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An investigation Piaget's theory of cognitive development as a basis for the assessment of reading disability of Afro-American junior high school students and for developing remedial curricula

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An investigation Piaget's theory of cognitive development as a basis for the assessment of reading disability of Afro-American junior high school students and for developing remedial curricula

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Content AN INVESTIGATION QF PIAGET*S THEORY OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT AS A BASIS FOR THE ASSESSMENT OF
READING DISABILITY OF AFRO-AMERICAN JUNIOR
HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS AND FOR DEVELOPING
REMEDIAL CURRICULA
by
Mattie Cooke Grant
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
June 1981
UMI Number: DP71323
All rights reserved
INFORMATION TO ALL USERS
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in the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript
and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed,
a note will indicate the deletion.
UMI
Dissertation R jblishing
UMI DP71323
Published by ProQuest LLC (2015). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author.
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T h û dcôéeAtaXZon, vonJjttzn by
Mattie Grant_______________________
uindzJi thz dÂjiZdtijiYi the C hjcuüm an oi the
cancUdate'6 Outdance Committee and app/ioved
by a tt membvu the Committee, ho6 been
p^eôented to and accepted by the Vacutty o^
the School o^ Education In pa/ittaZ £ut^lZi-
ment the ^equlAement^ ioA, the deg/iee o^
VoctoA. 0^ Education,
Vate .June .Ladi
Outdance Committee
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7" "77" ■
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11
DEDICATION
I dedicate this manuscript to my grandmother,
the late Mattie Cooke, a former slave, who at age 60 spent
long summer afternoons learning to read as I watched and
wondered. To my parents, the late Charles and Katie Cooke,
who spent a lifetime teaching hundreds of students to read,
and who provided a home environment conducive to optimal
growth for their own eight children.
Ill
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The preparation of this text represents a team
effort of my family and my friends. It is with a full
heart that I acknowledge the Colonel, my husband Artis,
for his unyielding enthusiasm, support, and understanding.
I also recognize our children, Artis, Jr., Cheryl, and
Gary, for the challenge and inspiration through all the
years of study necessary to reach this point.
To my committee chairperson. Dr. Grayce A. Ransom,
I am extending grateful thanks for guidance, friendship,
and her dynamic capacity to instill in me confidence in
myself. I am also indebted to Dr. Mabel' E. Hayes and Dr.
Leonard L. Murdy for their effort, time, concern, and
great warmth.
Finally, I extend appreciation to my friends,
administrators, teachers, and assistants for their warm
and sincere response to my many requests.
IV
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION ........... 11
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................. ill
LIST OF TABLES ..................... vi
FIGURE vii
Chapter
I. THE PROBLEM .............................. 1
Introduction
Statement of the Problem
Statement of the Hypotheses
Questions to be Answered
Assumptions
Significance of the Study
Limitations of the Study
Deliminations of the Study
Definitions of Terms
Organization of the Remainder of
of the Study
II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ............. 15
Introduction
Piaget and His Theories of Development
The Relationship of Other Learning
Theories to Reading
Piagetian Methodology
The Relationship Between Piaget's
Theory and Reading
Summary of Literature
III. METHODOLOGY................................ 35
Introduction
Population Selection
Selection Criteria
Sample
Methodology
Methods of Gathering Data
V
Chapter Page
Description of Test Instruments
Method of Grouping
Research Design
Summary of Chapter
IV. RESEARCH FINDINGS ............................ 46
Introduction
Hypotheses and Findings
Summary of Findings
V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . 58
Introduction
Summary
Conclusions
Recommendations for Adapting the
Curriculum for Remediation
Recommendations for Further Study
Concluding Remarks
BIBLIOGRAPHY .............'........................ 74
APPENDIXES 81
A. EXPERIMENTAL PROTOCOL . 82
B. SUMMARY INDIVIDUAL FORM................. 86
C. CONFIDENTIAL APPLICATION MEALS PROGRAM . . 89
D. TOTAL GROUP t TEST DATA ANALYSIS........ 91
VI
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Distribution of Study Sample ............... 44
2. t Test for Lower and Higher Achieving
Groups ..................................... 49
3. t Test Comparing Boys and Girls in the
Higher Groups on the Piagetian Test of
Operativity............ 50
4. t Test Comparing Boys and Girls in the
Lower-Level Groups on the Piagetian Test
of Operativity.............................. 52
5. t Test Comparing the Lower Scoring Girls
with the Higher Scoring Girls on the
Piagetian Test of Operativity............. 53
6. t Test Comparing Lower Scoring Boys with
Higher Scoring Boys on the Piagetian Test
of Operativity ..................... 54
7. Correlation Coefficients for Selected
Variables with the Piagetian Test of
Operativity................................ 55
8. Multiple Regression Table for the
Dependent Variable of Piagetian
Operativity................................ 57

CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM
Introduction
During the last decade, there has developed in all
corners of the globe an increasing interest in the Piage
tian approach to the study of cognitive development of the
child (Berger, 1975; De Avila, Havassey, & Pascuala, 1976;
Elkind, 1970; Lawton & Wanska, 1976; Lima, 1975; Lunzer,
Dolan, & Wilkerson, 1976; Wulach, 1977). Many authors and
researchers have attempted to apply the findings of Piage
tian research to the education process.
One of the major concents of educators, politi
cians, and social thinkers of all groups is the serious
deficit of reading comprehension of Afro-American adoles
cents and adults. Studies of reading have been legion, but
there has been no significant agreement as to the abilities
skills, and factors that comprise reading readiness (Chall,
1967). Berger (1975) indicated that research in reading
has been more profuse than research in any other area of
the curriculum. The majority of these thousands of studies
have focused on evaluating the relative efficacy of various
teaching materials or methods, and have concentrated pri
marily on the beginning stages of skills development. This
2
passive effort has provided some fundamental guidelines for
selecting instructional programs for the normal beginning
reader. It has, however, failed to provide guidelines as
to procedures in instructing the problem reader or how to
proceed to develop reading skills beyond the beginning
stages (Chall, 1967). Therefore, the two questions which
still face reading teachers and researchers are; (1) What
elements and processes are required for competent reading
and, (2) how can reading competence be developed for this
vast army of students and adults which Southerland (1979)
reported comprise 40 to 60 percent of the adolescents and
adults who have not achieved the state of formal operation^
Formal operation is defined as the ability to reconstruct
thought processes by abstracting the necessary elements by
logical reasoning. This ability is thought to be necessary
for success in our society.
The postulated age at which competency in reading
takes place is approximately the same age as the Piagetian
formal operations ability develops (Piaget, 1970a), The
purpose of this investigation was to ascertain whether
junior high school students who demonstrate competency on
a Piagetian test of operativity scored higher on a test of
reading comprehension than their peers who scored low on
)
the same tests.
If the level of operativity could be shown as a
critical factor to success in reading comprehension, then
3
it may be assumed that the curriculum could be adjusted to
facilitate the development of this educational lag
(De Alvila et al. 1976; Favat, 1977; Lawton & Wanska, 1976;
McNally, 1977; Neufeld, 1976).
Authorities in the field of learning disabilities
have seen educational deficits as related to a lag in the
maturational process (Clements, 1966). Such factors as
genetic variations, biochemical irregularities, prenatal
brain insults, and early sensory deprivation are seen as
slowing the development of the central nervous system
(Clements, 1966). If the maturational lag theory is
recognized as having validity, then consideration of a
developmental theory of intelligence may provide a useful
framework for gaining a greater understanding of the mani
fested disability. For example, reading disability may
be considered as related to incomplete acquisition of
certain operative abilities necessary for reading because
of an underlying maturational delay (McProuty, 1971).
A .developmental theory of intelligence, utilized
in this study, was suggested by Jean Piaget. In Piaget's
theory, the development of intelligence is related to the
ability to perform logical operations, with certain opera
tions developing in the child in a given sequence at
4
approximate age-intervals (Inhelder & Piaget 1969).
Piaget also suggested that knowledge is the result
of active interaction between the subject and his environ
ment, with gradual changes in the modes of interaction
occurring as the person develops.
If Piaget's ideas are used as the basis of assess
ment of the function of young children, then the develop
ment of basic intellectual operations such as classifica
tion, sériation, conservation, and analysis are essentially
operational forms of behavior reaching back into sensory
experiences of the learner (Inhelder & Piaget, 196 9).
Therefore, the developmental lag is amenable to altera
tion by educational curriculum means.
The application of the instruments which have been
used to explore these questions reflects Flavell's (19 63)
suggestion that Piaget's writings may provide a fruitful
basis for diagnostic assessment of the child. Flavell's
work was further developed by Lunzer et al. (1976) for
the area of reading, and by De Avila et al. (1976). in
particular application to minority students in the United
States. The combined application of the research test of
operativity and the standardized test of reading compre
hension may be expected to produce some information about
the accuracy of the assessment of reading achievement
level of the subject population, and may provide a frame
work for suggested remedial action.
5
Linking the test information with suggested action
is necessary if the application of the test instrument.is
to be other than an isolated activity. Therefore, this
study has been developed in two parts; (1) assessment and
(2) suggested implementation of remedial action. Implemen
tation has been proposed through adaptation of the junior
high school curriculum for the purpose of remediation of
underlying cognitive deficits necessary for reading suc
cess. An activity centered approach (Bruner, 1966; Dewey,
1933; Fernald, 1943; Ransom, 197811s relevant to Piaget's
developmental theory of intelligence and provides a logi
cal basis for suggesting remediation in reading...
In this introduction, the value of Piaget's theory
of the development of the intellect is seen as important
to understanding reading disabilities which are related to
a maturational lag. Piaget's writings are used as the
basis for suggesting the development of research instru
ments for assessment of operativity of junior high school
age students. These research instruments contribute: to
suggested adaptation of junior high school curriculum for
reading remediation.
Statement of the Problem
This study is concerned with determining whether
junior high school age students of Afro-American descent,
assumed to be in the formal operations stage of Piaget's
6
developmental sequence because of their chronological age,
are in fact, at the pre-operational or concrete stages.
It also sought to determine whether there is a relation
ship between the ability to perform on selected variables
and reading comprehension as measured by the Metropolitan
Achievement Test. The variables were ethnic group member
ship, sex, age, pre-school experience, socioeconomic status,
and reading instructional level.
Two groups of students comprised the sample. The
higher reading ability group consisted of those students
whose reading level scores were not more than one year
below expected grade level as indicated by years of school
ing, The lower reading ability group consisted of those
students two or more years below reading level as indicated
by years of schooling. This research was involved with
students identified as severely disabled readers by Ransom
(1978). As a part of this research, these findings suggest
adaptation of the instructional curriculum for reading
remediation.
Statement of the Hypotheses
The null hypotheses tested in this study were :
1. There is no significant difference in the
ability to perform on a Piagetian test of operativity
between Afro-American students in a higher-level group as
determined by reading grade placement on the Metropolitan
7
Achievement Test (MAT) Form JS Intermediate (Harcourt-Brace
Jovanovich, Inc., 1978) and their peers who were in a
lower-level reading group.
2. There is no significant difference in the
ability to perform on a Piagetian test of operativity
between those Afro-American girls in the higher reading
ability group as determined by the reading grade score on
the MAT and those Afro-American boys in the higher-level
group.
3. There is no significant difference in the
ability to perform on a Piagetian test of operativity
between those Afro-American girls in the lower-level group
as determined by the grade score on the MAT and those Afro-
American boys in the lower-level group.
4. There is no significant difference in the
ability to perform on a Piagetian test of operativity by
those Afro-American girls in the higher-level group as
determined by the reading grade score on the MAT and those
Afro-American girls in the lower-level group.
5. There is no significant difference in the
ability to perform on a Piagetian test of operativity
between Afro-American boys in the higher-level group as
determined by the grade score on the MAT and those boys in
the lower-level group.
8
6. There is no significant relationship between the
ability to perform on a Piagetian test of operativity by
Afro-American students and the following selected variables
a. Pre-school education experience
b. Years of formal schooling
c. Socioeconomic status
Questions to be Answered
This study attempted to answer the following
questions :
1, Will the results of this Piagetian test of opera
tivity accurately assess the reading comprehension
level of junior high school students as measured
by the Metropolitan Achievement Test?
2. Does the Piagetian operativity test identify those
students who read in the above-level reading group?
3, Does the Piagetian operativity test identify
those girls who read in the higher reading ability
group?
4. Does the Piagetian operativity test identify those
girls who read in the lower reading ability group?
5, Does the Piagetian operativity test identify those
boys who read in the higher reading ability group?
6. Does the Piagetian operativity test identify those
boys who read in the lower reading ability group?
9
7. Is the sex of the student in an above-level reading
group related to the developmental stage on the
Piagetian test of operativity?
8. Is the sex of the student in the lower reading group
related to the developmental stage on the Piagetian
test of operativity?
9. In the higher group, is the number of years of for
mal schooling related to the ability to function on
a Piagetian operativity test?
10. In the lower group, is the number of years of for
mal schooling related to the ability to function on
a Piagetian operativity test?
11. In the higher group, is the attendance of pre-school
related to the ability to perform on a Piagetian
test of operativity at the junior high school age?
12. In the below-level group, is the attendance of
pre-school related to the ability to perform on a
Piagetian test of operativity at the junior high
school age?
13. Is there a sex difference between the Operativity
Stages of students who attended pre-school?
14. In the higher group, is socioeconomic status
related to the stage of operativity on a Piagetian
operativity test?
10
15. In the lower group, is socioeconomic status related
to the stage of operativity on a Piagetian opera
tivity test?
Assumptions
The study made the following assumptions;
1. The Metropolitan Achievement Tests, Form JS,
Intermediate, by Harcourt-Brace Jovanovich, Inc. (197 8), is
an accurate indicator of graduated levels of reading pro
ficiency, and therefore, is a good single indicator of a
student's reading achievement.
2. The Piagetian Inventories of the Organization
for Economic Cooperation and Development (IOECD) (1977)
are in fact accurate representations of Piagetian Concept
Developmental tasks.
3. A minimum level of reading was established at
the second grade level on the Metropolitan Achievement Test
and each student was able to read at that level.
4. Aides who assisted in test administration were
trained by the researcher in the administration of all
tests, and therefore could be relied on to function ade
quately.
5. The results' of this study can be generalized
to a similar but broader population than that population
identified herein.
11
significance of the Study
As early as 1932, Sanchez admonished educators to
consider more fully the dangers associated with testing
Mexican-American children by means other than the then
available standardized group instruments (cited in De Avila
et al'. , 197 6) . Since then little has changed with respect
to the availability of less biased instrumentation. To a
great extent this is because currently available standard
ized tests of intelligence have been developed according
to the same pragmatic-empirically based psychometric pro
cedures as were used in the early days of the American
testing movement.
During the past few years, however, those groups
interested in civil rights and the educational deficit of
minority students have been increasingly concerned over
the appropriateness of the IQ model, psychometric pro
cedures, and whether the IQ score produced by standardized
tests reflects reality with respect to characterizing the
intellectual development of the minority child. Concern
with accurate assessment of the intellectual development
of a child has caused researchers to consider an alterna
tive assessment model which builds on the work of Jean
Piaget, a Swiss genetic epistemologist who actively investi
gated the development of intelligence in children for more
then 5 0 years. The impact of his research has been
12
reported by Atkins (J.97 8) as ranging from child psychology
to education and mental health.
Limitations of the Study
Following are two limitations in this study.
1. The use of the act of reading is a limitation as
to whether reading ability is a real clue to
cognitive function as measured by Piagetian tasks.
2. The study suffers the constraint of the absence of
an IQ test as a variable, since the administration
of IQ tests for purposes of placement is prohibited
by law in California public schools.
Delimitations of the Study
The study was delimited to Afro-American students
who ranged in age from 12.5 to 14.5 years in the metropoli
tan area of an urban California city.
Those included in the sample were randomly selected
from all students available for testing who met the age
qualifications listed.
Definitions of Terms
The definitions which follow are provided to
clarify the meaning and use of specific terms used through
out the study.
Adaptation. Battro (.1973) defined adaptation as
13
"the passage from a less stable equilibrium to a more
stable equilibrium between the organism and the environ
ment" (p. 8) .
Afro-American; American Negroes of African
ancestry are termed as Afro-Americans.
Assimilation; Battro (1973) defined assimilation
as "the first fact which encompasses in a totality of
functional need, repetition and that coordination between
the subject and the object which indicates implication and
j udgment" ( p . 17).
Higher-level students; Those students whose scores
on the Metropolitan Reading Test were over 40 points were
termed higher-level students.
Lower-level students; Those students who scored
40 or less on the Metropolitan Reading Test were termed as
lower-level students.
Operativity; Operativity describes psychological
operations as an internalized action which becomes revers
ible by coordination or other internalized actions in the
same structure of a group containing certain laws of the
whole (Battro, 1973, p. 121).
Piagetian tests; Tests which are designed to
measure students' capability on tasks directly related to
Piaget's theory and hierarchy are termed as Piagetian tests.
14
Socioeconomic status— Federal lunch category (SES).
Each student was assigned an SES category based upon his/
her admitted participation in the Federal Lunch Program
of his/her school.
Organization of the Remainder of the Study
Chapter II of this study provides a review of the
literature related to Piaget and his work as it concerns
education. It covers Cl) Piaget's theory of Cognitive
Development, (2) the relationship between Piagetian theory
and reading, (3) a survey of reading theories, and (4)
Piaget's Developmental Model and the reading process.
Chapter III describes the research design and
method used for the collection of the data. In Chapter IV,
the findings from the administration of all tests are
discussed along with tables of results. Chapter V con
cludes the study and consists of the following sections:
(1) the conclusions based on the data, (2) recommendations
for adaptation of the junior high school curriculum for
remediation, (3) recommendations for further study, and
( ' 4 ) , a general summary of the study.
The study concludes with the bibliography and
appendixes.
15
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Introduction
Throughout this chapter the literature selected for
review was most directly related to the subject of the
study; namely, the cognitive functioning of Afro-American
junior high school students as it relates to reading suc
cess. Piaget's theory indicates that cognitive functions
in normal children develop in invariant stages in all cul
tures, Therefore, the primary concern has been opinion and
research related to these topics.
Piaget and His Theories of Development
Hooper and DeFrain (19741 stated that Piagetian
systems and associated normative and instructional research
provided three primary contributions to the educator.
First, it provided a series of alternatives to conventional
psychometric measures of intellectual ability. Secondly,
the system provided an innovative organizational framework
for a wealth of substantive content for curriculum design
and evaluation. The directives for curriculum selected
and sequencing follow directly from the stage-dependent
properties of the development of the child's logical
16
reasoning. For example, the dominant characteristics of
concrete operational thought could form the basis for class
and relations instructions (Flavell, 1963; Neufeld, 1976).
Thirdly, the neo-Piagetian (current term) orientation to
learning and education provides alternative instructional
strageties to those derived from the behavioristic learn
ing models* These are derived from the stage-independent
aspects of Piaget's biological model of cognitive growth
and allow the teacher with a Piagetian perspective to
use open classroom teaching and self-discovery learning
methods with theoretical backing.
Piaget (,197 0b) stated that:
In the period between 1935 and 1965, in
almost all branches of what we term the natural,
social, or human sciences, one could quote the
names of great writers, men of international
reputation, who have revolutionized, more or
less profoundly, the branches of learning to
which they have devoted their labors. Yet
during the same period no great pedagogue has
appeared whom we can add to the list of eminent
men whose names provide milestones in the
history of education, (p. 9)
Piaget (1970b) observed that:
The slate is the only new method which has
been added to education for hundreds of years. . . .
The school teacher is not thought of as a
specialist from the double point of view of
techniques and scientific creativeness, as in
other professional branches, but rather as the
mere transmitter .of a kind of knowledge that
is within everyone's grasp, (p. 9)
17
Penrose (.197 9-1 h a s given the following account of
Piaget's contribution to education.
Piaget sees himself as a philosopher in
that branch of philosophy known as epistemology,
which is the study of the origin^ nature, methods
and limits of knowledge. In particular, his
interest is genetic epistemology which- has to
do with the origin of knowledge, (p, 61,
Piaget's theories explain much about the nature of develop
ment of knowledge in children.
The dialectical-constructive nature of cognitive
development espoused by Piaget classifies him as midway
between genetic preformationism (maturationism) and
environmentally programmed subject-response (S-R) deter
minism (Hooper & DeFrain, 1974; McNally, 1977).
In the Piagetian system, the ongoing process
whereby the individual gains knowledge about external
objects, the self, and self/object and relationships is
considered to be a natural outcome of an active inter-
actionist system. In a very real sense the individual
constructs himself and the world around him. Initially
there are the functional invariants of assimilation and
accommodation which together determine the presence or
absence of adaptation (Furth, 1969) .
Assimilation is the incorporative aspect of an
operative action, a taking in of the environmental data,
not in a causal mechanistic sense, but a function of
internal structure that by its own seeks activity (innate).
18
In this manner, incoming stimulation is modified vis-a-vis
the individual's current structural makeup (Hooper &
DeFrain, 1974).
Accommodation is the outgoing aspect of an opera
tive process and denotes the modification that takes place
in the individual's cognitive makeup as a consequence of
environmental intrusions (Hooper & DeFrain, 1974; Klaus-
meier & Hooper, 1974). These functional components of
assimilation and accommodation are formally constant and
ever-present across the life span, located between the
functional invariants and the environmental input. The
components comprise an organization which alters syste
matically with increasing age and does not seem to stop
with maturity (Southerland, 1979)'. These changing charac
teristics form the definitional basis for Piaget's four
developmental stages:
Sensorimotor 0 - 2 years
Pre-operational 3 - 7 years
Concrete operatus ; 7-11 years
Formal operations 11 to adulthood
Droz and Rahmy (1976) stated that Piaget was not
content with chronological classification of behaviors
that seemed particularly typical of a child at a given
age. A number of conditions must describe the behavioral
development before one can speak of stages. Their
criteria were:
19
1. The order in which the behaviors appear
must be constant, irrespective of any accelera
tion or retardation related to such factors as
acquired experience, social environment, and
individual aptitudes which might cause variations
in the chronological age.[Note: in psychology
a distinction is always made between choronologi'cal
age and mental age.]
2. Each stage must be defined, not simply
by some dominant characteristic, but by a global
structure characterizing all the new behaviors
peculiar to that stage.
3. These structures must demonstrate a
process of integration in which each structure
grows out of the preceding one and is in turn
integrated into the following one. (Droz & Rahmy,
1976, p. 16)
The Relationship of Other Learning
Theories to Reading
Gagne (197 0) proposed a theory of learning based
on a hierarchical model. He hypothesized that all learn
ing was not the same. He differentiated between the
simplest signal learning and stimulus-response learning,
of which both animals and humans are capable, and the
complex learning processes involved in conceptualizing,
principle learning, problem solving, invention and cre
ativity, of which only man is capable. He set up a learn
ing hierarchy of eight different levels of learning in
which each step in the ladder was based on a combination of
skills used in the previous step. Each step is a pre
requisite for the next one on the ladder. A human learner
begins the acquisition of the capability of performing a
particular class of tasks with an individual array of
20
relevant learning sets previously acquired. He then
acquires new learning sets at progressively higher levels
of the hierarchy until the final class of tasks is achieved
Attaining a new set depends on the process of positive
transfer, which is dependent on the recall of relevant
subordinate learning sets,
Gagne (197 01 suggested that the prior mastery of
prerequisite structures was the most significant factor in
the solution of problems at the next level of difficulty.
He presented a nine-level learning hierarchy of initial
reading skills in which the final t^sk was decoding (the
oral pronunciation of the printed word1, The most basic
skills, such as the ability to reproduce single-letter
sounds and to blend two and three letter vowel-consonant
combinations, combine to form the prerequisite skills
required to read. He suggested that the process of decod
ing was only one of the capabilities involved in reading.
At the later stages, skills in reading comprehension form
similar but much, more complex hierarchies . Such intellec
tual tasks as predicting sequences of thought, detecting
irrelevant details, and formulating main ideas are based
on many prerequisite hierarchies of reading skills.
Typically, the principles involved are complex and are not
learned as formally stated rules but as the process of
discovery from the act of reading. The learner must
21
develop strategies which include learning the relevant
subordinate intellectual skills. These strategies are
combined and transferred to the learning of higher order
skills.
Gagne (19701 demonstrated this phenomenon in many
experiments, only one of which is described here as an
example. Typically, he structured his experiments by
analyzing the content of the final task and by asking what
prerequisite structures must be part of the learner's
repertoire in order to perform the task successfully. He
then set up a series of tasks whose successive mastery was
a prerequisite to successful performance of the final task.
In an experiment in Non-metric Geometry (Gagne & Bassler,
19631, the content was carefully organized in a sequence
such that the final task, which demanded the understanding
of a specific principle to solve the problem, was given
as a terminal exercise. The students studied the elements
of the principle in a series which was prepared as a self-
instructional program* Following the completion of this
program, a test was constructed which measured understand
ing of the principle at three levels. The results demon
strated that learning of higher-level principles is
accomplished in a highly predictable manner. Of the 7 2
students who performed correctly at the second level of
difficulty, only one did not perform at the third level.
22
Of the 18 students who could not perform at level two, not
one could perform at level three. The frequency of the
correspondence between thé prediction that students needed
prerequisite subordinate structures to perform at higher
levels in the hierarchy was borne out in 95 to 100 percent
of the cases,
Gagne (197Of called his model cumulative learning.
The child progresses from one point to the
next in his development, because he learns an
ordered set of capabilities which build upon
each other in progressive fashion through the
processes of differentiation, recall and
transfer of learning, (p. 181).
Other authors agree on the importance of learning
prerequisite skills and strategies. In an exploratory
study concerning the prerequisites for learning in litera
ture, Schwartz (19761 found that in a two-level task of
literary analysis, subjects who did not have the prere
quisite structures to perform at the first level were
unable to perform at the second level, whereas students
who performed successfully at level one showed vertical
transfer in a high percentage of cases,
Bruner (1965)., in discussing the effect of pre
vious experience within a subject area, said that it was
only through practice in problem solving and experience
with the heuristics of discovery that one learned how to
solve problems and how to discover. The more practice
one has, the more likely one is to generalize what one has
23
learned into a style of problem solving that serves for any
kind of task encountered, (p. 1011)
In his article, "The Growth of the Mind," Bruner ■
(1965) stated that "a child or adolescent is ready to move
on to a new skill only when he has mastered all the tasks
that are necessary for learning the new skill"Cp. ' 1010)
Cronbach.' (.1967) reported that a person who has
mastered one mathematical fact in the process has an
advantage in learning the next process in the hierarchy,
and Anderson, Hughes, and Dixon (1956), when working on a
problem-solving task (anagrams), found that the initial
performance of the subject, which demonstrated his pre
vious learning, was the most significant factor in deter
mining how an individual would perform on a final task,
Amsel (1965) ,who investigated concept development, sug
gested that concepts were learned by children who had
built a hierarchy which began with rote learning. Carroll
(1976);, in discussing the same topic, found that one could
not learn the concept derivative until one had mastered a
rather elaborate structure of prerequisite concepts.
Bloom (1956) organized knowledge into a hierarchi
cal taxonomy and divided it into low, intermediate, and
high levels of abstraction and complexity. This implied
different levels of learning techniques to deal with
different levels of knowledge. He attempted to analyze
24
units of knowledge into elements which began with specific
terms and facts that were combined to form more complex
and abstract ideas such as concepts and principles. The
complex processes of application of these principles and
theories to solve new problems was the final step in the
pyramid. Bloom thought that these elements formed a
hierarchy of learning tasks.
Piaget (197 0b), in discussing the acquisition of
formal thought, said that the formal operations of the
adolescent build upon those of the child in the concrete
period. The existence of any stage of cognitive develop
ment necessarily depends oh the acquisition of the pre
vious one. Cognitive structures are not isolated, the
adolescent actively integrates new information into older
information and grafts new strategies onto old strategies.
Piagetian Methodology
One of the areas of Piagetian research criticized
by researchers in education and psychology is the metho
dology used by the Piagetian Geneva School to gain insight
into understanding children's thought processes. Most of
Piaget's earlier writings were based on data gathered
through posing questions to children. This method clinique,
or clinical method, was described by Flavell (1963)/ in the
following way:
25
There are certain characteristics common
to Piaget's approach in all'studies which go
beyond mere observation of on-going behavior.
First, there is the presentation of some kind
of task to which the child makes some kind of
response. Not all children, even within a
single age group, will be given exactly the
same task, nor will the task be administered in
exactly the same way for all children to whom
it is presented. As soon as the child makes
his response, the experimenter will then ask
him a question, pose a variation of the problem,
or in some way set'up a new stimulus situation.
This new stimulus situation is in part a
response to the child's response. That is, the
experimenter selects some questions or some task
which he hopes, in the light of his experience
and theoretical frame of reference, will
clarify what lies beneath the child's response,
and which will provide additional insight into
the child's cognitive structure. The process
then continues in the same way, each successive
response by the child being a partial deter
minant of the experimenter's next move. Because
of the dependent relationship between the child's
behavior and the experimenter's behavior, no
two children will ever receive exactly the same
experimental treatment: typically, experimental
treatment will vary a great deal across sub
jects in any one investigation, (pp. 27-28).
The Relationship Between Piaget's
Theory and Reading
This study deals with the outgrowth of the research
which concerns the process of reading. However, Piaget
had little to say about the applications and/or implica
tions of his general theory to reading. Nevertheless,
during the past 20 years his followers have had a great
deal to say about practical applications of the theory.
26
Elkind (197 8) stated that according to Piagetian
theory, two perceptual activities--perceptual schemati-
zation and reorganization--are considered essential com
ponents of the reading process.
In connection with beginning, instruction, Almy,
Crittenden, and Miller stated:.
Piaget, as far as we are aware, has nothing
to say about this . . . although specific
evidence on this point is not presently avail
able, we suspect that the teacher who has
mastered Piaget's techniques will become more
diagnostic in his views of all areas of instruc
tion. Accordingly, he/she may become more skill
ful in pacing instruction in reading and writing
skills to the individual child's maturity and,
rate of learning, (pp. 139-140)
Raven and Selzer (1971). took a similar view of
Piaget's applications:
In the specific case of reading, there is
no basis in Piaget's theory for believing that
the child from two to four has any interest in
written language, except as it may constitute
something interesting in the environment that
merits whatever attention the individual young
ster may desire to give it. }(p . 630)
Simpson (1972). added that, according to Piagetian
theory, there may be a qualitative difference in the
thinking processes of children who read poorly as compared
to those who read well.
The "fellowing statement by Piaget (1970b),
addresses this point:
Whenever anyone can succeed in transforming
their first steps in reading, or arithmetic, or
spelling into a game, you will see children
become passionately absorbed in those occupations.
27
which are ordinarily presented as dreary chores.
(p. 155):
This statement became the credo in the Tyler Thinking
School in Charleston, West Virginia (Furth & Wachs, 1974).
The authors described a philosophy and a program for 4-10
year-old children that could be adjusted to fit all
children. The 179 games and play sequences they designed
were to develop the child's thinking ability. It was
argued that the games and activities should help the
child deal with specific academic subjects; that they
could be played at home or at school; and that they
required no elaborate or expensive equipment.
They helped create a learning environment in which
there was "freedom within structure." They reported that
children did not do what they felt like doing, or nothing
at all (p. 220). The long-range objectives of the school
were five-fold:
1. To develop creative, independent thinking;
2. To develop within the child a positive
self-image;
3. To develop attitudes of social cooperation
and moral responsibility;
4. To develop knowledge and appreciation of
persons, things, and events in the environ
ment ;
5. To develop competence in the basic skill
areas of reading, writing, and arithmetic.
(Furth & Wachs, 1974, p. 274)
The Charleston project never became a fully
developed "School for Thinking," if only for the obvious
reason that it lasted only two academic years, Septeifîber
28
197 0 to June 1972. The school was discontinued by the
administration. The factors that limited the school's
impact and made continuation and expansion of the project
in the Charleston school district nonfeasible were the
lack of strong, cooperative support; the lack of desirable
resource people; and the push for premature academic per
formance. There was constant pressure to show short-term
results on standard reading tests, and the constant need
to justify the program not on its own terms, but in terms
of the traditional philosophy and of immediate results.
Hargrove (.197 7). investigated the relationship
between the Piagetian cognitive development level of col
lege students and reading comprehension of science content
materials. Subjects were classified as concrete or formal-
operational on the basis of successful completion of two
out of three formal level tasks. All non-formal level
students were classified as concrete operational.
The results were interpreted as indicating that
(1) the Piagetian cognitive development level of the stu
dent is a significant variable in the comprehension of
written science materials; (2) the logical complexity of
the written passage is a significant determinant of com
prehension difficulties (unfortunately, logical complexity
is not measured by readability formulas); and (3) logical
reasoning ability and reading comprehension are
29
complementary processes, dependent upon the development
of the logical operations posited by Piaget.
A similar study was carried out by Russel (1977)
with the purpose of determining if the stages of cognitive
development of students could be hastened as measured by
gain in scores on the Slosson Oral Reading Test indicating
an increase in reading ability. It was concluded that
development by the use of Piagetian training exercises
could hasten development from the pre-operational to the
concrete operational stage. This finding is significant
to this study.
The, research by Southerland (1979), who developed
a model for working with college students working in early
childhood programs, also pointed to.the efficacy of hasten
ing developmental levels. Southerland's research dealt
with developing a curriculum on the model of Joyce and
Wile's (197 9} for the purpose of training college students
preparing to teach pre-school who'were ^ shown to be function
ing at the concrete level of Piagetian operations. Research i
. has shown that students in the concrete level cannot
succeed in reading or lectures when taught on material of
formal content (Lawson, 1976).
The evidence of gain scores on the posttest over
the pretest of students taught on the developmental model
signified that the method of instruction could make a
30
difference in gain of cognitive development in the areas
measured on the Piagetian measuring instrument. A signifi
cant change in the participating group scores suggested
that the instructor, through matching the activity and
materials with classroom instruction, could promote cog
nitive development.
Hooper and DeFrain (197 4) reported that the work
of Piaget might disagree with those interested in hastening
or altering developmental stages. They quoted
No doubt you will object that some investi
gators have succeeded in teaching operational
structures. But, when I am faced with these
facts, I always have•three questions which I
want to have answered before I am convinced . . .
( JL) Ts this learning lasting? What remains
two weeks or a month later? . . . (2) How
much generalization is possible? . . . (3) In the
case of each learning experience what was the
operational level of the subject before the
experience and what more complex structures has
this learning succeeded in achieving? (Piaget,
1964, pp. 17-18}
Piaget distinguished two types of learning which,
to him, implied two basically different teaching strate
gies
Some disciplines--for example French history
and spelling— have content that have been
developed or invented by adults. The trans
mission of these contents raises no problems
other than those related to recognizing the
better or worse information techniques. (Piaget,
1970b, p. 16).. ■ ‘
31
He stated further that other branches of learning, however,
did not depend upon particular events resulting from any
individual decisions, but upon a process of research and
discovery during the course of which the human intelli
gence affirms its own existence and its properties of
universality and autonomy (Piaget, 1970b, p. 26). Lunzer,
Dolan, and Wilderson (1976). investigated the viability of
using Piagetian tasks as a predictor of reading success and
mathematical.understanding. They tested 210 elementary
children over a period of two years on 28 measures of
operativity. The principal question investigated was the
relative efficiency of Piagetian measures in predicting
progress that young children would make in acquiring the
basic skills of reading and mathematics.
Following is a brief description of the kinds of
measures that were used:
1. Nine tests adapted from the work of Piaget,
including conservation, classification and
of sériation
2. Three measures of conceptual learning
3. Five measures of language, including Crichton
Vocabulary Scale
4. Four measures of short-term memory
5. Recall of story material (two stories) and
recall of objects on a tray •
32
6. Recall of matrix arrangements as measures
of memory for structure
7. Two recognized tests of non-verbal intelli
gence (Raven's Matrices and Ilg and Ames
Figure Copying Test).
All children were individually tested and the
compound measure of operativity yielded higher correla
tions with word recognition .57; comprehension .38;
mathematical understanding .71.
The conclusion that using Piagetian measures in
predicting reading, while not conclusive, may nevertheless
be thought of as providing some support for the hypothesis.
Many attempts have been made to utilize the
Piagetian approach to educational questions in most coun
tries of the world where teachers,charactistically believe
that reading problems of disadvantaged children reflect
deficiencies in the children's thought and language
(De Avila et al., 1976; Harste & Stricklef, 1979).
The work of Otalla (1973) in Africa represents
one such work. Unlike Piaget, he attempted to standardize
the procedure. An interview technique was used speaking in
the native tongue while utilizing materials and posing
tasks that were known to be familiar, to .the children. The
scope of the problems presented, and the evidence about the
children's thinking derived from them, provided a rather
normative picture of the boys and girls in alternate
33
classes of the primary school ranging in ages from 6 to
14 years. He found that the sequence of the development
of logical thinking corresponded to the hierarchy estab
lished by Piaget. He also found that among the Etesot
children, the abilities involved in ordination and class
inclusion lagged considerably behind those involved in
conservation.
He postulated the need for schooling that was
more appropriate to the action oriented culture of the
African People.
Summary of Literature
A review of the literature concerning the possible
relationship of the developmental stages of cognition as
proposed by Jean Piaget and reading success suggested
that :
1. There is a degree of unanimity in the belief
that conceptual understandings are correlated
with reading success.
2. There was widespread opinion that children
from low socioeconomic backgrounds may suffer
from a maturational lag which affects academic
success.
3. Opinion and research support the view that concept
formation is an important facet of reading
ability.
34
4. Training of the underlying cognitive abilities
may mediate the acquisition of stage competency.
After reviewing the literature the researcher
concluded that (1) an exploratory study is needed to
determine if a selected assessment battery would reveal
sequentially and conceptually related déficiences in
children with cultural differences and reading disabili
ties when compared with' successful readers who were their
peers; and (2) such a study would contribute to the larger
investigation concerning the underlying cognitive corre
lates of reading disability which might be the basis for
the development of remedial curriculum to serve a larger
population,
In this chapter the research pertinent to such an
investigation was reviewed. The procedure, the nature of
the test instruments, and procedures used fn the present
study are explained in Chapter III,
35
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
I n tr o d uc t i o n
The theoretical basis of the study, the rationale
for the selection of the major variables, and the relevant
literature have been reviewed in Chapters I and II, The
study provided for the investigation of the cognitive
development of Afro-American students in the defined
geographic area, of Southern California and compared them
with their peers in relation to reading achievement.
The major independent variables are reading grade
placement and age. The dependent variables are the raw
scores on two standardized oral reading tests, scores on
six measures of conservation, and six measures of opera
tivity as proposed by Piaget. The raw score of 4 0 on the
Metropolitan Reading Test intermediate level was the basis
for dividing the students into two groups; higher-level
readers and lower-level readers.
In Chapter III the study is developed in terms
of (1) the population selection and data-gathering pro
cedures, (2) the test instruments which comprise the
composite test, and (3) the research design and the
accompanying hypotheses.
36
Population Selection
The study was conducted in the metropolitan area
of Southern California in an area of approximately 4 4
square miles. Effort was made to include in the sample
students from every section of the subject area to insure
wide generalization. Therefore, a source for the sample
was sought to include other than the public school system.
The Department of Recreation and Parks, churches,
and youth groups were used as ‘ sources-for the sample.
Approval to conduct the study was granted from the Educa
tion Department of the Archdiocese of Los Angeles, the
principals of participating schools, the Board of Directors
of the Sugar Ray Robinson Foundation, the students
representing all sections of the area, and from parents of
participating students. See Appendix A.
Selection Criteria
Before the population pool of the study was
identified and selected, however, attention was given to
controlling variables extraneous to the purpose of the
research study. These extraneous variables were minimized,
nullified or isolated in accordance with research pro
cedures suggested by Kerlinger (1964). The rationale for
the recognition of these variables was provided by Piaget,
who indicated that the child's cognitive development was
37
strongly influenced by the nature of opportunities to
interact with the environment (Inhelder & Piaget, 197 9),
The major variables recognized as important in terms of
their influence upon environmental interaction, but
extraneous to the purpose of this study, were intellectual
test scores, grade placement in school, and family rela
tionships .
Sample
The population of the metropolitan area was
approximately four million persons. The students selected
for this study were those in programs serving basically
Afro-American students. Ethnic group membership was
determined at the time of administering the conservation
measures on the basis of surnæne or observation of the
investigator.
Methodology
The size of the samples and the desire to complete
the data-gathering procedure within a short period of
time to preclude effect of ■ students'maturation within
grade level predicated the use of project assistants.
Three educational aide assistants to the investigator in
reading programs for a period of three to six years were
selected for this purpose. After appropriate training,
38
the project assistants and the principal investigator
administered and scored standardized tests, with the
principal investigator administering and scoring all
Piagetian measures.
Methods of Gathering Data
Administration of Standardized
Tests
The Metropolitan Achievement Test was administered
first to ascertain the suitability of further testing
procedures. These tests were scored by scantron machine
or by hand. The Gray Oral Reading Test, Form A, and Gil
more Oral Reading Test, Form C, were administered by the
same person at one sitting in order to check comprehension
in oral reading.
Administration of
Piagetian Tasks
The concept assessment-conservation scale, form B,
(Goldschmid & Bentler, 1968a) consisting of six measures—
two dimensional space, number, substance, continuous
quantity, weight, and discontinuous quantity-^ere adminis
tered individually by the principal investigator. Success
on these measures indicated further testing on measures of
formal operations suggested by Piaget.
39
The tests selected were: (1) conservation of energy
(pendulum), (2) the law of floating bodies, (3). logical
multiplication of relations (birds!, ( . 4 ) logic (hunters),
(5) conjunction (animals), and (6) deduction (temperature
of freezing water). The method of scoring was that used
by the developers of the tests with a total score of 7 0
percent accuracy on each group indicating passing the
category.
Description of Test Instruments
Standardized Tests
The Metropolitan Achievement Test Intermediate Form
JS and KS (Prescott, Balow, Hogan, & Farr, 1978) is a test
of reading comprehension. The test is designed to provide
an estimate of the students' instructional reading level.
The test is a group-administered reading inventory pro
viding a range of reading passages yielding raw scores
from 0 to 60 with grade placement from 2-10, which was
applicable to this study. This test was selected because
of the particularly low reading levels of some subjects,
and it was a test not previously used in the schools of
the subject area at the junior high school level. The
K.R. 20 reliability is .95 for reading comprehension.
40
The Gilmore Oral Reading
Test (Form C)
The Gilmore Oral Reading Test is an individually-
administered test developed to analyze the oral reading
performance of pupils in grades 1 through 8. The test
provides measures of accuracy of oral reading, comprehen
sion of material read, and rate of reading. Ten oral
reading paragraphs, which form a continuous story, are
read, and each passage is followed by five comprehension
questions for each paragraph.
The primary purpose of the test is to provide a
measure of analyzing the oral reading performance of
individuals and groups so that subsequent instruction can
be adjusted more appropriately to strengths and weaknesses
of individual students.
The Gilmore Oral Reading Test was selected as a
measurement device because of its carefully graded con
struction and the wide ability span for which it is suit
able. The use of episodes in a family provides an approxi
mation of a classroom reading stituation. In addition,
the Gilmore can be administered and scored in a reasonably
objective fashion (Buros, 19781.
The Gilmore Oral Reading Test is commonly used for
diagnosing reading needs of students identified as having
reading problems.____________________________________________
41
Gr^y Oral Reading
Test CForm Af
The Gray Oral Reading Test wa^s designed to .measure
growth in reading from grades primary through college, and
to aid in the diagnosis of oral readfng difficulties.
While a moderate relationship has been
found between oral reading and silent reading,
they are not of sufficient magnitude to per
mit accurate prediction of oral reading scores
from silent reading scores for a given pupil.
(Robinson, 1958, p, 259)
The test consists of 13 passages. The content of each
passage is successively more difficult. The examiner
marks errors in gross mispronunciation, partial mispro
nunciation, aid, omission, insertion, substitution,
repetition, and inversion. These are counted in order to
arrive at a final score.
The Concept Assessment
Kit - Conservation
Goldschmid and Bentler (1968a), Form B, consists
of six tasks: two-dimensional space, number, substance,
continuous quantity, weight, and discontinuous quantity.
The student's level of conservation is determined
by his conservation behavior and his comprehension of the
principles involved. Conservation behavior refers to the
student's judgment of the relative quantity of the objects.
42
one of which has just been ^manipulated by the examinex.
Comprehension is assessed by the child's explanation of
his judgment. The testing time takes approximately 15
minutes. The child's conservation correlation at age
4-7 has been acceptably correlated with cognitive con
cepts, school achievement, mental age, vocabulary, and
personality characteristics typically thought of as
enhancing cognitive functioning and interpersonal relation
ships (Goldschmid & Bent1er, 1968, p. 41.
The K-R 20 coefficient, .96 for behavior and .95
for explanation, indicates high internal consistency of the
items.
Piagetian Measures
of Operativity
Six research subtests, based upon Piaget's de
scription of the development of operativity, were developed
by the researcher for this study. Although Piaget's
accounts of his methods (Piagetian Inventories, 1977)
have provided the guidelines for the development of the
research subtests, the researcher adapted the developed
subtests to the requirements of administration and scor
ing (Appendix A).
43
Method of Grouping
After all tests had been administered and scored,
students were assigned to a group based upon scores on the
MAT. A student was designated to the high group if the
score obtained was 41 or above. Those students scoring
4 0 or below were designated to the low group.
Research Design
Results were analyzed using t tests of the dif
ferences between group means and Pearson correlation
coefficients from a multiple regression analysis. Statis
tical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) (Nie, Hull,
Jenkins, Steinbrenner, & Bent, 1980) provided the algorithm
for processing the data. The MAT was administered by
groups, but all other tests were individually administered
Over a three- month period. Demographic data were obtained
from the student at the time of administration of Piagetian
measures.
Distribution of study sample is listed in Table 1
by sex, grade, pre-school attendance, participation in
Federal lunch program for achiever and non-achiever groups.
Table 1
Distribution of Study Sample
44
Score on MAT Test N
Girls
Higher 24
Lower 18
Boys
Higher 20
Lower 21
Grade Level of Sample
6 1
7 31
8 35
9 16
P r e-School Attendanc e
Yes 45
No 32
No Answer 6
Participation in Federal
Lunch Program
Yes 30
No 48
No Answer 5
Note . Total N = 83
*
45
Suimnary of Chapter
The social milieu represented by the area serving
the subject population made it possible to select randomly
the 102 students represented in this sample. Because of
attrition and difficulties in scheduling the final sample,
the pool from which data are included in this research is
83. Assignment of students to the above or below grade
was done on the basis of raw score placement on MAT. If
the student's score on the reading achievement test was
4 0 he/she was categorized as below level in order to pro
vide a comparison to help establish discrete placement on
the Piagetian hierarchy of logical reasoning.
Instruments of measure were selected on the basis
of appropriateness as measures of achievement for the
subject population in keeping with Piagetian theory.
46
CHAPTER IV
RESEARCH FINDINGS
Intr oduct ion
Data gathered using the procedures outlined in
Chapter III were analyzed in relation to the hypotheses
which had been raised initially. A total of 102 junior
high school students was identified in the subject popula
tion. Of these, 83 were questioned using the data identi
fication recording sheet (Appendix B)_. Answers were
sought for the following questions;
1. Will the results of this Piagetian test of opera
tivity accurately assess the reading comprehension
level of junior high school students as measured
by the Metropolitan Achievement Test?
2. Does the Piagetian operativity test identify
those students who read in the above-level reading
group?
3. Does the Piagetian operativity test identify
those girls who read in the higher reading ability
group?
4. Does the Piagetian operativity test identify those
girls who read in the lower reading ability group?
47
5. Does the Piagetian operativity test identify
those boys who read in the higher reading ability
group?
6. Does the Piagetian operativity test identify
those boys who read in the lower reading ability
group?
7. Is the sex of the student in an above-level read
ing group related to the developmental stage on
the Piagetian test of operativity?
8. Is the sex of the student in the lower reading
group related to the developmental stage on the
Piagetian test of operativity?
9. In the higher group, is the number of years of
formal schooling related to the ability to function
on a Piagetian operativity test?
10. In the lower group, is the number of years of
formal schooling related to the ability to function
on a Piagetian operativity test?
11. In the higher group, is the attendance of pre
school related to the ability to perform on a
Piagetian test of operativity at the junior high
school age?
12. In the below-level group, is the attendance of
pre-school related to the ability to perform on a
Piagetian test of operativity at the.junior high
_____ school age?____________________________
48
13. Is there a sex difference between the Operativity
Stages of students who attended pre-school?
14. In the higher group, is socioeconomic status
related to the stage of operativity on a Piagetian
operativity test?
15. In the lower group, is socioeconomic status
related to the stage of operativity on a Piagetian
operativity test?
Hypotheses and findings
The hypotheses related to these questions are
listed below along with correlational results as they were
investigated by the analysis of variance statistical
treatments. Raw scores obtained from the testing provide
the numerical data. In each instance (1) the null hypothe
sis is stated, ( .2 ) tables of mean scores are presented,
(3) a correlational table indicating the degree of sig
nificance is depicted, and C4) a discussion of the accep
tance or rejection of the null hypothesis concludes the
discussion.
Hypothesis 1
The first null hypothesis stated: There is no
significant difference in the ability to perform
on a Piagetian test of operativity between Afro-
American students in a higher-level group as determined
49
by reading grade placement on the Metropolitan
Achievement Test (MAT) Form JS Intermediate (.Harcourt-
Brace Jovanovich., Inc., 19781 and their peers who were
in a lower-level reading group.
From an analysis of the data using the t test
shown in Table 2, the researcher found that the mean of
6.36 for the lower-level group was significantly different
from the mean of 8.93 for the higher-level group (t = 4.79,
p < .001) .
Table 2
t Test for Lower and Higher Achieving Groups
Standard Two-Tailed
Group N Mean Deviation t Probability
Lower 3 9 6.36 2,51 -4,7 9 ,001
Higher 44 8.93 2.39
Null hypothesis 1 was rejected, Reading perform
ance of Afro-American junior high students was found to
be significantly related to the ability to perform on
Piagetian tasks.
50
Hypothesis 2
The second hypothesis stated: There is no significant
difference in the ability to perform on a Piagetian
Test of operativity between those Afro-American girls
in the higher reading ability group as determined by
the reading grade score on the MAT and those Afro-
American boys in the higher-level group.
Table 3 presents the data showing the" t test com
paring higher-performing students on the Piagetian test of
operativity .
Table 3
t Test Comparing Boys and Girls in the Higher
Groups on the Piagetian Test of Operativity
Group N Mean
Standard
Deivation t
Two-Tailed
Probability
Boys 20 9.30 2.08 .93 N.S.
Girls 24 8.63 2.62
Total N = 4T
51
The data revealed that there were 44 students in
the group performing at or above the level for the sample
population. Of these, 20 were boys and 24 were girls. No
significant difference was found between the mean of 9.30
for boys and the mean of 8.63 for girls in the higher
group. While a range of difference among the various
variables did exist, a t value of .93 indicates sex was
not significant in the ability to perform the Piagetian
tests. Null hypothesis two was accepted.
Hypothesis 3
Null hypothesis 3 stated: There is no significant
difference in the ability to perform on a Piagetian
test of operativity between those Afro-American girls
in the lower-level group as determined by the grade
score on the MAT and those Afro-American boys in the
lower-level group.
Table 4 reveals the degree of correlation and
level of significance between performance of the below-
level boys and below-level girls.
Of the sample population, 38 students constituted
the group identified as obtaining a score of 40 or less on
the Metropolitan Achievement Test, Of this group, 18 were
girls and 20 were boys, for a total of 38 in the sample
pool.
52
Table 4
t Test Comparing Boys and Girls in the Lower-Level
~ Groups on the Piagetian Test of Operativity
Standard Two-Tailed
Group : N Mean Deviation -t Probabiltity
Boys 20 9,3 0 2,08 3,37 ,01
Girls 18 6.83 2,43
The results show a significantly lower .mean score
for girls (mean = 6.83). on the test when compared with the
mean - 9.30 for boys. This is contrary to popularly held
beliefs that girls are better readers than boys in the
low socioeconomic groups. The results were significant at
the p <.01 level^ therefore ^ the null hypothesis was
rejected.
Hypothesis 4
The null hypothesis 4 stated: There is no significant
difference in the ability to perform on a Piagetian
Test of operativity by those Afro-American girls in
the higher-level group as determined by the reading
grade score on the MAT and those Afro-American girls
in the lower-level group.
53
Forty-two cases comprised the total sample of
girls completing all tests in the battery. Of this group,
24 girl's scored at or above the 40-point raw score cut-off
point, and 18 were at or below this score. The results
shown in,Table 5 reveal the statistical results on the
Piagetian Test of Operativity,
The mean of 6,83 for the lower-level girls was
significantly different from 8,63 for the higher^level
girls (t = 2,26, p, <,05i. The null hypothesis was
rejected.
Table 5
t Test Comparing the Lower Scoring Girls with the Higher
Scoring Girls on the Piagetian Test of Operativity
Standard Two-Tailed
Group N Mean Deviation t Probability
Lower 18 6.83 2.43 -2,26 ,05
Higher 24 8.63 2,62
Hypothesis 5
Hypothesis 5 stated that; There is no significant
difference in the ability to perform on a Piagetian
Test of operativity between Afro-American boys in a
higher-level group as determined by the grade score on
54
the MAT and those boys in the lower-level group.
The results shown in Table 6 reveal the statisti
cally relevant results.
The sample of 41 boys indicated that 21 fell at
or above the mean score of 40 on the MAT. Table 6 reveals
that a mean of 9,3 0 for higher-level boys was significantly
different from a mean of 5.95 for lower-level boys for
formal operations. The null hypothesis was rejected at
p <.001.
Table 6
t Test Comparing Lower Scoring Boys with Higher
Scoring Boys on the Piagetian Test of Operativity
Standard Two-Tailed
Group N Mean Deviation t Probability
Lower
Higher
21
20
5.95
9.3 0
2.56
2.08
-4,58 .001
Hypothesis 6
Hypothesis six stated: There is no significant
relationship between the ability to perform on a
Piagetian test of operativity by Afro-American students
and the following selected variables:
55
a. Pre-school education experience
b. Years of formal schooling
c. Socioeconomic status
Table 7 presents data showing the relationship
of pre-school experience/ socioeconomic status of the
student, and years of formal training at time of testing.
Table 7
Correlation Coefficients for Selected Variables
with the Piagetian Test of Operativity
Variable Correlation Coefficient
Pre-school education experience .06
Years of formal schooling .01
Socioeconomic status .18
A table of r at the 5 percent and 1 percent of
significance (Isaac, 1971, p. 182) showed the value of r
needed for significance at the .05 level was .21. None of
the correlations listed in Table 7 was greater than .21.
Therefore, there was no significant relationship between
pre-school experience, grade level and socioeconomic level
and the Piagetian operativity tasks. Therefore the null
hypothesis was accepted.
56
Summary of Findings
This chapter has presented data obtained from the
use of measures of 12 tasks of operativity as proposed by
Jean Piaget and has compared the results on the Metropoli
tan Achievement Test (Form JS, 1978), Form A Gray Oral
Reading Test, and Form C Gilmore Oral Reading Test, An
analysis using a t test design was used as the basis of
computing the influence of the variables: ( 1 ) . reading
score on three reading tests, (2) years of formal schooling,
(3). sex, ( . 4 ) the interaction of socioeconomic level of
the family, and ( „ 5 ) _ pre-school experience.
Table 8 represents data of the performance assessed
through the use of three widely used tests and found to be
significantly related to performance on Piagetian tasks at
the concrete and formal operations level. The variables
of socioeconomic level, pre-school experience, and years
of formal schooling were not significantly related to
performance on Piagetian tasks. If, however, the popular
level of reporting significant correlation was taken at
r - .10 level, then pre-school experience would be counted
as significant.
The final chapter of this study presents the
conclusions based upon the statistical findings, and
provides suggestions for curriculum building based upon
the theories of Jean Piaget to minimize deficits in
Table 8
Multiple Regression Table for the Dependent
Variable of piagetian Operativity
Variable Simple r
MAT .45
Years of formal schooling .20
Participation in lunch program (SES) .19 N.S
Gilmore Oral Comp. .32
Gray Oral .27
Pre-School experience .04 N.S
Sex .05 N.S
cognitive functioning of Afro-American students. Recom
mendations are made related to further research and to
curriculum building to preclude ethnic differences of
Afro-American students.
58
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction
This study was concerned with the relationship of
reading ability and the ability to perform at the formal
operations level on Piaget's hierarchy of cognitive develop
ment. This chapter includes (1) a summary of the study,
(2) the conclusions drawn from the results of the study,
(3) recommendations for curriculum building to preclude
ethnic differences for Afro-American students, and (4),
recommendations for further research.
Summary
The Problem
The problem of the continual lag of Afro-American
students in reading comprehension in the schools of
America presents a challenge for educators and politicians
Standardized teaching and testing procedures have
not, in the past, proven effective in identifying the
problem, or remediating the situation. Mainly, the tests
identify achievement on material designed for a different
population, and the development of culturally different
59
learning styles or educational content is not taken into
consideration.
Piaget's theory of intellectual development offers
an alternative approach to the diagnosis of achievement
and can be scientifically evaluated within the task-
achievement setting which can be rendered culture and
educational "school" free. This action-oriented method
tests the student's process of thinking, thus adding a
qualitative method to intellectual testing. Teaching
methods indicating areas for improvement are suggested by
Piaget's theories.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the
relationship between reading ability as measured by
standardized reading tests and ability to function on
Piagetian measures of operativity through the formal
operations level.
In addition, the study investigated the relation
ship of selected variables of performance on reading
comprehension tests and sex, school grade, pre-school
attendance, and socioeconomic status.
Procedure
The sample included 102 Afro-American students
ages 12 through 15 from the Southern California area. The
sample was selected, tested, and then divided in two
60
groups designated as those students who were competent
readers and those who had not yet achieved compentency as
measured by the Metropolitan Achievement Test, Form JH.
To further ascertain whether reading comprehension
was being assessed, two individualized reading tests were
administered to each student, the Gray Oral Reading Test
Form A and the Gilmore Oral Reading Test Form C.
Two Piagetian type tests were individually adminis
tered to each student; the Concept Assessment Test,
Conservation Form B (Goldschmid & Bentler, 1968a)., and
six measures of formal operations developed by the
Organization For Economic Cooperation and Development
Piagetian Inventories (1977).. Project assistants aided in
administering and scoring standardized tests with the
researcher administering and scoring all Piagetian tasks.
Data were entered in a computer using the
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (Nie et al.,
1980). Pearson correlation matrices were computed relating
the ability to perform on the standardized reading tests
and ability to perform on the various Piagetian tasks.
A statistical table was consulted to determine the level
of significance for each correlation coefficient.
61
Findings
Data analysis revealed the following results
from the tests of the hypotheses.
Hypothesis 1. The null hypothesis of no signifi
cant relationship between the combined sample of above
level group and below-level group students on performance
on the Piagetian Test of Operativity and reading comprehen
sion was rejected at the .001 level of significance.
Hypothesis 2. The null hypothesis of no signifi
cant relationship between the higher-level group of girls
and the higher-level group of boys was accepted, because
no significant differences were found.
Hypothesis 3. The null hypothesis of no signifi
cant difference between lower-level girls and lower-level
boys was rejected at the .01 level of significance. In
every category the results showed significance. The null
hypothesis was rejected.
Hypothesis 4. The null hypothesis that no signifi
cant relationship existed between the higher-level girls
and lower-level girls was rejected at the .05 level.
Hypothesis 5. The null hypothesis of no signifi
cant relationship between higher-level boys and lower-
level boys was rejected at the .001 level.
62
Hypothesis 6. The null hypothesis of no signifi
cant relationship between ability to perform on Piagetian
Tasks of Operativity for the sample population and the
variables of pre-school experience, grade in school at time
of administering tests, and socioeconomic status of the
student was accepted since there were no significant dif
ferences in any of the categories.
In the data obtained on oral and silent reading
measures, silent reading provided a much higher correla
tion (.45) with Piagetian operativity than did oral read
ing (_.32) and C. 27) .
Discussion
The findings of this study revealed significant
data regarding the performance of Afro-American students
on tests of reading comprehension in group and individual
testing situations. The primary question of the study,
comparing students of the same ethnic group on their
reading comprehension achievement and ability to perform
operational tasks as another method of evaluation, showed
that a highly significant relationship existed between
these two types of performance.
The analysis of the data showed that those stu
dents who achieved higher scores on reading comprehension
tests also achieved higher scores on Piagetian tasks.
63
The correlation of reading comprehension ability
with performance on Piagetian tasks is important in
exploring socioeconomic differences within ethnic groups.
The implication may be important for further building
compensatory educational programs.
Clearly, the ability to perform at the formal
operations level on Piagetian tasks is an important com
ponent to comprehend reading materials as utilized in our
society. The performance on these tests is not, according
to the findings, significantly related to socioeconomic
level of the student, pre-school experience, or grade in
school at time of testing.
This study provided additional support to the
view that certain underlying development may be related to
reading achievement. The recognition of the possible
importance of specified cognitive abilities to reading
comprehension success may have important implications for
curriculum building and educational practices.
Conclusions
The analysis of the data in this study suggests
the following conclusions:
1. On the basis of individual administration of
cognitive tasks, it is possible to distinguish
reading comprehension achievement levels of
64
Afro-American junior high school students.
2. Reading performance is not associated with
socioeconomic factors of the groups.
3. Implications for testing and teaching practices
could involve use of Piagetian theories for
remediation of cultural deficits.
4. Sex differences within this group are not
important in reading comprehension.
Recommendations for Adapting the
Curriculum for Remediation
Introduction
Curriculum is the core of the educational enter
prise. It is the knowledge that the child is expected to
assimilate and accommodate. Piaget's genetic epistemologi-
cal emphasis becomes immediately relevant when we consider
his contribution to the subject areas in such aspects as
language, play, morality and causal thought (Piaget, 1964).
Piaget's stage descriptions for each substantive
area provides a framework from two points of view: both
were suggested by Elkind (1969) "guiding principles of
development as reflected in the organization of knowledge,
and second, in the mental organization of the learner"
(p. 482).
65
Suggested remedial practices are concerned with
the adaptation of the school curriculum for the purposes
of (1) providing the student with an opportunity to act
upon objects and ideas in his environment, (2) using these
actions to assist the student, at whatever age, in the
recognition of the regularity or orderliness of the world
that surrounds him/her, and (3L helping the student to
develop a method of ordering new stimuli, Duckworth
(.1973). stated: "Contrary to the view most often attributed
to him, Piaget maintains that good pedagogy can have an
effect on cognitive development" (p. 258).
As a part of pedagogical practices, language
concepts summarizing the performance and interpreting
actions are emphasized, since they allow the teacher to
recall past events to the student's mind and serve as the
basis for more complex concepts. Complex concepts become
increasingly more abstract and further removed from stimuli,
and are, therefore, more language dependent.
Science, with its emphasis on the discovery of
relationships and the development of systematic thought
processes, may become the basis for moving the student
toward increasingly more logical thought patterns. For the
student at the concrete stage of intellectual growth, it
is the progressive development of the operational thought
process which facilitates success in symbolic activities.
66
The student who is unable to develop fully operational
behaviors (who fails to coordinate foresight with hind
sight) lacks the underlying cognitive structure necessary
for reading success.
Rationale for Curriculum
Adaptation
The rationale for curriculum adaptation for
remediation of cognitive deficits is based upon Piaget's
theory as it has been interpreted for instructional prac
tice. Piaget (1968b) explained the development of knowl
edge in terms of operations.
Knowledge is not a copy of reality. To
know an object, to know an event, is not simply
to look at it and make a mental copy or image
of it. To know is to modify to transform the
object, and to understand the process of this
transformation, and as a consequence to
understand the way the object is constructed.
An operation, is thus the essence of knowledge;
it is an internalized action which modifies
the object of knowledge. For instance an
operation would consist of joining objects in
a class, to construct a classification. Or an
operation would consist of ordering, or putting
things in a series. Or an operation would
consist of counting, or of measuring. In
other words, it is a set of actions modifying
the object, and enabling the knower to get at the
structure of transformation, (p. 369)
Flavell (1963) also indicated that the teacher must
assist the student in moving from performing only concrete
actions to those requiring less direct support from the
external stimulus. He suggested that movement toward
67
greater internalization may first relate to operation upon
physical entities, then to pictorial representations of
the object, and then to the final step of cognitive fore
sight and hindsight. He indicates that the internali
zation process may occur more easily as a result of
activities undertaken in a group. Apparently, the pursuit
of a common project and related discussion provide oppor
tunities for the student to compare his thought processes
with those of others. "In this way the learner is better
able to acquire some degree to rationality and objectivity
in thought" (p. 369).
An Instructional Model
for Reading Teaching
The researcher's recommendations for facilitating
the growth of reading are based upon the rationale out
lined in the preceding section. These recommendations are
related to specific strategies which are a part of the
total teaching process.
An instructional model is used to furnish a frame
of reference for the teacher interested in implementing
cognitive growth through language arts or science.
68
Source of Goals & Objectives
Revision &
Reteaching
Post evaluation
Sequenced learning
strategies____
Objectives
school
curriculum
Pre-assessment
Learning
prescriptions
Figure: Instructional Model
The instructional model proposed was suggested by
Popham (.1975). and was modified to serve the need of this
i
curriculum planned for students whose needs include
structure, immediate accomplishment, and dignity. This
planning assessment model indicates a progession along a
seven-point continuum.
1. Sources of goal^ and objectives which are con
cerned with scientific attitude, rational thinking, mani
pulative and communicative skills, and knowledge.
69
2. Objectives: Each objective of the above
goals must furnish a base for the formulation of teaching
objectives.
3. Preassessment; The teacher diagnoses the
status of the pupils in relation to the proposed knowledge
category. Such preassessments may be carried through
discussion, questioning, observation, or trial teaching
procedures.
4. Learning Prescriptions: In relation to the
Instructional Model, and within the knowledge objectives
noted above, the researcher places recommendations for
the development of operational behaviors.
5. Learning Sequences and Strategies: In general,
implementation of the teaching strategies should be
carried out so that the student is encouraged to act upon
actual environmental objects. Selection of such concrete
experiences will depend upon the newness of the concept,
the nature of the concept, the availability of materials,
and the inventiveness of the teacher.
6. Past Evaluation: In the Instructional Model
the effectiveness of the learning is determined by evalua
tion. In concept learning the evaluation may take the
form of presenting the learner with a new example of the
concept and asking the student to categorize it. The
student is also asked to explain his/her selection.
70
This type of evaluation indicates that concepts
may be generalized. The learner generalizes the newly
learned concept to a variety of specific instances of the
class which have not been previously utilized in the
learning situation.
7. Revision and Reteaching: Following evaluation
procedures, judgment of student and teacher leads to
strategies for mastering underachieved objectives with
changes in techniques and materials. In some instances
the original objectives will be modified to better meet
the stage of the learner. For example, a teacher review
ing the rationale of cognitive growth may decide to revise
a unit or lesson in a manner which allows more group work.
If so, the decision may be based upon the consideration
of Piaget's hypothesis which suggests that the internali
zation of logical thought is furthered through the exchange
of ideas among students.
Curriculum Summary
In this part of Chapter V the researcher has
suggested ways for facilitating cognitive growth of the
learner, by the design of a language arts and science
curriculum. À planning assessment mode has been suggested
along with teaching assessment strategies.
71
These recommendations appear to be supported by
Charles (197 4). who stated;
The teacherb main job is not to transmit
knowledge. Rather, it is to ensure that
students act, physically and mentally.
These acts should be of the type that play
roles in human development, especially social
interactions that stress language and the
manipulation of objects to solve problems.
(p. 29)
In order to explore further this postulated
relationship between curriculum and effective reading
growth, the following recommendations are made.
Recommendations for Further Study
The following specific suggestions are deemed by
this investigation as being most important for further
study:
1. A longitudinal study shouldmade of Afro-
American students comparing students with reading disabili
ties with known successful students who are their peers.
Evidence of this type is needed to discover if reading
success can be linked to the achievement of formal opera
tions and at what levels.
2. Research directed toward comparing boys and
girls in their stage of development would be of interest,
since Piaget's studies do not appear to reflect differ-
iential findings related to sex differences. If the
frequently postulated maturational sex differences are
72
present, and significant to the finding of a greater number
of reading retardation cases among boys, then sex differ
ences could be expected to be demonstrated on Piagetian
tasks.
3. The suggested adaptation of the curriculum
should be carried out in schools,and studies should be
made to assess whether the students exposed to such a
curriculum demonstrate cognitive growth reflected in gains
in reading comprehension achievement.
Concluding Remarks
The current study has provided evidence to support
the theory that students who are competent in reading com
prehension skills function at a higher level on Piagetian
tasks than their peers who perform at a lower level on
reading comprehension tests.
Piagetian tasks may be a useful tool for diagnosing
reading comprehension levels of Afro-American students.
Many students who have not learned the skills
necessary for reading comprehension required for abstract
thinking may indeed have reached the formal operations
level when administered individual test requiring con
cepts at the formal operations level.
The research has raised many unanswered questions.
Hopefully, the theoretical orientation of this study may
lead to practices which assist in the prevention of reading
73
failures among students of Afro-American descent. For, if
cognitive growth can be demonstrably influenced by the
provision for specific types of learning experiences for
the student, then procedures may be undertaken which pro
vide for the cognitive maturation required for reading
and hopefully alleviate further failure in life. For this
end, assessment techniques may be developed which are
increasingly more accurate in determining which tasks
should be undertaken to help guarantee success for every
reader.
74
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75
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Cognitive Studies and Curriculum Development. Ithaca,
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Piaget, J. The development of memory and identity.
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Piaget, J. Six psychological studies. N.Y. Random
House, 1968, (b)
Piaget, J. Piaget's theory. In P. H. Mussen (Ed.),
Carmichael's manual of child psychology (Vol. I).
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Piaget, J. Science of education and the psychology of the
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Economic Cooperation and Development, 1977.
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Metropolitan achievement test form JS & KS manual for
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80
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National Center for Educational Research & Development,
1972. •
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81
APPENDIXES
82
APPENDIX A
EXPERIMENTAL PROTOCOL
C O P Y 83
FORMAL OPERATIONS
Protocol
1. Law of floating bodies;
Examinee is shown a group of objects and asked to
identify those which will float in a container of
water. The objects are approximately the same size
1 mm square wood, clay, styrofoam, plastic rubber and
steel. The examinee is allowed to test his theory to
verify the statement.
1-point is given for the correct answer of wood and
styrofoam.
1-point is given for knowing the theory of density law.
2. Logical multiplication of relations :
Examinee is shown a group of cardboard animals; 2
squirrels,1 bear, 2 deer, 4 birds, and 4 ducks.
Examinee is asked to make two classes of the animals,
then asked, "of the classification of birds--keeping
in mind that here you have an equal number of birds and
ducks here— when you think of both classes in the
universe, are there more birds or more ducks?".
1-point is given for the answer birds
1-point is given for stating that the class of birds
also consists of ducks.
84
Conservation, of energy; Oscillation of a pendulum.
The examinee is presented with a pendulum consisting
of three different size weights. He/she is told to
watch closely and explain the factors that affect the
length of time it takes each pendulum to swing back
and forth, and determine which pendulum will travel the
farthest (highest) and which will come to a complete
rest first. The factors are the amount of push,
which is kept even by using the same amount of force
from the same fulcrum, and the size of the bob.
1-point is given for correctly identifying the small
bob as traveling farthest..
1-point is given for knowing the law of conservation
of energy and the role of weight, mass, and volume in
the movement of the pendulum.
Log ic :
Examinee is asked the following question: Consider
that you find a baby chick at the base of an oak tree,
you walk toward the tree to get a better look, but the
chick moves around the tree to the other side always
staying on the opposite side of you. You travel com
pletely around the tree, do you ever go around the
chick?
1-point is given for the correct answer, no.
1-point is given for the reason that the chick was
always on the opposite side of the person never_______
85
really passing the chick,
5. Conjunction;
Examinee is asked the question^ if an ^nimal has long
ears, it is a mule or a donkey, if it has a thick tail,
it is a horse or a mule,, This animal has long ears
and a thick tail. Which is it?
1-point is given for correctly identifying mule .
1-point is given for stating that the mule is the only
animal compared each portion of the couplet,
6. Deduc ti on ;
Examinee is asked the following question;
Consider that water will freeze at 32° or less, today
it is 20° outside. Will the pond be frozen?
1-point is given for the answer yes.
1-point is given for stating the correct reason that
it is below freezing temperature at 20°.
86
APPENDIX B
SUMMARY INDIVIDUAL FORM
COPY 87
SUMMARY INDIVIDUAL FORM
Name School Grade
Birth Phone Sex M
Yr. Mo. Date
Did you attend pre-school 1 yr. or more? Yes No
Do you participate in the Federal Lunch Program at your
School? ________
TEST RESULTS
Metropolitan Achievement Test: Passage Score_______
Grade EQ. ________
Gray Oral: Passage Score Grade Equivalent___
Gilmore Oral: Comprehension _ Grade Equivalent
Goldsmid & Bentler, Piaget Concept Assessment - Conserva
tion.
2-points possible for each measure
A. Two dimensional space ... ' Why? ' _________
B. Number Why? '
C. Substance ________ Why? _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
D. Continuous Quantity ..... Why? ' ______
E. Weight _ _ _ _ _ Why? ...
F. Discontinuous Quantity Why? '
88
Formal Operations - Researcher Developed
1. Law of Floating Bodies ___________ Why?
2. Logical Mul. of Rel. Why?
3. Oscillation of a Pendulum___________ Why?
4. Logic (Hunter) , Why?
5. Conjunction (Animals) ____________ Why?
6. Deduction (Water freezing) Why?
89
APPENDIX C
CONFIDENTIAL APPLICATION MEALS PROGRAM
COPY
90
P. O. Box 19705
Los Angeles, Ca. 9 0019
July 7, 1980
Dear Parents/Guardians,
With the cooperation and permission of the
University of Southern California, I am participating in
a program to evaluate the academic status of students
between the ages of 12% and 14% years of age to better
understand reading competencies.
The findings of the study will be used as a basis
for suggesting adaptations of the reading curriculum for
the development of reading skills.
I would greatly appreciate your permission to
meet with your son/daughter _____ _________
At
If you have no objections, please sign the form
below and return by your son/daughter at the time of
evaluation.
Sincerely yours.
Mattie A. Grant
I hereby consent to son/daughter being included
for possible selection in the above outlined program
Parent/Guardian ~ Date Phone No.
Birthdate of son/daughter Grade in Sept. 1980
Did son/daughter attend pre-school
for one year or more? _______Yes No
Does your son/daughter participate in the Federal School
Lunch Program? Yes No
91
APPENDIX D
TOTAL GROUP t TEST DATA ANALYSIS
92
PEARSON CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS FOR FORMAL
OPERATION SCORES WITH THE LISTED VARIABLES
MAT RAW GRAY RAW GILMORE COMP. RAW
Total
Group .45 .27 .32
Grade
7 .56 .42 .47
Grade
8 .27 .25 .30
Grade
9 .59 .06 .14

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Asset Metadata

Creator Grant, Mattie Cooke (author)

Core Title An investigation Piaget's theory of cognitive development as a basis for the assessment of reading disability of Afro-American junior high school students and for developing remedial curricula

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education,OAI-PMH Harvest,Psychology,Social Sciences

Format application/pdf (imt)

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Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c37-42824

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