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Discipline with dignity for African American students: effective culturally responsive practices for elementary classroom teachers in third through fifth grade in Los Angeles County urban schools
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Discipline with dignity for African American students: effective culturally responsive practices for elementary classroom teachers in third through fifth grade in Los Angeles County urban schools
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Content
Running head: CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
4
Discipline With Dignity for African American Students: Effective Culturally Responsive
Practices for Elementary Classroom Teachers in Third Through Fifth Grade in Los Angeles
County Urban Schools
by
Sukari Garlington
______________________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2020
Copyright 2020 Sukari Garlington
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
2
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to my amazing husband, Miguel, who has been my
foundation of support throughout this strenuous process. Your commitment as a husband and
father has not gone unnoticed: You took on additional responsibilities and dedicated
immeasurable hours while wearing a smile and saying, “I got this.” You are my best friend,
coach, and biggest motivator. Your words of encouragement and efforts to push me beyond my
limits have supported me to fulfill my personal goal. Thank you for always being by my side and
supporting my dreams and aspirations. This body of work is OUR achievement and represents
that, together, we can make the unimaginable happen.
To my favorite daughter, Aasiyah, you have been a part of my entire educational roller
coaster and have seen firsthand what it took to reach my goal. Thank you for stepping in and
supporting the family through this process. Your willingness to provide a listening ear, unfiltered
advice, and support to your brothers has created a space of trust and respect in our home. As you
begin the last stage of becoming a Licensed Social Worker, I hope my journey represents the
hard work and commitment it takes to achieve a goal. As a woman, I hope this process serves as
a reminder that we CAN achieve anything and are not restricted by social norms. As a fellow
Trojan, continue to Fight On for the most vulnerable populations!
To my favorite eldest son, Miguel, you have been my bookworm partner for the past
three years and personally understand the sacrifice and dedication required to achieve your goals.
Thank you for providing educational advice and feedback throughout this process. As you
embark on your graduate school journey as a Trojan, I hope this process represents that
resiliency, commitment, and hard work equal reaching your challenging goals. As a fellow
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
3
graduate this year, relish in your accomplishments, enjoy the moment, and Fight On until you
accomplish your graduate degree and career!
To my favorite youngest son, Malik, thank you for your understanding throughout this
dissertation process. You sacrificed countless hours of time with me so that I could complete this
dissertation, and I look forward to spending more quality time with you. Thank you for your
words of wisdom, hugs, and that winning smile. Your reassurance gave me the extra push I
needed to get through long nights and missed opportunities to spend time with you. I hope this
process represents that if you work hard at something you want, you can achieve any goal.
Continue to Fight On to be a leader that stands out from the rest. Remember this:
Dreams + Hard work + Dedication = Success!
I also dedicate this dissertation to my mother, Rosemary, and father, Musa. You have
been pillars of support throughout my entire educational journey. I appreciate the love and
support you provided for me in achieving one goal after another. Mommy, thank you for
showing me early on the strength and tenacity it takes to achieve the impossible. Daddy, thank
you for instilling the love of learning and importance of knowledge as a young child. I carry this
love and passion for learning throughout my daily activities. Thank you both for providing
ongoing spiritual guidance during my hurdles of life. All praises be to GOD! I hope that my
achievements have made you proud!
Last, I would like to dedicate this dissertation to the South Los Angeles community and
the students that I serve. Thank you for inspiring me to fight for educational equity. Your lives
serve as reminders of the work that is still needed for Black and Brown students to reach
academic equity and close the achievement gap. I will continue to be your advocate and agent of
change!
Running head: CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
4
Acknowledgements
This process would have not seen fruition without guidance from Dr. Rudy Castruita.
Dr. Castruita, has served as my dissertation chair and provided continuous support throughout
the dissertation process. Dr. Castruita, your positive demeanor, professionalism, and expertise
helped me remain focused on and dedicated to the mission of completing this task. Your constant
reminders about balancing work and home and your encouraging words supported me through
the toughest parts of the dissertation process. Dr. Castruita, it has been an honor to have you as
my dissertation chair. I have grown as an educator and person as a result of watching you display
acts of kindness, passion, and commitment to your work and others. You are the epitome of
what it means to be an instructional leader. I look forward to transitioning from student to friend
as I continue to work toward other personal and professional goals.
I would also like to acknowledge my dissertation committee members, Dr. Dave Cash
and Dr. Alfonso Webb. Dr. Cash, I remember sitting in every class being inspired by your
passion for educational equity. After leaving each class, I reflected on how it would help me
grow as an instructional leader to support the students I serve in South Los Angeles. Your
dedication to social justice is contagious, and I carry your belief in “Every Student, Every
Chance, Every Day” with me as I continue to fight for educational equity and access for the
community I serve. Dr. Webb, thank you for agreeing to participate on my dissertation
committee. I have admired your work at a distance for many years. You are a role model and are
paving the way by inspiring leaders with your unwavering commitment to students across our
district. I look forward to seeking your mentorship and guidance as a professional colleague.
It is with great honor that I join the USC Trojan Family as a graduate. I would like to give
a special thank you to Dr. Burch, Dr. Cash, Dr. Castruita, Dr. Kho, Dr. Muraszweski, Dr. Picus,
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
5
Dr. Samkian, and Dr. Slayton for challenging my thinking and increasing my awareness as an
instructional leader in all facets of education. Your lectures and discussions have made me
reflect and grow as a scholar practitioner. As a result of new learning from each of your classes, I
am an urban leader who is more aware, sensitive, and responsive to the communities I serve.
I would also like to give a special acknowledgement to my dissertation partner, Jose Soto.
We have been colleagues for many years and have shared many professional aspirations. We can
now scratch getting a doctoral degree off our professional bucket list. I know all too well that this
personal endeavor was far more than just an item on the list, and I know what this
accomplishment represents for our families. Thank you for making this rigorous process
pleasurable. Your impromptu comedy, homemade videos, memes, and jokes helped me get
through the tough moments, long nights of class, and laborious writing and study sessions. Your
reassuring words and quotes from musical artists kept me going and laughing. Thank you for
being the ultimate partner and reminding me that our goals are achievable. You have become a
brother to me, and I am blessed to have shared this experience with a likeminded strategist. We
are forever bonded and will always be family! Fight On!
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
6
List of Tables
Table 1. Participating School Districts’ Student Demographic Data
Table 2. Total Survey Participant Data for School District A and School District B
Table 3. School District A and School District B Survey Respondent Demographic Data: Third
Through Fifth Grade
Table 4. Interview Respondents
Table 5. I Consistently Use Culturally Relevant Teaching Strategies to Understand African
American Students in My Classroom
Table 6. I Consider Cultural Background When Responding to Inappropriate Student Behaviors
in My Classroom
Table 7. I Consistently Reward Positive Behaviors With Incentives in Your Classroom
Environment
Table 8. I Consistently Use Individual Incentives to Reward Positive/Desired Behaviors
Manifested by African American Students
Table 9. I Utilize Office Disciplinary Referrals to Document African American Student
Behaviors of Concern
Table 10. I am Comfortable Utilizing Suspension as a Consequence for Pervasive Behaviors
Such as Student Disrespect Toward Adults and Students, Classroom Disruptions, and
Inappropriate Language
Table 11. I Consistently Use Individual Student Reinforcement Systems and Group
Contingencies Such as a Token Economy to Support Positive Behaviors in My
Classroom
Table 12. I Rely on the Use of Student Interest Surveys in My Classroom to Gain a Better
Understanding of My Students
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
7
List of Figures
Figure 1. Representation of Students Who Received Disciplinary Actions Compared
to Overall Student Population, by Student Race or Ethnicity, School Year
2013-2014 ...............................................................................................................
Figure 2. The Prosocial Classroom: A Model of Teacher Social and Emotional
Competence and Classroom and Student Outcomes ..............................................
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
8
Abstract
Based on Culturally Relevant Pedagogy (Ladson-Billings, 1995), the purpose of this
mixed-methods study was to examine the effective positive behavior strategies and practices that
elementary school teachers used to promote a learning environment that supported young
African American students in Los Angeles County urban classrooms. Although Gloria Ladson-
Billings originated the theory of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy in the early 1990s, Dr. Geneva
Gay furthered this research and influenced additional culturally relevant teaching practices of
educators across the nation. Throughout the body of this work, the terms Culturally Relevant
Teaching, Culturally Relevant Pedagogy and Culturally Responsive Teaching were used
interchangeably.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
9
Preface
Some of the chapters of this dissertation were co-authored, and they have been identified
as such. While jointly authored dissertations are not the norm for most doctoral programs, a
collaborative effort is reflective of real-world practices. To meet their objective of developing
highly skilled practitioners equipped to take on real-world challenges, the USC Graduate School
and the USC Rossier School of Education permitted our inquiry team to carry out this shared
venture.
This dissertation is part of a collaborative project between two doctoral candidates,
Sukari Garlington and Jose Soto. We two doctoral students met with several elementary schools
in Los Angeles County to learn about the effective positive behavior support practices used to
support students in the elementary classroom. However, the process for dissecting and resolving
the problem was too large for a single dissertation. As a result, the two dissertations produced by
our inquiry team collectively examine effective positive behavior support practices used to
support African American students in elementary schools throughout Los Angeles County (see
Garlington, 2020; Soto, 2020).
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
10
Table of Contents
Dedication ............................................................................................................................2
Acknowledgements ..............................................................................................................4
List of Tables .......................................................................................................................6
List of Figures ......................................................................................................................7
Abstract ................................................................................................................................8
Preface..................................................................................................................................9
Chapter 1: Overview of the Study .....................................................................................13
Background of the Problem ........................................................................................14
Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................20
Purpose of the Study ...................................................................................................20
Research Questions .....................................................................................................21
Importance of the Study ..............................................................................................22
Limitations ..................................................................................................................23
Delimitations ...............................................................................................................23
Definition of Terms ....................................................................................................23
Organization of the Study ...........................................................................................26
Chapter 2: Literature Review .............................................................................................27
Theoretical Framework ...............................................................................................28
Culturally Relevant Teaching .....................................................................................29
Culturally Responsive Climate ............................................................................30
Culturally Responsive Teachers ..........................................................................31
Factors Contributing to Behavioral and Academic Challenges ..................................32
Poverty .................................................................................................................33
Differential Rates of Disruptive Behaviors .........................................................34
The Cultural Mismatch ........................................................................................34
The Discipline Gap ..............................................................................................36
Social Emotional Learning .........................................................................................38
Classroom Management and Positive Behavior Support ...........................................41
Effective Strategies to Support Desired Behaviors in the Classroom ........................44
Positive Reinforcement .......................................................................................45
Contingent Reinforcement ...................................................................................46
Token Economy ...................................................................................................46
Response Cost .....................................................................................................48
Group Contingencies ...........................................................................................49
Conclusion ..................................................................................................................49
Chapter 3: Methodology ....................................................................................................51
Statement of the Problem, Purpose of Study, and Guiding Research Questions .......51
Sample and Population ...............................................................................................53
Instrumentation ...........................................................................................................54
Quantitative Instrument .......................................................................................54
Qualitative Instrument .........................................................................................55
Data Collection Procedures ........................................................................................55
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
11
Quantitative Data Collection ...............................................................................56
Qualitative Data Collection .................................................................................56
Data Analysis ..............................................................................................................57
Quantitative Data Analysis ..................................................................................58
Qualitative Data Analysis ....................................................................................58
Ethical Considerations ................................................................................................58
Summary .....................................................................................................................59
Chapter 4: Research Results and Findings.........................................................................60
Purpose of the Study ...................................................................................................60
Coding the Data ..........................................................................................................61
Presentation of Findings .............................................................................................62
Descriptive Characteristics .........................................................................................63
Survey Data .........................................................................................................63
Demographics of Participating School Districts .................................................63
Interview Participants ..........................................................................................66
Research Question 1 ...................................................................................................67
Culturally Relevant Teaching Practices ..............................................................67
Culturally Responsive Climate ............................................................................70
Summary of Findings for Research Question 1 ..................................................72
Research Question 2 ...................................................................................................73
Positive Reinforcement .......................................................................................73
Response Cost .....................................................................................................75
Summary of Findings for Research Question 2 ..................................................77
Research Question 3 ...................................................................................................78
Disciplinary Referrals ..........................................................................................78
Suspension ...........................................................................................................80
Supporting Social Emotional Learning ...............................................................83
Summary of Findings for Research Question 3 ..................................................84
Research Question 4 ...................................................................................................85
Group Contingencies/Token Economy ...............................................................85
Knowledge of Students ........................................................................................87
Summary of Findings for Research Question 4 ..................................................89
Summary of the Key Findings ....................................................................................90
Discussion ...................................................................................................................93
Chapter 5: Conclusion........................................................................................................95
Statement of Problem .................................................................................................95
Purpose of the Study ...................................................................................................95
Research Questions .....................................................................................................96
Review of the Literature .............................................................................................97
Design Overview ......................................................................................................101
Key Findings .............................................................................................................103
Comparing and Contrasting Between Grade Levels ................................................105
Implications for Practice ...........................................................................................108
Limitations ................................................................................................................109
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
12
Recommendations for Future Study .........................................................................110
Conclusion ................................................................................................................110
References ........................................................................................................................112
Appendices
Appendix A: Participant Survey Instrument ....................................................................128
Appendix B: Interview Instrument ..................................................................................131
Appendix C: Superintendent Cover Letter ......................................................................133
Appendix D: Participant Cover Letter .............................................................................134
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
13
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Authors: Sukari Garlington and Jose Soto
1
Introduction
Elementary teachers face many challenges in educating the youth of today (Colvin, 2010;
Gay, 2002). On a daily basis, teachers are pressured to increase high-stakes test scores,
differentiate instruction for diverse learners, and to do more with less funding (Colvin, 2010).
These problems are compounded in urban elementary schools, which may have larger class
sizes, less funding, and a more diverse student population. Creating a classroom environment
that promotes the academic and social emotional growth of students of color is important, and
teachers should emphasize safety, empower all students, and develop collaborative partnerships
between children and adults (Craig, 2016). Student diversity creates challenges in the classroom
if teachers are not familiar with Culturally Relevant Teaching (CRT) and do not use the “cultural
characteristics, experiences, and perspectives of ethnically diverse students as conduits for
teaching them more effectively” (Gay, 2002, p. 106).
African American students receive a disproportionate share of the suspensions,
disciplinary referrals, expulsions, and special education referrals that occur in schools across the
nation. African American students are three to seven times more likely than their White peers to
receive a suspension as a consequence for misbehavior (Raffaele Mendez & Knoff, 2003). In
addition, African American students are more likely to receive disciplinary referrals from
teachers for less serious offenses, such as disrespect and excessive noise, and to receive
suspensions and expulsions as consequences for the same or similar behavioral offenses (Skiba,
Graham, Sheras, Conoley, & Garcia-Vazquez, 2008). A nation-wide study of student discipline
1
Chapters One, Two, and Three were jointly written by the authors listed in alphabetical order. Authors used a team
approach in this research study and equally contributed to each chapter.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
14
referrals showed that 43% of disciplinary referrals in kindergarten through sixth grade were
administered to African American students (Skiba et al., 2008). Behaviorally at-risk African
American students are also overrepresented in special education programs; 73% of African
American students referred and evaluated for special education qualified for services (Decker,
Dona, & Christenson, 2007). African American students are more likely than their White peers
to receive suspensions and expulsions as consequences for the same or similar behavioral
offenses (Skiba et al., 2008).
African American students account for over 40% of the total K-12 student population in
schools across the nation, yet only 17% of teachers are from similarly diverse backgrounds
(Boser, 2011). In addition, proactive behavior management, including clearly sated
expectations, anticipating student struggles, and precorrecting for undesired behaviors, in tandem
with culturally relevant teaching, can create an understanding of the association between a
student’s culture and their behavior (Larson, Pas, Bradshaw, Rosenberg, and Dave-Vines, 2018).
Improving the school success of ethnically diverse students through culturally relevant teaching
requires providing teachers with opportunities to learn and understand the knowledge, attitudes,
and skills necessary to serve African American students (Gay, 2002).
Background of the Problem
The disproportionate discipline practices for African American students has been a
historical issue in the United States (Gregory, 1997; Raffaele Mendez & Knoff, 2003; Skiba,
Michael, Nardo, & Peterson, 2002). Over the past 40 years, African American students have
been suspended at significantly higher rates than their White peers. Both national and state data
revealed consistent patterns of disproportionality in school discipline among African Americans
(Gregory, Skiba & Noguera, 2010).Vincent, Tobin, Hawken, and Frank (2012) argue that
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
15
students from non-White backgrounds, particularly African American students, experience
poorer discipline and academic outcomes than their White peers. National and state data reveal
consistent patterns of disproportionality in school discipline among African Americans (Gregory
et al., 2010). In the 1970s, data from the Office of Civil Rights, which is a sub-agency of the
U.S. Department of Education, revealed that African Americans were at twice the risk of
receiving out-of-school suspensions as their White peers (Skiba, Horner, Chung, Rausch, May,
& Tobin, 2011). In addition, a national study conducted by Children’s Defense Fund in 1975
reported that African American students were two to three times more likely to be suspended for
disciplinary incidents when compared to their White peers. A nationally representative study
utilizing parent reports showed similar patterns: one in five African American students in the
study had been suspended, compared to only one in 10 White students (KewelRamni et al.,
2007). The data suggested that African American students were more frequently subjected to
harsher discipline practices (Gregory & Mosely, 1996) and were less likely than other students to
receive alternative discipline interventions (McFadden et al., 1992). The research demonstrates
that over the past 40 years African American students are suspended at disproportionately higher
rates than their White peers which has led to the to a discipline gap within the United
States. Russ (2014) defines the discipline gap as the disproportionate disciplinary responses by
teachers to one race when compared to others. A national study conducted by Children Defense
Fund in 1975 reported that African American students were two to three times more likely to be
suspended for disciplinary incidents when compared to their White peers.
More recent data revealed that this trend is still evident across the United States.
According to the U.S. Department of Education (2014), African American students are 3.8 times
more likely to receive one or more suspensions than their White peers. This highlights the
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
16
overuse of disciplinary practices used by teachers to address the inappropriate classroom
behaviors of African American students (Smith & Harper, 2015).
In 2014, the U.S. Department of Education released a policy statement that described
“stark racial and gender disparities” in disciplinary consequences for young students of color,
and evidence showed that African American students were suspended and expelled more
frequently than students of other ethnicities (as cited in Reno, Friend, Caruthers, & Smith, 2017).
The continual removal of African American students from their educational settings for extended
periods of time decreases the amount of time devoted to learning (Joubert, Bonner, Lewis, &
Butler, 2010). Furthermore, research showed that African American students who are constantly
reprimanded for classroom misbehavior may become less attached to school, less invested in
schoolwork, less inclined to follow school rules, and consequently, less motivated to achieve
academic success (Gregory et al., 2010).
Utilizing effective teaching and discipline strategies to increase learning outcomes for
students of color is key to disrupting the high discipline rates for African American students. In
educational settings, policies, expectations, and practices reflect the values of the individuals
who create them (Monroe, 2004). In the classroom, teachers are the leaders and have the
authority to determine consequences that are suitable for inappropriate behaviors. In 2012, 82%
of public education teachers were White, while 16% of their students were African American
(U.S. Department of Education, 2016a). Monroe and Obidah (2004) argued that higher
disproportionality exists when cultural synchronization is not present between teachers and
students in the classroom. When teachers misinterpret behaviors in the classroom, it leads to the
unnecessary disciplining of African American students. As an example, Monroe (2005a)
indicated that elevated voice levels, displays of emotion, and pupil-to-pupil interactions were
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
17
considered inappropriate behaviors in the classroom, yet they were associated with African
American culture. The actions of African American students, therefore, are often misinterpreted
and penalized because teachers may not fully understand the cultural background and
socioeconomic status of African American students, which may differ from the institutional
norms of the school staff (Ferguson 2000; Obidah & Teel, 2001).
Culturally Relevant Teaching (CRT) practices are intended to increase opportunities for
cultural synchronization and, ultimately, to address the issue of disproportionate disciplinary
practices. Gay (2002) defined CRT as using cultural knowledge, experiences, perspectives, and
the heritage of different ethnic and racial groups to teach students more effectively. CRT is a tool
that can be used to help guide teachers to develop effective ways to instruct their students (Griner
& Steward, 2012). In a study by Ladson-Billings (1990), African American students were
shown to be more successful in school when the school culture paralleled their home culture.
Although CRT is intended to help teachers work with diverse populations, school staff lack
appropriate implementation due to the absence of clear examples and tools for best practices
(Fiedler et al., 2008). If implemented correctly, CRT enables practitioners to consider the
possible cultural underpinnings of behaviors traditionally perceived as disruptive (Monroe &
Obidah, 2004). Implementing CRT will supports teachers in building meaningful relationships
with students and making cultural connections with African Americans students at low
performing schools.
Research on positive behavior support in the classroom has yielded many effective
classroom strategies that promote the academic and social emotional growth of students (Colvin,
2010). Behavioral interventions based on the principles of Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA)
have been utilized in elementary classrooms to support students with persistent behavioral
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
18
challenges. ABA is a scientific approach for discovering environmental factors that contribute to
socially significant behaviors and the behavior change interventions that take practical advantage
of those discoveries (Cooper et al., 2007). Teachers rely on the use of positive behavior
supports, such as individual reinforcement or group contingencies, behavioral interventions
including a schedule of reinforcement, and student self-monitoring systems (Bloh & Axelrod,
2008).
In recent years, educators have adopted the use of Social Emotional Learning (SEL)
curricula to support socialization the development of life skills within the classroom environment
(Catalano, et al., 2002). Elias et al. (1997) defined SEL as the process through which children
develop skills, values, and attitudes to acquire social and emotional competence by recognizing
and managing emotions, developing positive relationships, and avoiding negative behaviors.
These skills are particularly important and are linked to long-term behavior implications (Zins,
Bloodworth, Weissberg, & Walberg, 2007). Increasing opportunities for students to develop
these skills using SEL curricula in the educational setting can create opportunities for positive
interactions with peers and help to lower student suspension (Elias et al. (1997). Lopes and
Salovey (2004) postulated that the educational process was negative for students when the
attention and resources were focused only on academics. Furthermore, developing social
emotional skills separate from the core curriculum reduces the probability that students exposed
to risk factors will engage in problem behavior (Catalano, 2002).
Today, schools are faced with the challenge of developing 21st century learners who are
socially and academically competent to navigate our evolving society (Buchanan et al., 2009). In
addition, teachers are confronted with students who have traumatic childhood experiences that
impact their educational involvement and engagement with the curriculum. Kaiser Permanente
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
19
conducted an Adverse Childhood Experience (ACE) survey with 17,000 members between 1997
and 1995 (Centers of Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2016). The study revealed that
two thirds of the participants had at least one ACE, while one in five reported having three or
more ACEs (CDC, 2016). Exposure to ACEs, such as substance abuse, physical abuse or
neglect, emotional abuse, verbal abuse, and domestic violence, has serious implications for
student academic achievement and overall wellbeing. The CDC (2016) reported that ACEs
increased the risks of poor achievement, health problems, and drug and alcohol use.
Incorporating SEL curriculum might support students who experienced ACEs in their emotional
development. Because schools play a key role in developing and nurturing positive social
interactions, it is important for SEL to be a part of the educational process to benefit all students
(Zins et al., 2007). SEL programs continue to have a positive impact on student behaviors and
interactions; however, schools continue to adopt zero tolerance suspension policies that
concentrate on punitive measures to discipline students. Teachers are the leaders and play a
pivotal role in developing a positive classroom climate that promotes social emotional learning
for students (Haynes, Ben-Avie, & Ensign, 2003). The mismatch between students’ needs and
teachers’ expectations can negatively impact the quality of the teacher/student relationships,
therefore, decreasing positive social and emotional experiences (Hughes & Cavell, 1999).
Urban elementary educators encounter many challenges that impact managing behaviors
in the classroom. Teachers are confronted with obstacles that make it difficult to respond to both
the demands of instruction and the social emotional development of their students. African
American students are subjected to disciplinary actions that are inequitable when compared to
their peers (Skiba, et al., 2011). African American students are suspended and expelled more
frequently than other ethnic groups because teachers do not fully understand their cultural
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
20
differences or have the knowledge, attitude, and necessary skills to serve students of color (Gay,
2002; Reno et al., 2017). Educators need to use effective tools and implement plans that promote
a positive, safe climate so that they can provide academic rigor and encouraging social
experiences.
Statement of the Problem
There is an urgent need for elementary educators to employ discipline practices that
improve the academic achievement of African American students. Research continues to
demonstrate that African American students receive high rates of suspension when compared to
those of their White peers. Moreover, a number of factors including culturally biased discipline
practices and low socioeconomic status appear to contribute to the persistence of this problem
(Skiba et al., 2008). While there is wealth of literature focused on the disproportionate
suspensions, expulsions, and disciplinary referrals of African American students, there is very
little research on the essential culturally relevant strategies in conjunction to positive behavior
support strategies to support African American e students in the elementary classroom. Skiba et
al. (2002) emphasized the need to better understand the school response to discipline and the
culturally biased practices among staff. The disproportionate suspension rate of African
American students within the United States has been consistent for the past 40 years, and there is
a need to address the discipline gap by identifying research-based strategies and interventions
that improve academic outcomes for students of color.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine, through the lens of culturally relevant
pedagogy (Ladson-Billings, 1995a), the positive behavior strategies and practices that
elementary school teachers in Los Angeles County used to promote a learning environment that
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
21
supported young African American students. The researchers for this study analyzed the
practices and beliefs of elementary school teachers who implemented positive behavioral
strategies that supported ethnically diverse students in their urban classrooms. The researchers
also explored how teachers perceived the behavioral challenges of African American students in
their classroom and examined their understanding of culturally relevant teaching. This research
investigated elementary teachers’ beliefs, knowledge, skills, and practices and shed light on
successful strategies that may or may not have connected with Culturally Relevant Pedagogy
Theory. This study also investigated the behavior strategies that supported African American
students in the classroom and limited the disproportionate disciplinary consequences that
reprimanded students and caused them to become less attached to school, less invested in
schoolwork, and less inclined to follow school rules (Gregory et al., 2010). The results of this
study highlight the effective positive behavior practices that elementary school teachers in Los
Angeles County used to improve the academic achievements of African American students in
their urban classrooms.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided our study:
1. Through the lens of Culturally Relevant Teaching Theory (CRT), what are the
positive behavior strategies most commonly used by elementary school teachers to
support the behavioral challenges of African American students in the urban
classroom?
2. Through the lens of Culturally Relevant Teaching Theory, what do elementary
teachers believe are effective positive behavior strategies that support the academic
achievement of African American students?
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
22
3. Through the lens of Culturally Relevant Teaching, how do elementary school teachers
measure the effectiveness of their positive behavior practices toward African
American students in their classroom?
4. Through the lens of Culturally Relevant Teaching, what behavioral support practices
are used within the learning environment to support an ethnically diverse classroom?
Importance of the Study
African American students continue to receive a disproportionate amount of disciplinary
consequences; African American students are three to seven times more likely to receive
suspensions for disciplinary infractions or to be referred for special education services for
disruptive behaviors than non-African American students (Raffaele Mendez & Knoff, 2003;
Skiba et al., 2008). Research in the field demonstrates that African American students who are
constantly reprimanded for disciplinary infractions become less motivated to achieve academic
success in school (Gregory et al., 2010). However, “Even after decades of research, African
American students continue to be disproportionally represented in exclusionary disciplinary
actions” (Larson et al., 2018, p. 153), and there is a lack of proactive behavior management and
use of culturally responsive teaching practices in the classroom (Larson et al., 2018). Teachers
working with African American students should have a “clear understanding of their own and
others’ culture” to connect with their students and create a culturally responsive classroom
environment (Larson et al., 2018, p. 155). Ladson-Billings (1990) argued that African American
students were more successful in school when there was a parallel connection between home and
school. Larson et al. (2018) hypothesized that using CRT practices would improve African
American students’ behavior outcomes and create equity within the classroom. However,
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
23
research linking culturally responsive teaching and student behavior outcomes has been
inconclusive (Larson et al., 2018).
This study is important because it critically analyzed and identified effective behavior
strategies used in the elementary classroom that supported African American students and
limited the disproportionate use of disciplinary consequences. This research also attempted to
identify whether there was a link between CRT, positive classroom behavior management, and
student outcomes. In the field of elementary school education, more research is needed for
identifying effective behavior management strategies that support a culturally diverse classroom.
Limitations
This study focused on effective teacher strategies to support African American students
in urban elementary schools within Los Angeles County. This limited its representativeness
because it did not include information from elementary teachers who worked with African
American students in non-urban schools.
Delimitations
A delimitation of this study was the geographic boundaries. Teachers who participated in
this study worked in urban elementary schools located within Los Angeles County, California.
Definition of Terms
The terms that follow were used throughout the study:
Contingent Reinforcement: The clear and explicit appropriate behaviors expected from
students in the classroom and the consequences that will ensue for compliance and
noncompliance (Cooper et al., 2007).
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
24
Cultural Mismatch: The cultural differences and lack of cultural synchronization between
teachers and students that can lead to devastating learning experiences for ethnically diverse
students (Antón, 1999; Cho & Reich, 2008; Monroe & Obidah, 2004).
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Theory: The theory to build cultural proficiency amongst
students comprised of three criteria: (1) students experiencing academic success; (2) students
developing and maintaining cultural competence; and (3) students developing a critical
consciousness through which they challenge the status quo of the current order (Ladson-
Billings, 1995a).
Culturally Relevant Teaching (CRT) Theory: The use of cultural knowledge, experience,
perspectives, and the heritage of different ethnic and racial groups to teach diverse students
more effectively (Gay, 2002).
Culturally Responsive Climate: A classroom climate that is culturally sensitive and
demonstrates caring and culturally responsive learning communities (Gay, 2002).
Culturally Responsive Teacher: A teacher able to recognize the need to modify his or her
own knowledge and training through the use of variations in teaching modalities while
paying attention to classroom contexts and individual student needs (Gay, 2002; Irvine et al.,
2001; Ladson-Billings, 1994).
Discipline Gap: The racial and ethnic disproportionality constrained by simplistic
dichotomies that artificially pit individual student characteristics (e.g., student aggression,
disengagement from school) against systemic factors (e.g., school administrators’ implicit
bias, community violence) as the reason why some groups are overrepresented in suspension
or expulsion (Skiba et al., 2008).
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
25
Group Contingencies: A contingency in which reinforcement for all members of a group is
dependent on the behavior of (a) a person within the group, (b) a select group of members
within the larger group, or (c) each member of the group meeting a performance criterion.
(Cooper et al., 2007)
Lower Grades: Kindergarten through second grade
Positive Behavior Support: The broad enterprise of helping people develop and engage in
adaptive, socially desirable behaviors to overcome patterns of destructive and stigmatizing
behavioral responses using positive reinforcement (Koegel, Koegel, & Dunlap, 1996).
Positive Reinforcement: The naturally occurring phenomenon used to describe pleasant
events or rewards given to a student who exhibits replacement behavior as part of a behavior
change plan (Alberto & Troutman, 2013).
Response Cost: The contingent loss of reinforcers and a form of negative punishment that
produced a decrease in the frequency of undesired behaviors using classroom fines (Cooper
et al., 2007).
School Climate: The feelings and attitudes that are elicited by a school’s environment, based
upon the physical, academic, and social dimensions (Loukas, 2007).
Social Emotional Learning: The process through which children develop skills, values, and
attitudes to acquire social and emotional competence by recognizing and managing emotions,
developing positive relationships, and avoiding negative behaviors (Elias et al., 1997).
Token Economy: The procedure for administering generalized secondary reinforcers, such as
tokens, points, stickers, stars, or tickets, to students demonstrating target behaviors so that
they can later redeem or exchange them for a preferred classroom item, activity, and/or
reward (Kearney, 2015).
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
26
Upper Grades: Third through fifth grade.
Organization of the Study
This study was organized into five chapters. The first chapter introduced the study and
included a statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, and the research questions that
guided the research. The second chapter contains a literature review that focused on exploring
effective positive behavior strategies to support African American students in the elementary
classroom. The third chapter introduces the methodology used for this study, including data
collection, protocols, and the rationale for this study. The fourth chapter discusses the results
and outcomes of this study. The fifth chapter serves as the conclusion of the study; it includes the
implications of this study and recommendations for further research.
Chapter 2 provides a review of the literature that outlines the historical perspective of
disproportionate disciplinary consequences for African American youth in public schools, the
research on effective strategies used to remediate the disproportionate disciplinary practices used
for African American students, and the link between CRT and positive behavior practices in the
classroom.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
27
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Authors: Sukari Garlington and Jose Soto
2
A large body of research collected over the past four decades found that disciplinary
practices in schools across the United States disproportionately affect African American
students. Scholarly research has consistently demonstrated that African Americans receive high
rates of disciplinary referrals, suspensions, and expulsions when compared to their White peers
(Moore, 2006a); Skiba et al., 2008). A national study conducted by the Children’s Defense Fund
in 1975 found that African American students were three times more likely than White students
to receive suspensions for similar acts of misbehavior. Due to the disproportionately high rates of
disciplinary referrals, suspensions, and expulsions, African American students experience poorer
academic outcomes than their White peers (Gregory, 1997; Raffaele Mendez & Knoff, 2003;
Skiba et al., 2002; Vincent, Swain-Bradway, Tobin, & May, 2012).
Monroe (2006) suggested that over the past 30 years the data has demonstrated that
student discipline rates for African American students far exceeds their statistical representation
and is highlighted on measures of suspension and expulsion in most major school districts. More
recent data revealed that this trend is still evident across the nation. In their study of suspension
practices in a large, ethnically diverse school district, Raffaele Mendez and Knoff (2003) found
that African American students were three to seven times more likely to be suspended for
undesirable behaviors than their White peers. A report from the Office for Civil Rights (OCR;
2014) demonstrated that students of color maintained disproportionately high suspension and
expulsion rates across the United States and were three times more likely to be suspended or
expelled than White students. This chapter provides an introduction to the historical evidence
2
Chapters One, Two, and Three were jointly written by the authors listed in alphabetical order. Authors used a team
approach in this research study and equally contributed to each chapter
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
28
highlighting the disproportionate rates of suspension, expulsion, and disciplinary referrals for
African American students. It also includes an analysis of the theoretical framework of this
study, factors contributing to the behavioral and academic challenges experienced by African
American students in public schools, research on current effective practices to support African
American students in the classroom, and concluding remarks.
Theoretical Framework
The conceptual framework for this study is based on the Culturally Relevant Pedagogy
(CRP) theory. CRP theory is used as a framework to explain the need for equitable
implementation of discipline practices for African American students in this inquiry. The
disproportionate disciplining of African American students has been extensively documented
(OCR, 2016; Skiba et al., 2002). African Americans students consistently receive harsher
discipline, including exclusionary and punitive consequences, than their White peers (Skiba et
al., 2011). CRP theory is appropriate for this study because it examines cultural discrepancies
that exist between a teacher and a student. CRP humanizes pedagogy that respects and uses the
reality, history, and perspectives of students as integral parts of the educational practices
(Bartolome, 1994) . It requires teachers to participate in critical reflection and engage in
reflective action as a tool for addressing social and emotional issues pertaining to race and
culture (Howard, 2003). Ladson-Billings (1995b) explained that CRP encompasses three criteria
to measure cultural proficiency: “(a) students must experience academic success; (b) students
must develop and or maintain cultural competence; and (c) students must develop a critical
consciousness through which they challenge the status quo of the current order” (p 160).
Students are required to improve their academic skills despite inequities that exist within
the educational system. This requires that teachers attend to academic needs and demand
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
29
academic excellence of their students (Ladson-Billings, 1995b). Gay (2002) argued that being an
effective teacher requires mastering both pedagogy and content knowledge. Utilizing appropriate
culturally relevant strategies to improve learning environments has been shown to decrease the
inappropriate suspensions of African American students. Gay (2002) and Howard (1999)
teachers are inadequately prepared to teach ethnically diverse students and cannot teach what
they do not know or. Brown (2004) asserted that in order to increase cultural competence,
teachers have to engage in behaviors that will meet the needs of students. CRP creates inclusive
environments that emphasize experiences and the languages and cultures of diverse learners.
Culturally Relevant Teaching
Disciplining students is more complicated than controlling student behaviors by
administering sanctions for inappropriate behavior. It entails creating and sustaining classroom
environments that are personally comfortable, racially and ethnically inclusive, and intellectually
stimulating (Evertson & Weinstein, 2011). Teachers are at the forefront of creating safe learning
spaces for students to develop academically, socially, and emotionally. Culturally Relevant
Teaching (CRT) practices has been shown to increase opportunities for students of color to feel
comfortable in an educational setting (Gay, 1995). . Gay (2010) defined culturally responsive
teaching as using ethnically diverse students’ prior experiences, cultural knowledge, and frame
of reference to make learning experiences more relevant and effective. Gay (2018) asserted that
“teachers must learn how to recognize, honor, and incorporate the personal abilities of students
into their teaching strategies. If this is done, then school achievement will improve” (p. 1).
Culturally relevant teachers utilize students’ culture as a vehicle for learning (Ladson-
Billings, 2009). Culturally Responsive teachers also participate in practices that foster students’
academic success while empowering them to challenge inequities (Brown & Crippen, 2016).
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
30
CRT recognizes the role that cultural socialization plays in how students receive, analyze, and
interpret information (Allen & Boykin, 1992; Au & Jordan, 1981; Cazden & Leggett, 1981). Gay
(2018) argued that teaching is more effective when teachers use cultural knowledge, heritage,
perspective, and the experiences of students from different ethnic and racial groups. In addition,
Griner and Stewart (2012) suggested that CRT is an instrument that supports teachers with
effective ways to instruct students. Other researchers described CRT as an effective resource for
meeting the social and academic demands of culturally diverse students (Gay, 2018; Howard,
2001; Ladson-Billings, 1994; Shade, Kelly, & Oberg, 1997).
Culturally Responsive Climate
Students face many challenges beyond the walls of the school that extend to their homes
and communities. Fostering a culture that is focused on creating a positive learning environment
has been shown to increase academic achievement for students of color. . To promote student
learning and engagement, educators can examine their beliefs and practices (Manning & Bucher,
2007). This requires teachers to be culturally sensitive and demonstrate caring and culturally
responsive learning communities (Gay, 2002). Implementing culturally responsive approaches to
education and discipline increases students’ academic achievements (Durden, 2008). Instruction
and classroom management are linked, and teachers who are unprepared, disorganized, and lack
cultural competence of their students will encounter behavior problems (Howard, 2003; Manning
& Bucher, 2007). Lew and Nelson (2016) noted that in order to effectively manage a classroom,
teachers must be confident in their ability to be culturally responsive, set clear classroom
expectations, model positive behaviors, and enforce consequences.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
31
Culturally Responsive Teachers
Public school teachers face many challenges when implementing classroom management
strategies in the classroom. A lack of familiarity with students from different cultures is one such
challenge because it may cause teachers to overact and implement unnecessary rules and
regulations (Irvine et al., 2001). Howard (2003) emphasized,
To become culturally relevant, teachers need to engage in honest, critical reflection that
challenges them to see how their positionality influences their students in either positive
or negative ways. Critical reflection should include an examination of how race, culture,
and social class shape students’ thinking, learning, and various understandings of the
world. (p. 197)
Impediments in students’ progress stem from the lack of cultural synchronization
between teachers and students (Irvine, 1990). Monroe and Obidah’s (2004) qualitative study in
an urban public school revealed that cultural synchronization between teachers and students
improved classroom management and assisted in effective discipline practices for African
American students. Higher disproportionality exists when cultural synchronization is not present
between teachers and students in the classroom (Monroe & Obidah, 2004). For example,
Monroe (2005b) indicated that elevated voice levels, displays of emotions, and pupil-to-pupil
interactions were considered inappropriate behaviors in the classroom, yet were associated with
African American culture. Teachers who examine their personal beliefs about classroom
management and provide appropriate supports for learners in the environment respond to
students more effectively (Lew & Nelson, 2016) In addition, identifying their strengths and
areas of weakness, examining their practices, and developing a classroom management plan will
help teachers become more culturally responsive (Bosch, 2006). Monroe (2005c) suggested that
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
32
teachers are encouraged to modify their own behaviors to limit inappropriate culturally based
discipline practices within the classroom. To address the inaccurate culturally based discipline
sanctions, teachers must understand their own worldview and accept their biases within the
profession. This connection to cultural behaviors will equip teachers with the tools to better
understand other cultures and ethnicities (Monroe, 2006b). Howard (2003) explained that
critical reflection is necessary within a diverse setting and requires teachers to engage in deeper
levels of self-knowledge and to acknowledge that one’s worldview can shape students and
outcomes (Howard, 2003).
Cultivating cross-cultural understanding helps to increase teacher confidence when
addressing student behaviors and supports lowering classroom discipline referrals (Monroe,
2005a). Bosch (2006) affirmed classroom management is a skill that must be learned, practiced,
and modified to meet the needs of a changing classroom. Developing a culture of inquiry that
embraces positive behavior supports and culturally responsive pedagogical practices will help to
decrease discipline referrals and suspensions of African American students while improving
academic outcomes
Factors Contributing to Behavioral and Academic Challenges
The behavioral and academic challenges that African American students face in the
education system are underscored in large bodies of scholarly literature. African American
students are overly represented in office disciplinary referrals, suspensions, and expulsions
(Bradshaw, Mitchell, O’Brennan, & Leaf, 2010; Skiba et al., 2011). In their study on the
disproportionality of school discipline for African American and Latino students, Skiba et al.
(2011) postulated that possible mechanisms contributing to disciplinary disparities by ethnicity
included poverty, differential rates of disruptive behaviors across school settings, and a “cultural
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
33
mismatch or racial stereotyping”. Skiba et al. (2011) also hypothesized that students of color
participated in higher levels of classroom disruption due to a variety of factors and stressors
associated with poverty. Their study showed that African American students in elementary
school were twice as likely as White students to receive office disciplinary referrals (ODRs).
Bradshaw et al. (2010) argued that these referrals had a negative effect on African American
students because they reduced opportunities for learning and led to other risks including truancy,
suspension, gang affiliation, and school failure.
Poverty
The disproportionality in the implementation of disciplinary practices for African
American students has been highly connected to race and socioeconomic status (Skiba et al.,
2011). Brantlinger (1991) argued that low socioeconomic status (SES) was found to be a major
risk factor for African American students and was consistently connected to out-of-school
suspensions. Skiba et al. (2002) posited that students receiving free school lunch were at an
increased risk for school suspension and received more severe consequences from teachers when
compared to high-income students. In his qualitative study of socioeconomic class and
punishment, Brantlinger (1991) found that high-income students reported receiving mild to
moderate consequences for misbehavior, including teacher reprimand and/or seat reassignment,
while students of low SES reported receiving more severe consequences, including public
reprimands, exclusion from the classroom, and a search of personal belongings. Gregory et al.
(2010) claimed that students in high-poverty, urban neighborhoods experienced adversity,
including exposure to violence and substance abuse, which increased their likelihood of
receiving disciplinary consequences.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
34
Differential Rates of Disruptive Behaviors
The disciplinary practices used by teachers to address student behavior has demonstrated
stark differences between African American students and their White peers (Skiba et al., 2011).
African American students are more likely to receive harsher levels of punishment for low-level
infractions than other students, and they receive disciplinary referrals for offenses, such as
disrespect or loitering, that are based on teacher subjectivity (Skiba et al., 2011). Bradshaw et al.
(2010) suggested that cultural discontinuity between African American students’ homes and
schools for African American students increases the likelihood of misconduct, especially when
students perceive a lack of respect, differential treatment, and low teacher expectations. Further,
Skiba et al. (2002) asserted that higher rates of punishment for African American students were
due to the correspondingly high frequencies of disruptive behaviors manifested by students at
school. Finally, Skiba et al. (2011) remarked that African American students scored lower on
achievement tests than their White peers and showed frustration in the classroom, which may
have contributed to a higher rate of school disruption.
The Cultural Mismatch
The teaching force in most school districts across the United States is predominantly
composed of White females (Zumwalt & Craig, 2005). In the early 2000s, one of every three
students enrolled in elementary and secondary schools was a minority, whereas 87% of teachers
were White females (Cross, 2003; Sleeter, 2001; Villegas & Lucas, 2002). Data from the U.S.
Department of Education (2016) displayed that in 2012, African American students accounted
for 16% of public education enrollment, whereas 82% of public education teachers were White.
More recent data from the National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES, 2018) showed that
in the 2015-2016 school year, 79.7% of all public education elementary school teachers were
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
35
White. Monroe (2004) argued that policies and practices in an educational setting reflect the
beliefs of the individuals who created them. Given that the majority of publication education
teachers are White females, it may be that a cultural mismatch between teachers and African
American students is contributing to the disproportionality in disciplinary consequences for
students. Student disengagement is more common when there is a mismatch between school
values and what is being modeled in the home and community (American Psychological
Association [APA] Task Force, 2008; Obiakor, Algozzine, & Ford, 1993; Tyler et al., 2008).
Bradshaw, et al., 2010 suggest that this mismatch in values can increase the likelihood of
misinterpretation of what is considered appropriate behavior by students and what is acceptable
behavior by administrators (Skiba et al., 2008).
The cultural differences and lack of cultural synchronization between teachers and
students can lead to devastating learning experiences for students (Antón, 1999; Cho & Reich,
2008; Monroe & Obidah, 2004). Monroe and Obidah (2004) argue that disproportionality
increases when cultural synchronization is not present between teachers and students in the
classroom. Studies have found that there is some indication that teachers make decisions about
student achievement and discipline based on racially conditioned characteristics (Skiba et al.,
2011). Gay (2002) argued that student diversity created challenges for teachers if they were not
familiar with their students’ cultural backgrounds. In addition, a teacher’s lack of cultural
understanding contributes to misinterpreting behaviors in the classroom and leads to strained
relationships and the unnecessary disciplining of African American students. Moreover, the lack
of teacher and student connections also overwhelms the educational community and causes more
disconnect between home and school (Griner & Stewart, 2012).
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
36
Due to the increase risk of feeling less connected to school as a result of this cultural
mismatch (Greenwood, Horton, & Utley, 2002), it is not surprising that African American youth
also experience an increased risk of academic failure (NCES, 2004). Hollie (2012) remarked that
teachers must learn to separate cultural behaviors from wrong behaviors. Students from diverse
backgrounds that do not match the culture of the school can pose a challenge for teachers,
especially in terms of building relationships and participating in positive interactions. Student
cultural norms that emanate from the home lead to cultural misunderstandings and
miscommunications in the classroom. It is incumbent for teachers to be sensitive of cultural
differences and teach situational appropriateness where the appropriate behaviors are determined
solely by the current situation or social context (Hollie, 2012).
The Discipline Gap
Research has shown that there is a discipline gap in the United States; culturally and
linguistically diverse students receive a much higher number of disciplinary referrals than their
White counterparts (Vincent et al., 2011). Gregory et al. (2010) found that the discipline gap
between African American students and their White peers was a trend that did not receive the
attention it deserved, and their research demonstrated the following:
“The discourse on racial and ethnic disproportionality seems to be constrained by
simplistic dichotomies that artificially pit individual student characteristics (e.g., student
aggression, disengagement from school) against systemic factors (e.g., school administrators’
implicit bias, community violence) as the reason why some groups are overrepresented in
suspension or expulsion” (Skiba et al., 2008, p. 65).
Most of the literature and research collected on the discipline gap over the past 30 years
has provided substantial evidence that African American students received the majority of
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
37
behavioral consequences in K-12 public schools Monroe (2006a) Howard (2010) argued that in
order to improve African American student outcomes, teachers should have a clear
understanding of the importance of racial awareness. Educators should recognize the “historical,
social, political, and economic consequences of being a member of a racially marginalized group
in the United States” (Howard, 2010, p. 121).
According to the U.S. Government Accountability Office (2018) the pattern of
disproportionate discipline affected both African American girls and boys across six areas,
including out of school suspension, in-school suspension, referral to law enforcement, expulsion,
corporal punishment, and school-related arrest. In Figure 1 White students made up 50% of the
K-12 population and accounted for 17.8% of the out-of-school suspensions. Whereas, African
American students made up 15.5% of the public- school population, yet accounted for 39% of
out-of-school suspensions. African American students were the only racial group disciplined at
higher rates across all six areas as compared to other racial groups (see Figure 1). Lewis et al.
(2010) asserted that the constant removal of African American students from their learning
environment was detrimental because it limited the time they devoted toward learning.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
38
Figure 1. Representation of students who received disciplinary actions compared to overall
student population, by student race or ethnicity, school year 2013-2014. Adapted from
“Discipline Disparities for Black Students, Boys, and Students With Disabilities,” by U.S.
Government Accountability Office, 2018, p. 14.
Social Emotional Learning
Social Emotional Learning (SEL) is used to support the development of social and life
skills within the classroom. Elias et al. (1997) defined SEL as the process through which children
develop skills, values, and attitudes to acquire social and emotional competence by recognizing
and managing emotions, developing positive relationships, and avoiding negative behaviors.
Having more opportunities for students to develop skills using the SEL curriculum can assist in
creating positive relationships with staff and peers. Catalano et al. (2002) postulated that SEL
can reduce the risk of problem behaviors if it is explicitly taught to students. To support the
implementation of SEL in the classroom, teachers must be aware of their social and emotional
competence and well-being and how it plays a crucial role in student outcomes (Schonert-Reichl,
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
39
2017). Jennings and Greenberg’s (2009) Prosocial Classroom Model demonstrated that teachers’
social emotional competence and wellbeing affect student outcomes in the classroom. The
Prosocial Classroom Model illustrates how teachers’ well-being and social emotional
competence affect the classroom management strategies that they use, the relationships they
form with students, and their ability to implement the SEL curriculum and practices (Schonert-
Reichl, 2017). Jennings and Greenberg’s (2009) explained that,
Socially and emotionally competent teachers set the tone of the classroom by developing
supportive and encouraging relationships withier students, designing lessons that build on
student strengths and abilities, establishing and implementing behavioral guidelines in
ways that promote intrinsic motivation, coaching students through conflict situations,
encouraging cooperation among students, and acting as a role model for respectful and
appropriate communication exhibitions of prosocial behavior. (p. 492)
Responsive teachers are able to recognize that they need to modify their knowledge and
training and use variations in teaching modalities while paying attention to classroom contexts
and individual student needs (Gay, 2002; Irvine et al., 2001; Ladson-Billings, 1994). Ultimately,
children who feel comfortable with their peers will be able to grapple with the challenging and
difficult learning materials that are presented to them (Schonert-Reichl, 2017).
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
40
Figure 2. The Prosocial Classroom: A model of teacher social and emotional competence and
classroom and student outcomes (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009).
Kaiser Permanente conducted an Adverse Childhood Experience survey (ACES) with
17,000 members between 1997 and 1995. The study revealed that two thirds of the participants
had at least one ACE, while one in five reported having three or more ACES (CDC, 2016). ACE
categories included substance abuse, physical abuse, neglect, emotional abuse, verbal abuse, and
domestic violence, all of which have serious implications for student academic achievement and
overall wellbeing. Children who experience more adverse events are more likely to display
behaviors that are harmful to their health, such as smoking, drinking alcohol, or antisocial
behaviors (Boullier & Blair, 2018; Shin, McDonald & Conely, 2018). Boullier and Blair (2018)
postulated that students that have been exposed to trauma are more likely to have increased
behaviors that can impact their health. In addition, the CDCenter for Disease Control and
Prevention (2016) reported that ACES’s increase students’ risks of experiencing poor
achievement, health problems, and drug and alcohol use.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
41
The National Survey of Children’s Health (NSHC) surveyed 95,677 households with
children between birth and 17 years and whose parents were under Maternal and Child Health
Bureau in 2011 and 2012. The study examined the relationships between adverse childhood
experiences, child and family demographic characteristics, health and school factors, child
resilience, and other parental health, family, and community factors (Bethell, et. al. 2014). The
study revealed that 22.6% of students between the ages of birth and 17 had two or more ACEs.
Bethell et al. (2014) explained that children with two or more of the adverse childhood
experiences were significantly more likely to qualify as children with special health care needs as
compared to children without exposure to traumatic experiences.
Classroom Management and Positive Behavior Support
Teachers are at the forefront of creating classroom environments that support positive
academic and behavioral experiences for students. The classroom environment plays a key role
in student achievement (Colvin, 2010). The structure of a class influences the behavior and
academic outcomes of students. Creating an environment that is managed effectively can
improve learning opportunities and increase positive social interactions. Classroom management
plays a key role in student learning and achievement (Rogers & Freiberg, 1994). Teachers who
utilize behavior management and instructional management approaches improve student learning
outcomes. Martin and Sass (2010) referred to behavior management as the general upkeep of the
classroom, including classroom expectations and pre-planned and preventive efforts to avoid
misbehavior. Instructional Management (IM) refers to the structuring of routines, including
lesson planning and monitoring students’ seatwork (Martin & Sass, 2010). Hollie (2012) argued
that Effective classroom management includes a culturally responsive approach that consists of
rapport, relationships, and mutual respect (Hollie, 2012). A culturally responsive approach
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
42
would allow teachers to make special connections with their students, build strong relationships
that are built on trust, and promote a classroom environment of mutual respect where students
have confidence in their teacher’s ability to teach. Colvin (2010) stated that schools must
establish an expectation of respect for one another that encompasses sensitivity to student
diversity and ethnic and cultural distinctions.
Positive behavior support is an effective approach to classroom management. Positive
Behavior Support (PBS) is defined as the “broad enterprise of helping people develop and
engage in adaptive, socially desirable behaviors to overcome patterns of destructive and
stigmatizing responding” (Koegel et al., 1996, p. xiii). Using a system of Positive Behavioral
Support is valuable because it provides interventions that enhance a person’s competencies and
access to desirable environments, activities, and social circumstances (Koegel et al., 1996).
Sprague and Golly (2013) argued that an effective system of PBS is founded on five core
principles: These principles include, (1) developing clear expectations, (2) communicating and
teaching expectations, (3) reinforcing and recognizing when students are compliant, (4)
minimizing negative attention, and (5) implementing clear and consistent consequences.
PBS is a shift in a teacher’s response that focuses on acknowledging desired behaviors in
the classroom, rather than on noticing and punishing undesirable behaviors (Sprague & Golly,
2013). Colvin and Lazar (1997) remarked that in order to establish effective classroom
expectations, teachers must teach the classroom rules immediately, review and rehearse the rules
constantly to identify rules that work and those that need revision, practice the consequences of
breaking the rules, and use positive reinforcement for students demonstrating desired behaviors.
Sugai and Horner (2006) defined PBS as a system that values outcomes through behavioral
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
43
science with the use of empirically validated procedures that enhance the quality of life and
mitigate problem behaviors.
In their study on the impact of using PBS to decrease disciplinary referrals for elementary
students, Sherrod, Getch, and Ziomek-Daigle (2009) found that implementing a system of PBS
and teaching students about classroom expectations made a difference in the number of
discipline problems at the school sites. The three schools that participated in the study
implemented a two-level approach to addressing disciplinary referrals, including a school-wide
initiative and a targeted group approach. Teachers delivered lessons to students that covered
rules, expectations, consequences, and positive communication. All three elementary schools
participating in the study showed a 26% drop in disciplinary referrals over the course of the
study.
Sprague and Golly (2013) posited that effective school-wide positive behavior support
(SWPBS) strategies include a three-tiered approach. Tier I involves a school-wide system of
support for all students, including academic support, social skills building, positive
reinforcement, and data-based decision making. Tier II supports at-risk students by providing
classroom and small-group strategies, including intensive social skills teaching, self-management
programs, adult mentoring, and increased academic supports. Tier III, the most intensive tier,
supports high-risk students by providing individualized interventions, including individual
behavior management plans, parent training, community and service learning, and multi-agency
collaboration.
Reno, Friend, Caruthers, and Smith (2017) found that during their study on exploring
connections between elementary school culture, positive behavior support, and student
achievement, the percentage of students of color coming from high-poverty backgrounds were
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
44
often identified as needing Tier II behavioral interventions by predominately White, female,
middle class teachers. While their study showed an overrepresentation of students of color
requiring Tier II interventions, there was no statistically significant connection between students
participating in Tier II interventions and student academic success in reading or math.
Effective Strategies to Support Desired Behaviors in the Classroom
The academic literature on effective classroom behavioral strategies is vast, and in this
study the researchers focused on strategies to support teachers in closing the discipline gap for
African American students in elementary school. Understanding and analyzing student
behaviors by discovering environmental variables that influence socially significant undesired
behaviors can assist teachers in creating systems of behavioral change (Bloh & Axelrod, 2008).
Monroe (2006b) remarked that effective classroom-discipline involves understanding classroom
instruction, students’ background knowledge, and the interpersonal bonds of both their students
and families. When African American students are intellectually engaged in academic tasks and
hold positive feelings about their roles as students, they are more likely to become productive
citizens (Monroe, 2006a). Implementing a tiered system of positive behavioral supports that
address students’ needs by implementing student inventories, taking proactive measures toward
discipline, incorporating physical movement in the classroom, and using sequenced and
structured systems of positive reinforcement can assist African American students to thrive in the
classroom (Bloh & Axelrod, 2008; Monroe, 2006b; Sherrod et al., 2009).
Monroe (2006a) suggested that teachers should deliberately gather pertinent information
about their students at the start of each academic year. Teachers should gather an understanding
of their students’ personal, cultural, familial, and neighborhood backgrounds and elicit data-
based answers from their students regarding topics of interest, learning style, strengths, and
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
45
weaknesses by conducting a student inventory. Student inventories acquaint the teacher with the
“lived realities” of their students and position teachers to deliver meaningful learning
experiences (Monroe, 2006b, p. 106).
Monroe and Obidah (2004) declared that effective teachers of African American students
should devote time to explaining the explicit expectations and the standards for acceptable
conduct in the classroom. They further stated that providing students with explicit expectations is
a critical step in avoiding misunderstandings and socially preparing students for classroom
success (Monroe, 2006a). Marzano, Pickering, and Heflebower (2010) suggested that students
should feel they have the ability to succeed and that teachers should use specific, task-based
verbal feedback paired with student self-monitoring that ties effort with academic achievement.
Students are more likely to work toward academic goals when teachers provide the opportunity
for students to see the relationship between effort and success.
Positive Reinforcement
The strategy of positive reinforcement is rooted in Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA),
and Alberto and Troutman (2013) postulated that reinforcement is a naturally occurring
phenomenon used to describe pleasant events or rewards given to a student who exhibits
replacement behavior as part of a behavior change plan. Kearney (2015) described ABA as an
approach to changing undesirable behaviors by employing scientifically established principles of
learning to promote changes. The scientific approach of ABA has existed since 1974 and is
closely related to B. F. Skinner’s work and his research on the contingency of reinforcement
(Kearney, 2015). Skinner (1968) described the contingency of reinforcement as a three-part
concept: “1) an occasion upon which behavior occurs, 2) the behavior itself, and 3) the
consequences of the behavior” (p. 4). Skinner’s three-part concept has evolved into what
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
46
behaviorists now call the antecedents, behavior, and consequences (ABC’s) used to describe a
behavior chain (Alberto & Troutman, 2013).
Positive reinforcement can involve the use of various reinforcers in the classroom. There
are two classes of reinforcement procedures used to evoke behavioral change; these include
primary and secondary reinforcers. Primary reinforcers consist of edible and sensory reinforcers,
including foods, liquids, visuals and auditory, tactile, olfactory, or kinesthetic experiences.
Secondary reinforcers consist of tangible, generalized, and social reinforcers including
certificates, stickers, monitorships, play activities, tokens, points, words and phrases (Alberto &
Troutman, 2013). In their study on writing outcomes of academically and behaviorally
challenged fifth grade students, Grünke, Sperling, and Burke (2017) found that using positive
reinforcement in the form of immediate feedback, explicitly timed periods, and visual
representations of student progress greatly increased the length and quality of student work.
Contingent Reinforcement
Contingent reinforcement involves the clear and explicit appropriate behaviors expected
from students in the classroom and the consequences that will ensue for compliance and
noncompliance. Various forms of contingent reinforcement are used in the classroom, including
token economy response cost procedures and group contingencies (Kearney, 2015; Cooper et al.,
2007).
Token Economy
The use of a token economy in the classroom immediately reinforces the target behaviors
and minimizes the risk of modifying undesired behaviors. A token economy offers a teacher a
practical solution for administering generalized secondary reinforcers such as tokens, points,
stickers, stars, or tickets. In a token economy, students earn secondary reinforcers for
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
47
demonstrating target behaviors; these tokens can later be redeemed or exchanged for a preferred
classroom item, activity, or reward. In their study on promoting positive student–teacher
interactions in the classroom using the token economy strategy, Gershenson, Lyon, and Budd
(2010) found that providing labeled praise of appropriate behaviors resulted in a decrease of
inappropriate behaviors and critical teacher statements. Gershenson et al. (2010) described the
use positive statements by teachers to recognize student appropriate behaviors increased the
target behaviors of the study. Marzano et al. (2010) asserted that teachers should provide
students with verbal feedback that promotes student growth and avoid feedback that makes a
student feel bad, inferior, that reinforces intelligence or talent.
Jurbergs, Palcic, and Kelley (2010) found that appropriate student behaviors increased
with the use of daily behavior report cards that had home-based consequences. In their study,
elementary school students participating in the home-based consequences experimental group
exhibited significantly higher rates of on-task behaviors. Students who received a good daily
report card for desired behaviors, including, paying attention, following directions, sitting
appropriately, and getting along with classmates, earned a contracted reward at home from their
parents or guardians. Students were involved in generating the list of rewards, which promoted a
high level of motivation to receive good daily behavior report cards (Jurbergs et al., 2010).
Ladson-Billings (1994) argued that establishing strong relationships between teachers, parents,
and other student caregivers promoted student success and developed a school environment
where parents and teachers worked together as allies. Developing relationships with parents
created opportunities to draw on parents’ knowledge of what strategies worked best for their
children (Monroe, 2006b).
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
48
Response Cost
Response cost is a behavioral intervention procedure where a student loses a privilege in
response to inappropriate classroom behavior (McGoey & DuPaul, 2000). Cooper et al. (2007)
defined response cost as the contingent loss of reinforcers and a form of negative punishment
that produces a decrease in the frequency of undesired behaviors using classroom fines. Kearney
(2015) argued that response cost was an aversive procedure that limited the drawbacks
associated with other forms of punishment-based interventions. He further asserted that fines
incorporated with this procedure worked more effectively when clearly defined to all students
and when the schedule of fines was posted publicly within the classroom. Students who earned
rewards because of desired behaviors received immediate access to their reward and could not
lose it once it was earned.
In their study on the use of a token economy and response cost procedures in the
classroom, McGoey and DuPaul (2000) postulated that according to observations and teacher
rating scales, the use of both a token economy and response cost interventions showed a
moderate reduction of disruptive behaviors. Teachers in the study reported that using the
response cost procedure provided a “fair and consistent” means of correcting undesired
behaviors and that the procedure did not require an inordinate amount of teacher time (McGoey
& DuPaul, 2000). Nolan and Filter (2012) demonstrated that using the response cost intervention
reduced problem verbal and physical behaviors when implemented with fidelity by school staff.
The researchers found that students participating in their study showed a substantial drop in
problem behaviors when students received noncontingent reinforcement paired with the response
cost intervention. The response cost intervention procedure removed access to a preferred
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
49
reinforcer when a student manifested inappropriate behaviors, and the student earned access
when desired replacement behaviors were observed (Nolan & Filter, 2012).
Group Contingencies
Group contingencies are also an effective strategy used to decrease undesired classroom
behaviors, and Cooper et al. (2007) defined this procedure as follows:
A contingency in which reinforcement for all members of a group is dependent on the
behavior of (a) a person within the group, (b) a select group of members within the larger
group, or (c) each member of the group meeting a performance criterion. (p. 697)
Applied Behavior Analysis uses three types of group contingencies that include: (1) the
dependent group contingency, (2) the independent group contingency, and (3) the interdependent
group contingency. In their study, Willis, Iwaszuk, Kamps, Shumate, and Krieger (2014) showed
that using an interdependent contingency with first grade elementary students in their study
supported their original hypothesis and demonstrated an increase of on-task behaviors, teacher
praise, and on-task behaviors in students identified as at-risk because of behavioral challenges. In
their study, teachers taught classroom expectations that included “a) how to get the teacher’s
attention, b) how to follow directions the first time, and c) how to ignore inappropriate behavior”
(p. 198). Students received teacher praise for demonstrating appropriate behaviors, and
classroom teams earned points toward selecting a preferred activity (e.g., additional recess time,
playing games). Willis et al. (2014) posited that using the interdependent contingency supported
student achievement and developed a positive relationship between the teacher and students.
Conclusion
After a comprehensive review of the literature, the researchers found there are both
empirical and theoretical justifications for conducting research on effective culturally responsive
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
50
practices to support African American students in elementary schools. This is an important topic
of research because African American students in low-income urban schools receive disciplinary
referrals, suspensions, and expulsions at disproportionate rates when compared to other
ethnicities. There is a large body of research and literature on Culturally Relevant Teaching, yet
there is little research on effective strategies to support students of color using techniques that are
sensitive to a diverse student population and, more specifically, to African American elementary
students.
Current research highlights the factors that contribute to the overrepresentation of African
American students in many disciplinary categories and the historical issues that have existed for
over 40 years. The use of effective classroom strategies by elementary teachers that incorporate
culturally responsive practices may shift the current trend of disproportionately disciplining
African American students and provide improved student academic outcomes. However, further
research is required to validate this hypothesis. Chapter 3 will include a discussion of the
research design, the sample and population, data collection procedures, data analysis, and the
ethical considerations of this study.
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51
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Authors: Sukari Garlington and Jose Soto
3
Introduction
This chapter includes a brief summary of the problem statement, the purpose of the
research, the literature review, and the research questions that drove this study. This chapter also
includes an overview of the methodological approach used in this study, including the design of
the study, as well as a description of the participants, instrumentation, procedures for data
collection, methods of data analysis, and the safeguards enlisted to maintain participant
confidentiality. This chapter concludes with a summary of the research methodology and a
preview of the ensuing chapters.
Statement of the Problem, Purpose of Study, and Guiding Research Questions
Scholarly research continues to demonstrate a consistent disproportionality in the number
of suspensions, disciplinary referrals, and expulsions for African American students in
elementary schools across the nation. These “stark racial and ethnic disparities” are referred to
as a discipline gap between young African American students and other ethnic groups. (Reno et
al., 2017). Gay (2002) postulated that teachers do not fully understand or have the knowledge,
attitude, and necessary skills to serve diverse student populations. According to Skiba et al.
(2002), there is an urgent need to gain a better understanding of the culturally biased practices
that lead to the disproportionate number of disciplinary consequences for students of color within
school communities. This phenomenon has been documented over the past 40 years, and there is
an urgent need to address the discipline gap by identifying research-based strategies and
3
Chapters One, Two, and Three were jointly written by the authors listed in alphabetical order. Authors used a team
approach in this research study and equally contributed to each chapter.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
52
interventions that are culturally sensitive and improve academic outcomes for young students of
color.
A comprehensive review of the literature provided empirical and theoretical justifications
for conducting research on effective culturally responsive practices to support African American
students in elementary schools. Scholars in the field of education agreed that culturally relevant
practices that recognize specific factors, such as poverty, differential rates of disruptive
behaviors, and cultural mismatches, could inform educators and assist in closing the discipline
gap (Bradshaw et el., 2010; Brantlinger, 1991; Howard, 2010; Skiba et al., 2011).
The purpose of this study was to examine, through the lens of CRP (Gay, 2002; Ladson-
Billings, 1995a), the effective positive behavior strategies and practices that elementary school
teachers use to promote a learning environment that supports young African American students
in Los Angeles County. Thus, the following questions guided this study:
1. Through the lens of (CRT, what are the positive behavior strategies most commonly
used by elementary school teachers to support the behavioral challenges of African
American students in the urban classroom?
2. Through the lens of CRT, what do elementary teachers believe are effective positive
behavior strategies that support the academic achievement of African American
students?
3. Through the lens of CRT, how do elementary school teachers measure the
effectiveness of their positive behavior practices toward African American students in
their classroom?
4. Through the lens of CRT, what behavioral support practices are used within the
learning environment to support an ethnically diverse classroom?
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
53
Sample and Population
The participants in this research study were selected from two urban school districts
within Los Angeles County. This study focused on examining, through the lens of CRT, the
effective practices that elementary school teachers used to support African American students in
kindergarten through fifth grade. The researchers who conducted this study split the data
collection responsibilities to gather rich information that identified and compared recurring
themes in both the upper and lower grade levels. One researcher focused on kindergarten through
second grade, and the other researcher focused on third through fifth grade.
The researchers interviewed and surveyed elementary school teachers to better
understand their beliefs and the discipline practices they used with ethnically diverse students,
particularly African American students in urban schools. The researchers also examined the
participants’ knowledge of culturally relevant teaching and how they perceived the behavioral
challenges of African American students in their classrooms. By obtaining respondent data from
the interviews and surveys, the researchers were able to highlight the effective behavior
strategies that supported African American students in the classroom. Additionally, the data
uncovered the classroom strategies that worked to limit the disproportionate use of disciplinary
practices that cause students to be less invested in school (Gregory et al., 2010). This study used
convenience sampling, which allowed the researchers to select teachers from lower grade levels
(kindergarten through second grade) and upper elementary grade levels (third through fifth
grade) in urban schools with Los Angeles County.
The participants in this research study were selected from two urban school
districts within Los Angeles County. Using the lens of CRT, this study focused on examining the
effective practices that elementary school teachers used to support African American students in
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
54
kindergarten through fifth grade. Survey participants who taught kindergarten through fifth grade
were selected from both School District A and School District B. A total of 10 teachers from
each respective grade level were selected from 12 elementary schools within both districts. There
were 60 teachers from kindergarten through third grade and 60 teachers from third through fifth
grade selected to participate in this survey. The survey was sent electronically, using Google
Forms, to each survey participant. Interview participants who taught in kindergarten through fifth
grade were selected from both School District A and School District B to gather qualitative
information for this study. To ensure the researchers conducted the survey in an ethical manner,
all participants were informed that participation and completion of the survey was optional. The
participants were also informed that all responses, including any identifying characteristics,
would remain confidential and protected from recognition by future readers (Glense, 2011).
Instrumentation
This study utilized a mixed-methods approach that incorporated quantitative and
qualitative instrumentation. All of the survey and interview questions included in the protocols
correlated directly with the guiding research questions for this study.
Quantitative Instrument
The researchers designed and generated the survey protocol using Google Forms, a web-
based program (see Appendix A). This allowed the researchers to share, receive, and organize
survey responses submitted by participants. The researchers designed the protocol and ensured
that survey questions were meaningful, free from biased words and phrases, and easy for the
respondents to complete (Creswell, 2014). The survey was comprised of 29 questions. The first
part of the survey collected demographic information. The remainder used a Likert scale survey
protocol for each closed-ended question, in which 1 indicated strongly disagree, 2 indicated
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
55
disagree, 3 indicated neutral, 4 indicated agree, and 5 indicated strongly agree. The use of a
Likert scale survey protocol allowed the researchers to gather a numeric description of each
respondent’s perceptions and attitudes toward supporting African American and ethnically
diverse students in their classrooms.
Qualitative Instrument
The researchers used a face-to-face interview procedure to obtain a deeper understanding
of teacher perspectives (Maxwell, 2013). The researchers gathered qualitative data using a
structured interview protocol to limit probing and variations in the research questions (Patton,
2002). The qualitative protocol consisted of two parts: Part 1 included questions that focused on
background information, and Part 2 included 15 open-ended questions that aligned to the four
guiding research questions (see Appendix B). A total of 10 teachers who served students in
kindergarten through fifth grade agreed to participate in a face-to-face interview. Each interview
lasted approximately 60 minutes.
The interview questions were designed to provide participants with an opportunity to
explain and explore the effective positive behavior strategies and practices they used that aligned
with attributes of CRP (Ladson-Billings, 1995a). The researchers obtained informed consent
prior to conducting the interviews and explained that participation in the study was completely
voluntary (Rubin & Rubin, 2012).
Data Collection Procedures
The researchers utilized appropriate data collection procedures to gather data from
participants in this research study. The data collection process included two parts. The first part
consisted of collecting quantitative data from respondents’ surveys using the Google Forms
platform. The second part involved collecting qualitative data via the face-to-face interviews
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
56
with selected participants. An Institutional Review Board (IRB) application was submitted at the
University of Southern California to ensure that the researchers followed the ethical guidelines
for all respondents participating in this study.
The researchers obtained approval to conduct the study by directly contacting the
respective superintendents of School District A and School District B and sharing information
about the study, including the research questions and protocols. After receiving the
superintendents’ approvals, the researchers were provided a list of teacher emails to begin the
selection process for both survey and interview respondents.
Quantitative Data Collection
Using Google Forms, 120 surveys were sent to teachers in kindergarten through fifth
grade. Teachers in kindergarten through second grade, from both school districts, submitted a
combined total of 33 survey responses. Teachers in third through fifth grade, from both school
districts, submitted a combined total of 37 survey responses. The researchers received a total of
70 surveys from the respondents, for a 58% response rate.
Qualitative Data Collection
The researchers interviewed 10 teachers from the participating school districts. Five
teachers were interviewed from the lower grades (kindergarten through second), and five
teachers were interviewed from the upper grades (third through fifth). All 10 teachers agreed to
participate in a face-to-face interview to explore the effective positive behavior strategies and
practices they used that aligned with attributes of the CRP theory (Ladson-Billings, 1995a) and
supported diverse student populations in their classrooms. The researchers obtained informed
consent prior to conducting each interview. The use of informed consent ensured that all
participants understood the nature of the research and the risks it posed (Rubin & Rubin, 2012).
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
57
Participants also received an overview of the study that provided transparency and pertinent
information related to the interview (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). To ensure confidentiality, the
researcher used pseudonyms to protect the identity of the interview respondents.
Data Analysis
This study utilized a mixed-methods approach that incorporated quantitative and
qualitative data. A multi-layered data analysis process was used to interpret the quantitative and
qualitative data to increase the researchers’ understanding as it related to the research questions.
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) reported that the goal of data analysis is to make sense of the data
and to consolidate, reduce, and interpret the information. In order to begin this process, the
researchers had to evaluate the survey and interview data gathered from the participants. The
researchers used multiple data sources and methods of data collection to identify trends and
patterns (Miles et al., 2014). Triangulation was used to increase the trustworthiness and quality
of the study. Patton (2015) stated that triangulation increased the credibility and quality of the
study because it ensures that data were not collected using a single artifact, method, or source.
To ensure trustworthiness, the researchers triangulated the data from both the surveys and
interviews by reviewing the recurring themes and moments of occurrence. Next, the researchers
utilized a coding process to sort, separate, and categorize the data (Lichtman, 2014). This process
led the researchers to identify a priori codes and emergent trends, which assisted with
understanding teachers’ perceptions of culturally relevant practices in the elementary school
setting.
Although trends were detected after reviewing the data the first time, the researchers
evaluated the data again to identify additional themes and commonalities from the data results
(Miles et al., 2014). The researchers used this process to further classify more emergent themes
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
58
that were used to describe the findings, make assertions, and make connections to the research
questions (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007; Harding, 2013). The researchers also compared the body of
literature to the research findings to further validate the significance of this research study.
Quantitative Data Analysis
The researchers separated the survey data by lower and upper grade levels. The data was
exported and disaggregated using the Google Forms platform. Participant responses were
interpreted and analyzed using thematic codes that aligned to the guiding research questions.
Qualitative Data Analysis
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) reported that the goal of data analysis is to make sense of the
data and to consolidate, reduce, and interpret the information. The process of analyzing data is
multilayered and involves making sense of data to increase the researchers’ understanding as it
relates to the research questions. The face-to-face interview data was interpreted and coded. The
coding process included sorting, separating, and categorizing data. The researchers analyzed
each individual transcript to identify emergent themes using open and priori codes that were
responsive to the guiding research questions (Lichtman, 2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Multiple sources of data and information were used to understand the perceptions of the teacher
participants. Triangulation was used as a method of increasing the trustworthiness and quality of
the study. Patton (2015) argued that triangulation increases the credibility and quality of the
study by discounting that the study is a single artifact, method, or source.
Ethical Considerations
The researchers addressed various ethical concerns when conducting their study and
relied on Patton’s (2002) ethical issue checklist. The researchers ensured that both the survey
and interview protocols used in this study were conducted ethically. Merriam and Tisdell (2016)
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
59
explained that using multiple data sources helped to increase credibility in qualitative research.
An explanation of the purpose of the study and a request for permission to audio record the
interview were provided to all participants at the inception of the data collection process. All
participant responses and interactions remained confidential, and, as recommended by Glense
(2011), the researchers protected participants’ personal information and all identifying district
information by using pseudonyms to ensure confidentiality. The researchers also obtained
informed consent from the participants prior to conducting surveys and interviews for this study.
Summary
This chapter outlined the study’s statement of the problem, purpose, research questions,
sample and population, instrumentation, data collection procedures, and data analysis process.
This chapter also included a discussion of ethical considerations and the steps that were utilized
to ensure participant confidentiality. The research questions and goals of this study dictated that
a mixed-methods approach, which included quantitative and qualitative methods of data
collection, was used to conduct this study. Chapter 4 will present an analysis of the data
collection process as well as the major findings that emerged as a result of this study.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
60
CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH RESULTS AND FINDINGS
Author: Sukari Garlington
Introduction
Based on the Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Theory (Ladson-Billings, 1995a), the focus
of this study was to examine the current practices and strategies that elementary school teachers
utilized to promote a learning environment that supported both the academic and social
emotional needs of young African American students in urban schools in Los Angeles County.
Chapter 4 will present the results and findings from this study with a focus on the practices and
beliefs of urban elementary school teachers in third through fifth grade and will outline the
positive behavioral strategies implemented to support ethnically diverse students through the lens
of Culturally Relevant Teaching (Gay, 2002).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine the effective positive behavior strategies and
practices that elementary school teachers used to promote a learning environment that aligned
with attributes of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Theory (Ladson-Billings, 1995a) and supported
young African American students in Los Angeles County. The researcher analyzed the practices
and beliefs of various elementary school teachers in two urban school districts to better
understand the knowledge, skills, and practices currently being implemented to support the
academic and social-emotional growth of African American students. For this study, the
researcher identified two urban school districts within Los Angeles County that included
ethnically diverse student populations and a diverse teacher work force. The specific focus of
this research was to highlight the current teacher practices that support African American
students in the classroom and limit the disproportionate disciplinary practices that cause African
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
61
American students to become less attached to school, less invested in schoolwork, and less
inclined to follow school rules (Gregory et al., 2010).
Coding the Data
A multi-layered data analysis process was used to interpret an immense amount of
quantitative and qualitative data to increase the researchers’ understanding as it related to the
research questions. The goal of data analysis is to make sense of the data and to consolidate,
reduce, and interpret the information (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In order to begin this process,
the researchers had to evaluate the survey and interview data gathered from the participants
during the research study. As recommended by Miles, Huberman, and Saldaña (2014), the
researchers used multiple data sources and numerous methods of data collection to identify
trends and patterns in the participants’ responses.
Triangulation was used to increase the trustworthiness and quality of the study. Patton
(2015) argued that triangulation increases the credibility and quality of the study by discounting
that the study is a single artifact, method, or source. To ensure trustworthiness, the researcher
triangulated the data from both the surveys and interviews by reviewing the recurring themes and
moments of occurrence during data results. Next, the researcher utilized a coding process to sort,
separate and categorize the data (Lichtman, 2014). This process led to the researcher identifying
a priori codes and emergent trends, which assisted with understanding teachers’ perceptions of
culturally relevant practices in the elementary school setting. Although trends were detected after
reviewing the data the first time, the researchers evaluated the data again to identify additional
themes and commonalities from the data results (Miles et al., 2014). The researcher used this
process to further classify more emergent themes that were used to describe the findings, make
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
62
assertions, and make connections to the research questions (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007; Harding,
2013).
Presentation of Findings
The presentation of findings in this chapter begins with a description and analysis of the
survey results collected during the study. The researcher analyzed the recurring themes and
findings provided by the interview subjects who participated in this study as they addressed the
overarching research questions that guided the study:
1. Through the lens of Culturally Relevant Teaching Theory (CRT), what are the
positive behavior strategies most commonly used by elementary school teachers to
support the behavioral challenges of African American students in the urban
classroom?
2. Through the lens of Culturally Relevant Teaching Theory (CRT), what do elementary
teachers believe are effective positive behavior strategies that support the academic
achievement of African American students?
3. Through the lens of Culturally Relevant Teaching Theory (CRT), how do elementary
school teachers measure the effectiveness of their positive behavior practices toward
African American students in their classroom?
4. Through the lens of Culturally Relevant Teaching Theory (CRT), what behavioral
support practices are used within the learning environment to support an ethnically
diverse classroom?
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
63
Descriptive Characteristics
Survey Data
The participants in this research study were selected from two urban school districts
within Los Angeles County. Using the lens of CRT, this study focused on examining the
effective practices that elementary school teachers used to support African American students in
kindergarten through fifth grade. The researchers who conducted this study separated the data
collection process to compare and identify recurring themes between upper and lower grade
levels. One researcher focused on kindergarten through second grade, and the other researcher
focused on third through fifth grade.
Demographics of Participating School Districts
School District A served students in kindergarten through eighth grade and was
comprised of six elementary schools and two middle schools. School District-A had a total
enrollment of approximately 6,000 students; 10% of the student population was African
American. Approximately 200 students, or about 4% of the total student population, in
kindergarten through second grade were African American and consisted of approximately 200
students. Approximately 210 students, or about 4% of the total student population, in third
through fifth grade were African American. More than 80% of the students who attended School
District A qualified for free or reduced-price meals.
School District B was a larger district that served students in kindergarten through 12th
grade and was comprised of 21 elementary schools, six middle schools, and three comprehensive
high schools. School District B had a total enrollment of approximately 23,000 students, 18% of
whom were African American. Approximately 1,200 students, or about 5% of the total student
population, in kindergarten through second grade were African American. Approximately 1,100
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
64
students, or about 5% of the total student population, in third through fifth grade were African
American. School District B also served a socio-economically disadvantaged population where
over 90% of students qualified for free or reduced-price meals. Table 1 contains the student
demographic data for School District A and School District B.
Table 1
Participating School District s’ Student Demographic Data
Race or ethnicity
Percentage of student population
School District A
(N=6000)
School District B
(N=23,000)
African American 10 18
American Indian or Alaskan Native 0 0.2
Asian 4 0.3
Filipino 1 0.5
Hispanic or Latino 75 80
Pacific Island 1 0.5
White 5 0.2
Two or more races 2 0.2
Not reported 2 0.1
Note. Adapted from California Department of Education, 2019 Demographics.
The researchers obtained approval to conduct the study by directly contacting the
respective superintendents of School District A and School District B and sharing information
about the study, including the research questions and both the survey and interview protocols.
After receiving the superintendents’ approval, the researchers were provided a list of teacher
emails to begin the recruitment process for both survey and interview respondents.
Survey participants who taught kindergarten through fifth grade were selected from both
School District A and School District B. A total of 10 teachers from each respective grade level
were selected from 12 elementary schools within both districts. There were 60 teachers in from
kindergarten through third grade and 60 teachers from third through fifth grade selected to
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
65
participate in this survey. The survey was sent electronically, using Google Forms, to each
survey participant. To ensure the researchers conducted the survey in an ethical manner, all
participants were informed that participation and completion of the survey were optional. The
participants were also informed that all responses, including any identifying characteristics,
would remain confidential and protected from recognition by future readers (Glense, 2011).
In School District A, 17 of the 30 teachers in kindergarten through second grade
completed and submitted the survey, for a 57% response rate. In third through fifth grade, 20 of
the 30 teachers selected completed and submitted the survey, for a 66% response rate. In School
District B, 16 of 30 teachers in kindergarten through second grade completed and submitted the
survey, for a 53% completion rate. For third through fifth grade, 17 of 30 selected teachers
completed and submitted the survey, for a 57% response rate. The combined data for School
District A and School District B demonstrated that 70 out of 120 teachers from kindergarten
through fifth grade completed the survey, for an overall participation rate of 58%. Table 2
presents the total survey respondent data for School District A and School District B.
Table 2
Total Survey Participant Data for School District A and School District B
Grade level
Number of survey
participants
Number of survey
responses
Participation rate
(%)
K–2nd 60 33 55
3rd–5th 60 37 62
Total 120 70 58
After evaluating the data, the participating 37 respondents in third through fifth grade
demonstrated the following characteristics: 67% (25) were female, 24% (9) were male, and 8%
(3) preferred not to say; 24% (9) had been teaching for one to five years, 13% (5) had been
teaching for six to 10 years, and 62% (23) had been teaching for 11 or more years. In addition,
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
66
81% (30) did not live within the district in which they taught, and 19% (7) lived within their
districts’ boundaries; 54% (20) had a commute of 20 minutes or less, 19% (7) commuted
between 21 and 40 minutes, 22% (8) commuted between 41 and 60 minutes, and 5% (2)
commuted for over an hour (see Table 3).
Table 3
School District A and School District B Survey Respondent Demographic Data: Third Through
Fifth Grade
Total survey respondents School District A (n=20) School District B (n=17)
Gender
Male 4 5
Female 15 10
Preferred not to state 1 2
Teaching experience (years)
0–5 2 7
6–10 4 1
11+ 14 9
Residence
Live within district 4 3
Live outside of district 16 14
Interview Participants
To conduct the qualitative portion of this study, the researcher interviewed teachers from
the participating school districts. Five teachers agreed to participate in a face-to-face interview to
explore the effective positive behavior strategies and practices they used that aligned with
attributes of the Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Theory (Ladson-Billings, 1995b) and supported
diverse student populations in their classrooms. Three teachers from School District A and two
teachers from School District B were interviewed for this study. Interview respondents were also
provided with informed consent prior to participating in the interview. Participants also received
an overview of the study, which provided transparency and pertinent information related to the
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
67
interview (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Table 4 contains the demographic data of the interview
respondents. To ensure confidentiality, the researcher used pseudonyms to protect the identity of
the interview respondents.
Table 4
Interview Respondents
Interview
participants Grade taught Ethnicity Years teaching
Years at current
school
A 3rd Caucasian 26 5
B 3rd Caucasian 11 11
C 4th Hispanic/Latino 14 10
D 4th Hispanic/Latino 5 5
E 5th African American 12 7
Research Question 1
Through the lens of Culturally Relevant Teaching Theory (CRT), what are the positive behavior
strategies most commonly used by elementary school teachers to support the behavioral
challenges of African American students?
Culturally Relevant Teaching (CRT) is defined as using the cultural knowledge,
experiences, heritage, and perspectives of different ethnic and racial groups to teach students
more effectively (Gay, 2002). Researchers argue that CRT is effective in meeting the academic
and social demands of culturally diverse students (Gay, 2000; Howard, 2001; Ladson-Billings,
1994; Shade et al., 1997).
Culturally Relevant Teaching
Students, especially African American students, are more likely to be successful when
their school and home cultures align (Ladson-Billings, 1990). CRT often serves as a direct
connection for teachers in working with diverse populations (Fiedler et al., 2008). The presence
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
68
of CRT is critical in cultural socialization and in how students receive, analyze, and interpret
information (Allen & Boykin, 1992; Au & Jordan, 1981; Cazden & Leggett, 1981).
Table 5 contains teacher responses to a survey question about the use of CRT in the
classroom. Teachers were asked to indicate their level of agreement using a Likert-type scale in
which 1 indicated strongly disagree, 2 indicated disagree, 3 indicated neutral, 4 indicated
agree, and 5 indicated strongly agree.
Table 5
I Consistently Use Culturally Relevant teaching Strategies to Understand African American
Students in My Classroom
Response f Percentage
Strongly agree 4 11
Agree 17 46
Neutral 13 35
Disagree 3 8
Strongly disagree 0 0
Note. n=37
Table 5 shows that 57% of the respondents either strongly agreed or agreed that they
consistently used culturally relevant teaching strategies to understand African American students
in the classroom. Teacher D defined culturally relevant teaching as follows:
I think culturally relevant teaching is using the culture of the students within your
teaching practice to teach your lessons. This means that I may utilize books to reflect
things that are in my students’ culture so that they can become more engaged in the
content and make additional connections.
Teacher D emphasized, “If your class is diverse, they gain a better understanding from
other peers when culturally relevant teaching is embedded in the classroom.” Teacher E added
that culturally relevant teaching requires “ensuring that students see themselves in the
curriculum.” Comparatively of the 37 respondents to the survey, 30 self-reported that they were
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
69
comfortable using CRT to highlight cultural differences in their classrooms. Teacher E discussed
the importance of using culturally relevant teaching within the classroom with African American
students. Teacher E also stated,
Students, especially African American students, must be able to make connections to the
material so that they can increase learning opportunities. If culturally relevant teaching is
not in place, our students miss learning about others experiences and views on the world.
Teaching is about making every opportunity count and ensuring that all students are
comfortable in their learning environment, which means that their culture is infused in
everything we teach.
Durden (2008) argued that students achieve academically when culturally responsive
approaches are in place. Teacher D detailed using culturally relevant strategies in a writing
assignment that benefited the students academically. Teacher D states,
Currently most of the students that I work with are Latino and African American. So, I
am fortunate to be able to use a variety of materials to engage them. We were preparing
for a writing task that asked the students about how they celebrated holidays in the month
of December. Many ways that they represented the season and the activities that they
engaged in. The students found commonalities in food and how their families celebrate
the season. It was amazing to see all the things that they learned. They were so into this
project and totally made it their own.
Ladson Billings (1995) posits that culturally relevant teaching the vehicle for learning. Using
culture within the classroom enhances the learning experience. Teacher D shared that “Students
determined their own culminating task which was to present their work and share a food that was
unique to their families. My African American students are buying tamales and attempt to speak
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
70
Spanish” Teacher B also described using CRT practices to help her student’s gain new
understanding. Teacher B shares,
In ELA we have genres of writing and literature so I am able to expose all students to
various cultures around the world. With the technology, they can actually go there. This is the
coolest part about the Internet, as teachers we can take our students anywhere to advance their
learning especially our minority students. Teachers B and D used different forms of media to
expose students to culture across various subject areas. Teacher B shared, “I use a lot of books
for my students and I always incorporate art. Art really works with my Hispanic and African
American students see similarities and are differences between cultures” Similarly, Teacher E
detailed the importance of using books to move the instruction for his students in the classroom.
Teacher E stated,
I read books to my students and bring in artifacts that will help them see the information.
I will introduce new language and its usage to students through a variety of sources and
engage in discourse about the readings. This helps my Black and brown students learn
from their peers and deepen their understanding of the material. I have watched my
students be nicer and kind to one another because they understand their peers.
Culturally Responsive Climate
According to Howard (2008), in order to create a culturally relevant and responsive
climate, teachers must critically reflect to better understand their positionality within the learning
environment. Lew and Nelson (2016) asserted that teachers must examine their personal beliefs
and classroom management practices to support students effectively in the classroom
environment. Table 6 contains the participants’ survey responses regarding whether or not they
considered cultural background when responding to inappropriate student behaviors. Teachers
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
71
were asked to indicate their level of agreement using a Likert-type scale in which 1 indicated
strongly disagree, 2 indicated disagree, 3 indicated neutral 4 indicated agree, and 5 indicated
strongly agree.
Table 6
I Consider Cultural Background When Responding to Inappropriate Student Behaviors in My
Classroom
Response f %
Strongly agree 4 11
Agree 18 49
Neutral 7 19
Disagree 6 16
Strongly disagree 0 0
Note. n=37
Table 6 shows that 22 of 37 respondents (60%) strongly agreed or agreed that they
considered cultural background when responding to inappropriate student behaviors in the
classroom. Teacher B shared,
I remind students of the classroom expectations as a whole class; however, I must
consider the student in front of me when I am responding to their behavior. I need to
understand their culture to understand the best way to respond.
Teacher D proclaimed, “A teacher must relate to the students and have an understanding of what
they deal with to respond to their behaviors appropriately”. Similarly, Teacher E reported,
“Having a strong sense of who your students are makes a difference on how they respond to your
corrections” Teacher A, on the other hand, declared that African American students need more
support. Teacher A stated,
I typically try to treat all my students fairly. However, some of my African American
students need more support and require me to be more sensitive to their needs. I must be
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
72
private in correcting their behaviors and provide an explanation on why I am correcting
them.
Responsive teachers recognize the need to modify their teaching modalities to address
individual student needs (Gay, 2002; Irvine et al. 2001; Ladson-Billings, 1994). Teacher C
asserted, “Although you treat all students fairly, some kids like African Americans need different
approaches” Teacher A and C stressed the need to utilize different approaches with African
American students. The majority of respondents (25 of 37) on the survey self-reported that they
were culturally sensitive and empathized with African American students. Teachers B, D, and E,
however, emphasized the importance of recognizing individuality when responding to the
behaviors of students within the classroom.
Summary of Findings for Research Question 1
After a thorough analysis of the quantitative surveys and qualitative interviews with
teachers in this study, common themes emerged. The data revealed that 82% of teachers felt
comfortable using culturally relevant teaching to highlight cultural differences in the classroom.
The data also suggested that, although the teachers felt confident accentuating cultural
differences, only 52% consistently used CRT in the classroom. Teachers reported seeing more
instructional benefits when CRT was implemented in different subject areas using various forms
of media. However, only 60% of teachers considered cultural background when responding to
inappropriate student behaviors in the classroom. Teachers in the study stressed the importance
of reminding students about classroom expectations and the need to understand cultural
backgrounds. Two out of the three teachers believed that African American students required
additional support to be more successful in the classroom.
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Research Question 2
Through the lens of Culturally Relevant Teaching, what do elementary teachers believe are
effective positive behavior strategies that support the academic achievement of African American
students?
According to Koegel et al. (1996), Positive Behavioral Support is a system that provides
interventions that improve a person’s competencies and access to desirable activities and social
circumstances. Positive Behavioral Support requires that teachers focus on acknowledging
desired behaviors in the classroom, rather than noticing and punishing undesirable behaviors
(Sprague & Golly, 2013). According to Monroe and Obidah (2004), when If CRT was infused
into the learning environment, it enabled teachers to consider cultural norms that might play a
role in behaviors traditionally perceived as disruptive. Griner and Stewart (2012) emphasized
that CRT was a gateway to providing teachers with effective tools to instruct their students.
Positive Reinforcement
According to Alberto and Troutman (2013), positive reinforcement is a naturally
occurring phenomenon that describes rewards or pleasant events provided to students for
exhibiting desired behaviors. Table 7 contains the responses of the survey participants for this
study in regard to whether they reward positive behavior with incentives. Teachers were asked to
indicate their level of agreement using a Likert-type scale in which 1 indicated strongly disagree,
2 indicated disagree, 3 indicated neutral, 4 indicated agree, and 5 indicated strongly agree.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
74
Table 7
I Consistently Reward Positive Behaviors With Incentives (e.g. stickers, tokens, preferred
activities) in My Classroom Environment.
Response f %
Strongly agree 6 16
Agree 26 70
Neutral 5 14
Disagree 0 0
Strongly disagree 0 0
Note. n=37
Table 7 shows that 32 of the 37 (86%) respondents strongly agreed or agreed that they
consistently rewarded positive behaviors with incentives (e.g., stickers, tokens, preferred
activities) in their classroom environments. Teacher E stated,
Praise is needed to increase more opportunities for students to do the right thing in my
class. I give students stickers and they place them on their card. This helps them see that
they are on track and are following direction. Without praise, I do not think my students
would know what they are doing correctly.
Teacher C agreed that providing verbal and physical praise was needed so that students
understood they were doing what was required of them. Teacher C stated, “I give them high
fives, and tell my students good job scholar when they are doing the right thing” Similarly,
Teacher A used, “Keep up the good work and well done” as a method of praise to the students.
Teacher D shared the following,
I tell my students when they are doing well so that they know when they are meeting my
expectations. I learned a long time ago that you need to know what you are doing right to
repeat it. This is the same for students; I use the 4 to 1 approach. Four positives to every
one correction. My kids have been corrected enough in their life and are sensitive. I am
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
75
here to show them success and the way to do that is through reinforcing the positive
behaviors that they exhibit.”
Marzano and Pickering (2011) argued that teachers should provide verbal feedback that
enhances growth and avoid feedback that stifles growth and makes the student feel inferior.
Furthermore, when teachers provide specific praise for appropriate behaviors, it helps to decrease
inappropriate behaviors (Gershenson et al., 2010).
Response Cost
McGoey and DuPaul (2000) described response cost as a system where a student can earn
praise and privileges for desired behaviors or receive consequences for undesired classroom
behaviors. When implemented with fidelity by teachers, the use of response cost interventions
can reduce verbal and physical problem behaviors (Nolan & Filter, 2012). Table 8 displays the
participants’ survey responses in regard to whether they consistently used individual incentives
to reward positive behavior in their African American students. Teachers were asked to indicate
their level of agreement using a Likert-type scale in which 1 indicated strongly disagree, 2
indicated disagree, 3 indicated neutral, 4 indicate agree, and 5 indicated strongly agree.
Table 8
I Consistently Use Individual Incentives to Reward Positive/Desired Behaviors Manifested by
African American Students
Response f %
Strongly agree 8 21
Agree 14 38
Neutral 11 30
Disagree 4 11
Strongly disagree 0 0
Note. n=37
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
76
Table 8 shows that 22 of the 37 (59%) respondents strongly agreed or agreed that they
consistently used individual incentives to reward positive /desired behaviors manifested by
African American students. Teacher C shared,
I really supply my African American students with additional praise and rewards. This
has to be consistent. These students thrive and work harder when they are rewarded for
expected behaviors in my classroom. Stickers are a big deal in my classroom and these
students like to visually see how well they do throughout the day.
Teacher D used a similar behavior technique to reward African American students for positive
behaviors in the classroom. Teacher D stated, “African American students benefit from visuals to
let them know they are on track. I provide stars to let them know they are doing what is expected
of them.” Teacher E shared, “Reinforcing appropriate behavior is a requirement in the classroom,
especially for our African American students because it reminds them of what is right and not the
bad behaviors.” Using systems of positive reinforcement can assist African American students
with academic success within the classroom (Monroe, 2006b; Sherrod et al., 2009).
Teacher A and B agreed that they used positive incentives within the classroom for their
students; however, they describe that implementing effective consequences was an effective
strategy to reduce undesired behaviors within the classroom setting. Teacher A shared,
The classroom is a sacred place for learning to happen. Students must know what is
expected of them and their consequence when they do not follow the expectations. I
provide plenty of incentives but also implement consequences to ensure that students
understand the guidelines for the environment. African American students like any other
student need to understand those boundaries.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
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Monroe and Obidah (2004) affirmed that effective teachers of African American students should
devote time to explaining the explicit expectations and the standards for acceptable conduct in
the classroom. Teacher B detailed a consequence and stated,
I have a kid that is African American that enjoyed getting out of the seat to wander the
classroom. I explicitly taught him to raise his hand to move throughout the class. When that does
not happen, he loses a minute of time from recess. He stopped at the third correction. He could
not stand losing his time from recess.
Providing students with explicit expectations is necessary to avoid misunderstandings and
ensure classroom success (Monroe, 2006a).
Summary of Findings for Research Question 2
After a thorough review of the data collected from the surveys and interviews with
teachers in this study, common themes emerged. The data revealed that 86% of teachers
consistently rewarded positive behaviors with incentives such as stickers, tokens, or preferred
activities within the classroom environment. The data also showed that teachers believed using
praise was essential to increasing positive behaviors. Four out of the five teachers interviewed
also reported that using specific verbal and physical praise to acknowledge students for
appropriate behaviors helped to decrease inappropriate behaviors. Although teachers felt strongly
about using positive praise for appropriate behaviors, only 59% of teachers consistently used
individual incentives to reward desired behaviors manifested by African American students. In
contrast, two out of the five teachers stressed the importance of utilizing consequences for
undesired behaviors to aid in decreasing them.
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Research Question 3
Through the lens of Culturally Relevant Teaching, how do elementary school teachers measure
the effectiveness of their positive behavior practices toward African American students in their
classroom?
The misinterpretation of classroom behaviors often leads to the unnecessary disciplining
of African American students. Behaviors such as elevated voices, physical displays of emotion,
and interactions between peers are deemed inappropriate behaviors, yet they are associated with
African American culture (Monroe, 2005a). The behaviors of African American students are
misjudged and often penalized because teachers do not understand the cultural norms among
African American students, which may differ from the institutional norms of the school staff
(Ferguson 2000; Obidah & Teel, 2001). As a result of this lack of cultural synchronization,
higher rates of referrals and suspensions exist among African Americans (Monroe & Obidah,
2004).
Disciplinary Referrals
Disciplinary referrals are often utilized in school settings to document the inappropriate
behaviors displayed by students both in and out of the classroom. According to Skiba et al.
(2008), 43% of the disciplinary referrals in the United States are administered to African
American students in kindergarten through sixth grade. African American students are more
likely than other ethnic groups to be reprimanded and to receive disciplinary referrals for less
severe offenses such as disrespect and excessive noise (Skiba et al. 2008). Table 9 contains data
on whether or not the survey respondents used disciplinary referrals to document concerning
behavior in African American students. Teachers were asked to indicate their level of agreement
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
79
using a Likert-type scale in which 1 indicated strongly disagree, 2 indicated disagree, 3
indicated neutral, 4 indicated agree, and 5 indicated strongly agree.
Table 9
I Utilize Office Disciplinary Referrals to Document African American Student Behaviors of
Concern
Response f %
Strongly agree 2 5
Agree 17 46
Neutral 7 19
Disagree 5 14
Strongly disagree 6 16
Note. n=37
Table 9 shows that 19 of the 37 (51%) respondents strongly agreed or agreed that they
utilized office disciplinary referrals to document African American student behaviors of concern.
The table also shows that 11 (30%) of the respondents self-reported that they strongly disagreed
or disagreed that they used office referrals to document African American student behaviors of
concern. Teacher A stated,
Some of my African American students need more emotional support. They seem to get
upset more often because of lack of respect, however they are the students being
disrespectful. I tend to send them more to the office because of the blatant disrespect to
authority, to me the teacher.
Teacher E and B shared similar responses about African American students’ lack of respect
toward adults on campus. Teacher E stated, “I am often surprised at how they talk to some of the
adults on campus, it is total disrespect.” Teacher B added, “Some of my Black students don’t
respect me when they get angry, it is like everything we taught them is out the door. This is how
I know they are exposed to a lot”
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
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Skiba et. al (2011) noted that African American students are more likely than other groups to
receive office referrals for subjective reasons such as “disrespect.”
Conversely, Teacher D reported, “I understand the differences of students in my
environment and try to connect to them when disciplining the students in my class.”
Additionally, Teacher C shared a similar perspective on students. Teacher C stated, “I treat every
student as a unique child with differences. Once you send the student to the office you lose the
power, it is just not effective in the long run.”
Suspension
When examining the suspension data for School Districts A and B, the researchers found
that among all ethnic groups, African American students had the highest suspension rate.
African American students accounted for 2.6% (28) of suspensions in District A and 3.3% (167)
of suspensions in District B (California Department of Education, 2019). National data also
revealed consistent patterns of disproportionality among African Americans in terms of school
discipline (Gregory et al., 2008). According to the Government Accountability Office (2018),
African American students received the highest number of discipline sanctions across all six
areas, including out-of-school suspensions, in-school suspensions, and referrals to law
enforcement, expulsions, corporal punishments, and school-related arrests. African American
students were three to seven times more likely than their White peers to receive a suspension as a
consequence for misbehavior (Raffaele Mendez & Knoff, 2003). Larson et al. (2018) argued that
proactive classroom behavior management in tandem with CRT created desirable student
discipline outcomes.
Table 10 reflects participants’ responses in regard to their comfort level in utilizing
suspensions as a consequence. Teachers were asked to indicate their level of agreement using a
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
81
Likert-type scale in which 1 indicated strongly disagree, 2 indicated disagree, 3 indicated
neutral, 4 indicated agree, and 5 indicated strongly agree.
Table 10
I am Comfortable Utilizing Suspension as a Consequence for Pervasive Behaviors Such as
Student Disrespect Toward Adults and Students, Classroom Disruptions, and Inappropriate
Language
Response f %
Strongly agree 1 3
Agree 9 24
Neutral 6 16
Disagree 15 41
Strongly disagree 6 16
Note. n=37
Table 10 shows that 27% (10 of 37) of the respondents strongly agreed or agreed that
they were comfortable with utilizing suspension as a consequence for pervasive behaviors such
as student disrespect toward adults and students, classroom disruptions, and inappropriate
language. The table also shows that 57% of the respondents self-reported that they strongly
disagreed or disagreed that they were comfortable with utilizing suspension as a consequence for
pervasive behaviors. Teacher D described strategies to prevent the student from going to the
office when the student was behaving inappropriately. Teacher D stated,
An African American student was misbehaving in class; he was talking out of his seat
and was being rude to my other kiddos. I had to tell him to sit three times. He still did not
because he was irritated. He said I don’t have to do what you tell me. I walked over and
whispered, I want you to think about your choices and I will give you 2 minutes. I walked
around to other students and came back to him and he sat down. I told him I am glad you
made a good choice for yourself, and we moved on.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
82
Teacher C also used strategies to assist students with getting on task without being
suspended. Teacher C shared, “You have to allow personal space for students so they can reflect
and make a better choice. I have a cool down area in my room. They can go there anytime to
calm down and refocus.” Teacher A shared an opinion on respect: “Although, I believe that
disrespect cannot be tolerated, respect must be taught to students. They must have clear
expectations and boundaries.” Teacher D explained that, “Respect is a two street; you have to
give it in order to get it. My African American students live by this code; therefore I always
display respect.”
The majority (87%) of the respondents to the survey self-reported that they considered
cultural differences when practicing classroom management strategies in their classrooms.
Teacher D shared, “It is extremely important to understand cultural backgrounds when
disciplining students. Discipline is not a one-size-fits-all kind of thing.” Teacher B shared,
“Recognizing my students’ culture is a must to deliver the right support for them, especially
when they are in trouble.” In addition, Teacher C also explained the importance of cultural
understanding:
I don’t live in the area with my students so it is essential that I understand their culture
and the way my students operate the world. If I don’t, I lose them and run the risk of
misunderstanding cultural norms that are not in alignment with mine. This would
inevitably lead to weak relationships with my students and their families. So I study them
like I do my coursework so I have successful relationships to support the learning in my
class.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
83
Ferguson (2000) and Obidah and Teel (2001) affirmed that teachers often penalize and
misinterpret the behaviors of African American students because they may not fully understand
their cultural background.
Supporting Social Emotional Learning
Social emotional learning plays an intricate role in the learning environment. The
educational process can be negative for students when resources are solely focused on academics
(Lopes & Salovey, 2004). Teacher B shared,
My students have been exposed to a lot of trauma and have a lot going on in their life. I
have made referrals for counseling to help them. I have compassion for my students and
consider their situations in daily activities. They are resilient, and I try to understand their
frustrations and views. Home is very different from school. This is why I try to create a
safe space for learning.
Teacher D shared, “Incorporating social skills is essential in the classroom to build a
sense of community and expectations.” Teacher B also believed that social skills were necessary
to support the learning environment. Consequently, 81% of respondents on the survey self-
reported that they were confident in their ability to promote students’ social, emotional, and
problem-solving skills. Teacher A reported, “Helping my students understand the appropriate
ways to solve their problems is key to prevent future problems.” Teacher E added, “My students
have their own rules and must be taught how to problem solve without their fists. Teaching them
to talk has been helpful in lowering the fights in my class.” Teacher A stated,
My students often use their hands as a way to solve their problems. I have to reteach
problem solving skills that are acceptable in the school environment to ensure that the
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students will follow the rules. This may seem silly but I must teach my students
everything that I expect them to do.
Teacher B explained, “My students need additional teaching and reminders to adhere to
the rules at school. Their lives are complex, and they need constant reminders of ways to
appropriately solve their problems at school” Teacher C stated, “Sharing how our school solves
conflict is new and foreign to some of the students. My job is to ensure they understand the
difference between school and home.” Ensign (2003) postulated that teachers are leaders in the
classroom and play a critical role in promoting a positive social classroom climate.
Summary of Findings for Research Question 3
After a quantitative and qualitative analysis of the survey and interview responses from
teachers in this study, common themes emerged. The data revealed that 51% of the teachers
utilized office disciplinary referrals to document the concerning behaviors of African American
students. Three out of the five teachers believed that African American students lacked respect
for authority and displayed inappropriate behaviors that had to be handled by the administrative
staff. While referrals may be utilized as a sanction, 87% of the teachers shared that they
considered cultural differences when implementing classroom management strategies.
Conversely, two out of the five teachers believed that making individual connections and
understanding cultural differences supported the appropriate use of discipline practices.
Although teachers utilized discipline referrals to document inappropriate behaviors, 57% of
teachers were not comfortable with utilizing suspension as a consequence for pervasive
behaviors. All five teachers who were interviewed felt that respecting the students was essential
in understanding their consequences. Two out of the five teachers found that providing personal
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space and a designated area for students to calm down was helpful in decreasing problem
behaviors in the classroom.
Research Question 4
Through the lens of Culturally Relevant Teaching, what behavioral support practices are used
within the learning environment to support an ethnically diverse classroom?
Rogers and Freiberg (1994) argued that classroom management has a strong correlation
to student learning. Effective classroom management uses a culturally responsive approach that
embodies mutual respect, building relationships, and establishing rapport (Hollie, 2012).
Additionally, Colvin (2010) explained that school settings must encompass student diversity and
respect for cultural differences.
Group Contingencies and Token Economy
Contingent reinforcement encompasses clear, explicit, appropriate expectations and
consequences that follow compliant and noncompliant behaviors. Willis et al. (2014) found that
group contingencies were effective for decreasing unwanted behaviors in class and improving
relationships between teachers and students. Table 11 contains data on the participants’
responses to a statement about the use of reinforcement and group contingencies to support
positive behavior in the classroom. Teachers were asked to indicate their level of agreement
using a Likert-type scale in which 1 indicated strongly disagree, 2 indicated disagree, 3
indicated neutral, 4 indicated agree, and 5 indicated strongly agree.
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Table 11
I Consistently Use Individual Student Reinforcement Systems and Group Contingencies Such as
a Token Economy to Support Positive Behaviors in My Classroom
Response f %
Strongly agree 5 13
Agree 20 54
Neutral 8 22
Disagree 4 11
Strongly disagree 0 0
Note. n=37
Table 11 shows that 25 (67%) of the 37 respondents strongly agreed or agreed that they
consistently used individual student reinforcement systems and group contingencies such as a
token economy to support positive behaviors in their classrooms. Teacher D shared,
Determining classroom management system is dependent on the group of students. I use
a tiered approach; there is one for overall classroom behaviors. This is where I put
marbles in the jar when the class in on task. This helps with building a sense of
community. I also have table points which includes building a sense of partners. They get
table points for various behaviors such as listening and following directions.
Teachers E and C also found that group contingencies were effective, but they utilized a
different approach to help students remain on task. Teacher C shared, “Using a classroom point
system helps my students stay on task.” Teacher E reported, “I give class points when they are
listening. It is a great tool to help some of the students that need an extra push to stay on task.”
Kearney (2015) posited that there are many forms of contingent reinforcement used in the
classroom. Teacher C described the use of a token economy system within the classroom:
My students earn points to the treasure box in my class. Each student receives stickers on
their chart for doing what they need to do in class. This includes being on task when
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completing an assignment, following the rules in the class, and being a good tablemate to
a peer. Once they fill up their chart, they are able to go to the treasure box and pick out a
prize.
Teacher E shared about the use of a similar practice and reports, “My point system is
effective because they earn points for behavior in the class.” They all have an opportunity to earn
a reward at the end of the month.” Teachers A and B used a different approach to reward
students for their behavior. They used class money and a store to increase behavioral success
within the classroom. Teacher A shared, “They love my face on the dollar and will work hard
and follow directions to earn the bucks.” Teacher B stated, “My class store is great; they use
classroom bucks to earn prizes.” On the contrary, Teacher D utilized daily behavior report cards
as a way to improve behavior in the classroom. Teacher D stated,
I like the parents to know how their child is behaving in class so I send behavior cards
home daily. This helps so the parents can put consequences in place for their behaviors
throughout the day. This works for most of my students except those who need more
support.
Jurbergs et al. (2010) reported that daily report cards with home-based consequences increased
positive behaviors at school. However, Teacher A explained, “I have tried to reach out to parents
before and it was not as effective. Parents began to take their child’s side, so it tarnished our
relationships.” Teacher A’s experience is important to note, particularly because Ladson-Billings
(1994) noted that strong relationship between teachers and parents or guardians created a more
successful environment for students.
Knowledge of Students
Difficulties within the classroom increase when there is lack of cultural synchronization
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between the teacher and the students (Monroe & Obidah, 2004). Monroe (2006b) argued that
utilizing student inventories to acquaint the teacher with the “lived realities” of their students
helps to create more meaningful learning experiences. Table 12 contains participant responses
regarding whether they used student interest surveys to gain a better understanding of their
students. Teachers were asked to indicate level of agreement using a Likert-type scale in which
1 indicated strongly disagree, 2 indicated disagree, 3 indicated neutral, 4 indicated agree, and 5
indicated strongly agree.
Table 12
I Rely on the Use of Student Interest Surveys in My Classroom to Gain a Better Understanding of
My Students
Response f %
Strongly agree 6 16
Agree 22 59
Neutral 4 11
Disagree 15 5
Strongly disagree 0 0
Note. n=37
Table 12 shows that 75% (28 of 37) of the respondents strongly agreed or agreed that they relied
on the use of student interest surveys in their classrooms to gain a better understanding of
students. Teacher C stated,
I cannot teach my students if I don’t know the things they like to do in and out of school.
I learn these things because I embed them in my lessons to make my students more
interested. I get to know them, about their families and hobbies, through surveys at the
start of the year. This ultimately, helps with discipline in the class because I know what is
going on with them and can provide the right behavior strategy at that moment.
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Effective classroom discipline entails understanding classroom instruction and students’
background knowledge (Monroe, 2006b). Teacher D asserted, “It is essential to know your
students so that you can provide the right support when they need it most.” Teacher C explained,
“I provide a safe space for my students, so that they can be themselves” Teacher E added, “My
room is a safe haven for students. They can feel comfortable in my class.” Teacher D shared why
the classroom was a safe place for students:
My students are special and need a lot of support. I get to know each one of them so that I
can provide the best support possible. Their lives can be complicated and filled and some
have experienced trauma that you would only see in the movies. So I ensure that when
they walk into my classroom it feels safe, comfortable, and free from the negative entities
that they may encounter once they leave the campus. They have to have a safe space to
learn.
Comparatively, Teacher B shared, “I get to know my students so that we can develop
trust and I can form better relationships, which helps them do their work in the classroom”
Teacher A agreed and stated, “Building relationships with students supports growth in the
classroom. If they trust me then I can teach them.” Conversely, Teacher D believed that “trust
develops out of providing support for your students. If I take the time to know my students, they
will comfortable and trust me.”
Summary of Findings for Research Question 4
After a thorough quantitative and qualitative analysis of the survey and interview data
from teachers in this study, common themes emerged. The data revealed that 75% of teachers
relied on student interest surveys to gain a better understanding of their students. The researchers
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discovered that teachers believed that getting to know their students’ interests benefited
academic outcomes, relationships, and individual student needs.
Although teachers relied on surveys to understand their students’ interests, they also
used specific systems to promote appropriate behaviors. The data revealed that 67% of teachers
used individual student reinforcement systems and group contingencies to support positive
behaviors in the classroom. Teachers believed that there was a strong correlation between the use
of a contingent reinforcement system and student compliance in the classroom. Teachers also
affirmed that the use of group contingency systems was essential to supporting appropriate group
and individual behaviors over time. In addition, teachers used rewards such as stickers, treasure
box, and teacher-made money to increase positive behavior in the learning environment.
However, four out of the five teachers felt that contacting parents for consequences too
frequently could hinder relationships with families.
Summary of Key Findings
The researcher used quantitative and qualitative analysis of the surveys and interviews to
understand teachers’ beliefs about behavior strategies they used to support African American
students. The key findings for Research Question 1 revealed overarching trends and themes. The
data results indicated that 86% of teachers were confident and comfortable with using culturally
relevant teaching within the classroom environment. Through further examination of the data,
the researcher found that teachers were comfortable with using culturally relevant teaching to
highlight cultural differences in the environment. Although teachers reported feeling comfortable
utilizing CRT, the researchers discovered that only 52% of teachers consistently used CRT in the
classroom, despite reporting instructional benefits to implementing CRT within their lessons.
Additionally, the data revealed that only 60% of teachers used CRT in discipline practices, yet
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91
there was a strong belief that African American students often lacked respect and required more
support to be successful in the classroom. The data supports Ladson Billings’ (1995b) argument
that the use of culturally relevant teaching promotes learning and enhances students’ learning
experiences.
Key findings for Research Question 2 revealed teachers’ beliefs about effective positive
behavior strategies that support the academic achievement of African American students. The
data demonstrated that 86% of teachers believed that rewards and incentives, such as stickers,
tokens, or preferred activities within the classroom environment, increased the likelihood of
compliant behavior for African American students. The researcher found that four out of the five
teachers interviewed believed that using verbal and physical praise decreased inappropriate
behaviors within the classroom. Although teachers believed that there was a strong correlation
between praise and positive behaviors, only 59% of teachers consistently used individual
incentives to reward desired behaviors for African American students. The data supports Monroe
and Obidah’s (2004) argument that the use of CRT in the learning environment can facilitate
teachers’ understanding of possible cultural norms and decrease perceptions of inappropriate
behaviors.
Key findings from Research Question 3 demonstrated that teachers measured the
effectiveness of their positive behavior practices toward African American students in a variety
of ways. The researcher found that 87% of the teachers considered cultural differences when
implementing classroom management strategies; however, 51% of the teachers utilized office
disciplinary referrals to document concerning African American student behaviors. Of the
teachers interviewed, three out of the five believed that African American students displayed
disrespectful behaviors that required administrative support. Although teachers utilized
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discipline referrals to document inappropriate behaviors among African American students, 57%
of teachers were not comfortable with utilizing suspension as a consequence for their behaviors.
Teachers emphasized the importance of reciprocal respect, clear expectations, and consequences.
The researcher also found that there was a strong correlation between providing personal space
and designated areas for students to calm themselves and decreasing inappropriate behaviors
within the classroom. The data suggested that a culturally responsive learning environment in
one with teachers who are culturally sensitive and demonstrate caring attitudes toward diverse
learners (Gay, 2002).
Key findings in Research Question 4 revealed teachers’ perceptions about behavior
practices that were used to support ethnically diverse classrooms. The data indicated that 75% of
teachers relied on student interest surveys to gain a better understanding of the students in their
learning environment. The researcher discovered that teachers believed that academic outcomes
improved when teachers built relationships, developed trust, and supported individual student
needs. Although teachers relied on surveys to understand their students’ interests, they also used
specific systems to promote appropriate behaviors. The data revealed that 67% of teachers used
reinforcement systems to support positive behaviors in the learning environment. Teachers
believed that there was a strong correlation between the use of a contingent reinforcement system
and student compliance in the classroom. Teachers emphasized the benefits of using group
contingency systems to aid in behavior management. Additionally, teachers believed that the use
of rewards such as stickers, treasure box, and teacher-made money increased positive behavior in
the learning environment. The data trends suggested that proactive classroom behavior
management techniques aligned with CRT increased positive student behaviors (Larson et al.,
2018).
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Discussion
In Chapter 4, the researcher presented the findings of this mixed-methods study, which
used quantitative and qualitative data-collection methods. The researcher provided the results
from the data collected through the surveys and interviews of the participating teachers from
School District A and School District B, both of which were located within Los Angeles County.
The researcher collected 37 out of 60 survey responses from teachers in School District A and
teachers in School District B, for a combined response rate of 61%. The participants for the
surveys and interviews were elementary teachers from third through fifth grade. Five teachers
participated voluntarily in face-to-face interviews so the researcher could understand the use of
effective positive behavior strategies and practices that support diverse student populations.
Chapter 4 began with an explanation of the researcher utilized a multistep process of
analyzing and coding the respondent data. The objective of data analysis is to understand the data
and to consolidate, reduce, and interpret the information (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The
researcher reviewed all data collected from the surveys and interviews and aligned them to the
research questions. All the items from the survey and interview protocols used in this study were
directly linked to the research questions. As presented in the findings, the recurring themes
accentuated the significance of creating a culturally relevant classroom, using effective
classroom management strategies, promoting social emotional learning, and gaining an
understanding of the student population within the classroom. Additionally, the data collected in
this study emphasized how teachers perceived their role as supportive figures in the lives of their
students.
The findings from the survey responses and interviews also demonstrated that over 68%
of participating teachers strongly agreed or agreed that creating a culturally sensitive classroom
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and considering students’ cultural backgrounds was vital to the academic and social-emotional
growth of ethnically diverse students. However, the findings contain little data that showed a
disparity between the number of African American teachers who participated in this study when
compared to other ethnicities. A total of 16 teachers self-reported that they were Caucasian; they
accounted for 43% of the total respondent group. Whereas only three African American teachers
participated in this study; they represented 8% of the total respondent group. In addition, 25 of
the 37 respondents self-reported that they were females; they accounted for 68% of the total
respondent group. This demonstrated the cultural mismatch that minority student’s face in
elementary and secondary schools, where 87% of teachers are White females (Cross, 2003;
Sleeter, 2001; Villegas & Lucas, 2002).
The findings also revealed that 51% of respondents strongly agreed or agreed that they
used discipline referrals as a way to document African American students’ inappropriate
behaviors. However, 27% of respondents self-reported that they strongly agreed, agreed, or felt
neutral about using suspension as a consequence for students exhibiting pervasive behaviors such
as disrespect, classroom disruptions, and inappropriate language. Overall, this study displayed
teachers’ uses of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy (Ladson-Billings, 1995a) and effective
classroom practices to support the academic and social-emotional growth of ethnically diverse
students.
Chapter 5 will have a discussion of key findings, the similarities and contradictions
between upper and lower elementary grade levels, implications for practice, and limitations.
Chapter 5 will culminate with recommendations for future research and a conclusion.
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CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION
Introduction
Chapter five summarizes this study and includes restatement of the purpose of the study,
research questions, methodology, and key findings. The chapter concludes with study
limitations, implications for practice, and recommendations for future studies.
Statement of the Problem
There is a sense of urgency for elementary educators to employ discipline practices that
advance the academic achievement of African American students. Research continues to
consistently demonstrate high suspension rates of African American students as compared to
their White peers. Evidence continues to highlight a number of factors including culturally
biased discipline practices and low socioeconomic status, which appear to contribute to the
persistence of this problem. While there is wealth of literature focused on the disproportionate
suspensions, expulsions, and disciplinary referrals of African American students, there is very
little research on the essential culturally relevant strategies to support ethnically diverse students
in the elementary classroom. Skiba et al. (2002) emphasized the need to better understand the
school response to discipline and culturally biased practices among staff. The disproportionate
suspension rate of African American students within the United States has been consistent for the
past 40 years and there is a need to address the discipline gap by identifying research-based
strategies and interventions that improve academic outcomes for students of color.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine the effective positive behavior strategies and
practices that elementary school teachers in third through fifth grade used to promote a learning
environment based on the Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Theory (Ladson-Billings, 1995a) that
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supports young African American students in the Los Angeles County. The researcher of this
study analyzed the practices and beliefs of elementary school teachers in third through fifth grade
in urban schools who implemented positive behavioral strategies that supported ethnically
diverse students in their classrooms. The researcher explored how teachers perceived the
behavioral challenges of African American students in their classroom and examined their
understanding of culturally relevant teaching. This research investigated elementary teachers’ in
third through fifth grade beliefs, knowledge, skills and practices that shed a light on successful
strategies that may or may not connected with Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Theory.
Additionally, the research assisted in understanding effective behavior strategies that supported
African American students in the classroom and limited the disproportionate disciplinary
consequences that reprimand and cause students to become less attached to school, less invested
in schoolwork, and less inclined to follow school rules (Gregory et al., 2010). The results of this
study highlighted the effective positive behavior practices that elementary school teachers in
third through fifth grade in the Los Angeles County used to improve the academic achievement
of African American students in the urban classroom.
Research Questions
The following four research questions were used to guide the study:
1. Through the lens of Culturally Relevant Teaching Theory (CRT), what are the
positive behavior strategies most commonly used by elementary school teachers to
support the behavioral challenges of African American students in the urban
classroom?
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2. Through the lens of Culturally Relevant Teaching Theory (CRT), what do elementary
teachers believe are effective positive behavior strategies that support the academic
achievement of African American students?
3. Through the lens of Culturally Relevant Teaching Theory (CRT), how do elementary
school teachers measure the effectiveness of their positive behavior practices toward
African American students in their classroom?
4. What behavioral support practices within the learning environment to support an
ethnically diverse classroom in third through fifth grade?
Review of the Literature
Decades of research has provided a large body of data that highlights the disparate
disciplinary practices used with African American students across the United States. Research
over the last 40 years demonstrated that African American students consistently receive a higher
rate of disciplinary referrals, suspensions, and expulsions than their White peers (Skiba et al.,
2008). Additionally, Monroe (2006b) asserted that over the past 30 years, African American
student suspensions and expulsion rates were disproportionate to their statistical representation in
major school districts across the United States. Moreover, Raffaele Mendez and Knoff’s (2003)
more recent study revealed that this trend is still prevalent across the nation; African American
students are three to seven times more likely than their White peers to be suspended for
undesirable behaviors.
Teachers have used the structures and frameworks of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy
(CRP) and Culturally Relevant Teaching (CRT) to support the equitable use of discipline
practices with diverse students in the classroom. Howard (2003) and Ladson-Billings (1995a)
explained that CRP contains three major criteria, including students experiencing academic
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success, students developing cultural competence, and students developing a critical
consciousness through which to challenge the status quo of the current order. According to
Howard (1999), teachers lack the skills needed to teach ethnically diverse students and cannot
transfer knowledge if they themselves do not possess it. Brown and Cooper (2011) emphasized
that in order to increase cultural competence, teachers must engage in behaviors that meet the
needs of students. CRP creates inclusive environments that accentuate the experiences,
languages, and culture of diverse learners.
Teachers are at the forefront of creating safe learning environments that nurture students’
academic and social growth. The presence of CRT practices in the classroom provides increased
opportunities for students of color to feel safe in their educational environment. Gay (2010)
defined CRT as using ethnically diverse students’ prior experiences, cultural knowledge, and
frame of reference to make learning experiences more relevant and effective. Gay (2010) also
asserted that “teachers must learn how to recognize, honor, and incorporate the personal abilities
of students into their teaching strategies. If this is done, then school achievement will improve”
(p. 1).
Culturally relevant teachers utilize students’ culture as a vehicle for learning (Ladson-Billings,
2001). Culturally responsive teachers use practices that foster students’ academic success while
empowering students to challenge inequities (Brown & Crippen, 2016).
A large body of research accentuated the behavioral and academic challenges that
African American students face in the education system. African American students face
inappropriate discipline practices and are excessively represented in office disciplinary referrals,
suspensions, and expulsions (Bradshaw et al., 2010; Skiba et al., 2011Bradshaw et al., 2010).
Skiba et al. (2011) explained that the possible underpinnings of these disciplinary disparities by
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ethnicity included poverty, differential rates of disruptive behaviors across school settings, and a
“cultural mismatch or racial stereotyping” (p. 86). Skiba et al. (2011) also argued that students of
color participated in higher levels of classroom disruption due to a variety of factors and
stressors associated with poverty. Bradshaw et al. (2010) postulated that disciplinary referrals
had a negative effect on African American students because they reduced opportunities for
learning and led to other risks, including truancy, suspension, gang affiliation, and school failure.
The teaching force in most school districts across the United States is predominantly
comprised of White females (Zumwalt & Craig, 2005). One of every three students enrolled in
elementary and secondary schools is a minority, whereas 87% of teachers are White females
(Cross, 2003; Sleeter, 2001; Villegas & Lucas, 2002). Monroe (2004) argued that policies and
practices in an educational environment reflect the beliefs of the individuals who generate them.
This disparity creates a cultural mismatch between teachers and African American students that
possibly contributes to the unequal implementation of disciplinary consequences for students.
Student disengagement increases when there is a separation between the school’s values and
what is being modeled in the home and community (APA Task Force, 2008; Ford, 1993; Tyler et
al., 2008). Bradshaw et al. (2010) suggested that a mismatch in values increases the likelihood of
a mismatch between what is considered appropriate behavior by students and what is deemed
acceptable behavior by administrators.
The cultural differences and lack of cultural synchronization between teachers and
students can lead to demoralizing learning experiences for students (Antón, 1999; Cho & Reich,
2008; Monroe & Obidah, 2004). Monroe and Obidah (2004) argued that disproportionality
increases when cultural synchronization is not present between teachers and students in the
classroom. When there is a cultural mismatch between the student and the teacher, it is difficult
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to build relationships and have positive interactions. Student cultural norms that stem from the
home can lead to cultural misunderstandings and miscommunications in the classroom.
Therefore, it is necessary for teachers to be sensitive to cultural differences and to teach
situational appropriateness in the context of social situations (Hollie, 2012).
There is an abundance of literature on effective classroom behavioral strategies; this
study focused on the strategies teachers used to attempt to close the discipline gap for African
American students in third through fifth grade. Discovering environmental variables that
influence undesired behaviors can assist teachers in understanding and analyzing student
behaviors to support change (Bloh & Axelrod, 2008). Monroe (2006b) remarked that effective
classroom discipline involves understanding classroom instruction, the students’ background
knowledge, and the interpersonal ties between students and their families. When African
American students are intellectually engaged in academic tasks and hold positive feelings about
their roles as students, they are more likely to become productive citizens (Monroe,
2006a). Implementing a system of positive behavioral supports, such as student inventories,
proactive measures toward discipline, incorporating physical movement in the classroom, and
using sequenced and structured systems of positive reinforcement, can provide African American
students with positive academic experiences in the classroom (Bloh & Axelrod, 2008; Monroe,
2006c Sherrod et al., 2009).
Monroe and Obidah (2004) declared that effective teachers of African American students
spend time explicitly explaining expectations for acceptable conduct in the classroom. They
further stated that providing students with explicit expectations is a critical step in avoiding
misunderstandings and socially preparing students for successful classroom experiences
(Monroe, 2006c). Students are more likely to work toward academic goals when teachers
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101
provide the opportunity for students to grasp the relationship between effort and
success. Marzano and Pickering (2011) explained that teachers should use specific verbal
feedback paired with student self-monitoring systems to improve academic outcomes for
students.
Design Overview
This study was completed using a mixed-method design utilizing a two-phase model that
involved collecting and analyzing quantitative and qualitative data. The researcher found that
using multiple instruments and protocols helped to interpret and make sense of the collected data
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Moreover, using quantitative and qualitative methods supported the
researcher in triangulating the data to reinforce evidence that was found through the data
collection process and aligned with the research questions (Maxwell, 2013). A mixed-methods
approach allowed the researcher to use multiple perspectives to comprehensively study and
answer the research questions (Malloy, 2011; Maxwell, 2013). Additionally, a mixed-methods
design assisted the researcher in completely understanding the research problem (Creswell,
2016). The researcher who conducted this study split the data collection responsibilities between
lower and upper grades with the intent of gathering a richer and more comprehensive data
sample. One researcher focused on kindergarten through second grade, and the other researcher
focused on third through fifth grade. The data collected for this particular research study
concentrated on third through fifth grade.
The researcher generated the survey using an online survey program, Google Forms. This
online tool allowed the researcher to collect and share protocols with research participants. The
researcher designed the protocol so that all survey questions were meaningful to the research
participants and free from biased phrases and words (Frank, 2009). The survey was comprised
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of 29 questions that focused on demographic information, and the four research questions. All
the items from the survey and interview protocols were linked to the research questions in the
study. The survey used a Likert scale and was written as closed-ended questions. Participants in
this study rated their responses using a five-point Likert scale, where 1 indicated strongly
disagree, 2 indicated disagree, 3 indicated neutral, 4 indicated agree, and 5 indicated strongly
agree. The researchers used the Likert scale to provide a numeric description of teachers’
perceptions and attitudes toward behavioral practices used in urban schools. The surveys were
emailed to 30 teachers in School District A and 30 teachers in School District B who taught in
third through fifth grade. The researcher assigned to this grade span sent reminder emails to
participants every 10 days to encourage selected respondents to complete the survey protocol.
The survey collection window lasted six weeks. The researcher collected 37 out of 60 surveys,
for a 62% response rate. Once the data was collected from participants, the researcher analyzed
the data, coded respondent responses, and identified recurring themes.
The researcher used the interview process to obtain a deeper understanding of the
teachers’ perspectives (Maxwell, 2013). The researcher gathered qualitative data using a
structured interview protocol. The researcher used a structured protocol to limit probing and
variations in the research questions (Patton, 2002). The qualitative protocol consisted of two
parts with 15 open-ended questions that focused on background information and the four
research questions. The interviews were conducted face-to-face and lasted approximately 60
minutes. The research questions were designed to provide participants with an opportunity to
explain their behavioral practices in urban schools.
The researcher conducted interviews with third- through fifth-grade teachers in urban
public schools within Los Angeles County. Five third- through fifth-grade teachers agreed to
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participate in a face-to-face interview to explore the effective positive behavior strategies and
practices they used that aligned with attributes of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Theory (Ladson-
Billings, 1995b). The researcher obtained informed consent prior to conducting the interviews
and explained that participation in the study was voluntary (Rubin, 2012). The participants were
also informed that their responses, including any identifying characteristics, would remain
confidential and protected from recognition by future readers (Glense, 2011).
Throughout the duration of the research study, the researcher attended to ethical
considerations. To increase the trustworthiness, credibility, and quality of the study, the
researcher used multiple sources to triangulate the findings from the data gathered during the
study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Patton, 2015). The researcher provided an overview and
purpose of the study to each participant to maintain transparency and limit misunderstanding
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The researcher obtained informed consent from the participants prior
to conducting surveys and interviews for their study. Glense (2011) noted the importance of
assuring research participants of confidentiality and protecting them from recognition by readers.
All participant responses and interactions remained confidential, and the researcher protected
participants’ personal information and any identifying district information by using pseudonyms
to ensure confidentiality.
Key Findings
The researcher used quantitative and qualitative analysis of the surveys and interviews to
understand, through the lens of culturally relevant pedagogy, teachers’ beliefs about commonly
used behavior strategies that support African American students. The key findings for third
through fifth grade revealed overarching trends and themes. The data results indicated that
teachers are confident and comfortable with using CRT practices to highlight cultural differences
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
104
within the classroom environment. Although teachers reported feeling comfortable utilizing
CRT, the researcher discovered inconsistencies with the use CRT in the classroom despite
reporting instructional benefits of CRT implementation within their lessons.
The research findings revealed that teachers’ beliefs on effective positive behavior
strategies support the academic achievement of African American students. The data
demonstrated that teachers believe that rewards and incentives, such as stickers, tokens, and
preferred activities within the classroom environment, increase the likelihood of compliant
behavior in African American students. The data consistently showed that teachers believed that
using verbal and physical praise decreased inappropriate behaviors within the classroom.
Although teachers believed that there is a strong relationship between praise and positive
behaviors, teachers inconsistently used individual incentives to reward African American
students for displaying desired behaviors. Furthermore, the data revealed limited use of CRT in
discipline practices, even though the teachers believed that African American students often
lacked respect and required more support to be successful in the classroom.
The researcher found that teachers measured the effectiveness of their positive behavior
practices toward African American students in an assortment of ways. The data demonstrated
that the majority of teachers considered cultural differences when implementing classroom
management strategies. Despite the use of cultural considerations, teachers felt strongly about
utilizing office disciplinary referrals to document African American student behaviors. However,
the data suggested that teachers were not as comfortable with suspension as a consequence for
students’ behaviors. Teachers in third through fifth grade emphasized the importance of
reciprocal respect, clear expectations, and consequences. The researcher found that there was a
strong relationship between allowing students to use personal space or designated areas to calm
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
105
down and decreasing behaviors within the classroom. The data illustrated that culturally
responsive learning environments require teachers who are culturally sensitive and demonstrate
caring attitudes toward diverse learners (Gay, 2002).
The data showed teachers’ perceptions of behavior practices that are used to support
ethnically diverse classrooms. The researcher found that when teachers were able to build
relationships, develop trust, and support students’ individual needs, there was growth in
academic outcomes. Although teachers relied on surveys to understand their students’ interests,
the data revealed that they also used specific systems, such as reinforcement, to promote
appropriate behaviors. The data demonstrated that teachers believed there was a strong
relationship between the use of a contingent reinforcement system and student compliance in the
classroom. Teachers also emphasized the benefits of using group contingency systems to aid in
behavior management. Additionally, teachers believed that the use of rewards, such as stickers,
treasure box, and teacher-made money, increased positive behavior in the learning environment.
The data suggested that proactive classroom behavior management techniques aligned with CRT
increased positive student behaviors (Larson et al., 2018).
Comparing and Contrasting Between Grade Levels
The researchers conducting this study split the data collection responsibilities between
lower and upper grades with the intent of gathering a richer and more comprehensive data
sample. One researcher focused on kindergarten through second grade, and the other focused on
third through fifth grade. After completing independent data analyses, the two researchers
examined the data and made a comparison of the results between the two grade-level spans; both
similarities and differences were found.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
106
After examining the data, teachers from all grade levels reported using Culturally
Relevant Teaching (CRT) to understand African American students in the classroom
environment. The majority of teachers, 60% of kindergarten- through second-grade teachers and
70% of third- through fifth-grade teachers, considered cultural differences when responding to
inappropriate behaviors in the classroom. The researchers also found other similarities among
grade levels: 88% of teachers in kindergarten through second grade and 86% of teachers in third
through fifth grade consistently used rewards, such as stickers, tokens, and preferred activities, to
increase positive behavior supports. Although the researcher found similarities in the use of
incentives to improve positive behaviors among students across grade levels, the data revealed a
discrepancy among grade-level spans. The data showed that 70% of teachers in third through
fifth consistently used rewards and incentives for African American students, whereas only 59%
of teachers in kindergarten through second grade reported rewarding African American student’s
consistency. This suggests possible cultural disparities and differences in the perceptions of
behavior incentives.
Teachers in all grade levels reported using reinforcement systems and group
contingencies to increase positive behaviors within the instructional environment. The
researchers found that in kindergarten through second grade, 91% of teachers used reinforcement
systems in the classroom, whereas 67% of third- through fifth-grade teachers reported using
these types of systems. The data also showed 24% difference between grade levels displays the
need for upper grade levels to increase the use of research-based reinforcement systems that have
been known to lower classroom disruptions and referrals of African American students.
The researchers also found similarities across grade levels in teacher perceptions of the
suspension of African American students. The data revealed that 63% of teachers in kindergarten
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
107
through second grade and 57% of teachers in third through fifth grade disagreed with using
suspension to address the inappropriate behaviors displayed by African American students.
However, although there they held similar beliefs about suspension as punishment, the data
exposed discrepancies between grade levels in the use of discipline referrals to document African
American students’ inappropriate behaviors. The researchers discovered that only 24% of
kindergarten through second-grade teachers and 51% of teachers in third through fifth grade
believed that it was appropriate to use the referral process to document the undesirable behaviors
of African American students. The researchers proposed that the rate of disruptive behaviors and
types of inappropriate behaviors differed between grade-level spans and possibly contributed to
teachers’ perceptions.
The researchers also discovered that teachers across grade-level spans utilized interest
surveys to gain an understanding of their students. The data revealed that 58% of teachers in
kindergarten through second grade and 75% of teachers in third through fifth grade used interest
surveys. The disparity between grade-level spans demonstrated that teachers in upper grades may
have had a better understanding of the importance of getting to know their students to benefit
instructional outcomes and limit discipline sanctions.
Lastly, it is important to highlight that only 3 out of 33 lower grade teachers and 4 out of
37 upper grade teachers participating in this study identified as African American. Teachers who
identified as White or Caucasian consisted of 39% of lower grade teachers and 43% of upper
grade teachers. Moreover, the research found that over 80% of teachers participating in this
study lived outside of the school district they served. Zumwalt and Craig (2005) postulated that
the teaching force in most school districts across the United States is composed of predominantly
White females. Research has also showed that one of every three students enrolled in elementary
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
108
and secondary schools is a minority, whereas 87% of teachers are white females (Cross, 2003;
Sleeter, 2001a; Villegas & Lucas, 2002). Skiba et al. (2011) furthered this argument by asserting
that possible mechanisms contributing to disciplinary disparities by ethnicity included poverty,
differential rates of disruptive behaviors across school settings, and a “cultural mismatch or
racial stereotyping” (p.86).
Implications for Practice
The findings from this research contribute to the current collection of literature on CRT
and effective classroom strategies that support diverse students. This research has implications
for teacher practice in elementary schools. The findings discovered in this research study can
support teachers in utilizing effective discipline practices that can contribute to creating a safe
learning experience for students of color. The strategies identified can support the social,
behavioral, and academic well-being of African American students. The data also suggests that
culturally responsive practices can improve academic outcomes and decrease disciplinary
referrals and suspensions for African American students in the classroom. These strategies have
further implications for closing the discipline gap across the nation.
After careful examination of the data, the findings from this study suggest that teachers
should utilize CRT to understand their student population by way of reciprocal learning and
building positive relationships. Teachers improved their understanding of their African American
students when they used interest-based inventories and trust-building techniques with their
students. The findings also revealed that mutual respect between teachers and African American
students was imperative to building successful and meaningful relationships. The research
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
109
proposed that it was essential to provide specific positive verbal praise and feedback to limit
classroom disruptions and lower African American student referrals.
Additional implications for future practices were found in the use of classroom strategies
within the learning environment. The data suggested that when teachers provide explicit
expectations and classroom norms, the inappropriate behaviors diminish within the learning
environment. Research findings also suggested that when social norms are taught, modeled, and
practiced, the discipline referrals decrease. When teachers utilize positive behavioral strategies,
such as individual and group reinforcement systems, group contingencies, and token economies,
positive behaviors increase within the classroom environment. The study further magnifies that
the presence of consistent behavioral supports within the classroom decreases the need to send
students out of class for discipline referrals.
Limitations
The research study had some limitations. This study only focused on African American
students in urban elementary schools within Los Angeles County. This poses an issue of
representativeness because it does not include information from elementary teachers who work
with African American students in non-urban schools. Another limitation within the study is that
only 37 of 60 survey respondents completed the survey; this constituted a 61.6% response rate. A
larger number of respondents could have delivered data that were more representative of the
school districts and their beliefs, created a richer study, and allowed for a more in-depth analysis.
As a result of this limited sample the study was more vulnerable to potential bias.
The survey protocol also displayed limitations because respondents could only select
from one of the five available Likert scale options. The use of the neutral selection option
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
110
limited the researcher’s ability to determine if the respondent was in agreement or disagreement
with questions. This limitation was seen more in questions related to referrals and suspensions.
Recommendations for Future Study
To emphasize the significance of embedding culturally relevant practices and effective
classroom management strategies to support African American students and decrease the
disproportionality of exclusionary disciplinary practices, the researcher recommends the
following considerations for future studies:
Increasing more school districts within the research study would produce a larger data
sample and widen the scope of teacher participants
Accumulating more participants in the study would increase generalizability of the
findings, while limiting the chances of bias from a smaller data sample
Collecting data on professional development provided to teachers on Culturally Relevant
Teaching practices to determine teachers’ competency, exposure and implementation
Examining the use of social emotional programs to promote student learning
Collecting data on the social emotional supports within the educational setting
Conducting a focus group with all elementary grades to identify common practices that
support students within the educational setting
Examining administrative support for the implementation of positive behavior supports
and professional development
Conclusion
After a comprehensive review of the literature, the researchers found that there are both
empirical and theoretical justifications for contributing to the vast amount of scholarly research
on effective culturally responsive practices that support African American students in elementary
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
111
schools. The research highlighted various factors that contribute to the overrepresentation of
African American students in disciplinary categories and the historical issues that have existed
over the past 40 years.
The research revealed that African American students in low-income urban schools
consistently receive disciplinary referrals, suspensions, and expulsions at rates that are
disproportionate when compared to those of other ethnicities. The researchers discovered that
effective classroom strategies that incorporated culturally responsive practices lowered the use of
disciplinary measures with African American students. Furthermore, the use of culturally
responsive disciplinary approaches improved African American students’ academic outcomes
and social emotional well-being. The data also revealed that teachers’ awareness and
understanding of students’ culture increased opportunities for building successful relationships in
the learning environment; these successful relationships decreased discipline referrals. This study
suggests that aligning culturally relevant practices with positive behavioral supports will
contribute to improved instructional outcomes and lower African American student discipline
referrals and suspensions.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
112
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Appendix A
Participant Survey Instrument
Hello, my name is _________ and I am a graduate student at the University of Southern
California. As part of my dissertation process, I am conducting a study to examine the effective
positive behavior strategies and practices that elementary school teachers use that promote a
learning environment based on the Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Theory that supports young
African American students in the Los Angeles County. Thank you for taking the time to
participate in this survey. The estimated time for this interview is about 15 minutes and your
participation is entirely voluntary. Please know there are no right or wrong answers and I want to
assure you that my data collection will not reveal any of your personal information. It is my hope
that you feel comfortable in answering my questions and sharing your true feelings, perceptions,
and opinions during this process. Might you have any questions?
Please answer all the questions by circling the answer that you most agree with.
Background Information:
1. What is your ethnicity?
2. How many years have you been teaching?
3. How many years have you been teaching at this current site?
What city do you live in?
4. How long is your commute to work?
5. What grade do you currently teach?
Survey Questions
6. To what degree are you confident in managing current behaviors in the classroom?
5 4 3 2 1
7. To what degree are you confident in your ability to promote students social, emotional
and problem-solving skills?
5 4 3 2 1
8. To what degree are you confident in using culturally relevant strategies to manage
behaviors in the classroom?
5 4 3 2 1
5= Strongly Agree 4= Agree 3= Neutral 2= Disagree 1= Strongly Disagree
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
129
9. To what degree do you reward positive behaviors with incentives (e.g. stickers)
classroom environment?
5 4 3 2 1
10. To what degree do you praise positive behaviors in the classroom environment?
5 4 3 2 1
11. To what degree do you praise positive behaviors of African American students in the
classroom environment?
5 4 3 2 1
12. To what degree do you send positive notes home to parents when students are behaving
appropriately?
5 4 3 2 1
13. To what degree do you use culturally relevant teaching strategies to de-escalate
behaviors?
5 4 3 2 1
14. To what degree do you use group incentives to respond to appropriate behaviors in the
classroom?
5 4 3 2 1
15. To what degree do you use individual incentives to respond to African American
students’ appropriate behaviors in the classroom?
5 4 3 2 1
16. To what degree do you use cultural relevant teaching to understand cultural differences
in the classroom?
5 4 3 2 1
17. To what degree do you use student interest surveys in the classroom environment?
5 4 3 2 1
18. To what degree do you respond to African American students’ behavior differently from
other peers?
5 4 3 2 1
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
130
19. To what do you use student’s culture to support classroom management practices in the
classroom?
5 4 3 2 1
20. To what degree do you provide individualized behavior strategies to African American
students in the classroom?
5 4 3 2 1
21. To what degree do you teach specific social skills to African American students in the
classroom?
5 4 3 2 1
22. To what degree are you confident in managing current behaviors in the classroom?
5 4 3 2 1
23. To what degree are you confident in managing African American student behaviors in the
classroom?
5 4 3 2 1
24. To what degree are you confident in your ability to promote African American students
social, emotional and problem-solving skills.
Thank you for taking the time to complete this survey. Please indicate if you would like to
volunteer to participate in a 30 minute interview to examine the effective positive behavior
strategies and practices that elementary school teachers use that promote a learning environment
based on the Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Theory that supports young African American
students in the Los Angeles County.?
_____YES ______NO
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
131
Appendix B
Participant Interview Protocol
Thank you for taking the time to participate in this interview process. I am a graduate student at
the University of Southern California. As part of the dissertation process, I am conducting a
study to examine the effective positive behavior strategies and practices that elementary school
teachers use that promote a learning environment based on the Culturally Relevant Pedagogy
Theory when supporting young African American students in the Los Angeles County.
The estimated time for this interview is about 30 minutes and your participation is entirely
voluntary. This interview is also confidential and your name will not be shared with anyone. I
want to assure you that our data collection will not reveal any of your personal information. I
will use a pseudonym to protect your confidentiality. It is my hope that you feel comfortable in
answering the questions and sharing your true feelings, perceptions, and opinions during this
process. With your permission, I would also like to record our conversation so that I may capture
all your responses and focus on taking important notes during our interaction. Before we begin, I
would like to respectfully ask you for permission to proceed with the interview? Do you have
any additional questions?
I am now providing you with the informed consent form. Please take a few minutes to read sign
this document.
1. What is your ethnicity?
2. How many years have you been teaching? How many years have you been teaching at
this current site?
3. What city do you live in?
4. How long is your commute to work?
5. What grade do you currently teach?
6. Describe how you respond to inappropriate behaviors in your classroom. Tell me your
approach. How, if at all, does it differ when responding to African American students.
7. How, if at all, did you decide to structure classroom management supports for students
in the class? How, if at all, does it differ when responding to African American students.
8. How do you define culturally relevant teaching? How, if at all do you implement
culturally relevant teaching in your discipline practices?
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
132
9. Describe a time when you had to use culturally relevant teaching in your discipline
practices? What approach did you use? What was the outcome?
10. How, if at all do you think that the implementation of culturally relevant strategies in
discipline has impacted the students in the classroom?
11. Describe a recent time in class when a student was behaving inappropriately. What
happened? How did the student respond? Were there consequences for the inappropriate
behavior?
12. Describe a recent time in class when an African American student was behaving
inappropriately. What happened? How did the student respond? Were there
consequences for the inappropriate behavior?
13. How would you describe your relationship with the students in your class? How, if at
all, does it differ when you respond to inappropriate behavior?
14. What are the next steps if any, do you plan to take to enhance your response to behaviors
in your classroom?
15. What, if anything have, we not discussed that would help me understand your response
to discipline in your classroom?
Closing Comments:
Thank you for your participation in this interview. If you have any questions, please contact me
by email at sgarling@usc.edu. If it is okay, I would like to know if I can contact you for any
follow up questions for clarification reading my research study. Thanks.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
133
Appendix C
Superintendent Cover Letter
10/20/2019
Dear Superintendent_________________:
We hope you have had a great start to the 2019-2020 school year.
We are currently doctoral students in the K-12 Educational Leadership Program at the University
of Southern California. Under the tutelage of Dr. Rudy Castruita, we are currently conducting a
joint research study titled: Discipline with Dignity for African American Students: Effective
Culturally Responsive Practices for Elementary Classroom Teachers in Los Angeles County
Urban Schools.
The purpose of this study is to examine the effective positive behavior strategies and practices
that elementary school teachers use that promote a learning environment based on the Culturally
Relevant Pedagogy Theory. The study will explore how teachers perceive the behavioral
challenges of African American students in their classroom and examine their understanding of
culturally relevant teaching. This research will investigate elementary teachers’ beliefs,
knowledge, skills and practices can shed a light on successful strategies that may or may not
connect with Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Theory.
Our study will be based on information collected through surveys and interviews with transition
kindergarten through fifth grade teachers in elementary schools. Since you are a small urban
district leading change, we are hoping to invite teachers in your district to participate. The tape-
recorded interview will take approximately one hour and will focus on questions related to the
implementation of behavioral and culturally relevant discipline practices.
I am seeking your approval to survey and interview teachers. Their participation in this study is
voluntary. This research study has been reviewed and approved by the University of Southern
California Institutional Review Board (IRB) for Human Subjects Research. The IRB believes
that the research procedures safeguard your privacy, welfare, civil liberties, anonymity, and
rights. If you have questions, please contact us via email: Jose Soto (josefsot@usc.edu), Sukari
Garlington (sgarling@usc.edu).
Your districts cooperation in this matter is greatly appreciated as it will greatly enhance our
study. Thank you in advance for your consideration of participation in this study.
Respectfully,
Sukari Garlington Jose Soto
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
134
Appendix D
Participant Cover Letter
Dear________________________
We hope you have had a great start to the 2019-2020 school year.
We are currently doctoral students in the K-12 Educational Leadership Program at the University
of Southern California. We are currently conducting a joint research study titled: Discipline with
Dignity for African American Students: Effective Culturally Responsive Practices for
Elementary Classroom Teachers in Los Angeles County Urban Schools.
The purpose of this study is to examine the effective positive behavior strategies and practices
that elementary school teachers use that promote a learning environment based on the Culturally
Relevant Pedagogy Theory. The study will explore how teachers perceive the behavioral
challenges of African American students in their classroom and examine their understanding of
culturally relevant teaching. This research will investigate elementary teachers’ beliefs,
knowledge, skills and practices can shed a light on successful strategies that may or may not
connect with Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Theory.
Our study will be based on information collected through a 15 minute survey of kindergarten
through fifth grade teachers in elementary schools. At the end of the survey you will be asked to
participate in an interview. Participation in this study is voluntary. This research study has been
reviewed and approved by the University of Southern California Institutional Review Board
(IRB) for Human Subjects Research. The IRB believes that the research procedures safeguard
your privacy, welfare, civil liberties, anonymity, and rights. If you have questions, please
contact us via email: Jose Soto (josefsot@usc.edu), Sukari Garlington (sgarling@usc.edu).
Your cooperation will greatly enhance our study. Thank you in advance for your consideration of
participation in this study.
Respectfully,
Sukari Garlington Jose Soto
Abstract (if available)
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Garlington, Sukari Malikah
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Core Title
Discipline with dignity for African American students: effective culturally responsive practices for elementary classroom teachers in third through fifth grade in Los Angeles County urban schools
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
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Publication Date
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Defense Date
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