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THE POWER OF HOPE IN THE PURSUIT OF HIGHER EDUCATIONAL GOALS:
AN EXAMINATION OF THE COLLEGE APPLICATION PROCESS
THROUGH THE LENS OF HOPE THEORY

by

Victoria Normington Pound

_____________________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2020

Copyright 2020 Victoria Normington Pound

i

Epigraph

“Dream” she said
And we all closed our eyes
There was magic in the air
And we breathed in the hope of an adventure

The wind whispered our names as we waited for the light to begin
And then…
Before we even knew we had begun
The earth was beneath us and we rose as
if we were on wings

Like birds we soared over the laughter of
those below

And then…
When I opened my eyes
I thanked her.
Because I hadn’t known how to fly
Until that very moment

Liberty Worth

ii

Dedication

In dedication to my family and students who have helped make this dream a possibility:

My husband, Perry, who supported my academic dreams every step of the way,
regardless of the sacrifices they required. Your love and the family we created is my greatest gift.

My daughter, Savannah, who encourages me to be the best version of myself.
Thank you for being a bright light in my life and for your friendship and brilliant sense of humor.
Your involvement and encouragement with my hope obsession made this work a reality.
Being your mother is my greatest joy and honor.

My students, who give me the opportunity to do the work I love.
May you always pursue the dreams of your youth
with the passion of your heart, the focus of your mind, and
bring hope to the world.

My college application clients, who applied hope theory to their application process and
allowed me to develop the experience from which this idea was created.

and my treasured parents who taught me about hope in the first place.
You personify pathways thinking and have always been
the wind beneath my wings.

iii

Acknowledgements
The hope of an adventure that education could bring could not have been possible
without the many people who have inspired, guided, mentored, and loved me. As with any goal
achievement, one’s agency must remain high and pathways of knowledge made clear. There are
people and places that built my agency and individuals and resources who informed my
pathways thinking through this process. As I reflect on my educational journey, I am grateful for
the community that has supported my love of learning, provided valuable friendship, and helped
me to create this work.
Dissertation Committee
Thank you to my committee for your support of the ideas behind this research study, for
your developed areas of expertise, high standards of excellence, and the myriad of things you’ve
taught me through this process.
Dr. Ruth Chung, chair: Thank you for supporting my interest in hope theory. You provided an
efficient formula for me to apply to my creative ideas and helped me to organize my research
into a concise package. I am grateful for the freedom you gave me to explore a concept that some
may find risky, and for the faith you had in my abilities to carry this work through to completion.
Dr. Kimberly Hirayabashi: I learned so much from you in the classroom. Thank you for the
ideas you suggested to challenge and expand my research project to include underclassmen, as
well as the edits you provided along the way.
Dr. Nicole MacCalla: I’m so grateful for the Quantitative and Qualitative research and statistics
courses you taught at USC. Thank you for the extra time and support you gave me through the
entire process. From helping me sort through my big ideas, to advising me on how to improve
my statistical analyses, your help was instrumental in this process.

iv

Dissertation Mentors
Dr. Yuying Tsong: Thank you for being the perfect mentor for me. You have an amazing ability
to take a vision and help organize it into a reality. Your guidance with my statistical analyses was
pivotal in moving this research project forward. It was possible because of you.
Dr. Dante Dixson: I am beyond excited to discover your work and learn about your Hope
Laboratory. Thank you for taking the time out of your schedule to advise me through this project,
encourage my work, and share in my obsession with hope. I am so excited to collaborate with
you in the future.
Dr. Hollie Jones: Thank you for helping me prepare for my final defense.
Dr. Maryann Wu Thank you for the example of your dissertation and IRB application and for
recommending Dr. Yuying Tsong to me. You helped me at a key point in the process, and I
appreciate your kindness and time that you gave to me, a complete stranger.
Student Research Team
I am so grateful for my student research team, Marisa Inada, Linden Royea, Mackenna
Greenberg, and Jackson Cunningham, for your enthusiasm, encouragement, and hard work
through the past three years. Each of you has imprinted the execution of this work in a
meaningful and supportive way. I am impressed with your work and grateful for your friendship.
Past Professors and Mentors
Dr. Todd Rose, my Harvard University professor of Educational Neuroscience and valued
mentor. I am grateful for your life’s work and developed theories; they have profoundly
influenced my teaching, mentoring, and parenting. Thank you for teaching Educational
Neuroscience at Harvard and giving me the opportunity to be your Teaching Fellow, focusing on
the K-12 classroom implications of neuroscience. Thank you for introducing the concept, “So

v

What?” to your students and pushing us to think outside of the box. Thank you for encouraging
my desire to pursue my academic studies part-time in order to live out my family values. Your
work, character, and teaching methodology are an inspiration to our world.
Dr. Mandy Savitz-Romer, thank you for introducing me to Hope Theory in your brilliant class
Inventing the Future: Building Connections from School to Career at Harvard University. Thank
you also for your support of me as I was balancing my roles of student and mother.
Dr. Andy Benton, former president of Pepperdine, and dear friend. You’ve been a father figure to
me, and I have valued and appreciated your friendship, encouragement, and faith in my work and
abilities. Thank you for the leadership you provided the Pepperdine community and for many
ways you invested in the lives of the students.
Dr. Ron Glick, my mentor and friend. Had you not asked me what it is that I really wanted to do,
I never would never have ventured to Harvard and pursued this path. Thank you—so very
much—for your unwavering faith in me and your uniquely inspiring and motivating
encouragement throughout my time at Harvard and University of Southern California. Everyone
should have a mentor like you.
To the memory of professors Dr. Depaoli and Brother Robert Lee. I wish I could thank you in
person for all you gave to me during my first two years of college.
To the memory and life’s work of Leo Buscaglia. Thank you for your speeches, USC courses,
and beautiful writings on love and teaching from the heart. Your work provided the foundation
for building my teaching philosophy. I hope to share my love for hope in the same way that you
passionately promoted love—in all its forms—to the world.
Friends
Thank you to my friends for the conversations, laughter, and love that has created a

vi

treasured community for my husband, daughter, and me. Thank you for the time you spent
listening to me talk about hope and articulate my ideas. Your encouragement, faith, and help
along the way was instrumental in making me sane and happy through this process. In particular,
I am grateful to the following families: Thomas, Zurek, Hargreaves-Heald, Solimon, Green,
Shanley, Rudd, Glick, Colen, Darley, Nece, Perez, Ebbert, Cole, Gilbert, Levy, May, Carnival,
Foley, Vanek, Bonn, Lamoureaux, and Catania. Kristie Zurek, my number one cheerleader,
thank you for being sunshine in my life and uplifting me through this process. Caitlyn Thomas,
from our days as roommates when we studied in Jerusalem, Israel, through all of life’s stages,
you have been the best friend to me. Thank you for the love, support, and prayers you give me
and for surprising me with gifts along the way. Dr. Amber Donaldson, my Pepperdine roommate,
your friendship and support with my academic dreams has been one of my greatest life’s gifts.
Thank you for checking in with me daily during the COVID-19 2020 home quarantine when I
was in the midst of writing chapters four and five. Thank you for inviting me to your
international conferences so I could gather inspiration from your work with the US Olympic and
Paralympic athletes and have space and time to write this dissertation. I look forward to our
future travels and collaborative work. Dr. Laura Hales, meeting you on Savannah’s first day of
school in Cambridge was serendipitous. Thank you for your friendship, encouragement in my
education and research project, and for offering me a place to stay in Cambridge near Widener,
my favorite library. Your care packages filled with encouraging notes and my favorite L.A.
Burdick dark hot chocolate meant so much to me. Glenda and Luis Perez, thank you for the
support you gave me with my home and for your friendship that feels like family. Tamar Glick
Colen, thank you for being a beautiful light in our community and for helping me to grow my

vii

college admission counseling practice, which in turn helped to generate observations and
questions that fueled this research project.
Extended Family
I am so grateful for my extended family from birth and through marriage. Thank you to
my family—the Normington, Stassi, Jenovino, Valterza, Stilley, DeCoste, Cosgrove, Slawson,
Hughes, Bi, and Austin clans and to my family given to me through my marriage—the Pound,
Kennedy, and Campbell clans. My parents, Jacqueline and Art Normington, taught me to think
in pathways and solve problems and helped me cultivate the values of discipline and hard work.
My mother and father-in-law, Johnna and Larry Pound, embody strength and perseverance; their
interest in my research project and support of my education provided valuable encouragement. I
am also grateful for my sister, Julie, whose protective love provided me moral support, my
sister-in-law, Jennifer, whose friendship gives me strength, my aunts and uncles who have
mentored me throughout my life, my cousins, who are some of my best friends, and to the
memory of my beloved grandparents. You have all provided me with a strong foundation of
hope, love, sense of belonging, and friendship that I value more than words can express.
Health and wellness
The dissertation is a process that can often be unhealthy, and so I am also grateful for the
people who provided places to strengthen my body, mind, and soul. My ballet teacher,
Francesca Stern, created the amazing Dance 1 studio and provided me with hours of beautiful
ballet. My Pilates teacher, Katelyn Ctvrtlik of Pilates Place provided hours of Pilates and
Gyrotonic lessons while often listening to me process my ideas on hope and education. My
health was also improved through the care of Dr. Jessica Hartup and Dr. Sunil Adwani. When
one is in a giving profession, it is important to find rejuvenative and restorative activities.

viii

Francesca and Katelyn created nurturing environments and strengthening exercise to shore me up
for the work I tackled, and Dr. Hartup and Dr. Adwani provided supportive care that kept me
healthy.
Faith communities
My Judeo-Catholic faith has uplifted me throughout this project. As a Catholic who
values our Jewish roots, St Monica’s Catholic church in Santa Monica, California, and the
Jewish Community Center in Redondo Beach, California, provided beautiful and strengthening
communities where I could learn and grow in wisdom and faith.
Family
Finally, I am beyond thankful for the love and support from my husband, Perry J. Pound,
and daughter, Savannah VirginiaRose Pound. As the three of us worked and schooled together
during the COVID-19 pandemic 2020 home quarantine, your camaraderie, quick and inventive
senses of humor, peaceful natures, growth mindsets, and support helped me accomplish this goal.
Perry, thank you for being a true partner in life, for valuing my mind and talents and encouraging
me to pursue my dreams. Savannah, my only child, thank you for being my daughter and
precious friend. I am so grateful that you were involved in every step of this journey, for because
of you it was never lonely. From a six-year old wide-eyed little girl who would joyfully tag along
with me to classes at Harvard and to study in the beautiful Widener library, to a curious young
girl who took USC’s Creativity and Innovation course along side of me, to a thoughtful teenager
who provided valuable dissertation edits, taught me how to use dreaded technology, and
playfully teased me about my hope obsession, you made this process meaningful on a whole new
level than what I expected. While I wish for many things for you and your generation, the one
thing I want most for you, and for all people, is to have hope.

ix

Table of Contents

Epigraph i

Dedication ii

Acknowledgements iii

List of Tables xi

List of Figures xii

Abstract xiii

Preface xv

Chapter 1: Introduction 1
Background of the Study 3
Importance of Higher Education 3
College Readiness and the College Application Process 5
Hope as a Theoretical Framework 9
From Theory to Practice: The Development of College Application Hope 11
Purpose of the Study 15
Importance of the Study 15
Key Terms and Definitions 16

Chapter 2: Literature Review 20
Conceptual Development of Hope 20
Snyder’s Hope Theory 23
Goals 24
Pathways 26
Agency 27
Dispositional Hope in Research 30
Hope and Academic Achievement 31
The Malleability of Hope 36
Hope Interventions 38
Summary 41
Purpose of Study and Research Questions 43

Chapter 3: Methodology 45
Participants 45
Instruments 47
Intent to Apply to College and Application to College 47
Hope 48
College Application Hope 50

x

Procedure 51
Data Analysis 52

Chapter 4: Findings 54
Preliminary Analyses 54
Intent to Apply to College 54
Application to four-year College 55
Analyses of Research Questions 56
Research Question 1: Dispositional Hope and the Pursuit of Higher Education 56
Intent to Apply to College (Underclassmen) 56
Application to four-year College (Seniors) 57
Research Question 2: College Application Hope and the Pursuit of Higher Education 59
Intent to Apply to College (Underclassmen) 59
Application to four-year College (Seniors) 60
Research Question 3: Best Predictor of the Pursuit of Higher Education 62
Intent to Apply to College (Underclassmen) 62
Application to four-year College (Seniors) 63
Summary of Findings 64

Chapter 5: Discussion 66
Discussion of Results 66
Dispositional Hope and the Pursuit of Higher Education 66
Domain Specific College Application Hope and 69
the Pursuit of Higher Education
Best Hope Component Predictor of the Pursuit of Higher Education 72
Implications for Education 74
Implications for Students in Grades 9, 10, and 11 (underclassmen) 77
Implications for Students in Grade 12 (seniors) 78
Recommendations for Parents 80
Recommendations for Teachers 81
Recommendations for College Admissions Counselors 81
Recommendations for School Leaders 83
Limitations of Study 84
Directions for Future Research 86
Conclusion 89

References 92

Appendices
Appendix A: Parent/Guardian Information Sheet for the 112
Survey on Hope and Student Pursuit of Higher Educational Goals
Appendix B: Hope and Educational Goals (9
th
, 10
th
, and 11
th
Grade Survey) 114
Appendix C: Hope and Education Survey for students in grade 12 122
Appendix D: College Application Hope Inventory and Scoring Guide 131

xi

List of Tables

Table 1: Frequency Distribution of Demographic Characteristics of Participants 46

Table 2: Zero-order Pearson Product Correlations of Measured Variables for 55
Underclassmen Students

Table 3: Zero-order Pearson Product Correlations of Measured Variables for 56
Upperclassmen Students

Table 4: Summary of Simple Regression Analysis for Intent to Apply to College 57

Table 5: Summary of Logistic Regression Analysis for Upperclassmen Application 58
to four-year College

Table 6: Summary of Multiple Regression Analysis for Intent to Apply to College 60

Table 7: Summary of Logistic Regression Analysis for Application to College 62

Table 8: Summary of Stepwise Regression Analysis for Intent to Apply to College 63

Table 9: Summary of Stepwise Logistic Regression Analysis for Application to College 64

xii

List of Figures

Figure 1: Facets of College Readiness 7

Figure 2: Hope Theory Model 11

Figure 3: College Application Hope Theory Model 14

Figure 4: Mean z-scores for outcome variables by hope cluster 35

xiii

Abstract

Hope is a powerful force within the college application process. The fundamental
purpose of the study was to examine an important educational issue through a new theoretical
lens in order to advance knowledge and improve the practice of education. The primary goal was
to empirically examine the relationships among hope, college application hope, 9
th
, 10
th
, and 11
th

grade (underclassmen) students’ intent to apply to college, and 12
th
grade (seniors) students’
application to college. More specifically, this study investigated if dispositional hope and college
application hope, as well as their constituent parts, predicted underclassmen’s intent to apply to
college and seniors’ application to a four-year college. Additionally, this study analyzed which
of the specific components of dispositional hope and college application hope is the best
predictor for intent to apply to college and application to four-year college.
Participants included 1,002 students from two high schools in Southern California who
completed an online survey consisting of background demographic information, the Children’s
Hope Scale (CHS), and questions aimed to assess College Application Hope (CAH). Results
revealed that dispositional hope was a significant predictor for 9
th
, 10
th
, and 11
th
grade students’
intent to apply to college and 12
th
grade students’ application to four-year colleges.
Underclassmen students with higher levels of hope reported greater intention to apply to college
than their lower hope counterparts; similarly, seniors with higher levels of hope applied to
college at a greater rate than their low hope counterparts. The construct of college application
hope was also a significant predictors of 9
th
, 10
th
, and 11
th
grade students’ intent to apply to
college and 12
th
grade students’ application to four-year colleges. When evaluating the impact of
the elements of college application hope and analyzing the specific components of college
application pathways (content and logistical knowledge), for students in all grades, the

xiv

significant predictor of intent to apply (9, 10, 11) and application to college (12) was knowledge
of the content areas of the college application. When analyzing the three constituent parts of
college application agency, (motivation, confidence in logistics, confidence in content
knowledge) for underclassmen, it was motivation to apply to college that was the significant
predictor. However, when analyzing college application agency, it was confidence in one’s
ability to accomplish the content knowledge of the application process that was the significant
predictor for 12th grade students’ actual applications to college. Finally, to provide another
dimension, analysis of each component of hope and college application hope theories together
revealed that the best predictor of intent to apply to college for underclassmen was students’
motivation to apply to college (a component of college application agency), followed by their
agency (a component of dispositional hope). For seniors, the best predictor of application to a
four-year college was the knowledge of the content of the college application process. These
discoveries are significant for practice because it shows that while motivation fuels the early
years of high school, in the end, it was knowledge of how to accomplish the application tasks
that was most valuable.
These findings validate the research on hope theory and its predictive power on academic
achievement and educational outcomes, extend its application to college readiness—and more
concretely the college application—and have valuable implications for research and practice. As
the first known study that examines the relationship between hope and application to college, it
identifies a new lens and opens a potential new line of inquiry for researchers interested in better
understanding the dispositional characteristics and domain-specific expertise that positively
impacts students’ pursuit of higher educational goals.

xv

Preface

Hope and education are inextricably linked and necessary for global progress. I first
encountered Hope Theory at Harvard University in a course titled Imagining the future: Building
from school to career, taught by Dr. Mandy Savitz-Romer. For my final project I applied hope
theory to my work with teaching juvenile offenders at detention centers in California and Nevada
and formed a hypothesis that hope theory could lead these young boys out of their prison and
onto a better life path. When I started Vantage Pointe Consulting, a College and Graduate School
Admissions Counseling practice, I applied hope theory to my work and assessed student
strengths and needs through the lens of hope, specifically college application agency and college
application pathways thinking. I evaluated if a student was lacking in confidence or motivation,
and I learned what they knew and did not know about the application process. Every student I
encountered was motivated to go to college and intended to apply; however, they needed
significant instruction on how to apply, and most importantly, how to write the personal
statement in a way that helped their character, values, strengths, and goals, shine forth. I chose to
pursue my doctoral studies at The University of Southern California because of their emphasis
on theory to practice. I value the dialectical relationship between the scientific and professional
practice of teaching and learning. Theory inspires practice and forms both a foundation and lens
for a philosophy of teaching, and practice informs theory through the observations and
subsequent questions that are generated through experience. When this dissertation journey
began, I knew immediately which theory to utilize for my research. Nothing is more important to
me than hope: hope for our children and hope for our world. Hope can be a powerful tool to
move students toward achieving their dreams, and I wanted to see if the data, in a broader sense,
confirmed my experience as a college admissions counselor and teacher. And so, this research

xvi

study was created in a very organic way, out of teaching and counseling experience and from a
novice researcher who loves most of all helping others develop their potential.
I am first and foremost a teacher. I teach not because I love one particular subject and
want to expose children to it. I teach because I love and value the process of becoming—
Inspiring growth. Teaching curiosity. Building skills. Facilitating development. Igniting
genius—in order that all children with whom I am privileged to teach can reach their potential.
Each person has natural aptitudes, interests, and talents, and with the integration of hard work
and dedication those interests can become strengths. Aligning values to goals and utilizing
agency and pathways thinking to achieve those goals enable individuals to move toward what is
possible and create something meaningful for our world. Helping students find and develop their
purpose gives them hope and in turn brings hope and possibility to our world.
As an educator, theory can be utilized in many ways. It can be the basic building blocks
for creating a philosophy of education and critical in answering the question, “What is the
purpose of education?” It can also inform practice by providing tried and established ideas and
tools that enhance effective instruction and classroom management, successfully meet the needs
of all students, and motivate and inspire the next generation toward academic achievement. As
an advocate of utilizing research to positively impact practice, I wanted to apply hope theory to
an important issue in education in order to learn about the topic from a new vantage pointe. For it
is the dynamic, additive, and reciprocal capability to take theory and apply it to education and
then use the experience to generate questions and data in order to expand the theory that
strengthens the relationship between science and practice. Through this experience, my respect
for those in the field of research has increased dramatically, and I am grateful for all I have
learned through this process.

1

Chapter 1: Introduction
Hope and education are inextricably linked. The very possibility of education is grounded
in the conceptualization of hope, as a search born from human awareness of its own
incompleteness, (Freire, 1972) for hope envisions what has not yet been and what could be
(Peguy, 1929). If hope is characterized as a search for something, then the purpose of education
is to act as its guide, (Webb, 2010) and the promise of education is to develop student potential.
As President John F. Kennedy (1961) stated, “Let us think of education as the means of
developing our greatest abilities, because in each of us there is a private hope and dream which,
fulfilled, can be translated into benefit for everyone and greater strength for our nation."
Education can be a powerful mechanism to develop student potential and provide
children and adolescents with pathways to reach their dreams. Embedded within the dreams of
children and adolescents are goals based upon what they value. Global progress is dependent on
the actualization of individual potential and the alignment of values that promote well-being for
all. Education needs hope, and hope requires education. For hope ignites a sense of possibility
and provides the mental bridging that moves children from the present moment to an imagined
future, from the here and now of today toward what they may become (Snyder, 2000).
Recently, education and psychology theorists have focused on amalgamating disparate
theories to explain student academic achievement (Phan, 2012). As academic successes are not
based solely on intelligence and ability (Dweck, 1999), it is important to understand the factors
that keep students engaged and motivated on pathways to pursue educational goals. Talented
students may fail to achieve at levels consistent with their academic potential, and consequently
lower their goals and underperform (Diener & Dweck, 1978, 1980). Students who fail to
matriculate are at a distinct disadvantage in the global job market as the skills, knowledge, and

2

degrees acquired through higher education are needed for many available jobs (Mattern et al.,
2013; Snyder et al., 2002). When people are marginalized and lose hope, they risk becoming
wasted potential and lost talent, to the detriment of the individual, family, and society as a whole
(Hanson, 1994).
In 2014 The Gallup Student Poll conducted a study to measure non-cognitive metrics that
are predictive of student success in academics and other youth settings. Specifically, Gallup
measured hope, engagement, and wellbeing of students in grades 5 through 12. Findings
demonstrates that hope, engagement, and wellbeing are key factors that drive students’ grades,
achievement scores, retention, and future employment. The Gallup Student Poll (2014) defines
hope as the ideas and energy students have for the future that drives effort, academic
achievement, credits earned, and retention of students of all ages. Hopeful students believe that
the future will be better than the present, and that they have the power to make it so. However,
the poll of approximately 830,000 students found only 53% of the students are hopeful, while
33% are stuck, and 14% are classified as discouraged. To think that about only half of American
students, ages 10 through 18, are considered hopeful is a nationally devastating statistic and
something that requires immediate attention. Creating a generation of hopeful students cannot be
done in isolation and requires society’s fervent responsibility and help.
Hope is related to crucial life outcomes, both theoretically, within theological and
philosophical sciences, and empirically, within the various human sciences (Belen, 2017). Hope
theory has become popular in the fields of psychology and education and has wide application in
many domains (Snyder, et. al., 2003; Snyder, 2000). Instead of focusing on what is missing or
wrong, as was the case in previous pathology models, hope as a construct allows practitioners to
map the client’s assets, strengths, and needs and then scaffold, mentor, and augment as necessary

3

(Lopez et al., 2000). Hope is known to be a significant predictor of well-being, physical health,
athletic success, and superior academic performance (Dixson et al., 2018; Snyder, Cheavens, &
Michael, 1999). Given the predictive power and positive correlation of hope and academic
achievement, hope theory was chosen as the theoretical framework for this study. The
fundamental questions that drove this inquiry rest on the following premise: College readiness is
historically believed to be directly and largely related to academic achievement, and hope has
consistently indicated a positive relationship between and a predictive capacity for academic
achievement. Consequently, could hope as a construct directly influence students on their
journey toward higher education? Does hope predict high school students’ intent to apply and
application to college? If we look at the college application process through the lens of hope
theory, can we learn more about what students need to be successful and subsequently create
educational programs that foster their potential?
Background of the Study
The Importance of Higher Education
Education provides economic, health/wellness, social, and professional benefits for
individuals, the nation, and the world as a whole (Carnevale, Rose, & Cheah, 2011; Cutler &
Lleras-Muney, 2010; Cheeseman & Newburger, 2002; Rose, 2013). A globally competitive
environment as well as changes in our economy have increased the value of higher education.
Many of the fastest-growing jobs require a form of postsecondary education (Dohm & Shniper,
2007; U.S. Department of Labor, 2006; Richardson, 2003), and while not every career requires a
degree of higher education, many professions do. Recent research demonstrates that Americans
value education (Newport & Busteed, 2013) and many K-12 institutions have fostered the
expectation of college-for-all, like never before. Unfortunately, while Americans value

4

education, (Newport & Busteed, 2013) the United States has been under-producing college-
educated workers since 1980 (Carnevale & Rose, 2013). Expert projections indicate that 65% of
United States jobs will require some type of higher education by 2020; however, if higher
education attainment rates do not increase substantially, there will be a deficit of five million
workers (Carnevale, Smith, & Strohl, 2013, Clinedinst & Koranteng, 2017). Since the 2008
economic recession, 99% of the created jobs have gone to workers with at least some college
education (Carnevale, Jayasundera, et al., 2016; Clinedinst & Koranteng, 2017). Unfortunately,
as of 2015, only 33% of adults aged 25 and older have obtained at least a bachelor’s degree (US
Census Bureau, 2016). Furthermore, racial/ethnic minority groups and students from low-
socioeconomic status (SES) backgrounds fall behind in every step of the achievement process,
including high school graduation, college enrollment, and postsecondary credential completion
(Clinedinst & Koranteng, 2017).
College education provides many benefits. In a lifetime, college graduates earn
approximately $1 million more than those with only a high school diploma (Carnevale & Rose,
2011). When compared to those with a high school education, research indicates that college
graduates experience lower unemployment rates, higher marriage rates, lower divorce rates, and
better health and wellness (Cutler & Lleras-Muney, 2010; Cheeseman & Newburger, 2002;
Rose, 2013). The value of a college education also has positive effects on society, as evidenced
by greater civic engagement and increased participation in local, state, and national elections
(Rose, 2013; Hooker & Brand, 2010). College education also bestows further benefits on the
family and the next generation. It is much more common for students to achieve the grades and
test scores necessary for college admission if one or both parents attended college. Studies have
shown that 8th grade standardized test scores increase from the 30th percentile average for

5

students wherein neither parent finished high school to the 80th percentile average when both
parents finished graduate school (Zill, 2016). Furthermore, parents with higher education degrees
have the social capital to expose their children to the pathways necessary to gain admittance to
higher education. For example, Perna and Titus (2005) found that the likelihood of enrolling in a
two-year college is positively related to cultural capital, as measured by parental education and
educational expectations, and availability of economic capital, as measured by the average
family income at the school.
In an effort to increase student postsecondary education, an emphasis on the phrases
college readiness and access to higher education has been a public policy focus for decades. The
importance placed on college preparedness is due in part to political leadership and legislation
resulting from various presidential administrations: the Reagan Administration’s “A Nation at
Risk” (National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983), the Clinton Administration’s
“Improving America’s Schools Act” (Improving America’s Schools Act of 1994), President
Bush’s “No Child Left Behind Act” (No Child Left behind Act of 2001), and President Obama’s
“Race to the Top” (American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009). President Obama’s
emphasis on changing the No Child Left Behind Act to a focus on college and career readiness
led to an examination of college readiness and the manner in which students are prepared for
college (Barnes et al., 2010).
College Readiness and the College Application Process
College Readiness is a term that refers to the degree to which prior personal and
educational experiences have equipped students for the expectations, demands, and environment
they will encounter in college. It has been defined as the level of preparation a student needs in
order to enroll and succeed—without remediation—in a credit-bearing general education course

6

at a postsecondary institution that offers a baccalaureate degree or transfer to a baccalaureate
program (Conley, 2007). At the heart of the concept is the development of cognitive and
metacognitive capabilities of incoming students such as reasoning, problem solving, analysis,
interpretation, precision, and accuracy (Conley, 2005; Conley, 2008; National Research Council,
2002). Additionally, key academic subject proficiency, referred to as content knowledge, is also
associated with college success (ACT 2004; College Board, 2006; Conley, 2003; Conley 2008).
As its primary metrics, college readiness focuses primarily on 1) high school courses and
level of rigor; 2) grades received; 3) and scores on national standardized tests. In this view of
college readiness, much emphasis and subsequent research and practice has focused on academic
achievement. However, there is a significant lack of attention in understanding the role of
students’ readiness to apply to college. Conley’s College Readiness model (2007) argues for a
more comprehensive look at what it means to be prepared for higher education in addition to
academic achievement. Conley presents college readiness as a multi-faceted concept comprising
both internal and external school environment factors. The model presented below in Figure 1
organizes the information into four concentric levels. In practice, these facets are not mutually
exclusive, independent of each other, or perfectly nested as portrayed in the model. Instead, they
are dynamic and interconnected (Conley, 2007, 2008). Expertise in one area can positively
impact behavior in another area, and likewise a lack of knowledge in any of the facets can
negatively impact decisions students make in high school and post-secondary education.

7

Figure 1. Facets of College Readiness

This study employs Conley’s model to understand high school students’ college readiness
specifically related to the college application process. An important area of contextual skills and
awareness is college knowledge, which includes two categories: 1) knowledge about how to
apply to college, and 2) knowledge about how to successfully navigate the college system once
the student arrives at university. Both processes require knowledge and skills; however, the
knowledge required to successfully and competitively apply to college is distinct from the
expertise required to thrive within the higher level educational system. An increasing number of
studies have called attention to the complexity of the contextual understanding associated with
application (Conley, 2005; Venezia et al., 2004) and describe the need for students to understand
how to apply to college (Conley, 2007).
Application is a key step in college readiness and one that substantially contributes to
socioeconomic inequalities (Cabrera & La Nasa, 2002; Hanson, 1994; Turley & Zaman, 2007).

8

The college application process encompasses a great deal of technical information and
knowledge of both conceptual and procedural tasks: Where should a student apply? What
colleges best align with the student’s values, interests, strengths, and goals? How does a student
apply? What standardized tests are necessary? In choosing between the ACT and SAT, which
test is best for each student? Logistically, how does a student apply to the various schools? Is the
student and his/her family aware of the different online applications (eg. California State,
University of California, The Common Application, and University-specific applications) and
various corresponding due dates? Does the student understand the difference between and
consequences of applying early action, early decision, and regular decision? Does the student
know how to write an effective and successful personal statement and supplemental, college
specific essays? Does the student know how to apply for financial aid and what the deadlines are
for the Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA)? Does the student have the time
management skills to effectively balance the workload of the college application requirements,
along with senior year academic course load?
While support in the application process is important for all students, it is particularly
important for lower income students (Hoxby & Turner, 2015). Hoxby and Avery (2012) assert
that the application stage—not admissions or matriculation—is where low-income high
achievers begin to diverge from their higher-income counterparts. Therefore, this study
highlights the college application process, as it is both the gatekeeper to college and a critical
component of college readiness. While there are many external factors (e.g., cultural capital,
access to a counselor, family’s attitudes toward higher education, etc.) and individual factors
(e.g., academic achievement, etc.) that contribute to high school students’ pursuit of higher

9

education, this study focuses on the role of hope in high school students’ intent and decision to
apply to college.
Hope as Theoretical Framework
Hope is the perceived ability to execute envisioned routes to desirable future goals
(Dixon, et al., 2018; Snyder, 2000). Hope theory is a cognitive-motivational process composed
of two interconnected components: pathways and agency. Pathways reflect the means to reach
someone’s objectives and entail the thoughts of generating usable routes to meet desirable goals
(Snyder, 2002; Yotsidi et al., 2018). Agency is the perceived capability to utilize pathways to
reach desired goals; agency encompasses the belief and the corresponding motivation that
individuals have in their capacity to follow their envisioned paths to accomplish their goals
(Dixson et al., 2018; Snyder, 2002). A key assumption of hope theory is the necessity of a goal
and the value given to each of its three critical components: goals, pathways, and agency (Snyder
et al., 2003). Hope comprises individuals’ perceptions regarding their capacities to 1) clearly
conceptualize goals; 2) develop pathways thinking; and 3) initiate and maintain agency through
the process (Snyder, 2002). It is the movement forward toward goals via pathways and agency
that produces hope.
Goals are the cognitive components that anchor hope theory (Snyder, 1994a, 1994b,
1998; Snyder, Cheavens, & Sympson, 1997; Snyder, Ilardi, et al., 2000) and provide the targets
of mental action sequences (Snyder, 2002). Goals must be of sufficient value to the individual in
order to warrant sustained conscious thought and effort (Snyder, 2002). However, goals remain
unanswered calls without the requisite means to reach them; therefore, pathways are essential
(Snyder, 2002). Pathways thinking is the ability to generate multiple and plausible routes to goal
attainment (Snyder, et al., 2002) and is the cognitive component in hope theory. Pathways

10

thinking requires a sense of temporal awareness in transitioning from the present to the desired
future (Snyder, et al., 2003). Snyder posits that people typically think about how to link their
present circumstances to imagined futures, and with those thoughts come the generation of
possible and usable pathways. These routes to desired goals are essential for generating hopeful
outcomes and are often referred to as the ways (Snyder, 2000). Agency is the motivational
component in hope theory and is the perceived capacity to execute the envisioned pathways to
reach desired goals (Snyder, 2002). It reflects cognitive momentum that translates into
motivation and an attitude of confidence in one’s ability to attain valued goals (Snyder et al.,
2002). Agency results in the mental energy necessary to begin and continue to use a pathway
through all stages of the goal pursuit, or move to a new pathway if obstacles present and
workarounds are not feasible. As such, agency demonstrates an individual’s ability to initiate and
maintain drive in the pursuit of a goal and is colloquially referred to as the will (Snyder, 1994b).
Hope theory posits a dynamic relationship between agency and pathways; working
together, agency and pathways thinking guide students toward goal achievement. Acting as the
infrastructure for hope, pathways and agency are both necessary, but neither is itself sufficient to
sustain successful goal pursuit. As such, pathways and agency thoughts are additive, reciprocal
and positively related (Snyder, et al., 2003).
It is the forward movement from the present moment toward something possible that
represents the essence of hope. Snyder’s theory of hope is classified as a dynamic motivational
personality characteristic (Phan, 2012) and studies have demonstrated its power as a predictor of
student achievement and life outcomes (Day et al., 2010; Snyder, 2000). The triad of goals,
pathways, and agency comprise Snyder’s academic conception of hope and his established

11

instrumentation allows us to evaluate and quantify the different components of hope. Figure 2
illustrates the construct of hope.
Figure 2. Hope Theory Model (Snyder, 2000)

From Theory to Practice: The Development of College Application Hope
A good theory gives us new ways of thinking about problems, tools for creating
solutions, and the capability of predicting what might work in new situations (Woolfolk, 1998).
Theory is of great significance and can have a profound impact when it is applied to the system
of education, as well as its components of teaching, learning, mentoring, counseling, and
creating. Broadly, a theory is an integrated statement of principles that attempts to explain a
phenomenon and make predictions (Woolfolk, 1998); scientifically, a theory is an interrelated set
of concepts that is used to explain a body of data and to make predictions about the results of
future experiments (Stanovich, 1992). Theories can function as lenses used to examine issues in

12

practice and provide new vantage pointes for in depth understanding and multi-dimensional
solutions. For some things are seen through the lens of the human eye, while others are examined
through the lens of a microscope, a telescope, or a dynamic systems theory (Meadows, 2008).
Everything seen through each kind of lens is actually there; however, the lens provides a new
way to examine knowledge and to have our understanding of our world more complete
(Meadows, 2008).
Knowledge for the sake of knowledge, the creation of ideas, and the building of theories
are of great value. However, there is often a “so what” factor once a theory has been created:
interesting idea, but so what? How does this theory inform our work, families, students, clients,
community, and world at large? How can this theory improve our lives? In education those
thoughts and questions permeate the premises and assumptions, the building blocks, of the
phrase “theory to practice.” In addition to examining the relationship between hope theory and
application to college, this study also applies hope theory to the practice of education,
specifically the college application process. Can we learn more about the college application
process and how to support students through it, if we look at it through the lens of hope theory?
Domain-specific hope measures an individual’s level of dispositional hope specific to a
certain life arena and its related implications (Snyder, 2000). Through assessing domain-specific
hope, researchers, clinicians, and educators may increase their understanding of individuals’
dispositional hopes in different parts of their lives. For this study, domain-specific college
application hope (see Figure 3) incorporates a two-component model similar to Snyder’s
dispositional hope theory and the triad of goals, pathways, and agency. As goals provide the
anchors of hope theory, the goal of college application hope is intent to apply to college for
students in grades 9, 10, and 11, and application to college for students in grade 12. College

13

application pathways encompasses both logistical and content knowledge. Logistical knowledge
refers to the understanding of the logistics of how to apply to college, including filling out the
online college application forms; completing financial aid applications or applying for
scholarships; requesting letters of recommendation, etc. Content knowledge refers to the
understanding of how to successfully complete the content of the requirements, including writing
a high-quality personal statement and supplemental college-specific application essays;
identifying and communicating student strengths, values, interests, and goals to present a
competitive and authentic application, etc. College application agency is defined as students’
motivation to apply to college and their confidence in their ability to accomplish the logistics and
content of the college application process. Essentially, college application hope asks, “Do
students have the will to apply to college, and do they understand the ways?” Figure 3 illustrates
the construct of college application hope.

14

Figure 3. College Application Hope Theory Model

College education has been and will continue to be valuable and necessary for future
generations. However, is important to note that there are other postsecondary educational routes
and venues that provide valuable educational experiences that contribute to successful careers
and vocations. This particular study focuses on the pathway toward college education and the
application process that is necessary in the pursuit of higher education. The majority of the focus
in research and practice has been on ensuring that students are ready for college, rather than
focusing upon whether they are ready to apply to college. Therefore, this study will focus upon
the application process, as it is the gatekeeper to college.

15

Purpose of Study
The purpose of the study was to shed light on an important issue in education and to
utilize theory as a lens to further knowledge and improve practice. The primary goal was to
examine the relationships among dispositional hope, college application hope, underclassmen’s
intent to apply to college, and seniors’ application to four-year college. More specifically, this
study sought to investigate if dispositional hope and college application hope predict
underclassmen’s intent to apply to college and seniors’ application to a four-year college.
Additionally, this study examined which of the specific components of hope and college
application hope is the best predictor for intent to apply to college and application to four-year
college. The results of the study provide implications for research, education, counseling, and
parenting.
Importance of Study
The importance of the study was threefold. First, it extends Snyder’s Hope Theory to a
new domain: college readiness, and more specifically the college application. Application is a
crucial step in the college-going process, and one that has notable implications for
socioeconomic inequality (Kolman, Gallagher, & Hossler, 1987). As the application is the
gatekeeper of college admissions, it is important to examine that process in order to learn what
students need in order to be successful. Second, the study is an example of applying theory to
practice, specifically utilizing hope theory as a lens to look at an important issue in education.
When looking at an educational issue, whether it be a problem or natural occurring phenomenon,
we can see an issue from a new vantage pointe and our perspective is changed. In the process of
investigating the relationship between hope and underclassmen’s intent to apply and seniors’
application to college, a new hope measurement was created that gives data about students’

16

college application agency (motivation and confidence in ability) and students’ college
application pathways (knowledge about how to apply). Through evaluating students’ strengths
and needs through the concepts of college application pathways and college application agency,
parents, teachers, and counselors can create strategies and plans to scaffold students and give
them the help they need. Third, this study confirms prior research: hope matters, and it has the
power to impact life outcomes and help students achieve their dreams. Practitioners may identify
treatment targets and then develop the appropriate interventions and effective programs to
support high student students in the college application process.
Key Terms and Definitions
The following definitions are provided to ensure uniform understanding of these terms
throughout the study. The researcher developed all definitions not accompanied by a citation.
Agency
The motivational component in hope theory. Agentic thinking encompasses the belief and
the corresponding motivation and persistence that individuals have in their capacity to follow
envisioned paths to accomplish their desired goals (Snyder, 2002). Agency reflects cognitive and
emotional momentum that translates into a can-do attitude and will to achieve valued goals
(Snyder, et al., 2002).
College Application Agency
The motivational component in college application agency. College application agency
incorporates the motivation, persistence, and belief in their capability to apply to college. It
reflects cognitive and emotional momentum that translates into a can-do attitude and answers the
question, “Do you have the will to apply to college?”

17

College Application Hope
College application hope is the perceived ability to execute the college application. More
specifically, college application hope is a two-component cognitive motivational process
involving college application pathways, the perceived capability to understand the procedural
and conceptual knowledge the applications require; and college application agency, the
motivation and persistence, as well as the belief in individual capability to apply to college. The
overall college application hope score is computed by adding college application agency and
college application pathways together.
College Application Pathways
The cognitive component in college application hope theory. Pathways thinking
encompasses generating or learning the knowledge required to apply to college. It addresses the
logistical, procedural, conceptual, and metacognitive knowledge required to successfully
complete the college application. Colloquially, it answers the question, “Do you know the ways
to apply to college?” For purposes of statistical analysis, pathways was divided into two
categories: 1) content knowledge, and 2) logistical knowledge, or logistics.
College Readiness
The level of preparation a student needs in order to enroll and succeed – without
remediation—in a credit-bearing general education course at a postsecondary institution that
offers a baccalaureate degree or transfer to a baccalaureate program (Conley, 2007).
Goals
Goals provide the targets of mental action sequences and are the cognitive components
that anchor hope theory (Snyder, 1994a, 1994b, 1998, 2002; Snyder, Cheavens, & Sympson,
1997). Goals can be anything that an individual desires to do, experience, create, become, get, or

18

achieve ranging from prominent, lifelong pursuits (long-term goals) to short range objectives
(short-term goals) (Snyder, et al., 2003).
Hope
The perceived capability to derive pathways to desired goals, and to motivate oneself via
agency thinking to use those pathways (Snyder, 2002). Hope is a dynamic, additive, and
reciprocal cognitive motivational system where emotions and cognitions work together in the
process of goal pursuits via agency and pathways thinking (Snyder et al., 1991). For this
quantitative study, hope is operationally defined as scores on the Children’s Hope Scale. The
overall hope score is computed by adding pathways and agency together.
Hope Level
An individual’s rank based on their score on Snyder’s Children’s Hope Scale (CHS). If
scores are above average, students are considered to have high levels of hope; if scores are below
average, students are considered to have low levels of hope. The scores on the CHS range from
6-36.
Motivation
To be moved to do something (Ryan & Deci, 2000); an internal state that arouses, directs,
and maintains behavior (Woolfolk, 1998).
Pathways
The cognitive component in hope theory. Pathways thinking is the ability to generate or
derive multiple and plausible routes to goals (Snyder, et al., 2002).
Self-efficacy
The belief about personal capability to execute required courses of action and
competence in a particular situation or task. Self-efficacy governs an individual’s choice of

19

behaviors and aspirations, as well as the mobilization and maintenance of effort (Bandura, 1986,
1997).
Underclassmen
Students in high school or college who are not seniors (Oxford English Dictionary). For
this study, the term underclassmen refers to students in their 9th, 10th, or 11th grades of high
school.
Upperclassmen
Seniors in high school or college (Oxford English Dictionary). For this study, the term
upperclassmen refers to students in their 12th grade year of high school and is used
interchangeably with seniors.

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Chapter 2: Literature Review
The following review of literature focuses on the conceptual development of hope and
hope theory, the theoretical framework used for this study, and its emphasis on goals, pathways
thinking, and agency. Empirical research on dispositional hope and its application to different
domains is provided. Hope is reviewed as an important factor influencing academic achievement
and life outcomes and a variable with potential impact on the college application process.
Conceptual Development of Hope
“What is hope? Is it an emotion, a cognitive process, a disposition, a state of mind, an
instinct, a basic need, a mystery? Is it biologically rooted or socially constructed,
hotwired into the genome or learned during childhood, a chemical reaction in a neural
circuit or a divine gift awaiting a response?” The position one takes on these questions
has profound implications for one’s understanding of the relationship between hope and
education (Webb, 2007, 2010).

In the modern English language, hope is defined as both a transitive and intransitive verb,
and the grammatical usage of hope helps differentiate between the differing views of the term.
Used as an intransitive verb, hope does not have an object, and to hope is defined as “to want
something to happen or be true” (Merriam-Webster). Phrases such as “hope for the best” embody
this form of hope. In this usage, there is no goal attached to hope—just a vague wish that things
will all work out. Schmitz (2016) argues that wishing is actually hopelessness in disguise for it
leads to nowhere. However, in its transitive form, as a verb with a direct object, to hope is
defined as “to desire with the expectation of obtainment or fulfillment,” as in “I hope to be on
Broadway.” As a transitive verb, hope has a goal, and gives the term a sense of direction,
movement, and expectation of fulfillment. With a goal, hope can then become a powerful force
connected to action. The Indo-European root of the word hope is the same root from which the
word “curve” (to bend) derives. This perspective gives the connotation of a change in direction,
movement in a different way. The Hebrew and Greek equivalent of the English word hope

21

embodies strong and confident expectation, standing in contrast to the notion of wishful thinking.
Merging the Indo-European root and the Hebrew and Greek equivalent together, produces a
meaning of the word hope as a confident expectation that a desirable change is likely to happen
(Hope International Development Agency). Hope is not merely optimism or wishful thinking, it
is a powerful force that must be connected to action. Underlying that action is a set of beliefs:
firm desire that the wish will be fulfilled and confident expectation that the goal will be
achieved.
Tillich (1965) argues that everybody can lose oneself into foolish hope, but genuine hope
is something rare and great. With this view, there is a beginning in the here and now that pushes
toward an end. Hope becomes a driving power that makes fulfillment not certain, but possible. It
is out of what we truly are, the hope for what we may become can grow (Tillich, 1965). The
starting point of hope is the vision of possibility and the strength of hope comes from the
momentum created from pathways made clear and the agency to move forward with persistence
and determination on viable pathways toward goal completion.
Hope is of fundamental importance within the process of becoming; and therefore,
necessary within education. Freire (1972, 1998) conceptualizes humans as unfinished beings in
the process of becoming conscious of their incompleteness; he conceptualizes humans as
searchers and travelers. Without hope, humans would despair in the face of their circumstances
and would become immobilized. It is hope that acts as the necessary impetus in the context of
human unfinishedness and drives humans onward as seekers in the pursuit of completeness. The
pursuit of completeness and the subsequent hope-driven search necessitates education. For it is
because of this search that humans are driven to explore, question, investigate, create, innovate,
and learn. Thus Freire’s need for education revolves around the key issue of how humans

22

respond to their conscious awareness of their incompleteness and move toward what they hope
(Webb, 2010). Many educational theories have utilized Freirean ideology as a foundational
framework, for Freire’s view of hope renders education possible, necessary, and political (Freire,
2007b). Freire’s philosophy of education was founded on his ontology of hope for “without hope
there is no way we can even start thinking about education” (Freire, 2007a, p. 87).
In academic literature, the medical world echoed both a positive and negative view of
hope. Hope cures were categorized as placebo effects until a group of physicians embraced the
opposing view that positive emotions, including hope, help the process of healing (Frank, 1968,
1975; Locke & Colligan, 1986; Menninger, 1959; Pelletier, 1977; Siegal, 1986; Simonton,
Matthew-Simonton, & Creighton, 1978). During the late 1950s and 1960s, hope was examined
from a formal, scientific lens. Psychiatrists (Frank, 1963, 1968; Melges & Bowlby, 1969;
Menninger 1959) and psychologists (Cantril, 1964; Farber, 1968; Mowrer, 1960; Stotland, 1969)
asserted the premise that hope was based on positive expectations for goal attainment. (Snyder,
2000). From the mid-1970s onward, there was a surge of psychological research related to stress,
coping, and illness. (Snyder, 2000). Studies began to suggest that negative thoughts and feelings
were related to poorer health, coping, and medical recovery (Cohen, 1979; Cohen & Lazarus,
1979) and suggested that positive thoughts and feelings are worthy to study for vital life
outcomes (Cohen, 1979; Cousins, 1976; Frank, 1975). The 1970s and 1980s marked a period
where many investigators from a variety of disciplines developed theories about hope (Farran,
Herth, & Popovich, 1995). In 1991 American positive psychologist Charles R. Snyder and
colleagues (1991) developed Hope Theory, a cognitive-emotional multidimensional
conceptualization of hope. At present, Snyder’s Hope Theory, and its accompanying
measurements for child, adolescent, and adult populations, is the best-known theory of hope

23

(Belen, 2017; Dixson et al., 2017; Snyder et al., 1997; Snyder et al., 1991). Additionally hope is
considered a psychological capital, which encompasses four positively-oriented human strengths
and psychological resources: hope, self-efficacy, optimism, and resilience (Luthans & Youssef,
2004). Additionally, hope is included among the twenty-four core character strengths, as it
reflects a person’s expectation of the best possible outcome and the concomitant work to achieve
it (Park, et al., 2004).
Snyder’s Hope Theory
Hope is defined as the perceived capability to derive pathways to desired goals, and to
motivate oneself via agency thinking to use those pathways (Snyder, 2002). Hope theory is a
cognitive-motivational process composed of two dynamic and interactive components: pathways
and agency. Pathways reflect the means to reach someone’s objectives and entail the thoughts of
generating usable routes to meet desirable goals (Snyder, 2002; Yotsidi et al., 2018). Agency is
the perceived capability to use pathways to reach desired goals; agency encompasses the belief
and the corresponding motivation that individuals have in their capacity to follow their
envisioned paths to accomplish their goals (Dixson et al., 2018; Snyder, 2002). Hope theory is
multidimensional and incorporates three critical components: goals, pathways, and agency. To be
effective, goals must be focused, specific, and workable (Lopez, Floyd, Ulven, & Snyder, 2000).
Dispositional or trait hope is seen as a relatively stable personality disposition (Snyder, Lopez et
al., 2003) and differs from state hope which measures goal directed thinking in a given moment
(Snyder, 2000). State hope, and its accompanying measurements, is most useful for adults in pre-
post research designs in which the focus of the study is on changes in goal-directed thinking and
ongoing goal-related activities. Hope is primarily measured in child and adolescent populations

24

using the Children Hope Scale (Snyder et al., 1997) and in adult populations using the Adult
Hope Scale (Snyder et al., 1991).
Hope is differentiated from other positive psychology constructs, such as self-esteem
(Hewitt, 1998), optimism (Scheier & Carver, 1985; Seligman, 1991), problem-solving (Heppner
& Petersen, 1982), and self-efficacy (Bandura, 1982). As a future-oriented cognitive construct
related to goal-directed thinking (Snyder, 2000) hope is associated with future orientation
(Snyder, 2002), goal setting (Bishop & Willis, 2014), and cognitive and/or emotional aspects in a
range of theories and models (Dufault & Martocchio, 1985; Lazarus, 1999; Snyder et al., 1991).
Although each component of hope theory is individually important, the dynamic
interrelationships between a person’s goals, the pathways to these goals, and the agency needed
to achieve them make hope theory a distinct construct and significant contribution to the field of
positive psychology.
Goals
Goals are the cornerstone of hope theory (Valle et al., 2004). Goal-directed thoughts,
emotions, and behaviors are necessary within hope theory. A goal can be anything that an
individual desires to do, create, become, experience, get, or achieve ranging from prominent,
lifelong pursuits (long term goals) to mundane, short-range objectives (short term goals) (Snyder,
et al., 2003). In hope theory, there are two general types of desired goals: 1) positive/approach
goals, and 2) avoidance goals, also described as the forestallment of negative goal outcomes.
Positive goals may be new or pertaining to the sustainment of a current goal (Snyder, et al.,
2003). Examples of positive goals include a student’s desire to go to college and to keep a
savings account intact (Snyder, et al., 2003). The forestallment of a negative goal outcome
includes in its strongest form stopping something before it happens; in its weaker form, such

25

deterrence is targeted at delaying the unwanted from happening (Snyder, et al., 2003). Student
negative goals could include not wanting to get detention or not getting detention for one year.
Approach goals encourage people to move toward getting something accomplished, whereas
avoidance goals aim to prevent something from happening (Snyder, Feldman, Taylor, Schroeder,
& Adams III, 2000). Positive goals result in actionable sequences, whereas negative goals leave
people stuck, not knowing what to do.
Lazarus (1999) placed constraints on what constitutes a legitimate goal for the process of
hope to unfold and argues that a fundamental condition of hope is that one’s current life
circumstance is unsatisfactory, involving deprivation, damage, or a threatened situation. This
perspective exemplifies a repair definition of hope in which the only appropriate goals are those
that fill a void in someone’s life. While many examples of hope reflect the repair definition,
Snyder (2002) argues the importance of two other categories of goals for hope theory:
maintenance goals and enhancement goals, while maintenance goals are goal-directed thoughts
that comprise daily living and help us persevere through our ongoing lives. Enhancement goals
build on what is satisfactory; these targets reach for the many grand goals that have enticed and
motivated people throughout history.
The foundation of imparting hope relies upon helping students to set goals (Snyder et al.,
2003), and develop agency and pathways thinking. Through this process, the seemingly
unattainable may become reachable (Snyder, 2000). In education, goals must be calibrated to the
students’ age, circumstances, values, interests, and abilities. Once goals have been set, the next
step is to teach students how to set clear markers, and these allow the students to track progress
toward their goals (Emmons, 1992) As abstract goals are more difficult to reach than well-

26

specified goals (Emmons, 1992), goals should be specific and measurable. Goals anchor hope
theory and are necessary for achievement.
Pathways
The cognitive component of hope, pathways represents the derived and envisioned paths
to goals. The vision of a viable pathway produces hope and consequently energizes a person
because now a path forward is evident and the individual is no longer paralyzed with not
knowing what to do or how to do it. Kegan and Lahey (2009) articulate the energy that is
produced through pathways by articulating the burst of hope that erupts from seeing a way
forward that was never clear before. The construct pathways is plural, not singular, and that
differentiation is critical to the theory. In the event of a barrier or obstacle, individuals with high
levels of pathways thinking can generate multiple and alternative paths; they realize there is not
just one way. The plurality of options gives greater hope to the person and does not permit
roadblocks to permanently deter a person from the goal. In the event that an obstacle is
immovable and insurmountable, and the correct assessment is made that no plausible routes
toward goal completion exist, pathways thinking also promotes the ability to generate a new goal
that is equally valuable and the subsequent pathways to the newly created goal, thus keeping
hope high (Snyder, 2000). Therefore, pathways encompasses the following components: a) the
perceived ability to envision plausible routes to desirable future goals, b) the perceived ability to
generate new alternative routes to desired future goals in the event that a permanent obstacle
arises, c) the ability to efficiently and quickly evaluate, modify, and refine those routes as goal
attainment progresses, and d) the capability to set new goals when all pathways present
permanent obstacles (Snyder, 2002; Dixson, 2017). Pathways answers the following types of
questions: Do you have the ability to generate plausible pathways toward the goal? Do you have

27

the necessary knowledge in order to understand how to accomplish the goal? Are you able to
utilize human and technological resources to learn about viable pathways toward the goal? The
theoretical importance of pathways is embodied in a quotation by William Ward (n.d.): “If you
can imagine it, you can achieve it” (Dixson et al., 2017). Pathways is the capability to envision
and produce a roadmap to a better future, irrespective of one’s current circumstances (Dixson et
al., 2017).
Agency
The motivational component of hope, agency propels people along their imagined routes
to goals. It is the belief, along with the corresponding motivation and confidence, that one can
accomplish envisioned goals (Dixson et al., 2017; Snyder, 2002; Snyder et al., 1991). Agency
involves the mental and emotional energy to begin and sustain the use of a pathway through all
stages of goal pursuit. While pathways refers to the ability to envision desirable goals and the
roadmap to achieve them, agency refers to the belief in the self in order to accomplish these
goals and the motivation to do the work that will propel the self along the goal-achievement
pathway (Dixson, et al., 2017). Agency also encompasses determination to persist throughout the
goal-achievement process when setbacks occur (Dixson, et al., 2017). While agency thinking is
important in all goal-directed thoughts and behaviors, it takes on special significance when
individuals encounter roadblocks. During such impediments, agency helps people channel the
requisite motivation to utilize the best alternate pathway (Snyder, 1994b; Snyder, 2002). Agency
represents the mental and emotional willpower one needs in order to begin and sustain
movement along the pathways to goal attainment. Agency answers the following types of
questions: Do you have the will to initiate and continue on the journey toward goal completion?
If an obstacle arises, do you have the will to solve it or persist on a new path?

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As agency is the perceived capacity to execute routes, part of that movement involves
being motivated to persist on the pathways toward goal completion. To be motivated means to be
moved to do something (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Individuals who are energized or activated toward
an end are motivated. Motivation varies not only in level of motivation (how much motivation),
but also in the orientation of that motivation (what type of motivation). The type of motivation
generates insight into why the person is activated or energized toward the goal. Intrinsic
motivation occurs when a person does something because it is inherently interesting or
enjoyable. Intrinsic motivation often results in high-quality learning and creativity and has
emerged as an important phenomena for educators that can be systematically catalyzed or
undermined by parent and teacher practices (Ryan & Stiller, 1991). Extrinsic motivation is
generated when someone is doing something because it leads to a separable outcome, is valuable,
or useful (Ryan & Deci, 2000). With extrinsic motivation, the individual may not enjoy the
activity itself, but either finds value in it or needs it in order for another goal to be achieved.
Students can perform extrinsically motivated tasks with resistance, disinterest, or resentment, or
alternatively, with an attitude of willingness that reflects an inner acceptance of the value or
utility of a task (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Hope theory does not separate the two motivations, and
recognizes both as valuable.
Theoretically, individuals with high levels of hope differ from their low hope
counterparts in a variety of ways. High hope students tend to pursue stretch goals, or goals that
are more difficult to attain, create approach, rather than avoidance goals, demonstrate
determination in achieving goals, and have different strategies at their disposal to reach their
goals (Snyder, 2002). Moreover, high hope individuals have the propensity to maintain agency
thinking and seek alternative pathways in the face of obstacles or challenges for significant goals

29

(Snyder, 1994b; Snyder et al., 1991, 1996, 1999). In the event that an obstacle is permanent and
the current goal becomes impossible, rather than lose hope, high hope individuals have the
ability to create new goals that are equally as valuable. High-hope students also differ from their
low hope counterparts in the way they handle failure. High-hope individuals demonstrated
adaptable thinking in which they took failure feedback as an indicator that they simply did not
try hard enough instead of allowing such feedback to reflect on their sense of self-worth (Snyder,
et al., 2003). Individuals who score high on the pathways component are able to quickly,
decisively, and confidently envision realistic routes to their goals (Dixson, 2017; Snyder, 2002;
Woodbury, 1999). Additionally, when envisioning routes becomes particularly difficult, such as
passing a class after a poor grade on a test, individuals high in pathways thinking engage in
positive self-talk and are flexible, which facilitates their ability to envision alternative routes to
their goals or create new goals (Day, Hanson, Maltby, Proctor, & Wood, 2010; Dixson, 2017;
Irving, Snyder, & Crowson, 1998; Snyder, LaPointe, Jeffrey Crowson, & Early, 1998).
Individuals who score high on the agency component are energized by their goal pursuits
(Dixson; 2017; Snyder, 2002). Thoughts of agency can be reflected in positive self-talk such as,
“I can do this,” or, “I will not give up in the face of impediments” (Snyder et al., 1998). When
obstacles to goal accomplishment arise, high agency individuals self-motivate, are persistent, and
focus their energy on what they believe is their best course of action to accomplish their goals
(Dixson, 2017; Snyder, 1994b, 2002; Snyder at al., 1998). In contrast low hope individuals are
more likely to set avoidance goals rather than positive, approach goals. They also may have
difficulty with pathways thinking, making their path toward their goals unclear (Snyder, et al.,
2003). In looking at the components of hope, individuals who score low in pathways thinking are
often indecisive about how to accomplish their goals, envision incoherent routes to goals, and

30

struggle to produce alternative routes to goals and/or new goals (Dixson, 2017; Irving et al.,
1998; Snyder, 2002). Individuals who score low on the agency component find it more difficult
to start and continue working toward goals, give up in difficult or stressful times of goal pursuit,
and engage in more negative self-talk during goal pursuit (Dixson, 2017; Lopez et al., 2000;
Snyder et al., 1998).
Dispositional Hope in Research
Hope is known to be a significant predictor of well-being, physical health, mental health,
athletic success, and superior academic performance (Dixson et al., 2018; Snyder, Cheavens, &
Michael, 1999). Studies have found hope to be a consistent correlate and predictor of life
outcomes among adolescents, including those in early adolescence (Jiang et al., 2013; Marques
et al., 2009) and in middle and late adolescence (Wong & Lim, 2009). Research has
demonstrated that a child’s and adolescent’s hopeful thinking is positively associated with
perceived competence, self-esteem, and self-worth (Marques et al., 2009), use of constructive,
problem-focused coping (Snyder et al., 1991), growth from adversity (Tennen & Affleck, 1999)
and negatively associated with depression and anxiety (Snyder et al., 1997; Feldman & Snyder,
2005).
In almost every regard, high hope individuals perform better than their low hope
counterparts (Dixson, 2017; Snyder, 2002). High hope individuals have higher academic
achievement at all levels of education (Snyder et al., 1991; Snyder et al., 1997; Snyder et al.,
2002) and report higher engagement, higher motivation, and lower disengagement than their low
hope counterparts (Dixson, 2019a). High hope students are better problem-solvers (Chang,
1998), are able to handle and navigate stress better (Chang, 1998), are healthier (Harney, 1990),
are better psychologically adjusted (Kwon, 2002), have higher self-esteem, and generally believe

31

they will succeed (Snyder et al., 1991). Typically, high-hope individuals set stretch and approach
goals, have high energy, view obstacles as challenges, generate contingency plans, gather
support when needed, experience less stress and anxiety, have many ideas for their future, are
excited about their future, and perceive a high likelihood of success in their endeavors (Dixson et
al., 2018; Lopez, 2010; Snyder, 2002). Higher-hope students report greater meaning and purpose
in life than their lower-hope counterparts (Feldman & Snyder, 2005). In contrast, low hope
individuals consistently fare worse than their high hope counterparts in the arenas of academics,
athletics, physical health, mental health, and psychotherapy (Snyder, 2002). Studies demonstrate
that low-hope individuals more likely to set avoidance goals, have problems envisioning paths to
their goals, commonly feel stuck, do not believe in or are uncertain about their ability to
accomplish their goals, do not use failed experiences to inform a new plan, and are often
discouraged because they focus on the likelihood of failure in their endeavors (Lopez, 2010;
Snyder, 2002). Furthermore, they tend not to persist, have low energy, experience high anxiety
and stress, and experience greater symptoms of depression than their high-hope counterparts
(Feldman & Snyder, 2005).
Hope and Academic Achievement
Hope correlates reliably with superior academic performances for students in grade
school, high school, and college (Snyder, Cheavens, & Michael, 1999). For example, hope
relates to higher scores on achievement tests for grade-school children (Snyder, Hoza, et al.,
1997), higher overall grade point averages for high school students (Snyder, Harris, et al., 1991),
and higher semester and overall GPAs for college students (Chang, 1998; Curry, Maniar,
Sondag, & Sandstedt, 1999; Curry et al., 1997; Snyder, Harris, et al., 1991). Hope’s predictive
power remains significant when controlling for intelligence, previous grades, self-esteem, and

32

college students’ entrance examination scores (Snyder, Harris, et al., 1991; Snyder, Wiklund, &
Cheavens, 1999). Hope also significantly predicted higher graduation rate and lower attrition
rates, as measured by dropout rate (Snyder, Shorey, et al., 2002; Snyder, Wiklund, & Cheavens,
1999).
In a 6-year longitudinal study Snyder et al., (2002) found a positive correlation between
hope and academic achievement. Participants included 213 newly admitted college freshmen
with a mean age of 18.17 years. Using the Hope Scale (Snyder et al., 1991), participants were
divided into three groups: high hope, medium hope, and low hope groups. Hope Scale scores
provided reliable predictions about college students’ academic performances over the course of
their undergraduate careers with higher hope scale scores predicting higher cumulative GPAs,
higher likelihood of graduating from college, and a lower likelihood of being dismissed because
of poor grades. These findings indicating that hope is a reliable academic predictor may portend
the educational usefulness of the hope construct (Snyder, Shorey, et al., 2002).
Day et al. (2010) found that hope uniquely predicts academic achievement above
intelligence, personality, and previous academic achievement. In a 3-year longitudinal study,
Day et al. explored the two-dimensional model of trait hope with a sample of 129 respondents
(52 males, 77 females) who completed measures of trait (dispositional) hope, general
intelligence, the five factor model of personality, divergent thinking, as well as objective
measures of their academic performance before university (‘A’ level grades) and final degree
scores. The findings suggest that hope uniquely predicts objective academic achievement above
intelligence, personality, and previous academic achievement and supports findings of prior
research on hope and academic achievement. In the study, higher scores on trait hope facets,
agency and pathways, for students in their first year of undergraduate study both shared a

33

significant positive relationship with final degree marks at the end of three years of study. This
supports the a priori prediction that both hope dimensions will have a positive association with
future academic achievement. When these relationships were controlled for general intelligence,
divergent thinking, personality, and previous academic achievement, within the regression
model, both hope measures predicted future academic achievement, with the regression
suggesting pathways hope was a distinct predictor of academic achievement (Day et al., 2010).
Work by Feldman and Kubota (2015) further demonstrates the power of hope. In a cross-
sectional study including 89 college students, Feldman and Kubota investigated the relationship
between hope, general self-efficacy, optimism, GPAs, academic hope, and academic self-
efficacy. Their results demonstrate that general hope predicted academic hope and academic
hope directly predicted Grade Point Averages (GPAs). Additionally, hope predicted academic
self-efficacy, which in turn predicted GPAs.
Dixson et al. (2018) found that hope mediates the relationship between socioeconomic
status (SES) and academic achievement. Guided by recent theoretical formulations about the
social cognitive process and social class, the mediational relationship between SES and academic
achievement via hope was tested using a large ethnically diverse adolescent population. Study
one included a diverse sample of 586 adolescents aged 11-18 years old. Hope was measured by
Snyder’s Children’s Hope Scale, SES was measured through the youth version of the MacArthur
Scale of Subjective Social Status, and current year Grade Point Average (GPA) was utilized to
measure academic achievement. The results from the first study found a mediational pathway
from SES to academic achievement via hope. Findings indicated that dispositional hope was a
partial mediator of the relationship between SES and GPA, suggesting that SES affects students'
levels of hope, which influences their academic achievement. Replicated in Study 2, but with a

34

minority sample of high school students, the second study also found that hope partially
mediated the relationship between SES and grade point average. This cutting-edge research by
Dixson and colleagues (2018) represents what they coin the magic of hope; hope mediates
socioeconomic status and despite the additional stressors and challenges associated with being a
minority or within a lower socioeconomic group, the impact of hope on mediation did not
change. Dixon’s research results have implications for achievement gap interventions and lend
credibility to the effectiveness and power of hope.
Dixson, Worrell, and Mello (2017) examined the relationship between hope and several
psychological and educational variables via cluster analysis based on the agency and pathways
subscales of the Children’s Hope Scale. In a diverse sample of 297 adolescents, cluster analysis
included high hope individuals (n = 105), high agency thinkers (n = 73), high pathway thinkers
(n = 57), and low hope individuals (n = 62). Psychological constructs included consideration of
future consequences, perceived life chances, perceived stress, and self-esteem; the educational
constructs included academic self-concept, academic investment, and self-reported academic
achievement. Results indicated that hope clusters derived were theoretically consistent with hope
theory. To accentuate the differences among the hope clusters, standardized mean scores for the
educational and psychological variables organized by clusters are presented graphically in Figure
4.

35

Figure 4. Mean z-scores for outcome variables by hope cluster

Results indicate that high hope students report the most adaptive profile, with
substantially above average scores (i.e., d ≥ |0.40|) on school belonging, self-esteem, and
perceived life chances; above average scores (i.e., |0.20| ≤ d < |0.40|) on academic self-concept,
academic investment, and consideration of future chances; average GPA and educational
expectation scores; and substantially below average scores on perceived stress. High Agency
thinkers report above average scores on GPA, academic investment, educational expectations,
and self-esteem, and average scores on the other five constructs, including perceived stress. High
agency adolescents had the highest GPA and educational expectations of the four groups. High
pathways thinkers reported the third most adaptive scores, with substantially below average
scores on perceived life chances and above average scores on perceived stress. This group had
average scores on school belonging and consideration of future consequences and below average
scores on the other five constructs. Finally, low hopers reported the least adaptive profile with
below average scores on GPA and educational expectations and substantially below average
scores on all other variables except perceived stress, which was substantially above average.
Low hope adolescents’ self-esteem score was almost a full standard deviation below average.
Importantly, values for perceived stress were inverse to the other variables, with the levels of

36

stress being lowest for high hope students and highest for low hope students (Dixson et al.,
2017). Findings suggest that hope may be a useful variable for determining academic and
psychological risk as well as a potential avenue for intervention in adolescence (Dixson et al.,
2017).
In the continuing interest of non-cognitive skills as drivers of overall life outcomes,
especially for socio-economically disadvantaged youth, Anderson, Turnery, Health, and Payne
(2016) analyzed student achievement and individual characteristics. They argue that constructs
such as grit and hope are beneficial to disadvantaged students because they have the potential to
combat the feelings of powerlessness and alienation faced by at-risk students, and these cognitive
ideals can aid in student achievement and improved student performance. They compare grit and
hope and argue that there is a stronger relationship between hope and academic achievement than
grit and academic achievement, as 12% of the variance in academic achievement seems
associated with hope (Lopez, 2013), and only 4% of the variance for grit (Duckworth et al,
2007). They argue that newly popular ideas like grit and hope have potential for helping
teachers, researchers, parents, and others to think about how to support the development of
disadvantaged youth.
The Malleability of Hope
Snyder argues that hopeful thinking can be established and developed in children and
thus emphasized the role of education in helping to instill hope in children, focusing in particular
on the key role of early education. If hope is a learned cognitive process, then it can also fail to
be learned. Snyder argues that in this context of hope, those who are quite literally hopeless lack
hope because they were not taught to think in this manner (Snyder, 2002). Snyder recommends
identifying the “low hopers” and “no hopers” through his measures and then advises individual

37

hope therapy as an educative tool for instilling goal-directed thinking in children, adolescents,
and adults (Lopez et al., 2000).
In contrast to Snyder, Freire refuses to recognize a separation between the cognitive and
affective domains of human existence and regard hope, as an experience of the entire body,
involving emotions, desires, dreams, thought processes, and intuitions (Freire, 1993, 2007b). For
Freire, whether it is learned thinking patterns or not, hope is an essential component of the
human condition with such vital importance that it is impossible to exist without it, and he argues
that the role of education is to evoke it and provide it with guidance (1994; 1998). Freire asserts
that there is a need for an education in hope, for hope is a crucial component of human existence
(Freire, 1994).
Whether one believes that hope can be instilled or evoked, the common thread between
Snyder and Freire is that hope is necessary and education can develop it. While the powerful
effectiveness of utilizing hope theory in counseling and psychological services is well
documented in literature, the capability of teaching hopeful thinking within the school system is
also possible, and has resulted in an increase in hopeful thinking (Dixson, in press). If hope also
predicts application to college, then it would logically follow that increasing students' hope
levels and hopeful thinking could increase application to college and help to close the gap
between those who are applying and those who are not.
Snyder’s conceptualization of hope—with the mental markers of goals, agency, and
pathways—has been utilized for the development and validation of measurement instruments
that provide operationalized quantitative data. Yet, the fundamental power of hope lies not only
in its demonstration of positively influencing outcomes and domains from a statistical
perspective, the power lies also in the assertion that hope can be taught, and with that notion lies

38

the very essence of possibility and potential development.
Hope Interventions
Research demonstrates the effectiveness of small-group and individual hope interventions
and the malleability of hope. Making Hope Happen Program (MMHP; Marques et al., 2011) is a
five-week small group intervention program consisting of weekly 1- hour sessions that focus on
a different aspect of hope. Students are first taught about the elements of hope theory: types of
goals, pathways, agency, and obstacles. Then, students are taught how to apply the theory in their
own lives and how to develop stretch goals, agency, and pathways thinking. Students select goals
to work on for the duration of the program and develop multiple paths to accomplish their chosen
goal. They identify and develop agentic thoughts to utilize through the process and in the event
of a setback. In week four, students are trained how to identify, create, and utilize hopeful talk,
and the hope model is reviewed. In the final week, students share their hope story (goal
achievement process) with at least one person and discuss how hope theory can be applied to
future goals.
Marques et al. (2011) investigated the effectiveness of Making Hope Happen with a study
sample of 31students, matched control sample of 31, and 2 secondary groups—guardians and
teachers of the students’ intervention group. At baseline, groups were statistically similar on
variables of interest. At post-test, the intervention group had enhanced hope and maintained that
benefit at the 18-month follow up retest. From pre- to post-test, hope scores meaningfully
improved (d = .92), and the effects did not decrease significantly at both the 6-month (d = -.05)
and 18-month follow-up (d = -.09). Additionally while only trivial hope score differences were
found pre-intervention (d = .25) intervention group students reported meaningfully higher hope
scores at post-intervention, at the 6-month follow up (d = .59), and at the 18-month follow up (d

39

= .51) compared to control group students. Results of this study demonstrate that a brief hope
intervention can increase psychological strengths and that students benefit from the intervention
18 months later.
A second effective intervention, developed by Feldman and Dreher (2011), was created
with a goal to change student hope levels in 90-minutes. The program consisted of researchers
visiting schools to proctor the intervention for groups of six to eight students. For the first 20
minutes, students fill out questionnaires and are guided to select a relevant goal they want to
accomplish within the next six months. For the second 20 minutes, students are lectured about
hope theory, appropriate stretch goals, pathways thinking, agency thinking, obstacles, positive
self-talk, and the importance of devising multiple paths toward one’s goals. For the next 20
minutes, students are guided through a goal-mapping exercise consisting of completing a
worksheet with stretch goals, subgoals, obstacles, paths, alternative paths, and notations to
maintain agency throughout the entire goal-achievement process. For the next 20 minutes,
students engage in a hope visualization exercise and picture themselves going through the goal
achievement process with as much realism as possible, ending with the vision of accomplishment
and the positive emotions that ensue. The final 10 minutes consists of filing out post intervention
questionnaires.
Feldman and Dreher investigated the effectiveness of their program with 96 participants
who were randomly assigned to undergo the hope-based intervention or one of two comparison
or control conditions: standard progressive muscle relaxation intervention (Goldfried & Davison,
1994) and control group. Assessment occurred prior to intervention (pre-test), following
intervention (post-test), and at one-month follow-up. Results demonstrate an increase in
measures of hope from pre- to post-test, relative to control participants (agency d = .58, pathways

40

d = .61). However, the effects of the intervention regressed at the one-month follow up (agency d
= -.74, pathways d = -.48) indicating that boosters might be needed to maintain the effects long
term.
Increasing hopeful thinking via goal setting, agentic, and pathways thinking is beneficial
for all students, regardless of socioeconomic status or ethnicity. However, it is particularly
beneficial for lower SES and underrepresented minority students who may lack social and
cultural capital to connect them with the resources needed to learn pathways toward their goals.
Hope interventions can help mitigate the achievement gap. Many minority students who
underachieve are typically of low SES (Lee, 2002). Yet, as Dixson and colleagues (2018)
demonstrated, hope can mediate the relationship between SES and GPA. Increasing a student's
hope can be highly effective, inexpensive, and can be employed at all levels of education (Weis
& Speridakos, 2011; Dixson et al., 2018). If hope interventions are employed widely and
universally, they will produce highly beneficial outcomes among all students, and particularly
low SES students (Dixson, et al, 2018). If hope predicts intent to apply and application to apply
to college, then interventions that seek to raise hope levels would be warranted and beneficial for
students within the college readiness process.
Hope theory has been utilized in many domains and its theory has been applied in a
variety of settings; however, it has yet to be applied to college readiness or the college
application process. Hope has been integrated within psychotherapy (Snyder & Taylor, 2000),
cognitive-behavioral therapies (Taylor et al., 2000), problem-solving and solution-focused
therapies (Michael, et al., 2000), and feminist empowerment forms of therapy (Sympson &
Elder, 2000). It has also been utilized in application to different groups, including older adults
(Gum & Cheavens, 2000), children (McDermott & Hastings, 2000), and athletes (Curry &

41

Snyder, 2000). Hope has been used effectively with survivors of trauma (Sympson, 2000),
patients with anxiety and panic attacks (Michael, 2000), depression (Cheavens, 2000), AIDS
(Moon & Snyder, 2000), and breast cancer (Taylor, 2000). Hope has been used in conjunction
with culture and diversity as a way to find strength in diversity (Lopez et al., 2000), and as an
empowering social agenda within government and society at large (Snyder & Feldman, 2000).
Hope positively correlates and is predictive of superior academic performance with grade school,
high school, and college students (Snyder, Cheavens, & Michael, 1999; Lopez, 2013; Dixson, in
press). While past literature demonstrates the power of hope, it has not investigated the
relationship between hope and college readiness, specifically applying to college. As hope is
predictive of academic achievement, health and wellness, and overall life outcomes, it warrants
an investigation to determine if hope is also predictive of application to college.
Summary
The starting point of hope is the vision of possibility and the strength of hope comes from
the momentum created from viable pathways made clear and the agency to move forward on
pathways with persistence and determination toward goal completion. Students’ hope—their
ability to both derive paths to desirable future goals and believe, with corresponding motivation
and confidence in ability, that they can accomplish envisioned goals, is a powerful force within
their lives. In most every regard, high hope individuals perform better than their low hope
counterparts (Dixson, 2017; Snyder, 2002).
Hope predicts many important life outcomes, including physical and mental health,
athletic success, and superior academic performance (Snyder, 2002). Hope uniquely predicts
academic achievement above intelligence, personality, and previous academic achievement (Day
et al., 2010) and mediates the relationship between socioeconomic status and academic

42

achievement, even for minority students (Dixson, et al. 2018). High hope students report the
most adaptive profile with above average scores on school belonging, self-esteem, academic self-
concept, academic investment, and perceived life chances (Dixson, Worrell, & Mello, 2017).
Furthermore, high hope students report lower anxiety, stress, and depression than their low-hope
counterparts.
As the brain is malleable, the power of hopeful thinking is that it can be established and
developed in children. As a learned cognitive-motivational process, children and adolescents can
be taught how to think in this manner (Snyder, 2002). Interventions such as Making Hope
Happen Program (Marques et al., 2011) and changing hope levels in 90-minutes (Feldman &
Dreher, 2011) demonstrate the effectiveness of hope interventions in the classroom.
Hope theory has been utilized in many domains and applied in a variety of settings;
however, it has not been utilized in conjunction with college readiness or the college application
process. As there is an established relationship between hope and academic achievement, then
perhaps there is a relationship between hope and college readiness, in particular the pursuit of
higher educational goals? If we increase students’ hope via strengthening their agency and
pathways thinking in pursuit of educational goals then could more students discover pathways to
higher education and have the agency to persist on their journey?
Post-secondary education has been and will continue to be valuable and necessary for
future generations, yet the majority of the focus in research and practice has been on ensuring
that students are ready for college, rather than focusing upon whether they are ready to apply to
college. A critical challenge is to expand the focus of education to make certain that students are
knowledgeable about and scaffolded through the application process. While the existing
literature provides the necessary framework for the current study, it has not synthesized the

43

constructs of hope and application to college. The present study investigated the relationship
between hope and application to college and delves into the often overlooked, yet critical liminal
period of applying to college and pursuing what is possible.
Purpose of Study and Research Questions
Therefore, the primary goal of this study was to examine the relationships among
dispositional hope, college application hope, underclassmen’s intent to apply to college, and
seniors’ application to four-year college. The following research questions and hypotheses have
been posed for this study:
Research Question 1:
Does hope (overall, pathways, agency) predict intent to apply to college for
underclassmen and application to a four-year college for seniors?
Hypothesis 1: Dispositional hope and its separate components of pathways and
agency will predict underclassmen intent to apply and seniors’ application to a
four-year college.
Research Question 2:
Does college application hope (overall, pathways [logistical and content knowledge of
application], agency [motivation and confidence in ability to accomplish the logistics and
content of application]) predict intent to apply to college for underclassmen and
application to a four-year college for seniors?
Hypothesis 2: College application hope and its separate components of college
application agency and college application pathways will predict intent to apply
to college for underclassmen and application to a four-year college for seniors.

44

Research Question 3:
Among all the components of hope and college application hope, what is the best
predictor of underclassmen’s intent to apply to college and seniors’ application to four-
year college?
Hypothesis 3a: College application agency, specifically the sub-component of
motivation to apply will be the best predictor of underclassmen’s intent to apply
to college.
Hypothesis 3b: College application pathways, specifically the sub-component of
content knowledge will be the best predictor of seniors’ application to four-year
college.

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Chapter 3: Methodology
This study examined the relationship between hope, college application hope,
underclassmen’s intent to apply, and seniors’ application to college. Specifically, the study
investigated if hope and college application hope predicted 9th, 10th, and 11th grade students’
intent to apply to college and 12th grade students’ application to four-year college. In addition,
this study evaluated which is the best predictor of underclassmen’s intent to apply to college and
seniors’ application to four-year college from among all the components in dispositional hope
(pathways, agency, and overall) and college application pathways, (logistical and content
knowledge) and college application agency (motivation and confidence in logistics and content).
The combined questions address a key issue in college readiness and aim to understand how
hope theory can be applied to practice and utilized in supporting students through their pursuit of
higher educational goals and application to college.
This chapter reviews the methods utilized in conducting this study. First, it describes the
relevant demographic characteristics of the participants. Second, it presents the instruments used
to operationalize the constructs and college application data. Finally, it outlines the recruitment
of participants and procedures for data collection.
Participants
High school students from grades 9, 10, 11, and 12 were recruited for participation in the
study from two public high schools in Southern California during a one-month period in the
spring semester of 2019. School A consisted of 2,078 students with the following demographic
information: 50% male, 50% female, 42.1% Asian, 3.7 Black, 18.6 Latinx, .5% Native
American, 8% multi-racial, 27% White, with 22% recipients of free or reduced lunch programs.
School B consisted of 2,517 students with the following demographics: 50% male, 50% female,

46

10.8% Asian, 5.4% Black, 14.9% Latinx, .3% Native American, 9.7% multi-racial, 58.8% White,
with 3.4% recipients of free or reduced lunch programs.
A total of 1,004 students volunteered to participate in the study. Of the 1,004 surveys,
two could not be included in the study due to missing data, resulting in a total of 1,002 usable
responses for the final data analyses. Underclassmen focused upon their intent to apply; whereas
upperclassmen reflected on actual application(s) to college. The survey took place in the late
spring so that seniors could report on their recent pathway decisions and educational goal pursuit
actions. The timing of the survey was critical in order for 12th grade students to represent the
reflection of actionable sequences on higher education applications rather than their intent or
plan to apply. Participants in the sample ranged in age from 14 to 18 years old. Demographic
student information on grade, gender, and race/ethnicity are presented in Table 1.
Table 1
Frequency Distribution of Demographic Characteristics of Participants.
9, 10, 11th 12th
n % n %
Sex
Male 246 42.3 73 39.5
Female 336 57.7 112 60.5
Race
Black 19 3.2 7 3.7
Asian 185 31.6 63 33.7
White 141 24.1 62 33.2
Latinx 52 8.9 15 8.0
Middle East 16 2.7 5 2.7
Pacific Islander 3 .5 2 1.1
Other 44 7.5 3 1.6
Biracial or Multiracial 126 2.1.5 30 16.0

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Instruments
Two surveys were administered via online SurveyMonkey: one format for students in
grades 9, 10, and 11, and a second survey for students in grade 12. Both surveys were comprised
of the following sections: a) the Children’s Hope Scale (CHS) (Snyder et al., 1997); b)
demographic and background information; c) questions assessing students’ higher educational
goals; d) questions reflecting self-assessment of their college application hope pathways
(conceptual and logistical/procedural knowledge about applying to college); e) questions
reflecting students’ self-assessment of their college application hope agency (motivation to apply
to college and confidence in their ability to successfully complete the logistics and content of the
application); and e) questions pertaining to intent to apply to college for 9th, 10th, and 11th
graders and questions about actual applications submitted for 12th grade students. Information
on the specific instruments used for each of the sections is described below. See Appendix B and
C for a copy of the surveys.
Intent to Apply to College and Application to College
For underclassmen, the dependent variable of intent to apply to college was assessed with
a Likert-scale question asking students to self-identify their intent to apply to college on a scale
of one to seven, one indicating, “I am not applying to college,” the middle point of four
representing, “I am not sure,” and seven designating, “100% I am definitely applying to
college.” For seniors, the dependent variable of application to college was assessed by asking
students to circle the number of colleges to which they have applied. The types of post-secondary
institutions included many colleges: community, state, University of California (as all
participants resided in California), private non-Ivy league, private Ivy league, and online. The

48

question also allowed for students to document if they were applying to a trade or technical
school as well as a military academy. Answers allowed students to select a number from zero to
six plus.
Hope
The independent variable of hope was assessed using the revised Children’s Hope Scale
(CHS), developed by Snyder (1997). The CHS was created specifically for the purpose of
measuring hope in students between the ages of 8 and 18. The CHS is the most commonly used
measure for hope (Dixson, 2017). The first iteration of the CHS (Snyder et al., 1997) consisted of
12 items, six for agency and six for pathways. The revised, six-item CHS (Dixson, 2017) was
given in five additional samples: three school-aged clinical samples composed of participants
aged 8-17 and two samples from public schools in Lawrence, Kansas, aged nine to 13. The
results provided internal consistency estimates for scores on pathways and agency ranging from
.72 to .86 (Mdn = .77), and test-retest correlations over a week and a month were .73 (n = 89, p <
.001) and .71 (n = 359, p < .001), respectively. The reported correlations between agency and
pathways ranged from .47 to .70 (Mdn = .59) (Dixson, 2017). In this study, the Cronbach alpha
reliability coefficient was .86 for the overall hope scale, .80 for the pathways subscale, and .76
for the agency subscale.
The CHS consists of two three-item subscales: a) Pathways, the ability of youth to
envision paths to their goals and b) Agency, the will to persist along the pathways toward goal
completion, along with the combination of motivation and confidence in ability to persevere on
those paths. Pathways thinking is measured through questions such as, “When I have a problem,
I can come up with lots of ways to solve it,” and “I can think of many ways to get the things in
life that are most important to me.” It also is measured through questions that incorporate

49

problem-solving and pathways thinking: “Even when others want to quit, I know that I can find
ways to solve the problem.” Agency thinking is measured through items such as, “I think I am
doing pretty well,” and through reflective questions such as, “I am doing just as well as other
students my age,” and “My past experiences have prepared me well for my future.” The
combined score of agency and pathways indicates overall hope disposition.
The CHS is scored on a six-point Likert-type scale: 1- None of the time, 2- A little of the
time, 3- Some of the time, 4- A lot of the time, 5- Most of the time, and 6- All of the time. To
calculate the total CHS score, the researcher must add the responses to the six items. Possible
scores for overall hope had a possible range of 6 - 36, wherein a 36 represents high hopefulness
and a 6 indicates low hopefulness. The three odd-number items provide an agency score which
ranges from 3 to 18, whereas the three even-numbered items demonstrate the pathways score,
which also ranges from 3 to 18. A score of 18 would represent high agency and high pathways,
whereas a 3 would indicate low agency and low pathways. Agency plus pathways equals the
total overall hope score.
Dixson (2017) examined the psychometric properties of Children’s Hope Scale in three
adolescent samples drawn from different achievement levels: academically gifted students (n =
321), general education students (n = 318), and academically at-risk students (n = 266). Results
indicated that CHS scores had high internal consistency and were structurally sound across all
three samples and the range of achievement they represent. In addition, score invariance across
the range of achievement and gender was also examined. CHS scores showed scalar invariance
across gender and measurement invariance across achievement levels. Dixson’s (2017) findings
suggest that CHS scores can be utilized and interpreted across the full range of achievement
groups and that comparisons between genders can be made on the basis of CHS scores.

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College Application Hope
The independent variable of college application hope was assessed through the College
Application Hope instrument developed in this study. College application hope consists of two
components: college application agency and college application pathways. College application
pathways measured students’ logistical and content knowledge of the college application, asking
questions to reveal students’ self-assessment of knowledge required to successfully complete the
application. College application hope agency addresses two key components of agency: students’
motivation to apply to college and their confidence in their ability to successfully complete the
college application, looking specifically at logistical and content specific types of knowledge.
The instrument was piloted with students ranging from 7th grade to college to solicit feedback on
any questions that were confusing, length of time to complete the survey, ease of the QR code
and SurveyMonkey, and suggestions on how to improve the survey for their particular age group.
To assess college application hope, students responded to three sets of questions
measuring their self-assessment of (1) knowledge and understanding about how to apply to
college, which assessed procedural and logistical information (e.g., How much knowledge and
understanding do you have about how to fill out the online college application forms) and
conceptual understanding of how to apply to college (How much knowledge and understanding
do you have to identify and communicate your strengths in the application? How much
knowledge and understanding do you have to write a personal statement and college-specific
essays?); (2) motivation to apply to college (one-item); and (3) confidence in their ability to
accomplish the procedural (logistics, e.g., complete a financial aid application, such as FAFSA)
and conceptual (content, e.g., identify and communicate one’s academic goals and write
application essays) components of the application process. All the questions are on a Likert-scale

51

ranging from 1 to 5, with 5 being 100% knowledgeable, 100% motivated or 100% confident. The
subscale and total scores are based on the composites of the items, resulting in two continuous
subscale scores and one continuous total score. See Appendix D for the item structure and the
complete College Application Hope instrument.
Procedure
As educational research is a collaborative process between researchers, students, parents,
teachers, and principals, this research study was procedurally administered in accordance with
what worked best for the two high schools. After receiving University Institutional Review
Board approval, the principal investigator met with the principals and through a collaborative
discussion it was determined that the survey would be best administered online via a Quick
Response (QR) code linking to SurveyMonkey. This allowed the majority of students to
conveniently utilize their cell phones to take the survey. Those without cell phones utilized a
computer to complete the survey via SurveyMonkey.
The school provided all current parents and guardians of students information sheets (see
Appendix A) two weeks before students were invited to participate in this study via an email.
The information sheet explained the purpose of the study, overarching goals of the study,
procedure of the study administration, compensation policy for participation, investigator contact
information, and the rights of the research participants. Parents were informed that students’
participation was voluntary, all responses would be anonymous, and any identifying information
would be kept confidential. Parents had the option to opt their children out of the study. If a
parent or guardian wanted their student to opt out, he/she sent an email to the principal
investigator. Two emails were received asking questions about the student experience; however,
no parent/guardian opted out of the survey. After parents were notified teachers were invited to

52

participate in the survey. As an incentive and as a thank you for teacher participation, a $10
Coffee Bean and Tea Leaf gift card was given as a token of appreciation of teacher involvement
and utilized class time.
In the classroom, students at participating high schools were informed and reassured that
participating in this survey is completely voluntary and that responses would be both confidential
and anonymous. They were then shown a QR code which allowed them to utilize their cell
phones to connect with the online survey. On average, the survey took participants
approximately 10 minutes to complete. As an incentive for completing the questionnaire,
students were given the opportunity to enter a drawing to win one of three $50 gift cards to
Starbucks, Amazon, or Barnes & Noble. To maintain confidentiality of the participants, only the
primary investigators for the study were granted access to the data. All identifying information
from the survey was kept in a separate location from survey responses.
Data Analysis
For the data analysis, dispositional hope and domain-specific college application hope
were used as the independent variables while intent to apply to college and application to college
were used as the two dependent variables. Hope was measured using the Children’s Hope Scale
(CHS) and College Application Hope was measured using scores from a questionnaire developed
for this study. To examine research questions one and two, linear regression analyses were
conducted, and to examine research question three, logistic multiple regressions were
conducted.
For the dependent variables, the data provided nuanced analysis. For students in grades 9,
10, and 11, this study focuses on intent to apply to all colleges because a broader view of the
term college is warranted at this stage of student development. For 12th grade students, this

53

study examined their applications to four-year colleges because for the high schools that
participated in this study, more than 90% of the students applied to some colleges and this data
allowed for a detailed analysis. In addition, studies indicate that for many underrepresented
populations (e.g., racial minority, students from lower SES background, etc.), even if they meet
and exceed the academic requirement of four-year universities, they may not apply to the same
type and level of college as their high SES counterparts. Hoxby and Avery (2012) show that low-
income high achievers tend not to apply to selective colleges despite being extremely likely to be
admitted and granted more generous financial aid packages, making these selective colleges less
expensive to attend than the non-selective schools they usually attend. Therefore, while this
study focused on underclassmen students’ intent to apply to college in a broad sense, it focused
analysis on senior students’ application to four-year college to determine if hope played a role in
the application process.

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Chapter 4: Findings
This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the findings of the study, including
preliminary analyses and analyses of the three research questions.
Preliminary Analyses
To examine the overall relationships between hope, college application hope, and
students’ pursuit of higher educational goals two sets of Pearson-product correlation analyses
were conducted: one for underclassmen and their intent to apply to college, and another one for
seniors and their application to traditional four-year colleges.
Intent to Apply to College
Hope and college application hope, as well as its individual components, were positively
associated with underclassmen students’ intent to apply to college. More specifically, for
students in grades 9, 10, and 11, their hope (r = .25), pathways (r = .17), agency (r = .29),
college application hope (r = .37), college application pathways (logistics, r = .11, content, r =
.19), and college application agency (motivation, r = .56, confidence of ability regarding
logistics, r = .29, and content, r = .29) were all statistically significantly related to their intention
to apply to college in the positive direction, with significance p values less than .001. In other
words, with the increase of hope and college application hope came an increase in the likelihood
that students would intend to apply to college and pursue a pathway of post-secondary education.
Additionally, within the underclassmen participants, different associations emerged based
on gender. For example, male students reported higher overall hope, pathways, agency, and
confidence in their ability regarding the content of the application process. On the other hand,
female students reported higher levels of motivation to go to college, higher levels of motivation

55

to apply to college, and higher levels of intent to apply. See Table 2 below for a summary of the
statistics.
Table 2
Zero-order Pearson Product Correlations of Measured Variables for Underclassmen Students
Variables 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1. Gender -.13** -.15*** -.09* -.05 -.06 -.06 .08* -.04 -.08* .12**
2. Hope -- .92*** .92*** .49*** .32*** .40*** .37*** .38*** .50*** .25***
3. H-P -- .70*** .43*** .28*** .37*** .30*** .34*** .47*** .17***
4. H-A -- .48*** .30*** .37*** .38*** .37*** .45*** .29***
5. CAH -- .72*** .77*** .66*** .83*** .87*** .37***
6. CAH-P-L -- .69*** .27*** .51*** .47*** .11***
7. CAH-P-C -- .31*** .48*** .67*** .19***
8. CAH-A-M -- .46*** .50*** .56***
9. CAH-A-CL -- .80*** .29***
10. CAH-A-CC -- .29***
11. Intent --
Note. All scores are scaled scores. 1: Gender (1=male, 2=female); 2: Hope (Dispositional Hope); 3: H-P: Hope-Pathways; 4: H-
A: Hope-Agency; 5. CAH: College Application Hope; 6. CAH-P-L: College Application Hope-Pathways Logistics; 7: CAH-P-L
College Application Hope Pathways-Content; 8: CAH-A-M: College Application Hope Agency-Motivation to Apply to College;
9: CAH-A-CL: College Application Hope Agency – Confidence about Logistics; 10: CAH-C-CC: College Application Hope
Agency – Confidence about Content; 11: Intent: Intent to apply.
* p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001

Application to four-year College
Results of the Pearson product correlation analysis indicated that, for 12th grade students,
hope and college application hope, as well as most of their components, were positively
associated with application to four-year college except dispositional hope pathways and their
motivation to apply (part of the college application hope agency). Furthermore, different
associations emerged based on gender in three areas: female students reported a higher level of
college application hope (r = .15), more knowledge (r = .16) and confidence (r = .18) in their
ability to accomplish the logistical aspects of the application than their male counterparts. See
Table 3 for a summary of the statistics.

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Table 3
Zero-order Pearson Product Correlations of Measured Variables for Upperclassmen Students
Variables 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1. Gender .07 .08 .05 .15* .16* -.01 .13 -.18* .07 .11
2. Hope -- .93*** .93*** .47*** .29*** .39*** .33*** .43*** .53*** .20***
3. H-P -- .73*** .39*** .23** .34*** .23** .33*** .45*** .12
4. H-A -- .48*** .30*** .39*** .39*** .46*** .52*** .24**
5. CAH -- .76*** .77*** .65*** .84*** .86*** .37***
6. CAH-P-L -- .67*** .35*** .68*** .55*** .30***
7. CAH-P-C -- .27*** .54*** .80*** .47***
8. CAH-A-M -- .43*** .37*** .14
9. CAH-A-CL -- .73*** .30***
10. CAH-A-CC -- .38***
11. Apply to 4Yr --
Note. All scores are scaled scores. 1: Gender (1=male, 2=female); 2: Hope (Dispositional Hope); 3: H-P: Hope-Pathways; 4: H-
A: Hope-Agency; 5. CAH: College Application Hope; 6. CAH-P-L: College Application Hope-Pathways Logistics; 7: CAH-P-L
College Application Hope Pathways-Content; 8: CAH-A-M: College Application Hope Agency-Motivation to Apply to College;
9: CAH-A-CL: College Application Hope Agency – Confidence about Logistics; 10: CAH-C-CC: College Application Hope
Agency – Confidence about Content; 11: Intent: Intent to apply.
* p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001

Analyses of Research Questions
Research Question 1: Dispositional Hope and the Pursuit of Higher Education
Research question one examined if hope (overall, agency, pathways) predicts the pursuit
of higher education for high school students. Specifically, research question one investigated if
hope (overall, agency, pathways) predicts the intent to apply to college for underclassmen and
the application to four-year college for seniors. See Table 4 and Table 5 for a summary of the
statistics.
Intent to Apply to College (Underclassmen)
Three simple linear regression analyses were conducted to examine if overall hope,
pathways, and agency predict underclassmen’s intent to apply to college. Simple linear
regressions analyses were chosen because this study aimed to examine hope, as well as each of
the components of hope and its predictability of the outcome, intent to apply to college. In other

57

words, this study focused on investigating the complete relationship between hope pathways and
students’ intent to apply to college, as well as the complete relationship between hope agency
and students’ intent to apply, rather than the unique contribution of each of the components when
considering the both of them together.
Hope. Results of a simple linear regression, with intent to apply to college as the
outcome variable and hope (a composite of all indicators of pathways and agency) as the
predictor, indicated that hope was a significant predictor of underclassmen’s intent to apply to
college (ß = .25 , p < .001), explaining 6.3% of the variances, which was significant, F (1, 589) =
39.41, p < .001.
Agency. Results of a simple linear regression with intent to apply to college as the
outcome variable and agency as the predictor indicated that agency was a significant predictor of
underclassmen students’ intent to apply to college (ß = .17 , p < .001), explaining 3% of the
variances, which was significant, F (1, 589) = 17.92, p < .001.
Pathways. Results of a simple linear regression with intent to apply to college as the
outcome variable and pathways as the predictor indicated that pathways was a significant
predictor of underclassmen’s intent to apply to college (ß = .29 , p < .001), explaining 3% of the
variances, which was significant, F (1, 589) = 53.21, p < .001.
Table 4
Summary of Simple Regression Analysis for Intent to Apply to College
Variables R
2
F B SE β p
Hope*** .063 39.41 .28 .05 .25 <.001
Hope Agency*** .030 17.92 .18 .04 .17 <.001
Hope Pathway*** .083 53.21 .30 .04 .29 <.001
Note. * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001

Application to four-year College (Upperclassmen/Seniors)
To examine if each component of hope predicted seniors’ application to four-year college
(did not apply, applied), three logistic regression analyses were conducted with each of the three

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components (hope, pathways, agency) as the predictor and application to four-year college (yes
or no) for seniors as the outcome variable.
Hope. Results of a logistic regression analysis, with hope as the predictor, indicated that
hope was a significant predictor of seniors’ application for admittance to a four-year college
(omnibus chi-square = 7.08, df = 1, p = .008). It accounted for between 3.8% and 5.4% of the
variances in the application to four-year colleges. The value of the coefficients revealed that
increase in overall hope was associated with an increase in the odds of application to college by a
factor of 1.59 (95% CI 1.12 and 2.25).
Agency. Results of a logistic regression analysis, with agency as the predictor, indicated
that agency was a significant predictor of the application for admission to four-year colleges for
seniors (omnibus chi-square = 10.27, df = 1, p = .001). It accounted for between 5.4% and 7.7%
of the variances in the application to four-year college. The value of the coefficients revealed that
increase in hope-agency was associated with an increase in the odds of application to college by
a factor of 1.68 (95% CI 1.21 and 2.31).
Pathways. Results of a logistic regression analysis with pathways as the predictor
indicated that pathways was not a significant predictor of application to four-year college for
12th grade students (omnibus chi-square = 2.76, df = 1, p = .097). It only accounted for between
1.5% and 2.1% of the variances in the application to college, and it was not significant.
Table 5
Summary of Logistic Regression Analysis for Upperclassmen Application to four-year College
Variables Wald df Exp(B) p
95% CI
Lower
95% CI
Higher
Hope*** 6.83 1 1.59 .009 1.12 2.25
Hope Agency*** 9.78 1 1.68 .002 1.21 2.31
Hope Pathways 2.73 1 1.30 .099 .95 1.79
Note. * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001

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Research Question 2: College Application Hope and the Pursuit of Higher Education
Research question two examined if college application hope predicts the pursuit of higher
education for high school students. See Table 6 and Table 7 for a summary of the statistics.
Intent to Apply to College (Underclassmen)
One simple linear regression and two multiple linear regression analyses were conducted
to examine if college application hope, college application pathways (knowledge of logistics,
knowledge of content), and college application agency (motivation to apply to college;
confidence in accomplishing logistics, confidence in accomplishing content) predict
underclassmen’s intent to apply to college.
College Application Hope. Results of a simple linear regression, with the intent to apply
to college as the dependent variable and college application hope (a composite of all indicators
of pathways and agency) as the independent variable, indicated that college application overall
hope significantly predicted underclassmen’s intent to apply to college, explaining 13% of the
variances, F (1, 598) = 89.07, p < .001.
College Application Pathways. Results of a multiple regression with intent to apply to
college as the dependent variable indicated that domain-specific college application hope
pathways statistically significantly contributed to underclassmen’s intent to apply to college,
explaining 3.5% of the variances, F (2, 587) = 10.55, p < .001. More specifically, knowledge of
the content was the significant predictor, 𝛃 = .21, p < .001, when considering both knowledge of
content and knowledge of logistics together.
College Application Agency. Results of a multiple regression, with the intent to apply to
college as the dependent variable, indicated that college application agency statistically
significantly contributed to underclassmen’s intent to apply to college, explaining 32.0% of the

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variances, F (2, 574) = 89.90, p < .001. More specifically, motivation to apply to college was the
significant predictor, 𝛃 = .55, p < .001, when considering motivation and both confidence of
content and confidence of logistics together.
Table 6
Summary of Multiple Regression Analysis for Intent to Apply to College
Variables R
2
F B SE β p
College Application Hope*** .130 89.07 .09 02 .36 <.001

College Application Pathways
.035 10.55 <.001
Knowledge-Logistics -.04 .07 -.03 .551
Knowledge-Content*** .24 .06 .21 <.001

College Application Agency .320 89.90 <.001
Motivation to Apply*** .54 .04 .55 <.001
Confidence-Logistics .04 .06 .04 .456
Confidence-Content -.01 .06 -.01 .894
Note. * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001

Application to four-year College (Upperclassmen/Seniors)
To examine if each component of domain-specific college application hope predicted
12th grade students’ application for admittance to a four-year year college (did not apply,
applied), three logistic regression analyses were conducted.
College Application Hope. Results of a logistic regression, with application to college as
the dependent variable and college application hope (a composite of all indicators of pathway
thinking and agency) as the independent variable, indicated that college application hope
significantly predicted seniors’ application for admittance to four-year college (omnibus chi-
square = 24.94, df = 1, p < .001), accounting for 12.6% to 18% of the variances. Increase in
overall college application hope was associated with an increase in the odds of applying to a
four-year college by a factor of 1.235 (95% CI 1.13 and 1.35).

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College Application Pathways. A logistic multiple regression was conducted, with
application to college as the dependent variable and pathways (a composite of knowledge of the
logistics and knowledge of the content) as the independent variables. Results indicated that
college application hope pathways was significant in predicting 12th grade students’ application
to four-year college (omnibus Chi-square = 42.71, df = 2, p < .001), accounting for 20.6% to
29.4% of the variances. More specifically, the unique contributions of the knowledge of the
content significantly contributed to students’ decision. Increase in knowledge of the content was
associated with an increase in the odds of applying for admittance to a four-year college by a
factor of 3.97 (95% CI 2.17 and 7.28).
College Application Agency. A logistic multiple regression was conducted, with
application to college as the dependent variable and college application agency (motivation to
apply to college, confidence in one's ability to accomplish the logistics and content of the college
application process) as the independent variables. Results indicated that the college application
agency was significant in predicting seniors’ application to college (omnibus chi-square = 26,91,
df = 3, p < .001), accounting for 13.7% to 19.5% of the variances. More specifically, the unique
contributions of the confidence in one’s ability to accomplish the content significantly
contributed to students’ application to four-year college. Increase in confidence to accomplish
the content was associated with an increase in the odds of deciding to apply for traditional four-
year college by a factor of 2.30 (95% CI 1.34 and 3.95).

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Table 7
Summary of Logistic Regression Analysis for Application to College
Variables Wald df Exp(B) p
95% CI
Lower
95% CI
Higher
College Application Hope*** 21.38 1 1.24 <.001 1.13 1.35

College Application Pathways

Knowledge-Logistics .45 1 .82 .503 .47 1.45
Knowledge-Content*** 19.87 1 3.97 <.001 2.17 7.28

College Application Agency
Motivation to Apply .13 1 .94 .720 .67 1.31
Confidence-Logistics .27 1 1.16 .604 .67 2.02
Confidence-Content** 9.19 1 2.20 .002 1.34 3.95
Note. * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001

Research Question 3: Best Predictor of the Pursuit of Higher Education
Research question three investigated the best predictor of the pursuit of higher education
for high school students among all of the components of hope and college application hope.
Hope is the composite of agency and pathways; college application hope is the composite of
college application agency and college application pathways. To further break down the
components, college application agency includes motivation to apply to college, motivation to go
to college, confidence in one’s ability to accomplish the logistical knowledge parts of the
application, and confidence in one’s ability to accomplish the content specific parts of the
application. See Tables 8 and 9 for a summary of the statistics.
Intent to Apply to College (Underclassmen)
To investigate what the best predictor would be, a stepwise forward multiple linear
regression analysis was conducted, with intent to apply to college as the dependent variable, and
hope (pathway, agency), college application hope, college application pathways (knowledge of
content [e.g., writing essays, conveying strengths and weaknesses], knowledge of logistics [e.g.,
filling out application, etc.], motivation to apply to college, college application agency

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(confidence in ability to accomplish the logistics [e.g., filling out application, etc.], and
confidence in ability to accomplish the content specific portions of the college application [e.g.,
writing essays, conveying strengths and weaknesses, etc.] as the predictors.
Results indicated that two significant predictors emerged in underclassmen students’
intent to apply to college. The best predictor was students’ motivation to apply to college, and
the next best predictor was dispositional hope agency. Motivation to apply to college was the
best predictor of underclassmen’s intent to apply to college, explaining 32% of the variances,
which was significant, F (1, 575) = 270.64, p < .001. Above and beyond what motivation to
apply to college can explain, dispositional hope agency was the next significant predictor,
explaining an additional 0.8% of the variance, which was also statistically significant, Fchange
(1, 574) = 6.85, p = .009.
Table 8
Summary of Stepwise Regression Analysis for Intent to Apply to College
Variables R
2
R
2
change Fchange B SE β p
Model 1
Motivation to apply*** .32 270.64 .56 .03 .57 <.001
Model 2
Hope-Agency** .33 .01 6.85 .10 .04 .10 .009
Note. * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001

Application to four-year College (Upperclassmen/Seniors)
A stepwise multiple logistic regression with application to college as the dependent
variable was conducted to examine which was the best predictor among all the components of
hope (pathways thinking, agency) and college application hope (college application pathways
[knowledge of logistics, knowledge of content], college application agency [motivation to apply
to college, confidence in ability to accomplish the logistics, confidence in ability to accomplish
the content]). Results indicated that the contribution of the predictors were significant (omnibus
chi-square = 41.24, df = 1, p < .001), accounting for 20.2% to 28.7% of the variances. More

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specifically, it was found that the best predictor for 12th grade students’ application for
admittance to college was their knowledge of the content of the college application
process. Increase in knowledge of the content was associated with an increase in the odds of
deciding to apply for traditional four-year colleges by a factor of 3.42 (95% CI 2.21 and 5.30).
Table 9
Summary of Stepwise Logistic Regression Analysis for Application to College

Variables Wald df Exp(B) p
95% CI
Lower
95% CI
Higher
College Application Pathways
Knowledge-Content***
17.62 1 3.42 < .001 2.21 5.30
Note. * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001

Summary of Findings
Results of this study demonstrate the power of hope. Dispositional hope and college
application hope were both significant predictors of underclassmen’s intent to apply to college
and seniors’ application to a four-year college. Interestingly, when analyzing the specific
components of college application pathways (content and logistical knowledge), for students in
all grades, the significant predictor of intent to apply (9, 10, 11) and application to college (12)
was knowledge of the content areas of the college application. When analyzing the three
components of college application agency, (motivation, confidence in logistics, confidence in
content knowledge) for underclassmen, it was motivation to apply to college that was the
significant predictor. However, when analyzing college application agency, it was confidence in
one’s ability to accomplish the content knowledge of the application process that was the
significant predictor for 12th grade students’ actual applications to college. This is significant
because it shows that while motivation fuels the early years of high school, in the end, it was
knowledge of how to accomplish the application tasks that was most important. Finally, to

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provide another dimension, analysis of each component of hope and college application hope
theories together revealed that the best predictor of intent to apply to college for underclassmen
was students’ motivation to apply to college (a component of college application agency),
followed by their agency (a component of dispositional hope). For seniors, the best predictor of
application to a four-year college was the knowledge of the content of the college application
process. These findings validate the research on hope theory and its predictive power on
academic achievement and educational outcomes, extend its application to college readiness—
and more concretely the college application—and have valuable implications for research and
practice.

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Chapter 5: Discussion

The fundamental purpose of the study was to address an important issue in education
through a theoretical lens in an effort to further knowledge and improve practice. More
specifically, this study sought to explore the relationship between the independent variables of
hope and college application hope, and the dependent variables of underclassmen’s intent to
apply to college and seniors’ application to college. Additionally, this study examined which of
the specific components of hope (agency and pathways) and college application hope (college
application agency [motivation to apply, confidence in ability to complete the logistics and
content aspects of the application] and college application pathways [knowledge of how to
complete the logistics and content areas of the application]) would be the best predictor for intent
to apply (for students in grades 9, 10, 11) and application to college (for students in grade 12).
Results revealed the predictive power of both hope and college application hope on
underclassmen’s intent to apply to college and seniors’ application to four-year college. The
findings of the study provide a unique understanding of the impact of hope on the college
application process and generate a new lens to illuminate how to support students through the
college application process. The following chapter provides a summary and discussion of the
results, as well as theoretical and applied implications. Limitations of this study are also
articulated and recommendations for practice and future studies are set forth.
Discussion of Results
Dispositional Hope and the Pursuit of Higher Education
This study had several notable findings. Results from this study confirmed the
hypothesis that dispositional hope would predict underclassmen’s intent to apply to college and
seniors’ actual application to four-year college. For underclassmen, students with higher levels of

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hope reported greater intention to apply to college than their lower hope counterparts. For the
12th grade students who reflected on their applications, students with higher levels of hope
applied to college at a greater rate than their low hope counterparts. These findings continue to
validate research by Snyder (2002) that hope is related to superior academic performance and
consistently related to better life outcomes (Dixson et al., 2018; Snyder, Cheavens, & Michael,
1999). The findings were also consistent with previous studies that found hope to be a significant
predictor of academic achievement, above intelligence, personality, and previous academic
achievement (Day, et al., 2010). Although these findings were consistent with previous studies
on hope and academic achievement, this study was unique in that it focused on the relationship
between hope and college readiness, specifically application to college. The results expand the
theory into a new domain and generate evidence on the applicability of hope theory to the
college application process and reinforce the power of hope to impact students’ lives and
educational outcomes.
When examining the components of hope independently, agency predicted both intent to
apply and application to college. Underclassmen students with higher levels of agency reported
greater intent to apply to college; seniors with higher levels of agency reported an increase in
application to four-year colleges than their both of their low agency counterparts. This finding is
consistent with prior studies on the power of agency. For example, Sung, Turner, and
Kaewchinda (2011) found dispositional agency to be a significant contributor of both career
skills and educational outcomes; yet, the component of pathways was not. In this study,
pathways predicted underclassmen intent to apply to college; however, it was not predictive of
seniors’ application to four-year college. While this finding was contrary to the original
hypothesis, some researchers who examined the differences between pathways and agency and

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found similar results. Tong, Fredrickson, Chang, and Lim (2010) examined the role of
dispositional agency and pathways thinking in people’s levels of hope about broad life issues
(e.g., personal growth and the future; hope over time). They found that while agency was
positively associated with hope, pathways was not. Thus, some researchers argue that hope can
still be felt as long as there is a belief that an important goal can be attained (i,e., agency), even
without the belief in oneself to generate the means (i.e., pathways) to obtain it (Farran et al,
1995; McGeer, 2004; Stotland, 1969).
The non-significant finding between dispositional pathways and application to college
may be due to measurement issues. This study used Snyder’s Children’s Hope Scale (CHS) to
assess the level of dispositional pathways. The questions in the CHS focus on children’s
dispositional ability to think of many ways to get the things in life that are important to them and
ways to solve problems. The dispositional hope measurement differs from the domain-specific
college application hope measurement in that the latter is specific to the college application
process, whereas the former is a generalized trait. The finding could be reflective of the contrast
between pathways thinking that is organic to the nature of the individual and pathways thinking
that is specific to applying to college. Students may recognize that they do not need to generate
the necessary knowledge and routes to apply to college, but instead can rely on sources to learn
this information. In other words, the pathways knowledge that is required to apply to college
does not have to be directly generated from the individual, in fact, that information should come
from mentors and outside of the individual: counselors, teachers, parents, friends, Internet
searches, various websites, books, etc. The notion of having the dispositional ability to generate
the route to apply to college was not as important as having the domain-specific college

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application pathways thinking necessary to derive or generate the knowledge needed to apply to
college.
Domain Specific College Application Hope and the Pursuit of Higher Education
To apply hope as a theoretical lens to the college application, this study defined domain-
specific college application hope as a two-component model of college application pathways and
college application agency. Specifically, college application agency includes students’
motivation to apply to college, their confidence about their ability to complete the logistics and
content of the college application. College application pathways thinking includes students’
knowledge and understanding of the logistics and content of the college applications. As with
dispositional hope, college application hope predicted both underclassmen’s intent to apply to
college and senior students’ application to four-year colleges.
When examining the specific components of college application hope, while there were
similarities, different patterns also emerged for underclassmen and seniors. College application
pathways was a significant predictor of both underclassmen’s intent to apply to college and
upperclassmen’s application to four-year college. More specifically, it was the knowledge of the
content parts of the application that played a significant role. The more content knowledge
students evaluated themselves to have, the more intent underclassmen had to apply and more
likely seniors were to apply to a four-year college than their lower hope counterparts. This result
reiterates the vital importance of ensuring that all students are given proper scaffolding, support,
and instruction so that they can effectively learn how to apply to college. More importantly,
results indicated it was not knowledge of the logistics that was significant, but knowledge and
understanding of the content specific parts of the application. Filling out applications and
navigating various online platforms may be intuitive to teenagers who are digital natives and this

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skill set showed no statistical significance with the outcome variable. However, content
components of the application, such as how to write a quality personal statement that reflects
student strengths, interests, values, motivations, and goals, and how to write an effective college
specific essay which demonstrates interest in and knowledge about the university, was the
significant predictor of application to college.
These findings of the value of knowledge needed to apply to college are consistent with
research by Hoxby and Avery (2012) and Hoxby and Turner (2013, 2015) that found that
interventions focusing on providing high school students information about the college
application process substantially raises students’ probability of applying to, being admitted at,
enrolling at, and progressing at selective colleges (Hoxby & Turner, 2013). The Expanding
College Opportunities (ECO) project is an intervention designed and implemented by Hoxby and
Turner (2015) to test the hypothesis that low-income, high achievers find it hard to digest the
mountain of complex information that comprises the college application process. In a large
randomized controlled trial, the comprehensive ECO intervention led students to apply to, be
admitted to, and matriculate at schools with richer instructional resources, higher graduation
rates, and better prepared peers. Relative to the controls, treated students submitted 48% more
applications and were 56% more likely to apply to a peer college or better. Students who
received the intervention were admitted to 31% more colleges and were 78% more likely to be
admitted by a peer college. Results from this study further support the idea that that knowledge
and information is key in the college application process.
Different from the consistent impacts of college application pathways on underclassmen
and seniors, different patterns emerged for college application agency. For underclassmen, it was
their motivation to apply to college that had a significant impact on their intent to apply, among

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the three specific components of college application agency. This is consistent with past research
on academic motivation, which has been shown to be related to a variety of important
educational outcomes including learning, curiosity, persistence, and performance (Vallerand et
al., 1992). Motivation is key in goal pursuits, as it energizes, directs, and guides behavior.
Motivation can be intrinsic, extrinsic, or a combination of both. Students may be intrinsically
driven to want to go to college to pursue a subject matter of great interest that could also
transpire into a career, or they could be extrinsically motivated to apply to college because they
recognize the value of it, or have a combination of both. At the core of motivation lies values;
students are motivated to do that which they value. The motives that students have for applying
to and attending college are influenced by their cultural values and by society itself (Phinney,
Dennis, & Osorio, 2006). In an era that values college and promotes its importance throughout
K-12 systems, it is not surprising that the study found motivation to apply to college as a
significant factor for underclassmen’s intent to apply to college.
However, for seniors, among the three components of college application agency (i.e.,
motivation to apply, confidence regarding the logistics, and confidence regarding the content of
the application), it was not their motivation but their confidence in their ability to accomplish the
application content that was the significant factor that impacted 12th grade students’ decision to
apply. This is an important finding because it demonstrates that before goal attainment,
motivation was the most significant factor prompting students along the path toward goal
completion. However, analysis of 12th grade student reported findings indicated that it was not
their motivation that significantly impacted their agency regarding application to college, it was
their confidence in their ability to complete the content specific parts of the application, which is
often viewed as more challenging than the logistical components of how to apply. Capabilities

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such as how to identify and communicate strengths, interests, values, goals, and write college
essays, were the significant factors in applying to college. This result speaks to the importance of
teaching students these skills so they have the confidence and self-efficacy in their ability to be
successful at this aspect of the college application.
Best Hope Component Predictor of the Pursuit of Higher Education
To translate the value of research to practice, and to provide an additional angle of
analysis, the study investigated which specific component of hope and college application hope
was the best predictor of intent to apply and application to college. Results revealed that for
underclassmen, the best predictors of their intent to apply to colleges was their motivation to
apply to college, a component of college application agency, followed by their dispositional
agency. Results of this research confirm the positive impact of motivation on intent to apply to
college. As the goal (i.e., entering college) is set for the future, student motivation will continue
to energize and direct behaviors and can profoundly influence college readiness and the
application process. Motivation for college may be related to the value placed on education
(Phinney et al., 2006). Students’ reasons to attend college are important because they may
influence academic engagement, outcomes, and plans for a college (Phinney et al., 2006) and can
form the basis of motivation. Phinney and her colleagues (2006) identify three primary reasons
for attending college: to help one’s family, to prove one’s self-worth, and as a direct result of
encouragement from others. Dispositional hope agency was the second-best predictor of
underclassmen intent to apply to college. Agency is a more complex term to represent the will of
the human being. Therefore, not surprisingly, agency would be a powerful and predictive force
in the movement toward any goal. Sung, Turner, and Kaewchinda (2011) found agency to be the

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most significant predictor between goal and pathways, for if someone loses the will, the ways
may not matter.
Different from underclassmen, for high school seniors, the best predictor of their
application to four-year college was their knowledge of the content of the application, a
component of college application pathways. Those seniors who rated themselves as having more
knowledge and understanding of how to write a high quality personal statement for a college
application, how to write high quality, college-specific supplemental essays, and how to identify
and communicate their strengths, values, interests, and goals within the college application were
more likely to apply to college than those rated themselves as having less knowledge in the same
categories. In other words, students want to go to college, and they report that they intend to
apply to college when they are in 9th, 10, or 11th grades; however, in the end, the students with
the greater content knowledge and understanding of the application parts were the ones who
applied. This type of knowledge includes the self-reflective knowledge and ability for students to
communicate their strengths and values, interests in attending a specific college, and academic
and professional goals within the qualitative parts of the application. Additionally, many
supplemental essays require students to explain why they want to attend a particular college, and
this question requires knowledge of the university itself, including academic subject area majors
and concentrations, professors, courses, research opportunities, and available athletic, artistic,
musical, social, and philanthropic activities with which the student would like to be involved.
This result speaks to the importance of teaching students how to reflect on their values, strengths,
interests, and goals, and articulate them in a powerful and genuine way through the essays and
activity descriptions required in the application process. Motivation and self-efficacy are critical

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for the pursuit of higher education goals; however, in the end it is knowledge and understanding
of the college application that made the difference.
Implications for Education
For decades, the national dialogue has articulated the need to increase high school
students’ college- and career-readiness. This study focused on the gatekeeping mechanism of
higher education: the college application process. The results from this study suggest that both
dispositional hope and college application hope are significant predictors of intent to apply to
college for high school underclassmen and application to four-year college for high school
seniors. While the results may be intuitive, further analyses of both dispositional hope and
college application hope prompt teachers, counselors, and parents to ask, “Why? and How?”
What is it about the interplay between hope and student pursuit of educational goals that
produces this outcome? How can parents, teachers, counselors, and leaders harness the power of
hope and utilize it as a lens through which to look at complex issues, goals, and dreams in order
to make those visions realities? While the answers to these questions are multidimensional and
complex, the results of this study provide helpful insights to guide our inquiry and practice
toward helping students achieve their dreams.
The theoretical and practical implications of this study’s results are noteworthy. As
established in previous research studies and also confirmed in this study, hope matters and is
important. When conceptualized through goals, agency, and pathways, hope has the power to
alter educational outcomes. The power of hope lies in the premise that it is malleable and it can
be learned; therefore, it has great educational and practical implications. Creating hope is a
process that parents, educators, counselors, and leaders can impact; it is not an inborn quality that
cannot be changed (Sheehan & Rall, 2011). Hope interventions have been found to be effective,

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easily implemented, and inexpensive (Marques et al., 2011; Feldman & Dreher, 2011). Creating
dispositional hope in students is valuable for many life and academic outcomes, including
application to college. Hope theory can also be applied to many other domains and utilized as a
lens to strengthen goal attainment and achievement. The creation of the new domain-specific
hope instrument—College Application Hope— provides researchers, teachers, parents, and
counselors the opportunity to evaluate individual student’s college application agency and
college application pathways. Information generated from the college application hope
instrument can be used as a diagnostic tool to create an individual plan to support students
through the application process, based on the student’s strengths and needs.
Application is a key step in the college-going process, and one that substantially
contributes to socioeconomic inequalities (Cabrera and La Nasa, 2002; Hanson, 1994; Turley &
Zaman, 2007). The finding of the significant value of college application knowledge presents the
most dynamic and difficult problem within the education system and has both micro- and macro-
level implications. The educational implications and recommendations derived from this study
introduces concepts such as social capital, the inequity that often results when one group has
more resources than another, and the logistical challenges that many school systems face.
If knowledge of how to apply is critical for applicants, then we must examine where and
how students receive scaffolding and instruction for that knowledge. Previous research has
examined inequalities in education through a social capital framework (Plank & Jordan, 2001;
Engberg & Wolniak 2010; Engberg & Allen, 2011; Pérez & McDonough, 2008; Riegle-Crumb,
2010). Social capital encompasses the resources that flow through relationships (Coleman,
1988). These interconnections occur at the micro-level, and include family members, teachers,
and counselors, and at the macro-level, which encompass social networks and institutions such

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as schools, churches, and community organizations. Opportunities for connections and ties to
institutional agents and networks of valuable information, resources, opportunities, norms, and
expectations, can lead to differential benefits and advantages (Bourdieu, 2002; Coleman, 1988;
Lin, 2001). Social capital plays an important role in applying to college, through connecting
students with influential people who can provide valuable information and knowledge to students
(Robinson & Roksa, 2016).
Three important types of resources flow through social capital that enhance individual
functioning in many domains: information, norms, and support (Coleman, 1988). In relation to
education, families are often perceived as a primary source of social capital for students
(Hetherington, 1998). However, school is the dominant extrafamilial institution in the life of K-
12 students, and therefore also a primary source of social capital. Social capital related to
processes such as college applications may accrue directly to students or may amass to students
through parents and their contact and relationships with teachers, counselors (Kim & Schneider,
2005) and other mentors who provide application expertise. School-based social capital is the
social relations or social networks in school systems that can be utilized to improve students’
lives and educational outcomes (Lin, 2001). Students need an agent who will encourage, instruct,
scaffold, and support them through the application process and provide the knowledge and
information they need (Phinney, Dennis, & Osorio, 2006). Students also need to have their
agency built and receive encouragement, feedback, and instruction through the application
process. If students are in a school with limited college application support and resources, some
families, who have the economic means and social connections, hire private college admissions
counselors (McDonough, 1994). These private counselors offer uninterrupted time where they
provide specialized knowledge and assistance, help organize and manage college choices,

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develop student’s strength-based strategy, and teach pathways and college options with a variety
of personalized alternatives. However, this level of attention creates a divide between those
students who can afford a private admissions counselor and/or who have access to one and those
students who cannot. Schools create greater equity when class time can be utilized to teach the
college application process.
Implications for Students in Grades 9, 10, and 11 (Underclassmen)
In a “college for all” era, students hear repeated messages about the value of college.
Thus, not surprisingly, the best predictor of intent to apply to college is motivation, as an aspect
of college application hope agency, followed closely by dispositional agency. Students are
motivated to go to college; they want to go to college, and they have confidence that they can go
to college. Therefore, it is essential to capitalize on student motivation and build dispositional
agency. Stakeholders must stay up-to-date on current application requirements, formats, essay
prompts, and style of writing and expose students to the college application early on in their
education. Students need to be exposed to the application by the end of 8th grade and reviewed
again at the beginning of 9th grade so that students may backward-map and make mindful
decisions. Before high school students should be presented with various types of colleges, such
as junior, state college, state university, private colleges and universities, the available pathways
toward higher education, and the requirements and application process of each type of college.
Armed with knowledge of the application process, students will then be able to brainstorm ways
to develop their strengths, interests, and talents, and proactively plan their high school years
including academic course selections, activities, volunteer work, and leadership. Most
importantly, students need to understand the consequences of their decisions. Many students
report senior year, “If I had only known then what I know now, I would have done things

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differently.” In order to equitably distribute information and opportunities class time must be
devoted to teaching how to apply to college, rather than rely on students to make appointments to
meet individually with a high school counselor or privately funded college admissions counselor.
Disseminating college knowledge to all students, not just Honors and Advanced Placement
tracked students, will ensure an equitable distribution of opportunities and ensure that students
with potential to pursue a college education will be equipped to do so. Throughout high school,
students need to be exposed to the style of writing required in the college application—both
personal statements and college specific essays. As these types of writing styles are not typically
covered in English and traditional high school writing classes, then the important question
remains: “Where do students learn and practice how to write their college essays?” Students need
to see examples of this style of writing and given practice to develop the reflective ability to
identify values, strengths, interests, and goals as well as the skills to write these types of essays
successfully and effectively. College information also needs to be disseminated to parents and
guardians via email, webinars, seminars, and print format for those without computer access.
Implications for Students in Grade 12 (Seniors)
While motivation and dispositional agency were the most significant variables for
underclassmen’s intent to apply to college, analysis of the 12th grade student data showed that
ultimately the best predictor of actual application to college was knowledge of the content area of
the college application process. Lending further strength to this finding is the analysis of the
components of college application agency, which showed that for seniors, confidence in the
content knowledge category was also a significant aspect of college application agency. If
knowledge of how to apply is critical for applicants, then we must examine where, when, how,
and from whom do students obtain the knowledge and understanding required to successfully

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apply to college? Do teachers allocate class time, teaching all students how to apply to college?
Are high school counselors providing this information, and do they have classroom access? Do
students proactively set appointments with the counselor, and if so, does the caseload of the
counselor allow for equitable distribution among all students for face-time, instruction,
encouragement, feedback, and deadline-driven accountability? Do parents help their students, or
put them in contact with social agents who can? Do parents hire private college admission
counselors to scaffold their children through the process and help them create a competitive
package? Do some students utilize the Internet and research the answers to their questions or
glean information on how to apply from various websites? These questions are critical, and our
response to these questions results in the difference between students who apply to college and
students who do not.
College applications open in August of students’ senior year of high school. Students
need to be scaffolded through the application process and taught how to succeed in it. Students
need clear exposure to different types of college applications, ways to apply (early action, early
decision, regular decision), ACT/SAT test dates, how to procure letters of recommendations,
how to write activity descriptions, successfully construct the college essays, and how to manage
the various deadlines. Students need guidance identifying and communicating their values,
interests, strengths, and goals within the application. High school counselors and teachers need to
generate and provide quality model essays as examples for students and provide meaningful
feedback to all student college essays. There must be an equitable distribution of trained, expert
teachers and college admission counselors that have classroom access so all students are exposed
to college application knowledge, not just select individuals. As recommended with

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underclassmen, information needs to be disseminated in various ways to parents and guardians
so they are properly informed and can support and scaffold their teenagers as needed.
Recommendations for Parents
Collectively, adult caregivers have an investment in imparting hopeful thinking to our
offspring. As hoping is the mental bridging to goals dreamed now and attained in the future, by
learning to hope, today’s generation can be equipped to grapple with tomorrow’s adventures
(Snyder, 2002). Hopeful thinking can and must be developed in children starting at a young age,
with the concept of thinking in pathways and the importance of agency introduced and
reintroduced at developmentally appropriate stages. There are a number of concrete ways parents
can help students to develop hope. As children create goals from what they value, it is important
to help children develop their values. Articulating family and cultural values and asking children
questions such as, “What do you value, and why?” helps children form their own values.
Observe children and notice aptitudes and interests in various domains. When an aptitude and
interest is clear, look for ways to support and develop it so that it becomes a strength and area of
expertise. Confidence and self-efficacy is created as children experience success; therefore, seek
to provide nurturing and supportive educational experiences that build children’s agency. From
values, interests, and strengths, help children set goals and brainstorm available pathways toward
goal completion. Discuss and normalize the concept of obstacles, problem-solving, and work-
around strategies, for when an obstacle is permanent and insurmountable. Be aware of influences
beyond the family that can damage hopeful thinking and fight against them. As parents, when we
model hopeful thinking based on goals, agency and pathways, and adaptability when obstacles
present in our own lives, it imprints on our children and teaches them how to strategically think
and remain hopeful through their lives.

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Recommendations for Teachers
Hope theory and its application in specific academic domains is a powerful and dynamic
construct that can lift students toward future successes. Teachers can integrate hopeful thinking
into their classroom instruction in a variety of ways. Ask students to set academic course-related
goals and reflect upon and evaluate their agency and knowledge and understanding of pathways
toward goal completion, in age-appropriate ways. Agency can be strengthened by increasing
students’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivation for the class, as well as mindfully creating
opportunities to build confidence and course-related self-efficacy. Teaching students to reflect on
what they know and what they need to know, as well as where they can go to learn the
information can strengthen pathways thinking and give students power over their learning.
Integrating other theories such as possible selves, mindset, and problem solving into discussions
can also enhance hope development and help students become fluent with these concepts and
integrate them into their lives. For instance, the integration of possible selves theory can help
students envision themselves in the future and what they hope to become. From that vision,
concrete goals can be set, and hope theory applied. Growth mindset encourages hard work,
welcomes challenges, and views failures as lessons rather than defeats; these qualities help to
develop agency. Grit and resilience help strengthen students’ will to persist on the pathway.
Problem-solving skills help students learn to defeat obstacles or create work-arounds and new
pathway creations. The synergy of concepts can create a dynamic system resulting in higher
levels of hope.
Recommendations for College Admission Counselors
The role of school counselor as a resource is crucial for all students, and especially for
those who have limited social and economic capital. As many students progress through school,

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their parents may become increasingly limited in their own capacities to provide technical,
psychological, cognitive, and informational assistance with academic coursework and college
planning (Stanton-Salazar & Dornbusch, 1995). Furthermore, since the college application
system has changed significantly over the past twenty years, parents who attended college and
graduate school may not have current and competitive knowledge, and often students must
navigate the college application process alone (Ceja, 2006) or find other mentors who can help
them. Guidance from school counselors is a critical source of social capital for many students
(Croninger & Lee, 2001) and particularly for lower income and historically underrepresented,
first-generation college students (Cabrera & La Nasa, 2002; Harris et al., 2002).
College admissions counselors can integrate hope theory into their practice in a variety of
ways. Counselors can utilize hope as a lens to provide support to students through the application
process. College Application Hope instrument can be utilized as a way to diagnose student
strengths and needs. Taking the time to properly diagnose the problem before attempting a
solution creates more efficiency for the counselor and student. If students are lacking knowledge,
counselors can teach students what they need to know and also guide them toward valuable
resources. If students are lacking in agency, focused attention on building motivation, explaining
the value of the goal, and elevating self-efficacy through instruction should be implemented. As
college application agency and college application pathways are additive and reciprocal, building
one will help to support the other. When the knowledge of how to successfully apply to college
becomes clearly evident, clarified, and understood, students can move forward on pathways with
greater confidence, motivation, persistence, and focused attention. Counselors can also help
teachers to stay current on application requirements, so they can support students in the
classroom and write effective and timely letters of recommendation. Gaining classroom access to

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disseminate application knowledge, rather than requiring students to make individual
appointments, allows for all students to be exposed to information and provides a more efficient
use of the counselors time. Individual appointments can then be created to provide more
individualized attention.
Recommendations for School Leaders
School leaders have the power to create a culture of hope in districts and schools and this
can be done in a variety of ways. Setting time aside for teacher, counselor, and staff training, as
well as parent education on hope theory and how to apply it to their unique domains can help to
create a shared language for stakeholders. Increasing students’ hope can be inexpensive, highly
effective, and employed at all levels of education (Weise & Speridakos, 2011). Hope
interventions can have profound impact on the student body, as hopeful thoughts and energy
modeled by leaders can create a ripple effect and increase everyone’s level of hope (Lopez,
2010).
A college readiness culture requires the mindful creation of a system that allows for
equitable distribution of college knowledge and skills to all students. For instance, class time
needs to be devoted to explaining and teaching the various parts of the college application. High
school college counselors need either access to the classroom for direct student instruction or
time to provide knowledge and training to those teachers are responsible for conveying college
application knowledge and developing student college application skills. This will enable an
equitable distribution of up to date college application knowledge and provides greater support to
students through a process that is often stressful.
“Access to education” has been the policy buzzword for decades, especially when
speaking about historically underrepresented college students. While the intentions of the phrase

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were to open opportunities for more students and historically underrepresented groups, an
unintended consequence is the connotation of the word and what it communicates on different
levels. The very phrase—giving access—connotes a power differentiation: someone or a group
of individuals function as the gatekeeper to higher education and will or will not grant entrance
for others in order to “get access” to education. Instead, if school leaders and stakeholders focus
on the phrase pathways to higher education, we can create a system that recognizes and owns the
responsibility to effectively teach pathways to college and develop the individual agency,
characteristic qualities, knowledge, and skills to successfully apply with confidence to college.
Limitations of the Study
Even though this study has several significant contributions to theory and practice, there
are some limitations that must be taken into account including issues of measurement,
instrumentation, and study design.
First, with the use of any self-report survey there is the inherent risk of a social
desirability bias. This study utilized a self-report survey asking students about their subjective
experiences, perceived levels of hope, as well as a self-assessment of their knowledge,
confidence, and motivation to complete logistical and content areas of the college application.
Students may have been uncomfortable providing an open and honest assessment of their own
levels of hope or information regarding their intent to apply to college, college application
knowledge, confidence, and motivation based on what they believed were socially desirable
responses, despite the online survey being anonymous and completely confidential.
Second, as in the nature of convenience sampling, this study was limited by the
characteristics of the participants. The sample included students from two schools from different
cities in Southern California with specific demographic profiles. Caution should be heeded in

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generalizing these findings to all high schools in California or nationwide. Even though this
study has a large sample size of 1002 participants, the largest racial/ethnic groups of the
participants was, in descending order, Asian (31.6%), White/European descent (24.1%), and
biracial/multiracial (21.5%) heritages. Additionally, there are 22% of students on free and
reduced lunch meal plans in School A and 3.4% in School B. Thus, the results need to be
interpreted with this demographic profile in mind. While this study has great diversity,
replicating within different racial/ethnic sample populations is recommended. Additional future
studies should also be conducted with schools with primarily lower socioeconomic student
bodies in order to create a more comprehensive understanding of the role of hope and college
application hope.
Another limitation of this study was in the instrumentation used for domain-specific
College Application Hope. College application hope instrumentation was created for this study
as an exercise to apply theory to practice and because the experience of working as a college
admission counselor revealed the usefulness of evaluating students’ agency and pathways
knowledge during the application process. Thus, it was from practice that the questions for this
study arose and the survey was designed based on the experience of working with high school
students from the United States, Europe, Asia, and Africa. As this was the first attempt at
creating a college application hope survey, the instrument needs to be refined and validated. It is
also important to note that college application hope specifically tested for the knowledge piece of
the application process, rather than testing to see if a student could generate multiple different
routes to college (e.g., junior college, transfer options, etc.). The reason for this decision was
based on practical experience of the principal investigator who wanted to shed light on the
application itself, not on a broader concept of understanding various ways to get an education.

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Thus, pathways thinking in dispositional hope is not synonymous with pathways thinking for
college application hope, as college application hope is more domain-specific than a broad
characteristic quality.
Furthermore, this study is limited to only the selected variables in understanding all
factors that contribute to the college application process (intent and action). There are other
known factors that are important to educational outcomes, such as socioeconomic status (e.g.,
Dixson et al., 2018), GPA (e.g., Dixson et al., 2018), and parent education levels (e.g., Zill,
2016; Perna & Titus, 2005), etc. Thus, the results should be interpreted with consideration for the
specific focus in this study.
Lastly, a fifth limitation of this study was the focus on the dependent variables: intent to
apply to college and application to a four-year college. There are other post-secondary education
routes that are equally as beneficial to society, such as community colleges, trade schools,
professional certifications, military training, and on the job education. Future studies could focus
the dependent variable on a different form of post-secondary education.
Directions for Future Research
While policy, researchers, and educational practice have studied various elements of
college readiness, research interest is still developing in the area of application to college. There
are many opportunities to continue to explore the unique interplay of hope and education and
several logical ways to build upon the findings of the current study.
First, as College Application Hope is a new instrument, future studies are warranted to
replicate, validate, refine, and perfect the study. Furthermore, refining the instrument to include a
broader concept of college application pathways could be expanded to include questions about
knowledge of various routes of college including junior colleges and transfer options.

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Second, one of the most influential constructs in sociology has been the notion of social
capital (Stanton-Salazar, 2001). However, there has been little consistency across studies in the
way social capital is conceived or measured. Drawing from the work of James Coleman (1988,
1990), Pierre Bourdieu (1977, 2002) Ricardo Stanton-Salazar (2001) defines social capital as a
set of properties which exist within social patterned associations among people that, when
activated, enable them to accomplish their goals or to empower themselves in some meaningful
way. Such associations can occur in various ways: between two individuals (e.g., teacher and
student), between individuals in a group (e.g., parents in a neighborhood), and between groups
within a community (e.g., parents, school, and personnel). Utilizing this framework, future
studies examining the relationship between types of social capital, development of hope, and
pursuit of educational goals could produce interesting data and outcomes that could benefit
education and society.
Third, as the beginning of hope starts with the imagination of a dream and from that the
creation of goals, another interesting study would be to examine the relationship between
possible selves theory and hope. Possible Selves Theory (Markus & Nurius, 1986) represent
individuals’ ideas of what they might become, what they would like to become, and what they
are afraid of becoming, and therefore like hope theory, it provides a conceptual link between
cognition and motivation. Possible selves are the cognitive components of hopes, fears, goals,
and threats, and they give specific self-relevant form, meaning, organization, and direction to
these dynamics. Possible selves are important because they function as incentives for future
behaviors and an evaluative and interpretive context for the current view of the self. An
interesting study could explore the relationship between hope and possible selves theoretically or
within practice.

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Fourth, Carol Dweck’s (2006; 2010) framework for developing a growth mindset among
children, teens, and adults shines light on the notion that students demonstrate a higher
performance when they believe that intelligence is malleable. Dweck’s research posits the idea
that there are two types of individuals: those who possess a fixed mindset, and believe
intelligence and other skills are static, and those who embody a growth mindset and believe that
intelligence and skills can be shaped, enhanced, and developed. Those with a growth mindset
maintain a belief in the ability to change and grow, and are thus more likely to overcome
obstacles and meet and exceed expectations. Therefore, a logical hypothesis would be that those
with a growth mindset would be higher in hope, and those with a fixed mindset, would be low in
hope. A study investigating the relationship between hope and mindset could produce interesting
results. Does mindset predict hope? Or does hope predict mindset? What is the relationship
between these two constructs among various demographics?
Fifth, the conceptual framework of hope is not complete without considering the
childhood building blocks of goal-directed thinking (Rodriguez-Hanley & Snyder, 2000). For
hope to develop, a supportive environment is needed wherein children can receive basic
instruction in hopeful thinking from a caregiver who is a positive model (Snyder, 1994b).
Providing quality time, psychological and emotional availability to the child, the caregiver must
give the necessary time to direct hopeful thinking. Children need caretakers who enjoy
participating in their activities and can use those moments to teach pathways thinking and
nexting, or the exercise of asking students to imagine, “What’s next?” as they envision the steps
to achieve their goal (Lopez, 2013). Children need a solid attachment to caretakers to feel safe in
exploring a stable and mentally stimulating environment, thus studies in early childhood,
attachment style parenting, and the development of hope could produce interesting results.

89

Lastly, the newly created college application hope survey could be administered to a
greater diversity of participants, including socioeconomic, geographical, racial, and ethnic
diversity. Simply by replicating the study with different groups would produce interesting
results. Qualitative studies could be conducted to understand phenomenological experiences of
high school students and their subjective experiences of hope and the college application
experiences, including barriers and facilitators. This would provide a deeper understanding of
themes and issues facing current students today.
Conclusion
Hope is a concept that is universally valued and needed in our world. The broad purpose
of this study was to explore the relationship between hope and application to college.
Fundamentally, it was also an exercise in applying theory to practice, a skill that is highly
valuable when working as the developer of student potential. Specifically, this study sought to
examine the relationship between hope and its essential two components, pathways and agency,
and two educational outcomes, underclassmen’s intent to apply to college and seniors’
application to four-year colleges. Additionally, this study developed a new domain-specific
hope: college application hope. By creating a new measure, the study gave insight into strengths,
needs, and challenges of high school students who are aiming to attend college. Lastly, through
evaluating which of the various components of dispositional hope and college application hope
are the best predictors of both intent to apply and application to college, practitioners can utilize
this data to focus their effort on supporting actual student needs.
There are several significant contributions of this study for theory and practice. First, the
study extended Snyder’s Hope Theory to a new domain: college readiness, and more specifically
the college application. As the application is the gatekeeper of college admissions, it is important

90

to examine that process in order to learn what students need in order to be successful. Second,
the study is an example of applying theory to practice, specifically utilizing hope theory as a lens
to look at an important issue in education. This study developed a new instrument to assess
domain-specific college application hope, including two components in college application
agency and three components in college application pathways. Researchers and practitioners now
have a new method to assess study college application hope for future studies and benchmarks to
evaluate interventions that promote and facilitate high school students’ college readiness and
preparation for the college application. Third, this study confirms prior research and claims: hope
matters, it can be taught, and it has practical implications. Fourth, participants in study were
diverse. More than 50% of the participants in this study were from racial/ethnic minority
communities. Most of the research in this area traditionally included mostly white American
participants (Snyder, 2000, 2002). Even though some studies started to include racial/ethnic
minority participants (Dixson, et al. 2018), this study includes a significant group of Asian
American participants (approximately 30%) and biracial/multiracial participants (16% - 21.5%),
which is a significant contribution to the external validity of the hope theory - that the theory of
hope and college application hope can also be generalized to diverse populations.
Education and hope are profoundly connected. The power of hope fundamentally rests on
the premise that it can be learned. Hope is produced through the dynamic interaction between
goals, agency, and pathways and the subsequent movement toward what could be. Hope works
against despair so we can see the future as possibility rather than historical inevitability. Whereas
inevitability and inaction can lead to hopelessness, possibility and action orient us toward hope,
and therefore forward movement. The world is not finished; it is in a state of flux, a site for
intervention, and always in the process of becoming (Freire, 1998). Hope pushes us to see the

91

future as open rather than closed, for hope is an empty space before us that affords room for
action, an open road along which we choose to move (Macquarrie, 1978). Hope is a necessary
impetus in the context of human lives. We can utilize the concept and theory of hope to help
others set goals, build pathways thinking, and cultivate agency in order to develop their potential
and actualize what is possible.

92

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Appendix A

Parent/Guardian Information Sheet for the
Survey on Hope and Student Pursuit of Higher Educational Goals

Victoria Normington Pound, Principal Investigator
University of Southern California
Dr. Ruth Chung, Faculty Advisor

Your student is invited to participate in a research study on hope and student pursuit of higher
educational goals. Your child was selected as a possible participant in this study because he/she
is a high school student at XYZ School, and his/her perspective is valuable. Student participation
is completely voluntary; responses will be anonymous and confidential; and students may
withdraw from the survey at any time. The survey will take place online via survey monkey and
should take students approximately ten minutes to complete.
The study is conducted by Victoria Normington Pound, a doctoral candidate at the University of
Southern California. Your student’s involvement in this study will help shed light on important
issues in education and contribute to the field of research on hope, academic achievement, and
student pursuit of educational goals.
Detailed explanation of the study is provided below:
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of the study is to explore the relationship between hope and students’ pursuit of
higher educational goals. Specifically, the study examines the college application process
through the lens of agency and pathways thinking, the two main components of hope theory.
Additionally, the study will measure the levels of hope, forms of support, intent to apply, and
submitted applications to college for students at the participating high schools. It is the goal that
the study would contribute meaningfully to the fields of education and hope.
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
Each participant can elect to be entered in a random drawing for the possibility of receiving a
$50 Amazon gift card, a $50 Starbucks gift card, or a $50 Barnes & Noble gift card. In order to
participate in the raffle, students will provide their name and email address at end of the survey,
which will be stored separately from their survey responses in order to maintain anonymity and
confidentiality. Students will be notified at the e-mail address they provide, if chosen as a raffle
winner, and they may pick up their prize at their school.

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CONFIDENTIALITY AND ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATE
Survey responses are completely anonymous and will not be linked to students’ name, email
address, or any other identifier. Results from this study will be reported as a group so that no
individual respondents can be identified. The results of this research may be made public,
reported in a dissertation, and quoted in professional journals and meetings. If you do not wish to
have your child’s data included in the reports, he/she should not participate. Simply email the
school an opt out letter (sample provided) and your child will be given another educational
activity in lieu of the survey.

Only the members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human
Subjects Protection Program (HSPP) will have access to the data associated with this study. The
HSPP reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research
subjects.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
This study has received IRB approval from USC. If you wish to discuss anything relating to the
survey, please contact the principal investigator Victoria Normington Pound at pound@usc.edu
or the faculty advisor, Dr. Ruth Chung at rchung@usc.edu.
RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS
If you have any questions about student rights as a study participant, you would like to speak
with someone independent of the research team to obtain answers to questions about the
research, or in the event that the research staff cannot be reached, please contact the University
Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 1640 Marengo Street, Suite 700, Los Angeles, CA
90033-9269, (323) 442-0114 or irb@usc.edu.

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Appendix B

This survey was given via Survey Monkey and taken on students’ cell phones or
computers. While the content presented below is the same as the online Survey Monkey version,
the layout of the printed version differs from the students’ view of information.

IRB # APP – 18 - 07577
Hope and Educational Goals
9
th
, 10
th
, and 11
th
Grade Survey

Thank you for taking your time to complete this survey.

You have been chosen for this survey because we value your insight, perspective, and honesty.
Your responses will be anonymous and confidential; your participation is completely voluntary;
and you may withdraw from the survey at any time. If you have any questions, please contact
Victoria Normington Pound at pound@usc.edu or 424-634-8081.

Your participation in this research will help shine light on important issues in education, and we
appreciate your feedback and ideas very much.

If you are taking this survey on a mobile phone, we suggest turning your phone horizontally in
landscape mode for ease of use.

Please do your best to answer all the questions.

1.The six sentences below describe how children and teens think about themselves and how
they do things in general. Read each sentence carefully. For each sentence, please think
about how you are in most situations. Please select the option that describes you the best.
There are no right or wrong answers.

1= None of the time 4= A lot of the time
2= Little of the time 5= Most of the time
3= Some of the time 6= All of the time

Example: I think I am doing pretty well.
If you think you are doing pretty well a little of the time, you select number 2.

None All
of the time of the time
1 2 3 4 5 6
a. I think I am doing pretty well.………………………………..………………….. m m m m m m
b. I can think of many ways to get the things in life that are most important to me... m m m m m m
c. I am doing just as well as other students my age.……………………...……….... m m m m m m
d. When I have a problem, I can come up with lots of ways to solve it.………..….. m m m m m m
e. I think the things I have done in the past will help me in the future.……….……. m m m m m m
f. Even when others want to quit, I know that I can find ways to solve the problem.m m m m m m

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IRB # APP – 18 - 07577

2. Is going to college a goal of yours? m Yes m No m Unsure

3. What is your current grade level? m 9
th
m 10
th.
m 11
th

Please think about your future plans and whether or not you plan to go to college.

4. Select the number that best describes your intent to apply to college.

1 = I am not applying to college 4 = I am not sure 7 = 100% Definitely
applying to college

Intent to apply to college 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

5. If you plan to apply to college, where are you considering applying?
Choose all that apply.

m Community College
m State School (within California)
m State School (outside of California)
m University of California (UC)
m Private College (Ivy League or university in the top 10 such as Stanford or MIT)
m Private College (non Ivy league)
m Online College
m Trade or Technical School
m Military Academy

6. If you are not planning to apply to college, please select the reasons why.
Choose all that apply.

m I do not know how to apply to college
m I do not want to go to college
m I do not know where to apply to college (which school to choose)
m I have other plans (work, gap year, family responsibilities)
m I cannot afford college
m I do not think I will be successful in college
m Other reasons not listed above
m Not Applicable (N/A), I will definitely apply to college

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IRB # APP – 18 - 07577

7. When applying to college, please select which resources you think will be available to you
to help you with the application process. Please check all that apply.

m High School Counselor
m Teacher(s)
m Parent(s)
m Peer (same grade)
m Peer (at least one grade older than me)
m ACT/SAT test prep class or tutor
m Privately hired college counselor
m Tutor
m Other (please specify)______________________

Please think about your knowledge and understanding of the college application process
according to these categories:

NO VERY LITTLE SOME MUCH 100%
KNOWLEDGE KNOWLEDGE KNOWLEDGE KNOWLEDGE COMPLETE
AT ALL KNOWLEDGE

1 2 3 4 5

8. How much knowledge do you have about how to (select one number for each item)
a. Apply to college…………...................................................1 2 3 4 5
b. Fill out the online college application forms……………...1 2 3 4 5
c. Complete a financial aid application (FAFSA)…………...1 2 3 4 5
d. Apply for scholarships…………………………………….1 2 3 4 5
e. Write a high quality personal statement for a
college application……………………………………...1 2 3 4 5
f. Write high quality supplemental essays
(college-specific) for college applications………………1 2 3 4 5
g. Request letters of recommendation………………………..1 2 3 4 5
h. Identify & communicate (within your college applications):
- your strengths……...……………………………………. 1 2 3 4 5
- your values……...……………………………………….. 1 2 3 4 5
- your interests in attending a specific college………….. 1 2 3 4 5
- your academic goals……...……………………………… 1 2 3 4 5
- your professional goals……...…………………………... 1 2 3 4 5

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IRB # APP – 18 - 07577

Please think about how motivated you are to apply to college and go to college according to
these categories:

NO VERY LITTLE MODERATE MUCH COMPLETE
MOTIVATION MOTIVATION MOTIVATION MOTIVATION MOTIVATION
AT ALL

1 2 3 4 5

9. How motivated are you to (select one number for each item)
______________________________________________________________________________

a. Go to college……………………………………………...1 2 3 4 5
b. Apply to college…………………………………………..1 2 3 4 5
______________________________________________________________________________

Please think about your confidence in your ability to apply to college according to these
categories:

NO VERY LITTLE SOME MUCH 100%
CONFIDENCE CONFIDENCE CONFIDENCE CONFIDENCE COMPLETE
AT ALL CONFIDENCE
1 2 3 4 5

10. How confident are you in your ability that you can accomplish the following college
application tasks: (select one number for each item)

a. Apply to college…………...................................................1 2 3 4 5
b. Fill out the online college application forms……………...1 2 3 4 5
c. Complete a financial aid application (FAFSA)…………...1 2 3 4 5
d. Apply for scholarships…………………………………….1 2 3 4 5
e. Write a high quality personal statement for a
college application……………………………………...1 2 3 4 5
f. Write high quality supplemental essays
(college-specific) for college applications………………1 2 3 4 5
g. Request letters of recommendation………………………..1 2 3 4 5

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IRB # APP – 18 – 07577

h. Identify & communicate (within your college applications):
- your strengths……...……………………………………. 1 2 3 4 5
- your values……...……………………………………….. 1 2 3 4 5
- your interests in attending a specific college………….. 1 2 3 4 5
- your academic goals……...……………………………… 1 2 3 4 5
- your professional goals……...…………………………... 1 2 3 4 5

11. What barriers do you have that could prevent you from going to college?
Check all that apply.

m Cannot afford college
m Unsure if I can afford college
m Do not know how to apply to college
m Not sure which is best college for me
m Not sure if I will be successful in college
m Do not have support of my family to go to college
m Do not have support of my peers to go to college
m Other

12. How would you define hope?
_________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

13. According to your definition of hope, on a scale of 1 – 10 how hopeful are you about
your future?

1 = I feel hopeless 5 = I have some hope 10 = I feel 100% hopeful

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

14. How does hope help you accomplish your goals? Feel welcome to give examples.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

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IRB # APP – 18 - 07577

15. Please select the name of your high school. (choose one)
m Lawndale High School m West High School
m Mira Costa High School m Other (please specify)______________

16. What is your gender? Male Female Other (please specify) _______________

17. What is your ethnic background? (check all that apply)

m African American/Black m Middle Eastern American
m Asian American m Native American Indian
m Caucasian/European American/White m Pacific Islander
m Hispanic/Latino American m Other (please specify)______________

18. What is the highest level of education completed by your mother (choose one)?

m Less than high school m Bachelor’s degree (B.A./B.S.)
m High School Diploma/G.E.D. m Master's degree (M.A.)
m Associate's degree (A.A.) m Doctorate degree (M.D./Ph.D./J.D./Ed.D.)

19. What is the highest level of education completed by your father (choose one)?

m Less than high school m Bachelor’s degree (B.A./B.S.)
m High School Diploma/G.E.D. m Master's degree (M.A.)
m Associate's degree (A.A.) m Doctorate degree (M.D./Ph.D./J.D./Ed.D.)

20. With what religion, if any, do you most identify?

m Agnostic m Islam
m Atheist m Jewish
m Buddhist m Hindu
m Christian- Catholic m Non-religious
m Christian- Protestant m Prefer not to answer
m Christian- Other m Other (please specify)____________________

21. With what political party, if any, do you most identify?
m Democrat
m Republican
m Independent
m Undecided
m Prefer not to answer
m Other (please specify) ________________________________________________

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IRB # APP – 18 - 07577

22. Thank you so much for taking the time to complete this survey. You are eligible to be
entered into a raffle to win one of the three following prizes: $50 gift card to Amazon, $50 gift
card to Starbucks, or a $50 gift card to Barnes & Noble. If you would like to be entered to win
one of the following three items, please fill out the following page by giving us your name and
email address. Your contact information will be separated from this survey to respect your
confidentiality and anonymity. If you are interested in entering the raffle, please click on the link
on the next page and complete the entry form.

m Yes, I would like to be entered into the raffle.

m No, I would not like to be entered into the raffle.

Please click on the raffle entry link below

121

Raffle Entry

I participated in the Hope and Educational Goals survey and would like to be entered into the
raffle to win one of the following three prizes:

$50 Starbucks Gift Card
$50 Amazon Gift Card
$50 Barnes & Noble Gift Card

Name:__________________________________________

Email address:___________________________________

High School: ____________________________________

m I am interested in being contacted for follow up questions regarding hope and higher
educational goals.

m I am not interested in being contacted for follow up questions regarding hope and
higher educational goals.

122

Appendix C

This survey was given via Survey Monkey and taken on students’ cell phones or
computers. While the content presented below is the same as the online Survey Monkey version,
the layout of the printed version differs from the students’ view of information.

IRB # APP – 18 - 07577
Hope and Educational Goals
12
th
Grade Survey

Thank you for taking your time to complete this survey.

You have been chosen for this survey because we value your insight, perspective, and honesty.
Your responses will be anonymous and confidential; your participation is completely voluntary;
and you may withdraw from the survey at any time. If you have any questions, please contact
Victoria Normington Pound at pound@usc.edu or 424-634-8081.

Your participation in this research will help shine light on important issues in education, and we
appreciate your feedback and ideas very much.

If you are taking this survey on a mobile phone, we suggest turning your phone horizontally in
landscape mode for ease of use.

Please do your best to answer all the questions.

1.The six sentences below describe how children and teens think about themselves and how
they do things in general. Read each sentence carefully. For each sentence, please think
about how you are in most situations. Please select the option that describes you the best.
There are no right or wrong answers.

1= None of the time 4= A lot of the time
2= Little of the time 5= Most of the time
3= Some of the time 6= All of the time

Example: I think I am doing pretty well.
If you think you are doing pretty well a little of the time, you select number 2.

None All
of the time of the time
1 2 3 4 5 6
a. I think I am doing pretty well.………………………………..………………….. m m m m m m
b. I can think of many ways to get the things in life that are most important to me... m m m m m m
c. I am doing just as well as other students my age.……………………...……….... m m m m m m
d. When I have a problem, I can come up with lots of ways to solve it.………..….. m m m m m m
e. I think the things I have done in the past will help me in the future.……….……. m m m m m m
f. Even when others want to quit, I know that I can find ways to solve the problem.m m m m m m

123

IRB # APP – 18 - 07577

2. Is going to college a goal of yours? m Yes m No m Unsure

3. What is your current grade level? m 9
th
m 10
th.
m 11
th
m 12
th

4. Please circle the number of colleges you have applied to (or will apply to by high school
graduation)
______________________________________________________________________________

a. Community College 0 1 2 3 4 5 6+
b. State School (e.g., CSU) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6+
c. University of California (UC) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6+
d. Private College (non-Ivy league) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6+
e. Private College (Ivy league) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6+
f. Online College 0 1 2 3 4 5 6+
g. Trade or Technical School 0 1 2 3 4 5 6+
h. Military Academy 0 1 2 3 4 5 6+
______________________________________________________________________________

5. Please indicate how many colleges you have or will have applied to by graduation in the
three categories below:

Safety school: ("back-up school") a college that you will most certainly get into because your grade point
average (GPA) and standardized test scores are well above the average for admitted students.

50/50 school: a college that you have a 50% chance of acceptance. Your GPA and test scores fall within
average.

Reach school: a college that you have a slight chance of getting into; however, your test scores and high
school grades are on the low end for admitted students.

a. Safety School 0 1 2 3 4 5 6+

b. 50/50 School 0 1 2 3 4 5 6+

c. Reach School 0 1 2 3 4 5 6+

124

IRB # APP – 18 - 07577

6. If you have not applied to college, please select the reasons why. Choose all that apply.

m I do not know how to apply
m I do not want to go to college
m I do not know where to apply (which school to choose)
m I have other plans (work, gap year, family responsibilities)
m I cannot afford college
m I do not think I will be successful in college
m Other reasons not listed above
m Not Applicable (N/A), I will definitely apply to college

7. When applying to college, please mark which resources were available to you to help you
with the application process. Please check all that apply.

m High School Counselor
m Teacher(s)
m Parent(s)
m Peer (same grade)
m Peer (at least one grade older than me)
m ACT/SAT test prep class or tutor
m Privately hired college counselor
m Tutor
m Other______________________

8. When applying to college, how much help or support did you receive from the following
people:

1= Zero, no help 4= Good amount of help
2= Little help 5= A lot of help
3= Some help .

No A lot
help of help

1 2 3 4 5
a. High School Counselor .………………………………..………………………... m m m m m
b. Teacher(s)................................................................................................................ m m m m m
c. Parent(s).……………………...……….................................................................. m m m m m
d. Peer/Sibling (same grade) .………..………………………………………………m m m m m
e. Peer/Sibling (at least one grade older than me).……….………………………….m m m m m
f. ACT/SAT test prep class or tutor………………………………………………… m m m m m
e. Privately hired College Counselor.……….……………………………………… m m m m m
f. Tutor…………………………………………………………………………….... m m m m m

125

IRB # APP – 18 - 07577

9. How did your resources help you? Please check all that apply.

m Answered how to apply to college questions
m Helped guide me where to apply
m Helped with brainstorming, editing, or revising college essays
m Helped with typing in information
m Helped fill out financial aid and scholarship applications
m Other________________________________________________
m I did not receive any help in the process

10. If you received help in applying to college, what kind of help was most valuable to you?

m Help with how to apply to college
m Help with where to apply
m Help with brainstorming, editing, or revising college essays
m Help with typing in information
m Help with filling out financial aid and scholarship applications
m Other________________________________________________
m I did not receive any help in the process

Please evaluate your knowledge and understanding about the college application process
according to these categories:

NO VERY LITTLE SOME MUCH 100%
KNOWLEDGE KNOWLEDGE KNOWLEDGE KNOWLEDGE COMPLETE
AT ALL KNOWLEDGE

1 2 3 4 5

11. How much knowledge and understanding do you have about how to (circle one number
for each item)

a. Apply to college…………...................................................1 2 3 4 5
b. Fill out the online college application forms……………...1 2 3 4 5
c. Complete a financial aid application (FAFSA)…………...1 2 3 4 5
d. Apply for scholarships…………………………………….1 2 3 4 5
e. Write a high quality personal statement for a
college application……………………………………...1 2 3 4 5
f. Write high quality supplemental essays
(college-specific) for college applications………………1 2 3 4 5
g. Request letters of recommendation………………………..1 2 3 4 5

126

IRB # APP – 18 – 07577

h. Identify & communicate (within your college applications):
- your strengths……...………………………………..1 2 3 4 5
- your values………………………………………….1 2 3 4 5
- your interests in attending a specific college……….1 2 3 4 5
- your academic goals………………………………..1 2 3 4 5
- your professional goals……………………………..1 2 3 4 5

Please evaluate how motivated you are to apply to college and go to college:

NO VERY LITTLE MODERATE MUCH COMPLETE
MOTIVATION MOTIVATION MOTIVATION MOTIVATION MOTIVATION
AT ALL

1 2 3 4 5

12. How motivated are you to (circle one)
______________________________________________________________________________
a. Go to college……………………………………………...1 2 3 4 5

b. Apply to college…………………………………………..1 2 3 4 5
______________________________________________________________________________

Please evaluate your confidence in your ability to apply to college according to these
categories:

NO VERY LITTLE MODERATE MUCH COMPLETE
MOTIVATION MOTIVATION MOTIVATION MOTIVATION MOTIVATION
AT ALL

1 2 3 4 5

13. How confident are you in your ability that you can accomplish the following college
application tasks: (circle one number for each item)
a. Apply to college…………...................................................1 2 3 4 5
b. Fill out the online college application forms……………...1 2 3 4 5
c. Complete a financial aid application (FAFSA)…………...1 2 3 4 5
d. Apply for scholarships…………………………………….1 2 3 4 5
e. Write a high quality personal statement for a
college application……………………………………...1 2 3 4 5
f. Write high quality supplemental essays
(college-specific) for college applications………………1 2 3 4 5

127

IRB # APP – 18 - 07577

g. Request letters of recommendation………………………..1 2 3 4 5
h. Identify & communicate (within your college applications):
- your strengths……...…………………………….…..1 2 3 4 5
- your values……………………………………….….1 2 3 4 5
- your interests in attending a specific college…….….1 2 3 4 5
- your academic goals………………………………...1 2 3 4 5
- your professional goals………………………….…..1 2 3 4 5

14. What barriers do you have that could prevent you from going to college?
Check all that apply.

m Cannot afford it
m Unsure if I can afford it
m Do not know how to apply
m Not sure which is best college for me
m Not sure if I will be successful in college
m Do not have support of my family
m Do not have support of my peers (friends)
m Other

15. How would you define hope?
_________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

16. According to your definition of hope, on a scale of 1 – 10 how hopeful are you about
your academic and professional future?

1 = I feel hopeless 5 = I have some hope 10 = I feel 100%
hopeful

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

128

IRB # APP – 18 - 07577

Please answer the following demographic questions by selecting a circle or filling in the
blank.

17. Please select the name of your high school. (choose one)

m Lawndale High School m West High School
m Mira Costa High School m Other__________________________

18. What is your gender? (circle one) Male Female Other

19. What is your ethnic background? (check all that apply)

m African American/Black m Middle Eastern American
m Asian American m Native American Indian
m Caucasian/European American/White m Pacific Islander
m Hispanic/Latino American m Multi-Ethnic/Other (please specify)
_____________________

20. What is your current cumulative weighted Grade Point Average (GPA)? ___________

21. What is the highest level of education completed by your mother (choose one)?

m Less than high school m Bachelor’s degree (B.A./B.S.)
m High School Diploma/G.E.D. m Master's degree (M.A.)
m Associate's degree (A.A.) m Doctorate degree (M.D./Ph.D./J.D.)

22. What is the highest level of education completed by your father (choose one)?

m Less than high school m Bachelor’s degree (B.A./B.S.)
m High School Diploma/G.E.D. m Master's degree (M.A.)
m Associate's degree (A.A.) m Doctorate degree (M.D./Ph.D./J.D.)

24. With what religion, if any, do you most identify?

m Agnostic m Islam
m Atheist m Jewish
m Buddhist m Hindu
m Christian- Catholic m Non-religious
m Christian- Protestant m Other______________________________
m Prefer not to answer

129

IRB # APP – 18 - 07577

25. With what political party, if any, do you most identify?
m Democrat
m Republican
m Independent
m Undecided
m Other ________________________________________________
m None
m Prefer not to answer

Thank you so much for taking the time to complete this survey. You are eligible to be
entered into a raffle to win one of the three following prizes: $50 gift card to Amazon, $50 gift
card to Starbucks, or a $50 gift card to Barnes & Noble. If you would like to be entered to win
one of the following three items, please fill out the following page by giving us your name and
email address. Your contact information will be separated from this survey to respect your
confidentiality and anonymity. If you are interested in entering the raffle, please click on the link
on the next page and complete the entry form.

m Yes, I would like to be entered in the raffle.

m No, I would not like to be entered in the raffle.

Please click on the raffle entry link below

130

Raffle Entry

I participated in the Hope and Educational Goals survey and would like to be entered into the
raffle to win one of the following three prizes:

$50 Starbucks Gift Card
$50 Amazon Gift Card
$50 Barnes & Noble Gift Card

Name:__________________________________________

Email address:___________________________________

High School: ____________________________________

m I am interested in being contacted for follow up questions regarding hope and higher
educational goals.

m I am not interested in being contacted for follow up questions regarding hope and
higher educational goals.

131

Appendix D
College Application Hope Inventory and Scoring Guide
Pathways - Knowledge of the Content of the Application Process
Using the following categories:
1 2 3 4 5
No Knowledge
at All
Very Little
Knowledge
Some
Knowledge
Much
Knowledge
100% Complete
Knowledge

How much knowledge and understanding do you have about how to….
1) Write a higher quality personal statement for a college application
2) Write high quality supplemental essays (college-specific) for college applications
3) Identify and communicate (within your college application) your strength
4) Identify and communicate (within your college application) your values
5) Identify and communicate (within your college application) your interests in attending a
specific college
6) Identify and communicate (within your college application) your academic goals
7) Identify and communicate (within your college application) your professional goals

Pathways - Knowledge of the Logistics of the Application Process
Using the following categories:
1 2 3 4 5
No Knowledge
at All
Very Little
Knowledge
Some
Knowledge
Much
Knowledge
100% Complete
Knowledge
How much knowledge and understanding do you have about how to….
1) Fill out the online college application form
2) Complete a financial aid application (FAFSA)
3) Apply for scholarships
4) Request letters of recommendation

132

Agency - Confidence of the Content of the Application Process
Using the following categories:
1 2 3 4 5
No Confidence
at All
Very Little
Confidence
Some
Confidence
Much
Confidence
100% Complete
Confidence
How confident are you in your ability that you can accomplish the following college application
tasks?
1) Write a higher quality personal statement for a college application
2) Write high quality supplemental essays (college-specific) for college applications
3) Identify and communicate (within your college application) your strength
4) Identify and communicate (within your college application) your values
5) Identify and communicate (within your college application) your interests in attending a
specific college
6) Identify and communicate (within your college application) your academic goals
7) Identify and communicate (within your college application) your professional goals

Agency - Confidence of the Logistics of the Application Process
Using the following categories:
1 2 3 4 5
No Confidence
at All
Very Little
Confidence
Some
Confidence
Much
Confidence
100% Complete
Confidence
How confident are you in your ability that you can accomplish the following college application
tasks?
1) Fill out the online college application form
2) Complete a financial aid application (FAFSA)
3) Apply for scholarships
4) Request letters of recommendation

Agency - Motivation to Apply to College
Using the following categories:
1 2 3 4 5
No Motivation at
All
Very Little
Motivation
Some
Motivation
Much
Motivation
100% Complete
Motivation

How motivated are you to apply to college?

133

College Application Hope (CAH) = mean of (CAH Pathways + CAH Agency)
CAH Pathways subscale = mean of (knowledge of content + knowledge of logistics)
CAH Agency subscale = mean of (confidence of content + confidence of logistics + motivation
to apply)
CAH Pathway Knowledge of Content Subscale = mean scores of all Pathways Knowledge of
Content items
CAH Pathway Knowledge of Logistics Subscale = mean scores of all Pathways Knowledge of
Logistics items
CAH Agency Confidence of Content Subscale = mean scores of all Agency Knowledge of
Content items
CAH Agency Confidence of Logistics Subscale = mean scores of all Agency Knowledge of
Logistics items
CAH Agency Motivation to Apply Subscale = item score

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Sulfuryl fluoride (SO₂F₂) is one of the most powerful modular building blocks for the sulfur-fluoride exchange (SuFEx) click chemistry, which creates sulfate or sulfonate linkages with absolute reliability, and has already found applications in synthesis of macromolecules, chemical biology, and drug discovery. However, the limited availability of SO₂F₂ has discouraged the wider exploration of this chemistry. We have developed an ex-situ, on water, safe, inexpensive, and a practical protocol for the synthesis of SO₂F₂ and demonstrated its applications as a stable electrophilic and dehydrating reagent in the SuFEx chemistry. We have used SO₂F₂ for the synthesis of nitriles, amides, and amidines from aldehydes and ketones. These metal-free and redox-neutral transformations proceed at ambient temperature and are compatible with a wide range of sterically and electronically diverse aliphatic, aromatic, and heteroaromatic substrates. In the original embodiment of SuFEx, arylfluorosulfates were reported to react with aryl silyl ethers in the presence of certain base catalysts. We have discovered heretofore unknown reactivity of parent phenols in SuFEx click reaction. These methods are experimentally simple to implement and do not require silyl substitution, therefore eliminating the formation of the silyl fluoride byproduct altogether. Using this chemistry, high molecular weight polysulfates with high functional group tolerance have been synthesized at ambient conditions that are significantly more stable than their polycarbonate analogs. The reaction developed here is atom economical and results in a complete cycle where the byproduct was reused in the same reaction cycle, virtually eliminating the chemical waste. We have also extended this chemistry for the synthesis of hyperbranched polysulfates and their applications in thin film and drug loading.

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The power of hope in the pursuit of higher educational goals: an examination of the college application process through the lens of hope theory

Asset Metadata

Creator Gurjar, Jitendra (author)

Core Title Sulfuryl fluoride in organic synthesis and materials chemistry

School College of Letters, Arts and Sciences

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Chemistry

Publication Date 05/28/2020

Defense Date 08/06/2020

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag amides,click chemistry,fluorosulfates,hyperbranched polymers,nitriles,OAI-PMH Harvest,polysulfates,SuFEx,sulfuryl fluoride

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Fokin, Valery V. (committee chair), Prakash, Surya (committee member), Sharada, Shaama (committee member)

Creator Email imjgurjar@gmail.com,jgurjar@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-397232

Unique identifier UC11667606

Identifier etd-PoundVicto-9152.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-397232 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-PoundVicto-9152-0.pdf

Dmrecord 397232

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Gurjar, Jitendra

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA