
and learn from
leaders in the
organization
and/or industry.

Women administrators
need knowledge of
how to develop the
skills essential for
leadership. (P)

Need Yes Providing scaffolding
and assisted
performance in a
person’s ZPD
promotes
developmentally
appropriate
Provide training
through
mentorship and
development
programs that
include
opportunities
88
instruction (Scott
& Palincsar,
2006).
for women to
take on stretch
assignments
with support
and
scaffolding, as
well as to
receive
feedback,
allowing them
to grow and
expand their
skills.

Women administrators
need awareness of
and to reflect on
how their identities,
biases, and abilities
impact their
predispositions to
strive for
leadership. (M)

Asset No Use of metacognition
allows reflecting
on learning
practices and
improves
cognitive
performance and
identifies
contextual
limitations
(Baker, 2006;
Mayer, 2011).

Provide training
that includes an
emphasis on
engaging in
self-reflection.

Note. (C) = Conceptual Knowledge; (P) = Procedural Knowledge; (M) = Metacognitive
Knowledge.
Women Administrators Need Knowledge of the Ways Women Leaders Contribute to the
Stakeholders, Financial, and Organizational Benefits of the Institution
The results of this study revealed that the women leaders had knowledge of how they, as
women and leaders, contributed to the stakeholders and organizational benefits of the institution.
Grounded in sociocultural theory, Scott and Palincsar (2006) state that learning occurs through
social interaction, cooperative learning, and cognitive apprenticeships. Therefore, the
recommendation is to provide training in which women leaders have the opportunities to connect
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and engage with other leaders and/or specifically, women leaders. These interactions allow
administrators to learn about the various roles women leaders play as well as the impact they
have within their respective organizations, and to exchange knowledge and ideas. Therefore,
networking with leaders inside and outside their own organizations will provide women
administrators with insights beyond the current scope of their knowledge and facilitate new
learning.
Drago-Severson et al. (2009) conducted three studies that found how women learners’
collaborative relationships facilitated their learning and leadership development. All three studies
employed qualitative methods and were conducted separately at three different sites, but the
researchers maintained regular communication and the findings presented were a result of their
collective analysis. The second study specifically demonstrated that collaborative learning
supports leadership development, academic learning, emotional well-being, and perspective
broadening. Participants of this second study included eight women at a workplace adult diploma
program. These women were of racially, ethnically, and socioeconomically diverse backgrounds,
ranging from 20 to 60 years. Through interviews, focus groups, and observations, the researchers
found that these women acquired new knowledge and gained understanding of other views
through the sharing of knowledge, expertise, and content understanding. In addition to having
their preexisting thoughts and assumptions challenged, these women developed greater self-
confidence and empathy. As such, this study confirmed that social interaction and collaboration
facilitated learning. Thus, training that emphasizes social interaction will promote conceptual
knowledge.
Women Administrators Need Knowledge of the Paths to Leadership and How to Develop the
Skills Essential for Leadership
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This study’s findings demonstrated the need for women to know the paths to leadership
as well as how to develop the essential skills to be an effective leader. According to Scott and
Palincsar (2006), effective instruction that leads to development is one that provides appropriate
scaffolding in an individual’s zone of proximal development. Based on this principle, providing
training through mentorship and development programs that include opportunities for women to
take on stretch assignments with support and scaffolding, as well as to receive feedback, will
allow women administrators to grow and expand their leadership skills.
Psychologist Lev Vygotsky introduced the concept of zone of proximal development,
defining it as “the distance between the actual development level as determined by independent
problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving
under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peer” (as cited in Shabani et al.,
2010, p. 238). Vygotsky identified a state in which an individual can perform a task
independently as well as a state in which an individual cannot do or learn even with help. In
between those lies the zone of proximal development, where one can acquire new knowledge or
skills with support. This principle, along with the understanding that leadership is learned and
practiced (Ibarra et al., 2013), advocate the need for opportunities, support, scaffolding, and
feedback, to facilitate growth and learning. Therefore, the recommendation for mentorship and
development programs is key for addressing the procedural knowledge need.
Women Administrators Need Awareness of and to Reflect on How Their Identities, Biases,
and Abilities Impact Their Predispositions to Strive for Leadership
This study revealed that women administrators had awareness of their own identities,
biases, and abilities in relation to leadership. Metacognitive knowledge includes knowledge of
one’s own cognition and also of one’s own processes of thinking and for acquiring knowledge
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(Mayer, 2011; Rueda, 2011). Metacognition is essentially thinking about thinking. As stated in
Table 9, employing metacognitive strategies, such as engaging in self-reflection and self-
assessment, leads to greater understanding of one’s self as well as one’s strengths and
weaknesses, and fosters learning (Baker, 2006; Mayer, 2011). Therefore, the appropriate
recommendation is to provide training that includes an emphasis on engaging in self-reflection.
Black et al. (2016) argue the importance of metacognition in leadership development
readiness. In the simplest term, metacognition is thinking about thinking. According to Mayer
(2011), awareness of how one learns and control of one’s own learning are two components that
make up metacognition. Mango et al. (2019) echo this idea and refer to these factors as
metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive ability. Having awareness of what they know or do
not know, and knowing how they learn, will compel individuals to seek knowledge and equip
them with the ability to monitor and adapt their learning (Black et al., 2016). Black et al. (2016)
explain this through a hypothetical example where a new employee in the workforce faces
conflicting interests and perspectives that present a challenge to accomplishing tasks. Using
metacognition, this employee draws on her prior knowledge, which she obtained through
leadership courses, and on her prior experience managing a club when she was a college student,
and reflects on others’ motivation, allowing her to monitor and adapt her communication to
facilitate collaboration. The use of metacognitive strategies, such as engaging in self-reflection,
allows individuals to examine their experiences and give them the ability to decide on whether to
dwell on negative experiences or learn from them (Hannah & Avolio, 2010). Providing training
that emphasizes self-reflection enhances metacognition, and thus, fostering metacognitive
knowledge.
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Motivation Recommendations
Table 10 presents a complete list of assumed motivation influences. Data from this study
validated the women leaders’ subjective task value as an asset and self-efficacy as a need. While
addressing self-efficacy is considered a priority, recommendations for each influence based on
theoretical principles are included in Table 10.
Table 10
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Motivation
Influence*

Validated
as Asset
or Need

Priority

Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Women administrators
need to believe that
the value of
leadership
outweighs the cost.
(M-STV)
Asset No High costs of an
activity
reduce the
perceived
value of the
activity
(Wigfield &
Eccles,
2000).
Create a forum or
provide
opportunities for
current women
executive leaders:
• To identify the
benefits/values
of leadership
beyond
compensation.
• To share
strategies for
navigating
challenges as a
leader (and as a
female leader)
and managing
conflict.
• To share
experiences of
and strategies for
balancing work
and family
responsibilities.

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Women administrators
need to believe that
they can be an
effective leader.
(M-SE)
Need Yes High self-efficacy
can positively
influence
motivation
(Pajares,
2006).

Feedback as well
as actual
success on
challenging
tasks
positively
influences
people’s
perceptions of
competence
(Borgogni et
al., 2011).

Create opportunities for
women
administrators to
take the lead on
projects and/or to
introduce and
implement new
initiatives,
accompanied by
mentoring, support,
scaffolding, and
feedback.

Note. Motivation type: Subjective Task Value (M-STV); Self-Efficacy (M-SE).

Women Administrators Need to Believe That the Value of Leadership Outweighs the Cost
This study’s findings demonstrated that the women administrators believed that
leadership was not elusive, but instead, an achievable goal, and that there was value in assuming
such roles. The questions of whether one can do the task and whether one wants to do the task
underscore an individual’s expectation for success. Factors such as the value one places on a task
or goal, along with the perceived costs, influence an individual’s desire and decision to pursue it
(Expectancy Value Theory, 2009). Anchored in expectancy value theory, Eccles (2006) believes
that having choice and control is a catalyst for motivation, which subsequently leads individuals
to invest their time and effort to achieving their goal. At the same time, the value of a task or
goal is diminished when the perceived costs are deemed high (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Thus,
the recommendation to address this motivational need is to create a forum or provide
opportunities where women administrators can hear and learn from current women executive
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leaders the benefits/values of leadership beyond compensation, strategies for navigating
challenges as a leader (and as a female leader in particular) and managing conflict, as well as
experiences of and strategies for balancing work and family responsibilities.
Eccles and Wang (2016) began a longitudinal study in 1990, in which they surveyed
1,200 students in the 12th grade, who were living in various cities near Detroit, Michigan, and
followed up with another survey to the same participants 10 years later, when these students
were 28 years old. The participants were 51% female and 49% male, and the racial composition
included 95% White and 5% Black. The initial survey assessed the students’ ability self-concept,
interest value in math and English, lifestyle values, and occupational values, whereas the follow
up in year 2000 collected information on these individuals’ occupations through a self-reported
survey. The study revealed that students who possessed high math ability self-concepts and had
lower interest in working with people were more likely to choose a career path in the STEM
field. In this study, STEM was defined to include seven categories of occupations: health,
biological, and medical sciences, math, physical, engineering, and computer sciences. This
finding demonstrated that these individuals’ career choice was a reflection of their belief in their
ability and their expectation to do well in the subject area. Among those who pursued a STEM
career, more females were in the health, biological, and medical sciences occupations. This was
attributed to the values that they placed on being in a profession involving interaction with
people and the wellbeing of others. At the same time, the researchers found less females going
into the STEM field and attributed these gender variations to the individuals’ desire to balance
caring for their families. Eccles and Wang (2016) posited that the concern of not being able to
fulfill their family role deterred these women from pursuing a career in STEM. This finding
supported the theory that the perceived high costs of a goal reduces its value.
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Women Administrators Need to Believe That They Can be an Effective Leader
Data from this study revealed the need for women administrators to believe that they
could be effective leaders. Pajares (2006) states that high self-efficacy can positively influence
motivation. Factors such as prior knowledge, feedback, as well as past successes and failures on
challenging tasks influence one’s perceptions of competence and one’s self-efficacy (Borgogni et
al., 2011; Rueda, 2011). A recommendation rooted in self-efficacy theory is to create
opportunities for women administrators to take the lead on projects and/or to introduce and
implement new initiatives, accompanied by mentoring, support, scaffolding, and feedback.
Chan and Lam (2010) studied eighth grade Chinese students’ English vocabulary
acquisition and found that teachers’ formative feedback influenced students’ self-efficacy. The
study involved 79 students in a secondary school in Hong Kong, who participated in a
vocabulary builder program. All students went through two sessions of instructional sessions that
included exercises and tests, and following each session, they responded to a questionnaire.
Through random assignment, one group of 39 students received summative feedback while
another group of 40 students received formative feedback. Students in the formative feedback
group were informed that the computers would show the results of the tests, both their correct
and incorrect answers, as well as some suggestions that are specifically tailored to them, and
therefore, would be critical to their improvement. On the other hand, students in the summative
feedback group were merely informed that the computers would display their results of correct
and incorrect answers, and the test would be a demonstration of their ability. The results of this
study revealed that the students who were provided with formative feedback demonstrated higher
self-efficacy. By providing students with specific feedback that also included improvement
strategies, students developed increased self-efficacy. The findings of study support the principle
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that one’s perception of competence increases with opportunities to learn that are coupled with
scaffolding and feedback.
Organization Recommendations
In addition to knowledge and motivation, organizational influences contribute to
performance gaps. In fact, Clark and Estes (2008) as well as Rueda (2011) believe that even
when individuals possess the knowledge and motivation to achieve goals, organizational barriers
will impede the successful attainment of those goals. Table 11 lists the assumed organizational
influences that contribute to the underrepresentation of women in Christian higher education
leadership, which include the need for the organization to embrace an inclusive culture that
accepts and supports women leaders as well as the need for the organization to devote resources
to, create policies and procedures, and engage in practices that support women and women
leaders. Recommendations to address these organizational influences are included.
Table 11
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
Organization
Influence*

Validated
as Asset
or Need
Priority Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
The organization
must embrace
an inclusive
culture that
accepts and
supports
women leaders
(CM).
Asset Yes Effective leaders are
aware of the
organization’s
and its
community’s
historical and
socio-cultural
context (Chavez,
Duran, Baker,
Avila, &
Wallerstein,
2008).

Effective leaders
demonstrate a
Conduct leadership and
board meetings to:
• Reflect on the
organization’s
mission and
vision.
• Discuss the
meaning and
importance of
equity, diversity,
and access
within the
organization.
• Commit to
promoting and
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commitment to
valuing diversity
through inclusive
action. They
promote an
organizational
culture that
promotes equity
and inclusion and
cultivate an
atmosphere
where diversity is
viewed as an
asset to the
organization and
its stakeholders
(Angeline, 2011;
Prieto, Phipps, &
Osiri, 2009).

fostering an
inclusive culture
that accepts and
supports women
leaders.
• Develop
strategic
initiatives that
include a
commitment to
developing and
advancing
women.
• Establishing
goals to increase
women leaders.

Leaders must regularly
communicate the
importance and
value of equity and
inclusivity, as well
as the organization’s
commitment to
supporting women,
at leadership
meetings, institution
wide town hall
meetings, and
informal settings.

The organization
must devote
resources and
engage in
practices that
support women
and women
leaders (CS).
Need Yes Effective leaders
address
institutional
policies and
practices that
create barriers for
equity
(Bensimon,
2005).

Effective change
efforts ensure
that everyone has
the resources
(equipment,
The organization needs
to create policies
that affirm and
support women:
• Evaluate current
allocation of
resources.
• Allocate
resources and
make intentional
efforts to seek
out female
talents for key
positions.
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personnel, time,
etc.) needed to do
their job and that
if there are
resource
shortages, then
resources are
aligned with
organizational
priorities (Clark
& Estes, 2008).

Effective leaders
promote diversity
at the highest
levels of the
organization
(DiTomas, Post,
& Parks-Yancy,
2007; Stevens,
Plaut, &
Sanchez-Burks,
2008).

• Evaluate existing
policies,
particularly for
biases against
women.
• Assess
organizational
climate through
employee
surveys
• Provide training
that addresses
implicit bias to
HR personnel
and the entire
organizational
community.

The organization needs
to dedicate resources
to developing and
advancing women,
such as:
• Providing
women with
training to
develop
leadership skills
• Providing
women with
opportunities to
participate in
professional
development
programs, attend
conferences, and
network with
other leaders
and/or women
leaders
• Mentoring high
potential or
emerging
women leaders.
• Promote highly
qualified women
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into leadership
positions.

Note. Organizational Influence Type: CM = Cultural Model; CS = Cultural Setting.
Embrace an Inclusive Culture that Accepts and Supports Women Leaders
Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) define cultural models as shared mental schema that
serve as guidance and understanding of how the world works or how it should work. The study
demonstrated that it was critical for the organization to embrace an inclusive culture that accepts
and supports women leaders. The historical and socio-cultural context of the organization and its
community is critical and must not be undermined (Chavez et al., 2008). Additionally, as action
speaks louder than words, effective leaders must demonstrate a commitment to valuing diversity
through inclusive action and cultivate an atmosphere where diversity is regarded as an asset to
the organization and its stakeholders (Angeline, 2011; Prieto et al., 2009). Therefore, leaders
must regularly communicate the importance and value of equity and inclusivity, as well as the
organization’s commitment to supporting women. This should be done at various settings, such
as leadership meetings, institution wide town hall meetings, and also informal settings.
Peter Drucker, who wrote extensively on management and referred to by Business Week
as the man who invented management, once said, “Culture eats strategy for breakfast,” which
highlights how essential it is to address organizational influences and/or barriers in order to close
performance gaps. The best change strategies are rendered useless when leaders fail to take into
account or negotiate the organizational culture (Groysberg et al., 2018). Schein (2017) defines
culture as the accumulated shared learning of a group. The keyword “accumulation” suggests
that culture is not born overnight, but rather a process that involves adaptation and integration,
which leads to the importance of understanding history and sociocultural context of an
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organization and its community. Parsons and Turner (2014) conducted a historical trace of racial
inequality and racial inequity in education, with a specific focus on New Orleans. They analyzed
books, scholarly journals, newspapers, newscasts, and primary documents associated with race
and education. The researchers also examined reports of race and educational outcomes, looked
at noteworthy education events, and examined correspondences across the 19
th
, 20
th
, and 21
st

century. From the Civil War Era, which led to constitutional amendments and recognition of
Blacks as humans with rights, to segregation, Parsons and Turner (2014) noted various
ideologies that emerged surrounding racial inequality and inequity across time, among which
were colorblindness and post-racialism. Both chose to ignore race and normalize the racial status
quo. Parsons and Turner (2014) stated that those views were ineffective in combating inequality
and inequity, and proposed historical reflexivity, which called for the consideration of history as
part of the process of achieving desired goals. Thorough understanding of the various dimensions
of an issue will be key in determining appropriate and effective solutions. Historically, various
aspects of society, such as education and leadership, have been privileges reserved for Whites
and males. While women have made strides in these areas, the paucity of and biases against
women in leadership remain an issue. Thus, leaders’ awareness of the organization’s and its
community’s historical and sociocultural context must not be overlooked; it is a critical
component that must be prioritized.
Devote Resources and Engage in Practices That Support Women and Women Leaders
This study revealed the need for the organization to devote resources and engage in
practices that support women and women leaders. There must be appropriate and adequate
resources, such as equipment, personnel, time, in order for change efforts to be successful (Clark
& Estes, 2008). Leaders must ensure that the allocation of resources are aligned with
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organizational priorities. The recommendation is for leaders to evaluate the organization’s
resource allocations and dedicate resources to intentionally seek out female talents for key
positions. Effective leaders must address institutional policies and practices that create barriers
for equity (Bensimon, 2005). Therefore, leaders must evaluate existing policies for biases against
women and assess organizational climate through employee surveys. Implicit bias training for
HR personnel and the entire organizational community may be necessary. Ultimately, effective
leaders promote diversity at the highest levels of the organization (DiTomaso et al., 2007;
Stevens et al., 2008). This calls for leaders to go beyond merely communicating the value of
diversity and inclusivity as well as the claims of supporting women, but for them to take visible
and decisive action to promote qualified and equipped women into leadership positions,
including at the senior and/or executive level.
Waters et al. (2003) compares the relationship between resources and organization to
food and the body. Resources include materials, equipment, space, time, and access to new ideas
and expertise (Fullan, 2001). Without appropriate and adequate resources, organizations will not
be able to function effectively. In conducting a review of various research on school leadership,
Kathleen Cotton (2003) found that principal leadership influences student achievement. One of
the 25 categories of principal behavior that positively impact student achievement was providing
teachers with professional development and opportunities. According to Cotton (2003), effective
principals spend a large amount of time on professional development. They are creative in
finding and securing resources to make professional development opportunities possible. These,
in turn, allow principals and particularly teachers to grow and acquire the skills necessary to
support students and help them achieve the intended learning outcomes. This example of school
leadership suggests that leaders must provide appropriate and adequate resources to achieve the
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organizational goals. Ultimately, with resources to support the development of women in place,
it is important for the organization to follow through with the goal of advancing women by
action to promote highly qualified and equipped emergent female leaders into high level
leadership positions. This tangible action is a demonstration of the organization's commitment to
address the organizational need and achieve the organizational goal.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
According to Clark and Estes (2008), successful change initiatives must include the
implementation and evaluation of the recommended solutions. These are important final steps to
determine the effectiveness of the proposed solutions. The implementation and evaluation
framework selected here is the New World Kirkpatrick Model, which is comprised of four levels
of training evaluation (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Designed to be planned in reverse
order, the New World Kirkpatrick Model begins with a focus on Level 4, Results. Level 4 is the
ultimate goal of any training or intervention program. Level 3, Behavior, includes identifying
critical behaviors needed to achieve the desired outcomes of the change initiative. It involves
monitoring, reinforcing, and encouraging behaviors that are key to the success of an
implementation program. Level 2, Learning, assesses the stakeholders’ knowledge, skills,
attitudes, confidence, and commitment to the goals of the improvement program. Lastly, Level 1,
Reaction, focuses on the stakeholders’ engagement, program relevance, and overall satisfaction.
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations
Christian higher education institutions’ mission is to educate and equip individuals for the
practice of ministry, teaching, and research, and to contribute to human flourishing, and they do
so along with the integration of biblical truth in all aspects of the institution. While the number of
103
female students in these institutions have increased significantly, the number of women leaders
there remains scarce. The representation of women in leadership roles, especially at the highest
levels of leadership, is essential to the organizations’ growth and sustainability, and thus,
Christian higher education institutions must make intentional efforts and take steps to increase
the representation of women in leadership. An increased representation of women in executive
leadership roles to 30% by December 2025 will serve as a benchmark for progress towards the
ultimate goal of equal representation of men and women leaders at the highest level of leadership
within Christian higher education.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) describe leading indicators as “short-term
observations and measurements that suggest critical behaviors are on track to create a positive
impact on the desired results.” They allow organizations to engage in formative assessment and
ensure that there is progress toward the goal. External outcomes are those that relate to the
response of external stakeholders while internal outcomes are observed within organizations.
Table 12 presents two external outcomes and three internal outcomes, along with the metrics and
methods used to measure each desired outcome.
Table 12
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome(s)

Metric(s)

Method(s)

External Outcomes
Increased perception
of the organization as
champions of equity
and advocates of
women in leadership.

Invitation for the organizational
leaders to speak on the topic
of women in leadership at
conferences.

Presence/comments/mentions
on social media.

Meeting invites tracked by
the administrative and
communications team.

Social media reports
monitored and tracked
by the communications
staff.
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Increased female
applicants to open
leadership positions.

Number of external applicants
who are female per posted
job requisition.

Reporting by the human
resources team.

Internal Outcomes
Enhanced cultural climate
that accepts and
supports women in
leadership.

Retention rate of female
employees.

Satisfaction rate of female
employees.

Reporting by the human
resources team.

Biannual employee
engagement survey.

Increased investment of
time and resources in
recruiting and
developing women
leaders.

Number of women participating
in development programs
and having mentoring
relationships.

Number of new/change
initiatives/projects led by
women.

Various department’s
annual budget for
professional
development.

Department
reporting/tracking.

Increased internal
promotions of women
into leadership roles.

Number of women promoted
into leadership roles.

Reporting by the human
resources team.

Level 3: Behavior
Critical Behaviors
Level 3 is concerned with the degree to which training participants apply the knowledge
and skills that they have learned (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). According to Kirkpatrick
and Kirkpatrick (2016), Level 3 is the most critical and success here is key to obtaining Level 4
Results. Critical behaviors, which are specific, observable, and measurable behaviors, must be
consistently performed by the training participants. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) advise
working with supervisors, managers, and high performers to discuss and determine the critical
behaviors needed to achieve Level 4 Results. Five critical behaviors as well as their measures,
methods, and timing for evaluation are shown in Table 13.
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Table 13
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical Behavior

Metric(s)

Method(s)

Timing

1. The executive leadership
team engages in
discussions and
assessments of the
organization’s culture and
climate towards women in
leadership.

Collection of data from
leadership meeting
minutes and
employee
engagement survey.

Review meeting
minutes from
leadership team
meetings.

Quarterly
2. Institutional leaders
communicate the value of
and support for women
leaders.

Explicit support for
female employees
and women leaders.

Review town hall
meeting agenda
and meetings.

Quarterly
3. Women administrators
demonstrate the
willingness and ability to
take initiative and lead.

Number of projects
women
administrators
initiate and lead.

Reporting and updates
from supervisors
and leaders.

Ongoing
4. Women administrators
participate in development
programs.

Number of mentoring
relationships,
participation in
conferences and
development
programs.

Reporting of tuition
benefits and
professional
development
utilization by
supervisors and
HR team.

Reporting by
supervisors and
organizational
leaders.

Ongoing
5. Female employees apply
for open leadership
positions.

Number of female
internal candidates
applying for
leadership positions.

Review HR reports.

Ongoing

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Required Drivers
Critical behaviors are influenced by drivers. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) define
drivers as “processes and systems that reinforce, monitor, encourage, and reward performance of
critical behaviors on the job.” Required drivers are not mutually exclusive and their integration
serves as support and accountability factors critical to success. At the same time, Kirkpatrick and
Kirkpatrick (2016) caution that these are the most complicated to execute. Table 14 presents the
required drivers that Christian higher education institutions need to perform critical behaviors to
increase the representation of women leaders.
Table 14
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Method(s)

Timing Critical Behaviors
Supported
1, 2, 3, Etc.

Reinforcing
Participation in leadership workshops, training,
and professional development
opportunities.

Semi-Annually

2, 3, 4, 5

Encouraging
Communicate action steps that organizational
leaders have taken to support women and
emerging women leaders within the
organization during institutional wide town
hall meetings.

Quarterly

2, 3, 4, 5

Feedback and coaching through mentoring
relationships with organizational leader(s).

Ongoing

2, 3, 4, 5

Rewarding
Highlight the activities and achievements of
female employees through email
announcements as well as at institutional
wide meetings.

Ongoing

2, 3, 4, 5

Incentives that can be applied towards further
personal and professional development.
Annually

2, 3, 4, 5

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Monitoring
Executive leadership team meetings to discuss
and review status of organization climate
towards women and women leaders.

Quarterly

1, 2, 3, 4, 5

Executive leadership team meetings to review
and discuss allocation of resources for
supporting the recruitment and
development of female talents.

Semi-Annually

1, 2, 3, 4, 5

Organizational Support
As indicated in Table 14, organizational support is essential to ensuring that the required
drivers are implemented. To do so, Christian higher education institutions can establish a
dedicated team or committee to help organizational leaders with reviewing progress on
addressing the issue. Additionally, this team can also coordinate resources and training and bring
concerns to the attention of the leaders.
Level 2: Learning
Learning Goals

Level 2 Learning is the degree to which training participants acquire the intended
knowledge, skills, and behaviors (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). To be effective, a training
program must have learning goals considered and established. Evaluations at Level 2 can include
formative and/or summative assessments. Following the implementation of the recommended
training solutions, women administrators at Christian higher education institutions will be able
to:
1. Determine the ways in which they can contribute to the stakeholders, financial, and
organizational benefits as institutional leaders (D).
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2. Design development plan for acquisition of essential leadership skills and for career
growth (P).
3. Reflect and monitor their own as well as their organization’s progress towards the
organizational performance goals (M).
4. Recognize and discern the value of leadership (STV).
5. Demonstrate confidence in their ability to lead effectively (SE).
6. Facilitate creating an inclusive organizational environment that accepts and supports
women leaders (CM).
7. Identify and advocate for resources, practices, and policies that support the personal and
professional development of women leaders (CS).
Program

The learning goals outlined above will be achieved through education and training that
will include both asynchronous and synchronous components. Asynchronous learning will be
accomplished by leveraging the availability of e-learning platforms. A dedicated committee
within the organization or the human resources department will serve as curators of the e-
learning content, selecting and providing appropriate materials in the area of leadership,
particularly those that are specifically targeted to women in leadership. Furthermore, the breadth
of the e-learning materials will also include content that facilitate the learning and acquisition of
practical and essential leadership skills as well as promote self-reflection.
Synchronous learning will occur in the form of a retreat where women administrators will
spend time in workshops and train with leaders as well as leadership consultants and/or coaches.
While it is beneficial to solicit training from leaders and experts in the field, it is particularly
important to include facilitators and instructors who are female. The retreat will allow
109
stakeholders to learn together and provide opportunities to cultivate relationships and a sense of
camaraderie, which leads to the development of trust and support of one another. Retreat leaders
will facilitate group discussions on various topics of leadership, such as the contributions women
make through leadership, the pathways to leadership, and ways in which women administrators
can take an active role in creating and fostering an inclusive culture that encourages and supports
women leaders. This retreat will include workshops on leadership skills, such as self-advocacy,
creativity, innovation, and conflict management, which will equip stakeholders with essential
tools for leadership and to develop self-efficacy. The retreat facilitators will also emphasize and
allow the time and space for the women administrators to engage in self-reflection.
Evaluation of the Components of Learning

The implementation of a program must also include evaluation as this is an important
component to know the effectiveness of a training program. The five essential elements of
learning to be evaluated are knowledge, skills, attitude, confidence, and commitment
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The evaluation of knowledge measures the attainment of
content presented in the training while the skills component assesses the participants’ ability to
perform learned tasks. Evaluating attitude gives insight into the participants’ beliefs and
perceptions about the training, essentially determining whether the participants see value of the
training in respect to their work. The evaluation of confidence and commitment assesses
participants’ self-efficacy and willingness to engage and dedicate their time and effort to
implement what they have learned. Table 15 presents the proposed methods and timing for each
evaluation component.
Table 15
Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program
110
Method(s) or Activity(ies)

Timing

Conceptual Knowledge “I know it.”
Knowledge check using Q&A sessions.

During and after

Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”
Small group discussions.

During

Discussion of mock scenarios.

During

Feedback from training facilitators.

During (at the end of session)

Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Discussions of the value.

During

Discussions of issues presented.

During

Facilitator’s/instructor’s observations of participants’
engagement, including behaviors, questions, and
statements made about the training.

During and after

Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”
Q&A sessions.

During and after

Small group discussions of concerns, barriers,
challenges, etc.

During and after

Post-training assessments.

After

Mentorship, coaching, peer check-ins.

After

Commitment “I will do it on the job.”
Discussions following practice and feedback.

During and after

Development of action plan.

After

Post-training assessments.

After

Level 1: Reaction
Level 1 Reaction is concerned with the immediate response of training participants. It is
most familiar and simplest to evaluate and it measures the degree to which stakeholders are
satisfied with the training they receive (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Formative assessments
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are done during the program and allow facilitators to receive feedback and actively make any
necessary adjustments while summative assessments are done following completion of the
training. Table 16 outlines the methods and timing for collecting and evaluating Level 1
Reaction data.
Table 16
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program
Method(s) or Tool(s)

Timing

Engagement
Observation of participants’ behavior, responses, and engagement.

During

Meaningful questions.

During

Relevance
Brief pulse-check with participants through questions and discussions.

During

Questionnaire or survey.

After
Customer Satisfaction
Training evaluation.

After

Evaluation Tools
Immediately Following the Program Implementation

The asynchronous learning will include short quizzes that participants will take at the end
of each training module, which will provide information on participants’ content and knowledge
acquisition. A feedback form with survey items and open-ended questions will allow participants
to assess and share their learning as well as their reaction to the learning experiences. During the
synchronous learning, training facilitators and instructors will document their observations of the
participants’ levels of engagement during the sessions and exercises. Following the completion
of the retreat, stakeholders who participated in the training will be interviewed using protocol
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outlined in Appendix A to assess their satisfaction and perceived value of the training, as well as
their attitude, confidence and commitment to apply what they have learned.
Delayed for a Period After the Program Implementation

Three months following the implementation of the retreat and training, the training team
will conduct post-training interviews with participants in person, by video conference, or by
phone. Using the questions attached in Appendix B, the interview will assess the participants’
satisfaction with the training as well as how they perceive the relevance of the training (Level 1).
It will also measure the participants’ knowledge and skills, and the perceived value, confidence,
and commitment to apply their training (Level 2). Participants will also share their perception of
the implementation and execution of the required drivers and critical behaviors as it pertains to
the organization’s support for and development of women leaders (Level 3) and progress
towards achieving the desired outcomes (Level 4).
Data Analysis and Reporting
One year following the training, the training team will prepare a report for the executive
leaders that will also be shared with the entire organizational community. The report will
highlight action items and best practices that have been implemented to support the required
drivers and critical behaviors identified, such as the allocation of resources to support the
development of women leaders along as well as the utilization of these resources, women led
initiatives, data on female applicants to open leadership positions, and status of organizational
culture and climate. After the first year, these reports will be produced and presented semi-
annually. A sample of the report is included in Appendix C.
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Summary
The New World Kirkpatrick Model provided a comprehensive framework for the
implementation and evaluation plan that encompasses the organizational performance goal as
well as the essential factors that facilitate and lead to its achievement. Starting with the desired
outcomes in mind, the model works in reverse to identify critical behaviors and required drivers.
The implementation plan includes an evaluation plan to ensure alignment of actions and
practices that promote learning, foster motivation, and enhance organizational effectiveness in
respect to supporting, developing, and ultimately, increasing the representation of women leaders
in Christian higher education.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach
The Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework was used to conduct this study.
Analyzing knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors allow organizations to address the
gaps that impede the achievement of the organizational performance goal. The advantage to this
framework includes the identification of specific areas of opportunity and appropriate
solution(s). At the same time, this framework also has the disadvantage of focusing on only one
stakeholder group. The women leaders selected for this study were among the few who have
been able to move up the organizational ranks and also lead within a context that are dominated
by males. While their experiences are valuable in understanding and informing Christian higher
education institutions ways to develop and support women leaders, additional factors such as
culture and ethnicity were not able to be thoroughly explored through this framework.
Limitations and Delimitations
The limitations and delimitations of this study include the small sample size and lack of
diversity of the study participants. As discussed at the conclusion of chapter three, the researcher
114
conducted this study to gain understanding through the lived experiences of women leaders in
Christian higher education institutions where women make up at least 20% of the leadership
team. This provided the researcher with a small pool of samples. Additionally, given the paucity
of women leaders in this context, the lack of diversity was anticipated and confirmed. Seven out
of nine participants identified as White. It was not possible to delve into the leadership barriers
and challenges that were unique to minority groups.
Due to the nature of qualitative study, data was derived from participants’ responses and
was significantly dependent upon their willingness to be truthful and open about their
experiences. In addition to the global pandemic that impacted lives and changed how
organizations operated, this study was also conducted during a time when political divisions
plagued the nation and racial tensions were high. These socio-political factors may influence
participants’ views, perspectives, and responses that were beyond the scope of this study.
Lastly, the researcher also attempted to analyze organizational documents but was limited
to those that were available publicly through the institutional websites.
Recommendations for Future Research
The first recommendation for future research is to focus on diversity and include more
minority voice and perspectives as well as their cultural contexts. The intersection of identities,
such as being a woman of color, adds complexities that likely include challenges and
marginalization unique to each category of identity.
The second recommendation for future research is to study male leaders who have played
a significant role in developing and supporting women leaders. All of the participants in this
study described having male leaders and/or mentors who have been pivotal in their lives and
career journey. These leaders/mentors provided encouragement, affirmation, and opportunities
115
that led to these women’s rise to leadership. Therefore, their perspectives will facilitate a deeper
understanding on the development of women’s leadership aspirations and identity.
The third recommendation for future research is to include multiple stakeholders, such as
women at another level of the organizational ranks and/or male perspectives. This will allow the
gathering of additional perspectives that contribute to a more holistic understanding of needs and
factors that influence women’s aspirations for leadership as well as their leadership identity
development.
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to understand the factors influencing women’s aspirations
for leadership and their leadership identity development, and thus, addressing the paucity of
women leaders in Christian higher education institutions. More women are earning advanced
degrees, yet they continue to be underrepresented at the highest level of leadership. Their skills,
abilities, and competence can be a powerful tool and asset as organizations navigate through new
and unprecedented challenges. It is critical for Christian academic institutions to address gender
inequity in leadership and create opportunities for women to contribute their knowledge and
skills not only for the benefits and sustainability of the organization, but also for the larger
society.

116
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Appendix A
Interview Questions
1. Please tell me briefly about your experience and role as a leader within the organization.

2. Please describe your career journey that has led you to this role.

3. What barriers have you encountered along each step of the way?

4. How have your career choices changed over the course of your life?

5. Please describe your parental and family influence on your career choices.

6. How does your leadership role impact your family? Have you ever felt the need to choose
between work and family/home responsibilities?

7. How do you manage your responsibilities at home and at work?

8. Please describe your leadership style. How do you think others would describe your
leadership style?

9. How would you describe your impact and influence as a leader?

10. What are the knowledge and skills critical to your role as a leader? How did you acquire
and develop them?

11. Please describe the preparations you made and/or the training you received in preparation
for this role.

12. Tell me about the significant individual(s) who influence you personally and
professionally. How do they contribute to your success?

13. How would you describe your organizational culture and climate in relation to women in
leadership? Would you say that it’s unique to your organization or is it pretty reflective of
other organizations in the same industry?

14. Please tell me about a time when you introduce and/or implement a change initiative.
What was the response like?

15. Please share some of the challenges you face as a female leader at your organization.
132

16. How does your gender and identity influence the way you lead?

17. How does your gender and identity influence your recruitment and hiring decisions?

18. Please describe how employees are developed within the organization.

19. What development and advancement opportunities exist for women within your
organization?

20. Please share examples of what you are doing and/or what you can do to support women’s
advancement into leadership.

21. What advice would you offer to women in regards to leadership and/or for dealing with
the same kinds of issues you have experienced?

22. What do you think is critical for organizations and organization leaders to know and do in
regards to growing, developing, and supporting women leaders?

23. If you could go back and do it all over again, what, if any, would you change?

24. Is there anything else you would like to add to our conversation today that was not
already covered?

133
Appendix B
Evaluation Instrument for Immediate Evaluation Following Program Implementation
Level 1
Engagement
1. Please share with me component(s) of the retreat that you found particularly important,
interesting, and/or worthwhile.
Relevance
1. Which aspects of the retreat were particularly relevant to you?
Customer Satisfaction
1. Please describe what you like about the retreat and why.
2. Please share any aspects of the retreat that you feel are inadequate?
3. How would you describe your overall satisfaction with the retreat?
Level 2
Conceptual Knowledge
1. Please describe what you learned about the value women brings to leadership.
2. What are some of the things you have learned about ways in which women can contribute
as leaders?
Procedural Skills
1. Please share your understanding of best practices that promote and support the
development of women leaders.
Attitude
1. How do you feel the retreat has equipped you for taking steps towards leadership?

134
Confidence
1. How would you describe your level of confidence in your ability to apply what you have
learned at the retreat to your work?
Commitment
What action items have you committed to and/or taken following the retreat?
135
Appendix C
Blended Evaluation Tool for Delayed for a Period After Program Implementation
Level 1
1. Please share whether what you learned in the retreat has been useful to you.
Level 2
1. Please describe how you have applied the skills and knowledge you learned from the
training.
2. Please explain whether the training has impacted your willingness and confidence to take
on leadership roles.
Level 3
1. Please describe new activities you have engaged in and/or practices you have adopted
based on what you learned in the retreat.
Level 4
1. Please describe how the training has impacted your aspirations to lead.
136
Appendix D
Sample Data Analysis Chart: Women Empowerment Status Update

Abstract (if available)

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Asset Metadata

Creator Purnama, Williana (author)

Core Title Raising women leaders of Christian higher education: an innovation study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 02/09/2021

Defense Date 01/20/2021

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Christian higher education,diversity,Female,female leaders,gender,gender bias,gender equity,gender inequity,gender parity,Higher education,inclusive,leadership,leadership aspirations,leadership identity development,mentor,Motivation,OAI-PMH Harvest,organizational barriers,organizational change,organizational culture,patriarchy,perceived costs of leadership,self-efficacy,Women,women leaders

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Adibe, Bryant (committee chair), Kezar, Adrianna (committee member), Muraszewski, Alison (committee member)

Creator Email purnama@usc.edu,wapurnama@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-419651

Unique identifier UC11668432

Identifier etd-PurnamaWil-9265.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-419651 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-PurnamaWil-9265.pdf

Dmrecord 419651

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Purnama, Williana

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA