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Videotape confrontation for in-service training of social service workers: An experimental study

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Videotape confrontation for in-service training of social service workers: An experimental study

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Content VIDEOTAPE CONFRONTATION FOR IN-SERVICE TRAINING OF SOCIAL SERVICE WORKERS: AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY by Stanley Bernard Taubman A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE SCHOOL OF SOCIAL WORK UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF SOCIAL WORK June, 19 77 Copyright by Stanley Bernard Taubman 1977 UMI Number: DP32442 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. DIssôiftaïiôn FliKlisMng UMI DP32442 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 D5W S v o > -7-7 T '2 . '2 - 2 . This dissertationj written by STANLEY BERNARD TAUBMAN under the direction of the C hairm an of the candidate's Guidance Committee, and approved by a ll members of the Committee, has been presented to and accepted by the F acu lty of the School of Social W o rk , in p artial fu lfillm en t of the requirements fo r the degree of D O C T O R O F S O C I A L W O R K Dean ^ JUNE 1977 D a te.............. GUIDANCE COMMITTEE ? n c ^ ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to express my gratitude to the many colleagues and friends who have made it possible for me to develop and complete this project. First I want to acknowledge the assistance of my com mittee chairperson Dr. Barbara Star. Her expertise, guid ance and personal support have been invaluable resources throughout my work on this project. I also want to acknowl edge the assistance of Dr. Herman Borenzweig, Dr. Elizabeth MeBroom and, in the early stages of this project. Dr. Robert Roberts. As members of my committee each has made contrib utions which have helped me in many aspects of this disser tation. I wish to express special appreciation to Dorothy Fleisher and Barbara Kaplan who contributed their expertise and many hours of their time in judging scores of role played interviews on audiotape. I am also grateful for the acting talents and endurance of Carolyn Bauer, Paul Bezman and Beverly White Ostraska who served as coached clients during the data collection phase of this research. I am most grateful to Dolores Churchill and her staff 11 for their time, energies and assistance which made it pos sible to implement a demanding experimental study in a field setting. Valuable consultation, advice and support was alsc contributed by Dr. Marilyn Biggerstaff, Ruth Britton, Dr. Norman Kagan and Dr. Helen Northen. I feel a special appreciation for the assistance of my wife Judi. Her contributions to data collection and pro cessing, editing and typing and her support throughout this project have been both helpful and very meaningful to me. Finally I owe a special gratitude to my children Jeremy and Bethany. Their love for me and their apprecia tion of the spontaneous in life have helped me to keep the importance of this dissertation project in its proper per spective. Ill TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENT S..................................... ii LIST OF TABLES....................................... vii LIST OF FIGURES...................................... xii Chapter I. THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM AND ITS RELEVANCE FOR SOCIAL WORK............. -1 Training for Self-Awareness and Use of Self VTR and In-Service Training The In-Service Training of Public Welfare Workers Relevance and Significance for Social Work Purpose of the Study Summary II. THE EFFECTIVENESS OF VTR FEEDBACK IN TRAINING: EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE................. 18 Evidence of VTR Effectiveness in Skill Development Evidence of VTR Effectiveness in Self- Image Development Unresolved Issues Summary III. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND HYPOTHESES........... 42 The Skill Acquisition Effect: Feedback and Reality Testing The Self-Concept Change Effect: Role- Taking and Reality Testing The Anxiety Arousal Effect: Incongru ity as Threat Questions and Hypotheses Definitions of Terms IV IV. METHODOLOGY.................................... 78 The Research Design The Sample Procedures Data Collection Pretests The Training Format in Light of Method ological Factors Data Analysis Limitations of the Study V. FINDINGS....................................... 113 Characteristics of the Research Subjects Subject Reactions to the Experiential Training Sessions Intergroup Comparisons for Potentially Intervening Variables Intergroup Pretest Equivalence for Major Dependent Variables Findings Regarding Within Group Change Scores for Major Dependent Variables Findings Regarding the Hypotheses Additional Findings Interjudge Reliability Comparison of Students' and Employed Subjects' Scores Discussion of the Findings Summary VI. CONCLUSIONS..................................... 173 Conclusions Regarding Skill Acquisition Conclusions Regarding Self-Image Change Conclusions Regarding Anxiety Arousal Implications for Methodology Implications for In-Service Training Implications for Further Research APPENDIX A. Confidentiality Form........................... 196 B. Pretest and Posttest Procedures............... 198 V TÔT Coached Clients and Role Play Content 207 D. Didactic Session Content and Presentation 212 Experiential Session Guidelines 215 Counselor Verbal Response Scale 218 G. Self and Others Rating Scale 222 H. State-Trait Anxiety Inventory 225 Additional Measures J. Statistical Tables for the Expanded Sample (Student Subjects Included)............... 232 265 BIBLIOGRAPHY V I LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Age of Subjects by Group....................... 115 2. Sex of Subjects by Group....................... 115 3. Years of College Completed by Group........ H5 4. Highest Degree Earned by Group................ 5. College Major by Group........................ 6. Prior vddeotape Experience by Group........... 7. Prior Role Play Experience by Group........... 8. Current Work Assignment by Group.............. 12® 9. Length of Time at Current Work Assignment by Group 121 10. Nature of Previous Assignments in Department of Social Services by Group................. 122 11. Total Time in Department of Social Services by Group.............................. 123 12. Nature of Previous Human Service Experience by Group..................................... 124 13. Total Time in Human Services Prior to Work for Department of Social Services, by Group........................................ 125 Vll 14. Total Human Service Experience by Group..... 126 15. Race/Ethnicity by Group...................... 127 16. Intergroup Comparisons for Potentially Intervening Variables...................... 135 17. Intergroup Comparisons for Pretest Equi valence on Counselor Verbal Response Scale Scores...................................... 139 18. Intergroup Comparisons for Pretest Equi valence on Self and Others Rating Scale Scores...................................... 140 19. T-Test Probabilities for Within Group Changes on Counselor Verbal Response Scale Scores................................ 141 20. T-Test Probabilities for Within Group Changes on Self and Others Rating Scale Scores......................... ............ 142 21. Pre-Post B Significant Difference Tests on CVRS Scores by Group....................... 145 22. Pre-Post A Significant Difference Tests on SORS Scores, Absolute Change, by Group.... 146 23. Post À - B Significant Difference Tests on SORS Scores, Absolute Change, by Group.... 147 24. Pre-Post B Significant Difference Tests on SORS Scores, Absolute Change, by Group.... 148 25. Pre-Post A Significant Difference Tests on SORS Scores by Group..... ................. 149 26. Post A - B Significant Difference Tests on SORS Scores by Group................... 150 27. Pre-Post B Significant Difference Tests on SORS Scores by Group....................... 151 28. Significant Difference Tests on STAI Scores by Group.................................... 152 viii 29. Correlation (r) Between the CVRS and Other Major Dependent Variables by Test Period and Group.................... :............. 158 30. Correlation (r) Between STAI Scores and SORS Scores by Test Period and Group...... ..... 159 31. Kendall's Tau Correlations Between Clinical Assessment of Anxiety (CAA) and the Major Independent and Dependent Variables by Test Period and Group...................... 162 32. Pearson Correlation (r) Tests of Interjudge Reliability. ....... ........... ............. 163 33. List of Tests Reaching Significance for Only One Sample.................................. 233 34. Age of Subjects by Group (Student Subjects Included)....... .................... ...... 234 35. Sex of Subjects by Group (Student Subjects Included)..... ........ .................... 235 36. Years of College Completed by Group (Student Subjects Included)...... ......... 236 37. Highest Degree Earned by Group (Student Subjects Included)...................... . .. 237 38. College Major by Group (Student Subjects Included).............i ..........*...... 238 39. Prior Videotape Experience by Group (Student Subjects Included)......................... 239 40. Prior Role Play Experience by Group (Student Subjects Included)..... ...... .......... 239 41. Current Work Assignment by Group (Student Subjects Included)....... .............. . 240 42. Length of Time at Current Work Assignment by Group (Student Subjects Included)......... 240 43. Nature of Previous Assignments in Department of Social Services by Group (Student Subjects Included)...... ......... ......... 241 ix 44. Total Time in Department of Social Services by Group (Student Subjects Included)....... 242 45. Nature of Previous Human Service Experience by Group (Student Subjects Included)...... 243 46. Total Time in Human Services Prior to Work for Department of Social Services, by Group (Student Subjects Included)......... 244 47. Total Human Service Experience by Group (Student Subjects Included)................ 245 48. Race/Ethnicity by Group (Student Subjects Included).................................. 246 49. Intergroup Comparisons for Potentially Intervening Variables (Student Subjects Included)......................... ......... 247 50. Intergroup Comparisons for Pretest Equiva lence on Counselor Verbal Response Scale Scores (Student Subjects Included)........ 250 51. Intergroup Comparisons for Pretest Equiva lence on Self and Others Rating Scale Scores (Student Subjects Included)......... 251 52. T-Test Probabilities for Within Group Changes on Counselor Verbal Response Scale Scores (Student Subjects Included)... 252 53. T-Test Probabilities for Within Group Changes on Self and Others Rating Scale Scores (Student Subjects Included)........ 253 54. Pre-Post B Significant Difference Tests on CVRS Scores by Group (Student Subjects Included) ............................ ....... 254 55. Pre-Post A Significant Difference Tests on SORS Scores, Absolute Change, by Group (Student Subjects Included)................ 255 56. Post A - B Significant Difference Tests on SORS Scores, Absolute Change, by Group (Student Subjects Included) ................ 256 X 57. Pre-Post B Significant Difference Tests on SORS Scores, Absolute Change, by Group (Student Subjects Included)................ 257 58. Pre-Post A Significant Difference Tests on SORS Scores by Group (Student Subjects Included)................................... 258 59. Post A - B Significant Difference Tests on SORS Scores by Group (Student Subjects Included)............... *.................. 259 60. Pre-Post B Significant Difference Tests on SORS Scores by Group (Student Subjects Included)....... 260 61. Significant Difference Tests on STAI Scores by Group (Student Subjects Included)...... 2 61 62. Correlation (r) Between the CVRS and Other Major Dependent Variables by Test Period and Group (Student Subjects Included)..... 2 62 63. Correlation (r) Between STAI Scores and SORS Scores by Test Period and Group (Student Subjects Included) ................. 263 64. Kendall's Tau Correlations Between Clinical Assessment of Anxiety (CAA) and the Major Independent and Dependent Variables by Test Period and Group (Student Subjects Included) . ......... 264 XI LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. The Test-Operate-Test Model of Reality Testing....................................... 4 4 2. The Research Design............................. 79 3. Setting for the Experiential Training Sessions ............................... 89 4. SORS Score Changes, Self as Helper Scale, by Test Period and Group..................... 155 5. SORS Score Changes, Inferred Client Percep tions Scale, by Test Period and Group....... 156 Xll CHAPTER I THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM AND ITS RELEVANCE FOR SOCIAL WORK The issue of practitioner self-awareness holds great importance in the practice theory, education and training literature of various helping professions. This is partic ularly true in the profession of social work. Self-aware ness was recognized by Harriet Bartlett as a component of the "Working Definition of Social Work Practice" (Bartlett, 1958). Elsewhere Bartlett identified a special emphasis on professional self-awareness as one of a constellation of characteristics which, on the whole, distinguishes social work from other professions (Bartlett, 1964). The importance of self-awareness in social work prac tice stems from the centrality of the practitioner's use of self in a relationship as the basic medium for communica tion and influence in treatment (Biestek, 1957). Conscious use of self is based upon conscious self-knowledge (Brill, 1973; Hamilton, 1951; Northen, 196 9) . The social work practice literature recognizes prac titioner self-awareness as serving a variety of functions in the therapeutic process. Self-awareness enables objec tivity in perceiving the client as a separate individual (Brill, 1973; Hamilton, 1951; Northen, 1969; Towle in Perlman, 1969). It permits the recognition and management of countertransference (Hollis, 1964; Northen, 1969; Perlman, 19 57) as well as the recognition and management of counter-therapeutic or inappropriate reactions to the client (Friedlander, 1958; Hollis, 1964; Northen, 1969). Practitioner self-awareness is recognized as enabling ac ceptance of others (Hamilton, 1951) and enhancing empathy or the ability to focus on the feelings of others (Konopka, 1963 ; Northen, 1969) . Generally speaking self-awareness serves to enhance the use of self in a therapeutic rela tionship . The term "self-awareness" generally refers to a con dition of accurate perception in which the objects of per ception are one's own behavior, feelings and attitudes in relation to others. Accordingly, Hyman Grossbard defined self-awareness as "a person's ability to recognize with a reasonable degree of accuracy, how he reacts to the outside world and how the outside world reacts to him" (1954, pp. 382-383). Although self-awareness is difficult to operational ize and measure, there is considerable empirical support for the theoretical assumption that the practitioner's use of self is of central importance in effecting the treatment process and outcome. Much of this research has focused on the interpersonal attitudes or relationship skills of the practitioner. This research has been carried out or re ported by such authors as G.T. Barrett-Lennard (1962), Carl Rogers (1957), Hans Strupp (1973) and Charles Truax and Robert Carkhuff (1967) . The research demonstrates that practitioner qualities of accurate empathy, non-possessive warmth and a genuine (self-congruent) use of self are associated with positive client outcome. A variety of outcome measures have been studied in a number of therapy and counseling situations with generally consistent results. The studies include both professional and non-professional helpers. The research on practitioner use of self is relevant to self-awareness in two ways. First, the research lends support to the theoretical importance of self-awareness. The practitioner can be an important part of the client's life during treatment and as such he needs to be aware of and account for himself. Secondly, the research on use of self gives direction to the practitioner's pursuit of self- awareness. For example, it is probably more important for a practitioner to understand and develop his use of empathy and warmth than it is to understand and develop the sense of authority with which he communicates interpretations. Training for Self-Awareness and Use of Self While the importance of self-awareness and its coun terpart— the use of self— has been well established, a great deal remains to be understood about the process by which this quality can be developed in social' work students and practitioners. This issue, and some of its complexi ties , was recognized by Hyman Grossbard: Since the ability to face one's self is an indispensible element in the social worker's equipment, educators must answer the question: How can self-awareness be taught? Such a formulation of the ques tion, however, has in it a fallacy, since teaching implies that knowledge is trans mitted on a conscious level and we know that self-awareness is not a transmittable entity. Self-awareness grows from with in. .. . The question should perhaps be phrased this way: How should the data be presented? In other words, how can an at mosphere that will be conducive to the development of self-awareness on the part of the student be created? (1954, pp. 382- 383) One answer to Grossbard's question comes from the in creasing number of social workers who have explored the various applications of videotape recording (VTR) systems in education and training. One application of VTR systems, VTR self-confrontation, has been widely recognized for its special relevance in the development of self-awareness (Oswald and Wilson, 1971; 0x1ey, 1973; Perlmutter and Gumpert, 1967). VTR self-confrontâtion is the process of observing one's own behavior as it is represented in the playback of a videotape recording. The VTR self-confrontation provides a person with relatively undistorted information about his behavior. It serves as a reality testing device whereby a person may compare his imaginations of self (self-conception) with his actual behavior as it has been recorded. When a person ob serves a discrepancy between his self-conception and his observed behavior there exists a potential for change of self-conception and greater self-awareness. Not only does the VTR self-confrontation provide a person with objective information about his behavior, it also presents this information in a way which is conducive to the development of self-awareness "from within." This point was made by Perlmutter and Gumpert in a report of their use of VTR playback in social work field instruction. They stated: The major insight emerging from this pro ject is an understanding of where the seeds of professional growth lie. We see self discovered change as being the most durable and enduring. (1967, p. 29) VTR self-confrontâtion contributes to self-discovered change because it presents a person with relatively objec tive information about his behavior from which he can draw conclusions about himself. This stands in contrast to the presentation of data by interpersonal feedback which is subject to selective perception, interpretation and subtle manipulation. Social work educators, as well as researchers, demon strate a widespread interest in VTR use for self-awareness development. A survey of 154 graduate practice sequences in social work revealed that 56% use videotape systems (Ruhl, 197 5). Furthermore, 65% of the directors of under graduate programs reported the use of videotape systems. Of those who used VTR systems almost one-half made frequent use of the system specifically to develop the student's self- image . VTR and In-Service Training The social work profession is beginning to develop an understanding of VTR use in social work education. However, the same kind of information is not yet available for VTR applications to in-service training of social welfare agency staff, whether professional or non-professional. In 1950 Eileen Blackey, who was then in charge of staff development services for the Veteran's Administration Social Services Division, recognized the potential contri- butioncof audio-visual aids to effective in-service train ing. She also identified the need for more information about the application of these media to the special needs of social work. Out of our exploration of some of these newer methods of teaching and learning, I believe our staffs would be in general agreement on several conclusions: (1) Social work has not kept pace with other professions in experimentation with these newer media. (2) Audio-visual aids are graphic and dynamic and should be added to the tools we have already developed in staff training. (3) Any such develop ment in social work training would call for concentrated study of the most effect ive methods and techniques in adapting these media to our own experience. (1950, p. 371) Although Blackey's comments were made many years ago they apply well to the current need and potential for the use of VTR systems in staff development systems. There remains a need for more concentrated study of the adapta tion of VTR systems to training in social work agencies. David Katz, who refers to VTR as CCTV (closed circuit, television), recognized the continuing need for information about VTR applications to in-service training. Although video equipment has become more accessible, the programs and operating procedures needed to enable agencies to make effective use of small CCTV in agency practice has led, in some cases, to dis enchantment with television. (197 5, p. 44) In response to this problem Katz developed a frame work for understanding the various potential applications pf VTR systems in social agencies. One application which ie saw as having special relevance for professional and non-professional staff development is the "training format." The training format consists of a structured self-confron tation experience which is focused on the learning of spe- pific and clearly defined behavioral skills. One type of training format highly developed in the fields of teacher education and counseling psychology is the microcounseling paradigm (Ivey, 1968; Ivey, 1971). The microcounseling training procedures are as follows : 1. The instructor identifies a specific interviewing or communication skill. 2. The skill is described in operational terms and demonstrated by videotaped or live modeling. 3. The learner practices the skill in a videotaped role-played interview. 4. The learner, with supervisory guidance, observes a videotape playback of his role-play performance. 5. The learner then practices the skill again in or der to integrate knowledge gained from the videotape feedback. A number of empirical studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of the microcounseling procedure for training in a variety of specific interpersonal communication skills (Frankey, 1971; Haase and DiMattia, 1969; Ivey, 1969; Kelly, 1973; Moreland, 1971). By virtue of its efficient, sys tematic and time-limited qualities microcounseling serves to highlight the importance of certain aspects of effec tive training whichmmight be incorporated into other train ing models involving VTR systems. The In-Service Training of Public Welfare Workers VTR and microcounseling procedures are especially relevant to the in-service training needs of the public welfare agency. This setting emphasizes pragmatic, rather than theoretical, approaches to training with a focus on practice skills and problems (Meyer, 1971). Public welfare social services involve counseling and other problem-solving efforts with the goal of rehabilita tion, self-support and self-care (McBroom, 1971). However, public welfare agencies are primarily staffed by people with bachelors degrees in a variety of fields (Finch, 1976; Meyer, 1971) with no specific educational preparation for the provision of social services. Public welfare service workers must evaluate clients in their situations and intervene with counseling, support, encouragement, information and referral. The effectiveness of these problem-solving efforts is based largely on the kind of relationship the worker is able to develop with clients. Thus, public welfare personnel, along with other human service workers, must develop their use of self in terms of interrelated interviewing, communication and re lationship skills (Brill, 1973; Garrett, 1942; Keith-Lucas, 19 72; Truax and Carkhuff, 1967). Elizabeth Nichols illustrated the need for conscious use of self in public welfare. Caseworkers in public assistance as well as in child welfare need to be helped to ward a deeper self-awareness than they are likely to reach without guidance.... An untrained worker, or even a trained one, for that matter, may take out on a foster mother his unresolved resentments towards his own mother, or may identify unrealistically with a child who complains crossly about the discipline he is getting from his parents. (1966, p. viii) As Nichols noted, the need for guidance in self- awareness is not limited to the untrained worker. Neither is this need limited to the inexperienced worker. Hans 10 strupp studied the extent to which experienced social work ers , psychologists, psychiatrists and psychoanalysts held therapeutic attitudes toward clients (1960). On the basis of questionnaire data the attitudes of these professional helpers were judged to be either positive, negative, neu tral or ambivalent. The findings were similar across pro fessional groups. Less than one-third had positive atti tudes and more than one-third had negative attitudes. In a related study Strupp (1960) examined 2,474 re sponses from the interviews of 126 psychiatrists. He found that only 4.6% could be classified as communicating warmth and acceptance. The remainder of responses were judged either to communicate coldness and rejection or to be neutral in terms of this variable. Of course, data based on these various professional groups cannot be generalized to a group of public welfare service workers. The data do indicate, however, that exper ience alone is probably not sufficient to cause optimal levels of therapeutic attitude or relationship ability among human service workers. If there is room for improvement among human service workers in the therapeutic use of self, there is no reason to exclude them from in-service training in this area. In- service training is not limited to the neophyte just out of 11 school or to the newly hired worker. As Carol Meyer stated It is our thesis that staff development, viewed as a process that affects every aspect of the agency's work, is charac-- terized by its mobility, in that i;t may be concerned with all kinds and levels of staff and with the entire range of prac tice strategies in the agency. (1966, p. 21) In-service training for experienced staff does in volve special problems. Prominent among these may be re sistance to new learning. But as Meyer noted: There is no justification for not pro viding training for staff who resist it. An agency-wide staff development program must include this group in its process, perhaps more actively than it does the newly hired young staff. (1966, p. 155) VTR self-confrontation may be one way of overcoming the resistance of experienced staff. The dramatic and "at tention getting" qualities of VTR self-confrontation are commonly recognized as a means of capturing the learner's interests, thereby engaging him in the learning process (Ruhl, 1975). VTR self-confrontâtion facilitates an aware ness of the need to learn and it also permits self-discov ery (Ochs, 1968). Both of these conditions are important in engaging the experienced staff member who may be a re sistant learner. 12 Relevance and Significance for Social Work The social work literature clearly establishes the need for further inquiry into the applications and processes of VTR training methods. This has been related to social work education (Oswald and Wilson, 1971; Ruhl, 197 5, Star, 1973) as well as to in-service training in social service agencies and programs (Blackey, 1950; Katz, 1975). When the purpose of VTR training methods is to develop practitioner self-awareness or to enhance the therapeutic use of self in a relationship it is particularly relevant to social work (Oswald and Wilson, 1971; Oxley, 19 73; Perlmutter and Gumpert, 1967). This study is based on an in-service training program for non-M.S.W. social service workers— sometimes referred to as social work technicians— in a public welfare program. Although this important group of personnel clearly remains outside the full-fledged membership of the social work pro fession, their training and the functions they perform are highly relevant to the profession. This fact was eloquently expressed by James R. Dumpson in his foreward to Meyer's "Staff Development in Public Welfare Agencies." Staff training and development within this formulation emerge as a social work process and are an inescapable responsibility of the public welfare 13 agency. This clarity about the train ing staff function in public welfare and the resultant training process holds immeasurable promise to the immediate improvement of public welfare. That im provement will be facilitated and accel erated if the social work profession not only heeds the author's plea that it acknowledge that some social services can be administered by the social work technician, but also that the profession meets its obligation to accept the social work technician within its fold and as sume its responsibility of helping im prove the technician's practice. In no small way the public image of social work and the public's future support of it depends on its image of public welfare. (1966, p. xvii) Purpose of the Study Although a variety of VTR training applications ap pear to be effective in developing self-awareness and in teaching self-involved relationship skills, little is known about the effect of VTR applications in the in-service training of public welfare social service workers. Also, little is known about the specific contribution which the videotape playback adds to other aspects of the teacher- Ue'a'rh'er interchange which surrounds its use. This research study examines the association between videotape sêlf-confrontation and three specific effects— skill acquisition, change in self-concept and anxiety arousal. Specifically, answers were sought to the 14 following three questions: By what objective measure does videotape self-con frontation contribute to skill acquisition when applied in a brief skill training program for public welfare social service workers? By what objective measure does videotape self-con frontation contribute to a change in self-concept when applied in a brief skill training program for public welfare social service workers? By what objective measure does videotape self-con frontation contribute to anxiety arousal when ap plied in a brief skill training program for social service workers? A pretest-posttest experimental design was employed in which 60 public welfare services workers (sub-M.S.W. level practitioners) were divided into two experimental groups and one control group. The three groups were dif ferentiated by their exposure to different learning proce dures (the independent variable): role play with VTR feed back, role play with an alternate type of non-evaluative 15 feedback and no role play training. Two dependent variables, self-concept and anxiety, were measured by self-rating scales. The third dependent variable, skill_performance, was measured by judges' ratings of subjects' audiotaped role play enactments. Summary Self-awareness is of great importance in the practice of social work. Its' importance is associated with the cen trality of use of self as the primary medium for communica tion and influence in a therapeutic relationship. This is true for non-professional as well as professional helping relationships. Research supports the theoretical importance of self- awareness by demonstrating the significance of the practi tioner ' s use of self as a variable influencing treatment outcome. The literature also points to those aspects of self which need to be given attention in the pursuit of self*f awareness. The purpose of this study is to contribute to an un derstanding of the process by which self-awareness and use of self may be developed. In particular this study concerns the use of videotape self-confrontation in the context of communication skill training. The study focuses on the in- 16 service training of public welfare social services workers for two reasons: (1) public welfare agencies continue to employ non-professionals in the delivery of social services and (2) videotape training techniques appear to be well suited to the demands of in-service training for time-lim ited, effective and efficient instructional methods. 17 CHAPTER II THE EFFECTIVENESS OF VTR FEEDBACK IN TRAINING: EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE Reports in the literature verify the usefulness of VTR feedback in two categories of training objectives re lated to enhancing the use of self in therapeutic relation ships. One objective concerns development of the trainee's awareness of his use of self in the application of specific techniques and skills. The microcounseling training para digm described earlier uses VTR feedback for this purpose which may be referred to as "skill development." The second objective for use of VTR feedback is re lated to the first. It concerns developing the accuracy of the trainee's self-image, especially in the sense of "self in process." Here an attempt is made to sensitize trainees to their characteristic patterns of response and the effects of such response patterns on others. This training 18 objective may be referred to as "self-image development." Evidence of VTR Effectiveness in Skill Development The literature of counselor education and counseling psychology provides the largest number of reports dealing with VTR effectiveness in skill development. Most of these concern the microcounseling training format. The specific operational definitions given to the microcounseling skills serve to facilitate systematic study of the training para digm. The seminal research on the effectiveness of the mi crocounseling training paradigm was reported in 196 8 by Ivey^ Normington, Miller, Morrill and Haase. They reported on a series of three studies, each concerned with teaching a spe cific skill* The first of these utilized a pretest-posttest control group design. Thirty-eight dormatory counselors were divided into experimental and control groups. The skill to be taught was "attending behavior" which involves being attentive to a client's verbal and nonverbal messages while communicating that attentiveness to the client. The entire training procedure took only one hour and involved a single exposure to VTR feedback. Each subject held a 5-minute interview with a paid volunteer "client." 19 They then read a manual on attending behavior and watched videotaped models of attending and non-attending behavior. The models were discussed with a training supervisor. The trainee was shown a replay of his 5-minute interview and was asked to critique it in terms of skill performance. The subject and the supervisor discussed attending behavior con cepts during and after the replay review. As a posttest the subject then held another 5-minute interview with the same "client." Members of the control group experienced the pretest and posttest 5-minute interviews and spent the intervening 50 minutes with general reading. Experimental group subjects were rated significantly ligher than controls on their verbal attending behavior. Experimental subjects improved on all three physical indi cators of attending behavior— eye contact, posture and ges- ture--but only the increase in eye contact was significant ly greater than control increases. Finally, "clients" rated sxperimental subjects significantly higher than controls on a Counselor Effectiveness Scale. The other two studies reported by Ivey et al. in volved training in "reflection of feeling" and "summariza tion of feeling." These studies involved 10 and 11 coun seling students respectively. Each study used a pretest- posttest-posttest design with no control group. The train- 20 ing procedures were similar to the first study with two ex ceptions: The training procedure lasted two hours and sub jects participated in four rather than one role play-play- back sequence. In both studies, subjects showed signifi cantly improved accuracy in using each of the skills taught. Many other researchers in counseling psychology have demonstrated the effectiveness of microcounseling procedures involving VTR feedback. These include Haase and DiMattia (1969), Kelly (1973) and Moreland (1971). Unfortunately the research on microcounseling is of limited value in un derstanding the effectiveness of VTR feedback in skill de velopment. Although VTR feedback is a part of the micro counseling paradigm, the microcounseling research generally does not separate the VTR effect from the effect of reading, modeling, role play participation and input from the in structor. In 19 73 Frankel reported a study demonstrating the specific effect of VTR feedback in skill development. Al though not based on a microcounseling format, the study did involve training in one microcounseling skill, that of "at tention to feeling." Frankel used a complex design involving a pretest followed by two treatments. Each treatment was followed by 21 a posttest. Forty-two subjects were divided into two ex perimental groups and a control group. Initially all subjects were asked to read a brief manual concerned with "reflection of feeling." The first experimental group was then exposed to a VTR model for the first treatment and a VTR self-confrontation for the second treatment. The second experimental group was exposed to a VTR self-confrontation for the first treatment and a VTR model for the second treatment. Neither exposure to the VTR model nor exposure to the VTR feedback was accompanied by any form of focusing discussion with an instructor. Controls took part in the pretest and two posttests and read theoretical material about empathy in place of the treatment conditions. Prior to (or as part of) each of the tests all subjects participated in 5-minute role played in terviews . Frankel used seven outcome measures. One of these Was the Counselor Verbal Response Scale (CVRS) which is ased in the present study. After a single exposure to either VTR feedback or VTR modeling experimental subjects showed significantly greater improvement on their CVRS scores than did control^subjects. Significant differences between each experimental droup and the control group were also found at the 22 completion of the model-feedback or feedback-model se quences. An overview of all seven outcome measures in dicates that whereas experimental subjects showed signif icant increase in the frequency of attention to feeling, this was not the case for accuracy of attention to feeling. Evidence of VTR Effectiveness in Self-Image Development The literature of various human service fields re ports effective use of VTR feedback for the self-image de- /:ëTôpme'iit of trainees. This training purpose dominates the literature on VTR use of training inppsychiatry. Hirsch and Freed (1970) reported the usefulness of VTR feedback to sensitize a trainee to "effects and patterns of response," especially "his own pattern of behavior" including atti tudes, mood and motor activity. Trethowan reported that one objective for VTR feedback is to provide the trainee with "new insights and useful self-consciousness in learning how their own gestures, expressions and other behavior modify the course and outcome of an interview" and to help him see how he "appears in the patient's eyes" (197 0, p. 70). In the psychiatric literature, VTR feedback usually serves as an adjunct to supervision (Chodoff, 1972; Glad- felter, 1970; Gruenberg, 1970) rather than as a means of 23 training specifically delineated skills. Although the psy chiatric literature generally reports that VTR feedback is useful and effective when applied in this way, the conclu sion is usually based on clinical impressions, case studies or exploratory studies. In the social work literature most reports of the ef fectiveness of VTR feedback in training are also based on clinical observation, case studies or exploratory studies. These reports generally relate to the use of VTR feedback in Masters degree programs. One report concerns its use in an undergraduate program (Star, 1973) but none were found which involve the in-service training of social wor kers or social work technicians in a social work agency. The social work literature deals with the use of VTR feed back for both self-image development and skill development but the emphasis tends to be on the former. In 1966 Perlmutter and Gumpert reported on a pilot project in which interview behaviors were demonstrated through the use of videotaped models. The videotaped mod els were used in classroom sessions concerned with concepts related to therapeutic communication, behavioral manifesta tions of certain affective states, and differences in role enactments by trainees. Each of three students were videotaped in an 24 interview with a client and later in a supervisory session. Although these tapes were used as models for most students in the class, they also provided a self-confrontation for the three participants whose interviews were recorded. In reporting the effect of the self-confrontation on these three participants Perlmutter and Gumpert stated that "the general effect on all of us seems to have been the expan sion of self-awareness at a very personal level" as well as "increased self-awareness of our own ability to communicate" (1966, p. 47). The following year Perlmutter and Gumpert also con ducted an exploratory study using videotape self-confronta tion as part of weekly group sessions held for a field unit of six students throughout the academic year. They found that these students developed confidence and a reliance on self-evaluation. Also, agency personnel found this group to function more autonomously thanÆhe agency's field unit of the previous year. These findings are limited by the absence of a control group and the lack of objective mea sures . Oswald and Wilson (1971) also reported on the useful ness of videotape feedback in providing information to students about their "self in process" and about their in terview performance. They have found that videotape 25 feedback contributes to self-understanding regarding one's functioning in professional situations and one's use of professional methods. These findings were not based on a systematic study. Star (1973) conducted the only controlled experimen tal study on the effect of VTR feedback in social work training. Star measured the self-conception changes re sulting when VTR feedback was used for self-image develop ment with undergraduate social work majors. In this study 56 subjects were divided into one ex perimental and two control groups. Each member of the ex perimental group enacted a role played interview in the role of social worker. The client role was also enacted by group members. The role play was videotaped. After tap ing, the group took a short break and returned for viewing. The viewing took place without group discussion and without interruption from the researcher. One week later subjects were exposed to a second playback which served to stimulate group discussion about general issues. Specific critique of any individual's per formance was not made. Control group members remained in their regularly scheduled class, were not exposed to VTR self-confrontation and presumably did not participate in role plays. 26 The Self and Others Rating Scale was administered prior to the initial role play, following the initial self confrontation, following the second self-confrontation and one month after the second self-confrontation. Subscales were used which tap "Actual Self" concept, "Public Self" concept (perceptions of self assumed to be held by others), "Self as Helper" and "Inferred Client Perceptions" of self. Star's most consistent finding was that Self as Hel per was most subject to change while Actual Self was least subject to change. This led her to believe that VTR acts as a reality testing device in areas of self-conception which are not subject to on-going accurate inputs. Another finding was that the seIf-conceptions of experimental sub jects fluctuated more over time than that of the control subjects. This was interpreted as continuous reformulation of "self-hypotheses" on the part of experimental subjects. The study did not control for the effect of role play en actments and the group discussion which were associated with the self-confrontations. The literature of counselor education or counseling psychology offers the greatest number of systematic studies concerning the effectiveness of VTR training procedures. Most of these studies concern training for specific skills - although some were found which deal with self-image devel opment . 27 One early investigation concerning self-image devel opment was the exploratory study by Walz and Johnston (1963). The study employed a one-group pretest-posttest design. The subjects were 30 National Defense Education Act coun selor trainees. All subjects had received two months of didactic instruction plus several role play enactments prior to this study. In the study each subject interviewed a "coached client" (a non-client playing the role of a cli ent) for ten minutes. An adjective check list was then completed by the subject, the coached client and a super visor in which each was asked to rate what they presumed to be the coached client's perception of the subject's in terview performance. During the following day each subject observed a VTR playback of his role play and then completed the adjective ‘check list once again. After a single exposure to VTR feedback, subjects showed a statistically significant decrease in the number of positive and neutral items used to describe themselves. Changes in subjects' seIf-descriptions were more in the di rection of the supervisor's perceptions after viewing, but they were less in the direction of the client's perceptions. It should be noted that although Walz and Johnston used an outcome measure to tap "inferred client perceptions" their subjects were limiting their inferrence to apply only 28 to the role played client. In Star's study (1973), as well as in the present study, "inferred client perceptions" re lates to actual clients (who were not participants in the training procedures) rather than role played clients. Walz and Johnston also found that certain personal ity variables may predict the impact of self-confrontation. Subjects with high discrepancies between the real and ideal self on the Bills Index of Values and Adjustment tended to have more negative self-descriptions after the replay than those who showed less discrepancy. Subjects who scored high on an Anxiety Index were more negative in their adjec tive check list ratings than either the client or super visor prior to the replay. After the replay the ratings of these high anxiety subjects became more like the client's and supervisor's ratings. The findings of this study were limited by the absence of a control group and by the lack of refinement in the adjective check list. The literature of counseling psychology provides a more recent systematic study of the self-concept change ef fect. Torrez (1973) reported a study in which 64 graduate students in counselor education were divided into three ex perimental groups and one control group. A pretest-post test control group design was used. All experimental subjects observed VTR feedback of 29 their recorded role play interviews on two occasions. A critique by fellow students accompanied both of the first experimental group's VTR replays. The second group viewed the initial replay privately with the second replay accom panied by a group critique. The third experimental group observed both replays privately. All subjects completed a semantic differential con sisting of thirteen concepts relevant to counseling. Con trol subjects received multiple testing but were not ex posed to role plays, VTR replays, or group critique situa tions . Generally.the findings show that videotape feedback did affect the self-concept of counselor trainees, even after a single exposure. The findings also show that the resulting self-concept changes were in the direction of less positive self-evaluation. The only exception was the group of subjects exposed tottwo private viewings. Their initial private viewing lowered self-evaluation but a second pri vate viewing caused a return to slightly above the pretested level. The finding of a less positive self-concept effect is consistent with the findings of Star (1973) and Walz and Johns ton{%1963) . In each of these three studies VTR feed back was used to change self-concept rather than to teach specific skills. 30 Unresolved Issues The review of the literature on the effects and ef fectiveness of VTR feedback in training reveals a number of unanswered questions in this relatively new field. Intervening Variables Contributing to the Learning Effect The effectiveness of videotape methods in training human service workers has been well established, but the same is true for methods which rely on didactic instruction, role play and social feedback (Carkhuff 'and Berenson, 1967; Truax and Carkhuff, 1967; Wells and Miller, 1973). Role play, particularly when supported by social feedback, is an effective means of altering self-concept (Moreno, 194 6; Sarbin and Jones, 1955) as well as attitudes (Boies, 1972; Truax and Carkhuff, 1967). The literature does not contain sufficient information to judge the nature and extent of the specific contribution which VTR feedback makes to the didactic and experiential methods which surround its use. Most of the studies cited above do not measure the specific effect of VTR feedback. Generally they measure the effects of various training procedures which employ VTR feedback. In almost all cases the VTR feedback is surround ed by interpersonal transactions which are likely to con tribute to learning whether or not supported by VTR feed back. 31 VTR feedback, whether used for skill development or self-concept change, is typically associated with one or more of the following learning experiences: 1. Didactic instruction 2. Modeling, either filmed, videotaped, or live 3. Role play enactment 4. Non-evaluative discussion focusing on relevant aspects of the role play enactment 5. Critique of the role play enactment. 6. General discussion of issues relevant to the role play enactment It is not clear what part of the total learning effect is due specifically to the VTR feedback. This issue may be of concern to the frustrated neophyte user of VTR equipment as well as those who are concerned with the time and expense of VTR use. Bandura and Walters (1963) asserted the importance of modeling in the learning process. Their theory of imita tive learning is an important theoretical underpinning for the microcounseling training paradigm as well as for its predecessor, the microteaching paradigm (Allen and Clark, 1967; Allen and Ryan, 1969). In Frankel*s study of video tape training techniques, videotape modeling alone was found to be at least as effective as videotape self- 32 confrontation alone. Kelly (1973) reported similar find ings. Although the presentation of models in these studies involved a knowledge and use of VTR equipment by the instr uctor, models could also be presented by more conventional and less expensive means such as films or observation of actual and role played interviews. The literature also indicates that role playing can be an effective training technique for both skill training and attitude change objectives (Boies, 1972). Role play ing is effectively used for staff development training in a variety of industries and programs (Boulda and Lawshe, 1962; Janson and Stolurow, 1962 ; Ma1er and Zerfoss, 1952). In a recent study Venardos and Harris (1973) compared the effectiveness of VTR feedback methods with that of role playing methods in the job interview skill training of re- tiabilitation clients. This was an experimental study using a pretest-posttest control group design. The researchers stated that these two training methods were chosen for com parison because both have demonstrated effectiveness but one is more economically feasible. All nineteen subjects engaged in a role played inter view which was videotaped for purposes of data collection. Subjects in the first experimental group later observed two models on film and then observed a replay of their own 33 pre-test interview. The replay was critiqued by each sub ject as well as by his group. Subjects in the second ex perimental group did not observe models nor did they ob serve videotape replays of their own behavior. They did enact a series of role plays which they and other group members later critiqued. Other aspects of the training pro gram, such as lectures, written material and discussion, were similar for both groups. The findings show that the job interview behavior of subjects in both experimental groups improved significantly more than that of the control subjects. The two experimen tal groups did not differ significantly from each other. This led the authors to raise the following issue: WhWhile videotape is being used increasingly today for teaching various interpersonal skills, such as interviewing, the savings in equipment expense that would result from employing the equally effective pro cedure of role playing might suggest that role playing be the treatment of choice. (p. 367) Vernardos and Harris recognized that their study was inconclusive in resolving this issue. It is certainly of limited value for generalization to the training of profes sional and other human service workers. It does, however, point to the need for more information on the contributions of videotape feedback relative to other training tech niques . 34 Self-Concept Change in Skill Training Self-concept refers to the concepts available to the person by which he defines himself. The term may refer to a "core self-concept" (Combs and Snygg, 1959) by which a person defines his basic nature, presumed to be fairly con sistent regardless of specific role enactments or social contexts (e.g. How I am as a person). Self-concept may also refer to the way in which a person defines himself in the context of a specific role (e.g. How I am as a social wor ker) . Studies on the use of VTR feedback for self-image de velopment demonstrate its effect in changing the trainee's self-concept, especially his self-concept in the role of helper (Star, 1973? Torrez, 1973; Walz and Johnston, 1963). Unfortunately studies on the use of VTR feedback for skill development generally focus on the skill acquisition effect only (Frankel, 1973; Ivey et al., 1968; Haase and DiMattia, 1969; Kelly, 1973 ; Moreland, 1971). When VTR feedback is used for skill training the sub ject's attention is focused on specific behaviors, unlike the more general observational set of the self-image devel opment self-confrontation. This may lead some to expect that self-concept is less subject to change in the skill training format and that the only significant effect to be 35 expected is skill acquisition. However, in spite of the skill focus other information which may not be skill related is accessible to the trainee. The trainee may observe his physical attributes, incongruities between verbal and non verbal behavior and other aspects of his behavior during a VTR self-confrontation whether the intended purpose of the self-confrontation is self-image change or skill acqui sition. When incongruity exists between perceived behaviors and the pre-existing self-concept, change in self-concept is likely to occur (Boyd and Sisney, 1967; Stoller, 1968). Not only does a skill training format offer potential for self-concept change but it may also influence the direc tion of that change. Such an effect may result from the trainee's success or failure experience with the learning task (Webster and Sobieszek, 1974). This is particularly true when the skills to be learned are highly self-involving and relevant to one's performance of a self-involved role. In the self-image development format the self-evalu- aticve aspect of self-concept has been found to change in a negative direction following an initial VTR self-confronta tion (Star, 1973; Torrez, 1973). Can the same effect be expected in a skill development format in which the chances for success are supported by presenting the trainee with specific and limited learning goals? 36 It is important to be aware of the extent and nature of self-concept change which may accompany VTR assisted skill learning. Without such an awareness a useful aspect of the learning experience may be overlooked with a xesult'r ing failure to maximize its potential for growth, Self-Concept Change and the Experienced Traihee Prior studies have demonstrated that an initial VTR seIf-confrontation can change certain aspects of the self concept of inexperienced human service trainees CStar, i9J3; Torrez, 1973; Walz and Johnston, 2963L. The components of self-concept which were subject to change were those related to the role of helper [i.e. "self-as-helper" or "inferred client perceptions of self-as-helper"I. This is to be ex^ pected of inexperienced human service trainees, since their concepts of self in the role of helper have not been subject 3d to much prior reality testing. What remains unknown^ iowever, is whether or not an initial VTR self-confrontation ban change the way an experienced worker sees himself in the lelping role. The following statement by Combs and Snygg (19 691 raises some doubt about the potential for such change. Changes produced by events inconsistent with well-differentiated self concepts are likely to be slow and laborious, if indeed they occur at all. What is more, the greater the importance of a partic ular concept of self in the economy of 37 the individual, the more unlikely is any given experience to produce a major change. (p. 159) The experienced worker's concept of self in the role of helper is probably much better differentiated (i.e. well formed as a figure against a ground) than that of an inex perienced trainee. The experienced worker has had many more opportunities for reality testing. Furthermore, the experienced worker's concept of self in the role of helper has probably taken on a great importance in "the economy of the individual" since it has had time to become integrated with many other aspects of self and because of the presumed importance of one's occupational identity. Thus, the literature leaves the following question unanswered: Can the impact of an initial VTR self-confron tation overcome the expected resistance to change in the experienced worker's concept of self in the helping role? Anxiety Arousal in Skill Training The literature shows that anxiety arousal is an ef fect of VTR self-confrontation in therapeutic applications (Geertsma and Reivich, 1965; Logue and Zenner, 1968) as well as in training applications (Kingdon, 197 5; Perlmutter and Gumpert, 1967; Walz and Johnston, 1963). In these sit uations anxiety generally is an initial reaction which is reduced or eliminated upon repeated viewings or repeated self-confrontations. 38 Reports on the more systematic and specifically fo cused training formats of microcounseling and microteaching, however, rarely mention the anxiety arousal effect (Baker, 19 70). This is the case even though these studies are typ ically based on a subject's self-confrontation during a single session. The literature does not reveal whether the anxiety arousal effect is reduced or eliminated by the na ture of these training formats or whether these researchers, primarily concerned with skill acquisition, have simply ig nored this effect. This unresolved issue relates to another. Even if VTR self-confrontation is associated with anxiety arousal in a skill training format, to what extent is that anxiety caused by the VTR self-confrontation and to what extent is it caused by other aspects of the learning situation? This issue may be of concern to an instructor whose decision about adding a VTR feedback component to a training pro gram needs to account for its contribution to anxiety a- rousal. Summary The literature reports the effectiveness of VTR feed back for two categories of training objectives concerned with enhancing the use of self in therapeutic relationships. 39 These objectives are self-image development and skill de velopment. Reports on the effectiveness of VTR self-con frontation for achieving both of these objectives come from the fields of psychiatry, social work, counselor education and counseling psychology. No reports were found concerning the effectiveness of VTR techniques in the in-service train ing of social service workers, professional or non-profes sional . The literature leaves four issues unresolved. (1) The literature does not demonstrate the specific contribu tion of VTR feedback to the learning which results from other experiences surrounding VTR use. (2) Although the self-concept change effect of VTR feedback is demonstrated in the self-image development context, the literature does not show how self-concept is affected when VTR feedback is used for specific skill training. (3) The literature does not show whether an initial VTR self-confrontation can pro duce change in the experienced worker's concept of self in the role of helper, as it does for the inexperienced human service trainee. (4) Although anxiety arousal is known to be an initial VTR effect in self-image development, the lit erature does not report whether or not anxiety arousal also occurs in systematic skill training. The following chapter presents a conceptual framework 40 for understanding these, and related issues. Specific hy potheses, based on this framework, are then presented. 41 CHAPTER III CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND HYPOTHESES The Skill Acquisition Effect; Feedback and Reality Testing Although the research literature does not isolate the specific contribution of VTR feedback to skill acquisition, theory does indicate various ways in which self-observation via VTR playback can make a contribution to skill.learning. Information feedback, a central construct in under standing self-observation via VTR (Baker, 19 70; Ruhl, 1975; Stoller, 1968), is also a central construct in cybernetic models of learning (Miller, 1960; Wiener, 1954). In the systems and cybernetics literature one common definition of feedback refers to information communicated to a system's source of control about the extent to which the system is deviant from or has not yet accomplished its goal (Smith, 42 1966). When a cybernetic system's source of control re ceives information about the differences between its inten tion (goal) and its performance, it can then engage in ac tions for the purpose of reducing that difference (Miller, 1960). This is referred to as negative feedback. When the information communicated to the system's source of control indicates congruity between goal and performance a condi tion of positive feedback exists and the status quo of per formance is reinforced. With this paradigm in mind the diagram in Figure 1, adapted from Miller (1960, p. 2 6), demonstrates how informa tion feedback is used in the process of skill acquisition. When the system receives information about its per formance this information is compared to a goal image in a test (reality testing). If the system discovers incongruity (negative feedback) it engages in some operation designed to alter performance and bring it into line with the goal. When the system receives new information about its altered performance, it makes another test comparison. This test- operate-test cycle repeats until congruity exists between the performance information and the goal image. Once con gruity is achieved, a condition of positive feedback exists and the status quo of performance is reinforced. Although the test-operate-test cycle repeats until 43 FIGURE 1 THE TEST-OFERATE-TEST MODEL OF REALITY TESTING Performance Information Incongruity TEST Goal Image Compared to Performance Information OPERATE Attempt to Bring Performance in Line with Image Congruity New Performance Information ’ Adapted from Millery Galanter and Pribrum (1960, p.26) 44 congruity exists, each repetition of the cycle may involve a different kind of test; that is, each cycle may be based on different kinds of information feedback. This is likely to occur in the case of in-service skill training. Once a trainee formulates and accepts a conceptualization of the skill (the goal image) he may draw upon various sources of information to assess the extent to which his actual per formance is congruent with his goal image. He may rely on self-observation during an interview, retrospective review following an interview, comments from colleagues or super visors who may review his performance, or information from clients' direct statements. VTR feedback of one's perform ance can also be used as the informational basis for one or more of the tests. In each of these reality testing operations the ac curacy of the system's attempts to establish congruity de pends on the accuracy and completeness of the information feedback. The literature offers numerous indications of the superior accuracy and completeness of videotape feedback, as comparéd to either social feedback, the internal exper ience of a performance, or the memory of an internal exper ience of a performance. Gergen (1969) noted that the information of VTR feed back is more accurate, direct, specific and concrete than 45 that of social feedback. Similarly, Stoller (1968) stated that VTR feedback information is the clearest, least dis torted, and most comprehensible form of feedback available to a person. Hirsch and Freed (1970) , among others, noted that the completeness of VTR feedback partially stems from the fact that it provides a trainee with observational access to his non-verbal behaviors. It also provides the trainee with a chance to integrate observations of the non-verbal and the verbal behavior. He can then become aware of discrepancies (Alger and Hogan, 196 7). Not only does VTR provide more information, it pro vides it more forcefully. Lowy (1971) and Perlmutter and Gumpert (1966) noted the high drama and attention getting quality of VTR feedback. Stoller (1968) noted that a per son's attention is diverted from internal events while en gaged in interaction with others. However, if a person can later review the interaction on a VTR playback he can give his full attention to both the observed behaviors and the internal events which were associated with them. The concepts of automatization and deautomatization contribute to an understanding of the way in which VTR self confrontation conveys complete and accurate information to the viewer. Automatization refers to the way in which one 46 becomes aware of his motor behavior, perception and think ing. With repeated exercise of a process its intermediate steps disappear from consciousness as the action is com pleted in a routinized manner (Hartmann, 19 58). This is quite apparent in the case of walking and talking. It also occurs with such mental processes as self-perception. When a person observes his behavior via videotape feedback the novel perspective and new information triggers a "deautomatization" (Gill and Brennan, 19 59) of his prev iously automatized processes of self-perception. Deautomat ization refers to a redirection of attention onto those pro cesses for which attention was no longer necessary, once the process became automatized. This deautomatization stimulates recall and broadens associational realms about oneself becausfeeit forces upon the viewer an image of him self which he has learned not to see (Holzman, 19 69). Empirical support for this contention was offered in part by Storms (19 72) whose work with VTR self-confrontation is based on attribution theory. Attribution theory predicts that a person will tend to attribute the cause of his be havior to the environment. In contrast, that person will tend to attribute the cause of another person's behavior to the other person (Jones and Nisbett, 1971). Storms found that this process was partially reversed during self- 47 observation with VTR feedback in which case a person at tributed the causes of his observed behavior to himself. This is one way in which the novel perspective offered by a VTR self-confrontâtion contributes to deautomatization. Reivich and Geertsma (19 69) identified an additional factor which may contribute to the accuracy of reality test ing based on VTR feedback. They noted that when a person reviews his performance with the aid of a VTR feedback his review is less distorted by "retrospective falsification" than if he were to review on the basis of memory alone. The video image is concrete and clear and it remains ex actly the same each time the playback is repeated. Thus, the feedback information is not subject to distortion by selective factors as is the case with unassisted memory. Although potentially helpful, the contribution of VTF feedback to accurate reality testing does not insure that performance will change when incongruity is detected in a test. The goal image may also change to achieve greater congruity with existing performance. The likelihood of a change in goal image can be minimized by demonstrating its vaüiue to the trainee, providing a clear conceptualization of the goal and if the goal is achievable within the train ee's range of capacities. While the possibility of a chang^ in goal image can be minimized, it cannot be eliminated. 48 The Self-Concept Change Effect; Role-Taking and Reality Testing As noted earlier, VTR feedback may influence the viewer's self-concept, even when he uses it to assess his performance of a specific skill. Furthermore, even when attention is focused on skill related behaviors a trainee will probably observe other behaviors as well. The train ee's observations of his skill performance may have a direct relationship to his self-concept, especially if the skill is highly self-involving. A person's self-concept is formed and reshaped through the process of role-taking (Mead, 193 4; Mead in Strauss, 1956). Role-taking refers to the cognitive pro cess by which a person views himself as if he were in the position of others. The concept of role-taking has com monly been used to explain the reformulation of self-con cept which occurs during self-confrontation (Gergen, 1969 ; Star, 1973; Stoller, 1968). The previously cited study by Storms (19 72) lends support to the appropriateness of the role-taking concept as a means of explaining the self-concept change which results from VTR self-confrontation. In this study subjects attri buted cause to their self-observed behavior as if they were observing from the perspective of another person. 49 Role-taking serves as a reality testing device by which the individual can develop a more objective concept of self than his own subjective perspective would allow. Shibutani noted the contribution of role-taking to a more objectified self-image. Thus, a man becomes conscious of himself as a distinct unit through role-taking; he responds to his own activity as if he were someone else. He responds covertly to his own behavior in the same way in which he expects others to respond overtly. The capacity to form self-images, then, makes self-criticism and self-control possible. (1961, p. 91) Individuals continuously scan the social environment for information needed in testing the accuracy of their role-taking conceptions (Horrocks and Jackson, 1972). Ac cording to Stoller "A self-concept must be confirmed by others since this represents the reality testing to which it is always being subjected" (1968, p. 214). When social feedback is the only source of information available for reality testing, however, there is considerable room for variation and error in the extent to which a person's role- taking conceptions accurately reflect his objective nature. This is due to the variation and error inherent in social feedback. First, there is room for error in the accuracy of other people's perceptions because the perceptions of all 50 people are influenced by their own subjective needs (Combs and Snygg, 1959). Secondly, there is room for error in the communication of other people's perceptions to the person receiving the feedback. According to Stoller: When engaging in role-taking, people pro ject their own inclinations to action upon others and pay close attention to the ges tures produced by others. Since there is no way of obtaining an accurate reading of the internal feelings of others, inferences must be made on the basis of the sounds and movements they make. (1968, p. 215) Gergen (1969) also referred to the vague and impre cise nature of social feedback. As an example, he noted that when person A perceives person B as threatening, per son A usually will not assign a specific label (e.g. "You are threatening to me") to a specific set of behaviors (e.g. "...when you stand too close and speak so loudly"). Rather, person A is more likely to give subtle non-verbal clues that he feels threatened. The ambiguity, imprecision and variation in social feedback stand in sharp contrast to the objective accuracy of VTR feedback. Thus, Gergen (1969) noted that when VTR feedback contributes to the role-taking process it does so more efficiently and directly than normal social discourse. For example, if person B in the above example could observe his interaction with person A on a videotape recording, he 51 could observe his specific behaviors of positioning, pos ture, verbal and non-verbal communication as well as the other person's threatened response. Furthermore, the VTR feedback is not distorted by the psychological needs of its source, the videotape camera and recorder. Unlike human ob servers, two cameras focused on one event will record ex actly the same behaviors. Not only is the quality of VTR feedback different than that of social feedback, it also stimulates a different perceptual stance in the receiver. Deautomatization, which influences the perception of skill related information, also influences the perception of self related information. Holzman illustrated the role of deautomatization in changing seQ^f-conceptions. Seeing an image of our expressive be havior forces upon us an image of our selves which we had learned not to see. We consequently perceive both that which we wanted to express and that which we did not want to express; what is both new, strange or unfamiliar and what is old and familiar; behaviors that are both uniquely ours and alloys of the behavior of important people in our lives toward whom we have complex feelings ; be havior that disappoints us because of what we have and have not become; and be haviors that stimulate pride and admir ation for what we appear to be. (1969, p. 208) Holzman's statement shows how deautomatization allows for a more complete communication of information about a person 52 to himself. As such it can enhance the accuracy of role- taking conceptions. None of the above indicates that either role-taking or VTR information feedback can insure the accuracy of a person's self-conception. A person's role-taking concept ions and his reality testing of those conceptions are al ways distorted to some extent by the influence of subjective needs on perception and cognition. Thus, the value of VTR feedback in accurate self-image development is not absol ute; it is relative to other types of feedback available. This is explored further in the following discussion of reality testing dynamics. The dynamics of reality testing in self-concept change. Conceptually, the dynamics of reality testing are the same whether it contributes to self-concept change or to skill acquisition. (See Figure 1, p. 44). The difference lies in the content and outcome of the process, not in the basic process itself. In both cases reality testing in volves the following elements. 1. New information is communicated to a person a- bout a reality for which the person holds a corres ponding image. 2. There is a tendency to establish congruity be tween the image and the reality. 53 3. Congruity may be established either by misper- ceiving the dissonance arousing feedback, denying the association between the feedback and the image, changing the image, or changing the corresponding reality. When a person receives VTR feedback, the likelihood of misperceiving the dissonance arousing information is lim ited. Baker noted this fact as he explained the effective ness of VTR feêdback. êfit of video tape feedback is that the various avenues of the recipient of feedback to reduce dissonance are lim ited. That is, a person may ordinarily explain away a threatening communication by derogating the communicator, misunder standing or distorting his message. Such dissonance reduction techniques are sev- erly limited by the impartial directness of video tape feedback. Hence probability of behavioral change is heightened; a change in self-concept or ideal-concept are the only reasonable disonance reduction avenues left. (1970, frame 54) A Although Baker's statement may not include all of the avenues of dissonance reduction catalogued by the disso nance theorists, his conclusion is consistent with empiri cal findings. VTR feedback does appear to be effective in changing self-concept as well as skill behaviors. Assuming that perceptual dissonance reduction tech niques are severely limited by VTR feedback, incongruity may be reduced either by changing the image or changing 54 behavior. In the case of skill acquisition it was noted earlier (page 48) that either may change but that under cer tain conditions the likelihood of a change in behavior could be maximized. A change in behavior is facilitated if the person has a clear conception of which behaviors are needed to achieve congruity and if the person is capable of per forming these behaviors. In a situation where self-concept constitutes the test image,^ a change in behavior may not be so readily at tainable. A person may receive information in a self-con frontation which indicates that he is less fair, intelligent or valuable than he previously imagined himself to be. It is unlikely that the person would have a clear conception of how to change his behavior to better match his more fair, intelligent and valuable self-concept. Even if the person knew how to behave differently, he may not be capable of ef fecting the change. Although immediate change in behavior is possible as an adequate means of reducing incongruity, the possibilities may be limited. The likelihood of a change in self-concept is also ^The term "test image" is analogous to the "goal im age" of Figure 1, p. 44. This term is used in the case of self-concept reality testing because a person's self-con cept is not presumed to be a goal. 55 limited. Combs and Snygg (19 59) identified three factors which influence such a likelihood. These were : 1. The place of the new concept in the individual's present seIf-organization. 2. The relation of the new concept to theyperson's basic need to maintain and enhance the existing phen omenal self. 3. The clarity of the perceptual experience of the new information about the self. The first factor listed by Combs and Snygg refers to the fact that a person's image of himself consists of many "component images." These component images have varying de grees of importance depending on their relationship to the core of a person's identity. High centrality implies high resistance to change. Each person has a basic or generalized self-concept. The following description by Combs and Snygg conveys the centrality or importance of this self-concept. To describe the organization of those very important or central perceptions of self involved in a great deal of the individual's behavior, it is sometimes helpful further to differentiate the \ perceptual field to include only those perceptions about self which seem most vital or important to the individual himself. We call this organization the self concept....(which seems) to the 56 individual to be "he" in all times and at all places. This is the very essence of "me" whose loss is regarded as personal destruction. (1959, p. 127) Because of its centrality in the person's self-organ ization, this core self-concept manifests a strong tendency toward internal consistency and stability over time (Lecky, 1945; Combs and Snygg, 1959). In non-pathological subjects the core self-concept has been found to resist measurable change following up to four VTR self-confrontations (Eller- man, 1974 ; Jacobson, 1972 ; Star, 1973) . Associated with the core self-concept are various conceptions of self in specific situations or roles (Gergen^ 1971; McCall and Simmons, 1966). These self-conceptions manifest varying degrees of importance to a person depending on their centrality and relevance to the immediate situation (Gergen, 1971). For example, a social worker's concept of self-as-helper is likely to be more important to him while on the job than his concept of self-as-gardener or self-as- art critic. As such the former concpptéon of self will be more resistant to change, while on the job, than will the ^Related to these self-conceptions-in-a-role, as well as to the core self-concept, are the perceptions of self which are assumed to be held by others (Pederson, 1969). These inferred perceptions of others are an important aspect: of self-conception because of their contribution to role- taking. Intthis discussion statements concerning self-con cept in a role also are presumed to apply to inferred per ceptions of significant others regarding self in a role. 57 latter concepts. In turn, each conception of self in a role manifests less importance than the core self-concept and is therefore relatively less resistant to change. Although the core self-concept resists measurable change following up to four self-confrontations, measurable change in self-concept- in-a-role has been found to occur after a single self-con frontation (Star, 1973; Torrez, 1973; Walz and Johnston, 1963) in the case of inexperienced human service trainees. The second factor cited by Combs and Snygg as influ- engihg resistance to change in a self-conception is the re lation of the new concept (or new information) to the per son's basic need to maintain and enhance his self-concept. New information about the self which confirms a person's existing self-concgpt will be more likely to be incorporated than new information which is highly inconsistent with it. An important element in this formulation is the extent to which a particular self-concept already exists. If a particular self-concept is well developed and clearly differentiated, incongruous new information about self can be easily recognized and defended against. This may be the case for experienced social workers whose con cept of self-as-helper have been developed and refined on the basis of experience with social feedback from various sources over time. In the case of inexperienced social work 58 trainees, on the other hand, they have had relatively little social feedback about self-as-helper. Their role-taking conceptions and concept of self-as-helper will be relatively vague and undifferentiated. New information about self will therefore be less likely to be seen as incongruous with the concept that already exists. The third factor listed by Combs and Snygg— the clar ity of the experience of a new perception--also influences the likelihood of self-concept change. A vivid, first-hand, self-involved experience of new information about self is more likely to influence self-concept change than a less vivid second-hand report. The clarity of VTR feedback has already been cited and was summarized by Kaswan and Love: The videotape appears to be the most comprehensive form of objective conr frontation because it presents inform ation about the self more completely, directly and concretely than other media and also permits easy, repeatable ver ification of information through immed iate replay. (1969, p. 225) Considering the above theory and empirical findings it appears likely that VTR feedback will be incongruent to a certain extent with the existing self-concept. The ex isting concept is developed through role-taking conceptions which generally are based on social feedback. VTR feedback differs from social feedback in its content, its clarity 59 and in the deautomatized perceptual set which it arouses. Although some incongruity may be expected between VTE feedback and a self-concept which is based on other forms of feedback, change in self-concept does not always occur. This is particularly true when prior reality-testing of the self-concept has been accurate and thorough. In such cases the incongruity of VTR feedback may be minor. Whereas a VTR self-confrontation may be expected to create some incongruity, it remains unknown whether this can cause measurable change in the self-as-helper conception of the experienced social worker or social work technician. Such change has been demonstrated for inexperienced trainees but it is expected that the experienced worker's self-as- helper conception will be more resistant to change. It may be more central to his identity and it is probably more fully developed and differentiated as a concept. The same is expected in terms of the related concept of "inferred client perceptions of self-as-helper." On the other hand the resistance to change resulting from these factors may be overcome by the clarity and im pact of a VTR self-confrontation. The present study is de signed, in part, to explore this issue. The Anxiety Arousal Effect: Incongruity as Threat The anxiety arousing quality of a VTR self-confronta- 60 tion has been noted in therapeutic applications (Geertsma and Reivich, 1965; Logue and Zenner, 1968) as well as in training applications (Perlmutter and Gumpert, 1967; Walz and Johnston, 1963; Yenawine and Arbuckle, 1971) of VTR sys tems. The literature indicates two primary ways in which anxiety is aroused by the use of VTR methods in training. (1) When the behavior of a trainee is being monitored by VTR equipment during a role play or actual counseling ses sion threat may be perceived with resulting anxiety. (2) The actual seIf-confrontation which occurs during playback may be perceived as a threat to the existing self-concept, again with resulting anxiety. The perception of threat during monitoring was re ported by Poling (1968). His findings were based on the self-reports of ten counselor candidates who served as sub jects. The findings are somewhat limited since it is not known whether subjects were able to differentiate the threat of being monitored by videotape equipment from the threat of being monitored by the equipment operator. DiGiulio and Eshleman (1972),also reported the per ception of threat and resulting "nervous tension" as a re sult of VTR monitoring. When 31 counselor trainees were exposed to VTR monitoring of their microcounseling role 61 plays, 46% reported that the presence of VTR equipment added to their nervous tension to a considerable or moderate degree. In this study the trainee operated the equipment himself and there was no operator or instructor present who may have contributed to the subject's perceptions of threat. Both Poling and DiGiulio and Eshleman reported that the perception of threat during VTR monitoring was largely an initial reaction. DiGiulio and Eshleman (19 72) reported that 63% of the subjects in their study experienced a high or moderate degree of tension reduction upon subsequent videotapings. Yenawine and Arbuckle (1971) compared the effects of videotaping to that of audiotaping in training. Although they did not clearly differentiate between monitoring as threat and feedback as threat they did report that in ad vance of any training experience "anxiety and resistance to taping rises as the known degree of seIf-exposure in a re cording rises. As a result, the idea of videotaping coun seling interviews is more threatening than the idea of audiotaping" (1971, p. 5). Again, this anxiety arousal in response to use of the videotape was an initial reaction. After the second session members of the videotaped group were less anxious and defensive than members of the audio taped group. 62 The report by Yenawine and Arbuckle is noteworthy in that it refers to an anticipatory anxiety response to an expected future self-exposure. Thus, the perception of threat during monitoring is probably closely related to the type of threat which is expected to occur during feedback. The major threat that occurs during the VTR self-con frontation per se is the threat to a person's existing self- concept. Specifically VTR feedback may confront a person with information which is incongruent with the existing self-concept thereby revealing it to be an inadequate repre sentation of reality. As was noted earlier, the creation of such an incon gruency is likely since the existing self-concept has been constructed from role-taking conceptions based on social feedback. VTR feedback differs from social feedback. The difference in perceived information from these two sources creates the threatening incongruity. A summary of the seqüëlae of this kind of threat has been formulated by Hogan (1948) and reported by Rogers (19 51). Points which are relevant to the present discussion are listed below. 1. Threat occurs when experiences are perceived or anticipated as incongruent with the structure of the self. 63 2. Anxiety is the affective response to threat. 3. Defense is a sequence of behavior in response to threat, the goal of which is the maintenance of the structure of the self. 4. Defense involves a denial or distortion of per ceived experience to reduce the incongruity between the experience and the structure of the self. 5. The awareness of threat, but not the threat it self, is reduced by the defensive behavior. 6. This defensive sequence is limited by the need to accept reality. (p. 516) The formulation shows how a VTR self-confrontation can arouse anxiety, perhaps more so than "self-confronta tion" through social feedback. Reduction of incongruity through "denial or distortion or perceived experience" is limited by the recognized clarity and objectivity of VTR feedback as well as the need to accept reality. As Stoller noted : What is seen on the VTR can be denied, of course, but it takes considerably more effort on the part of the indiv idual than turning away from verbal picture of self. A picture represents communication of a different order than the spoken word and must be responded to in a dissimilar fashion. (1968, pt 239) Two additional factors may contribute to the anxiety arousal reported in VTR studies. These factors are evalu- 64 ation, apprehension and "experimental anxiety." Levitt (196 7) referred to these concepts as "extraneous personal factors affecting anxiety experiments." Evaluation apprehension refers to the fear of being exposed to an evaluation of one's emotional stability or personal adequacy. According to Levitt this apprehension is probably indigenous to experiments in which the resear cher is perceived as a mental health professional. To some extent it is also likely to be a function of the subject's interpretation of the nature of the experiment. In studies of VTR self-confrontation the researcher is usually a mental health professional or a trained expert in a field of knowledge relevant to emotional stability or personal adequacy. Also, the context of the VTR self-con frontation is always one in which some kind of evaluation of the subject's self-image or performance ability is being made. If the self-confrontation occurs in a learning situa tion the subject is likely to perceive that his ability to make appropriate changes in self-concept or performance is also being evaluated. The extent to which these sources of evaluation ap prehension contribute to the anxiety arousal of a VTR self confrontation cannot be determined by comparison to a no treatment control group alone. An adequate assessment can 65 only be made by including a comparison group in the research design. The comparison group must be exposed to conditions of evaluation similar to those of the experimental group, differing only in terms of exposure to VTR feedback. Another artifact which may influence any experiment concerned with anxiety is "experimental anxiety." Levitt noted that many people experience some anxiety merely be cause they are participating in an experiment, regardless of its nature. He stated that the anxious reaction is probably a function of the novelty of the situation and the subject's lack of knowledge about what is going to happen to him. As in the case of evaluation apprehension a no-treat ment control group is an inadequate control for this varia ble. The artifact can best be eliminated by contrasting the experimental group with a comparison group which is involved in experimental conditions to a similar extent. Anxiety reduction factors. Anxiety arousal has been widely noted as an effect of initial VTR self-confrontations in both self-image development and skill learning contexts. It is therefore noteworthy that reports on the more system atic training formats of microcounseling and microteaching rarely mention an anxiety arousal effect (Baker, 1970). This is the case in spite of the fact that many microcoun- 66 seling and microteaching studies involve the subject's ex posure to VTR feedback during a single session. It is not known whether reports of these studies fail to mention anxiety arousal because it does not occur to any significant degree or because skill acquisition was the only dependent variable of interest to the researcher. In either case it may be assumed that anxiety arousal was not so great in these studies as to eliminate significant skill acquisition effects. The literature offers a number of premises indicating that certain elements of the microcounseling paradigm could serve to minimize the anxiety arousing effect of a VTR self confrontation. Salomon and McDonald (19 70) noted that de fensive reactions to negative feedback are not likely to oc cur when the viewer knows what behaviors are expected and when he has adopted these expectations for the goal behavior and is ready to modify his behavior to make it congruent with his expectations. This does not mean that anxiety is not aroused. It means that the subject can engage in action to reduce the anxiety. This function is probably served by the modeling and specific operational definition of skills which is provided in microcounseling. This view is supported by Bandura and Wittenberg (1970) who found that when new threatening information is 67 accompanied by a guide to action for threat reduction, the degree of anxiety arousal is reduced. This contention was also supported by Janis and Feshback (1953) who noted that a threatening message can be perceived if the threat can be reduced because of the presence of a solution— the de gree of threat being inversely related to the adequacy of the solution. In the microcounseling format, in which expected be haviors are clearly and specifically defined, the solution may be expected to be adequate. Although the present study does not adhere to the complete battery of micro counseling procedures formulated by Ivey (1971) the element of clearly and specifically defined behavioral expectations is present. Not only is anxiety arousal likely to be reduced by the presence of an adequate solution but self-esteem may also be enhanced as a result of knowing that one has achieved the solution (Webster and Sobieszek, 1974). This opportunity is not so available to trainees who observe themselves for the purpose of "self-image development" or those in training situations where learning goals are not so specifically defined. Modeling and specific definition of skills also serves to focus the learner's attention on relevant and 68 useful aspects of the playback. By highlighting the rele vance of certain aspects of the feedback the viewer is helped in dealing with what might otherwise be an overwhelm ing amount of data {Stoller, 1968). The nature of the in teraction between the focusing of attention and VTR's deau tomatization of attention is not known. It is possible that focusing limits the range of data available to the trainee's deautomatized attention. Although it is important to focus the learner's at- tentionoon certain aspects of the playback. Watts (19 73) suggested anxiety can be further reduced by providing the trainee with an evaluative critique. Watts' subjects were 9 8 Air Force instructors enrolled in a course in instruc tional techniques. In the classroom all subjects were taught the desired format and behavior to use in the pre sentation of lessons. All subjects then presented a 10 min ute lesson which was videotaped. Prior to viewing a play back the experimental subjects received an evaluative cri tique ofitheir performance. Control subjects received no critique prior to viewing. All subjects viewed a playback of their performance while completing a self-evaluation form. The outcome measure was the difference between sub jects' self-ratings and the ratings of experts. While subjects in both groups tended to undervalue 69 their performance, undervaluation was generally signifi cantly greater for the control group. Watts concluded that defensive reactions and the experience of threat were re duced when a critique preceded self-viewing of a VTR play back. A number of methodological issues raise question about Watts* conclusion. First, Watts did not make a spe cific measure of anxiety. However, a specific measure of anxiety was made in a study by Breen and Diehl (19 70). Their design involved six groups of which three were rele vant to the present discussion. Subjects were students in a college level speech class. Members of one experimental group (Group I) made a videotaped speech and heard instruct ctor comments on their performance while watching the play back. Members of a second experimental group (Group S) ftiadei a videotaped speech but commented on their own performance while watching the playback. Members of the control group made a videotaped speech and watched the playback without comments from the subject or the instructor. After watching the playback all subjects made a sec ond speech. The number of non-fluencies in the subject's speech was used as an indicator of anxiety. Both experi mental groups were rated lower in anxiety than the control 70 group. While the anxiety level of Group I was lower than that of Group S, the difference was not statistically sig nificant. The authors conclude that "The results indicate the primacy of teacher comment on thé feedback loop. For mal verbalized self-analysis seems to be a good substitute for teacher comment" (Breen and Diehl, 1970, frame 6). Another limitation on the findings of the Watts study concerns the function of the critique. It is not clear whether the findings indicate the effect of the evaluative aspect of the critique or its focusing aspect. Whenever an instructor says "You performed very well in terms of x, y and z" he is also conveying the message "It is important tonnote how well you perform in terms of x, y and z." In the Watts study it is not known which of these two message elements was most effective in reducing the subjects' un dervaluations . In terms of its generalization to the present study, another important feature of the Watts study is the nature of the skills involved. Subjects in that study were con cerned with the following skills in their presentation of a lesson: motivation, organization, use of support material, transitions, physical presentation and oral presentation. It is not known whether the definitions of these skills are as specific and clear as the definitions of the microcoun- 71 seling skills taught in the present study. Definitional clarity and specificity have a bearing on the subjects' a- bility to comfortably and accurately formulate an evaluation of their skill performance. While the importance of an instructor's focusing ^ommenfs has been widely recognized in the instructional use of VTR feedback the effect of evaluative comments is ques tionable. The use of evaluative comments has been either ruled out or deemphasized by a number of authors (Allen, 1969; Kagan, 1975; Olivero, 1970). The capacity of VTR feedback to reduce or eliminate the need for evaluative com ments from an instructor is particularly important in the case of the adult learner (Perlmutter and Gumpert, 1967 ; Ruhl, 1975) for whom self-direction and self-discovery are most important (Knowles, 1973; Rogers, 1969). Whereas training for specific skills and appropriate focusing during playback may reduce the anxiety arousing effect of a VTR self-confrontation, the extent of anxiety arousal in such a context remains uncertain for two reasons : (1) The microcounseling literature offers little evidence of these effects and (2) the trainee cannot be expected to limit his self-observation only to those behaviors which are relevant to skill acquisition. 72 Questions and Hypotheses The hypotheses are divided under three sub-questions, one concerning the skill acquisition effect, the second con cerning the self-concept change effect and the third con cerning the anxiety arousal effect. The group receiving VTR feedback (Group PAR— Playback Assisted Review) was compared to a group receiving experiential training without VTR feed back (Group MAR— Memory Assisted Review) and to a group re ceiving no experiential training (Group C— Controls). Com parisons were also'predictedcbetweenpGroup MAR and,Group C. The primary research question was : What are the dif ferential effects of three modes of teaching interviewing skills? Sub-question 1: What differential effects in skill acqui sition exist among three modes of teaching communication skills? Hypothesis 1: Skill acquisition will be greater for Group PAR than for Group MAR. Hypothesis 2: Skill acquisition will be greater for Group PAR than for Group C. Hypothesis 3: Skill acquisition will be greater for Group MAR than for Group C. 73 Sub-question 2: What differential self-concept change ef fects exist among three modes of teaching communication skills? Hypothesis 4: Group PAR will manifest greater change in self-concept in the role of helper (and inferred client perceptions of self in the role of helper) than Group MAR. Hypothesis 5; Group PAR will manifest greater change in self-concept in the role of helper (and inferred client perceptions of self in the role of helper) than Group C. Hypothesis 6 : Group MAR will manifest greater change in self-concept in the role of helper (and inferred client perceptions of self in the role of helper) than Group C. Sub-question 3: What differences in anxiety arousal exist among three modes of teaching communication skills? Hypothesis 7: Anxiety will be greater for Group PAR than for Group MAR during an experiential learning session. Hypothesis 8: Anxiety will be greater for Group PAR than for Group C during an experiential learning ses sion (or at an equivalent time for Group C). 74 Hypothesis 9: Anxiety will be greater for Group MAR than for Group C during an experiential learning ses sion (or at an equivalent time for Group G). Definitions of Terms The following definitions of terms were derived from the literature review and conceptual framework for purposes of this research: Image — A cognitive impression presumed to corres pond to an objective reality. Goal image — A cognitive impression of a desired and pursued state of physical reality. Feedback of information -- Information communicated to a person about his behavior when the information serves as a basis for determining congruity or incongruity between that actual behavior and an image or goal image of the be havior. Reality testing — The use of feedback to determine congruity or incongruity between physical reality and an image of that reality, especially when that reality is the self. VTR feedback — Information feedback communicated to a person via the medium (channel) of a videotape recording playback. 75 VTR self-confrontation — The perception of VTR feedback about the self, especially when that information is used for reality testing. VTR playback session — A learning situation involv ing the performance of a role play plus the observation of a playback of the role play performance plus a discussion of the^/role play performance with an instructor. Congruity (Consonance) — The experience of receiving information about one's behavior which is perceived as matching one's image or goal image for that behavior. Incongruity (Dissonance) — The experience of receiv ing information about one's behavior which is perceived as deviating from one's image or goal image for that behavior. Self-concept -- A person's image of his objective na ture regardless of any specific context. Self-as-helper -- A person's image of his objective nature in the context of his role relationships with clients as measured by Scale I of the SORS. Inferred ^client perceptions of self-as-helper — A [person's image of the perceptions his clients hold of him as measured by Scale II of the SORS. Professional social worker -- The holder of a BSW or a MSW degree. Non-professional -- A person who does not hold a BSW 76 or MSW degree and who is employed in a social work capacity (social worker, social work technician, social work aide) in a recognized social work program or agency. Public welfare worker — A professional or non-pro fessional social worker employed in a public assistance pro gram including social services programs (e.g. child welfare, home management, guardianship) which are based in a public assistance agency. Test image — A cognitive impression presumed to cor respond to objective reality and subject to reality testing for its accuracy. This concludes the conceptual framework underlying the research design and hypotheses. The following chapter presents the methodology used in testing the hypotheses. 77 CHAPTER IV THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The Research Design The hypotheses were tested by means of an experimen tal study implemented in a public welfare agency over a four week period, from April 27 to May 20, 1976. A total of 60 subjects— 56 employees and four students on field placement— were involved. The design logic varied according to the dependent variable at issue. A pretest-posttest experimental design was used to study the skill acquisition effect. The self- concept change effect was studied with a pretest-posttest- posttest experimental design in which the second posttest was applied one week after exposure to the independent var iable. The anxiety arousal effect was studied with a post test only control group design. The overall research design has been illustrated in Figure 2. 78 C M CD â •H & •H m CD A • S C D C Q C D A C D A I A O A E4 A A I R O H M EH EH <4 A EH A A A EH I A H O A C D rH O A Î H o A A O CO < E- f C O A E-i A CO A C O A C O A <4 A O O A O A A CO C O to C O A A G ) H A M o , M A , "k A >3 T ^ c d A A A O * p H C Q P Î o -p o A Ü S C D C D U PO î “ ^ A A C D A A > O Î H o A O CO A CD B : q C D o'P O C D A A A O A G ) A A Î - I O A O CO m C D C Ü A A A o o A A , G d A C D 4" rQ _ 0) ^ S P A C D O Ü O G ) U O A A A A CO A o ^ u C D O A A O A O CO o CO C D •S A m CD *H A o A T“ A C D A s ^ i g C D C D A m A A A o A A U o A O CO A SA C D A h 0 3 o 5 § “ S§ r o A <4 C D A O CO A O A V— U C D O C O A A A C D q o C D A C O rW C D C D rn X C D C D B: A C D C D A A <4 w A o _ A o\ £A cn CO A V- A “ « ■ ■ ■ A V- P i 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 C D o s p S P S 8 A U A e» k! d A 79 The variation in design logic results from two con siderations. One of these factors was the time demands of the various test procedures. For example, the posttest for the skill acquisition effect was so lengthy that it could not be administered to all subjects during the same week that subjects were exposed to the experiential training sessions. The second factor was the nature of the variable. For example, the state anxiety measure was applied in a posttest only. There was no reason to expect a correlation between pretest and posttest measures of state anxiety (on the instrument used) so no pretest measure of state anxiety was taken. The design for each of the three major variables in cluded two experimental groups and a control group. Each group consisted of twenty non-M.S.W. social workers employed in the services division of a county public welfare depart ment in southern California. Subjects were randomly as signed to either of the three groups. Three types of tests were administered to these groups. The Counselor Verbal Response Scale (CVRS) was used as a measure of skill performance when applied to au diotape recordings of the subjects' role-played interviews. The Self and Others Rating Scale (SORS) was used as a mea sure of self-concept. The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory 80 (sTAI), A-State form, was used as a measure of state anxi- ety. Three testing periods were scheduled: a pretest, an immediate posttest and a one-week delayed posttest. The following is a general description of the re search and training procedures. It should be noted that all research and training procedures were conducted by the re searcher. Specifically, he conducted the orientation ses sion, lectured and modeled four communication skills in a didactic training session, and served as the instructor and equipment operator for the experiential training session. The same individual administered the test instruments, trained actors to perform the client role in test and training role plays and trained judges in their use of the Counselor Verbal Response Scale. One week prior to the study (during week 0) all sub jects participated in one of four orientation sessions. At these sessions the general nature of the training sessions was explained. The purpose of the research was also ex plained as a test of the various training procedures. All subjects signed a form concerned with confidentiality is sues (see Appendix A). The project schedule was explained and appointments were assigned. Procedures for the pretest role play were explained. The orientation session concluded when subjects completed a questionnaire for demographic data 81 and other information about potentially intervening vari ables (see Appendix I). The pretest was held during the following week (week 1). All subjects participated in an audiotaped role play with a coached client which lasted approximately 8 minutes. Specific guidelines for the pretest role plays are presented in Appendix B. The CVRS scores derived from these audio taped role plays provided the baseline indicator of skill performance. Subjects then completed two forms of the SORS. This provided a baseline indication of two aspects of self- concept : self-as-helper and inferred client perceptions. All subjects participated in one of two didactic training sessions during the following week (week 2). Four specific interviewing skills were taught--the exploratory response, active listening, attention to affect and honest labeling. All subjects heard the rationale for using these skills, along with explicit descriptions and examples. Subjects also witnessed a demonstration of each skill in role played interview segments. Each subject then received a . written summary of the four skills (see Appendix D) . The didactic session was concluded as subjects completed a form to indicate their desire to increase use of each of the Eour skills (see Appendix I). The independent variable was applied during the fol lowing week (week 3) in the context of an experiential 82 learning session. Each subject in the first experimental group (Group PAR - Playback Assisted Review) enacted a videotaped role play of an interview segment with a coached client. The role play was reviewed by observing a VTR play back with non-evaluative focusing comments by the instructor^ for example, "Was that an exploratory response? Please evaluate that response in terms of the four communication skills." (See Appendix E for specific guidelines for focus ing comments.) This session lasted for approximately 40 minutes. Each subject in the second experimental group (Group MAR - Memory Assisted Review) enacted a role play of an interview segment with the same coached client. This role play was not videotaped. The role play was reviewed from the instructor's verbatim notes of the dialogue. The in structor also offered non-evaluative focusing comments (see Appendix E). This session lasted for approximately 35 min utes. The control group (Group C) maintained their usual employment duties in lieu of an experiential learning ses sion. Immediately following the experiential training ses sion (or at an approximately equivalent time for Group C) all subjects completed both forms of the SORS and the STAI. This constituted posttest A. Subjects were asked to make a 83 20 minute retrospective assessment of their anxiety state using the STAI to indicate anxiety during the role play re view (i.e. the seIf-confrontation for Group PAR). The SORS scores provided a measure of self-concept immediately fol lowing a self-confrontation. During the following week (week 4) posttest B was ad ministered. Posttest B was identical in form to the pretest. Each subject participated in an audiotaped role play with a coached client which lasted approximately 8 minutes. An in dicator of post-training skill performance was provided by CVRS scores of these audiotaped role plays. Each subject then completed both forms of the SORS which provided an in dicator of self-concept approximately one week following a sè'lf-confrontât ion. During the following week (week 5) most subjects chose to participate in an optional general purpose session. This session was not a part of the formal research design. It was offered in order to provide VTR feedback for inter ested Group MAR and control group subjects, as well as to assess subject reactions to the training and research pro cedures . 84 The Sample The total sample of 60 subjects was systematically drawn from a sampling frame of 89 non-professional social services workers at the central office of a southern Cali fornia public welfare agency. The sampling frame included all non-M.S.W. services employees at the department's cen tral office. The district director notified subjects that they were required to participate in the training/research project if selected. Initially seven workers were eliminated from the sam pling frame because they were new on the job (less than six months). Eight other workers were eliminated because they were identified as non-college graduates. This was done to control for the potentially intervening variable of educa tional level. After the 15 workers were systematically ex cluded from the sampling frame 60 were randomly selected from the remaining 74 with a table of random numbers. The 14 eligible workers who were not selected constituted a pool of alternate subjects. Ultimately it was learned that the sampling frame pro vided by the department was inaccurate. As a result at least five non-graduates failed to be eliminated. Four of these were undergraduate students in a social ecology pro gram who had been placed with the agency for eight months. 85 The fifth person was a social work assistant with over ten years of experience in the department. By chance each of these five people were among the selected sample. After they were notified of their selection 10 sub jects notified the researcher of their non-availability. Seven subjects were not available because they had planned vacations during the training/research project period. One selected subject was not available because of a serious illness. Two selected subjects were not available because they were to be transferred to new programs during the pre test week. Their orientation schedules conflicted with training/research schedules. All 14 alternate subjects were contacted to assess their availability to participate. Ten of the 14 were to be available and were included in the sample. All 60 sub jects were then randomly assigned to one of the three re search groups. Procedures Procedures for the pretest, didactic session, post test A and posttest B were identical for each of the three research groups. For the pretest and posttest B all sub jects role played an eight minute interview segment followed by self-rated questionnaires concerning self-concept in the 86 role of helper. Posttest A involved the self-concept ques tionnaire and a self-rated anxiety inventory but no test role play. Appendix B presents details of testing proce dures . All subjects also attended a didactic training ses sion involving a lecture presentation, examples and role played demonstrations of four interview communication skills. Appendix D presents a detailed description of the didactic training session. Procedures for exposure to the independent variable— the experiential learning session--differed among the three groups. These are presented below. Group PAR Procedures Orientation to the experiential session. Appoint ments for Group PAR experiential sessions were randomly dis tributed throughoutwweek 3. When the subject arrived he was introduced to the coached client. Guidelines for the role play were discussed. Reference was made to the videotaping and each subject was given a chance to express his feelings about it. The subject was told that the coached client would Leave the room after the role play was finished. He was told that the playback would be reviewed in terms of the four communication skills. All subjects had a written sum- 87 mary of the four skill descriptions and were given a chance to review these before beginning the role play. Technical aspects of videotaping. The videotaped role play and self-confrontâtion were conducted in one of a suite of rooms provided by the host agency (see Figure 3) . The room contained two tables and three chairs for the sub ject, the coached client and the researcher/instructor. During the videotaping the VTR equipment was visible to the subject. The monitor screen was turned away from the sub ject. The relative positions of participants and equipment is shown in Figure 3. The equipment used for videotaping included the fol lowing: a Sony Videocorder tape deck. Model AV-3400; Scotch brand one hour, color capable, half-inch videotape; a Sony Videocamera, Model AVC-3400 with a 75mm f. 12.5 zoom lens and a built-in microphone. An 11 inch Sony Transistor Video Monitor, Model CVM-112 was used for playbacks. All taping was done in black and white. The equipment was operated by the researcher/instructor. One camera position and three types of shots were used. The camera position provided a profile of the coached client’s body and face with a three-quarter face view of the subject. Shot one provided a three-quarter body view of both 88 g g i M C O < t - t g I g C i ' n H C O 0 M 1 P h Q ) a> 5 M f— t rH o ü O o -H c d Q ) Pt K P i P h > P i O O O C D 0) -H bû -P bùM a K •H « -H d 3 e h P! -H t> s P ! •H k > 5 o > O P i C d o P c c d S 3 iH g 3 c H i t « P P A A f n O J C r H -c! o o « c û b û û ) d < D r 4 Q ) ai b flfô Ü CD m + 3 M iS H 89 role play participants. This shot accounted for such non verbal communication as posturing as well as hand and arm gestures. Shot two was a zoom medium close-up (chest and above) of both participants. Shot three was a zoom close- up of the interviewer's face only. The taping was standardized according to the follow ing format. Each interview began with shot one lasting 60 seconds. This was followed by shot two lasting 60 seconds. Next was shot three lasting 20 seconds. This was followed by 9 0 seconds of shot two with the remainder of time in volving shot one. The total role play taping lasted approximately five minutes. Time segments per shot were kept somewhat flexible to avoid changes which might distract from the continuity of action (approximately 10 second leeway). Playback procedures. Immediately following the tap ing the coached client left the room. The monitor was placed on the table at which the subject was seated. The subject was then asked whether his approach was basically exploratory and whether he felt he was beginning to "zero in" to the heart of the client's concern. After some dis cussion he was asked to keep these questions in mind while watching a 90 second uninterrupted playback from the begin ning of his role play. 90 The subject was then asked whether his observed per formance matched his expectations. He was then given an opportunity to express his reactions to the first 90 sec ond self-confrontâtion. The tape was then returned to the beginning of the recording. During the ensuing playback the tape was stopped at various points to permit a cri tique by the subject. The researcher/instructor would gen erally stop the tape for discussion after every fourth re sponse unless the subject asked to stop the tape before four responses were observed. The researcher/instructor asked non-evaluative focusing questions (e.g. Was that an exploratory response?) about the last observed subject- client interaction. These questions followed standardized guidelines (see Appendix E). When the playback review was completed the subject went to an adjacent room to fill out the SORS and STAI. This constituted posttest A. Group MAR Procedures Orientation to the experiential session. Appoint ments for Group MAR experiential sessions were randomly dis tributed throughout week 3. When the subject arrived he was oriented to the experiential session in the same manner as were Group PAR subjects. The only difference was that no reference was made to videotaping or VTR playback proce- 91 dures. Instead subjects were told that the researcher/ instructor would take verbatim notes of the role play dia logue and that this would serve as the basis for the role play review. Review procedures. Immediately following the role play the coached client left the room. The subject was then asked whether his approach was basically exploratory and whether he felt he was beginning to "zero in" to the heart of the client's concern. The review proceeded as the researcher/instructor read specific client statements and specific responses made by the subject. The researcher/instructor read as many of these statement-response combinations as he was able to write down during the prior role play. The researcher/in structor then asked non-evaluative focusing questions ac cording to the same standardized guidelines that were used for Group PAR (see Appendix E). Although the focus was on a particular response, the dialogue preceeding that response was read whenever available and necessary for continuity and comprehens ion. When the review was completed the subject went to an adjacent room to fill out the SORS and STAI. This consti tuted posttest A. r^oce%% " 92 Group C subjects engaged in regular employment duties during the week in which experiential sessions were held (week 3). These subjects completed the posttest A ques tionnaires in the same room used for this purpose by the two experimental! gr.ojupa-;. Posttest A appointment times for Group C were distributed throughout week 3 and were inter spersed with posttest A appointments for the other two groups. Data Collection Counselor Verbal Response Scale Procedures for Group C The instrument employed in this study to test skill performance was the Counselor Verbal Response Scale (CVRS) developed in 19 67 by Kagan and Krathwohl (see Appendix F). The scale consists of four forced choice dichotomous di mensions measuring the extent to which counselors use cer tain elements of effective communication in their inter viewing. The four scale dimensions were selected for their consonance with the findings of counseling and psychother apy research, particularly that reported by Truax and Carkhuff (1964). The dimensions of the original scale 93 referred to the exploratory, affective, understanding and specific quality of counselor responses. The latter two dimensions were later replaced by the two related dimen sions of active listening and honest labeling (Kagan, 1975) A summary of the definitions for the scale dimensions is presented in Appendix F. These definitions are identical to the definitions of the four skills taught to subjects in the present study. The CVRS focuses on a series of 20 client/counselor verbal units during the course of an interview segment. A verbal unit consists of a client statement and the coun selor's verbal response to it. With such a focus the CVRS differs from other interview rating scales which call for a global rating of an entire interview or a long interview segment. The CVRS is based on a judge's ratings of 20 consec utive counselor responses as represented in an audiotaped or videotaped interview segment. The judge is required to rate each response on all four dichotomous scale dimensions, The totals for each dimensionsare then obtained. A maximum score of 20 and a minimum score of zero are possible for each dimension. The two judges involved in this study were trained according to procedures suggested by the scale's author. 94 During a three hour session the judges were presented with descriptions of the four interview skills measured by the Counselor Verbal Response Scale as well as examples of these skills. The content of this presentation was sim ilar to the didactic presentation of this study (see Appendix D). The skills were discussed until they were understood thoroughly. Both judges were previously familiar with related concepts of reflective listening and empathie understanding. The judges then received a section of the Interper sonal Process Recall Manual (Kagan, 1970) containing de$ scrlipt'rpns and examples of the four interview skills. Judges also received a copy of the original CVRS Manual (Kagan, 1967) which discusses technical aspects of judging (e.g. What constitutes a scoreable response?) as well as two of the interview skills (i.e. attention to affect and the ex ploratory response). The judges later attended a five hour continuing edu cation workshop in which the four interview skills were taught by the researcher. On another occasion they re ceived additional preparation by rating three practice audiotapes of role played interviews. Interjudge relia bility on these practice tapes appeared to be excellent. The judges then proceded to rate a total of 119 role played interview segments over a three month period. During 95 that period they met with the researcher on three occasions to assess accuracy and consistency of skill definitions. (The judges' professional experience is described in Appen dix F) . The CVRS has been used on populations of students as well as experienced counselors. Interjudge reliability co efficients ranging from .68 to .84 were obtained for vari ous scale dimensions. Kagan and Krathwohl also tested the validity of the scale for characterizing counselors at var ious levels of ability. Significant differences at the .01 level were found between the scores of inexperienced M.A. candidates and experienced Ph.D. candidates in Counseling and Guidance. In the present study group differences were deter mined by establishing a group mean for each of the four scale dimensions. A fifth score, the CVRS Index, was cre ated by adding the mean scores of the four basic dimensions The amount and direction of change was determined by sub tracting the raw scores obtained for each dimension (and for the CVRS Index) from one testing period to another. The scale was applied to audiotapes or role played inter view segments made at the pretest and at posttest B. Self and Others Rating Scale The Self and Others Rating Scale (SORS) was devel- 96 oped in 1969 by Pederson (see Appendix G). In this study the SORS was used to evaluate two types of concepts related to a social worker's self-concept in his role relationships with clients. These two types of concepts were (1) evalu ation of self in the role of helper (self-as-helper) and (2) perceived or imagined evaluation of self by clients (inferred client perceptions). The SORS is a semantic differential consisting of 25 bipolar adjectives highly loaded on the evaluative (i.e. good-bad) dimension of meaning. Scale items were drawn from Osgood's (19 57) studies on the measurement of meaning. In the present study each bipolar adjective is separated by a six point scale ranging from favorable to unfavorable. Examples of bipolar adjective combinations are as follows: rational-irrational, worthless-valuable, unimportant-im portant . To discourage subjects from using a response set to a particular scale location the favorable adjectives were randomly assigned to either side of the page. Twelve of the favorable adjectives appear at the left and 13 appear at the right. With each bipolar adjective scored from one to six the possible scoring range for each concept was from 25 to 150. A score was obtained for each concept by summing the 97 numerical values checked for all 25 adjectives. Group differences were determined by establishing a group mean for each concept. The amount and direction of individual change could be determined by subtracting the raw scores obtained in each category from one testing period to another. Reliability of the SORS was tested by Pederson (1969) on a population of 150 college students. The instrument was used to evaluate seven types of concepts related to one's self-image and role relationships. Split-half reli ability for the seven concepts ranged from .85 to .96. The scale was validated by correlating SORS scores with various other measures including the Personality Inventory (six personality traits), the California F Scale (authoritarian ism) , the Adjective Check List (self-descriptive adjectives) and the Manifest Anxiety Scale. State-Trait Anxiety Inventory; A-State Scale The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) was devel oped in 19 70 by Spielberger, Gorsuch and Lushene (see Ap pendix H). The A-State Scale is a self-report inventory designed to measure the anxiety level of a normal adult at a particular moment in time. In this study the STAI A- State Scale was used to measure anxiety level during VTR self-confrontation. 98 The inventory consists of 20 statements which sub jects are asked to use to describe how they feel: e.g. "I felt secure" or "I felt tense." The subject rates each statement on a four point scale. Each point is associated with a descriptor which indicates the person's agreement with the statement from "not at all" to "very much so." The possible scorihg(range for the STAI was from 20 (min imum measurable anxiety) to 80 (maximum measurable anxiety) Ten STAI items describe states of anxiety and ten items describe states of relaxation. This is expected to reduce the potential influence of a response set to a par ticular location on the four point rating scale. Reliability of the STAI A-State Scale was tested on a population of college students. Alpha coefficients ranged from .83 to .92 indicating a reasonably good level of internal consistency. Spielberger, et.al. (1970) re ports that tes.t-retest correlations for the A-State Scale were found to be relatively low, ranging from .16 to .54 withha median r of only .32. This was to be expected due to the transitory nature of anxiety states. Spielberger reports two studies which establish the validity of the STAI A-State Scale. Both are based on the response of college students. In one study the STAI scores discriminated with statistical significance between a 99 person's report of his present state and his report of his imagined state under a hypothetical stressful situation. In the second study the STAI scores discriminated with sta tistical significance between subjects' self-reports im mediately following actual relaxed and stressful conditions. In the present study group differences were deter mined by establishing a group mean of absolute STAI scores at a given point in time (posttest A). Anxiety arousal fol lowing VTR self-confrontation was not based on pretest to posttest change scores because of the low test-retest re liability of state anxiety measures. Therefore an assump tion of pretest equivalence of groups can only be based on the random assignment of subjects to groups. lAdditional Measures Four additional measures were utilized in this study. They are presented in Appendix I. Two of these measures were designed to account for potentially intervening variables. One questionnaire titled "General Information" asked the subject for demographic des criptive data such as age, ethnicity, educational level, iuman service experience and current program assignment. Two other questions concerned the subjects' prior experi ence with VTR self-confrontation and role playing. This questionnaire was completed by subjects during the orien- 100 tation session and prior to the pretest, A second questionnaire designed to account for po tentially intervening variables was the "Desired Increase in Skill Level" scale. This questionnaire presented sub jects with summary descriptions of each of therfour com munication skills taught. They were asked to rate their desire to increase use of each skill according to a five point scale ranging from "no increase" to "increase a great deal." Scores on this questionnaire were used to in dicate whether the subject had accepted each skill as a goal. Acceptance of a performance goal is one prerequisite to the definition of communicated information as feedback (see page 75). The questionnaire was administered at the conclusion of the didactic session week 2. Face validity is assumed. Another measure used in this study was a clinical assessment of anxiety level. This measure was based on the researcher/instructor's subjective ratings of subjects' anxiety level during the self-confrontation and/or role play review of the week 3 experiential learning session. Subjects were unaware that these assessments were being made. Ratings were based on a five point scale in accord- nce with descriptive guidelines (see Appendix I). Guide 101 lines were formulated during pilot tests of the research procedures. These guidelines include non-verbal manifesta tions of anxiety as well as its apparent interference with learning. There is no indication of the measure's reliabil ity and validity other than the assumption of face validity Ratings are subject to the potential for researcher bias. The fourth additional measure was a one item direct question about the subject's confidence in his interviewing ability. Subjects were asked to rate themselves in writing on a seven point scale ranging from low to high confidence. The question was presented at the pretest and at posttest B. Data based on this measure were excluded from the data analysis because of subjects' expressed confusion over the meaning of the scale. Pretests Pretests were carried out for the development and standardization of various data collection and training pro cedures used in this research project. The didactic presen tation was made on three occasions to graduate and under graduate students in social work at the University of South ern California and at California State University, North- ridge. The purpose of these pretest persentations was to develop the clarity and consistency of skill definitions. 102 examples and other lecture material. Additional input from the director and supervisors at the host agency were valu able in adapting material to the special practice situations encountered there. The experiential session format was pretested with ten graduate and undergraduate social work students at the University of Southern California. The purpose of these pretests was to develop an instruetionally effective for mat and to develop guidelines for focusing comments which could be applied consistently and effectively. The re search instruments were also pretested with many of the above students in order to insure the clarity of the in structions and instrument content. The Training Format in Light of Methodological Factors A major decision in formulating the research design concerned the structure and duration of the training pro gram upon which this study is based. A number of trade offs were considered in which training and methodological factors were juxtaposed. It may be presumed that the best application of VTR feedback for training purposes involves a series of self confrontations over an extended period of time. This study. 103 however, is concerned only with the effects of an initial self-confrontation. The decision to base the study on an initial seIf-confrontation was influenced by the following considerations: (1) the exigencies of implementing an ex perimental field study in a public welfare department, (2) the nature of the research question and (3) justifications for studying the effects of an initial exposure to VTR feed back. One major consideration in terms of implementation was the time factor. It was decided that a brief training and research format would be necessary for the project to be accepted by an agency. The proposal for this project was rejected by the first agency approached— a large metro politan public welfare department. Although approved in principle, the proposal was rejected because staff time was too limited as a result of Title XX program changes and a budget-necessitated hiring freeze. The second agency ap proached approved the proposal. The agency director ex plicitly stated that the limited time frame of the study was a factor in its acceptance. The structure chosen for this project involves one week for orientation, two weeks for training and two weeks for the pretest and posttest. Thus a subject's cooperation and availability would be required consistently over a five 104 week period. Considering the exigencies of illness, job related emergencies, changes in job assignments, staff turn over and other factors it was expected that a total sample of 60 with 2 0 in each research group would be needed to yield a minimally acceptable 15 subjects per group at the conclusion of data collection. If the training format in volved multiple self-confrontations over a longer period of time the chances for unacceptable levels of attrition would be too great. The research question calls for a test of hypotheses about certain psychological effects of VTR self-confron tation . It does not call for a test of effectiveness of a particular training format. By focusing on the effects of a single self-confrontation it was judged possible to test the hypotheses within a limited time frame. The limited time frame made it possible to accommodate the demands of a rigorous three group experimental design while maintain ing an adequate sample size. Clearly, a certain degree of training effectiveness would be necessary in order to study the differential skill acquisition effects of three modes of training. This need was accounted for in two ways. First, the training . format was designed to incorporate elements of effective instruction. These include a demonstration of the need to 105 improve skills, provision of explicit definitions with ex amples of specific circumscribed skills, modeling and an opportunity to practice with feedback. These elements of the training format are similar to certain elements of the effective microcounseling paradigm. Secondly, the training format was pretested until pretest subjects and the re searcher judged it effective. A study on the effects of a single self-confrontation also appears to be justified by the attention given to this in the literature. A number of studies of VTR self-confron tation have been based on the effects of self-confrontation during a single session (Boyd and Sisney, 1967; Frankel, 1973; Ivey, 1968; Jacobson, 1972; Markey, 1970; Peters, 1970; Storms, 1972; Venardos and Harris, 1973; Walz and Johnston, 1963). Many studies have demonstrated signifi cant effects of a single exposure to VTR feedback in terms of the variables under study in the present research pro ject (Boyd and Sisney, 19 67 ; Frankel, 1973; Ivey, et al., 1968; Jacobson, 1972; Peters and Schreiner, 1970; Star, 1973 ; Storms, 1972; Torrez, 1973; Walz and Johnston, 1963). The microcounseling studies which generally demon strate significant learning effects typically involve a series of two or more role piay-playback sequences during training sessions of less than one hour duration. These 106 may be seen as multiple self-confrontations in spite of the fact that they occur during a single session. One of the seminal studies of microcounseling, however, demonstrated a significant learning effect after a single role play- playback sequence (Ivey, et al., 1968). Finally, the^isingle exposure to VTR feedback appears to be a common, if not optimal pattern of VTR use. A study of the American Management Association reported by Stroh (196 8) found that in training for business and industry the majority of VTR users have a person perform and view a play back only one time. In the present study thirteen subjects reported prior VTR seIf-confrontation experiences inttraining. These self confrontations were received in nine separate training pro grams based at either a public welfare agency, a university or other school. Five of these programs involved only a single playback. The other four programs involved from two to six playbacks. The common use of a single VTR seIf-confrontation may be dictated by time limitations on training programs or by theffact that VTR feedback is only applicable to a small portion of a particular program's content. In any case the effects of an initial self-confrontation needs to be under stood because the attention given to a trainee's reactions 107 to an initial self-confrontation may influence the course of his later use of the medium. Also research on reactions to single exposures can generate hypotheses for further re search or field trials involving multiple self-confronta tions . Data Analysis Data processing and statistical analysis were per formed with the assistance of the consulting staff and facilities of the University Computing Center at the Univer sity of Southern California. All statistical analyses were computed with the Statistical Package for the Social Sci ences, Second Edition (Nie, Hull, Jenkins, Steinbrenner and Bent, 1970). Anaanalysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test in tergroup differences for all three groups on each of the ma jor dependent variables. This was obtained by the computer sub-program ONEWAY which provided a univariate F test. A posteriori contrasts between each possible pair of research groups was also analyzed with the Least Significant Differ ence (LSD) test. In those areas where a level of signifi cance was reached on the LSD test, further analysis was made with the somewhat more conservative Cosset*s T-Test, inde- 10 8 pendent samples.^ The T-Test obtained from sub-program T- TEST was also used to test the statistical significance of (1) pretest equivalence between groups on SORS and CVRS scores (paired samples) and (2) within group changes on SORS and CVRS scores (independent samples). Pearson's product moment correlation coefficient (r) was used to analyze associations among the major dependent variables. This was obtained from sub-program PEARSON CORR. The sub-program CROSSTABS provided the Chi-square test which was used to analyze intergroup differences on the poten? -i-a^Ply intervening variables. A one-tailed test at the .05 level of significance was used for all hypothesis testing and tests regarding with in group change on the major dependent variables. A two- tailed test at the .05 level was used for all other tests where the direction of difference could not be predicted (e.g., tests for intergroup equivalence on pretest scores). As a conservative measure the .050 level was treated as a true limit and probabilities of .051 to 1054 were not rounded down. All tests were based on the total sample of 55 em- This two-tiered approach to significance testing was necessitated by the fact that sub-program ONEWAY permits a ppsteriori LSD tests at any level of significance; a poster iori T-Tests, however, are fixed at the .025 level for one tailed tests. 109 ployed non-professional social services workers. Also, each test was duplicated for an expanded sample of 59 which in cluded four students on field placement with the Department of Social Services. Limitations of the Study There were some possible methodological limitations of this study. The sample is an accidental one in that the selection of the host agency was influenced by at least two factors : (1) It was available for research and training purposes, largely as the result of the interest and willing ness of the executive director to have her staff participate^ (2) The host agency had to be large enough to have a social services staff of at least 60 people, all centrally located. It should be noted that subjects were assigned to partici pate in this study by agency administration and, although the researcher informed them of their right to decline part icipation, their involvement will be considered involuntary. In spite of the accidental factors influencing selection of the total sample, assignment to each of the three experimen tal groups was made on a random basis. Two of the primary instruments in this study (SORS and STAI) are self-rated by subjects. This type of instru ment may be subject to rater bias for which it is not pos- 110 sible to control. It is assumed that such biases are equally distributed among the three experimental groups. The pretest and posttest B role plays each involved a different coached client presenting a different problem for discussion. Although this minimizes a practice effect it does introduce a possible source of variation and bias. The selection of feedback content for the Group MAR experiential session may be subject to bias. Feedback was based on notes taken by the researcher/instructor during the experiential session role plays. Although the research er/ instructor was attempting to write down as many "client statement-subject response" sequences as possible, there is a chance that some sequences were ignored which otherwise could have been written down. Since the data collection occurred in a natural set ting over a period of four weeks, true experimental isola tion was not possible. The effepts of history and communi cation between subjects could not be controlled. The specific measure of skill acquisition (CVRS) was applied to role played interviews prior to, and one week after, exposure to the experimental condition. Thus, mea surement is made of the learning which endures over a one week period. There is no indication of immediate learning effects nor is there any objective measure of learning ef- 111 facts other than those indicated by the Counselor Verbal Response Scale. The data analysis was limited by a number of factors Due to the small sample size and the nominal level data for most potentially intervening variables, it was not possible to thoroughly analyze the influence of these variables on the dependent variables. Also, use of the LSD test and the Cosset's T-Test is based on the untested assumption of a normal population. The findings of this study cannot be generalized to a multi-ethnic population. All but two subjects were Cau casian, as were all three actors. Although this ethnic com position is representative of the host agency's staff and clientele, generalizations to other ethnic groups are lim ited. While ëthnic factors are likely to influence re sponses to training procedures, the nature of these influen ces cannot be accurately identified. Similar limitations stem from the relatively small number of male subjects. Finally, this is a study of various psychological ef fects of an initial VTR self-confrontation. As such the results may not be validly generalized to conditions of re peated exposure to VTR feedback over a period of time. The following chapter presents the findings of this study. 112 CHAPTER V FINDINGS A sample of 60 subjects was selected from a popula tion of 89 non-M.S.W. public welfare social services work-^ ■erss at a large department of social services in southern California. One subject withdrew from the study prior to posttest A. Four subjects who were students on field place ment were included in the sample due to an error on the sam pling frame. The findings reported in this chapter are based on the remaining sample of 55 employed social services workers. (Tables of findings for the expanded sample of 59 subjects are presented in Appendix J.) Characteristics of the Research Subjects Subjects were randomly assigned to three groups: Group PAR subjects participated in role plays with video tape feedback. Group MAR subjects participated in role plays 113 with an alternate form of non-evaluative feedback and Group C, a control group, received no experiential training. One control group subject was absent for posttest A due to a job related emergency. Available data is reported for that subject. The resultant group sizes are as follows: 19 sub jects in Group PAR, 17 subjects in Group MAR and 18 or 19 subjects in the control group depending on the testing per iod. Characteristics of the research subjects are reported in Tables 1 through 15. Group PAR contained 5 males and 14 females ranging in age from 2 7 to 58 years. The mean age was 41.3 years. Eighteen subjects had completed four or more years of col lege and one subject had completed a two year junior college program. Sixteen subjects held bachelor's degrees, two held master's degrees and one subject did not hold a degree. Seventeen subjects had been social science majors and two subjects majored in other subjects. Two Group PAR subjects had prior videotape feedback experience and 12 subjects had prior role play experience. Four subjects were employed in units involving relatively brief client contacts (i.e. li“ ens’ injg,, intake and referral) and 15 subjects were employed in a variety of other services units. Eleven subjects had been at their current work assignment for less than two years. Eighteen subjects were known to have had previous 114 Age PAR MAR CONTROL Number/Percent Number/Percent Number/Percent 20-29 1 5.3 2 11. 8 3 15. 8 30-39 9 9 47.4 9 52.9 6 31.6 40-49 4 21.1 2 11. 8 4 21.1 50-59 5 26. 3q 3 17. 6 6 31.6 60-65 0 0 1 5.9 0 0 Total 19 100. 1 17 100. 0 19 100. 0 Mean 41. 26 38. 64 40. 89 TABLE 1 AGE OF SUBJECTS BY GROUP TABLE 2 SEX OF SUBJECTS BY GROUP PAPAR MAMAR CONTROL Sex Number/Percent Number/Percent Number/Percent Male Female Total 5 14 19 26.3 73.7 100. 0 2 15 17 11.8 8812 100.0 6 13 19 31.6 68.4 100. 0 115 TABLE 3 YEARS OF COLLEGE COMPLETED BY GROUP Years PAR MAR CONTROL Completed Number/Percent Number/Percent Number/Percent 2 1 5.3 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 12 63.2 11 64.7 16 84.2 5 4 21.1 3 17. 6 1 5.3 6 2 10. 5 1 5.9 2 10. 5 7 0 0 1 5.9 0 0 8 0 0 10 5.9 0 0 Total 19 100.1 17 100.0 19 100.0 Mean 4.3 4.7 4.3 116 TABLE 4 HIGHEST DEGREE EARNED BY GROUP PAR MAR CONTROL Degree Number/Percent Number/Percent Number/Percent None 1 5.3 0 0 0 0 B.A. 16 84.2 12 70.6 17 89.5 B. S. 0 0 2 11.8 1 5.3 M.A. 2 10.5 3 17. 6 0 0 Dr. Chiro. 0 0 0 0 1 5.3 Total 19 100. 0 17 100. 0 19 100.1 117 TABLE 5 COLLEGE MAJOR BY GROUP PAR MAR CONTROL Major Number/Percent Number/Percent Number/Percent Social Work 3 15. 8 1 5.9 0 0 Sociology 7 36.8 6 35.3 5 26.3 Psychology 4 21.1 1 5.9 2 10. 5 Other Soc. Sciences 3 15. 8 3 17. 6 7 36.8 Humanities 2 10.5 5 29.4 2 10. 5 Physical Sciences 0 0 1 5.9 2 10. 5 Business 0 0 0 0 1 5.3 Home Econ. 0 0 1 5.9 0 0 Total 19 100.0 17 100.0 19 99.9 118 TABLE 6 PRIOR VIDEOTAPE EXPERIENCE BY GROUP videotape PAR MAR CONTROL Experience Number/Percent Number/Percent Number/Percent Yes 2 1015 V 5 29.4 5 26.3 No 17 89.5 12 70.6 14 73.7 Total 19 100.0 17 100.0 19 100.0 TABLE 7 PRIOR ROLE PLAY EXPERIENCE BY GROUP Role Play PAR MAR CONTROL Experience Number/Percent Number/Percent Number/Percent Yes 12 63.2 14 82.4 12 63.2 No 7 36.8 3 17.6 7 36.8 Total 19 100.0 17 100.0 19 100.0 119 PAR MAR CONTROL Unit Number/Percent Number/Percent Number/Percent TABLE 8 CURRENT WORK ASSIGNMENT OF SUBJECTS BY GROUP Licensing 2 10.5 7 41.2 4 21.1 Intake + Referral 2 10.5 0 0 2 10.5 All other direct services 15 78.9 10 58.8 13 68.4 Total 19 99.9 17 100.0 19 100.0 120 PAR MAR CONTROL Time Number/Percent Number/Percent Number/Percent TABLE 9 LENGTH OF TIME AT CURRENT WORK ASSIGNMENT BY GROUP 2 years or less 11 57.9 8 47.1 13 68.4 Over 2 years 8 42.1 9 52.9 6 31.6 Total 19 100.0 17 100.0 19 100.0 121 TABLE 10 NATURE OF PREVIOUS ASSIGNMENTS IN DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL SERVICES BY GROUP Previous PAR MAR CONTROL Assignment Number/Percent Number/Percent Number/Percent None 0 0 2 11.8 2 10.5 Services 4 21.1 6 35.3 6 31.6 Eligibility 4 21.1 2 11. 8 4 21.1 Both 10 52. 6 7 41.2 7 36.8 Unknown 1 5.3 0 0 0 0 Total 19 100. 0 17 100.0 19 100.0 122 TABLE 11 TOTAL TIME IN DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL SERVICES BY GROUP PAR MAR CONTROL Time Number/Percent Number/Percent Number/Percent 2 years or less 2 10.5 3 17.6 4 21.1 2 yr., 1 mo. to 5 years 10 52.6 10 58. 8 11 57.9 5 yr., 1 mo. to 10 years 0 0 0 0 0 0 Over 10 years 6 31. 6 4 23.5 4 21.1 Unknown 1 5.3 0 0 0 0 Total 19 100. 0 17 99.9 19 100.1 123 TABLE 12 NATURE OF PREVIOUS HUMAN SERVICE EXPERIENCE BY GROUP Nature of PAR MAR CONTROL Experience Number/Percent Number/Percent Number/Percent None 5 26. 3 9 52.9 9. 47.4 Public Welfare 1 5.3 5 29.4 5 26. 3 Pub. Welf. + Other 4 21. 1 2 11.8 1 5.3 Other only 8 42.1 1 5.9 4 21.1 Unknown 1 5.3 0 0 0 0 Total 19 100.1 17 100.0 19 100.1 124 PAR MAR CONTROL Time Number/Percent Number/Percent Number/Percent TABLE 13 TOTAL TIME IN HUMAN SERVICES PRIOR TO WORK FOR DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL SERVICES, BY GROUP None 5 26.3 9 52.9 9 47.4 2 years or less 4 21.1 4 23. 5 2 10.5 2 yrs., 1 mo. to 5 yrs. 8 42.1 4 23.5 5 26.3 5 yrs., 1 mo. to 10 yrs. 0 0 0 0 0 0 Over 10 years 1 5.3 0 0 3 15.8 Unknown 1 5.3 0 0 0 0 Total 19 100.1 17 99.9 19 100.0 125 TABLE 14 TOTAL HUMAN SERVICE EXPERIENCE OF SUBJECTS BY GROUP Total PAR MAR CONTROL Time Number/Percent Number/Percent Number/Percent 2 years to 3 yr. 11 mo. 1 5.3 1 5.9 1 5.3 4 years to 5 yr. 11 mo. 3 15. 8 0 0 3 15.8 6 years to 7 yr. 11 mo. 2 10.5 6 35. 3 4 21.1 8 years and over 13 68.4 10 58. 8 11 57. 9 Total 19 ■ : 100.0 17 100. 0 19 100.0 126 TABLE 15 RACE/ETHNICITY OF SUBJECTS BY GROUP Race/ PAR MAR CONTROL Ethnicity Number/Percent Number/Percent Number/Percent Caucasian/ Anglo 18 94.7 17 100.0 18 94.7 Black 0 0 0 0 1 5.3 Chicano 1 5.3 0 0 0 0 Total 19 10000.0 17 100.0 19 100.0 127 work assignments within the department. This information was unknown for one subject. Thirteen subjects had some human service practice experience prior to their employment with this department of social services. Nine of those sub jects had over two years of such prior experience. Infor mation about prior human service experience was unknown for one subject. Group MAR contained 2 males and 15 females ranging in age from 28 to 65. The mean age was 3 8.6 years. All sub jects had completed four or more years of college. Four teen subjects held bachelor's degrees and three held mas ter's degrees. Eleven subjects had been social science ma jors and six subjects majored in other subjects. Five Group MAR subjects had prior videotape feedback experience and 14 subjects had prior role play experience. Seven subjects were employed in brief contact units and 10 subjects were employed in a variety of other services units. Eight sub jects had been at their current work assignment for less than two years. Fifteen subjects had previous work assign ments within the department. Fourteen subjects had a total of more than two years in this department of social services Eight subjects had some human service practice experience prior to their employment with this department. Four of those subjects had over two years of such prior experience. 128 Group C contained 6 males and 13 females ranging in age from 2 3 to 59. The mean age was 40.9 years. All 19 subjects had completed four or more years of college. Eighteen subjects held bachelor's degrees and one held a doctorate in Chiropractic. Fourteen subjects had been so- èisBl science majors and five subjects majored in other sub jects. Five Group C subjects had prior videotape feedback experience and 12 had prior role play experience. Six sub jects were employed in units involving relatively brief client contacts and 13 subjects were employed in a variety of other services units. Thirteen subjects had been at their current work assignment for less than two years. Sev enteen subjects had previous work assignments within the department. Fifteen subjects had a total of more than two years in this department of social services. Ten subjects had some human service practice experience prior to their employment with this department of social services. Eight of those subjects had over two years of such prior exper ience. Subject Reactions to the Experiential Training Sessions As the instructor for the experiential training ses sions, the researcher was able to witness the behavior of 129 Group PAR and Group MAR subjects during their role plays and seIf-critique. Trainees in both Group PAR and Group MAR were ac- lively involved in the training experience consisting of role play and feedback. Almost half the members of Group MAR spontaneously commented on the realistic feeling of the role played interview,nmany attributing this to the excellent acting ability of the coached client. No members of Group PAR made such comments. Two subjects in each group com mented on the "unreality" of a role played interview but even these subjects appeared to become actively involved once the role play was underway. Many Group PAR trainees had a "frozen" appearance during the first two minutes of the role play. This was characterized by an unvarying masklike facial expression and rigid posture. Few if any Group MAR trainees gave this appearance during the role play. Group PAR members did ap pear to relax after the role play was underway for two or three minutes. During the feedback and role play review many Group PAR members appeared to be quite anxious. Initially the trainees' focus was on aspects of physical appearance, e.g. "I'm sitting so rigidly. It makes me seem like a cold per son." After this initial reaction, and perhaps as a result 130 of the instructor's focusing comments, attention was soon redirected to skill performance. During the feedback and role play review many Group MAR members appeared to be more anxious than they were dur ing the role play, but less anxious than Group PAR members at a similar point in the training procedure. Group MAR members maintained a focus on skill performance throughout the review. Members of the two experimental groups differed some what in their approach to the role play review. Group PAR members appeared to focus more on their personal,character istics, e.g. "I sound so harsh" or "I seem to be drifting off there." Group MAR members appeared to focus more on counselor-client interactions, e.g. "I'm trying to lead her now" or "When she tries to talk about her anger I try to get away from it." Overall, Group MAR members appeared better able to engage in self-exploration and criticisms specifically re lated to the interview skills. They were more likely to state "I should have done it differently" and then formu late alternative responses to the client's statements. When Group PAR members observed an error in their skill perfor mance they were more likely to defend their error, e.g. "I would have said it differently if it were later in the 131 interview." At least five Group PAR members had a tendency to engage in lengthy monologues during the review session as if to avoid a return to viewing the VTR playback. This is not to imply that Group PAR members were un able to attend to the learning task at all. A few members were notably able to integrate observations of their verbal and nonverbal behavior, e.g. "I even have an exploratory tone of voice" or "If I'm going to attend to her affect, maybe I should show more of my own." A few members of Group MAR expressed difficulty in assessing some responses due to the absence of feedback about nonverbal behavior, e.g. "I'm not sure whether that was exploratory. It would help if I knew what my tone of voice was." Members of both groups appeared to believe that the learning of specific communication skills was an important aspect of practice effectiveness. Approximately four or five members of each group spontaneously commented on the value of looking closely at specific responses to specific client statements, especially when these specific responses can be related to the larger issues of interviewing such as empathy, acceptance and "beginning where the client is." 132 Intergroup Comparisons for Potentially Intervening Variables All reported characteristics of the research subjects were assumed to be potentially intervening variables. Other potentially intervening variables include the subject's self-reported desire to increase use of each interviewing skill taught, the orientation session attended and the di dactic training session attended. A thorough analysis controlling for the effects of these variables was not possible for three reasons: (1) Most of these variables constitute nominal level data which re strict the analysis to statistics of low power, (2) such analysis is limited by the small sample size and (3) varia tion on some of the variables was minimal. The Chi-square test of statistical significance was used to determine whether a systematic relationship exists 3etween the independent variable and the potentially inter- v^ening variables (Table 16) . In no case was significance reached at the .05 level. The chi-square probability was less than .30 for all but one of the potentially intervening variables (i.e. college major). Although statistically significant differences be tween the research groups could not be established, note worthy differences exist for some of the potentially inter- 133 vening variables. Group C contained the largest percentage of male subjects (31.6); Group MAR contained the smallest percentage of males (11.8). Group PAR contained the largest percentage of social science majors (89.5); Group MAR con tained the smallest percentage of social science majors (64.7). The percentage of subjects with prior videotape feedback experience was similar for Group MAR and Group C (29.4 and 26.3 respectively): only 10.5 percent of Group PAR subjects had prior videotape feedback experience. Group PAR contained the smallest percentage (11) of subjects as signed to the relatively brief client contact units whereas approximately 41 percent of Group MAR and Group C were as signed to the brief contact units. Intergroup Pretest Equivalence for Major Dependent Variables Between group comparisons were made for scores on both scales of the SORS (Self as Helper and Inferred Client Perceptions), all four scales of the CVRS (exploratory, act ive listening, attention to affect and honest labeling) and the CVRS Index which combines scores of all four CVRS scales A multivariate analysis of variance was used to test differences between all three groups. The Least Signifi cant Difference test was used for all possible two group comparisons. The t-test probability was computed for cases -134 TABLE 16 INTERGROUP COMPARISONS FOR POTENTIALLY INTERVENING VARIABLES Variable and [Categories Chi^ d.f. p= N= Work Unit 1. 708 2 .426 55 Licensing + Intake/ Other Direct Service Previous Units 2.765 4 . 598 54 Service/Eligibility Only/None Previous Human Service 4.428 4 . 351 55 Yes/None Time in Present Unit . 423 2 . 810 55 <2 Years/2+ Years Time in Department of Social Services . 916 4 . 922 54 <^2 Years/2-9 Years/ 10+ Years/None Time in Prior Human Service 7.084 6 .313 54 ^2 Years/2-9 Years/ 10+ Years/None Total Time in Human Service . 539 2 . 764 55 ^8 Years/8+ Years College Major 4. 4 53 2 .108 55 Social Sciences/Other 135 TABLE 16 (cont.) Variable and Categories Chi^ d. f. P= N= Years of College 4.071 4 . 397 55 <4 Years/4 Years/ 5+ Years Prior VTR Experience 11672 2 .434 55 Yes/None Prior Role Play Experience 2.027 2 .363 55 Yes/None Sex 2.067 2 .356 55 Male/Female Age 3.518 44 .475 55 <33 Years/33-43 Years/ 44+ Years Desire to Increase Use of Exploratory Response ^ 3. 725 4 . 445 55 ++ Desire to Increase Use of Active Listening 2.411 4 .661 55 ++ Desire to Increase Use of Attention to Affect 2.961 4 . 564 55 ++ Desire to Increase Use of Honest Labeling 3.456 4 .485 55 ++ 136 TABLE 16 Ccont.) Variable and Categories 2 Chi d.f. p= N= Orientation Session Attended 4 Sessions Didactic Session Attended 2 Sessions 2. 040 .146 .916 55 .930 55 KEY: ++ Categoried for the Desire to Increase scales are: No Increase and Increase Very Little/Increase Some- what/increase Considerably and Increase a Great Deal 137 where the Least Significant Difference test reached a two- tailed probability less than .05. (Tables 17 and 18.) A statistically significant difference (t-test p=.Q was found between Group MAR and Group C on the active lis tening scale of the CVRS (Table 17). The mean score for Group MAR was 2.8 and the mean score for Group C was 4.2. No statistically significant differences were found for any of the other comparisons involving CVRS scores. No statis tically significant differences were found between groups for either of the two SORS scales (Table 18). Findings Regarding Within Group Change Scores for Major Dependent Variables Within group changes were analyzed for two test peri ods and one interest period on both scales of the SORS. Within group changes were also analyzed for CVRS changes be tween the pretest and posttest B. T-test probabilities werei computed in each instance (Tables 19 and 20). A one-tailed test was applied at the .05 level of significance. On the four scales of the CVRS and on the CVRS Index of all four scales combined (Table 19) all mean change was in a positive direction. No statistically significant dif ferences were found for Group PAR. Pretest to posttest B changes were significant for Group MAR on three scales 138 TABLE 17 INTERGROUP COMPARISONS FOR PRETEST EQUIVALENCE ON COUNSELOR VERBAL RESPONSE SCORES Variable Group Mean Score Standard Deviation ANOVA P= Exploratory PAR 6.940 2. 899 Response MAR 7.177 3.627 .629 C 6. 579 3. 216 Active PAR 3.492 2.898 Listening MAR 2. 765 1. 552 . 205 C 4.184 2.347 Attention PAR 2.816 2.578 to Affect MAR 2. 618 2.125 . 680 C 2.211 2.275 Honest PAR .290 . 608 Labeling MAR .000 . 000 . 099 C .105 .413 CVRS PAR 13.537 5. 913 MAR 12.559 5.820 .564 C 13.079 6.447 Significant Intergroup Differences LSD T-TEST Variable Groups p <. 0 5 P= Honest PAR-MAR ** .054 Labeling KEY: Group PAR, N=19 Group MAR, N=17 Group C, N=19 ** indicates significant difference reached at .0 5 level, two-tailed test. 139 TABLE 18 INTERGROUP COMPARISONS FOR PRETEST EQUIVALENCE ON SELF AND OTHERS RATING SCALE SCORES Mean Standard ANOVA Variable Group Score Deviation P= Self as PAR 120.342 9.758 Helper MAR 122.647 11.175 .687 C 121.053 9.126 Inferred PAR 124.053 8.066 Client MAR 119.106 13.610 .378 Perceptions C 122.947 10.824 Significant Intergroup Comparisons LSD T-TEST Variable Groups p<. 05 P= Self as (none) Helper Inferred (none) Client Perceptions KEY: Group PAR, N=19 Group MAR, N=17 Group C, N=19 1.4(1 o o oo LD O O O LO r o r o ro i n o ro (N ro ro 00 r-4 o o œ o o o o o o ro o i n o < r > r—I O O o \ o ( d i n o CO < r > i n M i n CO o M i n r—I r—I M r o C N 00 ro ro VO o VO 00 o H o ro i n CN CN I —I ■H r—I < N 00 VO 00 CN 00 00 ( T i r o CN r o -H fd W - H - H CD ^ G (DC +J m o o > C D m r H f l ) -iH + J CD C L , C O 4 -> c n +J X CD Ü - H + j o -W-P^ M - r—I 4 -> -H CO r H • i H c ^ c c ; 'O o ( d > — e-4-4 141 T f C3 LD rH ro 1 — 1 rH O C D LO IL r -j (N ro o . • • • • • • u P L , O e n o P: P K I (ü O M D cni en, C N I —1 O • O en 00 o 00 0 0 ro 1 —1 e n ■p P: P: f^ r H ro ro LO 1 —1 •H e n (d fd • • • • • • U (ü (ü Æ C N 1 —1 fd -P a 4- 4 - H - 1 1 1 O r g Td O (ü ü 1 — 1 •H 13 pq fd O +J * ■P 1 œ * e n (U M LD 1 —) I>> LO 1 —1 en, O P! O 00 T f T f LO en, en, P L , O iz; œ IL O O C N C N 1 < H « O , • • • • • • (ü m U i —1 u O P L , (U O > P L , œ P M U d) D D o 1 — 1 O H o M H i-q p< (ü rH 1 —1 LO O < o en C N en, O O P: P: 'H' VO I —] C N o c x > 1 — 1 • S œ (d td • • • . o • II M 0) rP! C N C N 1 —1 S -p K o s u I I I 4- 4 - 4 * ^ fd E h s o H H U Td <N 1^ E h (U O i H (X S 0 ü i-:i O o fd P Q k œ u d) C P< * * H c o P E4 œ H * * H c H K en, LO o e u M E h en rH o ro LO LO ü E h O II 0 ^ 0 o o o P: M p:; Qa • • • • • • 1 — 1 • (U H P Q < II e n p M !3 P L , S U e u P Q < g; U h < P M » . rPl U h P Q k 5 p c ; -P •H O o <d O Td ç< H p:; (U C N m r~, LO C N g P L , œ o tn o en en, H * 1 — 1 -p P: P J ro rH r~, œ CO o . rH d E h fd fd • • • • • • P S fd fd œ 0) rC H* LO C N C N o ü H S U 1 1 4 - 1 1 4- u U •H E h o o U h 1 M H •H Eh d CO tn en. 1 — 1 -H 1 — 1 II e n II 13 3 e n » . e u a -P Eh p c ; fd S < a> ü pq W pq pii P S -H Td M o Td p ! Td -P Hd en -P o , u P: fd O <C pq c n u !3 <C P Q e n P S o •H •H O o O o 0) J h ■p 4J pii Q H -P -P Pli p * 1 — 1 d) œ e n c n 1 W E H e n e n 1 o •a ^ pli <C Pü O O <c Pü Pli O O < fd H pli Pii H Pli Pii -H -P k P L , 1 1 -P H a 1 1 -P # # U e n i-d i-d (ü (ü e n t i Pü (ü (ü e n > H 1 4 9 fd d) H H U U O S H U u O H -------^>_Eh m K — 0 , n , n ,— — k=L_Pi_------ PU-Pli-d ii------------ X , (active listening, attention to affect and honest labeling) as well as on the CVRS Index. Pretest to posttest B changes were significant for Group C on three scales (exploratory, attention to affect and honest labeling) as well as on the CVRS Index. No statistically significant differences.:were found for Group C on either of the SORS scales (Table 20). One statistically significant difference was found for Group MAR on the Self as Helper scale between the pretest and posttest B. There were no significant differences for Group MAR on the Inferred Client Perceptions scale. Two signifi cant differences were found for Group PAR on the Self as Helper scale between the pretest and posttest A and between posttest A and posttest B. One significant difference was found for Group PAR on the Inferred Client Perceptions scale between the pretest and posttest A. Findings Regarding the Hypotheses To test the major hypotheses a multivariate analysis of variance computer program was used in analyzing the fol lowing: (1) amount of directional change in CVRS scores from the pretest to posttest B, (2) amount of absolute change in scores of both SORS scales from pretest to post test A, posttest A to posttest B and from pretest to post- 143 test B, (3) amount of directional change in scores of both SORS scales from pretest to posttest A, posttest A to post test B and from pretest to posttest B and (4) actual STAI scores at posttest A. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) computer program performed a univariate F test on each of the dependent var iables among the three groups involved in the study to de termine whether the groups differed significantly. A further analysis was performed using the Least Significant Difference (LSD) test to determine differences between each possible pairing of groups. For comparisons in which the LSD probability was less than .05 (one-tailed test) a Cos set 's T-Test was also applied. The results of this analysis are presented in Tables 21 through 28. The first hypothesis dealt with the concept of skill performance and predicted there would be no significant dif ferences in comparisons of the amount of positive change in the Counselor Verbal Response Scale scores between members of the experimental and control groups as a result of the differing conditions of experiential training. This predic tion proved to be true for three of the four CVRS scales and for the CVRS Index. The null was rejected for comparisons between Group PAR and Group MAR on the active listening scale (Table 21) indicating a greater positive effect of 144 PRE-POST ON TABLE 21 B SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE TESTS CVRS SCORES BY GROUP Mean Standard ANOVA Variable Group Change Deviation P= Exploratory PAR . 321 3.395 Response MAR 1.141 4. 907 .507 C 1.837 3.519 Active PAR . 884 2. 700 Listening MAR 2. 709 2.306 .152 C 1.305 3.468 Attention PAR .682 3.191 to Affect MAR 1.485 3.128 . 667 C 1.324 :2. 625 Honest PAR . 397 1.114 Labeling MAR .441 .705 .161 C .447 1.079 CVRS Index PAR 2.284 6.537 MAR 5. 777 7.780 . 321 C 4.913 7.373 Significant Intergroup Differences LSD T-TEST Variable Groups p<r. 0 5 P= Active PAR-MAR ** .036** Listening KEY: Group PAR, N=19 Group MAR, N=17 Group C, N=19 ** indicates significant difference reached at .05 level, one-tailed test. 145 TABLE 22 PRE-POST A SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE TESTS ON SORS SCORES, ABSOLUTE CHANGE, BY GROUP Mean Standard ANOVA Variable Group Change Deviation P= Self as PAR 6.921 8. 587 Helper MAR 5.882 4. 526 .687 C 5. 500 4. 866 Inferred PAR 9.737 10.257 Client MAR 6. 718 5.651 .126 Perceptions C 4.833 4. 148 Variable Significant Intergroup Differences LSD T-TEST Groups_____p<. 0 5_______ 2^__________ Self as Helper Inferred Client Perceptions (none) PAR-C * * .033** KEY: Group PAR, N=19 Group MAR, N=17 Group C, N=18 ** indicates significant idfference reached at .05 level, one-tailed test. 146 TABLE 2 3 POST A - B SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE TESTS ON SORS SCORES, ABSOLUTE CHANGE, BY GROUP Variable Groupp Mean Change Standard Deviation ANOVA P= Self as PAR 5. 474 5.796 Helper MAR 3.824 3.557 .583 C 5.056q 4.869 Inferred PAR 6. 000 5. 313 Client MAR 4.941 3.832 . 548 Perceptions C 5. 333 4.550 Variable Significant Intergroup Differences LSD T-TEST Groups p<. 05________ p= _______ Self as Helper Inferred Client Perceptions (none) (none) KEY: Group PAR, N=19 Group MAR, N=17 Group C, N=18 147 TABLE 24 PRE-POST B SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE TESTS ON SORS SCORES, ABSOLUTE CHANGE, BY GROUP Variable Group Mean Change Standard Deviation ANOVA P= Self as PAR 5.395 4.335 Helper MAR 5.235 3. 597 . 404 C 6.947 4.625 Inferred PAR 6.053 4. 911 Client MAR 5.518 5.494 .682 Perceptions C 4.842 5.188 Variable Significant Intergroup Differences LSD T-TEST Groups p<. 05________ 2^__________ Self as Helper Inferred Client Perceptions (none) (none) KEY: Group PAR, N=19 Group MAR, N=l7 Group C, N=19 14 8 PRE-POST A TABLE SIGNIFICANT SORS SCORES 25 DIFFERENCE TESTS BY GROUP ON Mean Standard ANOVA Variable Group Change Deviation P= Self as PAR -4.447 10.169 Helper MAR -2.471 7.125 . 224 C + .389 7.453 Inferred PAR -5.737 13.059 Client MAR + .247 8.934 .143 Perceptions C - . 389 6.464 Significant Intergroup Differences LSD T-TEST Variable Groups P<. 05 P= Self as PAR-C ** .054 Helper Inferred PAR-MAR ** . 058 Client Perceptions KEY: Group PAR, N=19 Group MAR, N=17 Group C, N=18 ** indicates significant difference reached at .05 level, one-tailed test 149 TABLE 26 POST A - B SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE TESTS ON SORS SCORES BY GROUP Variable Group Mean Change Standard ANOVA Deviation p= Self as Helper PAR MAR C +4.105 - . 177 +1.389 6.887 5.306 .139 6.980 Inferred Client Perceptions PAR MAR C +2.842 + .824 - .111 7. 596 6.317 .411 6. 370 Significant Intergroup Differences LSD T-TEST Variable Groups p<. 05 P= Self as Helper Inferred Client Perceptions PAR-MAR (none) ** .022** KEY: Group PAR, N=19 Group MAR, N=17 Group C, N=18 ** indicates significant idfference reached at .05 level, one-tailed test. 150 TABLE 27 PRE-POST B SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE TESTS ON SORS SCORES BY GROUP Variable Group Mean Change Standard Deviation ANOVA P= Self as PAR - .342 7.028 Helper MAR -2.647 5. 884 .146 C +2.105 8. 225 Inferred PAR -1.895 8.048 Client MAR +1.071 7. 830 . 306 Perceptions C - .632 7.159 Variable Significant Intergroup Differences LSD T-TEST Groups p<. 05_________2^__________ Self as Helper Inferred Client Perceptions MAR-C (none) ** .027** KEY: Group PAR, N=19 Group MAR, N=17 Group C, N=19 ** indicates significant difference reached at . 05 .05 level, one-tailed test. 151 TABLE 28 SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE TESTS ON STAI SCORES BY GROUP Group Mean Score Standard Deviation ANOVA P= PAR MAR C 44.368 42.588 34.722 9. 799 11.424 14.954 .047 Significant Intergroup Differences LSD T-TEST Groups p<. 05 P= PAR-C ** .014** MAR-C * * .045** KEY: Group PAR, N=19 Group MAR, N=17 Group C, N=18 ** indicates significant difference reached at .05 level, one-tailed test. 152 role play with an alternative type of feedback as compared to role play with VTR feedback. One variant of the second hypothesis dealt with the concept of self-evaluation and predicted there would be no significant differences in comparisons of the amount of ab solute change in the Self and Others Rating Scale scores be tween members of the experimental and control groups as a result of the differing conditions of experiential training. This prediction proved to be true for all three comparative test periods on the Self as Helper scale. The null was re jected on the Inferred Client Perceptions scale for the pre test to posttest A test period between Group PAR and Group C (Table 22). This finding indicates an immediate reaction to role play with VTR feedback. Another variant of the second hypothesis also dealt with the concept of self-evaluation and predicted there would be no significant differences in comparisons of the amount of positive change in the Self and Others Rating Scale scores between members of the experimental and control groups as a result of the differing conditions of exper iential training. The null was rejected on the Self as Helper scale for the pretest to posttest A period between Group PAR and Group C (Table 2 5 ) for the posttest A to ^The significance level was reached on the LSD test but not on the t-test. 153 posttest B period between Group PAR and Group MAR (Table 26) and for the pretest to posttest B period between Group MAR and Group C (Table 27). These findings are graphically pre sented in Figure 4. These findings indicate an immediate reaction to role play with VTR feedback which is reversed one week after the training experience. The initial change was in the direction of more negative self-evaluation. These findings also indicate a one-week delayed reaction to role play with an alternative type of feedback. This reac tion was in the direction of more negative self-evaluation. On the Inferred Client Perceptions scale the null was re jected in only one instance— for the pretest to posttest A period between Group PAR and Group MAR (Table 25).^ This finding indicates an initial reaction to role play with VTR feedback relative to role play with an alternate type of feedback. (See Figure 5.) The third hypothesis dealt with the concept of state anxiety and predicted there would be no significant differ ences in comparisons of the STAI actual scores between mem bers of the experimental and control groups&as a result of differing conditions of experiential training. The null was rejected between Group PAR and Group C as well as between ^The significance level was reached on the LSD test but not on the t-test. 154 FIGURE 4 SORS SCORE CHA]>7GES, SEL? AS HELPER SCALE BY TEST PERIOD AND GROUP Amoimt of Change in SORS Scale Points Test Period 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 — 1 -2 —3 —4 -5 -6 Pretest KEY : Group PAR Group MAR Group C ! r— Posttest A I Posttest B Significant Intergroup Differences Pre to Post A Post A — B Pre to Post 3 Groups PAR PAR - MAR MAR Amo lint of Change in SOBS Scale Points FIC-UBE 5 SOBS SCOBS CHANGES, IHFERBED CLIENT PERCEPTIONS SCALE, BY TEST PERIOD AND GROUP 6 5 4 3 2 Test Period KEY : Group PAR Group MAR Group C 1 0 —1 -2 -3 —4 -5 "6 Posttest Pretest A B Groups Significant Intergroup Differences Pre to Post A PAR - MAR Post A - B (none) Pre to Post 3 (none) Group MAR and Group C (Table 28). This finding indicates an anxiety arousal effect of both role play with VTR feedback and role play with an alternative form of feedback. Signif icant differences between the two experimental groups were not found. Additional Findings Interactions Between the Major Independent Variables The Pearson's product moment correlation coefficient (r) was used to measure the strength of association between the major dependent variables (Tables 29 and 30). Two- tailed tests of significance were applied in the absence of an adequate basis for predicting the direction of associa tions . STAI scores and CVRS Index scores. The only statis tically significant association between STAI scores and CVRS Index scores was found for Group C (Table 29). This was a positive relationship measuring .568 (p = .014). STAI scores and SORS directional change scores. Sta tistically significant associations between STAI scores and SORS directional change scores were found only for Group PAP (Table 30). These involved changes on the Self as Helper scale. An inverse relationship of -.511 (p = .026) was found for Group PAR members between the pretest and posttest 157 < y > CN 5 PQ g E h B Q B P4 M Q O p c ; M œ Eh o p § x w Q IS œ p c ; > 0 g E h IS M 1 M PQ IS o H 3 § § u p p § o Q § P o H P w p E h œ g >H P œ M P p < H P * * CN rs CN VO o LO cr. I —1 O I I I —1r~- r~- o VO 1 —1 o •H • P4 • # # • • • • P p C Ü CO u CP LO VO cn o I I ro O o ro LO VO ro o P 1 —1 I I <y> LO VO lO ro LO P P Q ) O I —1 P p LO p VO • v j * lO I —1 ^ iH LO cr. o o I I CN LO ro CO cr. CO I —1 • p o I —1 1 —1 I —1CN o I —1 I I o • • # • • » • S p 1 1 fd O 1 3 O o O •H W <u p p u I —1ro CN CN o o K . 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CJ p EH p p P p P p p P f d fd C 04 c . ü P 0 o ■H 13 CO 04 p g 0 c 0 o -H o O Q ) 13 •H p Î>H r —1 CO Q) p o 1 * P r Q td td P < ü P P p c 04 Q) H •H p 04 < ü < ü ü • • C p rH rH P ■H p >H 159 Eh td < ü < ü C rH Q) m P > P œ H CJ p p A. A positive relationship of .572 (p = .010) was found for Group PAR members between posttest A and posttest B. NO statistically significant associations were found for either of the three research groups on the Inferred Client Perceptions scale. CVRS Index scores and SORS directional change scores. No statistically significant associations were found between CVRS Index scores and change scores for either scale of the SORS (Table 29). Findings Regarding the Clinical Assessment of Anxiety Clinical assessments were made of the anxiety level for Group PAR and Group MAR subjects during the experiential training sessions. Assessments were based on the judgements of the researcher/instructor on a five point scale in accor dance with predetermined guidelines (see Appendix I). The validity and reliability of these judgements have not been tested and are potentially limited by rater bias. The clinical assessment of anxiety CCAA) scores were tested for correlations with four variables: (1) experien tial training format (the independent variable), (2) pretest to posttest change on the CVRS Index, (3) directional change on both SORS scales and (4) STAI anxiety scores. The sub program NONPAR CORR was used to obtain a Kendall's Tau mea sure of correlation. Results are reported in Table 30. 160 Statistically significant correlations were found in only one area (Table 31). A correlation coefficient of .428 (p = .006) was found between CAA scores and the independent variable. Higher anxiety levels were found for Group PAR than for Group MAR. Interjudge Reliability; CVRS Ratings Interjudge reliability was measured by the Pearson's product moment coefficient (r) and was based on scores for students and employed subjects combined (N = 59). Pretest and posttest scores were analyzed separately due to the coding format required for other statistical tests in this study. Each of the four CVRS scales was as sessed separately (see Table 32). Correlations for pretest ratings ranged from .764 to 19 7 5 and all were significant at the .001 level. Posttest correlations ranged from .9 48 to .9 76 and all were significant at the .001 level. With the exception of the pretest correlation for the honest la beling scale (.764) all correlations were above .948. Interjudge reliability was also assessed on the basis of pretest to posttest change scores for each of the four CVRS scales. Correlations were high, ranging from .918 to .963. All four comparisons were significant at the .001 level. 161 n H g Q < CO W • -P o CO u CÜ CO Ph -p ID O 13 Pi CÜ < o P 1 —1 u 00 CN CD 0 0 0 "4^ CN CD P -H p 00 00 in ro CN CN 0 0 I I ro 00 0 0 CD CD 1—1 a -P O Eh EH + + 1 + + + ”h -h 0 CÜ CO p rH Eh M en is Eh 0 in H P 0 >H 04 • CO m 1 CO A -P H CO 0 0 CO H co CO P 13 1 — 1 CN CTi 0 0 in CO 00 >1 P I I CD ro 1—1 0 CD A H Eh P a • • • • • • • • CÜ i z : < 13 ü CJ H P CÜ G p 1—1 13 CÜ P I I •H p H H P M 0 0 0 0 0 CD CD CO > CÜ H P 0 I I CN CTi CD 0 TT iH CÜ 0 MH IS H P 0 0 0 1—1 0 ro : —1 ro 0 U P cp Eh P CJ (d • • • • • • • • 0 I I CD P 04 •H H EH 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 + Ü 13 P < C | 13 PQ P p >, -P -P CO < < 04 -H G < 0 1—1 0 O Eh P P V 0 -H ü H s P A •H &H H +J P G CJ 0 CH < P < P CO < P CO P 0 4( Xi •H t -q 0 0 0 G M M P P p P +J p P CO CD P en P CO CO 1 CO CO 1 CO Q) 0 en 04 -H M nj 0 0 < 0 0 < 0 < Ü I I 0 1—i co o P 0 p p P p p G 04 • I I 1 3 CJ % P -H 1 1 p 1 1 p 1 -P (Ü CÜ co H CO u Q) Q) CO (Ü (Ü CO (Ü CO U rH CÜ 5 Q) (D U U 0 u 0 u 0 Q) -H 4-> < P Eh P P P p p p p p p MH P 0 0 Eh o m C -P ü 1-3 -H P 1 -H CO Q 0 13 - CO 04 G | J | c X CL, 0 0 0 -P -H M 0 CÜ 0 I I CN 0 < K CÜ Td •H 13 0 0 p I I 4( a 54 1—1 CO CÜ P G U (d • CJ 04 4( (d u u p O. H Cr> EH 1 w P cd Q) u G <D G -rH Ch (Ü Q) 0 P H CÜ • s C S h 1 —1r—1 14H -H U P C -P 1 6 2 C cd Q ) (Ü c 1 —1 <D > Eh G M u > P P H C) P -O - P H P TABLE 32 PEARSON CORRELATION (r) TESTS OF INTERJUDGE RELIABILITY Scores r= P< PRETEST SCORES Exploratory Response . 975 . 001 Active Listening . 972 . 001 Attention to Affect . 966 .001 Honest Labeling .764 . 001 POSTTEST SCORES Exploratory Response . 948 .001 Active Listening .965 . 001 Attention to Affect . 976 . 001 Honest Labeling .962 . 001 PRE-POST B CHANGE Exploratory Response . 957 . 001 Active Listening . 960 . 001 Attention to Affect .963 . 001 Honest Labeling .918 .001 KEY: N=59 r= Pearson’s product moment correlation coefficient p= two-tailed probability provided by SPSS sub- program PEARSON CORR 163 Comparison of Students' and Employed Subjects' Scores All statistical tests performed on the sample of em ployed subjects were duplicated for an expanded sample which included four student subjects. Tables of findings for this expanded sample are presented in Appendix J. Although the four student subjects were selected in error, their data was considered in this supplementary analysis because of the overall similarity between their scores and scores for the employed subjects. Although findings for the regular and expanded samples are similar, in a number of instances in tergroup significant differences were found for one sample but not the other. A list of these differences is presented in Table 33, Appendix J1 The following are findings concerning the similarity of dependent variable scores for students and the employed subjects. Group PAR and Group C each contained one student subject. Group MAR contained two student subjects. In com parisons involving actual scores or amount of change in scores, data for the two Group MAR subjects was averaged. CVRS scores. In 10 of 12 comparisons (four skills by three groups) student subjects yielded CTRS scores within one standard deviation of the mean scores for other subjects in their respective research groups. The direction of pre- 164 test-posttest change for student subjects agreed with the modal direction of change for other subjects in their re spective groups in 12 of 16 comparisons (four skills by four students). The amount of pretest-posttest B change for students was within one standard deviation of other subjects’ change scores in 11 of 12 comparisons (four skills by three groups). SORS scores. On the Self as Helper scale student pre test scores were within one standard deviation of other sub jects' pretest scores in two of three comparisons (one vari able by three groups). The direction of change in student scores agreed with the modal direction of change for other subjects in 9 of 12 comparisons (three test periods by four students). The amount of change for students was within one standard deviation of other subjects' change scores in all of six comparisons (two test periods by three groups). On the Inferred Client Perceptions scale student pre test scores were within one standard deviation of other subjects pretest scores in two of three comparisons (one variable by three groups). The direction of change in stu dent scores agreed with the modal direction of change for other subjects in 7 of 12 comparisons (three test periods by four students). The amount of change for students was A^ithin one standard deviation of other subjects' change 165 scores in all of six comparisons (two test periods by three groups). STAX scores. STAI scores for student subjects was within one standard deviation of other subjects' STAI scores in all of three comparisons (one variable by three groups). Discussion of the Findings Counselor Verbal Response Scale Scores The null hypothesis was rejected with regard to only one of the four skills taught (Table 21). The increase in performance of the active listening skill was greatest for Group MAR and lowest for Group PAR. While statistically significant, theGdirection of the difference between these two groups was opposite the predicted direction. Although significant differences were not found for other skills, the difference found on the active listening skill reflects a pattern among the various increases in skill performance; Group MAR and Group C increased skill performance to a similar degree while Group PAR increased skill performance to a notably lesser degree. When total increase was computed for a combination of the four skills Group MAR manifested the greatest amount of increase with Group EAR manifesting the least amount. 166 A review of within group changes (Table 19) reveals no statistically significant differences for Group PAR which had an overall increase of 16.9 percent on skill performance Group C had statistically significant increases on three skills with an overall increase of 37.6 percent. Group MAR also had the largest rate of overall increase at 46.0 per cent. Self and Others Rating Scale Scores Absolute change. The null hypothesis was not re jected in any test period or intergroup comparison in terms of absolute change of self-perception in the role of helper (Tables 22, 23, and 24). In terms of inferred client per ceptions of self in the role of helper the null hypothesis was rejected in only one instance. Between the pretest and posttest A the amount of absolute change was significantly greater for Group PAR than for Group C. Although the actual amount of change was greater for Group PAR than for Group MARc in the same test periodT;i the difference was not statis tically significant. Directional change. Turning to comparisons based on directional changes a different picture emerges (Tables 25, 26 and 27). In terms of self as helper. Group PAR changed to a significantly greater degree than did Group C between the pretest and posttest A. Group PAR changed in the direc- 167 tion of a more negative self-evaluation while Group C's change was slightly in the positive direction. In the pretest to posttest B period the significant difference between Group PAR and Group C was lost. During the same test period a significant difference did occur be tween Group MAR and Group C in which Group MAR self-evalua tions changed in a negative direction and Group C changed in a positive direction. This set of events is partly due to changes in self-perception occuring between posttest A and posttest B. During this test period a significant differ ence was found between Group PAR and Group MAR in which Group PAR self-evaluations changed in a positive direction (almost returning to the pretest level) and Group MAR self- evaluations changed slightly in a negative direction. Changes in self-perception may be summarized as fol lows : Immediately following the experiential training ses sion Groups PAR and MAR self-perceptions changed in a nega tive direction with a greater change for Group PAR. Control group self-perceptions changed slightly in a positive direc tion. One week after the experiential training session con trol group self-perceptions continued to change in a posi tive direction returning to the pretest level of self-eval uation. Group MAR self-evaluations essentially maintained the level achieved one week earlier at the experiential 168 training session. Group MAR was the only group with a sta tistically significant difference between its own pretest and posttest B self-perceptions. The difference between Group p a r's pretest and posttest B self-perception scores was negligible. In terms of directional changes in inferred client perceptions of self the null hypothesis was rejected in only one instance (Table 2 5). Between the pretest and posttest A a significant difference occurred between Group PAR and Group MAR. The change for Group PAR was in a negative di rection while Group MAR changed slightly in a positive di rection. Although a similar amount of difference occurred between Group PAR and the control group, the T-Test proba bility of that difference (p = .062) only approached signif icance. The significant difference between Group PAR and Group MAR was lost in the pretest to posttest B test period due to movement of Group PAR scores in a positive direction from posttest A to posttest B. Changes in inferred client perceptions of self may be summarized as follows : The control group showed least act ivity with only negligible change between test periods. Group MAR similarly showed little activity with a negligible positive change between the pretest and posttest A followed by a small increase in a positive direction at posttest B. 169 Group PAR showed the greatest amount of activity, moving in a negative direction between the pretest and posttest A, then returning toward the pretest level by posttest B. T- test probabilities for Group PAR within group changes either achieved or approached the level of significance for each of the test periods. State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, A-State Scale Scores The null hypothesis was rejected in two intergroup comparisons (Table 27). The self-reported anxiety level was significantly greater for each of Group PAR and Group MAR than for the control group. The difference in anxiety level between Group PAR and Group MAR was relatively small and not statistically significant, although the anxiety level for Group PAR was highest. Interactions Between the Major Dependent Variables The significant association between Group C STAI scores and change on the CVRS Index is paradoxical. The STAI scores measure anxiety during the experiential train ing session for GroupssPAR and MAR. For Group C, however, STAI anxiety scores measure subjects? anxiety during routine work duties twenty minutes prior to posttest A. The assoc iation between STAI scores and change on the CVRS Index may be an artifact of the research design. The STAI may have tapped Group C members' anxiety in anticipation of testing. 170 This test-related anxiety may have been associated with skill performance during the pretest and posttest B role plays. The associations between STAI scores and changes in the SORS Self as Helper scale for Group PAR suggests that the kind of self-image change which occurs after a videotape self-confrontation is associated with anxiety experienced during the self-confrontation. The same kind of association could not be established for Group MAR members. This sug gests that the changes in self-image experienced by members of Group PAR and Group MAR respectively, were changes of twc different types. The Clinical Assessment of Anxiety It is noteworthy that the two research groups dif fered significantly on clinical assessments of anxiety where-' as they did not differ significantly on self-reported anx iety. However, the absence of correlations between clin ically assessed anxiety and any other major dependent var iable raises question about the validity of this measure. The findings reveal a number of statistically signif icant effects of an initial VTR self-confrontation relative to either an alternate training format or to a control con dition. Such findings involved each of the major dependent variables— skill performance, self-image change and anxiety 171 arousal. In the following chapter conclusions are drawn from these findings and implications are examined. 172 CHAPTER VI CONCLUSIONS Self-awareness and the use of self in a helping rela tionship are of major importance to the human services. Training for self-awareness and use of self is a complex matter in which the primary issue is not what to teach; ra ther, it is how to present the information. Videotape self confrontation, a promising means of presenting the data is receiving considerable attention by staff development per sonnel and educators. Videotape, however, is a relatively new teaching medium and the kind of understanding needed for its optimal application is only now beginning to emerge. This study examined effects and effectiveness of videotape in the development of self-involved interview skills and in the development of changes in self-image which zould lead to self-awareness. The study was related, to a braining program involving experienced non-professional so- ial services workers in the public welfare field. Specific 173 objectives were (1) to determine the impact of videotape self-confrontation on the learning of four interview skills- the exploratory response, active listening, attention to af fect and honest labeling, (2) to determine the initial im pact of self-confrontation on two major aspects of self perception— the way the trainee perceives himself in the role of helper (self as helper) and the way the trainee thinks his clients perceive him (inferred client percep tions of self as helper), (3) to evaluate the effects of videotape self-confrontation on these two aspects of self perception over time and (4) to determine the extent of the videotape self-confrontation’s contribution to other as pects of the training/research situation in terms of arous ing anxiety. A pretest-posttest experimental design was imple mented with two experimental groups and one control group. A total of 60 subjects (56 employed public welfare workers and four student trainees in field placement) was randomly assigned to each of the groups: role play with videotape feedback (PAR), role play without videotape feedback (MAR) and a control group. Each subject was pretested during an 8-minute audio taped role play as an interviewer dealing with a client and his psychosocial problem. The following week all subjects 174 attended a 3 hour lecture demonstration focused on four in terview communication skills. During the next week subjects were exposed to the independent variable followed by posttest A. Each member of Group PAR was videotaped during a five minute role play similar to the pretest role play. The subject was then asked to review and critique a playback of the videotape recording in terms of his performance of the four skills. He then completed posttest A instruments in an adjacent room. Group MAR subjects engaged in a similar role play but reviewed and critiqued his performance of the four skills from verbatim notes read by the instructor. While members of the two experimental groups engaged in these experiential training sessions the control group members were engaged in their normal employment activities. During the 4th week all subjects participated in posttest B which was identical to the pretest except that a different actor was employed in the role of client. The dependent variables were measured with the fol lowing instruments : Skill performance levels were measured by the Counselor Verbal Response Scale (CVRS) which utilized the ratings of two judges who reviewed the subjects* audio taped role play performances. Perception of self as helper 175 and inferred client perceptions was measured by the Self and Others Rating Scale (SORS), a self-rated semantic dif ferential. Anxiety level was measured by the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), A-State Scale, a self-rated in strument. The CVRS was applied to pretest and posttest B data, the SORS was applied at all three test periods, and the STAI was applied at posttest A. Comparisons were made be tween the two test periods for CVRS scores, between each main test period and also between intertest periods for SORS scores, and between groups at posttest A for STAI scores. Statistical analysis was based on CVRS and SORS change scores and actual STAI scores. An analysis of variance and the Least Significant Difference test were used to determine the statistical significance of between group differences. For comparisons reaching a .05 level of significance additional analysis was performed with the Cosset's T-Test. During each of the comparativestesting periods cen tral hypotheses were tested. A one-tailed interpretation was used for each, with the null to be rejected at the .05 level of significance. The major hypotheses may be sum marized as follows; 176 A. There will be no significant differences in mea surable skill acquisition between members of the three research groups. B. There will be no significant differences in-mea surable self-concept change between members of the three research groups. C. There will be no significant differences in mea surable anxiety arousal between members of the three research groups. The first major hypothesis concerning skill acquisi tion was rejected for one of the four skills taught. Group m a r's use of the active listening skill improved to a sig nificantly greater degree than Group PAR's use of this skill. The second major hypothesis concerning self-concept change was rejected in a number of intergroup comparisons at various test periods. Immediately after the experiential training sessions significantly more negative self-concept change (from pretest levels) occurred for the videotaped group (PAR) than for the control group. One week after the experiential training sessions significantly more negative self-concept change occurred for the role play only group (MAR) than for the control group. During the one week period following the experiential training sessions self- 177 concept changes were significantly different between the videotaped group (PAR) and the role play only group (MAR). During this period self-concept changed in a positive di rection for the videotaped group but changed in a slightly negative direction for the group exposed to role play only. In terms of changes in inferred client perceptions of self in the role of helper fewer significant differences occurred between the three research groups. Immediately after the experiential training sessions a significantly greater amount of absolute change occurred [from pretest levels) for members of the videotaped group (PAR) than for control subjects. At the same point in time the amount of negative changes occurring for members of the videotaped group (PAR) was significantly greater than were negative changes occurring for those exposed to role play only (MAR). The third major hypothesis concerning anxiety arousal was rejected in two instances. During the experiential training sessions control subjects reported significantly less anxiety than members of either the videotaped group (PAR) or the role play only group (MARl. Anxiety levels reported by members of the two experimental groups were not significantly different. The following is an examination of the conclusions drawn from the major findings of this study and their im plications . 17 8 Conclusions Regarding Skill Acquisition The findings regarding interviewing skill performance (CVRS scores) lead to the conclusion that the increases in skill performance which occurred were caused primarily by factors other than training in the experiential session. Such factors might include the lecture and demonstrations of the didactic session or discussions among subjects during the course of the research. To some extent perform- rance) improvements may also be the result of practice in the pretest role play or it may be associated with the use of different coached clients in the pretest and posttest. The only possible exception to this conclusion is associated with the statistically significant difference between Groups PAR and MAR on the active listening skill. It is not known, however, whether Group MAR's superiority in this instance reflects a positive effect of that group's role play training session, a negative effect of the video tape training session or both. The fact that Group MAR's increase on this skill was not significantly greater than the control group's seems to indicate a negative effect of the VTR session. However, Group MAR did show an increase of 98.0% on this skill whereas the control group increased only 31.2%. This suggests a positive effect of role play training with an alternate form of feedback. Thus, the 179 contribution of role play training to increased performance of the active listening skill in this study remains an open issue. Overall findings suggest that, for the experienced public welfare worker, a single videotape training session of the type used in this study may have a limiting influ ence on interview skill development. The videotape play back may provide more information than the trainee can in tegrate, in ^pite of a training focus on specific skill related behaviors. This possible conclusion appears to differ from the findings of microcounseling studies in volving a single videotape training session in which sta tistically significant increases in skill performance did occur. The different outcomes may reflect one or more of the following aspects of this study in contrast to micro counseling studies: (1) Four related counseling skills were taught in an extended training session rather than a single skill during a relatively brief session as in most microcounseling studies, (2) the experiential train ing session was held approximately one week after the di dactic training session rather than immediately following as in many microcounseling studies, (3) this study measured skill performance levels approximately one week after training as opposed to the measures taken immediately after 180 training in many microcounseling studies and (4) subjects in this study were experienced human service practitioners as opposed to the student subjects common to microcounseling studies. The above conclusion is consistent with reports by others who have used videotape self-confrontation for train ing purposes. These reports suggest that single exposures to videotape self-confrontation which are common in prac tice, are not an effective use of the medium (Cleft, 1973). Conclusions Regarding Self-Image Change The findings regarding self-perception and inferred client perceptions of self lead to aanumber of conclusions, many of which have not been previously established in em pirical research. First it is fair to conclude that video tape sêl'f-confrontation can have an important impact on the experienced public welfare worker's perception of self in the role of helper. The findings indicate that the same kind of impact may occur in terms of the worker's inferred client perceptions of self in the helping role. VTR self-confrontation appears to be capable of over coming the sources of potential resistance in the exper ienced worker's concept of self in the role of helper. Everi though the experienced worker's concept of self as helper 181 may be well differentiated as compared to that of the neo phyte, it is capable of change. This probably occurs be cause the VTR playback provides the trainee with information not previously available. If the VTR feedback is based on a role played inter view the feedback content may contain novel information not previously incorporated into the self-concept. This assumes that most human service workers typically receive feedback from others who read their reports, listen to their descrip tions of case interventions and observe the worker's inter actions with colleagues. It is probably^unusual, however, that the worker's self-concept can incorporate information about their actual participation in the interview process since this process is not often observed by such feedback sources as colleagues and supervisors. Since self-concept change occurred for the group receiving role play training with feedback from written verbatim notes of the role play dialogue it may be assumed that the nature of the role play and the feedback content had a role in causing the changed self-concept beyond whatever effects might be attributed to the special qualities of the VTR feedback process. The nature of the self-concept change that occurs with VTR feedback appears to be similar for the experienced public welfare worker and for ttjie: human service trainee in 282 at least two respects: (1) Immediately following an initial videotape self-confrontation self-evaluation changes in a negative direction and (2) the influence is an immediate effect which subsides over a one week period. The findings of this study also lead to the conclu sion that the self-image impact of videotape self-confron tation can occur in the context of focused skill training. The nature of the self-confrontation influence on self-image in this study is similar to that found by Star (1973) and Torrez (197 3) who were using videotape for self-image de- ^e^lopmerict without a specific skill focus. An additional conclusion involves a comparison be tween the self-image effect of videotape self-confrontation and that of the alternative form of feedback used with Group MAR in this study. Feedback from written verbatim notes of a trainee's role play performance influences a change in self-concept but it is a type of change different from that which occurs with videotape feedback. The initial VTR self confrontation effect on seIf-conception diminishes within a week after the training experience and is associated with self-reported anxiety arousal during the VTR self-confron tation session. The effect of the alternative form of feed back, on the other hand, is one which is maintained for at least a week after the training experience and it may not be: 183 associated with self-reported anxiety arousal during training. The association between VTR stimulated self-concept change and training session anxiety may stem from VTR's deautomatization effect (see Chapter 3), the volume of self related information it provides and its limitations on ave nues of dissonance reduction. Also the videotape playback highlights the trainee's physical appearance and mannerisms, many of which are not directly related to the specific communication skills being taught. Thus, the trainee may perceive information which has implications for change but he may not know how to respond. It appears that these qualities of a VTR feedback experience contribute to its immediate impact on self- concept but do so in a way which is quite threatening. After a:one\w.eek period without additional VTR self-confron tations the trainee may engage in retrospective falsifica tion and other defensive maneuvers to reduce the threat and reestablish old patterns of seIf-conception. Feedback from an instructor's written verbatim notes probably does not lead to the same kind of deautomatization, does not provide the same volume of self-related information and does not place such severe limits on avenues of disso nance reduction during the feedback session. Also verbatim 184 notes exclude feedback about physical appearance and man nerisms. While some of this lost information may be rele vant to an understanding of one's skill performance, per haps the greater volume of lost information is irrelevant. Thus, a potential source of distraction is removed. The self-concept change that does occur is likely to be more specifically related to one's perception of his communica tion skill performance. Since the trainee has manageable guidelines to follow in improving skill performance over time the negative change in self-concept can be tolerated for awhile. The trainee can "see a way out." It should be noted that different patterns of change occurred with inferred client perceptions. In the case of these inferred perceptions VTR self-confrontation does have an immediate effect whereas the alternate form of feedback has not been found to have either an immediate or delayed effect. The fact that videotape feedback is capable of altering both aspects of seIf-conception may stem from the novel perspective which it allows; the trainee views him self as if in the position of another person. Feedback froir written notes may enable the trainee to reformulate his own seIf-conceptions but probably does not give the information or perspective leading to changed assumptions about others' perceptions of self. 185 In thisand similar studies role play training with feedback has been associated with self-concept change in a negative direction. This does not imply that the self-con cept change is of negative value for learning purposes. On the contrary, if the more negative self-concept is also more realistic it can serve to motivate and guide the learn er toward growth. The instructor must be aware of such self-concept changes in order to optimize this growth po tential . Conclusions Regarding Anxiety Arousal The findings concerning anxiety arousal lead to the conclusion that, in the case of skill training with experi enced public welfare workers, an initial videotape self-con frontation may not lead to significantly more anxiety than does an alternate form of non-evaluative feedback. This suggests that the anxiety experienced during VTR self-con frontation is largely due to aspects of the training or re search participation other than the videotape feedback per se. Although such factors as evaluation apprehension and experimental anxiety appear to contribute to anxiety arousal in both forms of experiential training in this study, each form of training may also contribute its own specific source 186 of anxiety. The kind of anxiety aroused by a VTR feedback session is associated with self-concept change. The kind of anxiety aroused by a role play session with feedback from written notes, on the other hand, is probably not as closely associated with self-image change. Therefore, the anxiety aroused by VTR feedback may not be significantly greater in degree than anxiety aroused by an alternate form of experi ential training with feedback but it probably is anxiety of a different kind and with different implications. Implications for Methodology In general, the methodology used for this study was an effective means of testing the hypotheses. The study therefore established that a controlled field experiment is feasible within a public welfare agency setting. The bene fits of the in-service training which was the context for a study such as this can offset the expenditure of staff time required for testing procedures. Furthermore, by offering a videotape and/or role play training session to all subjects it was possible to avoid the common ethical problem of pro viding a treatment of value to one research group while witholding it from others. The importance of administrative support for a field experiment such as this cannot be overemphasized. The 187 study's requirements for controlled conditions can be at variance with the staff's need for flexibility in schedul ing appointments with clients, supervisory consultations, managing changes in work assignments and meeting various work deadlines. Effective administrative and clerical sup port are important in emphasizing the importance of the pro ject to workers, managing last minute schedule changes with supervisors and workers, gaining access to facilities which offer consistent settings for the various research proce dures and managing a variety of planned and spontaneous memoranda and telephone communications to subjects. The methodology of this study also supports the im portance of a comparison group as well as a control group in studies of VTR training effects. Many factors influenc ing psychological change accompany the typical VTR training experience and these need to be separated from the effect of VTR feedback per se. In this study comparisons involving Group MAR were relevant in interpretations of VTR effects on each of the major dependent variables. A number of weaknesses of the present study should be considered in similar future studies. The sample size was a limiting factor. A number of intergroup comparisons ap proached the level of statistical significance which may have reached significance had the sample been larger. Al- 188 though one. is unlikely to find a larger homogeneous group in a single public welfare agency, samples from a number of settings could be combined if sufficiently matched on the major potentially intervening variables. A broader ethnic representation among subjects is also desirable and may be more likely in a study with an expanded sample size and drawing from a variety of settings. Such a broader repre sentation would aid in the generalization of findings and would make it possible to study cultural factors as poten tially intervening variables. In future studies it may be desirable to employ the same actor for the pretest and posttest role plays. Al though an additional practice effect would result it would be possible to account for skill performance effects assoc iated with the actor's personal characteristics. In the present study one actor was initially employed for the pre test and posttest but was unable to participate in the post test for reasons extraneous to the study. If adequate personnel were available it would also be desirable to separate the researcher and instructor roles. Although it is physically possible for both these roles to be held by the same person, this does create the potential for researcher bias to influence training effects. Finally, this and other studies have found rela- 189 tively large standard deviations on measures of VTR effects, especially the VTR self-concept change effect. In future studies it may be desirable to minimize this variation by forming research groups with greater homogeneity in terms of factors predictive of outcome. Such factors may include trait anxiety and discrepancy between actual and ideal self concept (Walz and Johnston, 1963). Implications for Training The conclusions drawn from this study lead to a num ber of implications for training. First, it appears that when a brief training program is planned for the specific purpose of skill development, and if the experiential com ponent of such a program is limited to only one session, feedback of skill performance based on written verbatim notes is preferable to VTR feedback. Lecture and demon stration or modeling could probably make the greatest con tribution to skill learning in such a program. The conclusions of this study indicate that, in spite of its common use in practice, single exposures to VTR feed back should be avoided if the training purpose is skill de velopment. The only known exception to this would be the apparently effective use which others have demonstrated for the microcounseling paradigm with human service trainees. 190 If VTR feedback is to be used, it is probably best applied in a systematic program of repeated exposures with a se quence of planned purposes for each subsequent exposure. Examples of such applications are offered by Kagan (1970) and PerImutter and Gumpert (1968). This study also indicates that the role related self- concept of even the experienced human service worker is sub ject to change, even in a brief training program. Such a change can occur as a result of VTR feedback but it can also occur as a result of role play training with feedback based on written verbatim notes of the role play dialogue. Thus effective in-service training programs for the purpose of self-image development are possible and, given the theoreti cal 1 importance of self-awareness, should be considered in staff development programs. This study also demonstrates that self-concept change does occur in the context of skill learning when the trainee receives feedback about his skill performance. Trainers should give attention to this effect of the training exper ience because of its potential for increased self-awareness and professional growth. This appears to be especially im portant with self-concept change that occurs after an ini tial VTR self-confrontâtion since the potential benefits of such a change may be lost if it is not attended to and 2.91 reinforced. Finally, in programs for which an experiential train ing component is planned the use of VTR feedback should not be ruled out simply because of its reputation for high anxi ety arousal after an initial exposure. A similar degree of anxiety arousal may well occur with other forms of feedback. This should be considered along with the previously re ported findings of others that the initial anxiety arousal of a VTR self-confrontation greatly decreases over the course of subsequent exposures. Although the findings strongly suggest the relative benefits of role play training with and without VTR feed back, this is not likely to assist the public welfare ad ministrator facing a decision about the purchase of VTR equipment. The findings appear to suggest that VTR equip ment is not a good investment; Its superiority over role play training without VTR was only conclusively demonstrated for immediate effects on inferred client perceptions of self The decision to purchase VTR equipment ought to be based on additional information. What is the relative ef fectiveness of role play training with and without VTR feed back in a multiple session training format? Does VTR con tribute to role play training in a way which has not been measured in this study? 192 Open ended conversations with subjects revealed heightened motivation for further learning in a number of areas. Many subjects exposed to VTR feedback were impres sed with the volume of information which they non-verbally communicate. Others became curious about the meaning of discrepancies between their verbal and non-verbal messages. Generally there was a heightened motivation for further seIf-exploration, not necessarily linked to the specific skills presented in this training program. Such motivation may be difficult to measure but it is of great importance in training, human service wor]<;ers. Implications for Future Research The findings of this study suggest a variety of ques tions for future research. This study, like most others concerned with VTR effects in skill training, focused on the effect of increased performance on the specific skills taught. Many researchers have observed concommitant learn ing effects— a heightened motivation for seIf-exploration and a greater awareness of non-verbal communications. These effects deserve more systematic study. This study's experiential training paradigm involv ing role play with feedback from verbatim notes appears to have potential for other training applications. It is inex- 193 pensive, does not rely on special equipment and its non- evaluative nature appears well suited to the special needs of the adult learner. It may be useful to study the effects of a series of these training sessions over time. Finally, it is possible that practice in such a training session may help to desensitize trainees who are exceptionally fearful of participating in training with audiotape or videotape feedback. This possibility might also be a subject for future study. Considerable variation occurred among subjects in their reaction to the VTR self-confrontation in this study. This was especially true for the self-concept change effect. Future research might explore some of the factors which pre dict the nature and degree of a trainee's reactions to VTR feedback. The self-concept changes which occurred for the two experimental groups in this study differed in terms of sta bility over time and association with anxiety. Future re search might explore some of the other ways that self-concept effects of various experiential training paradigms differ. The knowledge gained from such studies could be useful in selecting one paradigm over another and in determining which kind of self-concept change is most appropriate for the training program and learning task at hand. Also, if J.94 trainers can predict the dynamics of self-concept change re sulting from various kinds of experiential training, then efforts can be geared toward optimizing the learning poten tial of such changes. It is clear that single exposures to videotape feed back are not an optimal use of the medium. Future research might seek to determine the optimal number of exposures for various training purposes and for various populations. Such research is especially important for populations of experi enced human service workers, partly because they have been ignored by this kind of research in the past. Skill development and self-image development are ma jor in-service training needs for practitioners of any human service field. Feedback is an essential element in the re ality testing which must occur for both types of learning. Videotape self-confrontation is one unique and promising means of delivering such feedback. It is also a complex process which demands a thorough exploration of its various effects, optimal applications and limitations. This study adds to the budding foundations of knowledge in this field. A great deal remains to be learned. 195 APPENDIX A CONFIDENTIALITY FORM 196 SAFEGUARDS TO CONFIDENTIALITY I, ___________________________________ have been informed of the following safeguards to confidentiality in connection with the Interview Communication Skills Workshop series. 1. I will be completing questionnaires and recording audio-tapes of my role played interviews for research pur poses. These recordings will be erased after the research is completed. 2. All questionnaires and audiotape recordings which I provide for research purposes will not be identifiable by name to any person other than the researcher (Stan Taubman). He will not identify them by name to any other person. 3. Videotape recordings will be made of my role played interviews for training purposes only. They will only be viewed in my presence and will be erased immediately after the training session in which they are made and viewed by me. 4. None of the information from my personal ques tionnaires and audiotape recordings will be provided to any employee, supervisor or administrator of the Orange County Department of Social Services. Any research results which are provided to the Department of Social Services or to any other persons will be reported only in aggregate (group averages) form. (signature) (date) 197 APPENDIX B PRETEST AND POSTTEST PROCEDURES 198 Pretest and Posttest Procedures Guidelines for the Pretest and Posttest B Role Plays All subjects were oriented to the pretest and post test role plays with the following instructions: "I'd like you to role play an interview segment for about 10 minutes. Paul (name of coached client) will pre sent a problem. Listen to what he presents and help him to deal with his problem in any way you think is best. He's not presenting himself as a client of the department so it's not necessary to think of this as if you were inter viewing him on the job. Don't discuss such issues as appropriateness for service, eligibility or other policy issues. You might think of him as a friend, neighbor or other person who has come to talk with you because he knows you are experienced in working with people and their prob lems . " "Think of this as a 10 minute beginning of what will be a longer conversation or interview. You don't need to feel that this problem must be concluded or resolved in the short time you will have together." The subject was given a chance to discuss the role play instructions. The researcher then started the tape recorder which was out of the subject's view, and he left the room. 19 9 Procedures for Administration of the Written Instruments When it was time for the role play to terminate the researcher reentered the room and stopped the tape record er. The subject was given a chance to express reactions to the role play. He was then asked to come to an adjacent room to complete some questionnaires. The questionnaires were completed at a desk and in private. On the desk was a sign bearing the following in structions: "SeIf-as-Helper refers to you in relation to your actual clients." This study assumes that the sub ject's self-concept in relation to real clients is more meaningful than his self-concept in relation to "coached clients" in a role play situation. Subjects were given a manilla envelope and were asked to fill out questionnaires in the order in which they appeared in the envelope. Manilla envelopes and question naires were identified with code numbers only. Written instruments were presented in the following orders: Pretest - SORS Scale I (Self-as-Helper), SORS Scale II (Inferred Client Perceptions), confidence question Posttest A - SORS Scale I, SORS Scale II, STAI Posttest B - SORS Scale I, SORS Scale II, confidence question 200 APPENDIX C COACHED CLIENTS AND ROLE PLAY CONTENT 201 Coached Clients and Role Play Content Characteristics of the Coached Clients Three coached clients were employed in this research project— one for the pretest (CCI), one for the experien tial session (CC2) and one for posttest B (CC3). Their background characteristics are as follows: CCl - This person was a Caucasian male in his mid- 30's. He holds a bachelor's degree in psychol ogy. He participated in acting classes in high school. This person has been employed as a non-professional services worker in public wel fare. As the coordinator of a public welfare volunteer services program he has had consid erable experience in the use of role play for training volunteers. He has also been employed as a secondary school teacher. CC2 - This person was a Caucasian, female in her early 30's. She holds a bachelor's degree in drama and was a master's degree candidate in drama. In addition to non-professional stage exper ience she had enacted role plays for the USC School of Law moot court. CC3 - This person was a Caucasian, female in her late 30's. She holds a master's degree in theater 202 arts. Her professional experience includes work on stage, minor films and commercials. She has worked in improvisational theater. Selection of Role Play Content Coached clients were asked to select a problem to present according to the following guidelines: _ 1. Choose a problem which feels real to you, either because you identify with it or because you know someone who has experienced it. Do not present a problem which you are actually experiencing. 2. The problem should be focused on a conflict or decision rather than a lack of resources. 3. The problem should not be too distant from problems actually experienced by welfare cli ents . 4. The problem should be complex so that it would take some time to work through. The problems selected and presented by the coached clients were as follows : CCI - This problem involved a decision about whether to remain in a rural area or move to the city. In favor of remaining were peace of mind, a re laxed life style and the opportunity to main- 203 tain current relationships. In favor of mov ing to the city were better employment oppor tunities, more social and cultural stimulation and general opportunities for achievement. The client lacked confidence in his ability to reach an adequate solution to this important problem. The dominant affect was depression. CC2 - This problem involved a decision about whether to terminate an out of wedlock pregnancy by a- bortion. In favor of an abortion were the op portunity to hide an embarassing pregnancy and the client's inability to support and care for the child. In favor of continuing the preg nancy were a need to be needed by a dependent infant and a concern about taking a human life. This was early in the pregnancy and there was no felt need for an immediate solution. The dominant affect was embarassment and guilt. CC3 - This problem involved a decision about whether to leave a physically abusive husband. In favor of leaving were a concern for physical safety and the need to protect two children from a destructive parental relationship. In favor of staying were doubts about ability to 204 manage an independent life, rescue fantasies in relation to a troubled husband and a concerr about separating the children from their fa ther . The dominant affect was fear with con fusion. Guidelines for Role Play Enactment-' The coached clients were instructed to present their problems in the following manner: 1.1. Begin the role play with a standard orientation to the problem. 2. Play yourself with the problem rather than your conception of a typical client with the prob lem. 3. Limit your responses to a two sentence maximum unless a longer response is necessary for a realistic and natural flow of dialogue. 4. Do not ask for information. (Information-giv ing counselor responses are not scorable on the CVRS.) 5. Avoid asking the counselor to clarify his statements unless this is necessary for a real istic and natural flow of dialogue. 6. Do not spew out your story. Make it necessary for the interviewer to probe for information about various aspects of the problem. 205 7. If the interviewer attempts to close off the interview by referring you elsewhere make the referral into the problem (e.g. be resistant or uncertain about accepting the referral). 8. Maintain consistency of story and character but do not respond to all interviewers with a forced mechanical consistency. Respond appro-' priatë^lÿ to the interviewer's style; e.g. it is assumed that you will present yourself differ ently to a hostile and threatening interviewer than you would to a warm and accepting one. Each coached client participated in at least three hours of rehearsal. In rehearsal the coached client prac ticed a series of role plays with at least two different people in the role of the interviewer. Interviewers varied their approach from one role play to the next. Rehearsal continued until the researcher judged the coached client to maintain a consistent performance in accordance with the above guidelines. All three were able to perform realis tically. 206 APPENDIX D DIDACTIC SESSION CONTENT AND PRESENTATION 2 07 Didactic Session Content and Presentation I. Introduction A. Content 1. Research evidence of the effect of empathy, warmth and self-congruence on case outcome. Explanation of how these qualities combine in to a facilitative attitude. Explanation of how a facilitative attitude engages clients in self-exploration and problem solving. 2. How are facilitative and non-facilitative counselors described by their clients? Cli ent statements read from the Barrett-Lennard (1962) Relationship Inventory, Form OS-M-64 3. Explanation of how the global facilitative attitude relates to specific facilitative com munication skills. B. Manner of presentation 1. Verbal, presentation at chalkboard 2. Questions and comments by subjects II. Four Communication Skills A. Content 1. The Exploratory Response 2. The Listening Response (active listening) 3. The Affective Response (attention to affect) 208 4. Honest Labeling B, Manner of presentation 1. Describe conceptually 2. Relate skill to the global facilitative at titude 3. Examples read and discussed 4. Stimulus client statements read and subjects asked to formulate exemplary responses 5. Instructor and assistant (non-subject) enact a 2 to 4 minute role play demonstrating each skill. III. Written Materials A. Content 1. Summary descriptions of the four skills (see next page) 2. Desired Increase in Skill Level form (see Ap pendix I) B. Manner of presentation 1. Subjects were asked to keep the skill sum maries and refer to them in relation to their on-the-job interviews over the coming week 2. Subjects were asked to fill out the Desired Increase in Skill Level form at their seats and return to;the instructor 209 THE FOUR FACILITATIVE COMMUNICATION MODES 1. THE EXPLORATORY RESPONSE “Open ended questions allowing client latitude in his answer -Simple and direct comments or questions inviting ex ploration -NOT authoritative sounding statements or interpreta tions which limit the client's own self-explora tion -PURPOSE : Encourages the client to be active in the interview 2. ACTIVE LISTENING -Paraphrase or check out what you think the client is saying -Ask for clarification when you need it. -PURPOSE : Deliberately communicates that you are lis tening and trying to understand the client's mean ing, This leads the client to listen to himself just as carefully. 3. ATTENTION TO AFFECT -Call attention to feeling aspects of client's state ments . 210 -Respond to verbal and non-verbal cues to feeling -Note: Cognitive responses call for facts rather than feelings about the facts. Both cognitive and af fective responses are necessary in interviews but more affective responses are usually needed -PURPOSE: Allows client to become aware of aspects of his situation which are often avoided in explicit verbal communication. 4. HONEST LABELING -Specifically and directly identify what you see and hear coming from the client. -DON'T beat around the bush or "clean up" what you ob serve . -NOT lengthy, vague, intellectualized, modified or dis torted -PURPOSE: Shows the client your willingness to accept and deal with all aspects of his problem. Shows that he and his situation are not too threatening for you to face. 211 APPENDIX E EXPERIENTIAL SESSION GUIDELINES 212 Experiential Session Guidelines Guidelines for the Experiential Session Role Plays Experiential session role plays for Group PAR and Group MAR were of five minutes duration. Subjects were ori ented to the role play with the same instructions used for pretest and posttest B role plays (see Appendix B). Guidelines for the Instructor's Focusing Comments During the reviews of the experiential session role plays the instructor attempted to focus the subject's at tention on role played communications which were relevant to the four facilitative skills. The instructor's focusing comments for both PAR and MAR subjects adhered to the fol lowing guidelines. 1. Non-judgemental and non-evaluative comments and questions. 2. Exploratory, brief and open-ended questions. 3. Reflect listening rather than interpreting, coun seling or teaching. The only exception is that the instructor may correct a subject's misunder standing of a skill definition. He may not in terpret whether a subject's response matches or deviates from the skill definition. 4. Focus on the recollection of the role play rather than on the process of the review session. 213 5. Relate to the specific skills and the facili tative communication style which they combine to form. The primary function of the instructor's focusing comments and questions is to relate the review to the specific skills (e.g. Please evaluate that response in terms of the four communication skills. Was honest label ing used there? How could you have said that in a more ex ploratory manner?) Subjects were asked to reformulate responses only when (1) they initially identified the re sponse as deviating from the skill definition and (2) they expressed the belief that a response meeting the skill criteria would have been better. 214 APPENDIX F COUNSELOR VERBAL RESPONSE SCALE 215 PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE OF THE JUDGES Judge X was a doctoral candidate in Social Work at the University of Southern California. Her major was so cial policy. She held an M.S.W. from the University of California at Los Angeles. She was a licensed clinical social worker in California and a member of the Academy of Certified Social Workers. Her 10 years of professional social work experience included two years as a caseworker and eight years in staff development, supervision and administration. Judge Y was also a doctoral candidate in Social Work at the University of Southern California majoring in social policy. She held an M.S.W. from the University of Califor nia at Berkeley. She was a member of the Academy of Certi fied Social Workers. Her 10 years of social work experi ence included four years in direct services at public wel fare, community mental health and medical settings. She also has had a year of experience in social services pro gram planning and five years of experience in teaching and consultation. 216 œ Pi 6 Eh W g H Pi O u œ : z: z ^ 1 o o c C T T T U N lo I co 1 { 1 III CM 1 roj 'à-| LDI co. i I LU s ! I 1 î O ^ i~i c - j 1 n ! r 1 I I 11 li i 1 1 i 1 î i i f I 217 APPENDIX G SELF AND OTHERS RATING SCALE 218 DIRECTIONS At the top of each page appears a category indicating how you should rate yourself. Below it are 25 pairs of traits, opposite in meaning and separated by a six-space scale. You are to describe yourself in terms of the category at the too of the page by making a check mark in one of the spaces on each six-space scale. First, look at a scale and decide which trait at either end of the scale describes you best. Then, make a check mark in the space which indicates the extent to which that trait describes you. Look at the following examples : > ? > ? >5 rH rH rH 0> p p 0) rH CU •P GÎ o 3 P e > S 0 3 0 S O U & & H « ÎH € > < U U T i a S Tj P X o o o O X ; S . CO . CO . g : trong Weak Ineffective Effective Warm V Cold Unins ight ful Insightful These ratings indicate a person who feels he or she is moderately weak, somewhat ineffective, extremely warm and s om ewhat ins i ght ful, Make a rating for each pair of adjectives on the following pages. Make only one mark on each line at the space which best describes you. 219 YOURSELF AS HELPER *^*Rate yourself as you believe you are as a helping person, H r4 > s rH 0 ) p P o > 1 —! m p t îJ c d P ® S 0 0Î s 0 ) k 5 K u ® fs 0 o o > o u P ' C J S e p X o o o O X S 60 : C O : S : M 1 . rational . • . • ; irrational i 2. graceful . awkward j 3. moral ; immoral 1 4. unintelligent ; intelligent ' 5. awful : nice 1 6, worthless — j . 1 . valuable 7. unfair • fair 8. unselfish • selfish 9. unsuccessful ; successful 10. unimportant Î important 11 . wise • foolish 12. unsociable I sociable 13. clean 1 ; dirty 14. beautiful .I " U g l y 15. cruel . kind 16. bad ! • good j 17. dishonest • honest 18. disreputable ; reputable 19. wholesome . unwholesome 20. unpleasant • pleasant 21. grateful . ungrateful ; 22. optimistic ; pessimistic 1 23. shallow ; deep 24. able . unable 25. active : passive 220 CLIENTS3 VIEW OF YOU ***Rate yourself the way you you as a helping person. think your clients would describe < o i Î - I 3 : 2 'O i : p 1 1 M : 1 1 CO 0 ) 2 o : S ! J , 1 . rational irrational 2. graceful awkv/ard 3. moral immoral 4. unint elligent intelligent 5. awful nice ! 6. woi'thless valuable 7. unfair fair 8, unselfish selfish 9. unsuccessful successful 10. unimportant important . 11. wise foolish 12. unsociable sociable 13. clean dirty 14. beautiful ugly 15. cruel kind 16. bad good 17. dishonest honest 18. disreputable reputable 19. wholesome unwholesome 20. unpleasant pleasant 21 . grateful ungrateful 22. optimistic pessimistic 23. shallow deep 24. able unable 25. active passive 221 APPENDIX H STATE-TRAIT ANXIETY INVENTORY 222 SELP-EVALÜATION QUESTIONNAIRE DIRECTIONS: A number of statements which people have used to describe themselves are given below. Read each statement and then blacken out the appropriate number to the ri^t of the statement to indicate how you felt approximately twenty minutes ago , that is , ’ ~ ^uring the review of"'"your'''r^'e ïhterview. There are no right or^vS-ong ahsw'ersi”^ © hot' spend too""mucE time on any one statement but give the answer which seems ^ to describe your feelings best. o M H ca B CD I I P - CD s CD I & CO o 1. I fe].t calm 2 3 4 2. I felt secure 2 3 4 3. I was tense 2 3 4 4. I was regretful 2 3 4 5. I felt at ease 2 3 4 6. I felt upset 2 3 4 7. I was then worrying over possible misfortunes 2 3 4 8. I felt rested 2 3 4 9. I felt anxious 2 3 4 10. I felt comfortable 2 3 4 11. I felt self—confident 2 3 4 12. I felt nervous 2 3 4 13. I was jittery 2 3 ■ 4 • 14. I felt "high strung" 2 3 4 15. I was relaxed 2 3 4 16. I felt content 2 3 4 17. I was worried 2 3 4 18. I felt over-excited and "rattled" 2 3 4 19. I felt joyful 2 3 4 20. I felt pleasant 2 3 4 223 SELF-EVALUATION QUESTIONNAIRE DIRECTIONS: A number of statements which people have used to describe themselves are given below. Read each statement and then blacken out the appropriate number to the ri^t of the statement to indicate how you felt approximately twenty minutes , regardless" of what you werevening at that "trme. There are no 'rr^t or wrong answers. TDo’ not spend too much time on any one statement but give the answer which seems to describe o your feelings best. S - & CO 0 B 1 o p- (D g S ' CO o 1. I felt calm 1 2 3 4 2. I felt secure 1 2 3 4 3. I was t ens e 1 2 3 4 4. was regretful 1 2 3 4 5. I felt at ease 1 2 3 4 6. I felt UPS et 1 2 3 4 7. I was then wororying over possible misfortunes 1 2 3 4 8. I felt rested 1 2 3 4 9. I felt anxious 1 2 3 4 10. I felt comfortable 1 2 3 4 11. I felt self-confident 1 2 3 4 12. I felt nervous 1 2 3 4 13. I was jittery 1 2 3 4 14. I felt "high strung" 1 2 3 4 15. I was relaxed 1 2 3 4 16. I felt content 1 2 3 4 17. I was worried 1 2 3 4 18. I felt over-excuted and "rattled" 1 2 3 4 19. I felt joyful 1 2 3 4 20. I felt pleasant 1 2 3 4 224 APPENDIX I ADDITIONAL MEASURES 225 GENERAL INFORMATION 1. Which unit or program are you presently with? *How long have you been with this unit or program? (In months.) _______________________ 2. Please list any other units or programs in which you have served with this Department of Social Services. Unit or Program How Long (In months.) 3. Please list any human service experience you have had prior to working for the Orange County Department of Social Services. Type of Experience How Long (In months.) 4. Years of College completed. 5. Degree ______________________ 226 6. Major (at the time of your last semester) ____________ 7. Sex Male _____ Female _____ 8. Age _____________ 9. Ethnicity (check one) _____Asian Chicano Black Other (Please describe.) CaucasMm (Please use other side if needed.) 10. Have you had any prior experience seeing yourself on videotape? Yes_____ No________ *If yes, please check those purposes for which you have seen yourself on videotape. (Check all that ap ply.) Type of Purpose On How Many Occasions _____Human Service Training _______________________ _____Athletics Training________________________________ _ _____On a Television Program ______________________ _____Home Use for Entertainment _______________________ _____Therapy _______________________ Other (Please describe.) 227 11. Have you had any prior experience participating in role plays? Yes_____ No______ *If yes, please check those purposes for which you have participated in role plays. Type of Purpose On How Many Occasions Therapy _______________________ _____Human Service Training _______________________ _____Other Training _______________________ (Please describe.) Other (Please describe.) 228 DESIRED INCREASE IN SKILL LEVEL To what extent do you wish to increase your use of each of the follov/ing communication skills in your intera'iewing? Please indicate your response by placing a check mark at the appropriate space on each of the four scales below. 1. The EXPLORATORY RESPONSE which encourages clients to expand, elaborate or go more deeply into their self-expression. This is done by asking more or less open-ended questions and avoiding authoritative sounding interpretations so that the client has latitude in pursuing his ovm self-exploration, NO INCREASE INCREASE INCREASE INCREASE INCREASE VERY LITTLE SOMEWHAT CONSIDERABLY A GREAT DEAL 2. The LISTENING RESPONSE which indicates to clients that you are attentively listening and trying to understand what he is expressing. This is done by checking out what you think he has said and by asking for clarificaption when need_ed. NO INCREASE INCREASE INCREASE INCREASE INCREASE VERY LITTLE SOMEWHAT CONSIDERABLY A GREAT DEAL 3. The AFFECTIVE RESPONSE which draws attention to the emotional aspect rather than the factual content of the client’s communications, NO INCREASE INCREASE INCREASE INCREASE INCREASE VERY LITTLE SOMEWHAT CONSIDERABLY A GREAT DEAL 4. HONEST LABELING in which you match the client’s depth of feeling with a specific and direct labeling of the feelings you observe in his communications, NO INCREASE INCREASE INCREASE INCREASE INCREASE VERY LITTLE SOMEWHAT CONSIDERABLY A GREAT DEAL 229 Guidelines for the Clinical Assessment of Anxiety Score Description 1 Relaxed. No defensiveness or physical manifes tations of anxiety. 2 Mild defensiveness and/or physical manifesta tions of anxiety presenting occasionally. Generally relaxed. 3 Moderate defensiveness and/or physical manifes tations of anxiety present to a degree not un usual for a situation in which one's performance is reviewed. Considerable openness to learning. 4 Considerable defensiveness and/or physical mani festations of anxiety present throughout the session; usually accompanied by explicit state ments regarding threat or anxiety (e.g. "I hate to see myself" or "Do we have to look at that?") Some openness to learning but also some interfer ence with honest and thorough seIf-exploration and evaluation. 55 Extreme anxiety in which trainee appeared to be preoccupied with the discomfort of anxiety. Little or no openness to learning due to the interference of anxiety with self-exploration and evaluation. 230 CONFIDENCE IN INTERVIEWING ABILITY Please rate your confidence in your ability to do an effective job as an interviewer. Indicate your response by placing a check mark in the appropriate space on the scale below. t - i 3 : o a ( D K PJ H - ft CD 5 " 4 . 5.6.7 • • • 231 APPENDIX J STATISTICAL TABLES FOR THE EXPANDED SAMPLE (STUDENT SUBJECTS INCLUDED) 232 4J C (0 • Ü • TJ Td Td Td •H • ÎH (Ü (Ü (U 0) MH i - | (0 (Ü TJ (Ü Td (U Td (U Td (U •H O 1 —1 1 —1 ' # iH C M C3 i - H (4 iH C MH P PL td CL fd PL fd PL fd PL (U C J i CP g PL g CL g g -H (U (0 W td X td X fd X fd -p œ Pi œ PP CP Pd CO pq CO p P i CO -p o PQ p -P pq pq -p -P -p w 1 1 0 w w o C < • K o Q ) (U PL W *p " l - l 4J -P 1 -P 4H » - 1 - 4 w u Q ) (U Q ) w tn Q ) (U (U U p P o o 1 —1 Eh P- i fL PL PL PL PL PL § g œ fd CO w (U o P o h4 p S u i P i o O ' —' MH PL CJ CJ P4 P 1 1 1 Td o O Pi P i Pi CU k ÎH < < CJ PL CJ CJ PL Ü 00 M fd oo CJ (U 13 p W < CP C J i CJ c -P P -P -p (U H •H c •H P p p CU CJ (Ü p (Ü p p CU Eh S > p > p p 1 —1 1 H •H (Ü •H Q ) Q ) Eh K Q ) +J MH -P MH MH CU CJ 1 —1 O P Ü P P Ü CU < < M < H M p X pq (0 fd -P cd • i H œ CO CO CO CO Ü ÎH cd P C Î f i n P i Pi •H P U] (0 > o o O MH O Eh > CJ CO CJ CO CO •H U] P Q pq CP CO Eh -H PI CO P m CU O MH Pi Q ) (U (U (U •H -p Eh O o CP CP CO C p P p Td p H CÜ CÜ fd fd CU CU t - 4 iH iH kd -P -P p fd fd CJ CJ CO CO •p' > > (U •H •H 4J •H •H PL PL Eh iH CU W P P P p (U cr cr o o CO CU c Eh PP pq p p •H p o CJ CJ CO fd MH -p -p (U V O w w p CO p Q ) Q ) ■H ■ i H -p -P . . CU (Ü -P -P A4 o CO ^ p PL Q ) Q ) -P -p PL CU p >1 U P • i H •H Eh o 233 Eh fL PL is: IS - K TABLE 34 AGE OF SUBJECTS BY GROUP Student Subjects Included! PAR MAR CONTROL Number/Percent 19-20 20-29 15.0 30-39 10 52.6 30.0 40-49 20. 0 10. 5 20.0 50-59 25. 0 15.8 30,0 60-65 Total 20 100.0 19 100.0 20 40.15 Mean 37. 47 39.8 234 TABLE 3 5 SEX OF SUBJECTS BY GROUP (Student Subjects Included) PAR MAR CONTROL Age Number/Percent Number/Percent Number/Percent Male 5 25.0 2 10.5 6 30.0 Female 15 75.0 17 89.5 14 70.0 Total 20 100.0 19 100.0 20 100.0 235 TABLE 36 YEARS OF COLLEGE COMPLETED BY GROUP (Student Subjects Included) Years PAR MAR CONTROL Completed Number/Percent Number/Percent Number/Percent 2 2 10.0 0 0 1 5.0 3 0 0 2 10.5 0 0 4 12 60.0 11 5719 16 80.0 5 4 20. 0 3 15.8 1 5.0 6 2 10.0 1 5.3 2 10.0 7 0 0 1 5.3 0 0 8 0 0 1 5.3 0 0 Total 20 100.0 19 100.1 20 100.0 Mean 4. 2 4.5 4.2 236 TABLE 37 HIGHEST DEGREE EARNED BY GROUP (Student Subjects Included) PAR MAR CONTROL Degree Number/Percent Number/Percent Number/Percent None 2 10. 0 2 10. 5 1 5.0 B.A. 16 80.0 12 63.2 17 85.0 B.S. 0 0 2 10. 5 4 20.0 M.A. 2 10.0 3 15.8 0 0 Dr. Chiro. 0 0 0 0 1 5.0 Total 20 100. 0 19 100.0 20 100.0 237 TABLE 3 8 COLLEGE MAJOR BY GROUP (Student Subjects Included) PAR MAR CONTROL Major Number/Percent Number/Percent Number/Percent Social Work 3 15.0 2 10.5 0 0 Sociology 7 35.0 6 3116 5 25.0 Psychology 4 20.0 1 5.3 2 10.0 Other Soc. Sciences 4 20. 0 3 15.8 8 40.0 Humanities 2 10.0 5 26.3 2 10.0 Physical Sciences 0 0 1 5.3 2 10.0 Business 0 0 0 0 1 5.0 Home Econ. 0 0 1 5.3 0 0 Total 20 100.0 19 100.1 20 100.0 238 TABLE 3 9 PRIOR VIDEOTAPE EXPERIENCE BY GROUP [Student Subjects Included) Videotape PAR MAR CONTROL Experience Number/Percent Number/Percent N umber/Percent Yes No Total 3 15. 0 5 26.3 6 30.0 17 85.0 14 73.7 14 70.0 20 100. 0 19 100.0 20 100.0 TABLE 40 PRIOR ROLE PLAY EXPERIENCE BY GROUP (Student Subjects Included) Role Play PAR MAR CONTROL Experience Number/Percent Number/Percent Number/Percent Yes No Total 13 65.0 16 84.2 12 60.0 7 35.0 3 15.8 8 40.0 20 100. 0 19 100. 0 20 100. 0 239 TABLE 41 CURRENT WORK ASSIGNMENT BY GROUP (Student Subjects Included) PAR MAR CONTROL Unit Number/Percent Number/Percent Number/Percent Licensing 2 10.0 7 36. 8 4 20.0 Intake + Referral 2 10.0 0 0 2 10.0 All Other Direct Services 16 80.0 12 63.2 14 70.0 Total 20 100.0 19 100.0 20 100.0 TABLE 4 2 LENGTH OF TIME AT CURRENT WORK ASSIGNMENT BY GROUP (Student Subjects included) PAR MAR CONTROL Time Number/Percent Number/Percent Number/Percent 2 Years or Less 12 60.0 10 52.6 14 70.0 Over 2 Years 8 40.0 9 47.4 6 30.0 Total 20 100.0 19 100.0 20 100.0 240 TABLE 43 NATURE OF PREVIOUS ASSIGNMENTS IN DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL SERVICES BY GROUP (Student Subjects Included) Previous PAR MAR CONTROL Assignment Number/Percent Number/Percent Number/Percent None 1 5.0 4 21.1 3 15.0 Services 4 20. 0 6 31.6 6 30.0 Eligibility 4 20.0 2 10.5 4 20.0 Both 10 50. 0 7 36.8 7 35.0 Unknown 1 5.0 0 0 0 0 Total 20 100.0 19 100.0 20 100.0 241 TABLE 4 4 TOTAL TIME IN DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL SERVICES BY GROUP (Student Subjects Included) PAR MAR CONTROL Time Number/Percent Number/Percent Number/Percent 2 Years or Less 3 15.0 5 26. 3 5 15.0 2 yrs, 1 mo. to 5 years 10 50. 0 10 52. 6 11 55. 0 5 yrs, 1 mo. to 10 years 0 0 0 0 0 0 Over 10 Years 6 30.0 4 21.1 4 20.0 Unknown 1 5.0 0 0 0 0 Total 20 100. 0 19 100.0 20 100.0 242 Nature of PAR MAR CONTROL Experience Number/Percent Number/Percent Number/Percent TABLE 45 NATURE OF PREVIOUS HUMAN SERVICE EXPERIENCE BY GROUP (Student Subjects Included) None 5 25.0 11 57. 9 10 50.0 Public Welfare 1 5.0 5 26. 3 5 25.0 Publ. WeIf. + Other 4 20.0 2 10. 5 1 5.0 Other only 9 45.0 1 5.3 4 20.0 Unknown 1 5.0 0 0 0 0 Total 20 100.0 19 100. 0 20 100.0 243 PAR MAR CONTROL Time Number/Percent Number/Percent Number/Per cen t TABLE 46 TOTAL TIME IN HUMAN SERVICES PRIOR TO WORK FOR DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL SERVICES, BY GROUP (Student Subjects Included) None 5 25.0 11 57.9 2 Years or Less 55 25.0 4 21.1 2 yrs., 1 mo. to 5 yrs. 8 40.0 4 21.1 5 yrs., 1 mo. to 10 yrs. 0 0 0 0 Over 10 Years 1 5.0 0 0 Unknown 1 5.0 0 0 Total 20 100.0 19 100.1 10 0 0 0 20 50.0 10.0 5.0 0 15.0 0 100. 0 244 TABLE 47 TOTAL HUMAN SERVICE EXPERIENCE BY GROUP (Student Subjects Included) Total PAR MAR CONTROL Time Number/Percent Number/Percent Number/Percent Under 2 years 0 0 2 10. 5 1 5.0 2 years to 3 yr. 11 mo. 2 10.0 1 5.3 1 5.0 4 years to 5 yr. 11 mo. 3 15.0 0 0 3 15.0 6 years to 7 yr. 11 mo. 2 10.0 6 31.6 4 20.0 8 years and over 13 65.0 10 52.6 11 55.0 Total 20 100. 0 19 100.0 20 100. 0 245 TABLE 48 RACE/ETHNICITY BY GROUP (Student Subjects Included) PAR MAR CONTROL Race/ __________________________________________________ Ethnicity Number/Percent Number/Percent Number/Percent Caucasian/ Anglo 19 95.0 18 100.0 19 95.0 Black 0 0 0 0 1 5.0 Chicano 1 5.0 0 0 0 0 Total 20 100.0 19 100.0 20 100.0 246: TABLE 49 INTERGROUP COMPARISONS FOR POTENTIALLY INTERVENING VARIABLES [Student Subjects Included) Variable and Categories Chi 2 d.f. P= N= Work Unit 1.368 2 .505 59 Licensing + Intake/ Other Direct Service Previous Units 2.602 4 .626 58 Service/Eligibility Only/None Previous Human Service 6.082 4 .193 59 Yes/None Time in Present Unit .225 2 . 894 59 <2 Years/2+ Years Time in Department of Social Services .907 4 .924 58 <2 Years/2-9 Years/ 10+ Years Time in Prior Human Service 8. 646 6 .195 58 <2 Years/2-9 Years/ 10+ Years/None Total Time in Human Service 1. 452 2 .484 59 <8 Years/8+ Years College Major 3.906 2 .142 59 Social Sciences/Other 247 TABLE 49 Ccont.l Variable and Categories 2 Chi d.f. p= N= Years of College 2.628 4 . 622 59 <4 Years/4 Years/ 5+ Years Prior VTR Experience 1.325 2 .515 59 Yes/None Prior Role Play Experience 2. 981 2 . 225 59 Yes/None Sex 2.306 2 .316 59 Male/Female Age 2.735 4 . 603 59 ^33 Years/33-43 Years/ 44+ Years Desire to Increase Use of Exploratory Response 5.014 ■4 . 619 59 Desire to Increase Use of Active Listening 2. 646 4 .619 59 4—h Desire to Increase Use of Attention to Affect 2, 844 4 .584 59 4—H Desire to Increase Use of Honest Labeling 2.740 4 . 602 59 ++ 248 TABLE 49 (cont.) Variable and Categories Chi .2 d.f. p: N= Orientation Session Attended 4 Sessions Didactic Session Attended 2 Sessions 2.479 .871 59 . 236 .889 59 KEY; ++ Categories for the Desire to Increase scales are: No Increase and Increase Very Little/Increase Some what/Increase Considerably and Increase a Great Deal 249 TABLE 50 INTERGROUP COMPARISONS FOR PRETEST EQUIVALENCE ON VERBAL RESPONSE SCALE SCORES (Student Subjects COUNSELOR Included) Variable Group Mean Score Standard Deviation ANOVA P= Exploratory PAR 6. 768 2.925 Response MAR 7. 237 3. 425 . 660 C 6. 650 3.146 Active PAR 3.418 2. 840 Listening MAR 3. 053 2. 061 .467 C 4.025 2. 392 Attention PAR 2. 775 2. 516 to Affect MAR 2.632 2. 006 .615 C 2.100 2. 269 Honest PAR . 275 . 596 Labeling MAR . 000 . 000 .090 C .100 . 308 CVRS PAR 13.235 5. 912 Index MAR 12.921 5. 714 .207 C 12.875 6. 341 Significant Intergroup Differences LSD T-TEST Variable Groups p<. 05 P= Honest PAR-MAR ** . 054 Labeling KEY: Group PAR, N=20 Group MAR, N=19 Group C, N=20 ** indicates significant difference reached at .05 level, two-tailed test. 250 TABLE 51 INTERGROUP COMPARISONS FOR PRETEST EQUIVALENCE ON SELF AND OTHERS RATING SCALE SCORES (Student Subjects Included) Variable Group Mean Score Standard Deviation ANOVA P= Self as PAR 121.025 9.977 Helper MAR 122.579 10.585 . 644 C 120.950 8.894 Inferred PAR 124.880 8. 679 Client MAR 119.147 12.860 . 256 Perceptions C 122.700 10.594 Significant Intergroup Comparisons LSD T-TEST Variable Groups P<.05 P= Self as (none) Helper Inferred (none) Client Perceptions KEY: Group PAR, N=20 Group MAR, N=19 Group C, N=20 251 P :: o fd H C L ) U] fd Z d n rH o Ü u z c H o C f l -P C O Ü w Q ) o • n z .Q < d f f i u C O -p P M d D < D O d i d o -p C O C N z -— in H w C O w E h pq H C Q IS o < o E-i O C O P m s C O < pq o H E h C O H p q A C O H S P P O < Pm P Q C O O p p 0^ C M p:; id E h < C O P Q Pd p:; E h P Q 1 E h > 4 ( - K 4 ( 4 ( 4 ( 4 ( 4 ( 4 ( 4 ( 4 ( 1 —1 CD r- CO CD TT 1 —1 TT O I I O O o O O C M • • • • • ( Ü , tn -p U d CP CO CO o r- œ o \ o d • • • • ( U C M <N CO CM CP in -P D a C s j CO CD CP CO O CO P ^ 0) o ( U O o CO CP CO 1 —I tn CN O CP CP *H d d I T ) CO CO CO in d d d • • • • • +J ( ÜdJ 1 —1 1 —1 1 —1 1 1 ^o + + + + + 0 ) d 0 H - K - K - K - K - K - K - K - K iH CD 1 = 4 in O CM 0 ) CO O CM O O > I I 1 —1 o o O O 0 ) C M • • • • • 1 —1 in ( Ü o o CP CM • d o o in I I 0 \ 0 d • • • • s +J P M r ~ - CN r ~ - o CO d o O 1 —1 00 in ✓ s . 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UO CM CM p P •p H o z u 1 1 + 1 1 + Ü O z Z z z •p d H d z EH o o C P o o iH •p z CM II c n z II z Z c n E h d Ui U z H E h z d E h 1 Z Z H z d z & u ■p E h M o d 'O -P Z Ui 4 J C M p d d o d z w C J Z d Z U i d a -p -p o o o o d p +> -P z D H -P -P z p ■ K 1 — 1 d Z U i U i 1 W E h c n W 1 o ■ i t 43 z d z O O d Z Z O O d d w z z Z H z z -p -p z z 1 1 -p W O 1 1 + J • • P w z z d d w Z Z d d U i >H 253 d d H H P P o Z H p P o H > _ E = i tn œ —Z Z Z —— HPZ— z -Z-Z----- Z PRE-POST B ON CVRS SCORES TABLE 54 SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE TESTS BY GROUP (Student Subjects Included) Mean Standard ANOVA Variable Group Change Deviation p= Exploratory PAR .430 3. 340 Response MAR 1. 232 4.741 .653 C 1. 520 3.707 A.ctive PAR . 890 2.628 Listening MAR 2. 503 2.298 .191 C 1.340 3.379 Attention PAR .773 3.132 to Affect MAR 1. 513 3.143 .680 C 1.308 2.556 Honest PAR .378 1.088 Labeling MAR .395 .679 .149 C .399 1.055 CVRS Index PAR 2.470 6.416 MAR 5.642 7.354 .363 C 4.593 7.318 Significant Intergroup Differences LSD T-TEST Variable Groups p^. 05 P= Active PAR-MAR ** .036** Listening : Group PAR, N=20 Group MAR, N=19 Group C, N=20 ** indicates significant difference reached at .05 level, one-tailed test. 254 TABLE 55 PRE-POST A SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE TESTS ON SORS SCORES, ABSOLUTE CHANGE, BY GROUP (Student Subjects Included) Variable Group Mean Change Standard Deviation ANOVA P= Self as PAR 6. 725 8.403 Helper MAR 5. 790 4.392 . 687 C 5. 368 4.763 Inferred PAR 9.530 10.026 Client MAR 6.642 5.497 .106 Perceptions C 4. 684 4.083 Variable Significant Intergroup Differences LSD T-TEST Groups p<. 05________ p^__________ Self as Helper Inferred Client Perceptions (none) PAR-C ** .029** KEY: Group PAR, N=20 Group MAR, N=19 Group C, N=19 ** indicates significant difference reached at .05 level, one-tailed test. 255 TABLE 56 POST A - B SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE TESTS ON SORS SCORES, ABSOLUTE CHANGE, BY GROUP (Student Subjects Included) Variable Group Mean Change Standard Deviation ANOVA P= Self as PAR 5.300 5.695 Helper MAR 3.632 3.419 .530 C 4.895 4. 783 Inferred PAR 5.800 5.248 Client MAR 4.632 3.789 .534 Perceptions C 4.211 4.454 Variable Significant Intergroup Differences LSD T-TEST Groups_____p<. 0 5____________________ Self as Helper Inferred Client Perceptions (none) (none) KEY Group PAR, N=20 Group MAR, N=19 Group C, N=19 256 TABLE 57 PRE-POST B SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE TESTS ON SORS SCORES BY GROUP (Student Subjects Included) Variable Group Mean Change Standard Deviation ANOVA P= Self as Helper Inferred Client Perceptions PAR - .375 6.842 MAR -2.790 5.653 .083 C +2.250 8.032 PAR -2.930 7.835 MAR + .747 7.564 .297 C - .400 7.044 able Variable Significant Intergroup Differences LSD T-TEST Groups p<. 05________ 2^__________ Self as Helper inferred Client Perceptions MAR-C (none) * * .015** KEY; Group PAR, N=2 0 Group MAR, N=19 Group C, Nm20 ** indicates significant difference reached at .05 level, one-tailed test. 257 TABLE 58 PRE-POST A SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE TESTS ON SORS SCORES BY GROUP (Student Subjects Included) Mean Standard ANOVA Variable Group Change Deviation P= Self as PAR -4.375 9. 903 Helper MAR -2.526 6.923 .177 C + .526 7. 268 Inferred PAR -5.730 12.711 Client MAR -,.200 8.760 .106 Perceptions C - .263 6.306 Significant Intergroup Differences LSD T-TEST Variable Groups p<. 05 P= Self as PAR-C ** .043** Helper Inferred PAR-MAR ** .061 Client Perceptions PAR-C ** .049** KEY: Group PAR, N=20 Group MAR, N-19 Group C , N^J-9 ** indicates significant difference reached at .05 level, one-tailed test 258 TABLE 59 POST A - B SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE TESTS ON SORS SCORES BY GROUP (Student Subjects Included) Variable Group Mean Change Standard Deviation ANOVA P= Self as Helper Inferred Client Perceptions PAR +4.000 6.720 MAR — .263 5.054 .107 C +1.421 6.785 PAR +2.800 7.396 MAR + .947 6.004 .408 C 0. 000 6.209 Variable Significant Intergroup Differences LSD T-TEST Groups p<. 05________ 2^__________ Self as Helper Inferred Client Perceptions PAR-MAR (none) * * .016** KEY: Group PAR, N=20 Group MAR, N-19 Group C, N=l_9 ** indicates significant difference reached at .05 level, one-tailed test. 259 TABLE 60 PRE-POST B SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE TESTS ON SORS SCORES, ABSOLUTE CHANGE, BY GROUP (Student Subjects Included) Variable Group Mean Change Standard Deviation ANOVA P= Self as PAR 5.175 4. 333 Helper MAR 5.105 3.557 . 336 C 6.850 4.522 Inferred PAR 5. 930 5. 780 Client MAR 5. 358 5.244 .680 Perceptions C 4. 800 5.053 Variable Significant Intergroup Differences LSD T-TEST Groups p<. 05________ P=__________ Self as Helper Inferred Client Perceptions (none) (none) KEY: Group PAR, N=20 Group MAR, N=19 Group C, N=20 260 TABLE 61 SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE TESTS ON STAI SCORES BY GROUP (Student Subjects Included) Group Mean Score Standard Deviation ANOVA P= PAR MAR C 44.250 42.316 34.895 9. 553 11.051 14.552 .042 Significant Intergroup Differences LSD T-TEST Groups P<. 05 P= PAR-C ** .013** MAR-C * * .043** KEY : Group PAR, N=20 Group MAR, N=19 Group C, N=19 ** indicates significant difference reached at m .OS level, one-L .05 level, one-tailed test. 261 Eh IS M u Q (U IS 'a M 0 PM r—1 M Ü Q p : : d H O CO -P Ü <ü •m p : : W Eh CO O +J Q <ü S < 0 OJ -p VO X CO M M P S Oi CQ H P < q EH œ P i l P : : > CJ CJ Q IS g < EH P o S M M M M g PM W EH f f l CO M TT EH >H P o CO H H EH P < f f l p < H M p : : P p : : < o CJ > CJ PM § P M I -H ( C V 4 VO (M ^ iH C Ts VO <M VD O ^ ^ VO VO 00 fN O rH * * V O . . . • . . « •H . 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Creator Taubman, Stanley Bernard (author)

Core Title Videotape confrontation for in-service training of social service workers: An experimental study

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Social Work

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education,OAI-PMH Harvest,Social Sciences

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c37-20423

Unique identifier UC11632103

Identifier DP32442.pdf (filename),usctheses-c37-20423 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier DP32442.pdf

Dmrecord 20423

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Taubman, Stanley Bernard

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Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

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