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An experimental study of the effect of aikido training on the self-concept of adolescents with behavioral problems

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An experimental study of the effect of aikido training on the self-concept of adolescents with behavioral problems

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Content AN E X P E R IM E N T A L STUDY OF THE E F F E C T
O F AIKIDO TRAINING ON THE S E L F -C O N C E P T
OF A D O LESC EN TS WITH BEHAVIORAL PR O B L E M S
by
R a zm ig B adrig M adenlian
A D is se r ta tio n P r e s e n te d to the
FA C U L T Y OF THE G RADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In P a r tia l F u lfillm e n t of the
R eq u irem en ts for the D eg ree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Education)
June 1979
C opyright (c) by R azm ig B ad rig M adenlian 1979
UMI Number: DP71346
All rights reserved
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PL.T),
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M I S I
This dissertation, w ritten by
................... R a.z m i _ B a d r i _M a d e n 1 i an................................... p i/\/
under the direction of JÂS. Dissertation C om
mittee, and approved by a ll its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The G ra d u
ate School, in p a rtia l fu lfillm e n t of require
ments of the degree of
D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y
kCù.û.
Dean
J ‘
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
a
Chairman
...
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to thank the following persons for
their assistance and encouragement during this study:
My dissertation committee
Dr. Frank Fox, Chairman
Dr. J. F. Magary
Dr. Constance Lovell
My colleagues in the Department of Mental Health of
Orange County
The faculty and staff at the University of Southern
California School of Education, in particular Dr. Robert A.
Smith who acted as the interim [chairman of my dissertation
committee
My wife: Alice M. Madenlian
Mrs. Ann Newhauser for her numerous patient, meticulous
and conscientious editing and typing efforts.
. i i J
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter Page'
I. THE PROBLEM .............. ........... 1
Background and Statement of the Problem . . 1
Purpose of the S t u d y ............... 5
Importance of the Study.................... 6
Questions to Which Answers Were Sought . . 6
Hypothesis............................ 7
Conceptual Assumptions ......... 7
Definitions............................ 8
Delimitations .......................... 9
Organization of the Remainder of the Study 9
II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE............................. 11
Introduction ............................... 11
Conceptual Background................... . . 11
Experimental Precedents .................... 18
Summary ............................. 31
III. METHODOLOGY ............................... 32
Overview................................... 32
Research Design............................ 32
Instrumentation............. 33
Procedure . 36
Methodological Assumptions . ............. 3 8
IV. RESULTS ................................... 39
V. SUMJMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . 43
BIBLIOGRAPHY................................. 48
111
CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM
Background and Statement of the Problem
The development of self or self-concept has a long
history as an important area of psychology, psychiatry, and
sociology.
The use of self-concept in behavioral sciences has
four main features : (1) It is very popular in the current
literature and is used to explain a broad variety of
behavioral phenomena. As Crandall (197 3: p. 45) suggests,
self-concept "has been related to almost everything at one
time or another." (2) As a conceptual tool, it has been
employed by a wide range of theoretical perspectives and is
a key idea in many of those approaches. (3) It involves
behavioral phenomena which are measurable and manipulable,
rendering particular descriptions of it amenable to
empirical confirmation. (4) It is a concept about which
there is considerable confusion and disagreement (Wells and
Marwell, 197 6).
Most of the research in the area of self-concept
conceives of it as a more or less permanent characteristic
of individuals, and attempts to measure or index this
naturally occurring property. A minority of studies,
however, take an alternative approach, in which they con
sider self-concept as a variable that may be manipulated.
Experimentally induced changes in self-concept basic
ally involve providing subjects with negative or positive
self-relevant information of two varieties :
(1) False personality or interpersonal feedback
involving rigged information about respondents'
personal qualities, their desirability, their
deviations, and their social evaluations. This is
the more commonly used type of self-concept
manipulation. It may be an entirely artificial
procedure, contrived for the particular manipula
tion (Dinner, Lewkowicz and Cooper, 197 2; Graf,
1971; Walster, 1970); it may be a common personal
ity inventory for which fake scores or scoring
norms are given (Cooper and Duncan, 1971; McMillen,
1971; McMillen and Reynolds, 1969); or it may be a
rigged social rating or reinforcement (Dittes,
1959; Johnson, 1966; Lesser and Abelson, 1959) .
(2) False task failure/success feedback involving
information about respondents' performances on
experimental tasks. The experimenter may provide
subjects with tasks which are impossible to com
plete and then furnish bogus scoring norms (Rule
2]
and Rehiil, 197 0) or may provide tasks which are so
ambiguous that subjects cannot gauge their own
performance and may be given false scoring feedback
(Gerard, Blévand&, and Malcolm, 1964; Zellner, 197 0).
The experimenter may also manipulate the difficulty
of the experimental tasks (Archibald and Cohen,
1971; Gelfand, 1962).
The reasons for choosing one form of manipulation over
the other are uncertain, since they have not been made
explicit in the literature. It may be presumed that the
choice involves some belief about which technique works
better (Wells and Marwell, 1976).
According to a survey done by Wells and Marwell (1976),
manipulations of self-concept basically involve the same
underlying assumptions:
(1) a person's self-concept is a product of positive
and negative experiences;
(2) since self-concept involves more than isolated
experiences and transitory mood changes, it is
cumulatively constructed through a series of such
experiences ;
(3) a single experimental experience can have an effect
substantial enough to cancel out, at least momen
tarily and partially, the remainder of a person's
history and to induce a detectable change in the
self-concept; and
(4) change in self-concept will be of such magnitude
or nature that other behaviors which are causally
related to self-concept will also be measurably
affected. While the previous assumptions underlie
the belief that self-concept may be .experimentally
manipulated and its effect measured by empirical
indices, this last assumption underlies the
expectation that induced self-concept change will
be substantial enough that its effects in subse
quent social and psychological variables will also
be detectable.
The self-concept is generally considered as a stable
attribute of personality. In an extensive investigation,
Taylor (1955) found the self-concept to be unaffected by
temporary moods, highly consistent over time, and only
mildly affected by repeated measures. Brownfain (1952)
refers to a high level of self-esteem as a major correlate
of the stable self-concept. He posits a circular-causal
relationship between high positive self-concept and stabil
ity. This reasoning involves the assumption that persons
are unstable because of their inability to deal with the
negative elements which are inherent in low self-concept.
In contrast, the individual with a high self-concept tends
to accept himself, feel secure, and have little desire to
change from this positive self-regard. Such*an individual
is less likely to see himself dominated by a situation and
is'iïïFfïaiently th^in^¥Fér bf his e n v l T b a e n call
restructuring of the self-tconcept need not be the result of
changing external circumstances.
On the other hand, there is no question that self-
concept can be changed : Smith and Bordonaro (197 5) demon
strated that self-concept was affected by unexpected social
status placement; Tippett and Silber (1966) call attention
to the special sensitivity to influence by authority figures
in identity formation in late adolescence; and Harrow, Fox,
Markhus, Stillman, and Hallowell (1968) refer to self-
concept shifts in inpatient mentally ill adolescents.
A special category of studies involves shifts in self-
concept with groups of psychotic children and adult mental
patients (Horetzky, 1967; McCarthy, 1973; and Powell, 1972),
and normals (Russell, 1971) via use of structured activity
rather than verbal-oriented psychotherapy. A comprehensive
review of the psychological effects of physical activity
(Layman, 1974) demonstrates that there is a direct relation
ship between self-concept and academic ability, giving
support to both the desirability and feasibility of enhanc
ing the self-concept of an individual.
Purpose of the Study
This study was designed to generate data which would
assist in the development of a structured training program
to effect positive changes in the self-concept of adolescents
with behavioral problems.
A^YelaTtiônslïTp bë'tweéri "brg%ÛLzed' sports activities and
social development has long been partially recognized in
our school systems. Inherent within a number of sports,
there exists a potential aid to therapy..associated with
specific techniques designed to improve the participant's
self-confidence and self-control.
In this study a form of Oriental martial art--Aikido--
has been introduced as the structured training program to
effect positive changes in the self-concept of the students
with behavioral and body image problems.
Importance of the Study
The research in the area of self-concept has already
established that there exists a positive correlation between
self-concept and academic achievement. The present research
attempts to demonstrate that practical application of Aikido
training will enhance the self-concept of students and thus
positively influence academic achievement.
Questions to Which Answers Were Sought
1. To what extent, if any, does the participation of
students with behavioral problems, in an Aikido
training program, significantly affect their self-
concept as measured by the Piers-Harris Children's
Self-Concept Scale?
2. To what extent, if any, does the participation of
students with behavioral problems, in a traditional
therapeutic treatment program, significantly affect
their self-concept as measured by the Piers-Harris
Children's Self-Concept Scale?
3. To what extent, if any, is there a significant
difference in positive changes in self-concept as
measured by the Piers-Harris Children's Self-
Concept Scale, between students participating in
Aikido training and traditional therapeutic treat
ment programs?
Hypothesis
The following research hypothesis was examined:
Students with behavioral problems who
participate in an Aikido training program
will show changes in their self-concepts
as measured by Piers-Harris Children's
Self-Concept Scale (CSCS), and will show
more growth than students with similar
problems participating in traditional
therapeutic programs.
Conceptual Assumptions
The following conceptual assumptions were implicit in
this study:
1. Students selected for this study had reached a
level of maturity which was sufficient for changes
in their self-^concepts not to be due to
maturational factors within the time frame of the
study.
2. The Oriental martial art. Aikido, has inherent in
its methodology sufficient components to be
regarded as a structured training program.
3. The self-concept of students with behavioral prob
lems has less permanence due to emotional and
affective disturbances than the self-concept of
"normal" students in general.
Definitions
The following terms were defined in this study as
follows :
Self-Concept : the score obtained on the Piers-Harris
Children's Self-Concept Scale.
Aikido (Pronounced aye-key-dough): A non-fighting,
nonaggressive spiritual martial art, whose stated goal is to
abolish conflicts. It teaches meditation and complex tech
niques of body dodges and twirling movements, wrist turns,
elbow locks, hand throws; and it is relaxing and not
fatiguing.
Behavioral Problems; used specifically to describe
'students who are withdrawn, awkward with their physical
Dody, generally not active socially, and who scored low on
the Jourard-Secord Body Cathexis Scale.
il
Traditional Therapeutic Treatment: almost any treat
ment program, other than Aikido training, where a student is
treated by a mental health professional in a clinic, after
being referred by school and/or parents.
Delimitations
This - investigation was subject to the following delim
itations which served to narrow its focus and generâlizabil-
ity :
1. All 66 subjects were male students between the ages
of 12 and 14 years enrolled in various schools in
Orange County.
2. All subjects were students with behavioral problems
attested to by the school personnel, and/or mental
health professionals and/or parents, and screened
by Jourard-Secord Body Cathexis Scale.
Organization of the Remainder of the Study
Chapter II presents a review of pertinent literature
related to the background of self-concept, delineating and
emphasizing a theoretical framework. It also includes a
review of literature of studies involving the interrelation
ships and correlations between self-concept, personality
fraits, and academic achievement.
Chapter III presents the methodology of the study
including subject selection, research design and control
procedures, instrumentation, and methodological assumptions.
Chapter IV presents a short discussion of the findings
and resultsé
Chapter V presents a discussion, recommendations, and
conclusions with regard to the study.
10
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Introduction
This chapter presents first the theoretical and
experimental background of self-concept, its definitions,
and theoretical viewpoints, with selected empirical studies
cited and critiqued; the second section acquaints the reader
with several studies which deal with changes in self-concept
and the interrelationships of self-concepts and academic
achievement.
Conceptual Background
The view that one's self-concept is learned from the
reactions of other individuals to him has achieved wide
acceptance in experimental social psychology today, where
"attitude change" has substantial usage. One current trend
emphasizes the characteristics of the receiver. This per
sonality trait or tendency is variously termed "persuasibil-
ity" (Silverman, Ford, and Morganti, 1966), "influencibil-
ity" (McGuire, 1968), or "susceptibility to influence"
(Nissett and Gordon, 1967), as they affect attitude change.
In explaining the process of attitude change, self-concept
11
is dealt with both as a relatively stable personality fea
ture and as temporary changes in self-concept level. A
common approach is to use both forms of self-concept simul
taneously (Deaux, 1972; Zellner, 1970).
Another current trend emphasizes characteristics of the
persuasion situation as they affect attitude change— source
features, type of appeal, context of the appeal, etc. Since
the emphasis is upon the process, personality characteris
tics represent variables which must be controlled in some
way. The function of this approach is primarily to aid in
the development of hypotheses (Cooper and Jones, 1970;
McGuire and Miliman, 1965), or to serve as blocking vari
ables to reduce unexplained variance (Leventhal and Perloe,
1962) , or to elaborate the effects of the independent
variables (Dabbs and Leventhal, 1966).
A third area of the attitude change literature focuses
on changes in attitudes about the self, where self-concept
serves as a dependent variable: characteristics of the
receiver (Eagley and Acksen, 1971; Eagley and Whitehead,
1972), content of the message (Johnson, 1966) , credibility
of the source (Johnson and Steiner, 1968).
Another curr ent trend , in_ self-coneepf_r.esearch is
represented by the symbolic interactionisf^_per.spective--where
self-concept is firmly embedded _in„a..lar.ger~.conceptuaL
structure. Following Mead (1934) and Cooley (1902), one
tradition emphasizes the necessity of observing ongoing
12
behavior to describe the process of self-concept, which is
considered a key element between individual behavior and
social organization. This idea is presented by Blumer
(1969), Goffman (1959), and Shibutani (1961). The other
tradition primarily is involved in operationalizing self-
concept (Kuhn and McPartland, 1954)* Rather than just
observing the self, it sees the discovery of the structure
and content of self-concept as a fundamental task (Schwartz
and Stryker, 1970; Spitzer, Couch, and Stratton, 1971) . The
major emphasis of symbolic interactionism is to study the
self-concept as a result of social processes involving
reflected appraisals from significant others, with a stress
on social roles (Brim, 1960; Mannheim, 1966; Miller, 1963;
Newcomb, 1950; Sarbin, 1952; Sarbin and Rosenberg, 1955;
Sherif and Sherif, 1969; Sherwood, 1967) .
Besides occurring in a wide range of settings, self-
concept appears under an assortment of labels. The same
term may also take on widely different meanings in the hands
of different theorists, while various names may be used by
different theorists to refer to apparently the same phenom
enon. A sample of related terms includes labels such as
self-love, self-confidence, self-respect, self-worth, self
acceptance (or -rejection), self-satisfaction, self-evalua
tion, self-appraisal, self-ideal congruence, self-regard,
self-image, self-attitude, self-esteem. All of these terms
denote some basic process of psychological functioning which
13
can be described as either self-evaluation or self-affection
or as some combination of the two. No single definition
satisfies the range of uses and meanings which are referred
to within the concept of self. Samples of such definitions
include the following :
Every evaluative statement a person makes about himself may be
thought of as a sample of his self-concept (Brownfain, 1952).
Self-attitudes refer to a person's affective or emotional response
to self-perception and self-evaluation (Kaplan, 1975).
Self-esteem refers to feelings of satisfaction a person has about
himself which reflect the relationship between the self-image and
the ideal self-image (Jacobson, 1954).
A man's sense of worth is based on the sentiments he has for
himself which are formed on the basis of interaction with others
(McDougall, 1908).
A man's self-concept is what he means'to himself (Shibutani,
1961)%
Self-esteem is the evaluation which the individual makes and
customarily maintains with regard to himself. It is a personal
judgment of worthiness that is expressed in the attitudes the
individual holds toward himself. It is a judgmental process in
which the individual examines his performance, capabilities and
attributes according to his personal standards and values, and
arrives at a decision of his own worthiness (Coopersmith, 1967).
Self-esteem has been described as a universal motive to achieve
positive self-attitudes and to avoid negative self-attitudes
(Kaplan, 1975).
From an analytic point of view, the self-image is the endo-psychic
representation of the self within the ego; that is, the perspec
tive of the self that the person has inside of him. This derives
from all aspects of himself (bodily experiences, drives and inter
personal experiences) as they are organized into his overall
concept of self (Erikson, 1956).
14
A man's sense of identity arises from the continuity of his
experience in time. One's body becomes the center of the various
experiences that give him personal identity. He perceives himself
in terms of the linguistic categories and beliefs of his culture.
Self-conceptions are developed while participating in social
groups (Miller, 1975).
The manner in which a person evaluates himself is his level of
self-esteem (usually regarded as an attribute on a unidimensional
scale) (Shibutani, 1961).
Kinch (1963) formalized the symbolic-interactionist
theory of the self. He defines the self-concept as the
organization of qualities (traits that the individual might
express in terms of adjectives— ambitious, intelligent; and
roles in which he places himself— father, professor, and the
like) that the individual attributes to himself.
To the extent that a person is able to take the role of
others, he can respond to himself from their perspective
and, hence, become an object to himself. In doing so the
person can either take the role of specific people toward
himself or take the generalized role of the community, group,
or society toward himself. In this way, the attitudes of
significant people and of the group become incorporated into
the structure of the self.
Kinch (1963) defines three basic postulates of the
[formalized theory:
1. The individual's self-concept is based on his
perception of the way others are responding to him.
2. The individual's self-concept functions to direct
his behavior.
15_
3. The individual's perception of the responses of
others toward him reflects the actual responses of
others toward him.
Kinch (1963) notes that these postulates are not
expected to hold under all conditions and defines four basic
concepts or variables within these propositions :
1. The individual's self-concept (S). Defined above.
2. His perception of the response of others toward
him (P). The response of the individual to those
behaviors of others that he perceives as directed
toward him.
3. The actual responses of others toward him (A).
The actual behavior of the others, that is, the
response to the individual.
4. His behavior (B). The activity of the individual
relevant to the social situation.
By the use of simple logic it is possible to take the
three basic propositions and deduce from them three more.
For example, from postulates 1 and 2 we can conclude
that the way an individual perceives the response of others
toward him will influence his behavior, for if his percep
tion determines his self-concept and his self-concept guides
his behavior, then his perception will determine his
behavior. In symbolic form:
if P^S postulate 1
and S^B postulate 2
then P->B postulate 3
16
Therefore, the fourth proposition of the theory is:
4. The way the individual perceives the responses of
others toward him will influence his behavior.
Similarly, from postulates 1 and 3 it is possible to
deduce a fifth proposition and from postulates 3 and 4 it is
possible to get a sixth proposition:
5. The actual responses of others to the individual
will determine the way he sees himself (his self-
concept) .
6. The actual responses of others toward the individ
ual will affect the behavior of the individual.
The theory can be summarized in the following statement:
The actual responses of others to the individual will be
important in determining how the individual will perceive
himself; this perception will influence his self-concept
which, in turn, will guide his behavior.
These propositions are not, however, the complete
theory. For instance, while it is true that the individ
ual's perception of the responses of others toward him form
the basis of self-concept, the responses of some people will
be more important than the responses of others in influenc
ing the individual's self-concept. Thus, those people who
are especially "significant" for the person (that is, his
"significant others") will have a great deal of influence
upon his self-concept, while the responses of others who are
relatively insignificant for the person will have little
17
~irTf lüence (Taylor and~Kbivumarib 1~97 67 Weihlandb ~Gabie and
Vanning, 1976; White and Human, 1967).
The way in which the responses of others affect an
individual's self-concept needs further elaboration. The
responses of one's associates do not automatically form
one's self-concept. One must (1) accurately perceive how
he/she is being responded to by others and (2) compare this
reflection of self against a standard, a set of expectations
that he/she and his/her "significant others" hold as to how
he should behave and what characteristics he should have
(Arlin, 1976; Hauser, 1976; Schlenker, 1975).
Exper imental Precedents
Clarke (1960) examined the relationships between
college academic performance and expectancies. He found a
positive relationship between a student's academic perform
ance and his perception of the academic expectancies held
for him by significant others.
Further evidence that others can influence self-concept
is provided by Staines (1956), who demonstrated that teach
ers, through their roles as significant others, can alter
the self-concept of their students by making positive com
ments to them as well as creating an atmosphere of greater
psychological security. Kaplan (197 5) also discovered that
the more positive the children's perceptions of their
teachers' feelings, the higher their achievement.
It has also been found that there is a positive corre-
.18
TaTibn^between high" school achievement and self-esteem
(Opie and Lemasters, 1975).
An experiment reported by Videbeck (1960) supports the
proposition "that self-conceptions are learned and that the
evaluative reactions of others play a significant part in
the learning process." Observed differential effects of
approval and disapproval treatments were interpreted to be a
function of an interaction between the subject's initially
anchored self-rating and the objective scale value of the
approval or disapproval implied in the other's reaction.
Similar findings (Bellucci and Hoyer, 197 5) also tend to
support the hypothesis that one's self-conception is an
organization of discrete self-ratings which are unitized by
the principle of stimulus generalization. These findings
and interpretations are qualified by the fact that the
number of reactions of others, the consistency of reactions
within treatments, the qualifications of the others to
evaluate, and the subject's motivation were held constant.
Rosen, Levinger, and Lippitt (196 0) and Muller (197 6)
investigated the role of group-relevant determinants of
desires for change, rather than desires for change emanating
from personality determinants, and found a positive rela
tionship between a person's desire for change and the wishes
of others for him.
Further evidence of a relationship between self-concept
and achievement is offered by Bodwin (1957), who found the
correlations between immature self-concepts and reading
19
disabilities to be .72 in the third grade and .62 in the
sixth grade.
Wattenberg and Clifford (1964) studied kindergarten
children to see if there was any relationship between self-
concept and reading progress. Mental ability and self-
concept were tested, and two and one-half years later read
ing progress was measured and self-concept measures were
repeated. To measure self-concept, tape recordings were
made of remarks by the children while drawing pictures of
their families and responding to an incomplete sentence
test. SeIf-references were looked for among these remarks.
Teachers and clinically trained observers rated the children
as to feelings of competence and worth. The researchers
found that kindergarten self-concept is significantly
predictive of progress in reading, but that it was not sig
nificantly related to mental ability.
/ '
Jourard and Secord (1953) found that the feelings an
individual had about his body were commensurate with the
feelings he had about himself as a person. Fisher (1970)
reported considerable evidence suggesting that one's appear
ance is an important determiner of self-concept, both among
men and women. Jourard and Secord (1954) also developed a
means for studying the relationship between an individual's
self-concept and his body image.
The relationship between self-concept and body image
may be explained through the concept that the "self ideal"
20
includes attitudes related to the appearance of the body or
"body-ideal." Each individual has a more or less clear
idea of how he would like to look; if his actual body pro
portions come close to conforming to the appearance of his
ideal body image, he is more likely to think better of both
his physical and nonphysical self. If, however, his body
deviates too far from his body-ideal, then an individual is
likely to have lower self-concept (Baldwin, 197 6; Hamachek,
1971; Mathes and Kahn, 1975; Maul and Thomas, 1975; Prieto
and Robbins, 1975; Schofield and Abbuhl, 1975; Wylie, 1974).
Quimby (1967) tested the self-concept by a Q-sort
method of achievers and underachievers who had been selected
on the basis of grade point average. She found a relation
ship between low self-ideal and uhderachievement. She
assumes that a student with the adequate self-concept,
feeling that he can succeed, will put forth the necessary
academic effort, whereas the student with the inadequate
self-concept, feeling that he cannot succeed, will not put
forth the necessary academic effort.
Hummel and Sprinthall (1965) did a study of bright
adolescent boys from a suburban high school. They held
mental ability and certain social variables constant. Sig
nificant differences were found between underachievers and
Luperior achievers on scales postulated to measure aspects
of ego functioning.
Shaw (1961) and Shaw and Alves (1963) report that
21
"bright underachieving males have more negative self-concepts|
than do students who are equally bright but achieving.
Bledsoe (1964) found that fourth- and sixth-grade boys'
self-esteem and academic achievement are positively corre
lated to a significant degree. Correlations for girls,
however, were much lower and generally not statistically
significant. In a study exploring the way in which achiev
ers and underachievers perceive themselves and their rela
tions to the world around them, it has been concluded that
the underachiever fails to achieve because he lacks the
feeling of personal adequacy and has a feeling of being
rejected by his peers and adults (Combs, 1964; Wyer, Hennin-
ger, and Wolfson, 197 5).
Schneider (196 9) conducted an experiment to explore the
effects of success and failure on self-presentation where
another person was either in a position to give the subject
an evaluation based on his presentation (feedback) or could
not give the subject any information about his self
presentation (no feedback). The failure subjects were more
positive about themselves under the feedback condition than
under no feedback, presumably in an effort to get approval
from the other person. The success subjects were more
modest under the feedback than under the no feedback condi
tion, presumably in an effort to conserve their tentative
ligh self-evaluations by not appearing too immodest. Subse
quent analyses showed that some of the failure subjects
22
f"ës^ôh"d‘ ed'~wTtH~pdsl'tivë“sel'^f-presénta^fions~*to” *g^t àppfôvâl'"
while others seemed to evidence what Cohen (1959) has called
defensive self-esteem.
Combs (1964) explored differences in the ways that
underachievers and achievers perceive themselves and their
relationships to the world around them. Achiever and under
achiever groups, each consisting of 25 high school junior
boys who were 115 IQ or better, were administered an
apperceptive device. Protocols were analyzed in terms of
six continua of perception. The statistical analyses util
izing t and F tests— with a predetermined five per cent
alpha level--demonstrated significant differences between
the groups. Underachievers showed significant and consist
ent differences from achievers in that they: (a) saw them
selves as less adequate; (b) saw themselves as less accept
able to others; (c) saw their peers as less acceptable;
(d) saw adults as less acceptable; (e) showed an inefficient
and less effective approach to problems; (f) showed less
freedom and adequacy of emotional expressions.
The implications of this study were that the under
achiever cannot be treated in terms of any one facet of the
problem. Underachievement must be understood to be a
completely personal and consistent adaptation of the under
achiever to needs and capacities as they are uniquely
experienced. It is because of this unique pattern of the
perceptions that a basic reorganization of the self-concept
must be effected if the underachiever is to be brought to
23
the point where perceptions can encompass success. Further
developments of identifying and exploring specific tech
niques were studied by Kopel and Arkowitz (1975).
The following study by Solway and Fehr (1969) shows
the effects of experimentally induced success and failure on
level of self-acceptance. Self-acceptance has been assumed
too enduring a characteristic to be affected by a single
experience of experimentally induced success or failure
(Stotland, Thorley, Thomas, Cohen, and Zandler, 1957). In
Solway's and Fehr's (1969) study it was expected that exper
imentally induced success and failure would have no signifi
cant effect on self-acceptance. Sixty freshman introductory
psychology students were divided into three groups equated
for level of self-acceptance, age, sex, intelligence, and
probability of endorsement of socially unfavorable items.
To obtain a measure of self-acceptance subjects rated 58
self-referent items (Kennedy, 1958) on two seven-point
rating scales; one scale concerned the "Actual Possession of
a Trait." Each point on the scale represented an increasing
'degree Of judged possession or ideal possession of the trait
The absolute sum' of individual item discrepancies between
the two scales, disregarding direction of discrepancy,
represented level of self-acceptance (Billis, Vance, and
McLean, 1951; Windholz, 1968). An absolute sum - of item
discrepancies equated perceived presence of an unfavorable
trait with perceived absence of a favorable trait in an
24
individual's self-acceptance rating (Ross, Lepper, and Hub
bard , 197 5).
The results, indicating that self-acceptance is not
significantly influenced by success or failure, support
previous data (Harvey, Kelley, and Shapiro, 1957; Stotland,
et al., 1957). These data agree with Rogers' (1951) conten
tion that an individual reacts to his experiences with the
purpose of maintaining and enhancing a favorable self
picture. Since the failure group not only resisted material
which devaluated them but, in fact, increased in self
acceptance, it might be inferred that this behavior compen
sated for their failures or served as a defense for their
failures. Defensive behavior manifested in self-evaluation
has been demonstrated previously (Harvey, et al., 1957), and
further developed (Bennett and Holmes, 1975).
Roth (1959) conducted a study in which he attempted to
test the proposition that there would be significant differ
ences in the self-perceptions of those who improved, did not
improve, and dropped out of a college reading improvement
program. Other findings concerned with self-concept and
grade point average indicated support for the theory that
those who achieve, as well as those who do not, do so as a
result of the needs of their own self-esteem. Any value
entering the system of organization of self-valuation which
is inconsistent with the individual's valuation of himself
cannot be assimilated: it meets with resistance and is
25
rikeTÿV unless general reorganization occurs, to be rejected
(August, Rychlak, and Felker, 197 5).
Davidson and Lang (1960) conducted an experiment to
relate children's perceptions of their teachers' feelings
toward them to self-perception, academic achievement, and
classroom behavior. A check list of Trait Names, consisting
of 3 5 descriptive terms, was administered to 8 9 boys and 114
girls in grades 4, 5, and 6 in New York City public schools.
The children were rated by their teachers for achievement
and on a number of behavioral characteristics.
The major findings were;
1. The children's perception of their teachers' feel
ings toward them correlated positively and signif
icantly with self-perception; the child with the
more favorable self-image was the one who more
likely than not perceived his teachers' feelings
toward him more favorably.
2. Social class position was also found to be posi
tively related with achievement in school.
3. The more positive the children's perception of
their teachers' feelings, the better was their
academic achievement and the more desirable their
classroom behavior as rated by the teachers.
4. Further, children in the upper and middle social
class groups perceived their teachers' feelings
toward them more favorably than did the children in
the lower social class groups.
26
~ ^ However, even when the favorability index data were]
re-analyzed separately for each social class and
for each achievement category, the mean favorabil-
ity index declined with decline in achievement
level, regardless of social class position and,
similarly, the mean favorability index declined
with social class regardless of achievement level.
6. Girls generally perceived their teachers* feelings
more favorably than did the boys.
7. There were some significant classroom differences
in the favorability of the children's perception of
their teachers' feelings. The nonrandom selection
of the sample must be considered in interpreting
the results of the study.
Deutsch and Solomon (1959) conducted a study where they
showed that self-evaluations influence reactions to evalua
tions by others. In this study the self-evaluations com
prised the independent variable and they were experimentally
manipulated. It was a cause-and-effect experiment with a
complex design. The results are based on one essential
assumption: simulated situations. The results support the
hypotheses, but how well the results can be generalized to
real situations, such as the school or the classroom is
questionable.
Morena and Litrownik (1974), working with educable
mentally retarded and emotionally handicapped children.
27
attempted to influence a shift in self-confidence through
modeling procedures consistent with the techniques of
Bandura (1966, 1971). It was concluded that brief exposure
to a self-confident model can effect beneficial changes in
both educable mentally retarded and emotionally handicapped
children, although they appear to differ in their self-
concept development. Further, they concluded that future
attempts to modify self-concepts should include greater
modeling exposure as well as increased opportunity for suc
cessful performance with its Subsequent positive feedback.
Cobb, Chissom, and Davis (197 5) reviewed recent
research demonstrating correlations between psychomotor
skills and academic performance in children. Earlier
reviews were made by Balow (1971), Cratty (1972), and Glass
and Robbins (1967),
Generally, results concerning the effects of various
psychomotor programs on academic performance have been
inconsistent and inconclusive. In some cases, investigators
lave attempted to draw causal relationships directly between
perceptual motor training and academic ability. In view of
the better accepted relationship between self-concept and
academic achievement, an intervening variable of self-con
cept has been proposed as a mediator between psychomotor
I
training and academic achievement (Fleming, 1971).
In an attempt to substantiate the idea that perceptual
motor training correlates with changes in self-concept.
28
which in turn increases academic achievement, Cobb, et al.
(197 5) conducted a correlational analysis which failed to
provide support for the self-concept hypothesis for short
term perceptual-motor training programs. This is not
surprising, as the training program consisted of only three
3 0-second trials on a stabilometer and on a pursuit rotor
apparatus. Because of the brevity of the training, the
study is essentially invalid as an assessment of psychomotor
training effects on self-concept and/or academic achieve
ment. As a correlational study, however, it showed signifi
cant relationships between psychomotor performance and
academic achievements.
It is only during the past 15 years that studies on the
psychological effects of exercise have shifted from vague
and ill-defined concepts such as mental health to the
present focus on the still vague but occasionally
operationally-defined construct of self-concept. Much of
the research on physical activity and self-concept has been
based on a correlational design which limits explorations
of causal effects.
By far, the major working hypothesis of research on
physical exercises and self-concept has assumed that
programs for the development of physical fitness will result
in a better appreciation of body and/or bodily control' with
a subsequent decrease in. the self-ideal-seIf-discrepancy
(Maul and Thomas, 1975).
29
Layman (197 4) has provided an extensive review of
studies pertaining to psychological effects of physical
activity. Of seven studies involving tests of self-concept
before and after a physical developmental program, four
reported improvement in self-concept and three reported no
significant change. Aside from studies involving acquisi
tion of swimming as a skill, efforts to relate self-concept
to training have been for the most part ambiguous or incon
sistent. Torbert (197 2) compared the self-concepts of 100
randomly selected sixth-grade boys ranked in the top 27 per
cent and bottom 27 per cent in motor proficiency. Self-
concept as measured by the Piers-Harris Children's Self-
Concept Scale was found to be positively related to motor
proficiency.
Numerous additional investigations have been made of
special physical education programs and their impact on
self-concept, a relatively large number of which suffer from
a lack of suitable controls, giving rise to the possibility
of a Hawthorne Effect operating to influence the results
(Layman, 1974).
In a somewhat unusual treatment comparison, Fitts and
Hamner (197 0) investigated the self-concept building effects
of a work-oriented program stressing individual, vocational,
and personal skills as compared with a parent-chiId interac
tion program fostering family communication, cohesion, and
solidarity. Subjects were 60 male juvenile delinquents
30
residing within a correctional institution as first-time
offenders. Ages ranged from 15 to 17. Subjects were given
the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale on admission and again
after 120 days in the program. Both groups of 3 0 each were
compared on three scales (total positive score, personal-
self score, and the family-self score). The results suggest
that greater changes in self-concept occur among youths
participating in interpersonal competence and family inter
action than among those involved in a work-oriented program.
Summary
The literature strongly suggests that (1) there is a
positive correlation between self-concept and academic
achievement, (2) self-concept has pervasive and significant
effects, (3) self-concept is amenable to change. There is
also enough support to suggest existence of a relationship
between physical activity programs and self-concept.
.3.1
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
Overview
This chapter deals with procedures used in the study.
Sections of this chapter consider (a) the basic research
design employed in the study, (b) instrumentation, (c) pro
cedure, and (d) methodological assumptions.
Research Design
The Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design (Campbell and
Stanley, 1963, p. 13) was used to test the following null
hypotheses.
1. There is no significant difference between scores
on the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale,
administered twice to the same group of students
with behavioral or affective problems, before and
after they receive Aikido training for a period of
16 weeks.
2. There is no significant difference between scores
on the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale,
administered twice to the same group of students
with behavioral or affective problems, before and
after they receive traditional therapeutic treat-
32
ment for a period o f 16 weeks.
3. There is no significant difference between the
group of students receiving Aikido training and the
group receiving traditional therapeutic treatments,
on their respective scores on the Piers-Harris
Children's Self-Concept Scale.
It was hoped that the rejection of these hypotheses
would provide sufficient support to accept the research
hypothesis: Students with behavioral problems who partici
pate in an Aikido training program will show changes in
their self-concepts as measured by CSCS, and will show more
growth than students with similar problems participating in
traditional therapeutic programs.
Instrumentation
The following psychometric instruments were used in the
investigation.
1. The Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale
(CSCS) (The Way I Feel About Myself). The CSCS
consists of 80 first-person declarative statements
of the type "I am a happy person." The child
responds "yes" or "no." Half of the statements
indicate a positive self-concept and a half, a
negative. Children below the third grade can take
the test if it is read to them. The scale is
standardized on 1183 children (4-12 grades). There
are no consistent sex or grade differences in
33
means. The internal consistency ranges .7 8 - .93;
retest reliability .71 - .77. It is suggested in
Buros (197 2) that most probably the reliability is
higher, on the order of .85. It correlates with
similar instruments to the mid-sixties. The scale
does not correlate unduly with social desirability
and possesses sufficient reliability and validity
to be used in research (Buros). It is recommended
for studies of change in self-concept. Also recom
mended is the use of a control group because scores
tend to increase slightly with retesting. Regard
ing changes in score for an individual, the manual
carefully points out that the magnitude of the
standard error of measurement requires at least a
10-point score difference before a change can be
considered reliable.
2. The Jourard-Secord Body Cathexis Scale (B-C-S) is a
measure of an individual's degree of satisfaction
or dissatisfaction with different parts or
processes of the body. The B-C-S is a 4 5-item
questionnaire which lists various parts and func
tions of the human body. To each item the subject
is asked to respond to a Likert Scale (of one to
five) registering strong positive to strong nega
tive feelings. This instrument is utilized as a
measure of body image. The B-C-S has 4 5 items and
34
a scale of 1-5; scales 1 and 2 are negative coh-'~~"
cerns about body image, 3 is neutral, and 4 and 5
are definitely positive body images.
The independent variable being the Aikido training, a
general description of the martial art will be illustrative.
Aikido literally means "the way of spiritual harmony." A
more Americanized translation is, "the way of serenity."
It is the most modern of Japan's martial arts of
weaponless self-defense. Aikido is a non-fighting, non-
aggressive spiritual martial art whose stated goal is to
abolish conflict. In general, it teaches meditation and
rather complex techniques of body dodges and twirling move
ments, wrist turns and twists, elbow locks and hand throws.
The techniques cause no harm to the opponent or attacker.
It is a pure form of self-defense rather than a sport.
Acquiring skill in Aikido techniques, though tedious,
requires relatively little strength, and the art can be
safely taught to women, children, and even to the elderly.
Aikido is considered ideal for those who wish to learn an
effective means of self-protection without resorting to the
use of harsh or violent actions.
Aikido originated in Japan, There are more than 2,500
techniques, each of which must be learned through personal
instruction for total mastery of the art.
The bodily movements are circular rather than straight
as in Karate. Although general body suppleness is required
for practice, most of the calisthenics involve flexing and
35
strengthening the wrist joints. Most of the techniques
depend on turning or twisting the opponents' attacking hand,
and by twirling oneself about one finds one can easily hurl
the attacker across the room with little effort. Aikido is
relaxed, casual, and not at all fatiguing; its philosophy
emphasizes happiness and serenity; if tension is noticed,
the instructor will recommend extra meditation before con
tinuing the lesson (Leland, 1965) . Detailed descriptions
are given by Tohei (1961) and Uyeshiba (1963).
Procedure
The subjects were 66 male students from schools in
Orange County, between the ages of 12 and 14 years.
Initially, all students referred by the schools to the
Mental Health Department, because of a variety of different
problems, were considered for use in the study. Out of this
population, 66 students were selected on the basis of the
following criteria; withdrawn individual, awkward with
physical body, and generally not active socially. This
selection was made initially by mental health professionals,
within the clinic. Later, the selected students were
further screened by the Jourard-Secord Body Cathexis Scale
to assure a more objectively selected homogenous group of 66
students.
The final sample selected, thus, was defined psychomet-
rically with the Jourard-Secord Body Cathexis Scale. All
subjects obtaining a score of 13 8 or less were eligible.
36
The group of 66 students selected was assigned randomly
to three groups, 22 in each; (a) the Aikido training group,
(b) traditional treatment group, and (c) control group.
After the screening and group assignment, the CSCS was
administered to the total group.
To assure a uniform control of the experimental situa
tions, the same instructions and information were given to
the Aikido instructor and the various individual mental
health professionals participating in the research. The
following instructions served as the format used:
The purpose of this research project is to establish whether
various treatment modalities will effect changes in the self-
concept of the students who have negative self body images, and
which one of the programs will show more positive changes. Each
student will spend two hours per week in treatment for 16 weeks.
There will be a pre- and a post-test administered to each student
before and after the 16-week sessions. The instrument will be
the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale (CSCS),
Group A participated in Aikido training, receiving
Aikido instruction, once a week, two hours each session,
after school hours, for a duration of four months (16
sessions), at which point CSCS was administered again.
Aikido instruction was delivered on a group basis and not
individually, maximizing the opportunity of group interac
tion and feedback among the students.
Group B was in traditional therapeutic treatment pro
grams . These included individual and group therapy of vari
ous methodologies, family therapy, and other treatment
programs except Aikido; they were provided by various mental
health professionals. After four months (16 sessions, two
37
hours per week) CSCS was administered to the group again.
Group C served as the control group. These subjects
did not participate in a prescribed or assigned treatment.
They were on a waiting list; and after four months, CSCS was
administered to them. Pretest-Posttest gain scores were
computed in each of the three groups.
Methodological Assumptions
The following assumptions were made in this study :
1. The research design, control method, and subject
selection procedures used were appropriate to the
intent of the study.
2. The reliability and validity of the test instru
ments used in the investigation were appropriate to
the purpose of the study.
3. Subject selection and assignment to the groups met
the criteria for randomization.
38
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS
Table 1 presents the pre- and posttest mean and gain
scores on the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale
for the three groups. It may be noted that the Aikido group
showed the largest increase. (It had a pretest mean = 44.04
and the posttest mean = 56.45. The mean gain for this group
was 12,41.) Second largest increase in self-concept score
was shown by the traditional treatment group. (Its mean
gain was 6,14, with pretest mean = 44,8 2 and posttest mean =
50,96.) For the control group the mean gain was 1.96, with
pretest mean = 44.63 and posttest mean = 46.59.
Table 1
Pre- and Posttest Mean and Gain Scores on
Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale
Pretest Mean PostteSt Mean Gain
Aikido Group 44.04 56.45 12.41
Traditional Group 44.82 50.96 6.14
Control Group 44.63 46.59 1,96
Dunn's test was used for carrying out multiple compari-
39
sons among means of gain scores of the three groups.
Because the intent was to answer specific questions from the
data rather than to answer a general question, t ratios to
evaluate each comparison are recommended over an F ratio
(Kirk, 1969).
Table 2 shows the differences among mean gain scores
for the three groups and indicates the three significant
differences.
Table 2
Dunn's Multiple Comparison Table
of Differences among Mean Gain Scores
X^=1.96 X^=12.41
X^=1.96 Control Group —— — 4.18* 10.45*
X^=6.14 Traditional Group
---
6.27*
X^=12.41 Aikido Group
---
*Significant at .05 level.
The difference that a comparison must exceed in order to be
declared significant, according to Dunn's procedure, is:
d = 3.88, among three comparisons and three means, where
df = 63 and MS error = 27.19, at « = .05.
The null hypothesis that there is no significant dif
ference between scores on Piers-Harris Children's Self-
Concept Scale administered twice to the same group of stu
dents with behavioral or affective problems, before and
. 4 . 0
after they receive Aikido training, was tested using Dunn's
procedure where the mean gain = 12.41 and Dunn's t = 12.41 -
1.96 = 10.45. At = .05, t = 10.45 > d = 3.88. Therefore,
the null hypothesis was rejected.
The null hypothesis that there is no significant dif
ference between scores on the Piers-Harris Children's Self-
Concept Scale, administered twice to the same group of
students with behavioral or affective problems before and
after they receive traditional therapeutic treatment, was
tested using Dunn's procedure, where the mean gain = 6.14
and Dunn's t = 6.14 - 1.96 = 4.18. At « = .05, t = 4.18 >
d = 3.88. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected.
The null hypothesis that there is no significant dif
ference between the group of students receiving Aikido
training and the group receiving traditional therapeutic
treatment, on their respective scores on Piers-Harris
Children's Self-Concept Scale, was tested using Dunn's pro
cedure, where Dunn's t = 12.41 - 6.14 = 6.27. At = .05,
t = 6.27 > d = 3.88. Therefore, the null hypothesis was
rejected.
A t test of significance performed between pre- and
posttest scores of the control group yielded no significant
difference between the means, where df = 21, t = .87 at
— .05, t < 1.721.
The results of the data analysis led to a decision of
the tenability of the experimental hypothesis set forth in
41
"the studyT""B0tS~tH^AiVrdd“gfoup“an’ d~tHe'tr^'drtldna^^ group
had significantly improved their scores on CSCS compared to
the control group. In addition, the Aikido group yielded
significantly higher scores on CSCS compared to the tradi
tional treatment group*
42
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The purpose of the study was to investigate a training
program that might effect positive changes in the self-
concept of students with behavioral problems. Results of
studies in the field of self-concept strongly suggest that
self-concept has pervasive and significant effects, espe
cially as it correlates positively with academic achieve
ment.
A relationship between organized sports activities and
social development has long been recognized in our school
systen\s. Inherent within a number of sports, there exists a
potential aid to therapy associated with specific techniques
to improve the participant's self-concept.
In this study a form of Oriental art— Aikido— was
introduced as the training program to be investigated. It
was compared with traditional therapies and with a control
situation. The pretest-posttest Control Group Design was
used. The subjects were 6 6 male students between the ages
of 12 and 14 years. Originally referred by schools and/or
parents to the Orange County Department of Mental Health for
a variety of problems, they were screened with the Jourard-
43
Secord Body Cathexis Scale to assure a group with poor body
images. The subjects were assigned randomly to three
groups, 22 in each; (A) the Aikido training group, (Bj) tra
ditional treatment group, and (C) control group— no treat
ment group. After the screening and group assignment the
Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale (CSCS) was
administered to the total group. Group A participated in
Aikido training, receiving Aikido instruction once a week,
two hours each session, after school hours for a duration of
four months--16 sessions, at which point CSCS was admin
istered again. Group B was in traditional therapeutic
treatment programs, including individual and group therapy,
family therapy, etc. The therapies were provided by various
mental health professionals. After four months CSCS was
administered to this group again. Group C served as the
control group. The subjects did not participate in a treat
ment, but were on a waiting list to enroll in the Aikido
class. After four months the CSCS was administered to them
again. Pretest-posttest gain scores were computed in each
of the three groups.
Dunn's test was used for carrying out multiple compari
sons among means of gain scores. The Aikido group and the
traditional group had significantly improved their scores on
CSCS compared to the control group. In addition, the Aikido
group yielded significantly higher scores on CSCS compared
to the traditional treatment group. There was no signifi
cant increase on CSCS for the control group.
______________________________________ ■_____ 44
The following conclusions can be drawn from the study:
1. Aikido training did effect significant positive
. changes in the self-concept of students with behav
ioral problems.
2. Aikido training did effect more growth in the self-
concept of students than did the traditional thera
peutic programs.
3. Interpretations of the results are limited to the
specific population in the study: age 12-14 years,
males, those who have been considered as having
behavioral problems in the school and have scored
low on the Jourard-Secord Body Cathexis Scale.
4. The mental health professionals utilized various
treatment modalities with the contrast group and
their techniques were not under the control of the
experimenter. The results, therefore, cannot be
interpreted to mean that Aikido training is a more
successful therapeutic modality than others.
5. Since the CSCS, the instrument chosen to measure
the changes in self-concept, has been used exten
sively in research, and all other specifications
and requirements of the instrument have been in
accord with the various factors of the research, it
is concluded that the instrument was sensitive to
changes in self-concept and the only other factors
to manipulate could have been the number of the
45
sessions, duration and hours devoted to training,
charisma and personality characteristics of the
leaders.
6. For the purpose of this study the length of the
training time proved to be sufficient to produce
significant changes in the self-concept scores on
CSCS.
The following recommendations can be made on the basis
of this study:
1. The results do not suggest Aikido training to be a
more successful therapeutic modality than others.
This should be explored by comparing it to various
individually defined and identified treatment
modalities.
2. The study does not make claims on the relative
permanence or pervasiveness of changes in the self-
concept of the subjects. A longitudinal study
should provide further clarification.
3. Duration of training should be a factor for further
study.
4. Other age groups and both sexes should be
researched.
5. Further testing is needed to study the effect of
Aikido training on academic performance.
6. A program of Aikido training may be used as one
alternative to develop a more positive self-concept
.46
among adolescents with negative body images. Since^
Aikido in format is non-therapeutic and by defini
tion recreational, it can be incorporated in school
curriculum as a physical education alternative.
47
4 8
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Creator Madenlian, Razmig Badrig (author)

Core Title An experimental study of the effect of aikido training on the self-concept of adolescents with behavioral problems

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