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Intercultural competencies of senior leaders in public relations practicing diversity and inclusion: a field study

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Intercultural competencies of senior leaders in public relations practicing diversity and inclusion: a field study

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Content Running head: COMPETENCIES OF SENIOR PR LEADERS FOR D/I 1

INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCIES OF SENIOR LEADERS IN PUBLIC RELATIONS
PRACTICING DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION: A FIELD STUDY

by

Aerial M. Ellis

A Dissertation Proposal Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2019

Copyright 2018 Aerial M. Ellis
COMPETENCIES OF SENIOR PR LEADERS FOR D/I

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
To pursue a legacy, one must reach beyond themselves. One must seek a greater desire
than self-fulfillment and personal accomplishment. One must, in grace and humility, explore the
best of themselves for the sake of others. One must intend a purpose that extends even the length
of their very life.
As I consider the legacy that was birthed along this journey, I am reminded of the grace
of God that endowed and sustained me each of step of the way. His guidance was sure. His favor
was bountiful. His protection was immanent. His love was unfailing. For these blessings, I am
eternally grateful and committed to sharing as His legacy would require.
My first acknowledgement is owed to my grandmother – a scholar, educator and woman
of God. It is in that description of her where I saw her legacy at work during this journey. Her
shadow of influence is indelible as I regularly recall a soft whisper of her declaration, “You will
become everything I didn’t get a chance to be.” On this journey, I carried her words and her
spirit with me more than ever before. Therefore, in dedication, this dissertation is written in her
memory.
To my family, friends, colleagues, students and church community - I am grateful for
your support. Specifically, to my mother - the master encourager - I thank you for your
continuous prayers, your caring spirit and your selfless sacrifice.
To Dr. Mark Robison and Dr. Sabrina Chong – thank you for your vision and your
leadership. To my dissertation committee chair Dr. Robert Filback - thank you for your
commitment and your patience. To committee member Dr. Cathy Krop – thank you for your
time and your expertise. To committee member Dr. Rochelle Ford – thank you for your
COMPETENCIES OF SENIOR PR LEADERS FOR D/I

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contribution to this work, for being a shining trailblazer in a vocation we both love dearly and for
establishing the caliber of legacy after which I may pattern my own.
To my cohort – you are my lifeline. Without you, the journey would have been much
more impossible and much less sweet. I wish a legacy for each of you that is powerful enough to
withstand any barrier and extend many generations.
To my future – the legacy upon which I am building. This journey was an investment in
your greatness. This journey stretched me to heights I pray you one day encounter. This journey
bore fruit I hope we together may enjoy. This journey prepared me for you and all that you will
come to offer. This journey showed me that your presence is more profound than imagined.
I pray that my legacy is a testament to what you can do, what you will become, what you
will contribute and what you can overcome. May you forever dwell in the light of legacy.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Tables 6
List of Figures 7
Chapter One: Introduction 8
Background of the Problem 9
Importance of the Problem 11
Organizational Context, Mission and Goal 12
Description of Stakeholder Groups 13
Stakeholders Performance Goals 14
Stakeholder Group for the Study 15
Conceptual and Methodological Framework 17
Definitions 18
Organization of the Project 19
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 21
Diversity and Inclusion in the American Business Sector 21
History of the Diversity and Inclusion Movement in Business 22
Diversity and Inclusion as a Business Imperative 24
Developing Diversity and Inclusion Programs 26
Diversity and Inclusion Frameworks 28
Diversity and Inclusion Frameworks Commonly Used 29
Intercultural Competency Model 32
Diversity and Inclusion in the Public Relations Industry 38
The Importance of Advancing Diversity and Inclusion in Public Relations 40
Challenges and Opportunities for the Field 41
Professional Training and Development for Public Relations Practitioners 43
Specialized Education for Senior Leaders in Public Relations 45
Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Assets of Senior Leaders in Public Relations 48
Knowledge and Skills 48
Motivational Assets 53
Chapter Three: Methods 61
Research Questions 61
Participating Stakeholders 61
Survey Sampling Criteria and Rationale 62
Survey Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale 62
Interview (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale 63
Data Collection and Instrumentation 63
Surveys 63
Interviews 64
Ethics 64
Chapter Four: Results and Findings 67
Summary of Knowledge Results and Findings 70
Synthesis of Knowledge Results and Findings 70
Summary of Motivation Results and Findings 94
Synthesis of Motivation Results and Findings 94
Summary of Organizational Results and Findings 106
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Synthesis of Organizational Results and Findings 106
Conclusion 122
Chapter Five: Solutions, Implementation and Evaluation 124
Recommendations Based on KMO Assets and Present Themes 124
Continuing Needs and Opportunities 125
Framework for Learning, Teaching and Assessing Competence 130
Solutions 134
Think Tank Alliance for the Public Relations Industry 139
Training and Measurement for Intercultural Competence 141
Organizational Assessment 145
Implementation Plan 148
Integrated Needs and Expectations 148
Evaluation Plan 151
Limitations 157
Future Research 159
Conclusion 161
References 162
Appendix A: Survey Protocol 174
Appendix B: Interview Protocol 180

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Organizational Performance Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals 14
Table 2: Assumed Knowledge Assets 51
Table 3: Assumed Motivation Assets 56
Table 4: Assumed Organizational Assets 59
Table 5: Percentages of Seniority in Role in Years by Industry 69
Table 6: Assumed Knowledge Assets, Present Themes, Continuing Needs/Opportunities 72
Table 7: Years Engaged in the Practice of Diversity/Inclusion 75
Table 8: Assumed Motivation Assets, Present Themes, Continuing Needs/Opportunities 95
Table 9: Diversity/Inclusion Competencies: Respondents Level of Confidence in the Ability to
Perform 104
Table 10: Assumed Organizational Assets, Present Themes, Continuing Needs/Opportunities 108
Table 11: Continuing Needs and Opportunities for Knowledge Assets with Proposed Solutions
126
Table 12: Continuing Needs and Opportunities for Motivational Assets with Proposed
Solutions 128
Table 13: Continuing Needs and Opportunities for Organizational Assets with Proposed
Solutions 129
Table 14: Sample Training Curriculum 142
Table 15 Implementation 149
Table 16: Evaluation Framework for Intercultural Competencies 151
Table 17: Evaluation Instrument for Training Model 152
Table18: Kirkpatrick/Think-Feel-Do Comparison 154
Table 19: Evaluation of Proposed Solutions using the Kirkpatrick Model 155
Table 20: Evaluating Communication Objectives of Proposed Solutions using the CAB/Think-
Feel-Do Model 157

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Word cloud - Frequency job titles. 68
Figure 2: Formal training or education in the area of diversity/inclusion. 76
Figure 3: Intercultural competencies of senior PR leaders by importance. 87
Figure 4: Intercultural competencies - level of confidence in respondents ability to perform. 98
Figure 5: (Highest and Lowest): Leadership: how respondents feel intercultural competence -
either through direct experience, example, or research - impacts the ability for senior PR
leaders to lead/manage in key areas 121
Figure 6: Proposed competencies for senior PR leaders practicing diversity and inclusion. 135

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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Leaders in the public relations industry have been working to advance the profession
through leveraging diversity and building inclusion as a strategic imperative. Traditionally, the
industry has struggled to speak to internal and external audiences in ways that result in both
organizational success and cultural awareness. As the profession grows, it has become
increasingly important for public relations firms and departments to reflect the diverse clients,
audiences and communities that they serve (Capozzi, 2014). However, data shows that the
profession lags behind the nation in diversity and inclusion (Capozzi, 2014). The lag creates
problems of competency for public relations practitioners who appear unaware about the
significant impact communication with various races, genders, religions, sexual orientations,
ages and ethnicities has on the success of the industry (Luttrell, 2014). While, historically, public
relations professionals rarely received education needed to navigate issues of diversity of
inclusion, this is an area of knowledge that is growing in demand from senior leaders with
competency training and assessment as a key priority in the practice of diversity and inclusion
(Toth, 2009; University of North Carolina, 2016).
As a practice, diversity and inclusion is playing a more pivotal, strategic and driving role
across organizations. In public relations (PR), an abundance of resources on diversity and
inclusion have become increasingly available in the past five years. The resources include
conferences, webinars, and workshops through the Public Relations Society of America, Institute
for Public Relations, the PR Council, the Plank Center for Leadership in Public Relations, and
external organizations and consultants. Despite incremental efforts to increase training and
education for PR leaders in the area of diversity and inclusion, there is little agreement across the
industry about the core competencies needed by leaders to know how to effectively manage more
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diverse, globally astute organizations and communicate with diverse publics (Ni, Wang, & De La
Flor, 2015; Toth, 2009; Turk, 2006). The goal of this study is to identify the competencies that
senior PR leaders need to design, implement and execute diversity and inclusion practices. In
addition, this study will make recommendations about training and education in diversity and
inclusion for senior PR leaders and provide solutions for an established set of competencies
based upon the findings.
Background of the Problem
Early PR research, dating back to 1991, studied management attitudes and perceptions
about diversity within the marketplace in relationship to cultural changes in the American
consumer base. An industry-wide gap was identified as the demographic shift took a direct effect
on the workplace and the marketplace. This translated into increased market volume for public
relations and marketing communications firms and departments. However, at that time, 73% of
senior leaders expressed moderate concern to no concern about the changes cultural diversity
could introduce to the industry (Diggs-Brown & Zaharna, 1995).
In 2005, the PR Coalition released a report outlining the state of diversity in public
relations. The coalition, made of the 23 major professional communication organizations, called
on public relations practitioners and organizations to increase their focus on diversity through
recruiting, mentoring, and advocacy. They discovered that a lack of effective recruitment and
retention of diverse practitioners hindered industry progress. Furthermore, according to the
study, the lack of internal and external conversations regarding diversity has stifled industry
progress. The report argued, “Public relations and communications professionals have an
important role to play in seeing that there is a sustained focus on diversity in American life…
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They can become advocates for diversity and influence others to follow. They can make a
difference” (PR Coalition, 2005, p. 11).
Later studies showed diversity and inclusion as a high concern for senior leaders yet
confirmed their low responsiveness to the needs of multicultural audiences and employees
(Brunner, 2009). Though the PR profession in the United States has undergone dramatic changes
since then, the Bureau of Labor Statistics reported in 2017 that less than 10% of U.S. PR
professionals are African-American and Hispanic, versus 30% of the population with the number
expected to reach 50% by 2050 (U.S Department of Labor (2017). Moreover, numerous studies
complain of a gap in diversity and inclusion practices as the industry still lags behind in
recruiting diverse talent and appealing to multicultural consumer needs (Austin, 2010; Hon &
Brunner, 2000; NBPRS, 2015; Toth, 2009; Toro, 2016; Vardeman-Winter, & Place, 2017).
This problem with diversity and inclusion has often resulted in very public missteps by
well-known brands such as Dove, Pepsi, Ford and Starbucks (PR Week, 2014; 2016; 2017).
When practitioners attempt to reach culturally diverse consumers, having an understanding of
cross-cultural differences is a crucial skill for success. Leaders in the PR industry can lessen the
likelihood of crises and misunderstandings caused by communication through training and
education. Moreover, leaders in the PR industry can increase the opportunity to meet business
objectives for reaching multicultural audiences and defining brand identities. However, with no
established set of competencies for the industry, senior leaders in public relations may remain
uncertain about the types of culturally responsive communication that are needed to develop
strategies that attract, retain and advise diverse talent to the workforce. Most importantly, with an
established set of diversity and inclusion competencies leaders in the PR industry can appeal,
more effectively, to the wants and needs of diverse consumer audiences.
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Importance of the Problem
Research on the practice of diversity and inclusion continues to be in demand by
organizational leaders. However, it is becoming more difficult to measure the competencies
organizational leaders need to make the strategies created for diversity and inclusion effective.
Numerous studies have shown that there are many ways in which learned or enhanced
competencies can facilitate the goals of diversity and inclusion as they increase understanding of
culturally mediated communication phenomena (Gitimu, 2005). Yet the demand for measuring
competencies is still not sufficiently met in the business world (Fritz, Mollenberg, & Chen,
2001). The conceptual framework for diversity and inclusion has been largely aspirational and
has given less attention to how competency can be measured, conceptualized in terms of skills,
implemented in practice, and trained in others (Sue, n.d.). Studies suggesting that the bridge
between diversity, inclusion and intercultural approaches could best be built through a focus on
intercultural competence. More specificity and accuracy are needed in the variety of diversity
and inclusion assessment instruments that have been designed to measure knowledge, skills, and
attitudes for needs assessment, coaching, program design, selection, and professional
development (Ferdman, 2014). Further studies reveal that discrepancies remain in discussing
how to measure and assess intercultural competence. The studies suggest that, perhaps, the most
critical problem facing the intercultural competency is how to progress from a philosophical
definition to a practice- or research-oriented one (Bennett, 2014; Citkin & Spielman, 2011; Fritz
et al., 2001).
As industry demands increase, senior leaders can reach the mission of propelling their
organizations’ business by creating an inclusive environment that attracts, develops and retains
top-notch talent from diverse backgrounds, experiences and perspectives. Moreover, refining the
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external strategies needed to speak more effectively to the needs of their multicultural consumer
base can aid in an organization’s business development and mission fulfillment (PRSA
Foundation, 2015). In presenting the benefits of diversity and inclusion, Ravazzani (2006)
explains that public relations professionals are called upon
to deliver more effective messages; promote deeper understanding between an
organization and its publics; increase employee attraction and retention; enrich public
relations departments with diverse talents, fertile dialogue and increased innovation;
improve corporate reputation and expand market shares in diversity segments of
stakeholder publics. (p. 2)
Understanding this area of performance for senior PR leaders can contribute a shift in
delivering and implementing diversity and inclusion strategies influenced by a measurable areas
of competency. Additionally, by identifying a set of competencies for senior leaders, the
decisions made about diversity and inclusion strategies have greater benefit for the PR profession
because they enrich the perspective of counselors and advisers to management, improve their
ability to support the organizations that they serve, and strengthen businesses to be competitive
in a global environment and allows us to better reflect and serve the diverse U.S. population
(Capozzi, 2014).
Organizational Context, Mission and Goal
The organization I worked with on this field study is the Arthur W. Page Society - the
world's leading professional association for senior public relations and corporate
communications executives and educators who seek to enrich and strengthen their profession.
The membership consists primarily of chief communications officers (CCOs) of Fortune 500
corporations and leading non-profit organizations, the CEOs of the world's foremost public
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relations agencies, and academics from top business and communications schools who have
distinguished themselves teaching and/or studying corporate communications.
The Page mission is to strengthen the enterprise leadership role of the CCO. Its mission is
advanced by embracing the highest professional standards, advancing the way that
communications is understood, practiced and taught, and providing a collegial and dynamic
learning environment. With an organizational goal to unite the world’s best communicators to
transform business for the better, the Page Society believes that the CCO as the foremost senior
leader in the communication/PR function has the opportunity and responsibility to ensure that
organizations operate honestly, responsibly and respectfully toward all stakeholders. By defining
and activating corporate character, the CCO helps the enterprise earn public trust, protect
reputation and preserve its license to operate. Strong CCO leadership ensures companies not only
succeed financially, but contribute to the benefit of society, as well.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
There are three stakeholder groups in the PR industry that can benefit from this study.
The key stakeholder was senior leaders in communication/PR who have diversity and inclusion
as a business imperative in their organizations. The integration and learning perspective that
diversity and inclusion provides is increasingly seen as a valuable resource to senior leaders for
organizational functioning, market expansion, and the development of an inclusive culture that
brings new insights and knowledge (Turk, 2006). Senior leaders establish organizational culture
and make final strategic decisions. Therefore, their influence is paramount.
The second stakeholder group consists of public relations practitioners who implement
diversity and inclusion strategies. These professionals seem to grasp and consistently speak to
the need for greater cultural awareness, inclusive practices and competitive advantage. However,
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many PR professionals feel that there is a need to move toward an integration and learning
perspective. Additionally, many PR professionals feel challenged with how to move past the
dialogue of diversity and inclusion that only tackles more standard issues such as access, fairness
and discrimination. They want programs and initiatives that promote an in-depth understanding
of what diversity and inclusion is and the results it produces (Swanson, 2005).
The third and final stakeholder, public relations research/advocacy/membership
organizations, is critical to supporting and sustaining the practice of diversity and inclusion in the
PR industry. Membership organizations have the ability to direct attention from research and
data to industry influences; they can drive accountability to industry leaders and leverage
influence to use research results in developing new awareness initiatives. The organizations
include the Public Relations Society of America, the Arthur W. Page Society, the Institute for
Public Relations, The PR Council, The Plank Center for Leadership in Public Relations, National
Communication Association, The Observatory for Corporate Reputation, International
Association of Business Communicators, ColorComm and the National Black Public Relations
Society.
Stakeholders Performance Goals
Table 1
Organizational Performance Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Organizational Performance Goal
By Spring 2020, the public relations industry will provide comprehensive training to equip senior
leaders with the intercultural competencies needed to design, implement and execute diversity and
inclusion practices.
Senior leaders in PR who
have diversity and inclusion
as a business imperative in
their organizations
Public relations practitioners who
implement diversity and inclusion
strategies
Public relations
research/advocacy/membership
organizations

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Table 1, continued
By Fall 2019, senior leaders
will:
• - Know the critical
competencies that impact
decisions about diversity and
inclusion
• - Recognize implications to
delaying strategic action for
diversity and inclusion
- Understand how to create
an organizational structure to
support diversity and
inclusion efforts.
By Fall 2019, practitioners will:
• - Display influence among peers
in implementing and executing
diversity and inclusion strategies.
• - Ensure outcomes from
trainings/workshops are applied.
- Hold senior leaders accountable
for making diversity and inclusion
realized internally.
By Fall 2019, organizations
will:
• - Direct attention from
research/data to industry
influences
• - Collaborate to drive
accountability to industry
leaders
• - Leverage influence to use
research results in developing
new awareness initiatives.
- Shape narrative and lead
outreach for new set of
adopted competencies
industry-wide

Stakeholder Group for the Study
Leaders are placing an increasing focus on the critical value of the intercultural
communication process, efficiency and competence, and the cost of doing business (Gitimu,
2005). Ford (2009) suggests that diversity, like public relations, is a top-down function as well as
a bottom-up function with senior management or the dominant coalition taking the lead. The
dominant coalition is composed of the leaders of an organization; the leaders set the tone and
priorities for the organization. The leaders of organizations are charged with responding to the
recommendations and challenges faced by employees and external constituents. Ford (2009)
insists that this group should take the helm of diversity initiatives.
In order to successfully communicate cross culturally, Gitimu (2005) posits that
knowledge and understanding of cultural factors such as values, attitudes, beliefs and behavior
should be acquired by leaders. Central to effectiveness is the intercultural competence senior
leaders may gain from the exposure to trainings and assessments. Varying levels of knowledge,
motivation and organizational assets can impact competence as well as interpersonal experiences
based on shared patterns of experience and interaction.
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Therefore, the key stakeholders for this study will be senior PR leaders who are currently
leading and developing initiatives for diversity and inclusion, and are managing teams that
practice communication through a global and intercultural lens.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to assess the competencies that senior leaders need to
design, implement and execute diversity and inclusion practices across the field of public
relations. The analysis is focused on how knowledge, motivation and organizational assets can
be used to achieve an industry-wide goal of building a training and education model that further
ensure competence. While a complete evaluation project would focus on all stakeholders, for
practical purposes, the stakeholders studied in this analysis are senior leaders across the field of
public relations. To explore the present status of their knowledge and motivation, and their
organizational support, the analysis is centered around the assets that the stakeholders currently
maintain. As the practice of diversity and inclusion has been a long-standing problem in the
public relations industry, a study on stakeholder needs would be somewhat repetitive and
redundant in the pool of data and reports. Decades of this research will be reviewed in chapter
three to establish the history of diversity and inclusion issues in public relations and to connect
intercultural competence as a framework for supporting a training and education model for the
stakeholders. The assets will be revealed in the KMO findings and presented as continuing needs
and opportunities that affirm the need for training and education, and the need for an established
set of competencies that the stakeholders must obtain. The stakeholders of focus are aware of
diversity and inclusion, its current mode of practice and application, its role in the public
relations industry, the resources that can be accessed for learning and development, and the
existing need for the industry as a whole to improve its approach. What this project will do is
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present the assets that senior PR leaders currently have in order to bridge the gaps toward future
learning. Therefore, this study must explore what valuable practices, useful resources, important
qualities, and tangible or intangible benefits are most prevalent among the stakeholders in order
to then recommend solutions that could move the industry along in the area of diversity and
inclusion.
The questions that guide this study are the following:
1. What knowledge, motivation, and organizational assets do senior PR leaders currently
have for diversity/inclusion practices?
2. What intercultural competencies are necessary for senior PR leaders to practice
diversity/inclusion effectively?
3. What training/education do senior PR leaders need to ensure competency for practicing
diversity/inclusion?
Conceptual and Methodological Framework
Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis, a systematic, analytical method that helps to clarify
organizational goals and identify the knowledge, motivation and organizational assets, will be
and implemented as the conceptual framework. The methodological framework is a qualitative
case study with descriptive statistics. Assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational assets
were generated based on professional knowledge, related literature and feedback from leaders.
These assets will be assessed and affirm by conducting interviews and using surveys. Research-
based solutions will be evaluated in a comprehensive manner will be recommended for future
implementation.

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Definitions
Cultural competence (individual): A state of being capable of functioning effectively in
the context of difference (Cross, Bazron, Dennis, & Isaacs, 1989).
Cultural competence (organizational): Cultural Competence for the organization is a set
of congruent practice skills, attitudes, policies and structures that come together in a system,
agency or among professionals and enable that system agency or those professionals to work
effectively in the context of cultural differences (Cross et al., 1989; Lindsay et al., 1999).
Culture: Values, attitudes, beliefs, customs, traditions, patterns of thinking, norms and
mores. Learned behaviors ideas and perceptions passed from generation to generation (Cross et
al., 1989).
Intercultural competence:
At the intercultural level, communication competence refers to “the appropriate and
effective management of interaction between people who, to some degree or another,
represent different or divergent affective, cognitive, and behavioral orientations to the
world. The emphasis is placed on the ability to interact with individuals with different
group-level frames of references. (Ni et al., 2015, p. 169)
Diversity:
the difference in ethnicity, race, gender, religious beliefs, sexual orientation, disability,
veteran status, age, national origin, and cultural and personal perspectives; is reflected in
objective or demographic variables as well as subjective, cultural behavior, attitudes,
norms, and values. (Bhawuk & Triandis, 1996, p. 85)

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Diversity management competency:
The awareness and knowledge of how age, gender, race, ethnicity, national origin,
religion, sexual orientation, disability, language, and socioeconomic status are crucial to
an informed professional understanding of human behavior; and the skills necessary to
work effectively and ethically with culturally diverse individuals, groups, and
communities (Hansen, Pepitone-Arreola-Rockwell, & Greene, 2000).
Inclusion: The outcome of effective diversity management; an organizational context that
facilitates optimal performance and outcomes, for diverse customers and workforce (Dreachslin,
2007).
Publics:
"based either on demographic categories (such as young people, minorities, women),
media use (such as users of specialized media vs. mass media-"specialized publics" vs.
the "general public"), or on categories of people in conflict with the organization or with
which the organization wants to secure cooperation (such as employees, communities,
stockholders) (Grunig, 1978).
Public relations (PR or communications): Public relations is a strategic communication
process that builds mutually beneficial relationships between organizations and their publics
(PRSA, 2012).
Organization of the Project
Five chapters are used to organize this study. This chapter provides key concepts and
terminology commonly found in a discussion about diversity and inclusion in the PR industry.
Moreover, this chapter discussed the need to evaluate the competencies that training and
education in diversity and inclusion practices produces in the PR industry. The organization’s
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mission, goals, and stakeholders, as well as the initial concepts of gap analysis adapted to needs
analysis were introduced. Chapter Two includes a review of current literature surrounding the
scope of the study. Topics of the evolving standards to reach multicultural publics and recruit
diverse talent, the history and practice of diversity and inclusion in business and specifically in
the public relations industry, and defining, developing and measuring intercultural competence in
relation to training and education will be addressed. Chapter Three is a description of the
assumed needs for this study as well as methodology, comprising of participant choice, data
collection, and analysis. In Chapter Four, the data and results are assessed and analyzed. Chapter
Five provides solutions based on data and literature for addressing the needs and closing the
competency gap as well as recommendations for an implementation and evaluation plan.

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CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
This chapter begins with a review of the history and current state of the practice of
diversity and inclusion. The review includes a summary of factors related to the methods and
approaches used to address issues of diversity and inclusion in the public relations industry as
well as training and education for practitioners. This chapter also identifies the key competencies
that are critical for organizational leaders to possess in order to successfully engage in diversity
and inclusion practices. These competencies draw significantly on intercultural competency
frameworks. This chapter concludes with a review of the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational factors necessary for senior PR leaders to be successful in carrying out diversity
and inclusion initiatives.
Diversity and Inclusion in the American Business Sector
Research from The Conference Board confirms that globalization has expanded our view
of diversity and has forced organizations in the American business sector to increase their focus
on making diversity, along with inclusion, a practice for global business growth (2008). New and
emerging markets require advanced insights and skills in order to navigate effectively across
unfamiliar cultural territory. For diversity and inclusion efforts to be truly meaningful and
effective, the practices need to be woven into the fabric of the organization itself (Lahiri, 2008, p.
12). Globalism has also influenced companies to seek expertise in diversity and inclusion
through its senior leaders by instilling knowledge and skills to enter new markets, building
relationships, and developing credibility across cultural contexts, requiring a challenging new set
of competencies (Lahiri, 2008, p. 8).
To fully understand diversity and inclusion initiatives, it is first necessary to describe the
history of the movement. Diversity and inclusion can be defined in multifaceted ways. Austin,
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for example, frames it as including the following aspects: “a journey or process, a language
problem, a responsibility… transforming workplace culture, enhancing the profession, resource
intensive, power driven, needing to be justified, and impacting the bottom line” (2010, p. 298).
To help elucidate the meaning of diversity and inclusion, the following historical overview is
provided.
History of the Diversity and Inclusion Movement in Business
The beginning of the diversity and inclusion movement in business begins in the 1960s
with the enforcement of the Civil Rights Act. Upon the enforcement of the Civil Rights Act,
affirmative action policies were established and later made effective in the 1970s. Often focused
on employment and education, affirmative action required that employees “not discriminate
against any employee or applicant for employment because of race, creed, color, or national
origin” with a purpose to establish fair access to employment opportunities to create a workforce
that is an accurate reflection of the demographics of the qualified available workforce in the
relevant job market, particularly groups that have been historically excluded or underrepresented,
such as women and racial minorities (Kochan et al., 2003, p. 4).
Closer into the 1980s, affirmative action was being used to measure the representation of
certain demographic groups in the workforce in comparison with the available labor market. This
was done in order to identify potential barriers to equal opportunity and take affirmative steps to
correct manifest imbalances through expanded outreach. This introduced the Equal Employment
Opportunity (EEO) policy - a set of laws, regulations, and policies that guarantee every
individual’s right to EEO in the workplace, irrespective of race, color, religion, national origin,
sex, sexual orientation, age, or disability (Kochan et al., 2003, p. 4).
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By the 1990s, managing differences of a diverse workforce began to require a proactive
effort that was responsive to the changing demographic profile of the workforce through the
implementation of programs and services that support and empower the workforce through
multicultural approaches (Kochan et al., 2003, p. 4). However, the practices were generally
established and secured through human resources departments, and later supported through
PR/communication departments. Still, however, the practice was generally reactive and legally
driven (Brunner, 2000).
By the 2000s, the business case for diversity and inclusion included thoughts, ideas and
perspectives as acquired cultural assets that are rooted in inherent differences such as race, age,
gender, etc. Around this time, the word “inclusion” was added to the concept and practice of
diversity, and the phrase “diversity and inclusion” became the norm - a phrase that now has its
own acronym: D/I. Citkin and Spielman (2011) made an important clarification in reference to
the relationship between diversity and inclusion for organizational purposes: “Differentiating
between diversity (the state of mind) and inclusion (the action, practices, and behaviors) is
essential for planning organizational applications” (Citkin & Spielman, 2011, p. 23).
Supporting this introduction, Hain (2008) explained that diversity of thought is becoming
an important recruiting strategy for today’s leading organizations, but is generally, however, the
last element to permeate an organizational culture. With the expanded view of diversity and
inclusion, the idea that the practice can be limiting also emerges. Nkomo (2009) established that
defining diversity solely as race and gender can have a detrimental effect, stating that inclusion is
essential in defining diversity in order to gain acceptance. While diversity of thought and
perspective is rooted in race, gender, and ethnicity, the view of diversity and inclusion is broadly
defined, including to legally protected or minority groups.
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Diversity and Inclusion as a Business Imperative
In 1990, thought leader Roosevelt Thomas, wrote a staple piece for the Harvard Business
Review affirming the practice of diversity and inclusion and its existence in business. Thomas
stressed that organization leaders must work all the harder to define belonging in terms of a set
of values and a sense of purpose that transcends the interests, desires and preferences of any one
group. The leaders involved are change agents and must know that learning to manage diversity
is a change process as there is no single tried and tested solution to diversity and no fixed right
way to manage it (Thomas, 1990).
More organizations are focused on making an imperative to building dedicated and
strategic workforces through the practice of diversity and inclusion. In exploring how today's
organizations see the role of diversity and inclusion, Mundy (2015) submitted that organizational
success cannot be defined without considering how diversity and inclusion positively contributes
to organizational culture, marketplace competitiveness, and social responsibility. Later, Mundy
(2016) explains that the business case for diversity has emerged as an effective, tangible
rationale for forging a diverse and inclusive organization. He asserts that success with diversity
efforts begins with leadership, and that leadership must reflect and be directly involved with
diversity initiatives. He also argues that a more diverse organization leads to “more creative and
inclusive thinking, provides a competitive edge, heightens an organization’s social license to
operate, and creates more success in the marketplace” (Mundy, 2016, p. 2).
Creating a pipeline for diverse talent. Businesses are increasingly aware of the need for
creating a pipeline for culturally diverse talent and establishing an inclusive culture where
individuals feel valued. Herring (2009) reported that companies with a more diverse workforce
have consistently reported higher customer results (numbers) than those with less diversity.
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Racial diversity was among the most important predictors of an organization’s competitive
advantage, as both racial and gender diversity are positively associated with higher establishment
productivity, product quality, and economic benefits. Herring (2009) also reported that most
highly diverse executive management teams generate far greater revenues than those with the
lowest percentage of diversity on their executive teams. Demanding that organizations create a
pipeline for diverse talent is also a way for employees and consumers to hold their organizations
accountable for furthering D/I initiatives. In fueling the pipeline, leaders set to goal to interview,
recruit, hire, retain and advance talent that adds to the cultural diversity of the organization and
foster an inclusive workplace.
Building relationships with diverse publics. Organizations are recognizing that
building relationships with diverse publics translates into increased market volume and has a
corresponding effect on organizational success. The U.S. Census Bureau (2008) projected that,
by 2042, there will be no single majority demographic; people of color will comprise more than
50 percent of the U.S. population. Moreover, the majority of new employees into the labor
market will globally diverse. The Gallup Organization (2013) reported that African Americans
account for more than 12 percent of the population, and the Hispanic community is growing six
and a half times faster than the general population, and researchers project an increase from 25
million to 34 million. Additionally, Gallup (2013) reported that corporate America is about 50
percent female, 75 percent are from the millennial generation born after 1980 and ethnic
minorities comprise about one-fifth of the workforce in almost 50 percent of the companies
surveyed. These demographic shifts show, while the American workplace is changing, the
American consumer base is changing along with it.

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Developing Diversity and Inclusion Programs
Diversity and inclusion programs have been generally structured to address issues,
overcome biases and manage differences within organizations. Brunner and Hon (2000)
explained that, while the practice of diversity and inclusion has become part of the everyday
language in most organizations, the status of programs across the scope of the broader workforce
present a mixed view. For the most part, human resources departments have driven the focus and
the structure for the programs. Brunner and Hon (2000) presented the idea that there is growing
recognition that diversity and inclusion is, in addition to HR, a key public relations issue that
communication professionals should address aggressively (p. 312). As HR departments are
responsible for the overall function of diversity and inclusion within organizations, top
management is responsible for leading the effort with guidance and resources, while public
relations should support the effort through communication and outreach. The advantage of that
idea is that diversity and inclusion programs that involved these key functions are often more
successful.
Bennett (2014) presented that many primary goals of diversity and inclusion programs
include multiple functions that can be effectively supported by communication skills and
practices such as recruitment and retention of members of underrepresented groups, management
of a diverse workforce, productivity of multicultural teams, marketing across cultures, and
development of a climate of respect for diversity in the organization, among others (p. 154).
This approach to communication demands more than a level of awareness but requires
adaptation built on the development of intercultural competence (p. 164).
Logan (2017) suggested that there are no consequences most times for organizations
whose rhetoric of diversity and inclusion does not align with its actions or produce meaningful
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results. Diversity programs can actually function to benefit powerful organizations more than the
vulnerable individuals they were intended to aid. The existence of an organization’s diversity
program functions is a valuable reputational asset in creating a favorable image of the
organization even if the program is undeserved (Logan, 2017).
Best practices. Through proven best practices, Jackson and Ruderman (1995) predicted
that diversity and inclusion strategies must be strategically aligned with business goals. In order
to enhance performance and productivity, and successfully, programs should fuel three
imperatives—business, economic, and social—as strategic outcomes. Ruderman et al. (1995)
also reported that organizations that establish a baseline for these outcomes in year one should
correlate annually thereafter to gauge progress. In later research, best practices shift to
committing more effort to ensure inclusion once diversity becomes measurable by way of the
internal and external audiences. Ferdman and Roberts (2013) explained that an emphasis in
diversity and inclusion work is placed on the way in organizations effectively incorporate and
celebrate differences as a best practice, to specifically value the ways in which those differences
work most productively together (p. 95). They stress as a best practice that leaders and
organizations should take responsibility to help create the conditions wherein individuals feel
they are fully included and valued (Ferdman & Roberts, 2013, p. 118).
In more recent research, Hain (2008) supported a similar view as Ruderman et al. (1995)
and adds that, while imperatives and outcomes are critical, organizations have begun are altering
their approach and learning to embrace inclusive thinking throughout their organizations. The
research suggests as a best practice that when examining specific diversity and inclusion
practices, it is important to determine what qualities organizations want to develop a culturally
sensitive leader, and what training resources are needed to educate them (Hain, 2008).
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Common challenges. The Global D/I Benchmarks Report (2015) establishes competence
as a key challenge for diversity and inclusion where leaders need to work on improving skills,
knowledge, and ability (p. 5). This approach focuses on increasing the competence of individuals
and organizations in order to interact effectively in the context of many similarities and
differences. Measures of success align with demonstrated competence of those involved in
diversity and inclusion related initiatives.
Another common challenge is how an organization’s attitudes toward diversity and
inclusion and the steps taken to develop its leaders can depend largely on the maturity level of
the function itself, and how it is practiced inside the workplace. The 2016 Diversity
Competencies in Leadership Development Report by UNC explains that, as organizations grow
and leaders gain better insight on how diversity and inclusion fuels their bottom line, those
detailed insights cannot be gathered if there is lack of training and development for the
organizations leaders. The report suggests that this challenge of training, and subsequently
assessing the impact of the training, keeps organizations from realizing the value of their
diversity and inclusion efforts and hinders collaboration and innovation among their culturally
diverse groups. This means that the challenge of competency as a critical success factor in the
awareness and application for any strategic approach to diversity and inclusion programs.
Diversity and Inclusion Frameworks
The Report of the Diversity Research (2002) revealed a general set of frameworks for
diversity and inclusion featuring three areas: (a) workforce diversity, which is positively
associated with higher business performance outcome measures; (b) racial diversity, which is
positively associated with higher performance in organizations that integrate and leverage
diverse perspectives as resources for product delivery, and (c) gender diversity, which is
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positively associated with more effective group processes and performance in organizations with
people-oriented performance cultures.
Diversity and Inclusion Frameworks Commonly Used
Leaders must commit to a strategic plan that acts as framework for diversity and
inclusion. The plan should match actionable steps that utilize training and development as a
tactical approach. According to The Society of Human Resource Management (SHRM, 2009),
diversity and inclusion training should be an essential component of organizational effectiveness
and performance efforts and is a fundamental for all business and strategic-planning activities
(SHRM, 2009).
An important quality tied to the framework of diversity and inclusion is competency.
The 2016 Diversity Competencies in Leadership Development Report by UNC presents the
diversity and inclusion function as a practice that should be viewed as a strategic imperative, and
suggests that developing the competencies in leaders can help foster a culture of workplace
inclusion. They recommend the following competencies as a set of related abilities that allows a
leader to be effective in the area of diversity and inclusion.
The following abilities that are in place at organizations to varying degrees:
• Attitudinal: Ability to adapt to other cultural norms, withhold judgment, and cope with
uncertainty.
• Business: Ability to use negotiation tactics and styles across cultures and understand a
regulatory environment.
• Knowledge: Ability to follow behavioral rules and norms; an understanding of world
geography and visa requirements.
• Managerial: Ability to use culturally appropriate motivational tools.
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• Skills: Ability to practice appropriate etiquette and seek local expertise as needed (UNC,
2016).
In a 2008 report, Creating a Competency Model for Diversity and Inclusion
Practitioners, The Conference Board offered an evolving competency model for globally-
minded organizations that understand the transformative power of practicing diversity and
inclusion. The model includes (a) categories of like competencies, (b) the competencies
themselves, and (c) behaviorally based definitions for each competency. The seven categories
and their related competencies are (a) change management; (b) diversity, inclusion, and global
perspective; (c) business acumen; (d) strategic external relations; (e) integrity; (f)
visionary/strategic leadership; (g) HR disciplines (Lahiri, 2008, p. 5).
Supporting the view that competency should be a part of the framework that
organizations create, Bennett (2014) explained that organizations often state diversity and
inclusion outcomes to include “greater productivity, better customer service or student
satisfaction, competitive advantage, increased retention, global citizenship, community impact,
increased market share, and effective management” (pp. 162-63). However, greater outcomes are
predicted to be more achievable when the workforce develops and reflects intercultural
competence.
Roosevelt Thomas was the first researcher and practitioner to connect diversity practices
to business outcomes. Since the work of Thomas, the expected outcome of diversity is
demonstrated behavioral competencies. Anand and Winters (2008) suggested an effective
approach for many companies to go deeper is to dedicate resources to diversity learning. To
ensure content expertise many best in class companies have learning as part of the D/I function
or a strong dotted line from the training org to the D/I office. These functions also provide
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internal content consulting to ensure that diversity and inclusion are integrated, wherever
possible, into all training offerings (Anand & Winters, 2008).
Anand and Winters (2008) explained that assessing effectiveness of this training requires
a clear understanding of what diversity training is intended to achieve as it influences the hiring
and promotion decisions. A result of heightened awareness and changed attitudes can lead to
objectives are typically stated in more concrete and immediate terms on both micro and macro
levels level objectives that include imparting knowledge, changing behavior, changing culture,
reaching greater retention, and improved productivity.
A paradigm shift in positioning diversity as a competency has created the assumption that
training is no longer only for certain groups but rather that all employees need to be more cross-
culturally competent in an increasingly global world (Anand & Winters, 2008). T
he Thomas & Ely Model’s (1996) Learning and Effectiveness Paradigm covered key
aspects of how diversity as a competency can be embedded through training:
- Different perspectives and approaches to work are valuable
- Acknowledgement that learning and relearning are central to leveraging diversity
- Organizations fosters personal development that brings out people’s full range of skills
- Recognition that employees often make business choices that draw on their cultural
backgrounds
Anand and Winters (2008) further positioned diversity as a competency and as such
the learning should be based on building blocks that start with basic concepts and move on to
increasingly more difficult material. The authors stress that diversity learning should be
integrated, ongoing relevant, applicable and based on solid needs assessment; should not just
happen in the classroom but rather be integrated into other business process and activities.
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Intercultural Competency Model
In review of how the practice of diversity and inclusion is applied in organizations, the
theoretical frame of intercultural competency becomes a recurring theme. Citkin and Spielman
(2011) stressed the role of communication as a priority for leadership and in corporate culture for
the practice of diversity and inclusion. They insist that leaders use communication to influence
others and should be trained in intercultural communication in order to with lead with in an
inclusive, respectful and culturally sensitive manner. When leaders accumulate the competencies
of these intercultural communication skills, tangible results can yield for their organizations in
the practice of diversity and inclusion (Citkin & Spielman, 2011, pp. 40-41). Organizational
leaders need intercultural communication to perform effectively and appropriately with members
of other cultural backgrounds and to genuinely interact with people free of prejudice or bias
(Citkin & Spielman, 2011, p. 42). Bennett (2014) introduced a perspective on intercultural
communication that is particularly useful in developing inclusive leadership in organizations and
systems. She presents the perspective of communication as an intercultural competency as being
particularly useful in developing leaders (Bennett, 2014).
Definition. Bennett (2014) referred to intercultural communication as “the interaction
between people who, to some degree or another, represent different or divergent affective,
cognitive, and behavioral orientations to the world” (p. 164). The emphasis is placed on the
ability to interact with individuals with different group-level frames of references (Ni et al.,
2015). In a review of literature, Collier (2015) revealed that intercultural knowledge without the
appropriate communication behaviors can lead to negative outcomes. Historically, “intercultural”
began as a somewhat limited concept referring to interactions between individuals from diverse
backgrounds. Evolving research on intercultural communication has helped to clarify the notion
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that there is a general disconnect between one’s knowledge, understanding, or intention and how
one translates them behaviorally. Collier (2015) concluded that, because culture is universally
understood to include the diverse symbols, images, principles, and practices that people share as
a consequence of communication, all communication is intercultural to some extent.
Competencies. Cross et al. (1989) presented the concept of competence to be viewed as a
goal toward which organizations can strive, as becoming culturally competent is seen as a
developmental process. They believe that becoming culturally competent is a developmental
process for the individuals and for their organizations. In later research, Dean (2001) addressed
the American approach to competence by explaining that it is consistent with the belief that
knowledge brings control and effectiveness. Essentially, this is the assumed ideal to be achieved
within individuals. However, Dean (2001) proposed that maintaining an awareness of one’s lack
of competence is a goal rather than establishing of competence. This presents a different view of
practicing intercultural communication as awareness and application become more critical.
Citkin and Spielman (2011) supported that perspective by explaining how intercultural
communication competency has a broad scope of application and relevance and asserts that
effective intercultural communication is not possible without competency (p. 50). Citkin and
Spielman (2011) also believed that leaders need competencies that stress cultural awareness, the
ability to engage in cultural dialogs to elicit information and to adjust one’s behaviors
appropriately – all competencies that need be included in the professional development training
or education.
To specifically address the current state of intercultural competency research, Koester
and Lustig (2015) offered a refined definition of competence:
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Competence is viewed as a social judgment that is somewhat analogous to the concept of
“face” in interpersonal relations: competence is an impression, not a behavior; an
inference one makes, not an action one takes; an evaluation, not a performance. In short,
competent intercultural communication is not something one does but rather something
that one is perceived to be. (p. 2)
While there are many variations to what actions and outcomes demonstrate competency,
Lutz (2017) suggested that training for diversity and inclusion practices grooms employees to
become culturally competent. In applying competency to diversity and inclusion practices, she
states,
When attempting to understand a new culture, one must have a basic outline, a base
model, as a point of reference to build upon with more knowledge and experience. That
base model is cultural knowledge and without it, there would be nothing to build upon, so
no future understanding can be achieved. (Lutz, 2017, p. 6)
Models. A number of models in the field of intercultural communication are useful to the
trainer and educator for the purpose of establishing and measuring competence.
One important and commonly-applied model is The Bennett scale, also called the
Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS), developed by Dr. Milton Bennett. The
model outlines six distinct mindsets that affect cultural interactions with each position suggesting
particular competencies. This model supports a design for training, education, coaching, and
program design (Bennett, 2014, pp. 164-65).
A widely accepted intercultural competency model in training and education was
developed by Darla Deardoff (2006) declaring five elements of competencies most critical – 1)
knowledge; 2) skills; 3) attitudes; 4) internal outcomes and 5) external outcomes. This
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framework illustrates that intercultural competence is a lifelong process, at which there is no
point an individual can becomes completely interculturally competent. Therefore, it is important
to focus on the education process of how one learns, acquires and applies the competencies.
Another model commonly referenced was established by Cross et al. (1989). The five
elements of cultural competence (the Cross Model) include (a) awareness and acceptance of
difference, (b) awareness of one’s own cultural values, (c) understanding the dynamics of
difference, (d) developing cultural knowledge, and (e) applying the cultural knowledge to the
context of the client or situation.
Butts, Trejo, Parks, and McDonald (2012) found that some organizations use competency
models as a foundation for linking the solutions to an organizational framework while others use
models to examine of commonalities across and within diverse groups. They discovered that
their assertion is consistent with research that shows diversity competencies overlapping with
intercultural competencies:
Integrating the principles of diversity and cross-cultural work into a leadership
competency framework dispels the myth that diversity is simply the right thing to do.
This new paradigm encourages the workforce to maintain local identities while
acknowledging commonalities and using leadership competencies to best leverage people
(Butts et al., 2012, p. 362).
These models are examples of how practice diversity and inclusion is initiated and embedded
into organizations.
Measurement and assessment. As competencies become an important topic, many
organizations still struggle to commit to measuring them. Hancock (2005) found, while
corporations spend as much as 8 million dollars a year on diversity and inclusion training, many
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have not made the same financial commitment to evaluate the effectiveness of the training or
measure the competencies gained; the trainings are necessary but there is no need to evaluate
them. Hancock (2005) contend that applying this concept helps leaders achieve basic
competence and can govern and inform their decision making about diversity and inclusion
practices.
Citkin and Spielman (2011) suggested that organizations need practical inclusion-
boosting programs that should integrate and communicate different intercultural competencies
(p. 21). In the corporate world, competence is promoted to facilitate leadership and to support
culturally responsive teaching and learning at all levels of education. Bennett (2014) presented
that there are assessment instruments confirmed by the Intercultural Communication Institute
(2011) that have been designed to measure knowledge, skills, and attitudes for needs assessment,
coaching, program design, selection, and professional development. Among the dozens of tools
used, the competencies most valued are cultural self-awareness is the key cognitive competency,
curiosity is the key affective competency, and empathy is the key behavioral competency (p.
158). Citkin and Spielman (2011) insisted that leaders should ensure training and education is
present in various divisions of the organization and should helping with funding and sponsor the
trainings. They also insist that trainings should be sporadic but part of strategic initiative that is
presented as a priority by management (p. 34). In most organizations, nothing can be
accomplished without leadership approval or support. Therefore, leadership must actively
support the development of an inclusive leadership organizational culture and of intercultural
competencies (p. 39).
For effective outcomes, Lahiri (2008) recommended that organizations must customize
their own measures for competencies that are part of an organization’s overall metrics for
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diversity and inclusion. Additionally, Kealey (2015) explained that an essential ingredient to
competency is the continued development of intercultural communication measurement
instruments. There are many reasons for this how the stress and uncertainty of design and the
reliance on self-assessment makes measurement and application difficult for some
organizations. Many organizations go the route of having individuals respond to questionnaire
items which prompt them to generally select the “right answer” in attempt to how to seem
culturally sensitive and knowledgeable.
This approach to measurement and assessment presents a major weakness when it comes
to determining how competency can truly be met and applied.
Implications of intercultural competency for diversity and inclusion strategies. With
intercultural competency as a foundation, we see alignment of this theoretical approach to
communication aligned directly with the core elements found in the practice of diversity and
inclusion. One implication to consider as we make this alignment is the absence of research that
matches the two practices while discovering an abundance of research that parallels nearly
identical concepts. Beamer (1992) and Bennett (2014) suggested that while there is no absolute
formula that will bond intercultural competency and the work of diversity and inclusion, the
absence of such a model presents a theoretical rationale for using the intercultural
communication to advance diversity and inclusion practices, and further, to increase the potential
for more effective strategies in the future. Meanwhile, Ni et al. (2015) presented a compelling
view of the relationship between the concept of intercultural competency and the practice of
public relations. Their research indicates that PR practitioners with high intercultural competency
are “more prone to empathize with the publics, hold a more open attitude, and are more flexible,
may prefer mutually benefiting public relations practices - namely, symmetrical, two-way, and
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ethical communication- that supports cultural empathy, open-mindedness, and flexibility” (Ni et
al., p. 180). While PR practitioners general chose what practices they believe work best for the
organization’s goals, their intercultural competency will enhance their ability to build and
facilitate culture-generated communication. In doing so, a common theme in the intercultural
competency variables, becomes present as organizations maintain their missions and sustain
positive relationships with their strategic publics.
As most organizations rely on public relations practitioners as the crafter and the sender
for all communication external and internal, the need becomes the critical for the practitioners to
gain training to demonstrate possible conflicts, identify certain patterns of expression and learn
any preferred aspects of communication to avoid misunderstandings with intercultural audiences
(Citkin & Spielman, 2011, pp. 57-58).
Diversity and Inclusion in the Public Relations Industry
Hon and Brunner (2000) offered a great explanation about the presence of diversity and
inclusion in the PR industry:
Diversity as it relates specifically to public relations can be examined as two overlapping
components—one internal and one external. The internal aspect corresponds to employee
or workforce issues. The rationale for diversity is that practitioners of varied
backgrounds are more likely to bring distinctive—and broader—perspectives to
public relations planning. The external dimension of diversity relates to the targets of
public relations programming. The logic is that as audiences become more diverse and
more international, public relations departments and agencies must be composed of
individuals who are either members of diverse groups or who can at least communicate
effectively with diverse audiences. (pp. 311-312)
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However, there are disparities in the public relations industry among gender, racial, and
ethnic groups with less power that must be addressed more fully (Austin, 2010). For example, a
2016 report by the American Advertising Federation’s Mosaic Council developed a study on the
depictions of African-American women in reality television. The study revealed that people are
missing out on the cultural exchange and fluency necessary to navigate a modern global society.
It also revealed that an astonishing number of people are only exposed to persons of color
(African-American, Hispanic, Asian and mixed-race) through their television or computer screen
(AAF, 2016). This study, along with many others that examine the ways that people, primarily
but not limited to people of color, using critical race theory (CRT). The theory sits in an
academic discipline developed by Derrick Bell in 1995 and other leading law scholars in the
1970s, underscoring the need to better understand how media images influence the perceptions
and beliefs of all viewers whether consciously or subconsciously (AAF, 2016). By embracing the
principles of critical race theory, members throughout the public relations field can venture
further to redefine the scope of what is traditionally considered important in public relations
scholarship and practice (Logan, 2014).
James Grunig, an industry pioneer who is considered the father of modern public
relations, explored the role of diversity and inclusion practices in PR through another theory
called requisite variety. He explained that the principle of requisite variety—approaching the
diversity of problems with a repertoire of responses based on how nuanced the problems are—is
the link between advancing diversity practices in public relations. He provided the example that
if an organization is affected by publics of an ethnic minority, a team of White practitioners may
not be well-equipped to satisfactorily address that group. Given that ambiguity and uncertainty
can exist at higher levels of decision making, establishing requisite variety requires organizations
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to develop communication that secures mutually beneficial relationships with diversity groups.
The requisite variety in practicing diversity and inclusion for public relations provides an
increase organizational excellence and effectiveness (Ehling, W. P., White, J., & Grunig, J. E.,
1992).
In sum, he establishes that diversity as a practice is equal to requisite variety, and is the
key characteristic that helps organizations identify and foster productive relationships with
multiple groups. The lack of requisite variety will cause organizations to communicate without
cultural awareness or empathy, overlook cultural nuances, and even ignore groups with the
potential to be strategic constituency or target audience.
In recent research, Logan (2017) built on traditional views of diversity in public relations
as they tend focus on increasing the numbers of diverse practitioners through achieving requisite
variety. Meanwhile, the narrow focus on counting diversity has an unfortunate side effect of
essentializing diversity down to a numerical exercise. Logan (2017) suggested that the rationale
for improving diversity in public relations has no moral or ethical basis but is rather built on the
business case model which proposes that increasing diversity allows organizations to
communicate with diverse audiences more effectively, which helps them to achieve their
economic goals by commodifying minority practitioners as organizational assets to be leveraged
to advance the organization’s marketplace position.
The Importance of Advancing Diversity and Inclusion in Public Relations
Through a thorough understanding of the market and the business, public relations
practitioners are better positioned to create insights on how diversity and inclusion will
contribute to business results. By clearly expressing the bottom line implications of diversity and
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inclusion, practitioners may underscore the merits of diversity and inclusion work as part of the
organization’s business strategy (Lahiri, 2008).
Additionally, diversity and inclusion as social responsibility provides the public relations
industry with its greatest opportunity because no other organizational function is charged with
balancing organizations and public interests in this way (Diggs-Brown & Zaharna, 1995).
As it functions within organizations, the practice of diversity and inclusion should be
shared; human resources should help lead internal diversity efforts, marketing should help lead
external diversity efforts, and public relations should help be the bridge between the two because
of its role in building and maintaining mutually beneficial relationships with internal and
external publics (Ford, 2009).
Additionally, Gardenswartz and Rowe (1995) believed that when organizations create
teams of diverse public relations practitioners they are more likely to seek diverse markets
among audiences because the practitioners are generally more attuned to the various needs of
those audiences and aware of their preferences. In 2018, The Commission on Public Relations
Education (CPRE) reported the inextricable relationship diversity and inclusion has with public
relations. Diversity and inclusion are instrumental to both internal stakeholder management and
external communication, particularly in global campaigns as cultural perspective can transcend
organizational culture, societal culture, and individual culture and international organizations
may also face challenges across these types of culture (CPRE, 2018).
Challenges and Opportunities for the Field
While there have periodic discussions regarding diversity and inclusion in the public
relations industry, the goal of diversity and inclusion is far from being realized or even well
defined across the industry. Traditionally, the industry has been made up of White men and
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women, with White men holding the most senior-level positions. Over the past 20 years, the
industry has kept pace with globalization. Agencies have begun to support the efforts of their
clients as they expanded into new global markets. Until then, very little focus was placed on
diversity and inclusion within their U.S. ranks as positions were being generally filled to meet
client demands (Chitkara, 2017). Hon and Brunner (2000) suggested that a major challenge for
public relations practitioners communicating with diverse audiences is not simply overcoming
general language barriers but also understanding the cultural nuances that can cause
communication blunders and make PR campaigns ineffective campaigns.
Early research by Grunig in 1992 stressed that public relations practitioners could
actually help their organizations and their clients be in the forefront of diversity and inclusion by:
“advising management, helping to create strategies to develop greater diversity,
communicating with a culturally diverse workforce and fostering understanding among
various worker groups. If public relations ignores the importance of diversity, the field
could miss one of the most significant business opportunities…in years.” (p. 1)
Also, an excellent summary of this industry-wide opportunity was delivered by Strenski
(1994) nearly 25 years ago:
Diversity will not disappear. CEOs are searching for answers. They have turned to legal
counsel in the past when public relations proved wanting and they could look else-where
to help manage diversity. If public relations practitioners fail to step to the plate, human
resources directors or cultural affairs officers certainly will, and public relations will,
once again, lose management respect. (p. 3)
The truth remains that the public relations industry knows that it still has a diversity and
inclusion problem. A study published by the Holmes Report in 2017 reveals the perspectives and
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43
attitudes of CEOs in the public relations industry. It suggests that achieving diversity and
inclusion in the workplace is no longer aspirational in PR but it is intrinsically tied to business
objectives, such as reaching multicultural audiences, and defining brand identity through cultural
competency and diversity of thought and ideas (Chitkara, 2017).
The CEOs interviewed in the Holmes Report study (2017) generally agree that the
industry still a great deal of work to do toward achieving full industry-wide progress in diversity
and inclusion as a major opportunity. They identified five key areas to drive the next steps
toward a more diverse and inclusive workforce: (a) clear definitions of diversity and inclusion
that are tied to their organization’s mission and values, and culture; (b) a collection of metrics to
establish baselines for improvement and gauge progress; (c) a disclosure of metrics to
benchmark industry progress; (d) industry-wide support to secure a sustained effort; (e) client
and industry pressure to keep up with evolving consumer bases (Chitkara, 2017).
Leaders must promote diverse, collaborative efforts in the workplace at all levels;
therefore, it is important for public relations and communication executives Ford (2010) stressed
that contemporary, as well as public relations educators, to understand how to recruit and retain a
diverse pool of potential future leaders in the profession.
Professional Training and Development for Public Relations Practitioners
In order to truly be effective, PR practitioners must remain accountable for learning the
cultural nuances of audiences and employees and have measurable competencies than can be
assessed as best practices for diversity and inclusion (Luttrell, 2014). Training and development
in diversity and inclusion helps employees overcome their behavioral tendencies by encouraging
tolerance understood as civility in all interactions and rejecting the contemporary definition of
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44
tolerance which seems to mandate acceptance, appreciation, and approval of all beliefs, values,
conduct, and ways of life (Von Bergen, 2009).
Research by Gardenswartz and Rowe (1995) suggested that diverse communication
teams are more likely to identify emerging markets because they are more attuned to these
groups’ needs and preferences. Kent and Taylor (2011) went into more depth with an
explanation of intercultural communication competency by exposing a more relational approach.
They suggest that this approach that moves away from traditional, managerial, top-down
approaches to public relations in culturally diverse contexts, and moves toward understanding
mutually beneficial relationships through cultural diversity in whatever form they take. This
move reflects a growing and broader trend in public relations where the industry is moving away
from a functional view of publics and communication and, instead, is embracing a more active
way to link diversity and inclusion to its practices (Kent & Taylor, p. 59).
Though the value of intercultural competency is clear, Beamer (1992) explored a learning
process model to better establish an idea of what constitutes competence and what methods best
accomplish that goal. Beamer presented five levels of learning: (a) acknowledging diversity, (b)
organizing information according to stereotypes, (c) posing questions to challenge the
stereotypes, (d) analyzing communication episodes and, (e) generating "other culture" messages.
Beamer predicts that if the learning process by which intercultural competency is acquired can be
identified, then the process for instruction will also have been identified (pp. 291-293). Thus,
applying a model for intercultural competency can serve as a rational bases for training and
education leaders in diversity and inclusion.

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45
Specialized Education for Senior Leaders in Public Relations
The expansion of business expectations to include a global scale illustrates the need for
cultural sensitivity in business communication. Communication professionals need to become
competent in diversity and cultural issues to become an active and integral part of the global
business environment (Toth, 2009). Transforming effective diversity and inclusion practices will
require that top leadership advocate for training and education so that organizational decision
makers develop an inclusive mindset and enhance business outcomes (Citkin & Spielman, 2011,
pp. 31-32).
Dreachslin (2007) explained that the successful development of a diversity-sensitive
organization is significantly different from increasing the percentage of minority representation.
It requires senior leadership—starting with the CEO—to openly commit to the recruitment,
retention, development, and support of candidates previously underrepresented. The leadership
must educate and convince others that this is of strategic value and is the long-term direction of
the organization. Dreachslin (2007) also explained that the process of becoming an effective
leader in the context of diversity begins with awareness, which is the recognition that diversity
and inclusion has an impact on organizational performance, “progresses to understanding, which
means acquiring knowledge about core personal and organizational diversity competencies; and
expresses itself through action—that is, concrete changes in leader and organizational behaviors
that is, concrete changes in leader and organizational behaviors” (p. 153).
Hays-Thomas, Bowen, and Boudreaux (2012) did an extensive review of training and
education frameworks for diversity and inclusion used for professional development of
organizational leaders. After a thorough investigation of resources designed to teach aspects of
diversity and inclusion, they identified that there is no unified theory from which competencies
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46
can be identified. This means that many models can be applied based on organizational goals and
strategic imperatives as determined by its leaders. They propose an approach that requires CEOs,
VPs, directors, and others at executive levels at or near the top of the organization to set the
expectations for diversity and inclusion practices based on their competencies, the
communication processes they oversee, the decisions they make, and the strategies they pursue –
thus making leadership the important segment to receive training and education.
Further implications of competency presented by Hancock (2005) asserted that if
employees develop an awareness and acceptance of difference individually, the organization can
move toward valuing diversity. Awareness of one’s own cultural values individually can result
into self-assessment (organizationally) and understanding the dynamics of difference can help an
organization manage for the dynamics of difference. The more individuals work toward
developing cultural knowledge the more the organization can institutionalize the development of
cultural knowledge. The ability of individuals to adapt practice to the context of the client can
lead the institution to adapt diversity-policies, structure, values and services (Hancock, 2005).
In a comprehensive review of senior leaders in multinational companies, Alon and
Higgins (2005) presented the conclusions that senior leaders need to develop global
competencies, and that many companies do not know what it means to develop them. The
authors reported that the companies’ efforts to develop interculturally competent leaders
generally fell far short by erroneously promoting leaders to intercultural assignments based on
technical and organizational skills. The report revealed that the need for cross-cultural effective
leadership is immediate and widespread, and suggested that competence with specific reference
to the ability to manage increasing cultural diversity is the precondition for effective leadership.
Therefore, it has becoming increasingly clear that leadership behaviors must be adapted to the
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cultural variety embedded in the global context. It is evident that leadership training and
development should be a priority for companies that interact across cultures (Alon & Higgins,
2005).
Measurement and assessment. The goal of assessment in competency training is to
identify what members of an organization need to know to work more effectively together. The
advantage of using a cultural competence approach is that you can identify the cultural
competence gaps that need targeting in the design and development of a diversity education
program (Diversity Officer Magazine, 2015). At the organizational level, practices such as
inclusive policies and retention, are included in cultural competence. Intercultural competence
reduces inequities in promotion, retention, service delivery, as well as protects organizations
legally. Intercultural competence can lead to reductions in the number of cultural collisions that
occur and the impact of those that inevitably surface. Increasing cultural competence supports a
productive, collegial workplace, which provides both legal protection and a more competitive,
innovation environment (Diversity Officer Magazine, 2015).
Earlier literature on cultural competency training suggests that it should be focus of
diversity and inclusion education designed to teach leaders how to direct a diverse workforce and
show employees how to work effectively with others need to be examined to determine their
effectiveness (Hancock, 2005).
A best outcome of the training is that people often acquire a variety of approaches to
thinking and problem solving and can eliminate the roadblocks to participation and creativity
that can exist if a diverse workforce is hampered by a culture bound to the ethics, practices, and
customs of a dominant coalition (Diversity Officer Magazine, 2015). The underlying assumption
of diversity and inclusion training is that individuals who participate can also increase their
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48
knowledge, ability to empathize, and their understanding of the variety of “worldviews” of other
trainees (Diversity Officer Magazine, 2015). This supports the notion that because senior PR
leaders establish organizational culture and make final strategic decisions, the competencies that
gain from training and education in diversity and inclusion is paramount.
Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Assets of Senior Leaders in Public Relations
The section highlights the knowledge, motivation, and organization (KMO) assets that
might have an impact on the stakeholder goal of senior PR leaders demonstrating the
competency to embed diversity and inclusion practices within their organizations, and ultimately,
the organizational goal of helping the industry to equip senior PR leaders with the competencies
to be able to design, implement and execute diversity and inclusion practices through training
and education. This section will frame specific literature that is relevant to the KMO assets from
a theoretical perspective with the competency models that align most (See Appendix C).
Knowledge and Skills
In assessing knowledge-related assets, the literature identifies a gap in establishing a set
of competencies for senior PR leaders in diversity and inclusion. The competencies needed by
public relations executives, agency heads, and managers of public relations departments concern
their leadership roles in hiring, retaining, and counseling their organizations on the resources and
insights needed to build relationships with diverse publics (Ni et al., 2015).
With senior PR leaders as the key stakeholder for this study, their knowledge and skills
necessary to embed diversity and inclusion strategies in organizational PR practices will be the
focus. Ambrose, Bridges, DiPietro, Lovett, and Norman (2010) explained that learners can have
knowledge that is inactive and may not be able to facilitate the integration of new knowledge. If
learners have prior knowledge that is insufficient for a learning situation, this knowledge can fail
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in support of new knowledge, and if it is inappropriate for the context or inaccurate, it may
distort or impede new learning. Therefore, it is important to understand the senior PR leaders
knowledge related to diversity and inclusion and their how learning is made active through
knowledge assets. Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) identified these areas of knowledge as
factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. The following sections will examine the key
knowledge assets of the primary stakeholder for this study.
Factual knowledge. As an example of factual knowledge, senior leaders must
understand the basic facts about issues regarding diversity and inclusion in the PR industry, what
kinds of competencies they need to address those issues and what implications exist by delaying
strategic action for diversity and inclusion. As a representation of factual knowledge, senior PR
leaders also need to have basic knowledge and awareness that employee attraction and retention,
and low responsiveness to the needs of multicultural audiences are industry-wide issues of
diversity and inclusion. The integration of this knowledge is expressed by the learning
perspective that the practice of diversity and inclusion is seen as an increasingly valuable
resource to senior leaders for organizational functioning, market expansion, and the development
of an inclusive culture that brings new insights (Turk, 2006). Katz and Miller (2001) insisted that
is crucial to provide leaders with the essential tools and information they need to model the new
behaviors and develop the new competencies for building inclusion and leveraging diversity.
Competencies from the literature aligned with factual knowledge are developing cultural
knowledge (Crosset al. 1989), and the ability to follow behavioral rules and norms; an
understanding of world geography and visa requirements. (UNC, 2016)
Conceptual knowledge. The conceptual aspect of their declarative knowledge is related
to the principles and implications of implementing strategic diversity and inclusion decisions,
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50
and the interrelationship between those decisions and the critical competencies of the senior
leaders. The concept of intercultural competency aligns with the knowledge needed for
practicing diversity and inclusion. The comparison supports the need for organizations maintain
both their missions and sustain positive relationships with their strategic publics. Competencies
from the literature aligned with conceptual knowledge are the ability to practice appropriate
etiquette and seek expertise as needed (UNC, 2016) and understanding business acumen which
includes external market knowledge, holistic business knowledge, return on invest for diversity
and inclusion (Lahiri, 2008).
Procedural knowledge. As an element of procedural knowledge, senior PR leaders need
to understand the industry-wide issue of serving as a reflection of the diverse clients, audiences
and communities that they serve. Senior PR leaders need to know how to pair informed decisions
about diversity and inclusion with basic PR strategies. The logic is that as audiences become
more diverse and more international, public relations departments and agencies must be
composed of individuals who are either members of diverse groups or who can at least
communicate effectively with diverse audiences (Diggs-Brown & Zaharna, 1995). The
procedural knowledge of the leaders is related to being able to create a strategic plan for diversity
and inclusion efforts, and the steps necessary to measure effectiveness. Competencies from the
literature aligned with procedural knowledge are the ability to use negotiation tactics and styles
across cultures and understand a regulatory environment (UNC, 2016) and understanding HR
disciplines such as total rewards/talent management, organizational development, work and life
balance, employee training and compliance (Lahiri, 2008).
Metacognitive knowledge. To explore the metacognitive knowledge, senior PR leaders
need the ability to evaluate their own challenges with competency, address their own biases and
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51
reflect on self-awareness, assess the demands of diversity and inclusion in the industry, and make
adjustments based on organizational structure. As an element of metacognitive knowledge,
senior PR leaders need to know how to self-reflect on the generalizations, stereotypes and
prejudices they carry that can ultimately influence the strategic decisions they make (or do not
make) about diversity and inclusion. Competencies from the literature aligned with
metacognitive knowledge are awareness and acceptance of difference (Crosset al. 1989), as well
as attitudes such as openness, curiosity, cultural self-awareness, culture-specific knowledge, and
worldviews (Deardorff, 2006).
Table 2 presents a view of how each of the stakeholder knowledge assets corresponds
with the four major types of knowledge.
Table 2
Assumed Knowledge Assets
Assumed Knowledge Assets Knowledge Type

Senior PR leaders need to know the basic facts about
diversity and inclusion issues in the PR industry.

Senior PR leaders need to recognize implications to
delaying strategic action for diversity and inclusion.

Senior PR leaders need to develop cultural
knowledge (Crosset al. 1989).

Senior PR leaders need to know behavioral rules and
norms based on geographical locations (UNC, 2016).

Declarative (Factual)

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Table 2,continued
Assumed Knowledge Assets Knowledge Type
Senior PR leaders need to know and maintain the
critical competencies that impact decisions about
diversity and inclusion.

Senior PR leaders need to understand how to create
an organizational structure to support diversity and
inclusion efforts.

Declarative (Conceptual)

Senior PR leaders need to practice appropriate
etiquette and seek expertise as needed (UNC, 2016)

Senior PR leaders need the business acumen to
assess external market knowledge and the return on
investment of diversity and inclusion ROI (Lahiri,
2008).

Senior PR leaders need to educate and convince their
peers that diversity and inclusion is of strategic value
and has a significant impact on organizational
performance, and the long-term direction of their
respective organization.

Procedural

Senior PR leaders need to establish a set of
intercultural communication competencies that
prioritize the knowledge and procedures needed to
develop effective diversity and inclusion strategies in
the PR industry.

Senior PR leaders must employ the critical
competencies gained from trainings in order to
deliver more effective messages.

Senior PR leaders must have the ability to use
negotiation tactics and styles across cultures and
understand a regulatory environment (UNC, 2016).

Senior PR leaders must ne knowledgeable about
HR disciplines to include total rewards/talent
management, organizational development, work and
life balance, and employee training and compliance
(Lahiri, 2008).

Procedural

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Table 2, continued
Assumed Knowledge Assets Knowledge Type

Senior PR leaders need knowledge about the
complexities surrounding race, age, gender, religion
and other cultural differences that impact issues of
diversity and inclusion.

Senior PR leaders need to know how to apply
openness and curiosity to self-reflect on cultural self-
awareness, culture-specific knowledge, and
worldviews (Crosset al. 1989, Deardorff, 2006)

Metacognitive

Motivational Assets
Motivation has been considered a dominant factor that helps learners maintain
perseverance and achieve successful learning outcomes for many years (Ambrose et al., 2010).
Clark (1999) identified motivation problems using the indexes of persistence, active choice, and
mental effort. Evidence from a number of studies supports the generalization that active
engagement and persistence are increased by two factors, which are value and self-efficacy
(Pajares, 2010). Senior PR leaders must maintain the motivation to initiate and sustain their
work through critical competencies and invest an adequate amount of effort to achieve their
goals in diversity and inclusion.
Recent literature explains that, at the intercultural level, communication competence
refers to the appropriate and effective management of interaction between people who, to some
degree or another, represent different or divergent affective, cognitive, and behavioral
orientations to the world (Bennett, 2014). Ni et al. (2015) suggested that, in assessing the
competencies for PR practitioners managing diversity and inclusion strategies, there must be an
emphasis on their ability and the motivation to interact with individuals with different group-
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54
level frames of references. With senior PR leaders as the key stakeholder for this study, their
motivational assets will support the basis of their learning as explained in this next section.
Attainment value. To prioritize value, senior PR leaders must find the work of diversity
and inclusion rewarding, enjoyable and useful. Eccles (2010) identified value as a strong
predictor of active choice and asserts that motivation is highest when individuals are performing
tasks they find to be meaningful. Senior PR leaders must believe that they can do well in
developing diversity and inclusion strategies and place value on the outcomes and benefits those
strategies yield within their organizations and the PR industry at large. Through a thorough
desire to understand the market and the business, practitioners are better positioned to create
insights on how diversity and inclusion will contribute to business results. By clearly expressing
the bottom line implications of diversity and inclusion, practitioners may underscore the merits
of diversity and inclusion work as part of the organization’s business strategy (Lahiri, 2008).
A general scope of competencies that support attainment value are an understanding of the
dynamics of difference (Cross,et al. 1989) and seeking external outcomes such as effectiveness
and appropriateness (Deardorff, 2006).
Self-efficacy theory. To address self-efficacy, senior PR leaders must believe in their
ability to learn to their critical competencies needed to deploy diversity and inclusion strategies.
Pajares (2010) defined self-efficacy as the personal beliefs and expectations about one's own
capability to organize and implement. While self-efficacy can be both individual and collective,
it becomes a necessary assessment of motivation for senior PR leaders who must perform and
achieve at designated levels and various capacities. They must believe that the training they
receive in learning to develop and implement diversity and inclusion strategies will help them
become more effective and efficient at their decision making. A general scope of competencies
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55
that support self-efficacy are awareness of one’s own cultural values (Crosset al. 1989), ability to
adapt to other cultural norms, withhold judgment, and cope with uncertainty (UNC, 2016),
empathy as behavior (Intercultural Communication Institute, 2011), and elements of integrity
that include ethics, resilience, communication and influence (Lahiri, 2008).
Expectancy value theory. To address expectations, Fry (1992) stressed that public
relations practitioners could help organizations be in the forefront on diversity issues, including
advising management, helping to create strategies to develop greater diversity, communicating
with a culturally diverse workforce and fostering understanding among various worker groups.
Eccles (2010) framed expectancy value theory as an individual's expectations for success and the
value that the individual attaches to the outcomes. If the public relations industry ignores the
importance of diversity, it could miss one of the most significant business opportunities in years
(Brunner, 2009). Additionally, expectancy value theory reveals what and how motivations might
manage and measure an organization’s reputation by examining the efficacy of the public
relations practice from the inside out and providing a rationale for building and maintaining more
durable stakeholder relationships of all kinds (Mak, 2005). A general set of competencies from
the literature that align with expectancy value are visionary/strategic leadership to include
political savoir-faire and pragmatism (Lahiri, 2008), managerial ability to use culturally
appropriate motivational tools (UNC, 2016) and understanding the dynamics of difference
(Crosset al. 1989).
Identity-centered theory. The identity-centered model explores how and what
motivations might manage and measure an organization’s reputation. In public relations, the
theory is apparent by examining the efficacy of public relations practice from the inside out, and
by providing a rationale for building and maintaining more durable stakeholder relationships of
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56
all kinds. That is, the more that external stakeholder groups begin to identify with organizations
utilizing the criteria that employees and other internal audiences do, the more their
communication and their transactions with organizations move from exchange-type behavior to
communal behavior this defining and redefining identity (Mak, 2005).
Table 3 presents a view of how each of the stakeholder assets corresponds within the key
areas of motivation.
Table 3
Assumed Motivation Assets

Assumed Motivation Assets Motivation Construct
Senior PR leaders must see the value in employing
intercultural communication competencies gained from
trainings in order to deliver more effective messages.

Senior PR leaders must value the need to strengthen their
businesses ability to be competitive in a global environment,
and to better reflect and serve the diverse U.S. population.

Senior PR leaders must value in the dynamics of difference
and the external outcomes it yields as professional gain
(Cross,et al. 1989, Deardorff, 2006).

Attainment Value

Senior PR leaders must value the importance of investing
time, talent and money in diversity and inclusion
efforts/initiatives.

Senior PR leaders must value the aspect of
visionary/strategic leadership that looks ahead to the future
state to diversity & inclusion (Lahiri, 2008).

Senior PR leaders must value the managerial ability to use
culturally appropriate motivational tools (UNC, 2016).

Utility Value

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Table 3, continued

Organizational Assets
Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) examined how cultural explanations of models and
settings apply to the learning experience and the problem of organizational change. Cultural
models consist of normative understandings of how the world works, or ought to work
(Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). This concept incorporates behavioral activities as well as
cognitive and affective elements. Cultural settings are environments in which more than two
people come together and put time in to accomplish something. Both cultural models and
settings are considered to be the taken-for-granted assumptions that are unnoticed and generally
embedded. Meanwhile, the gap analysis model by Clark and Estes (2008) also identified the
organizational barriers that hinder the completion of goals. This section will highlight the
Assumed Motivation Assets Motivation Construct

Senior PR leaders need to feel confident in their ability to
learn from training on diversity and inclusion issues and
strategies.

Senior PR leaders need to feel confident that the
competencies gained through trainings are adequate enough
to make effective diversity and inclusion decisions.

Senior PR leaders need to feel confident in their own
personal cultural values (Crosset al. 1989).

Senior PR leaders need to feel confident in their ability to
adapt to other cultural norms, withhold judgment, and cope
with uncertainty. (UNC, 2016).

Senior PR leaders need to feel confident in their level of
integrity, which would impact their display of ethics,
empathy, resilience, communication and influence (Lahiri,
2008).

Self-Efficacy
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cultural models and settings presented as assets for the organizational assets for the key
stakeholder.
Cultural models and settings. According to Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001), the
definition of cultural models and settings situates culture inside of many models, internalized
differently by culture members this making learning is social and individual. As senior PR
leaders take on challenges related to diversity and inclusion, the competencies they project must
serve as a reflection of the shift in culture that the industry is in position to tackle and the
impending change that needs to be embraced. Competencies from the literature that align with
cultural models as an organizational asset include acceptance of cultural difference (Bennett,
2014), cultural knowledge to the context of the client or situation (Cross,et al. 1989), and
diversity, inclusion, and global perspectives (Lahiri, 2008). Competencies from the literature that
align with cultural settings as an organizational asset include adaptation and integration of
cultural difference (Bennett, 2014), elements of change management such organizational
development, corporate communication and critical interventions, and the elements of strategic
external relations which would include corporate social responsibility, government/regulatory,
strategic alliances, diverse markets/supplier diversity and brand/reputation management (Lahiri,
2008).
The influence on cultural models and settings. Culture is the common understanding
that gives organizations order and logic. Literature has evolved to support how diversity and
inclusion has an influence on culture settings. As Kreps (1986) explained, organizations have the
characteristics of social cultures, which are created by human interaction and social experience.
James E. Preston (1996), CEO of Avon Products, made this point in his discussion of how Avon
came to realize the value of diversity: “Only the company that is culturally diverse inside, we
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59
finally understood, will best serve its customers (and in our case, our independent Avon
representatives) outside” (p. 23). Additionally, Dozier and Broom (1995) linked diversity to
organizational culture, or the “values that bring employees together to accomplish a common
mission” (p. 149). Therefore, to draw influence to a cultural model, the public relations industry
must claim its position and power to reframe the language around diversity and inclusion as the
U.S. encounters a demographic shift and openly commit to the recruitment, retention,
development, and support of candidates historically underrepresented in public relations.
Table 4 presents a view of how each of the stakeholder assets corresponds as
organizational assets.
Table 4
Assumed Organizational Assets
Assumed Organizational Assets

Organizational Asset
Category

Senior PR leaders need to adopt a culture of progression and
productivity in its development of diversity and inclusion
programs.

Senior PR leaders need to reassess organizational practices that
are routinely viewed from a diversity and inclusion perspective
and retooled to better accommodate cultural differences.

Senior PR leaders need to provide and prioritize formal spaces
for employees to address issues of diversity and inclusion
through programming and training.

Senior PR leaders need to apply cultural knowledge to the
context of the client or situation (Cross,et al. 1989).

Senior PR leaders need to apply a global perspective of
diversity and inclusion which would impact their display of
negotiation and facilitation, continuous learning, complex
group dynamics, judgment and subject matter expertise
(Lahiri, 2008).

Cultural Model Assets

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Table 4, continued
Assumed Organizational Assets Organizational Asset
Category

Senior PR leaders need to claim position and power to reframe
the language around diversity and inclusion as the U.S.
encounters a demographic shift.

Senior PR leaders need to openly commit to the recruitment,
retention, development, and support of candidates historically
underrepresented in public relations.

Senior PR leaders need to ensure their organizations have an
adaptation to and an integration of cultural difference (DMIS,
Bennett, 2014).

Senior PR leaders need to prioritize strategic external relations
displayed by strategic alliances, diverse markets/supplier
diversity, brand/reputation management, and corporate social
responsibility (Lahiri, 2008).

Cultural Setting Assets

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CHAPTER THREE: METHODS
This chapter details the methodology used for this study. It features a gap analysis
methodological framework developed by Clark and Estes (2008) used to evaluate the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational assets of the key stakeholder group. Surveys and interviews are
utilized to obtain data in this study.
Research Questions
The research questions for this study are:
1. What knowledge, motivation, and organizational assets do senior PR leaders currently
have for diversity/inclusion practices?
2. What intercultural competencies are necessary for senior PR leaders to practice
diversity/inclusion effectively?
3. What training/education do senior PR leaders need to ensure competency for practicing
diversity/inclusion?
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholder population of focus for this study is practitioners who lead the public
relations/communication function for multinational corporations. With access to senior PR
leaders through the Arthur W. Page Society, I enlisted participants from this population of nearly
150 members. The Page Society invited members who are responsible for how diversity and
inclusion strategies are developed and executed in their organizations as participants for this
study in an effort to satisfy the need for formalized competencies and training/education for
senior PR leaders. The Page Society provided contact information of the survey participants and
offered the space, dates and times for any in-person interviews. The goal sample size was sixty,
and the criteria used is their affiliation with the Page Society.
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Survey Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1. Survey respondents had a minimum of 10 to 15 years of experience in a
senior-level public relations/communication management role. This criterion secured their
expertise and tenure in industry knowledge, best practices and management issues.
Criterion 2. Survey respondents worked for a multinational corporation. This criterion
secured their experience communicating interculturally with and for multiple audiences
externally and internally as a business imperative for the organization.
Criterion 3. Survey respondents had some responsibility and insight in the diversity and
inclusion strategies that are implemented on behalf of their organization, and manage/oversee
staff who contribute to the practice. The criterion secured their ability to respond to the cultural
nuisances that apply to communicating interculturally.
Survey Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
In this qualitative study, a purposeful sampling strategy was implemented. This allowed
stakeholders to be selected based on the criteria above. Moreover, it maintained a small number
in comparison to numerous practitioners who could fit the criteria. This was an opportunity to
deploy questioning as the research study takes place. The survey occurred at the beginning of the
data collection process as an introduction to the research study. Sixty participants were sought.
This number is an appropriate number because I anticipated senior-level PR practitioners would
likely be overwhelmingly busy and need to commit to the survey process. The number was also
appropriate in case there are multiple participants who represent organizations in the same
industry (competitors). That could provide less variety in the answers based a similar
organizational approach to PR. Lastly, this ensured diversity of backgrounds and approaches to
the work of public relations/communication leading to rich information.
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Interview (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
The sampling strategy used for interviews was purposive. Johnson and Christensen
(2016) explained that purposive sampling specifies the characteristics of the population and
locates participants that carry them. After the initial survey, participants who met the criteria
further and expressed interest in being interviewed had the opportunity to share more detail about
their knowledge, motivation and organizational assets that they believe influence their
approaches to diversity and inclusion as a direct connection to research question 2. This strategy
was effective as the research study focused on senior PR leaders who are knowledgeable experts
within their domain but also navigating a cultural area of practice that requires sensitivity,
transparency and vulnerability. The strategy also enhanced the likelihood of finding more
information, gaining greater clarify, and ensuring validity from the participants. I informed them
about the confidentiality of the study and also requested permission to record and stored all data
collected, such as audio files and transcripts.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
Surveys
One survey was issued in this study. The survey probed the PR leaders on their
knowledge of implementing diversity and inclusion strategies, their motivation to learn the
competencies needed for implementation and execution, and the current organization support and
structure they have in doing so. A menu of selections was provided.
Because human beings are the primary instrument of data collection and analysis in
qualitative research, interpretations or reality are accessed directly through their observations and
interviews (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In attempt to reach a high response rate, Merriam and
Tisdell (2016) recommended distributing the survey across the participant population to
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determine motivations and interest in responding as an experimental approach. Therefore, in
order to ensure validity and reliability of the survey items in measuring motivation, knowledge,
and organization, the responses of the participants were matched to the stakeholder assets
identified for the study.
Interviews
One semi-structured interview was conducted with the participants who expressed
interest. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) noted that most interviews in qualitative research are semi-
structured. This approach allowed several specific questions to be asked to participants with a
mix of open-ended questions in the follow-up to use as probes related to the topics and issues
discussed. The advantage of interviewing in this way and using the variety of questions gave a
detailed description of what the participants said instead of simply a direct understanding of his
or her perspective. Generating an interpretation of someone’s perspective is inherently a matter
of inference from descriptions of that person’s behavior (including verbal behavior), whether the
data are derived from observations, interviews, or some other source such as written documents
(Bogdan & Biklen, 2007).
Ethics
As a researcher, my responsibilities with respect to involving human participants in my
study were to respect and protect the participants by applying ethical principles. That involved
gaining informed consent by reaching out to the participants via email to invite them to the study
and ensuring their involvement through data collection that could include interviews, surveys
and document analysis. According to Glesne (2011), informed consent is necessary to ensure the
participants are aware that their participation is voluntary, that all discussions will be kept
confidential and that participants can withdraw at any point without penalty. In the email
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correspondence, I informed them about the confidentiality of the study and also requested
permission to record and store all data collected, such as audio files and transcripts.
While Rubin and Rubin (2012) recommended that the most effective role in cultural
research may be that of novice or apprentice, I thought it was most appropriate that my
investigator role take the form of a researcher/investigator and not that of a practitioner. In this
capacity, I am attempting to understand what intercultural competencies are to needed to assist
these leaders in implementing effective diversity and inclusion strategies. Additionally, because I
teach, consult and facilitate in this area of knowledge, and many of leaders may have been
familiar with my background/credentials, I was certain to emphasize that the purpose of my
research is to learn and understand their intercultural competencies and not to critique or criticize
their work in the area of diversity and inclusion or lack thereof.
As the investigator, I retained the understanding that each participant is coming in with
preconceived ideas and varying levels of knowledge of what competencies are needed for
diversity and inclusion strategies. Rubin and Rubin (2012) cautioned investigators to be aware of
how their own attitudes might influence the questions they ask as well as how they react to the
answers. I acknowledged that my expertise could lend some bias as well as my identity as a
woman of color. As a result, I carried the concern that the participants may provide socially
expected responses about diversity and inclusion because it is what they think they are expected
to say instead of what they truly feel especially when discussing race, gender, sexual orientation
and religion. Regarding outcomes for participants, Glesne (2010) recommended using reciprocity
as strategy. In this study, the participants would join in maintaining an interest in improving the
scope of diversity and inclusion in the public relations industry and see a long-term need for
research that identifies and measures the intercultural communication competency of leaders in
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PR. As leaders, they will be contributing to an industry conversation as the outcomes of the study
feature their insights.

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CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS
The goal of this field study was to identify the intercultural competencies that senior
leaders in the public relations industry need to design, communicate, implement and execute
diversity and inclusion practices. In addition, this study was prepared to make recommendations
about training and education in diversity and inclusion (D/I) for senior PR leaders and provide
solutions for an established set of competencies based upon the findings. This chapter presents
findings from the collected data organized according to the categories of knowledge, motivation,
and organization with key findings synthesized. Analysis reveals the key findings and the chapter
concludes by summarizing these findings and laying a framework for solutions to be developed
in Chapter 5.
This study was guided by three research questions:
1. What knowledge, motivation, and organizational assets do senior PR leaders currently
have for diversity/inclusion practices?
2. What intercultural competencies are necessary for senior PR leaders to practice
diversity/inclusion effectively?
3. What training/education do senior PR leaders need to ensure competency for practicing
diversity/inclusion?
With a mixed-methods approach using qualitative and quantitative data including surveys
and interviews, this study was organized using a gap analysis framework (Clark & Estes, 2008).
The framework supported the objective to probe the stakeholders’ knowledge of implementing
diversity and inclusion strategies, their motivation to learn the competencies needed for
implementation and execution, and the current organizational support and structure they have in
doing so.
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An online survey of 10 questions was distributed 152 senior leaders in public relations at
multinational organizations who design, communicate, implement and execute diversity and
inclusion practices through email invitation from the Arthur W. Page Society and through an online
discussion board for leadership assembly members of the Public Relations Society of America for
eight weeks beginning on November 12 and ending on January 10. The survey closed with attempts
from 60 participants. A total of 30 participants completed the survey providing valid responses.
From the 30 completed responses, a total of 12 interviews were scheduled – 4 were canceled; 8
were completed and valid. The demographic information of the respondents is provided in the
figure and table below. All respondents remained anonymous.

Figure 1. Word cloud - Frequency job titles.

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Table 5
Percentages of Seniority in Role in Years by Industry
Industry by % Years 5 or less 5-10 10-15

15-20 20-25
TOTAL
by number
Healthcare or Social Assistance 44 11 11 33 0 9
Education 57 0 14 28 0 7
Manufacturing 33 16 33 0 16 6
Management Companies 20 0 40 20 0 5
Government/Public
Administration 60 40 0 0 0 5
Finance, Banking or Insurance 75 0 0 25 0 4
Computer and Electronics 33 33 33 0 0 3
Information/Data Services 0 33 33 0 34 3
Food and Beverage 0 50 0 0 50 2
Broadcasting/Media/Publishing 50 0 0 50 0 2
Sports/Recreation 0 0 0 100 0 1
Hospitality/Travel/Tourism 0 100 0 0 0 1
Scientific or Technical services 100 0 0 0 0 1
Arts/Entertainment/Music 0 0 0 0 100 1
30

In this analysis process, the results and findings are compared to the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational assets predicted in Chapter Three. This chapter addresses the first
question guiding this study. The assumed assets were tested through the data collection methods
and determined that participants maintained the existing assets, and identified the gaps in
competency for the assumed assets. The gaps are summarized as present themes to reveal how
the stakeholders affirm the assumed assets in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and
organization. The gaps are further synthesized as continuing needs and opportunities to reveal
where and how a solution should be presented. Following the knowledge, motivation, and
organization assets related to senior PR leaders, evidence-based recommendations created from
the assumed assets in this chapter will address the second question and then be presented in
Chapter Five.
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Summary of Knowledge Results and Findings
The assumed knowledge assets have been separated into the four distinct categories
defined by Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) as previously discussed in Chapter Two: factual,
conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. Factual knowledge is defined as foundational
understanding of terms, facts, and information while conceptual knowledge refers the theories,
concepts, and principals displayed. Procedural knowledge is knowledge one must have to
demonstrate a specific skill or implement a specific task. Metacognitive knowledge is the ability
to self-reflect and adjust knowledge and skills accordingly.
Synthesis of Knowledge Results and Findings
In the knowledge results and findings from this study, the assumed assets offered a series
of themes reflected in the data from survey and interview responses. With 15 assumed assets, the
data presented a pattern of insights from the respondents that open an in-depth analysis of the
knowledge senior PR leaders have about diversity and inclusion practices and the intercultural
competencies that inform them. Knowledge assets are numerous in this study as the prediction
for senior PR leaders to understand simple to more complex ideas about diversity and inclusion,
and challenging types of practices and problems that impact the PR industry.
Eight factual and conceptual assets, four of each, were moderately affirmed and
combined in the analysis. To justify the combination of factual and conceptual, it must be noted
that the basic facts about diversity and inclusion and how the concepts that support them
originate from each respondent’s own level of intercultural competency. The combination of
these knowledge assets was informed by the various roles, experiences, cultural identities,
educational background of each respondent. This set of assets showed that senior PR leaders
were well acquainted with the discipline of diversity and inclusion and aware of the intercultural
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71
competency need to solve related problems. These assets also showed that senior PR leaders
were knowledgeable of the interrelated concepts that allow the basic facts of diversity and
inclusion to function effectively in the communication discipline and through the PR industry in
general.
Five procedural assets were strongly affirmed as the respondents fully believe their
knowledge of diversity and inclusion has been sufficient in their ability to succeed as
organizational leaders and proficient practitioners, yet their desire to have deepened their
competencies, gain more access to education and have the capacity to apply stronger solutions
created room for continuing needs and opportunities.
Two metacognitive assets were strongly affirmed as the respondents were fully aware
about how the complexities of cultural identity impact diversity and inclusion practices and how
their own knowledge of self can impact their degree of intercultural competency.
The 15 assumed knowledge assets identified are displayed in the table below along with
themes presented from the findings and the collective needs and opportunities that surfaced
through the responses. Each of the assumed assets will be addressed in detail in the sections that
follow.

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Table 6
Assumed Knowledge Assets, Present Themes, Continuing Needs/Opportunities
Knowledge Assets Present Themes Continuing
Needs/Opportunities
Factual - Senior PR leaders
need to know the basic facts
about diversity and inclusion
issues in the PR industry.
Stakeholders have a general base of
experiences and exposure to D/I
practices.
Senior PR leaders need
more interpersonal
experiences that inform
their decision about
diversity/inclusion practices.

Factual - Senior PR leaders
need to develop cultural
knowledge.
Stakeholders have a general base of
experience and exposure to D/I
training and education.

Senior PR leaders need
consistent and accessible
programs/processes to
develop cultural knowledge.

Factual - Senior PR leaders
need to recognize
implications to delaying
strategic action for diversity
and inclusion.

Stakeholders understand strategic
action for D/I and the implications for
delay or absence.

Senior PR leaders have an
opportunity to inform and
influence their
organization’s decision
makers about negative
implications for delaying or
ignoring D/I.

Factual - Senior PR leaders
need to know behavioral
rules and norms based on
geographical locations.

Stakeholders understand behaviors
and norms for diverse populations
mainly based on their own cultural
identities and intercultural interests.

Senior PR leaders have an
increasing need to learn
rules and norms of diverse
populations.
Conceptual - Senior PR
leaders need to know and
maintain the critical
competencies that impact
decisions about diversity and
inclusion.

Stakeholders rely on their
intercultural competencies to inform
their decision-making; empathy and
listening were highly affirmed.

Senior PR leaders do not
have agreement on the
intercultural competencies
that are most critical for D/I.

Conceptual - Senior PR
leaders need the business
acumen to assess external
market knowledge and the
ROI of diversity and
inclusion.

Stakeholders have a need for business
acumen. Knowledge for assessing
ROI for D/I was not a tangibly
identified concept.

Senior PR leaders at
organizations with strong
infrastructure have an
opportunity to connect ROI
to the D/I practice.
Conceptual - Senior PR
leaders need to understand
how to create an
organizational structure to
support diversity and
inclusion efforts.
Stakeholders affirmed a sense of how
to develop organizational structure for
D/I efforts; knowledge was expressed
but not regularly applied.
Senior PR leaders need a
direct connection to their
organization’s decision
makers in order to leverage
and apply knowledge of
building a structure for D/I.

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Table 6, continued
Knowledge Assets Present Themes Continuing
Needs/Opportunities
Conceptual - Senior PR
leaders need to practice
appropriate etiquette and
seek expertise as needed.

Stakeholders have a sensitivity to the
etiquette needed in practicing D/I and
are vulnerable enough to seek help.

Senior PR leaders have a
need to improve
competencies and have an
opportunity to influence
teams/leadership.
Procedural - Senior PR
leaders need to educate and
convince their peers that
diversity and inclusion is of
strategic value and has a
significant impact on
organizational performance,
and the long-term direction
of their respective
organization.
Stakeholders understand long-term
strategic value of D/I but are less able
to connect the practice to performance
in a procedural fashion.

Senior PR leaders need
further data and insights to
add to the D/I case and
prioritize procedures.
Procedural - Senior PR
leaders must employ the
critical competencies gained
from trainings in order to
deliver more effective
messages.
Stakeholders affirmed that D/I
training and education bolsters
intercultural competencies.

Senior PR leaders need
more D/I related
opportunities to employ and
apply their learnings.

Procedural - Senior PR
leaders need to establish a
set of intercultural
communication
competencies that prioritize
the knowledge and
procedures needed to
develop effective diversity
and inclusion strategies in
the PR industry.

Stakeholders did not affirm a set of
intercultural competencies and did not
have a procedure for prioritizing D/I
strategies; reliance upon their own
intercultural competencies informs
their influence on procedures.

Senior PR leaders need
further industry data and
insights, and need
recommended strategies,
structures and procedures to
add to the D/I practice.
Procedural - Senior PR
leaders must have the ability
to use negotiation tactics and
styles across cultures and
understand a regulatory
environment.

Stakeholders did not affirm
negotiation tactics/styles as a
procedural knowledge asset.

There was no continuing
need or opportunity
identified in this area of
knowledge.

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Table 6, continued
Knowledge Assets Present Themes Continuing
Needs/Opportunities
Procedural - Senior PR
leaders must be
knowledgeable about HR
disciplines to include total
rewards/talent management,
organizational development,
work and life balance, and
employee training and
compliance.
Stakeholders were knowledgeable
about the discipline of human
resources, how it incubates D/I, and
how it ties to the PR practice.

Senior PR leaders have
continuing opportunities to
leverage HR knowledge and
access to HR departments
for internal and external
communication practices.
Metacognitive - Senior PR
leaders need to know how to
apply openness and curiosity
to self-reflect on cultural
self-awareness, culture-
specific knowledge, and
worldviews.

Stakeholders highly affirmed self-
reflection on their cultural identity as
a base of knowledge.

Senior PR leaders with well-
rounded cultural
experiences and value their
cultural knowledge are
likely to pursue more
opportunities to strengthen
intercultural competencies.
Metacognitive - Senior PR
leaders need knowledge
about the complexities
surrounding race, age,
gender, religion and other
cultural differences that
impact issues of diversity
and inclusion.
Stakeholders highly acknowledged
the complexities of demographics and
expressed a sensitivity to cultural
differences, specifically those who
identify as a person of color or
minority representation.

Senior PR leaders have a
continuing opportunity to
produce market research
and audience analysis
supported by their
metacognitive knowledge of
cultural identities.

Factual/Conceptual Knowledge. These sets of knowledge assets include having
experience with and exposure to the practice of diversity and inclusion by acquiring knowledge
of the concept through basic facts of how it operates in the PR industry, how to leverage the
concept to speak to multicultural audiences, and the role it plays inside an organization.
Experience and Exposure to Diversity/Inclusion Practices. The table below captures
factual/conceptual knowledge through survey data displayed through years of experience and
exposure the practice of diversity and inclusion. The years of experience and exposure reflect
knowledge on the basic facts about diversity and inclusion issues in the PR industry.
21 (41.18%) respondents have practiced diversity and inclusion in their PR roles for five
years or less while a second majority of the respondents split between 5-10 and 10-15 years
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75
(15.69%). This indicates exposure and experience that would support their ability to
communicate interculturally.
Table 7
Years Engaged in the Practice of Diversity/Inclusion
Years %
5 or less 41.18%
5-10 15.69%
10-15 15.69%
15-20 13.73%
20-25 7.84%
25 + 5.88%
Total 100%

Experience and Exposure to Diversity/Inclusion Training and Education. The figure
below shows the factual/conceptual knowledge assets held by senior PR leaders based on how
much and what kinds of training they have experienced and have been exposed to. Respondents
were asked to select all that apply. The figure shows that all respondents had participated in
trainings and workshops throughout their career provided by a current or former employer, and
more than half been exposed to trainings and workshops through consulting firms and expert
trainers.
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Figure 2. Formal training or education in the area of diversity/inclusion.
Through the interview responses, stakeholders felt that senior PR leaders who
intentionally seek out resources to build competency driven by their own personal contexts and
professional interests, including any training resources and opportunities offered by their
employer.
Respondent five said, “The organization that I work for has a ton of courses, programs,
leadership development opportunities that I've taken advantage of so that I could develop more
expertise in this area. I have accessed formal training, experiential training, cultural training, all
that kind of things.”
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77
All of the stakeholders referenced trade associations and membership organizations such
as The Page Society, PRSA and IABC as spaces where training resources and opportunities are
accessible, and involvement for them as a active member of those organizations was critical.
Respondent eight said, “I've accessed pretty much everything that's out there. Everything
from informational interviews with those in the field, that I think are skilled or knowledgeable,
and have expertise in intercultural communication - whether it's conferences, in-person
conferences, online webinars, reading books and articles. It was really something I had to train
myself on.”
Stakeholders accessing various training resources and opportunities from a number of
sources allows them to build their toolkit in different settings and apply the knowledge in on
their own terms. Stakeholders have generally had influence in the kinds of training resources and
opportunities that their organizations have offered. They each referenced involvement in
advising, developing and facilitating group efforts to provide diversity programming and training
through volunteer efforts serving on committees, councils and employee resource groups.
Stakeholders also referenced online communities and cultural affinity groups that casually
provide resources and allow participants to be informal with one another and while proactive in
pursuing opportunities.
Understanding Strategic Action for Diversity/Inclusion. The stakeholders’ interview
responses show that senior PR leaders have an ability to recognize the implications to delaying
strategic action for diversity and inclusion. The state of the PR industry is evident that the delay
or absence of action for diversity and inclusion has resulted in a long-standing dilemma across
the workforce for decades.
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Respondent eight said, “You need real action, real buy-in, you need people to believe that
they're all part of the effort and the system and that they are benefiting as well. So it's less of
focus on the numbers, though that's still very important. People want to see that kind of
movement, but internally, you're trying to move sentiment about the company.”
Respondent four said, “To encourage the diverse thinking, diversity of thought, and
diverse actions, we have to get comfortable with being uncomfortable when it's so important.
And until we do, we're not going to feel the full strength, or the full advantage that we could as
business leaders. You take people out of their comfort zone and start making them
uncomfortable in terms of how they're interfacing with people unlike them, that un-
comfortability is learning. When you're comfortable you're probably not learning.”
Respondent one said, “We all could do a better job of being comfortable with being
uncomfortable. And that's something that I try to share. But it's hard. It's always a balancing act
between pushing people in the right ways without pushing them away so much that you lose your
opportunity.”
In summary, the respondents all affirm that senior PR leaders have a continued
opportunity to inform and influence their organization’s decision makers about negative
implications. As stakeholders, senior PR leaders acknowledge the importance of diversity and
inclusion in the industry and how it should not be ignored or oversimplified. They acknowledge
the difficulty in taking strategic action and yet insist there is work to be done in moving diversity
and inclusion along in a more efficient and cohesive manner across the industry.
Understanding Behaviors and Norms for Diverse Populations. The stakeholders’
interview responses on their perceived knowledge about communicating to intercultural
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79
audiences were generally centered around their experience leading detailed situations with
various goals, tasks and teams.
Respondent two said, “I think I am very knowledgeable being able to recognize that
where the power is in terms of dollars, size of business, things of that nature have been more on
the mainstream side than the minority side. And also, I think that being able to recognize that in
intercultural settings, there are more things we have in common than we have different.”
Stakeholders who have the advantage of having lived in and traveled to different
countries, experienced different cultures and studied different languages have a higher capacity
for intercultural communication.
Respondent four said, “I probably have the advantage of having more knowledge, not to
mention sensitivity to the different lifestyles, backgrounds, experiences that people have with
whom we communicate and of course to have been in those communication fields.”
Respondent one, a Mexican-American woman, said, “I think for me, because of my
background, that sort of prepared me before it became in vogue to have conversation with and
about intercultural audiences. It just helped put me in a position where I could understand other
people better. And going through that whole process, and understanding diversity, and not only
that, inclusion. Because once you have them at the table that's where the hard work really
begins.”
Some stakeholders felt that consciously incompetent about communicating to
intercultural audiences with the idea that they are confident in what they know and have
experienced yet are always open to new information and learning. Respondent four said, “I
always say I'm in the middle, because I give myself a lot of room for growth. Intercultural
experiences are evolving. Our society is constantly filled with new people. So the things that
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define people, the numbers of the different cultures and backgrounds of people who make up a
community or society are constantly changing. There's always room to learn, to grow, to
understand more. I don't want to say that I'm fully knowledgeable, I don't think anyone ever is.”
Other stakeholders felt that their level of knowledge in communicating to intercultural
audiences is based on their understanding of segmenting stories that resonate with the needs,
wants, interests and desires those specific audiences.
Respondent six said, “I consider myself to be very knowledgeable. As a communicator in
general, what I do is translate information into stories for a variety of audiences. And in order to
communicate effectively, part of it is knowing your audience, knowing their culture, knowing
what will resonate, knowing the best way to get a message through. I consider myself to be
extremely adept at intercultural communication.”
Respondent seven said, “I'm higher than average. I've been pretty lucky that my job
includes having to talk to what would probably normally be considered diverse audiences. And
diverse in all these different ways, not just ethnic background diverse, but also ages, how
technologically adept are you, what part of the country do you live in, etc.”
Respondent two said, “I would say pretty advanced. My job was always to find a
common denominator to help communicate a message as a PR professional. And so sometimes if
there was a cultural difference, whether it's international or whether it was from a diversity
perspective, that was my job. So I find myself to be very apt to do that.”
Collectively, the respondents all felt confident in their factual/conceptual knowledge of
diversity and inclusion, and how the practice is influenced by the multicultural makeup of the
audiences they communicate to, specifically many of basic behaviors and norms about those
populations. They acknowledge their own cultural diversity as an interpersonal advantage to
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being sensitivity to those populations as well as their commitment to being a responsible,
culturally competent communicator. While they believe strongly their own competency, the
stakeholders identify a gap in resources and opportunities to gain knowledge about the norms
and behaviors of diverse populations being an industry-wide need to address.
Procedural Knowledge. These sets of knowledge assets include managing teams that
practice diversity and inclusion, writing communication plans targeting diversity and inclusion,
and conducting multicultural research or outreach, talent recruitment, and other related
communication strategies and tactics.
Need for Competencies that Impact Decision-Making. For the assumed asset that senior
PR leaders need to know and maintain the critical competencies that impact decisions about
diversity and inclusion, stakeholders rely on metacognitive knowledge to associate missteps or
failures in the area of diversity and inclusion with a lack of intercultural competency. In
referencing a variety of different experiences in present and past employers, stakeholders noted
how missing the mark regarding an issue of diversity and inclusion is often due to the absence of
practitioners who are well-rounded and informed interculturally, and often magnified by the
cultural shift to public outcry and expressed disapproval of organizations through online and
social media.
Respondent two said, “It's now a different approach because you're talking about
devaluing, at least in terms of your actions, the level of respect for the other side. There's
constant news cycle and what you do now gets amplified over social platforms, any misstep in a
cultural conversation or connection, or kind of engagement can get very public very fast.”
Respondent three said, “It is really different from internal and external because external
consumers are going to tell you what they think through internet and social media. If you push
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too hard on an issue that makes people in the majority groups uncomfortable, you hear about it.
In cases where something related to more of a marginalized group, maybe one of our identity
groups, they don't feel like their issue has been heard or addressed in the right way.
Unfortunately, those people don't always feel comfortable sharing that feedback back with
leadership.”
Stakeholders were asked to offer a distinction between internal and external
communication, and explain a difference existed when addressing issues or practicing diversity
and inclusion. When communicating internally, Respondent four said, “People have gotten a lot
more confident, brave, courageous about expressing when something is not right or does not land
right with them from a diversity and inclusion standpoint. I think that just speaks to many of the
things going on in our environment politically and socially right now. We do daily polls on
employee sentiment, we do random samplings of thousands of people daily, so we can see when
things move.”
Respondent six said, “When a company makes a misstep, it becomes very visible very
quickly. And you know that they've made a misstep just by what the end result is. That there was
no filter, nobody thought about that. Internally, I have found it tends to be unintentional, and a
result of not being constantly focused on diversity and inclusion. Even if it's unintentional, what
they're not being sensitive is the idea what the meaning holds for the intended audience or the
intended market. That's when you kind of know and have to ask, ‘did anyone ask if this would be
okay?’
When communicating externally, Respondent five said “Addressing audiences' needs,
creating structures for them to continue to be committed to and express themselves as leaders of,
bringing them on board, that was a critical part of now it's not just diversity and inclusion
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communications, it's change management communications. Having a deep pocket of skills, well-
rounded communication skills, is so important, 'cause it's not just D/I, it's not just being able to
talk about the issues and talking about to, with different diversity dimensions. It's about
managing reputation, it's about change management, it's about crisis management should things
hit the fan.”
Respondent two said, “Organizations that really understand their community, and have
strong professional relationships within the community can use that to seek provide guidance
when the company either fell short or was thinking of doing something that would impact that
community.”
Respondent seven said, “When it comes to external, we know if we're not growing in a
certain segment, we're doing something wrong to reach that segment. We want to influence the
audiences to think, feel or do something. It's our energy to get the message out, but it's up to the
audiences so that they receive it, understand, change their actions or beliefs or behaviors, and
they have the power. So it continually shifts back and forth.”
Stakeholders were clear about the importance of admitting failure publicly when
mishandling a strategy or issue that impacts or relates to diversity and inclusion. Offering a direct
example of a related experience when communication to and about an ethnic consumer group
failed, respondent six said, “We fell down. People will compensate when a company isn't living
up to, not only its values and its mission, but its brand. If we were successful, the company
wouldn't have needed it. We didn't bring the audience in for focus groups, we didn't do that sort
of thing. So, that's external to the company. Now, we changed that, we started including them
more, and there's a lot more work that needs to be done.”
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In summary, the stakeholders affirmed a pressing need for competencies that guide the
practice of diversity and inclusion in the PR industry. They identified their own metacognitive
knowledge as a strongest indicator for decision-making. They believe that senior leaders in PR,
whether communicating internally or externally, have a continuing need to build competency
around the procedures that have potential to yield the most successful and productive outcomes.
Need for Business Acumen. Through the interview responses, the assumed asset that
senior PR leaders need the business acumen to assess external market knowledge and the return
on investment of diversity and inclusion was affirmed among stakeholders whose organizations
with a strong infrastructure and internal culture.
Respondent seven said, “The more our ongoing conversation includes this concept of D/I
as a strategic imperative, then the more, as people go about their day to day work to execute on
those strategies, D/I lens will come in. And part of it is, yes, me actively trying to embed it in
business situations that I have some responsibility for or I'm involved in.
Respondent eight said, “So the strategies, the techniques, the approach, the language you
use is about moving that sentiment among the internal population. And then externally, it keeps
coming back around to having the proof that the success has been shown by improvement in the
numbers. Try as we might to talk with, say, media and to help educate them on how different
ways to measure the success of diversity and inclusion initiatives, they get it, but the headlines
and the stories that they write still come back to the numbers. So it's a balancing act that you
have to do.”
Respondent one said, “We do it because it delivers better business results. And my
approach to strategy is both in terms of helping to shape the conversation about the context in
which we talk about it. But to make sure that alignment is tight with this is a business enabler.
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This is the way we're going to deliver sustainable long-term value to all of our shareholders. The
competency of really connecting the, what we're doing and why we're doing it, to the business
goals and priorities is one that I probably over rotate on when it comes to diversity strategy.”
Collectively, the stakeholders were abundantly clear about the continuing need to affirm
business acumen as an asset to the practice of diversity and inclusion in the PR industry. Among
senior leaders, the understanding of business acumen and how to express it in matters of
diversity and inclusion is a pressing area of knowledge that should be conveyed in practice and
in outcomes.
Sense of Developing Organizational Structure. A number of stakeholders expressed
displeasure and disappointment with leadership within their organization for the lack of training
resources and formal education that is not provided for senior management making them less
able to employ a wealth of learning experiences into their work.
Respondent two said, “Senior leadership, first and foremost, has to understand the
breadth and depth of the diversity among their own people and there's no replacement for that
than really getting there.”
Respondent three said, “We are still trying to convince our leadership that this is
important so that it's not somehow set across to the diversity and inclusion personnel, or the
diversity and inclusion committee.”
The senior leaders who responded to this study were not overall pleased with level of
knowledge expressed around how PR practitioners can develop an organizational structure that
allows diversity and inclusion to thrive in practice. They identified and affirmed an individual
sense of understanding in this area of knowledge but did not feel fully confident in or convinced
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that the C-suite of their organization or peer organizations obtain a tangible sense of how to
make diversity and inclusion a natural element of corporate culture.
Sense of Appropriate Etiquette. Knowledge of what is appropriate has become an
intercultural competency in the practice of diversity and inclusion.
Respondent three said, “Know that audience first, knowing your audience and trying to
have some insights about them. And a lot of that is done by listening and by asking them,
whether it's through research like focus groups, informal forums of listening, or just talking to
the people that you interact with. I think that that ability to listen and reach out for information.
Applying those competencies internally makes them more intentional about minority hiring.”
For the stakeholders in this study, appropriateness carried a high level of respect when
speaking to audiences and especially when hiring. Along with seeking expertise on what is most
appropriate, a theme of becoming the expert in that area was significantly prevalent in the
responses. Overall, the stakeholders affirm their sense of appropriate etiquette as an asset
individually yet identified a gap in competence across the industry as it relates to how to gauge
appropriateness opportunities and the training and education available to do so.
Establishing Intercultural Competencies in Prioritizing Procedures. Through the
survey instrument, participants were asked to rate the intercultural competencies they feel are
most important for senior PR leaders to have on 4-point scale of importance. They were asked to
reference the level of importance for each item – intercultural communication, intercultural
research, intercultural sensitivity, intercultural awareness, and intercultural experiences – all
acquired either through direct experience, example or research.
All respondents ranked communication (80%) and sensitivity (80%) of highest
importance with awareness (79%) following closely behind. In the category of general
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importance, research ranked the highest (56%).

Figure 3. Intercultural competencies of senior PR leaders by importance.
The interview responses revealed a pattern of agreement with the survey data. The
competencies of intercultural communication (listening, related, observing, adapting) and
intercultural sensitivity (empathy, tolerance, openness, acceptance) aligned with the survey
responses and were repeated as most critical in prioritizing procedures and developing strategic
solutions.
Respondent five said, “Number one, on all communications when you're speaking or
writing, communicating about people is empathy. And it's a core skill to communicators in
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general. It's what we do. We step into the shoes of our audience and see how they would
perceive and receive that information.”
Respondent four said, “Number one competency is listening skills. You can't connect and
understand and act if you don't hear. And oftentimes people are talking past one another or they
are not exposed to or in direct communication with one another. When you have the opportunity
the cornerstone of that intercultural communications and the cornerstone of that connection is
listening. And really listening to understand versus listening to respond.”
In summary, the assumed asset that senior PR leaders need a set of intercultural
competencies that prioritize the knowledge and procedures needed to develop effective diversity
and inclusion strategies in the PR industry was affirmed by stakeholders. Their responses to the
survey and the interview correlate – the competencies of intercultural communication and
intercultural sensitivity were revealed as assets most used and valued in their work, but also as
the most critically needed competencies that are needed in an established set that might be
applied across the industry.
Employing Intercultural Competencies Gained from Training/Education.
Stakeholders believe that making diversity and inclusion part of the standard offering of
continuing education can strengthen their competencies with related topics that include
race/ethnicity, languages, LGBTQ, religions, and cultural identities. Stakeholders revealed that
many practitioners in the PR industry find themselves in leadership roles where they are leading
and speaking to larger, more diverse than ever, and are expected to understand and apply the best
practices in diversity and inclusion.
Respondent seven said, “I think more of it is education and awareness. There has to be
some expansion of people's mindset and openness.”
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Respondent six said, “They are expected to know how to do this and understand how to
be a leader, and a lot of them, I think they just don't really know where to turn.”
Stakeholders were hopeful that senior leaders would be influenced to strengthen their
competencies toward diversity and inclusion by the generational shift that is happening in the
society and also challenging their understanding of diversity and inclusion as younger
generations understand the concept as a normalized element in culture.
Respondent two said, “There needs to be some more formal training. I think one of the
challenges that needs to happen though, and this is both on the academy and the industry side,
that first, we have to admit that we got a problem.”
Stakeholders were expressive about the need to ensure that training/education is
something leaders must take ownership of by ensuring it becomes part of the discipline of PR.
An initial understand of strengthening competencies could start with assessing what leaders have
done wrong over the years and addressing ways the field needs to be a more inclusive workforce
to have greater diversity and inclusion within the profession.
Respondent three said, “I do wish that maybe business degrees had a little bit more of
that, employee relations, HR, diversity, communication, more of those skills put into it. I feel
like it would be so amazing if people had just some basic level of skills about diversity and
inclusion, how it contributes to the business and why it matters.”
Stakeholders were not exactly direct and in consensus on what form the
training/education should be delivered. There were a variety of responses that suggested
training/education as a necessity to strengthen intercultural competence. Respondent two said,
“This training/education should include best practices and real-life examples of how companies
have had to respond or communicate about intercultural issues with unconscious bias training as
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a subset that supports a realization of how leaders may be operating differently across biases and
how to improve that.”
Respondent eight said, “Leaders need safe spaces of learning where they can how to
handle difficult situations with multicultural audiences. The training/education should have a
core framework of basic diversity and inclusion concepts, intercultural communication related
skills including research, and strategic scenarios that respond to communication related issues.”
Overall, the respondents expressed their ability to apply knowledge about diversity and
inclusion gained from training/education as a key asset. The greatest continuing opportunity
discovered was their desire for more learning experiences presented by the industry as a formal
training for senior leaders and the practitioners they manage.
Educating Peers on Strategic Value and Organizational Performance. Stakeholders
were clear to express that leaders should be vocal about making diversity and inclusion a
strategic imperative within their organization and their overall philosophy as a profession.
Respondent four said, “I think communications leaders need some kind of course or
training on how D/I links to the business. Because if they don't get it, then they're going to
continue to approach it or not, more from a compliance base or a more formally it's a social
responsibility thing, versus it's a business imperative. And just as a communicator, I need skills
in data analytics, social media, writing skills, speaking skills, etc. You need intercultural
competency as a skill. It is imperative.”
The stakeholders expressed overall excitement and willingness to educate their peers on
the long-tern value of D/I yet had concerns about connecting the practice to performance in a
procedural fashion. They revealed an continuing need for further data and insights to add to the
D/I case and to inform how they prioritize procedures.
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Utilizing Negotiation Tactics Across Cultures. The assumed asset that senior PR leaders
must have the ability to use negotiation tactics and styles across cultures and understand a
regulatory environment was not affirmed. While knowledge of what is appropriate in
communication was affirmed, negotiation did not appear to be a priority for the study
participants.
Utilizing Human Resources. The assumed asset that senior PR leaders must be
knowledgeable about HR disciplines to include total rewards/talent management, organizational
development, work and life balance, and employee training and compliance was affirmed.
Respondent four said, “Our diversity and inclusion organization lives under our human
resources organization, at which obviously reports up to the CEO. Our leader of diversity and
inclusion is two clicks down from the CEO.”
Respondent three said, “It depends on what it is, so while HR would have a lot of
information about our workforce, we have employers who actually live in the communities we
are trying to connect to and we'll talk with them and get their feedback.”
Collectively, the stakeholders were clear to speak of the importance of HR. This asset
was proven a continuing need in the context of collaboration and partnership with HR business
partners within organizations and utilizing any knowledge resources those partners may have to
offer.
Metacognitive Knowledge. These sets of knowledge consist of the ability to evaluate the
challenges with competency, address biases and reflect on self-awareness, assess the demands of
diversity/inclusion, and make adjustments based on organizational structure.
Applying Self-Awareness. Stakeholders shared that their ability to be good leaders in the
PR industry relies heavily upon their ability to communicate interculturally which can often
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include being open to different perspectives and not making assumptions.
Respondent one said, “Our role is to implement good business strategy through
communication. To do that, we have to communicate well interculturally, and avoid making
assumptions about what people want to do, or see, or hear other than when it comes to business
strategy.”
Respondent four said, “Many of us are leading global organizations and team members
from different parts of the world. Being able to code switch and understand other cultures while
being authentic to your own is all based on your ability to communicate interculturally.”
In summary, the stakeholders affirmed self-awareness as an asset. This asset keeps them
aware of bias and prejudice in communication. The honesty that self-awareness requires allows
them to be vulnerable enough to acknowledge their own experiences and feelings toward cultural
differences. This asset is framed as a continuing opportunity to keep learning about themselves
and better value their cultural knowledge.
Acknowledging the Complexities of Demographics. The stakeholders’ responses about
their ability to communicate interculturally were highly influenced by their cultural background.
Most of the stakeholders experienced multicultural settings through family and upbringing, and
the majority have experienced being the only or first woman, person of color or LGBT employee
in a work environment. As result of their identification with a minority group, they each believe
thinking interculturally is a necessity and that this kind of thinking influences how they
communicate. They each feel primarily confident in their ability to communicate interculturally -
partly because of their own background and also because of the work they have done in a
professional setting. They each believe intercultural communication is the most important asset
in the work that they do.
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Respondent three, a multiracial woman, said, “practitioners from diverse communities
hold understanding, appreciation, differentiation of the cultures, while still operating as one and
feeling a unified sense of community. I believe we often have a higher degree of empathy and
awareness, and remind our peers to be open to learning something new perspective and context.”
This background allows them to speak well to various intercultural nuisances. The
stakeholders agreed that being empathetic about the experiences of diverse cultures allows them
to be sensitive and understanding to different ways of life and value the competency of listening,
and then try to respond to people in a way that reflects how they communicate and want to be
communicated to.
Practitioners of color often responded as having to be intercultural as just “a way of life.”
Respondent eight, an African-American woman, said “When you are in a dominant culture, you
learn how to speak the language, pick up on the nuances of that culture, the broader culture in
which you operate as well as you.”
Respondent one, said “This kind of work is something you have to prepare for and it's
something that you always need to be thinking about because it gets very complex. And when
leading, it's incumbent on us to make sure everybody heard and understood the same thing.”
In summary, the stakeholders value the sensitivity required to acknowledge demographic
complexity as a key asset. Each respondent expressed comfortability and fluency in multiple
cultures which include U.S. culture, corporate culture, and the broader global culture. With
demands on leaders to communicate effectively and create strategies that appeal to multiple
audiences, they each expressed that the ability to communicate interculturally required time and
preparation making this asset as a continuing opportunity.

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Summary of Motivation Results and Findings
As assumed assets for motivation are introduced next in the section, the results and
findings highlight the value senior PR leaders have on intercultural competency as well as on
intercultural communication. The confidence in their ability to implement diversity and inclusion
practices using their perceived level of intercultural competency and what areas of
communication/PR do leaders require the most intercultural competence when
implementing/executing diversity and inclusion practices are assessed as motivation assets. The
assumed motivation assets have been separated into the three distinct categories discussed in
Chapter Two: self-efficacy, utility and attainment. Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s own
abilities. Utility is identified by the determination of merit or relevant outcomes. Attainment is
defined by the satisfaction, achievement or advancement gained from a goal or task.
Synthesis of Motivation Results and Findings
In this study, the assumed assets for motivation for senior PR leaders to obtain and
leverage intercultural competency appeared as a personal imperative in practicing diversity and
inclusion. Bandura (1997) defined self-efficacy as, “an individual's belief in their innate ability to
achieve goals.” The stakeholders in this study showed self-efficacy in their personal judgments
of how well they can apply the intercultural competency required to take strategic action in
diversity and inclusion practices. The stakeholders were generally confident in their ability to
succeed when dealing with issues of diversity and inclusion, and responding to specific situations
or accomplishing tasks by providing key examples their own experiences. Their self-efficacy
played a major role in how they approach goals, tasks, and challenges. Interview respondents,
specifically, indicated high self-efficacy through an intensely high motivation and passion to
succeed in the area of diversity and inclusion. The interview responses of the stakeholders all
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provided evidence of the four main sources of self-efficacy beliefs: mastery experiences;
vicarious experiences; verbal persuasion; and emotional and physiological states (Bandura,
1977). Other major elements of motivation were defined through the utility value and the
attainment value the stakeholders placed on diversity and inclusion. Generally, the responses
aligned favorably with the expectancy-value model (Eccles et al., 1983). The stakeholders
perceived intercultural competency as a relevant base to support their work in diversity and
inclusion. Not only was intercultural competency professionally relevant but its motivation for
all of stakeholders came from their personal desire to achieve well, honor their cultural identity,
support their ethical core and feel productive as contributors to the field of PR.
The nine assumed motivation assets identified are displayed in the table below along with
themes presented from the findings and the collective needs and opportunities that surfaced
through the responses. Each of the assumed assets will be addressed in detail in the sections that
follow.
Table 8
Assumed Motivation Assets, Present Themes, Continuing Needs/Opportunities
Motivational Assets Present Themes Continuing
Needs/Opportunities
Self-Efficacy - Senior PR
leaders need to feel
confident in their ability to
learn from training on
diversity and inclusion
issues and strategies.
Stakeholders affirmed confidence in the
learning experiences and the
competencies gained from their
training.

Senior PR leaders may
benefit from standard set of
intercultural competencies
across the industry.
Self-Efficacy - Senior PR
leaders need to feel
confident that the
competencies gained
through trainings are
adequate enough to make
effective diversity and
inclusion decisions.
Stakeholders were satisfied with the
adequacy of their D/I training
experiences; they maintained a desire
and curiosity for more, and chances to
influence peers and management from
training experiences.

Senior PR leaders may
benefit from an evaluation
method to measure the
adequacy of training
received.

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Table 8, continued
Motivational Assets Present Themes Continuing
Needs/Opportunities
Self-Efficacy - Senior PR
leaders need to feel
confident in their own
personal cultural values.
Stakeholders highly affirmed their
personal cultural values specifically
those who identity as a person of color
or minority representation.

Senior PR leaders may
continue to amplify their
cultural identity through
advocacy of D/I in the PR
industry.
Self-Efficacy - Senior PR
leaders need to feel
confident in their ability to
adapt to other cultural
norms, withhold judgment,
and cope with uncertainty.

Stakeholders affirmed being
comfortable with the state of being
uncomfortable; this adaptability allows
them to approach issues of D/I
confidently while remaining open to
learning and to improving competency.
Senior PR leaders have a
continuing opportunity to
create environments that
encourage open-
mindedness.
Self-Efficacy - Senior PR
leaders need to feel
confident in their level of
integrity, which would
impact their display of
ethics, empathy, resilience,
communication and
influence.

Stakeholders affirmed their personal
integrity as a factor in their intercultural
competencies and a motivating display
of values in D/I decisions.

Senior PR leaders have a
continuing opportunity to
create environments that
encourage greater levels of
personal integrity.
Utility Value - Senior PR
leaders must value the aspect
of visionary/strategic
leadership that looks ahead
to the future state to
diversity & inclusion.
Stakeholders affirmed a needed vision
for the future state of D/I in the PR
industry; they are hopeful yet
dissatisfied with the present state.

Senior PR leaders are
challenged to commit to
increased focus and
solutions to D/I in the
industry.
Utility Value - Senior PR
leaders must value the
importance of investing
time, talent and money in
diversity and inclusion
efforts/initiatives.

Stakeholders affirm the value of
investing in D/I initiatives; they are
hopeful yet dissatisfied with the
investment across the industry.

Senior PR leaders are
challenged to commit to
increased financial and
people resources to D/I
efforts/initiatives.
Utility Value - Senior PR
leaders must value the
managerial ability to use
culturally appropriate
motivational tools.

Stakeholders affirm their ability to lead
teams with intercultural competency.

Senior PR leaders have an
opportunity to encourage
their teams to think
interculturally about the
work they do.

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Table 8, continued
Motivational Assets Present Themes Continuing
Needs/Opportunities
Attainment Value - Senior
PR leaders must see the
value in employing
intercultural communication
competencies gained from
trainings in order to deliver
more effective messages.

Stakeholders affirm the value of
competency in intercultural
communication to help make better
decisions about the message
development and distribution.

Senior PR leaders can
spend more time getting
training in the area of
intercultural
communication when
motivated by the
professional advancement
it can lead to.

Attainment Value - Senior
PR leaders must value in the
dynamics of difference and
the external outcomes it
yields as professional gain.

Stakeholders affirm a high value for
applying their intercultural
competencies within their
organizations; a key outcome is being
top of mind as a subject matter expert in
D/I.

Senior PR leaders can
adopt a set of intercultural
competencies when
motivated by the
professional advancement
they can lead to when
applied.

Self-Efficacy. These sets of motivation assets include the confidence to learn from
training on diversity and inclusion issues and strategies, and to make effective decisions as a
result. These assets also include feeling confident in the display of personal values, integrity, and
adaptability when practicing diversity and inclusion.
Intercultural Competencies Most Assured. The figure below shows that stakeholders
were asked to rank which of the four intercultural competencies in which they felt most
competent. In the survey responses, stakeholders felt most assured in the competency of
intercultural sensitivity as it ranked the highest.
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Figure 4. (Highest and Lowest): Intercultural competencies - level of confidence in respondents
ability to perform.
In alignment with intercultural sensitivity (empathy, tolerance, openness, acceptance)
ranking highest in the survey, it also appeared as a significant competency of value in the
interview responses. Stakeholders place high value on interpersonal behaviors such as empathy
and understanding.
Respondent six said, “Speaking, writing and communicating about people involves
empathy. And it's a core skill to communicators in general. It's what we do. We step into the
shoes of our audience and see how they would perceive and receive that information.”
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Stakeholders felt the interpersonal behavior of listening operating in a metacognitive
sense when communicating intercultural. Listening – a behavior that aligns with the competency
of intercultural communication which ranked as the second highest in the survey – was believed
to be important in both internal and external spaces.
Respondent five said, “I think the number one competency is listening. You can't
connect and understand and act if you don't hear. And oftentimes people are talking past one
another or they are not exposed to or in direct communication with one another. When you have
the opportunity the cornerstone of that intercultural communication is listening.”
Respondent one said, “I think listening is something that overlaps both internally and
externally because it leads to authenticity and accuracy.”
Another interpersonal behavior the stakeholders held as a priority is building mutually
beneficial relationships and connecting their audiences whether internal or external – a behavior
that aligns with the competency of intercultural experiences. Respondent six said, “I think
relationship building is probably a competency that I feel very strong about. I'm always looking
for how I can build a relationship first and seeking to finding everybody's commonalities and
even differences, and day to day as a communications professional, I think those are actually
multiple competencies, but it's collaboration, influence, and then compromise working in unison
to build and maintain relationships.”
While assuredness in intercultural research was not highly ranked in the survey and
stakeholders felt somewhat competent, the interview responses indicated that stakeholders
understand the value of applying research as a critical competency to be practiced when
communicating interculturally. Respondent two said, “What I try to do in terms of applying
competency is do a whole lot of homework in terms of recognizing broader context. I typically
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have to do a lot of research in terms of looking at the news and trying to see how this is being
interpreted, looking at media literacy. So part of what I have to do is start with research, take that
research, analyze that research and apply it in some very real settings both internally and
externally.”
A number of stakeholders stressed the importance of guiding their teams through the
research phase as an initial task in the process of thinking intercultural prior to releasing any
communication and planning a strategy.
Respondent six said, “Anytime we do a communication strategy or plan, we always start
with an audience analysis. Who are we talking to, what is their mindset, what do they know,
what don't they know, what do they need to hear, what are their fears, what are their experiences?
We always start there in any kind of a major strategy or change communication effort that we're
doing.”
Stakeholders who identity as a person of color expressed how they often use their
competency to guide their teams, as well as other peer leaders, to see their work through lens of
identity.
Respondent two, an African-American man, said, “Typically, as a leader, as a person of
color, I typically have had to sometimes educate my team as to how much differences matter
regardless of whether that's a difference of gender, or sexual identity, or race. So that
intercultural competence is really, really critical.”
Stakeholders expressed concern about the acknowledging and responding to the nuances
in how the teams they manage handle their responsibilities and roles, along with the teams inside
the organization in various departments that they do not manage or have a close proximity to.
Those who lead teams inside of a very diverse workforce expressed an advantage in having
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greater opportunities to communicate interculturally and specifically pointed to both comfort and
frustration in the challenge.
Respondent four said, “I'm part of a global company. So we have literally a lot of cultures
from around the globe. Their workday looks totally different. And so I think it's a good starting
point as far as thinking about people's different identities and life experiences, even just their
work role, the way they do their work everyday. When we're communicating to 50,000
employees in the US it's not one monolith of employees, it's a very diverse group of people who
all are experiencing life in our company in a different way.”
Respondent one said, “Because I lead in a global role, I probably have the advantage of
having more knowledge, not to mention sensitivity to the different lifestyles, backgrounds,
experiences of the people have with whom we communicate and of course to have been in those
communication fields.”
Stakeholders also expressed the idea of expectations among leaders to know distinctly
how to guide their team through diversity and inclusion with the knowledge of best practices.
Respondent five said, “I think there's a certain expectation that all of us have, if not the
literacy around diversity and inclusion, and multiculturalism or interculturalism, but the
expectation that we continue to learn. There's a cultural imperative for us to have a growth
mindset, to lead with, ‘I don't know everything, I better ask. I better learn, and listen to
understand, rather than listen to respond.’ I think that is an expectation of us in our roles.”
Respondent eight said, “Let's learn a little bit about the differences because there are
nuances in how you're doing to do your job now. So you know your job and you know your
skillset, but now how do you apply the nuance? I think it's you're always looking at a different
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audience, and how do you nuance your message so that you're communicating to them and not at
them.”
Stakeholders regularly have to provide counsel for teams when communicating issues of
diversity and inclusion, and offer definition for terms, ideas and norms related to intercultural
communities while also challenging organizational decision-makers to deeply consider their
language for internal themes that set company culture.
Respondent one said, “What's worked for me in my leadership roles have been really
understanding not only how they assimilate information, but how they best want to get it. And
then, what do they see as their responsibility in acting on it? So, this is a multi-step process for a
team. You've really got to dig in with your team but also ensure that people are directing the
entire organization in the right direction.”
Respondent eight said, “How many times have you seen somebody bring in a campaign
to a board of directors, and the thing that they're missing is the inclusion of their audience? What
does that audience really need to see and hear in order for them to take some kind of action
towards your company that's favorable? I apply that to how I lead.”
Respondent three said, “I emphasize to the team the value that each and every individual
brings. And we all bring different strengths to the table, and we can't take advantage of any of
those strengths if we don't value all of those strengths. It's really about teaching them to be very
open to how they can collectively do things that as a team that they can't do with individuals.”
Overall, the stakeholders identified assuredness in the competencies that align mainly
interpersonal behaviors when they are thinking interculturally which include sensitivity and
communication. Those competencies are connected to the metacognitive skills that are regularly
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relied upon in the field of PR specifically when interacting with audiences and the messages they
are most apt to respond to.
Attainment Value. These sets of motivational assets include affirming the value in
employing intercultural communication competencies gained from trainings in order to deliver
more effective messages, and the dynamics of difference and the external outcomes it yields as
professional gain.
Diversity/Inclusion Competencies Most Valued. The assumed asset that senior PR
leaders must see the value in employing intercultural communication competencies gained from
trainings in order to deliver more effective messages was tested through the survey question that
probed into diversity and inclusion competencies that senior PR leaders most valued. These
competencies, different than the intercultural set, are formed in connection to practicing diversity
and inclusion and are unrelated to the public relations profession. These set of competencies
provided a reference for the stakeholders who are practicing diversity and inclusion to respond to
the areas that are most used and relied upon in application.
The figure below shows how senior PR leaders ranked the diversity and inclusion
competencies that they value most. The columns are ordered by the competencies that ranked
highest and lowest. The data revealed that organizational culture is the competency that senior
PR leaders indicated that provided the most attainment value (most likely to satisfaction or
achievement from a task) when for practicing diversity and inclusion. Meanwhile,
globalization/global perspectives is the competency that senior PR leaders indicated as the least
competency to provide attainment value. Interestingly, although globalization/global
perspectives was selected the highest number of times on the lowest ranked list, it also appeared
as third on the highest ranked list of competencies make it an emerging area, and precisely a gap,
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to give careful attention to as a continuing need/opportunity.
Table 9
Diversity/Inclusion Competencies: Respondents Level of Confidence in the Ability to Perform
HIGHEST % LOWEST %
Organizational Culture
Audience Awareness/Research
Globalization/Global Perspectives
Leadership Commitment
Training, Learning and Development
Recruitment, Retention and
Advancement
Competitive Advantage
Business Results/Outcomes
Relationship Management/Quality
41.46
19.51
13.95
11.9
9.52
6.98

4.65
4.65
4.65
Globalization/Global Perspectives
Competitive Advantage
Recruitment, Retention and
Advancement
Training, Learning and Development
Audience Awareness/Research
Leadership Commitment
Organizational Culture
Relationship Management/Quality
Business Results/Outcomes
39.53
11.63
9.30

9.52
7.32
11.9
6.98
4.65
4.65

Intercultural competencies most applied. Stakeholders found intercultural
communication as their highest competency of utility value when developing diversity and
inclusion strategies - competencies that are also prioritized as most important in the work of
public relations practitioners which include strategic planning, audience analysis, message
development, campaign execution, and market research.
Respondent one said, “When the primary work is communication, I think
communications acumen is perhaps even more important. If you're high level skill in that, you're
already pretty empathetic and inclusive and know how to more focus your tactics to the right
audiences, and then you're also aware of what the impact is, not just to your target audiences, but
broadly.”
Respondent three said, “I think it really comes back to having good old-fashioned
strategic planning skills and really getting the insights, trying to find data or information to base
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that on. And then really trying to target it your messages and not be all things to all people. So
it's really, I mean, it sounds very basic and fundamental, but just those good building blocks of
any kind of a behavioral PR campaign.”
Respondent four said, “Certainly I think I'm a strategist by nature. I love the big picture,
and I love to be able to take that big picture and then bring it down for whatever audience, that
they can understand the practical implications of what that big picture means. And in many ways
I think that's kind of my approach to the strategy.
Respondent six said, “The basics that any PR person would do, right? I think what's
really common, research and understanding your audience, and communicating to that audience
the way they want to be communicated, and in the place that they wanted to be communicated,
that's our expertise.”
Overall, the stakeholders most apply intercultural communication as an intercultural
competency in their work. This asset informs all of the other daily tasks that the stakeholders are
responsible for and remains a continuing opportunity for senior PR leaders to develop a greater
capacity for intercultural communication in order to be better informed for performing those
tasks.

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Summary of Organizational Results and Findings
The assumed organizational assets outlined in this section have been targeted in an
attempt show how the senior PR leaders understand their organization’s respective roles,
responsibilities and commitment to diversity and inclusion. This section addresses what assets
senior PR leaders may need empower to build and enforce through the structure of their
organization, what resources and support do they need, how the C-suite can present commitment
from the top, and other organizational perspectives. As such, all organization assets have been
separated into the two categories discussed in Chapter Two: cultural models and cultural settings.
Synthesis of Organizational Results and Findings
In the organizational results and findings from this study, the assumed assets offered a
series of themes influenced by the various organizations each stakeholder represented. There
were 10 assets for cultural models and cultural settings with five assigned to each. Bennardo and
de Munck (2013) define cultural models as mass systems or organizations of knowledge whose
internal structure consists of a core component filled with a set of values. A cultural model is
instantiated when individuals within the system/organization experiences events of any type that
reflect its established values. In this study, the assumed assets of cultural models were
moderately affirmed with various levels of experiences specifically based on how advanced the
diversity and inclusion practices were at the stakeholders’ organizations. Applying productivity
and cultural knowledge were highly affirmed as organizational assets while applying global
perspectives, reassessing organizational practices, and creating training opportunities were assets
that presented challenges as areas of continuing need. The assumed assets for cultural settings
also had varying gaps.
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A cultural setting for the stakeholders in this study apply directly to patterns of behaviors
and beliefs that dominate the organizations in which they work. Also in this study, cultural
settings can apply to the public relations industry as the stakeholders explore the nuances of how
diversity and inclusion supports and impacts culturally diverse or global teams as well as
multicultural audiences. Their intercultural competencies specifically as leaders, less as
practitioners, are highlighted here and more affirmed through their respective organizations.
Reshaping industry language, improving retention, recruitment and advancement, and integrating
cultural differences were highly affirmed as assets while competitive advantage was moderately
affirmed an asset that presented challenges for areas of continuing need. External relations was
not affirmed but presented as a question due to its important role in the community outreach and
social responsibility aspect of public relations that pairs organically with diversity and inclusion
and sustains the success of both functions.
Of all the assumed assets, the section of organizational assets in this study reveal the most
needs and opportunities for industry-wide change. As organizations carry the weight of societal
impact through their influence on multicultural consumers and employees and through message
development and distribution, they inherently carry the responsibility of ensuring that the
practice of D/I is prioritized accordingly. The implications often lead to consistent and perpetual
failure leaving both internal and external audiences confused, unfulfilled and disappointed in the
decisions made by leaders in organizations. These organizations need to create a culture for their
teams to practice openness and curiosity, and to self-reflect on their own cultural self-awareness,
culture-specific knowledge, and worldviews regarding the dynamics of intercultural
competencies and the external outcomes it could yield.
The 10 assumed organizational assets identified are displayed in the table below along
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with themes presented from the findings and the collective needs and opportunities that surfaced
through the responses. Each of the assumed assets will be addressed in detail in the sections that
follow.
Table 10
Assumed Organizational Assets, Present Themes, Continuing Needs/Opportunities
Organizational Assets Present Themes Continuing
Needs/Opportunities
Cultural Models - Senior
PR leaders need to adopt a
culture of progression and
productivity in its
development of diversity
and inclusion programs.

Stakeholders affirm that progression and
productivity has been
witnessed/experienced within the
industry; feels organizations have been
inconsistent in their efforts.

Senior PR leaders have an
opportunity to influence
faster progress in their
organization with the
support of training and
education.
Cultural Models - Senior
PR leaders need to reassess
organizational practices that
are routinely viewed from a
diversity and inclusion
perspective and retooled to
better accommodate cultural
differences.

Stakeholders affirm that organizations
should consistently assess their practices
to accommodate D/I related needs and the
cultural differences that create them.

Senior PR leaders have an
opportunity to influence
decision makers to
reconsider and regularly
evaluate organizational
practices to ensure
capacity for D/I practices
and perspectives.
Cultural Models - Senior
PR leaders need to provide
and prioritize formal spaces
for employees to address
issues of diversity and
inclusion through
programming and training.

Stakeholders affirm the importance of
safe spaces for training and programming.

Senior PR leaders need
more experiences that
educate them on how to
create safe spaces with
their organizations.
Cultural Models - Senior
PR leaders need to apply
cultural knowledge to the
context of the client or
situation.

Stakeholders affirm their ability to apply
cultural knowledge to clients and
company; expressed concerns about the
broader industry.

Senior PR leaders need
better learning
opportunities that
introduce the professional
implications of cultural
differences.

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Table 10, continued
Organizational Assets Present Themes Continuing
Needs/Opportunities
Cultural Models - Senior
PR leaders need to apply a
global perspective of
diversity and inclusion
which would impact their
display of negotiation and
facilitation, continuous
learning, complex group
dynamics, judgment and
subject matter expertise.

Stakeholders affirm a concern that global
perspectives should be more of a
consideration for the PR workforce; some
satisfaction was expressed in the global
approach organizations are attempting to
take toward audiences/consumers.

Senior PR leaders have the
influence to frame D/I
practices with global
perspectives in mind;
education/training is
needed to support that.
Cultural Settings - Senior
PR leaders need to claim
position and power to
reframe the language around
diversity and inclusion as
the U.S. encounters a
demographic shift.

Stakeholders highly affirmed the PR’s
industry role in reshaping language about
D/I for the industry workforce and within
their respective organizations.
Senior PR leaders have a
need/opportunity to reach
agreement and adoption on
D/I terms, definitions, and
language used industry-
wide.
Cultural Settings - Senior
PR leaders need to openly
commit to the recruitment,
retention, development, and
support of candidates
historically underrepresented
in public relations.

Stakeholders highly affirmed a long-
standing need for improve recruitment,
retention and advancement in the PR
industry.

Senior PR leaders have a
continuing opportunity to
measure and evaluate D/I
within the PR workforce.
Cultural Settings - Senior
PR leaders need to ensure
their organizations have an
adaptation to and an
integration of cultural
difference.

Stakeholders affirmed their organization’s
willingness to adapt to cultural
differences and integrate them into their
D/I practices.

Senior PR leaders have an
opportunity to influence
decision makers to
highlight and celebrate
differences inside the
internal culture.
Cultural Settings - Senior
PR leaders need to prioritize
strategic external relations
displayed by strategic
alliances, diverse
markets/supplier diversity,
brand/reputation
management, and corporate
social responsibility.
Stakeholders did not affirm external
relations as a priority; there was some
evidence and mention but very little
concern was presented in this area.

There was no continuing
need or opportunity
identified for this
organizational asset.

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Table 10, continued
Organizational Assets Present Themes Continuing
Needs/Opportunities
Cultural Settings - Senior
PR leaders must value the
need to strengthen their
businesses ability to be
competitive in a global
environment, and to better
reflect and serve the diverse
U.S. population.

Stakeholders affirmed greater competitive
advantage as an outcome of strong D/I
practices.

Senior PR leaders need
greater education on how
to align competitive
advantage with the
business case for D/I.

Cultural Models. These sets of organizational assets include what supports and barriers
do senior PR leaders do have from the C-suite and board to effectively learn, practice and
progress the work of diversity and inclusion, how the organizational structure can encourage or
discourages productivity, and other organizational perspectives that show or impact progression.
Adopting Progressing and Productivity. In the interview responses, stakeholders
generally expressed concern that their organization’s approach to diversity and inclusion had
been difficult to explain, identity or measure thus making the assessment of progress and
productivity a mystery. There were key programs, strategies and initiatives that stakeholders
found extremely productive, specifically the stakeholders whose organizations had a long-
standing commitment to practicing diversity and inclusion over the years, and had embedded key
aspects of intercultural competency into its internal structure through language, training and
hiring. Other stakeholders expressed concerns about the length of time it has taken their
organization to refine its approach and the lack of dedicated focus to the practice of diversity and
inclusion. As the responses were divided, the following themes are separated and categorized
below:

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Satisfied with Organizational Approach. Respondent one:
Over time, it's been so fundamental to who we are and how we think about ourselves, it's
ingrained in the culture. And being ingrained in the culture then I think makes it very
organic to who we are and how we operate. I think there have been things that we have
done over time, but we have not necessarily been as consistent on the external side.”
Respondent three said, “From what I can tell, it's very top down, very promoted, encouraging of
diversity inclusion. We now have VP of diversity inclusion. I would say that, inclusion and
diversity as well as equitability is embedded into the culture.” Respondent seven said,
We've driven from the inside out. I would put it right up there with any other
organization, but there's room to grow. There's definitely room to grow. I think the
moment we represent the countries, the communities, the environments that we live,
work, play and do business in, in terms of our employee makeup then we will be much
more successful.
Respondent eight said, “From the beginning the leadership of this company not only talked about
it, but role modeled. This is going to be a guiding principle in how we, not only conduct our
relationships with one another, but how we do business and how we interact with the
communities around us.”
Dissatisfied with Organizational Approach. Respondent two said,
They have a policy or verbiage that sounds real nice, but they don't walk the walk. I think
when it comes to the work though, there is purposeful attention paid to different audience
segments. I think those are purposeful probably because it accomplishes or aims to
accomplish a business goal, and that's why probably it's paid attention to more. I would
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like to think that internally, the places where I've worked and I work also saw that as a
business goal too, and hopefully they will get there.
In summary, stakeholders affirm that progression and productivity in D/I as an asset
toward continuing opportunities. They have witnessed and experienced organizations produce
inconsistent efforts and recognize the opportunity to influence faster progress in their
organization with the support of training and education.
Reassessing organizational practices. Stakeholders centered their interview responses
about what influences their decisions about diversity and inclusion around the present settings of
their organization. The overall results on business outcomes was affirmed as one of the strongest
assets for the stakeholders in decision making as an organizational practice. Another factor was
the concept of inclusivity in decision making.
Respondent two said, “One is a philosophical influence, which is that I don't want anyone
to feel othered by the diversity and inclusion communications. I don't want anyone to feel like,
"Okay, I'm different, so I need special treatment," or also, "That program or that communication
is for women or racial ethnic minorities. It doesn't apply to me."
Respondent five said, “My first question generally speaking about anything we are
engaged in is, how inclusive is this? How diverse is it? What are the implications for this thing,
this initiative we have here?
Respondent six said, “From a communications perspective, trying to make sure that we
keep a fairly consistent cadence with very strategic messaging about the link between D/I and
our ability to succeed in our markets. That it becomes natural to everyone as you roll forward,
and thinks about how you do your job.”
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Respondent five said, “It's always a balance between your knowledge, what you know
about the subject, and how to be successful. Your values, where you would like the organization
to be culturally, in terms of building an inclusive culture, but then balancing that out with
realities, with constraints as far as time and resources, constraints as far as what messages what
programs will be green-lighted.”
Respondent three said, “I want to minimize the idea that diversity and inclusion is just for
a subsection of people. In fact, I want to eliminate it, not minimize it, but I want everyone to
understand that diversity inclusion is important for everyone, that everyone will benefit.”
Stakeholders were open in their interview responses about organization identify and
allocate the resources needed to implement diversity and inclusion initiatives. Most responses
indicated people and financial resources as a critical need.
Respondent eight said, “I think when it has to do with accomplishing a business goal, I
think the organization will do what they can. Whether it's allocating money in terms of a
resource or man hours in terms of a resource, or materials as a resource, I think unfortunately
past and present I don't feel that when it comes to their desire or claims or hopes to really have
diversity be something meaningful within the organization and the internal communication and
the morale of the organization.”
Respondent seven said, “In our organizations we're really tight on budget and resources.
We don't have unlimited resources to go and hire a lot of different people.”
Respondent four said, “It was decided that the larger population groups do get a larger
sum of money. But my concern is just that the funding doesn't become a means to stop certain
groups from doing things that push outside of people's comfort zones.”
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While some stakeholders indicated that their organizations are enthusiastic to allocate the
needed resources, others indicated that limited resources leaves diversity and inclusion initiatives
underfunded and while misunderstanding of how or where apply an abundance of resources
leaves initiatives unsupported.
Respondent two said, “People will find the money to get certain things done. It's a little
frustrating for us in the center organization for diversity and inclusion, because there are people
not within our organization who are doing things all over the place and we don't know about it
all. There's a tremendous amount of interest in putting resources to GD/I, D/I programs as well
as communications.”
Respondent five said “We have allocated robust resources to innovate programs that
address our strategic priorities of increasing the number of women and racial ethnic minorities in
the technology industry. And it's not just a tack-on program that's funded through GD/I, global
diversity and inclusion, there's resources all over the company.
Respondent one said, “The budget follows the strategy of our organization. So,
specifically, you have a strategy, or we have a core belief and a culture. it's just part of the
strategy to make sure that what we're doing is reaching all the people that we need to reach and
making sure that there's resources allocated to doing that. We do have specific funding for like
multicultural marketing, communications that we do, as part of a broader strategy. Based on the
impact that that strategy will have on the goals of the organization.”
Respondent three said, “The ability to really identify and allocate the resources rolls back
to identifying what you're going to use those resources for as part of what it's going to take to
accomplish your strategic objective.”
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To ensure measure and evaluation, respondent one said, “We have a mandatory section of
our performance review where we're supposed to demonstrate that we've exercised a growth
mindset and that we're behaving in ways that recognize the diversity of perspectives, and that
we're being inclusive in our behaviors and the ways that we engage with our team members or as
leaders.”
Collectively, stakeholders affirmed the continuing need for organizations to consistently
assess their practices to accommodate D/I related needs and the cultural differences that create
them. They were clear to identity this assessment as an asset that needs additional attention.
Stakeholders insisted that while the existence of diversity can be more apparent quantitatively,
determining and acknowledging the existence of inclusion is a qualitative mechanism that is
believed to be influential in making competent, measurable and well-assessed decisions. This
asset gives stakeholders the capacity to influence decision makers to reconsider and regularly
evaluate organizational practices to ensure capacity for D/I practices and perspectives.
Creating spaces for training and programming. Stakeholders affirmed the importance of
safe spaces for training and programming specially with concern for consistency and
authenticity. Stakeholders were clear to express disdain for disjointed, ‘check the box,’
experiences that did not dig deep into the real issues and concerns for diversity and inclusion.
Respondent four said, “To be honest, I feel like it's a little bit fragmented and I wish that
it wasn't. I don't necessarily think everything should be centralized or that takes away from it.
But where it becomes a challenge is if you have too many people all executing on a different
strategy that can be challenging or stepping on each other's toes. And I think by not having a full-
time employee who owns that program, it is a challenge.
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Respondent five said, “I think that the employees don't see it as part of a cohesive
program. And so the people who are predisposed not to think diversity is valuable, it makes it
easier for them to write it off or to say, ‘We don't understand how this contributes back to the
business.”
Overall, the stakeholders identified a continuing need for more experiences that educate
them on how to create safe spaces with their organizations, and desire to take advantage of those
resources for themselves and their peers.
Applying cultural knowledge to clients. The assumed asset that senior PR leaders need to
apply cultural knowledge to the context of the client or situation was affirmed by the
stakeholders. Respondent seven said, “Leaders really need to understand what's affecting society.
Because society makes up diverse people, and that way we can understand what's important to
them. Because we can't just look at their companies as selling things, and who our customers are.
We have to think about, what makeup do we want our employee base to be? So, we need to have
our pulse on society, and the issues that are affecting society.”
Collectively, the stakeholders affirm a desire and a need for more learning opportunities
that introduce the professional implications of cultural differences. They want organizations to
provide an internal model that equips senior PR leaders with D/I learning opportunities that help
them better do their jobs and positions competency as an overall asset in their organization.
Applying global perspectives. As globalization becomes an emerging gap for
intercultural competencies, the assumed asset that senior PR leaders need to apply a global
perspective to diversity and inclusion which would impact their display of negotiation and
facilitation, continuous learning, complex group dynamics, judgment and subject matter
expertise was affirmed. In the interview responses, stakeholders expressed concern that global
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perspectives should be more of a consideration for the PR workforce, while some satisfaction
was expressed in the global approach organizations are attempting to take toward
audiences/consumers.
Respondent one said, “There is a lot of discussion going on in the global marketplace in
general about how do you really assess a company's ability to deliver long-term value. In this
kind of world, in this kind of market place there's value that organizations create and there are
things that organizations do that will help them generate value that go well beyond these
financial metrics. And that's a discussion that's being held world widely. We do want it to be
organic in all aspects to how we think about things.”
Overall, a gap exists in applying global perspective inside organizations. Stakeholders
affirm that global perspectives are an asset for D/I in the PR workforce. While some satisfaction
was expressed in the global approach organizations are attempting to take toward
audiences/consumers, the stakeholders collectively identify a continuing need for organizations
to frame D/I practices with global perspectives in mind and to seek education/training to support
those practices.
Cultural settings. These sets of organizational assets highlight what supports and
barriers do senior PR leaders in relation to the industry’s work in diversity and inclusion and
their organization’s response to the need for intercultural competency. These assets include how
stakeholders believe their organizations and the PR industry collectively have a role in the
making diversity and inclusion a priority, and how these roles are interconnected.
Industry role in reshaping language. Stakeholders expressed concern that after decades
of research and criticism, the PR industry is yet still collectively uncertain or unaware of the
language used to frame diversity and inclusion as a problem. The assumed asset that senior PR
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leaders need to claim position and power to reframe the language around diversity and inclusion
as the U.S. encounters a demographic shift was affirmed.
Respondent two said, “As an industry, whenever we have something that has the word
diversity in it, if you don't think that that relates to you, then you're going to step away from it.”
Respondent three said, “In our organization, we define diversity very broadly and that's
actually good for a company that transacts in innovation. We're very fortunate that we have such
an aware and literate leader at the top of our company, who upon taking the role, really refined
and fine-tuned the mission to be inherently inclusive.”
Respondent five said, “I have asked my leadership for their definition for diversity and
inclusion related language they have started to use. I would probably even say among our team,
my small communications team and then the broader marketing team, we help define the context
for language. So I think constantly asking for clarity and provide an environment where people
feel like it is okay to have these conversations and seek clarity.”
In summary, stakeholders highly affirmed the PR’s industry role in reshaping language
about D/I for the industry workforce and within their respective organizations. This presented
both a continuing need and opportunity for senior PR leaders, supported by their organizations,
to reach agreement and adoption on D/I terms, definitions, and language used industry-wide.
Recruitment, retention and advancement. The assumed asset that senior PR leaders need
to openly commit to the recruitment, retention, development, and support of candidates
historically underrepresented in public relations was affirmed. Stakeholders express a desire to
fix this long-standing problem in the PR industry through active measurement and evaluation of
diversity and inclusion across the workforce.
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Respondent one said, “Fundamental to our business strategy going forward, we know
you've got to have a high-performance culture to execute that. That high-performance culture has
got to be inclusive and diverse in order for us to get to where we need to go.”
Respondent two said, “It's good, mature communications experience, and knowing how
to see things holistically, not just tactically for one particular audience especially in recruiting.
When you're working with diversity and inclusion, one of the tough things is the focus on
numbers, representation. In the marketplace, everybody measures your success solely by the
numbers. So you have to label your work as helping certain segments of the population.”
Respondent eight said, “I think people recognize the importance and the value of that
diverse voice. But once they're here, it's also important ... how do we keep them developed, how
do we move them up the career pipeline once they're here? And that drives a lot of what we, as
an organization that I'm currently in, why we do it and the programs that we do, and the support
that they give to employees. I think ultimately it is a bottom-line issue for us.”
Collectively, stakeholders were clear to express that a diverse workforce has positive
implications on a better performance in organizations and that leaders have a continuing
opportunity to measure and evaluate D/I within the PR workforce
Adapting and integrating cultural differences. Stakeholders affirmed their
organization’s willingness to adapt to cultural differences and integrate them into their diversity
and inclusion practices. The constant adaptation and integration of cultural differences presents a
challenge for organizational leaders to always see learning opportunities for their teams and
peers both externally and internally.
Respondent five said, “Whether there's a difference between internal and external
communications, it depends if there's such a large difference between your internal population
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and the external population. You need to understand what the different needs are and what your
objectives are with communicating with each audience. That's for one thing. Method, depending
on the method of communicating, you want to differentiate and segment your message. All of
these are good communication practices in general, no matter what topic you're speaking on.”
Respondent eight said, “…there's not a business case for inclusion, there's a human case
for inclusion that everyone is impacted by the inclusive behaviors and non-inclusive behaviors of
everyone. It affects the culture, it affects how you work, your productivity, how you feel about
working. It should matter to everyone. So that's an approach that I think overlays the
communication, that it doesn't focus in only on differences.”
Overall, the stakeholders expressed concern about a continuing opportunity to influence
decision makers to highlight and celebrate differences inside the internal culture. They also
expressed concern about how cultural differences should provide sufficient evidence in the
business case for D/I.
Prioritizing external relations. In the data analysis, it was not clear that stakeholders
affirmed external relations as a priority asset. There was some evidence regarding the importance
of external partnership but very little concern was presented in this area through the interview
responses. Reference to external partners for diversity and inclusion initiatives and efforts was
made as an important tactic for the sustainability of strategic decisions and learning experiences
but there was no continuing need or opportunity identified for this organizational asset. The
assumption further is that external relations is regularly used when needed and is seen as almost
as an intrinsic theme in the work of PR practitioners.
However, the survey data, when asked about the specific areas of public relations that
senior leaders use their intercultural competencies in most, community relations and corporate
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social responsibility ranked second and third respectively – each represent an external relations
tactic in the public relations industry. The figure below provides evidence of this data.
As a result of this finding, it is predicted that external relations is prioritized as a seamless
effort of senior PR leaders and its continuing need or opportunity is not emerging but presently
sustained.

Figure 5. (Highest and Lowest): Leadership: how respondents feel intercultural competence -
either through direct experience, example, or research - impacts the ability for senior PR leaders
to lead/manage in key areas

Valuing competitive advantage. As globalization becomes an emerging gap, the assumed
asset that senior PR leaders must value the need to strengthen their businesses ability to be
competitive in a global environment, and to better reflect and serve the diverse U.S. population
was affirmed. In the interview responses, stakeholders believe that organizations do value
gaining competitive advantage when practicing diversity and inclusion effectively, yet there is
still a great deal uncertainly in how to communicate the advantage and make it a natural part of
the D/I narrative in the PR industry. Stakeholders acknowledge that all organizations are at
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varying points of seeing and measuring competitive advantage in the global environment as a
true value to diversity and inclusion.
Respondent eight said, “Everybody is in a different place on their D/I journey. And
because of the longstanding nature of our journey, we were never one of those companies that
necessarily needed external scrutiny or pressure to take a look at D/I as fundamental to our
business strategy, right? We definitely have partnered externally to do things that reflect our
approach and our value of being inclusive of the diversity in the marketplace.”
In summary, the stakeholders affirm the asset of competitive advantage and affirm its role
as an outcome of strong D/I practices. This area of continuing opportunity shows that senior PR
leaders need greater education on how to align competitive advantage with the business case for
D/I.
Conclusion
In Chapter Four, a detailed overview of the research gathered through survey and
interviews was provided to address the intercultural competencies of senior PR leaders at
multinational organizations. This chapter sought to reveal the knowledge, motivation and
organization assets that senior PR leaders currently have for practicing diversity and inclusion.
More specifically, a survey was disseminated to 152 senior PR leaders, and a sample of eight
senior PR leaders was used for interviews.
The purpose of this data gathering was to affirm each assumed knowledge, motivation,
and organization assets. Through this process, the data was analyzed to determine present themes
in order to understand the gaps in intercultural competency that may be impacting their
contribution to the diversity and inclusion function. The data was then further synthesized to
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draw out continuing needs and opportunities that can be aligned with the solutions for the gaps
identified.
The knowledge findings determined that senior PR leaders need to know more about the
diversity and inclusion function, and need specific training to enhance their intercultural
competencies. The findings revealed a gap in the knowledge provided through industry-wide
efforts to ensure competency. The motivation findings determined that senior PR leaders value
the development of interest and improved performance in their work related to diversity and
inclusion. The findings revealed a gap in the motivation based on the perceived benefits of
practicing diversity and inclusion, the lack of measurement and evaluation, open recognition of
impact, and potential professional gain. The organization findings determined that senior PR
leaders need more consistent support and commitment from their organizations to practice
diversity and inclusion effectively. The findings reveal a gap in organizational assets through the
disconnect between the model that corporations/companies are using for diversity and inclusion
and the model that the PR industry is using, and precisely, the lack thereof. A training and
education solution is well-positioned to address each of the gaps revealed in the findings of this
study. With the continuing needs and opportunities in mind, Chapter Five will address potential
solutions in full detail.

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CHAPTER FIVE: SOLUTIONS, IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION
The purpose of this chapter is to present evidence-based recommendations for addressing
the knowledge, motivation, and organizational assets stated in Chapter 4. Guided by the Clark
and Estes (2008) Gap Analysis Process Model, the study included three research questions of
which chapter 5 addresses the second research question, “What training/education is needed to
ensure intercultural competency in senior PR leaders?” This chapter also utilizes the findings
from chapter 4 to make recommendations for addressing any gaps that have emerged in the
research. This chapter has been divided into four sections.
The first section presents the continued needs/opportunities (gaps) discovered through the
present themes that emerged from the affirmed knowledge, motivation, and organizational assets.
This section also presents the recommended solutions supported by empirical evidence. The
second section provides outlines an implementation plan for the four recommended solutions.
The fourth section presents an evaluation plan for the recommended solutions. Finally, this
chapter closes the study with a discussion of the limitations of this study and recommendations
for future research.
Recommendations Based on KMO Assets and Present Themes
The information in this section is organized into two major components. The first is a
synthesis of the continuing needs and opportunities recommending for practice to address the
affirmed KMO assets. Each asset was evaluated by its level of validity based on the data, and the
most important ones were identified in order to develop appropriate solutions. The assets were
accompanied by appropriate corresponding theories and industry-specific recommendations. The
second component is a summary of the four recommended solutions informed by the data and
supported by the literature review of this study.
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Based on the findings, I identified and formulated recommended solutions that include
the following:
1. A set of intercultural competencies to be adopted across the PR industry.
2. A D/I think tank alliance for the PR industry.
3. Coursework for D/I training in the PR industry – a course for each competence and a
measurement key as a supplement.
4. An organizational assessment to be adopted across the PR industry.
Continuing Needs and Opportunities
The continuing needs and opportunities in this study of intercultural competency for
senior PR leaders call attention to the gaps in their practice of diversity and inclusion. The data is
clear to show these gaps as ongoing and systemic, and that training and education should be
designed to fill, eliminate or further expose them. The affirmed assets in this study provide a
basis of goal-like benchmarks for training and education to influence the solutions.
The continuing needs and opportunities in the section of this study is solely focused on
how solutions in practicing diversity and inclusion can be developed, implemented and
measuring across the public relations industry by introducing and embedding intercultural
competency as a foundational framework for senior leaders, and are divided into three focus
areas of development for deeper discussion and consideration - the role of learning, the role of
teaching and the role of assessing - with literature to support the proposed framework prior to a
presentation of the solutions.
The tables below present a summary of the continuing needs and opportunities along with
its appropriate each KMO category and the type of solution needed as dictated by the learning,
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teaching, and assessment of intercultural competency. The four solutions displayed in the tables
will be discussed in the next section.
Table 11
Continuing Needs and Opportunities for Knowledge Assets with Proposed Solutions
Continuing Needs/Opportunities
Solutions
Knowledge

Senior PR leaders need more interpersonal
experiences that inform their decision about D/I
practices.

Senior PR leaders at organizations with strong
infrastructure have an opportunity to connect ROI
to the D/I practice.

Senior PR leaders need a direct connection to their
organization’s decision makers in order to
leverage and apply knowledge of building a
structure for D/I.

Senior PR leaders have a continuing opportunity
to produce market research and audience analysis
supported by their metacognitive knowledge of
cultural identities.

Learning:
Develop a training/education model to support
learning and development for senior leaders in PR
and the teams they manage.

Senior PR leaders need further data and insights to
add to the D/I case and prioritize procedures

Senior PR leaders have an increasing need to learn
rules and norms in diverse populations.

Senior PR leaders need consistent and accessible
programs/processes to develop cultural
knowledge.

Senior PR leaders need further industry data and
insights, and need recommended strategies,
structures and procedures to add to the D/I
practice.

Teaching:
Establish a think tank of organizations that will
gather for purpose of addressing, distributing and
governing an intercultural competency model for
the public relations industry.

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Table11, continued
Continuing Needs/Opportunities Solutions
Knowledge
Senior PR leaders do not have agreement on the
intercultural competencies that are most critical
for D/I.

Senior PR leaders have continuing opportunities
to leverage HR knowledge and access to HR
departments for internal and external
communication practices.

Senior PR leaders with well-rounded cultural
experiences and value their cultural knowledge
are likely to pursue more opportunities to
strengthen intercultural competencies.

Teaching:
Establish a set of intercultural competencies for the
public relations industry; competencies prioritize
the knowledge and procedures needed to develop
effective D/I practices in the PR industry.

Senior PR leaders have a need to improve
competencies and have an opportunity to
influence teams/leadership.
Senior PR leaders have an opportunity to inform
and influence their organization’s decision
makers about negative implications for delaying
or ignoring D/I.

Senior PR leaders need more D/I related
opportunities to employ and apply their learnings.

Assessment:
Propose organizational practices that senior PR
leaders will adopt as a measurement/assessment
resource for evaluation and accountability.

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Table 12
Continuing Needs and Opportunities for Motivational Assets with Proposed Solutions
Continuing Needs/Opportunities
Solutions
Motivation

Senior PR leaders may benefit from standard set
of intercultural competencies across the industry.

Senior PR leaders can spend more time getting
training in the area of intercultural
communication when motivated by the
professional advancement it can lead to.

Learning:
Develop a training/education model to support
learning and development for senior leaders in PR
and the teams they manage.

Senior PR leaders have a continuing opportunity
to create environments that encourage open-
mindedness.
Senior PR leaders may continue to amplify their
cultural identity through advocacy of D/I in the
PR industry.
Senior PR leaders are challenged to commit to
increased financial and people resources to D/I
efforts/initiatives.
Teaching:
Establish a think tank of organizations that will
gather for purpose of addressing, distributing and
governing an intercultural competency model for
the public relations industry.

Senior PR leaders can adopt a set of intercultural
competencies when motivated by the professional
advancement they can lead to when applied.

Senior PR leaders are challenged to commit to
increased focus and solutions to D/I in the
industry.
Teaching:
Establish a set of intercultural competencies for the
public relations industry; competencies prioritize
the knowledge and procedures needed to develop
effective D/I practices in the PR industry.

Senior PR leaders may benefit from an evaluation
method to measure the adequacy of training
received.
Assessment:
Propose organizational practices that senior PR
leaders will adopt as a measurement/assessment
resource for evaluation and accountability.

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Table 13
Continuing Needs and Opportunities for Organizational Assets with Proposed Solutions
Continuing Needs/Opportunities
Solutions
Organization

Senior PR leaders have an opportunity to
influence faster progress in their organization
with the support of training and education.

Senior PR leaders need greater education on how
to align competitive advantage with the business
case for D/I.

Senior PR leaders need more experiences that
educate them on how to create safe spaces with
their organizations.

Learning:
Develop a training/education model to support
learning and development for senior leaders in PR
and the teams they manage.

Senior PR leaders have a need/opportunity to
reach agreement and adoption on D/I terms,
definitions, and language used industry-wide.

Senior PR leaders have the influence to frame D/I
practices with global perspectives in mind;
education/training is needed to support that.

Teaching:
Establish a think tank of organizations that will
gather for purpose of addressing, distributing and
governing an intercultural competency model for
the public relations industry.

Senior PR leaders need better learning
opportunities that introduce the professional
implications of cultural differences.

Senior PR leaders have an opportunity to
influence decision makers to highlight and
celebrate differences inside the internal culture.

Teaching:
Establish a set of intercultural competencies for the
public relations industry; competencies prioritize
the knowledge and procedures needed to develop
effective D/I practices in the PR industry.

Senior PR leaders have a continuing opportunity
to measure and evaluate D/ I within the PR
workforce.

Senior PR leaders have an opportunity to
influence decision makers to reconsider and
regularly evaluate organizational practices to
ensure capacity for D/I practices and
perspectives.

Assessment:
Propose organizational practices that senior PR
leaders will adopt as a measurement/assessment
resource for evaluation and accountability.

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Framework for Learning, Teaching and Assessing Competence
As public relations practitioners maximize mutual interests of their public, intercultural
competency allows them to remain open-minded and creative while actively seeking mutually
benefiting solutions (Ni et al., 2015). In a 25-year review and revisit of literature on intercultural
competency (Deardorff, 2015), it is clear that a tremendous wealth of work has been devoted to
the study, development and assessment of intercultural competence, especially in individuals,
within teams, and some within organizations. However, Deardorff (2014) declares a widespread
disparity in delineating what specifically comprises intercultural competence and how it should
be measured. Hammer (2008) explains that historically there has not been a sufficient
intercultural competence framework to assess how competent an individual or an organization is
in terms of working across cultures nor a framework from which systematic efforts at developing
increased intercultural competence can undertaken. Hammer (2012) posits that in the corporate
sector, higher levels of intercultural competence are strongly predictive of successful recruitment
and staffing of diverse talent in organizations. In more recent literature, Sinicrope, Norris, and
Watanabe (2007) explain that as focus and purpose of intercultural competence research
expands, the approaches to its description has evolved which then naturally require more options
for its assessment. Furthermore, Arasaratnam and Doerfel (2015) suggest a well-designed, well-
tested, instrument is invaluable to intercultural trainers and practitioners in the academic as well
as the corporate world.
Learning intercultural competence. Public relations practitioners, regardless of their
backgrounds, are often thrust into a role as a communication mediator and negotiator who are
responsible for interpreting cultural dimensions of PR activities (Fitch & Desai, 2012). This
expectation creates a need to provide learning opportunities to practitioners that enhance their
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competency for such demands. In 1992, Beamer predicted that major development in learning
intercultural competence would be the ability to analyze communication behavior within the
context of the values. As the idea of competence for professional communicators evolved into
being able to generate and respond to communication messages as if from within another culture
while also making the messages transferrable to more than one culture, Beamer (2004) explains
that learners of intercultural competence are compelled to address issues of perception in the
process and learner will always have recognition of previously unknown and unrecognized
knowledge.
In connection, the issue of perception becomes both an advantage and a disadvantage to
learning intercultural competency. Fitch and Desai (2012) suggest that perception is critical to
the learning process for PR practitioners because “people are not passive receivers of public
relations, nor are they robotic replicators of culture; they are always involved in active creation
or re-creation of culture and this, of course, involves individual PR practitioners too whose own
interpretations and understandings change over time. This understanding implies that
practitioners must develop certain personal and professional competencies in order to
successfully communicate meaning in different cultural settings.”
Fitch and Desai (2012) believe as PR practitioners become the proactive custodian of
intercultural communication within their organizations, and as carried out, they gain the
intercultural competency needed to play a greater role in developing communication strategies
that reflect the diversity and inclusion practices they are called upon to lead and produce.
Teaching intercultural competence. Crucial to the development of intercultural
competency is an understanding of discourse as the key competent that shapes the education
process (Usó Juan & Martínez Flor, 2008). In teaching intercultural competency to PR
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practitioners, it is important to identity their continuing needs and opportunities made aware of
this study as learning objectives and to align the education with a familiar framework of study
within the industry. One that matches the traditional cognitive, affective, and behavioral (CAB)
paradigm – also known as the Think-Feel-Do model.
This theoretical approach is widespread and serves as the dominant approach taken to
understanding the complex phenomena of intercultural competence among researchers and
practitioners in the intercultural field (Hammer, 2015). It also is a prevalent approach in the field
of public relations present in education and application as three types of theoretical effects are
generally categorized the goal of audience interaction through public relations activity - the
cognitive, affective, and behavioral dimensions.
Chi & Suthers (2015) defines each dimension in relation intercultural competence as
follows:
• Cognitive Dimensions
Cognitive - Cognition is about people’s thoughts, attitudes, and interpretations. Most
models of intercultural competency assessment suggest the need for people to be open-
minded and flexible in order to be intercultural component.
• Affective Dimensions
Affect - Affect is about people’s feelings, moods, and emotions. Many assessments
highlight the importance of cultural empathy. Additionally, there is an emphasis on the
importance of emotional stability and emotional control.
• Behavioral Dimensions
Behavioral - Behavior is about action and social exchange. Historically, intercultural
competency models have emphasized the importance of social initiative, or interaction
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and suggested that leadership constitutes a strong behavior factor. As a result, people’s
experience, social initiative, leadership, and communication are critical.
To provide a sense of familiarity, an education model should be designed to identify
those cognitive, affective and behavioral dimensions of intercultural competence in the teaching
process. Fitch and Desai (2012) stress that understanding of the relationship between culture and
public relations and a context-sensitive approach are therefore required for curriculum
development. This approach to teaching intercultural competence demands that educators
consider the contexts in which they teach so that diversity and inclusion may be addressed in a
familiar learning framework. Fitch and Desai (2012) also encourage the introduction of
intercultural competence into the curriculum for PR practitioners as issues of diversity and
inclusion demand new ways of thinking about PR. They state, “the development of intercultural
competence demands that educators are aware of diverse professional practices, the different
contexts for those practices (and indeed, the impact of different socio-cultural factors), and
industry expectations and values, which vary across countries and sectors.” The answer to
addressing those diversity and inclusion related challenges will lie in educators and leaders
ensuring to embedding of intercultural competence as a key learning outcome.
Assessing intercultural competence. In keeping with the cognitive, affective and
behavior dimensions, assessment is also impacted by this framework in order to develop
assessment tools that provide structure for the evaluation and measurement of intercultural
competency in PR practitioners. There would be an overlooked attempt to assess intercultural
competency based in the continuing needs and opportunities of this study if learning and
teaching were not first addressed and were not included in the framework on which to base
solutions. Therefore, assessment is the last role to be discussed in this section.
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Sinicrope et al. (2007) explain that as focus and purpose of intercultural competence
research expands, the approaches to assessment from short attitude and personality surveys to
more complex behavioral self-assessments, performance assessments, portfolio assessments, and
others have evolved as well. Traditional forms of assessment necessitated a focus on
quantitative analyses primarily in measuring the instrumentation, the underlying concept of
intercultural competency through each of its four sub-components - knowledge, attitude, skills,
and awareness (Chi & Suthers, 2015). In this study, the idea for instrumentation will be based on
cognitive (culture-specific knowledge, attitude, open-mindedness/ flexibility, critical thinking,
and motivation), affective (cultural empathy and emotional stability/control), and behavioral
(experience, social initiative, and leadership) measures.
Research has shown that intercultural competence can indeed be assessed, although such
assessment needs to be beyond one tool in order to gain a more complete picture of intercultural
competency development (Deardorff, 2011). Additional research by Sinicrope et al. (2007)
reports that several researchers have also combined direct and indirect assessment methods to
provide more comprehensive accounts of intercultural phenomena. Meanwhile, these direct and
combined approaches have the potential to offer more complete assessments of intercultural
competence as they can provide more detailed, nuanced, and individualized accounts of the
learner’s experience (Sinicrope et al., 2007). Operating in tandem with the research, the four
solutions in this study defined by the continuing needs and opportunities (gaps) will have some
combinations in assessment.
Solutions
There are four solutions presented in this study. The solutions I recommended by the for
implementation are informed by the findings. I have developed solutions that are intended to work
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in tandem and are ordered by priority to operate most effectively. The solutions for this study are
discussed in the four main sections to follow.
Intercultural Competencies for the Public Relations Industry
The figure below proposed a set of intercultural competencies to be establish for the public
relations industry. Based on the findings of this study, these competencies prioritize the knowledge
and procedures needed to develop effective diversity and practices in the PR industry. Discussion
about the validity of each competency is included and supported by empirical evidence. Additional
solutions to embed and deliver the competencies through industry-wide best practices, and to
assess and measure the competencies through training and education will be discussed later in this
chapter.

Figure 6. Proposed competencies for senior PR leaders practicing diversity and inclusion.

• Differences
• Nuances
• Behaviors
•Norms
• Data
• Patterns
• Facts
• Inquiry
•Empathy
•Tolerance
•Openness
•Acceptance
• Listening
• Relating
• Observing
• Adapting
Intercultural
Communication
Intercultural
Sensitivity
Intercultural
Awareness
Intercultural
Research
COMPETENCIES
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As the need for training and education in intercultural competence increases, the need for
explanation of how competency in specific industries should be explored. Hammer (2012)
explains that building intercultural competence involves “increasing cultural self-awareness;
deepening understanding of the experiences, values, perceptions, and behaviors of people from
diverse cultural communities; and expanding the capability to shift cultural perspective and adapt
behavior to bridge across cultural differences.” Therefore the proposed competencies mirror to
some degree this thought. To identify the first step in developing a model of intercultural
competence, Arasaratnam and Doerfel (2015) suggest investigating the identity and nature of the
variables. The competencies (or “variables”) presented reflect the findings from chapter 4, and
each have an assigned group indicators or descriptors of application. Of five areas of competency
were presented, the four identified as most critical by the stakeholders: 1) communication; 2)
sensitivity 3) awareness; and 4) research. While intercultural experiences was the fifth
competency, it was ranked low in general importance as the other four were considered a
necessity and appeared as a gap in some areas, specifically research. Although intercultural
experience should be a component of one’s level of competency - interaction is a significant
means of being viewed competent - it would be difficult to learn and measure in the context of
this study, and could be conveyed in theory through the suggested training. Each competency is
explained in this section and supported by literature in definition.
Intercultural communication. Kent and Taylor (2011) define intercultural
communication is an interpretative activity. Public relations scholars have relied upon a limited
number of cultural theories and concepts over the years, and have constructed even fewer
intercultural public relations theories, however they agree that understanding how individuals
and groups from other nations, regions, or cultures see the world is essential to effective
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intercultural communication. In definition, Arasaratnam and Doerfel (2015) suggest that
‘‘intercultural’’ encompasses ethnic, religious, cultural, national, and geographic variances and
‘‘communication’’ is perceived to be verbal exchange of ideas and messages through the use of
language, and involves an element of understanding on the part of the participants. The
competency of intercultural communication in the public relations industry as proposed is
displayed through listening in context of diversity and inclusion, relating applicable practices
through verbal and nonverbal communication (e.g., direct/indirect eye contact, asking questions),
observing behaviors from different cultures, and adapting to strategies, procedures and
environment.
Intercultural sensitivity. According to Wang and Zhou (2016), the majority of the
scholars in this field have noted that the more interculturally sensitive a person is, the more
interculturally competent he/she can be. Intercultural sensitivity specifically refers to the
willingness to know and appreciate cultural differences in intercultural contexts (Hammer,
2012). Though intercultural sensitivity is primarily concerned with emotions, it is also related to
the cognitive, affective and behavioral aspects of interactions. It is generally conceptualized as
curiosity about other cultures, noticing and understanding cultural differences and willingly
modifying one’s behavior out of respect (Wang & Zhou, 2016). A key indicator of intercultural
sensitivity as a competency is the display of empathy. Kent and Taylor (2011) defined empathy
as “the ability of a person to put him- or herself into the shoes of another, to see the world as the
other does. The ability to empathize is related to one's ability to transcend the urge to judge
another culture or person based on preconceptions. Intercultural sensitivity becomes a critical
competency in PR as Taylor (2000) confirms that one of the reasons that intercultural campaigns
often fail is because of the inability of practitioners to see the world from the perspective of the
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audience. In addition to expressing empathy, the competency of intercultural sensitivity in the
public relations industry as proposed is displayed through demonstrating tolerance and
adaptability in understandings, acknowledge openness and flexibility in change, and showing
acceptance of others.
Intercultural awareness. Hammer (2012) defines intercultural awareness as the
understanding of cultural practices that influence how individuals interpret and behave. As a
competency, Ruben (2015) defines intercultural awareness as a knowledge of people and the
skills to understand them. He shares that increasing attention has been devoted to factoring in
assessments that measure awareness alongside more purely technical and occupational
competencies to determine how they might coexist. One important point about awareness is the
imprecision and bias associated with self-perception of one’s level of awareness. Ruben (2015)
stresses that intercultural awareness as it focuses on gathering information and gaining
knowledge can belong to the assertions and resolutions that are expressed with good intentions
not always translated in behavior. Wiseman, Hammer, and Nishida (1989) assert that
intercultural awareness in most instances is the source of cultural knowledge, because it involves
an understanding of the norms and communication rules of the other culture, and provides an
important kind of information, upon which the behavior of people from the other culture, can be
understood. The competency of intercultural awareness in the public relations industry as
proposed is displayed through knowledge of cultural differences, respecting nuances in cultural
identities, familiarity with unique behavioral patterns of cultural groups, and responding to
diverse norms in cultural interactions.
Intercultural research. Kent and Taylor (2011) reminds public relations practitioners of
that the first thing that one has to do before communicating about anything is to conduct
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research. The required "R" in the RACE formula (Research, Action, Communication,
Evaluation) applies when creating any message, whether the message is created for an internal
group of employee stakeholders, or is designed for an external group of stakeholders such as
activists or consumers (Kent & Taylor, 2011). As the practice diversity and inclusion finds an
often troubling or confusing response in the PR industry, research becomes one of the major
competencies that needs strengthening. In fact, intercultural research was highly expressed by the
stakeholders in this study as an area that needs the most attention industry-wide. Normal
procedures by communication professionals apply such as need to conducting formal research
(interviews, surveys, reviewing primary and secondary sources) in order to understand key
publics. However, research about key publics as also reminded by Kent and Taylor (2011) can be
obtained through environmental scanning and monitoring. For intercultural competency, this
may include macro-level areas of consideration including political systems, economic
development, or other societal factors. The competency of intercultural awareness in the public
relations industry as proposed is displayed through interpreting data of diverse groups and issues,
detecting patterns in behavior, learning and recalling facts, and using inquiry to discover deeper
insights.
Think Tank Alliance for the Public Relations Industry
The second solution for this study is to establish a think tank of organizations that will
gather for purpose of addressing, distributing and governing an intercultural competency model
for the public relations industry. This think tank would include the following organizations:
Public Relations Society of America (PRSA), PRSA Foundation, Arthur W. Page Society, The
Institute of Public Relations (IPR), National Communication Association (NCA), The Plank
Center for Leadership in Public Relations, The Observatory for Corporate Reputation, The
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Intercultural Communication Institute, The International Association of Business
Communicators, ColorComm and the National Black Public Relations Society (NBPRS). A
number of selected Fortune 500 corporations with actively progressive diversity and inclusion
initiatives led and influenced by senior PR leaders (ex. chief communication officers, senior vice
presidents, etc) who are members of the aforementioned organizations will also be invited to the
think tank for corporate thought leadership.
At the time this solution was developed, I was informed about a similar initiative to address
the ways in which diversity and inclusion is practiced in the public relations industry. Key leaders
from major communications organizations are creating a new D/I Impact Alliance to take on and
achieve meaningful, tangible results in diversity and inclusivity across the public relations
profession.
The PR D/I Impact Alliance is led by an advisory council of diverse executives in CCO
roles or equivalents, diverse agency CEOs or equivalents, prominent educators recognized for
their D/I leadership and D/I committee representatives from member organizations. Formed in
2019, their proposition is that the organizations will all combine forces in order to enhance the
impact and awareness of existing best practices, identify and fill gaps and maximize the sense of
urgency. The goals of the Alliance are to maintain continuous improvement for under-
represented groups in every facet of the profession as measured by recruitment, retention,
representation in management. Current progress of the Alliance includes in-depth interviews and
calls with senior, diverse PR leaders, identifying gaps and opportunities for collaboration,
fleshing out the general concept and developing launch plan, enlisting key organizations for
participation, and hosting meetings and calls with leaders and/or representatives of key
organizations including The Page Society, PRSA, PRSA Foundation, PR Council, IPR, Plank
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Center, HPRA, NBPRS, and the Museum of PR. The Alliance has also established membership
criteria: all members must participate in developing funding, commit and abide to the D/I Impact
Alliance code of ethics, and make a pledge demonstrating their commitment to contributing to
high-impact tactical steps that make a measurable difference.
A steering committee chair presently has key action items to oversee and collaborate with
newly hired project leader to create programming with input and approval from the steering
committee, obtain and analyze input on action priorities from the steering committee and
advisory council to finalize short-term plans through 2019 as well as long-term plans and
budgets through 2021, and present comprehensive 2019 plan and budget to steering committee to
seek their buy-in, support, feedback, and approval. A working call to action for the Alliance is to
develop and gain consensus on measurement plans across program activations and for the overall
progress in diversity numbers throughout the profession. I recommend that the PR D/I Impact
Alliance conceptually replace and merge mission with the initial think tank this study initially
intended to offered as a solution.
Training and Measurement for Intercultural Competence
A third solution for this study is to develop an intercultural competency training model to
support learning and development for senior leaders in PR and the teams they manage as the
practice diversity and inclusion within their organization. Creating a training model for
intercultural competencies involves determining what kinds of education is needed. This eight-
week training model will have a curriculum divided into four sections - one of each of the
proposed competencies. This eight-week training model can be delivered online or in-person and
will be delivered by a PR educator or consultant with teaching and research credentials in
diversity and inclusion, cultural competency and intercultural communication. Four components
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will be featured in this proposed training model: Pre-Training Survey, Coursework, Self-
Assessment, Post-Training Survey. A pre-training survey will be administered to assess learning
expectations and present knowledge of the stakeholder. The coursework will feature a course for
each area of the proposed competences. The table below features a sample curriculum agenda.
Table 14
Sample Training Curriculum
Coursework: Intercultural Competency Training Model for Public Relations
Course Title Course Description Course Topics

Course
Assignments

Module 1:
Intercultural
Communication

• Demonstrate
intercultural
competency in
through
interpersonal
communication.

• Be more aware of
your own
contribution to the
problems in
communication.

• Discover the
consequences of
cultural moments on
immediate
communication and
on larger scale social
issues.

• Fundamentals of
Diversity and
Inclusion
• Connecting
demographic
shifts to
organizational
strategy
• Race, power and
privilege
• The concept of
unconscious bias
• Micro-
aggressions and
micro-inequities
• Audience
behaviors
• 365 news cycle
• Influence of
politics
• Crisis in culture

• Online
Assessment
• Written
Summary

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Table 14, continued
Coursework: Intercultural Competency Training Model for Public Relations
Course Title Course Description Course Topics

Course
Assignments

Module 2:
Intercultural Sensitivity

• Identify and explain
(historical, economic,
social, religious, etc.
similarities,
differences, and
connections across
cultures.

• Recognize, articulate,
reflect on, and
formulate critical
questions to reach a
deeper understanding
of cultural identity
and biases of self and
others.

• Understand various
cultural practices,
systems, and
institutional
structures.

• Navigating
through religion
and belief
systems
• LGBTQ and
Inclusion
• Empowering
women
• Disability and
special needs
accommodations
• Generational
intelligence
• Programs for
veterans
• Immigrants in the
workplace and
society
• Socioeconomic
effects

• Online
Assessment
• Self-
Reflection

Module 3:
Intercultural Awareness

• Identify and appreciate
the beliefs, values, and
norms of their own
culture, and recognize
and articulate differences
and commonalities in
dominant cultural
patterns.

• Learn in-depth about
intercultural topics to
honor and share their own
culture while developing
a capacity to be inclusive
of many other cultures.

• EEO laws in the
US and abroad
• Building and
leading diverse
teams
• Resource groups
and diversity
councils
• Strategic
planning, purpose
and partnerships
• Global contexts
in PR
• Impediments to
intercultural
competence

• Online
Assessment
• Intercultural
Interview

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Table 14, continued
Coursework: Intercultural Competency Training Model for Public Relations
Course Title Course Description Course Topics

Course
Assignments

Module 4:
Intercultural Research

• Demonstrates
evidence of
engaging with,
responding to, and
promoting others’
engagement with
diverse
communities
locally,
interculturally,
or globally.

• Initiates and
demonstrates
culturally aware
behavior while
engaging with
others from diverse
communities.
• Diversity,
recruiting and
retention
• Executive
commitment and
sponsorship
• The next generation
of equity, diversity
and inclusion work
• Boardroom
diversity
• Supplier diversity
• Improving your
approach to the
bottom line
• Global best
practices
• Leading a large
scale D/I effort
• Innovation through
D/I
• Advanced data
insight and analysis
• Online
Assessment
• Research
Report

The self-assessment will immediately follow the coursework as an interactive web-based
tool designed to help evaluate intercultural competence. It will Includes checklists the four
intercultural competence, address personal reflection, assesses outcomes through tested format.
The post-training survey will be administered to gain feedback on the effectiveness, ease and
satisfaction of the training.
The measurement tool for the training model will be in the form of a performance rubric
adapted from a version created by the American Council on Education/Fund for the
Improvement of Postsecondary Education (ACE/FIPSE). The organization’s
Intercultural/International Learning Outcomes Assessment in General Education committee
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developed a rubric to assess a prioritized a set of international/intercultural learning outcomes
across U.S. higher education institutions (Sinicrope et al., 2007)).
The adapted rating scale for assessing learning outcomes from the training (coursework
and self-assessment) range from inadequate to extensive with the following criteria:
1 = Inadequate: Competence is inaccurate or poorly developed.
2 = Minimal: Competence is accurate at basic level.
3 = Moderate: Competence is accurate at complex level.
4 = Extensive: Competence is extensive and sophisticated.
(ACE/FIPSE Project Steering Committee, n.d.a, p. 5-6)
Organizational Assessment
The fourth and final solution is to propose a set of organizational practices that senior PR
leaders will adopt as a measurement/assessment resource for evaluation and accountability to
embed intercultural competence in their diversity and inclusion practices. This is an important
solution become the network power organizations carry especially multinational organizations
they are the employers of the stakeholders for this study.
Chi & Suthers (2015) explains how the size and composition of one’s social network, the
position that an individual occupies in a network, and the strength of relations with others can all
reveal one’s competence in establishing and maintaining social relations in an intercultural
environment. These observable connections indicate that intercultural competence is not only
based on individual attitudes, skills, and personalities, but also is distributed across one’s social
networks and confined by the specific acculturation context (Chi & Suthers, 2015).
Embedding intercultural competency at the organization level is an important task for a
number of reasons. A few are presented in a 2017 study on the connection between individual
multiculturalism and innovative work behaviors, with cultural intelligence as a mediating
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variable by Korzilius, Bücker and Beerlage. The authors’ position demographic shifts in the
labor force, increasing movement of labor across national borders, and growing attention to
issues involved in managing multinational employees all as issues that reinforce calls for
diversity and inclusion practices (Korzilius et al., 2017). A second reason is the increasingly
appreciated and potentially emerging factor of employee diversity becoming a catalyst for
improved work performance. A third one is a reminder that multicultural people in organizations
who have been raised, lived, or worked in intercultural environments may show more
resourcefulness and originality than monocultural people, because they have internalized more
than one set of cultural schemas and seem to move fluidly between them. However, they still
need access to training, tools and resources that support their knowledge of diversity and
inclusion practices, and need intercultural competencies to be able to balance and integrate the
knowledge and ideas from their two or more internalized, different cultures.
Korzilius et al. (2017) further suggests that organizations need to create environments in
which people can thrive, in the form of “organizational cultures in which the cultural diversity
that exists within individuals is recognized in the same way we have come to treat the cultural
diversity between individuals as a valuable asset.” Their intercultural competencies can stir
motivation and spark questions of stereotypical images of diverse categories to resolve possible
discrepancies, which should result in improved cognitive abilities that may enhance a broad
range of competencies (Korzilius et al., 2017).
This solution includes an organizational assessment that will serve a companion piece to
senior leaders who complete the training program to carry back to their organizations and
administer to their teams. The assessment will operate as organizational audit of their diversity
and inclusion practices, grounded in the four categories of intercultural competence and
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147
measured by the evaluation model used in the individual training program. A part of this
assessment will ask leaders to submit their most recent strategic communication plan that address
an internal issue or a series of issues for diversity and inclusion, or focuses its intent on reaching
multicultural consumer audience. The document analysis of their plan will be used to support the
intercultural research outcomes of the proposed competency model.
The organizational assessment will also allow senior PR leaders and their teams to work
in partnership with the organization’s human resources and learning/development departments to
support an integrated learning approach. Additionally, this solution will feature a toolkit aimed at
helping organizations use the proposed intercultural competencies to more effectively design,
implement and execute diversity and inclusion practices. The toolkit will include assessment
instruments such as surveys and protocols, data tools and resources, a strategic plan template, an
audience analysis guide and additional ideas for how to improve diversity and inclusion within
their organizations. The content in the toolkit must be easy to memorize, absorb, distribute and
accessible online. The assessment will be a month-long self-guided process.
The organizational assessment has five objectives informed the continuing needs and
opportunities of the affirmed organizational assets in this study: 1) assesses how effectively the
organization communicates; 2) determine how the organization is meeting the needs of a diverse
consumer base through communication; 3) identify common problems and obstacles in diversity
and inclusion practices; 4) validate organizational understanding of diversity and inclusion in the
workplace; 5) reveal opportunities for improvement, growth and innovation. Organizations can
purchase a license for the assessment and access the toolkit at no cost.

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Implementation Plan
Integrated Needs and Expectations
To integrate the four solutions presented, it is proposed that the newly formed PR D/I
Impact Alliance take leadership in implementing the recommendations as part of their
programming and adopt ownership of the tools included. The Alliance will be collectively
charged with the action steps that follow the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
framework.
• Solution 1 (Knowledge): Establish a set of intercultural competencies for the
public relations industry; competencies prioritize the knowledge and procedures
needed to develop effective diversity and inclusion strategies in the PR industry.
• Solution 2 (Motivation): Develop a training/education model to support learning
and development for senior leaders in PR and the teams they manage.
• Solutions 3 & 4 (Organizational): Establish a think tank of organizations that will
gather for purpose of addressing, distributing and governing an intercultural
competency model for the public relations industry; Propose organizational
practices that senior PR leaders will adopt as a measurement/assessment resource
for evaluation and accountability.
The ideal timeline for implementation of this solution is a nine-month process divided by
three-phases. The table below matches the four proposed solutions with the action steps needed
for this integrated approach to be effective.

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Table 15
Implementation
PHASE STRATEGY TACTICS/ACTION ITEMS

Phase 1
Research & Assess
(3 months)

Strategy 1 (Knowledge):
Establish a set of
intercultural competencies
for the public relations
industry.

1. The Alliance will assemble an assigned representative
from each respective organization to review research on
intercultural competencies and findings from the
dissertation, and assign a host organization for meetings.

2. Representatives will assemble in focus
groups/committees to propose, vote and review set of
intercultural competencies, and set deadlines.

3. Upon review, the established set of intercultural
competencies will be announced, written and released
into a report.

Phase 2
Synthesize & Build
(3 months)

Strategy 2 (Motivation):
Develop a
training/education model to
support learning and
development for senior
leaders in PR and the teams
they manage.

1. Alliance representatives will assemble to review
research and share insight how to strengthen their
businesses ability to be competitive in a global
environment, and to better reflect and serve the diverse
U.S. population.

2. Alliance representatives will assemble to review
research and share insight on best practices in
training/education for diversity and inclusion issues and
strategies.

3. Alliance representatives will recommend a set of
industry-wide trainings that provide adequate support for
senior leaders and their teams to feel competent in
making effective diversity and inclusion decisions.

Phase 3
Implement & Execute
(3 months)

Strategy 3
(Organizational):
Establish a think tank of
organizations that will
gather for purpose of
addressing, distributing and
governing an intercultural
competency model for the
public relations industry;
Propose organizational
practices that senior PR
leaders will adopt as a
measurement/assessment
resource for evaluation and
accountability

1. The Alliance will produce a set of best practices for
senior PR leaders to provide and prioritize formal spaces
for employees to address issues of diversity and inclusion
through programming and training.

2. The Alliance will release a report pledging an industry
statement to openly commit to the recruitment, retention,
development, and support of candidates historically
underrepresented in public relations, and to reframe the
language around diversity and inclusion.

3. The Alliance will create and distribute a
measurement/assessment resource for organizations to
adopt a culture of progression and productivity in its
development of diversity and inclusion programs.

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Each organization in the Alliance would need to invest time, talent and money to
implement the proposed solutions. The industry organizations will need to expand their
operational capacity to make the solution a priority initiative among their current initiatives.
Their CEOs, board chairs and personnel in professional development and programs/events
functions would need a reassignment of duties to commit time and talent to the Alliance. The
industry organizations would also need the resources to refocus the outreach protocols and
communication tools to inform and update their membership body. The corporations involved
would need to release time for the representatives to be actively involved and support any
required travel or responsibilities. Collectively, each corporation/organization would need buy
into the Alliance as sponsor member in order to operationalize the action items. The Alliance
would be responsible coordinating fees and schedules. Additionally, the Alliance may
collectively need use a portion of their member fees to hire external consultants/trainers to
facilitate any internal meetings related to training, education and assessment tasks for the
representatives throughout each strategic phase.
Possible key indictors or measures of success would reveal an industry shift in the
knowledge of and motivation to maintain the critical competencies that impact decisions about
diversity and inclusion. The Alliance would need to monitor and ask organizations how to
strategies from their actions will improve or rebuild their infrastructure to support improved
diversity and inclusion efforts. New programs, hires and internal strategies that reflect the
established set of intercultural competencies would be a key indicator as well, along with an
incremental assessment of external consumer outreach (campaigns, events, audience research,
social media, etc) and the return on investment of diversity and inclusion efforts.

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Evaluation Plan
To determine if the solutions in this study are effective, an evaluation plan must be
developed. Evaluation is the most effective process of obtaining valid and reliable insights
regarding the state of change and the progress of intervention, and ultimately the bottom line
impact of the change on overall goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). The four-level evaluation created
by Kirkpatrick (2006) will use to guide an evaluation method for each for each of the four
solutions presented. This method features a combination of evaluation tools – one for training
model that allows both the training and the set of competencies to be evaluated, and an all-
inclusive evaluation plan that assesses the work of the alliance and its member organizations.
In order to measure the validity of the intercultural competencies proposed, a evaluation
framework has been developed. This framework displays the indictors of learning for each
competency and the tools that will measure.
Table 16
Evaluation Framework for Intercultural Competencies
Competencies
Indicators of Learning Measurement Tools
Intercultural
Communication
• Listening in context of D/I
• Relating applicable practices to D/I
• Observing behaviors of different cultures
• Adapting to strategies, procedures and
environment

• Self-Assessment
• Document Analysis
• Performance Rubric

Intercultural
Sensitivity

• Displaying empathy in D/I decisions
• Demonstrating tolerance and adaptability
in understandings
• Acknowledging openness and flexibility
in change
• Showing acceptance of others

• Post-training
Survey
• Performance Rubric

Intercultural
Awareness
• Expressing knowledge of cultural
differences
• Respecting nuances in cultural identities
• Familiarity with unique behavioral
patterns of cultural groups
• Responding to diverse norms in cultural
interactions

• Self-Assessment
• Performance Rubric
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Table 16, continued
Competencies Indicators of Learning Measurement Tools
Intercultural
Research

• Interpreting data of diverse groups/issues
• Detecting patterns in behavior
• Learning and recalling facts
• Using inquiry to discover deeper insights

• Organizational
Assessment
• Document Analysis
• Performance Rubric

In order to measure the effectiveness of the coursework, a separate instrument has been
developed showing the elements in the training model along with organizational practices format
to a combined view for stakeholders who partake in both solutions as recommended.
The evaluation instruments and framework are illustrated in the table below using the
Kirkpatrick (2016) model.
Table 17
Evaluation Instrument for Training Model
Kirkpatrick
Four Levels of
Change
Knowledge/Skills Learning Outcomes Motivation
Pre-Training Survey Document
analysis
Organizational
Assessment
Post-
Training
Survey
Close-
ended
Likert
Scale
Open-ended Performance
rubric, comments
recommendations
Number of
senior leaders
trained

Self-
Assessment
Training results

Level 1
(Reaction)
X X

Level 2
(Knowledge)
X X

Application
results

Level 3
(Transfer)
X X

Level 4
(Impact)
X

X

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Research is the first and the final phase in the strategic planning process for the public
relations industry. The first phase of formative research informs the ultimate position being
sought for the organization through development of clear, specific and measurable objectives
that identify the organization's hoped-for impact on the awareness, acceptance and action of each
key public. The final phase of evaluative research deals with evaluation and assessment, enabling
practitioners to determine the degree to which the previously stated objectives have been met and
thus to modify or continue the communication activities. (Smith, 2004). The communication-
related industries (advertising, marketing, public relations) use a conceptual framework that
follows a pattern of influence to measure objectives for their effectiveness. In communication
theory and practice, the Think-Feel-Do model is a hierarchal framework that assumes that every
key public must first have awareness of a subject, get sufficient and vital information that should
justify the liking and preferences regarding the subject, then building up a conviction on whether
or not to pursue an action on the subject (Lalama-Gross, 2015). In alignment with the CAB
paradigm, three levels of objectives in this model are:
THINK: Cognitive/Awareness - seek a change in the awareness, the thoughts and
recognition.
FEEL: Acceptance/Attitude – seek a change in attitude, usually by creating an
emotional response.
DO: Behavior/Action – seek a change in behavior or drive a desired action.
Similar to the Kirkpatrick model (2006), the efficacy of the Think-Feel-Do model thrives
on the pattern of influence from first thinking about or receiving information, then feeling what
the information should or could do for them, and then following up with an action using and
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154
applying the information (Lalama-Gross, 2015). The table below reflects how these models may
have a parallel relationship for the purpose of this field study.
Table 18
Kirkpatrick/Think-Feel-Do Comparison
Kirkpatrick Think-Feel-Do (CAB)
• Learning

• Think: Awareness
• Reaction

• Feel: Acceptance
• Transfer/Impact

• Do: Action

In order to measure the effectiveness of the solutions for this study, both models will be
used in the evaluation plan. The Kirkpatrick model (2006) will be used measure effectiveness for
the solutions in the study as implemented through the Alliance. The Think-Feel-Do model will
be subsequently used to measure the effectiveness of the communication of the solutions for
industry audiences outside of the Alliance. Because a portion of this study makes
recommendations about training and education in diversity and inclusion for senior PR leaders,
the Kirkpatrick model which targets training will evaluate the three assets aligned with the
proposed solutions with benchmarks that reveal progress along the way, while the Think-Feel-
Do model will present objectives that should be measured as the solutions are communicated
industry-wide. The tables below reflect how these models may have a parallel relationship for
the purpose of this field study.

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Table 19
Evaluation of Proposed Solutions using the Kirkpatrick Model
Solution
Proposed
Assessment of
Satisfaction/
Engagement
(Level 1)
Assessment of
Learning,
Commitment,
Confidence
(Level 2)
Assessment of
Behavior Change,
Application of
learning
(Level 3)
Assessment of
Impact
(Level 4)
1. (Knowledge):
Establish a set of
intercultural
competencies for the
public relations
industry.

• Assemble
Alliance in
focus groups
&
committees
to propose,
vote and
review set of
intercultural
competencies
, and set
deadlines.
• Announce,
write and
release the
adopted
competencies
into a report;
distribute
internally and
externally.
• Survey
members for
application
within six
months of
adoption.
• Follow up with
meeting of
members to
reflect adoption
within their
respective
organizations.
• Monitor press and
social media about
adoption of
competencies.
• Track sentiment,
tone, reach,
feedback of social
media responses.
2 (Motivation):
Develop a
training/education
model to support
learning and
development for
senior leaders in PR
and the teams they
manage.

• Pre/post-test
on
curriculum
for members
of Alliance.
• Offer
curriculum to
employees
managed by
Alliance
members.

• Survey of
employees
about interest
and
effectiveness of
the curriculum.
• Secure
commitment to
take to/share
curriculum
with staff under
their
supervision.

• Same as above
with employees
and
subordinates.
• Meeting of
Alliance members
to share insight on
how the curriculum
can strengthen
organizations’
ability to be
competitive in a
global
environment, and to
better reflect and
serve diverse
populations.

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Table 19, continued
Solution
Proposed
Assessment of
Satisfaction/
Engagement
(Level 1)
Assessment of
Learning,
Commitment,
Confidence
(Level 2)
Assessment of
Behavior
Change,
Application
of learning
(Level 3)
Assessment of
Impact
(Level 4)
3. (Organizational):
Establish a think tank
of organizations that
will gather for purpose
of addressing,
distributing and
governing an
intercultural
competency model for
the public relations
industry; Propose
organizational
practices that senior
PR leaders will
adopt as a
measurement/
assessment resource
for evaluation and
accountability.

• Monitor
inclusion
of the new
competencies
into each
member
organization’s
internal
practices;
require a 90-
day
(quarterly)
progress
memo.

• Require a final
report/survey
assessing
confidence and
commitment to
the change

• Same as
above with
employees
and C-
suite.

• Measure/track
the recruitment,
retention,
development,
and support of
candidates
historically
underrepresente
d in public
relations;
conduct content
analysis of
Alliance
member orgs
(plans &
campaigns)
to see shift in
strategy/tactic/m
essaging around
diversity and
inclusion.

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Table 20

Evaluating Communication Objectives of Proposed Solutions using the CAB/Think-Feel-Do
Model

Communication
Objective
Think
(Awareness)
Feel
(Attitude)
Do
(Action)
1. (Knowledge):
Establish a set of
intercultural
competencies for the
public relations industry.
• Host informational
sessions/workshops at
six industry
conferences in one
year to affect
engagement.
• Distribute follow-
up surveys to all
attendees; assess
feedback to affect
approval/interest
(goal 60%)
• Release impact study on
new industry-wide
competencies to affect
adoptability; distribute
among six industry
associations.
2 (Motivation):
Develop a
training/education model
to support learning and
development for senior
leaders in PR and the
teams they manage.

• Host training sessions
at six industry
conferences in one
year the following
year; offer two
webinars per year.
• Distribute follow-
up surveys to all
attendees; assess
feedback on
effectiveness of
learning outcomes
(goal 40%)
• Confirm internal
trainings at 10-20
multinational
organizations for all
communication staff;
report participations and
outcomes through social
media.
3. (Organizational):
Establish a think tank of
organizations that will
gather for purpose of
addressing, distributing
and governing an
intercultural competency
model for the public
relations industry;
Propose organizational
practices that senior PR
leaders will adopt as a
measurement/assessment
resource for evaluation
and accountability.

• Host CEO roundtable
on the recruitment,
retention, development,
and support of
candidates historically
underrepresented in
public relations, and the
shift in
strategy/tactic/messagin
g around diversity and
inclusion since
established
competencies and
curriculum bas been
deployed (participation
goal – 20 CEOs).
• Open an industry-
wide vote on a set
of best practices for
senior PR leaders to
provide and
prioritize formal
spaces for
employees to
address issues of
diversity and
inclusion through
programming and
training; distribute
to all participants
from trainings and
workshops as well.

• Create and distribute a
measurement/assessment
resource for
organizations to adopt a
culture of progression
and productivity in its
development of diversity
and inclusion programs;
launch an online tool that
track progress.

Limitations
A major limitation to consider in this study is the elusive concept of competence. The
idea of how competency is defined and measured is hard to pin down. Competence can be
determined within the context of the individual, their lived experience and the lens with which
they use to rethink or reframe a context. Because context is a fluid and dynamic space, many
variables could influence a person’s competence and be used to reconfigure or renegotiate their
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level of competence. For this study, it means that the competence of the stakeholders can only
function within a range of effectiveness based on how their contexts may shift. It also implies
that just because one is competent in a particular cultural context or job function does not
necessarily imply competence in other areas that could be critical to their professional standing
or advancement, or to their understanding of diversity/inclusion issues and practices. Kealey
(2015) explains that the impression of competence by one’s self or others is simply a partial
indicator of the knowledge, motivation, and organizational assets that might be assumed,
affirmed or validated. A further issue presented by Kealey (2015) that has never been fully
resolved is that there are simply too many variables influencing an individual’s behavior and
performance in another culture, making it difficult if not impossible to design a measurement
models that could reliably predict competency. This, then, questions the general idea of
competency, and moreover, if it is the most effective concept to measure success in practicing
diversity and inclusion practices within the PR industry.
Another limitation could be that the reliance on self-assessment for measuring
intercultural competency as an inadequate method as it can neglect communication challenges
confronting multicultural teams as opposed to individuals. This reliance may underestimate
deeper investigation of what it takes for an organization to become itself interculturally
competent, and finding ways to reliably assess the effectiveness of intercultural training and
education (Kealey, 2015).
A limitation to consider about the data collection in the survey portion of this study is that
an option to collect race and gender of the respondents was not included. As the interview
participants, who also responded to the survey, shared their experiences they often identified and
referenced their own race and/or gender as an influential factor in their level of competency and
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159
their intentional interest in diversity/inclusion issues and practices. An important aspect to note
about this particular limitation is that none of the interview participants identified as White male
which demographically as a segment represents the majority of the senior leaders in the PR
industry. This fact is noted in the Chapter Two review of literature in this study. The practice of
PR is often subjectively complicit in the privileging of Whiteness in the way that issues are
framed and how potential decision makers in the industry are identified and trusted.
The legitimacy of PR work within organizations, specifically diversity and inclusion
practices, depends on the degree to which it is valued by senior leaders who are most often White
and male. PR practitioners are likely to use tactics designed to appeal to the norms, values, and
practices of this majority. This is why the perceptions of White male senior leaders are important
in ongoing conversations about diversity and inclusion in public relations, and therefore could
present a limitation for this study (Munshi & Edwards, 2011; Sha, 2013).
Future Research
As navigating leadership in the public relations industry becomes more and more
complex, further research can be conducted to better understand diversity and inclusion practices
in three areas. First, deeper research about how diversity and inclusion practices influence the
public relations industry through actual case studies, examples and experiences from
organizations, and their respective leaders, employees and cultures. Kent and Taylor (2011)
confirms how the public relations function helps organizations to communicate a constructed
image. They explain how every communication tactic in a public relations program or campaign
seeks to create or reinforce a certain image. Future research in global contexts would dictate that
public relations would benefit from understanding the complexities of face for a myriad of
stakeholders.
COMPETENCIES OF SENIOR PR LEADERS FOR D/I

160
Second, deeper research on how transformational leadership approaches in the public
relations departments of multinational organizations would support future outlooks on a leader’s
influence on diversity and inclusion practices. Ergeneli, Gohar and Temirbekova (2007) explain
how transformational leadership, as well as its five aspects (challenging the process, inspiring a
shared vision, enabling others to act, modeling the way and encouraging the heart) can improve
organizational culture and the value dimensions that can influence diversity and inclusion. Due
to the increasing demands for having competent global leaders in today’s business environment,
there is an increasing need for leaders who are able to successfully operate in different cultures
(Ergeneli et al., 2007). Future research on transformational leadership should include evidence-
based training and assessment procedures that could improve on current practices for diversity
and inclusion.
Third, deeper research is needed to explore how intercultural competence can be included
in their program designing efforts for diversity and inclusion training. More data and evidence
needs to be available when organizations have accumulated more experiences in intercultural
competence. Morris, Savani, and Roberts (2014) stress that globalization and increased mobility
have dictated intercultural competence as a key competence for many professions. Because
intercultural competence is highly relevant in business and management situations, it is
important to better understand the development of intercultural competence in leaders. Future
research could be directed to investigating results of intercultural competence and its application
to diversity and inclusion strategies that involve recruitment in the public relations industry, as
well as methods and strategies to appeal to multicultural consumers, and establish rationales for
the effectiveness of applied strategies.

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161
Conclusion
This study focused on exploring the intercultural competencies of senior leaders in public
relations who practice diversity and inclusion. As the industry grows, the idea of intercultural
competence becoming a standard model of training, education, measurement and assessment for
leaders in PR can position diversity and inclusion practices to be effective, evolving and
sustainable across the industry. Projections for growth in the field of public relations are slated
to reach 12 percent by 2022. This figure excludes the more than 1 million jobs in related areas
such as advertising sales, advertising, promotions, and marketing managers, market research
analysts, meeting, convention, and event planners, and public relations and fundraising managers
(Waymer & Brown, 2018). The value of attaching an intercultural competence framework to the
practice of diversity and inclusion creates a foundation upon which more practitioners and
researchers can build a more sophisticated, nuanced understanding of the intercultural
competencies associated with public relations and their interconnectedness. The value-added of
the four proposed solutions in this study can serve as a series of templates upon which the public
relations industry can operate from in its approach to efforts in leadership development, talent
development, global development and professional development. These development efforts can
refine incrementally over time and allow for more focused training and assessment. Adding the
perspective on intercultural competence on diversity and inclusion practices puts the ability for
improving leadership decisions at the heart of the public relations industry.

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APPENDIX A
SURVEY PROTOCOL
Email to Participants
Subject Line:
Survey on Diversity and Inclusion – Please Complete
Message:
Hello,

You are receiving this message as an invitation to participate in a research study of senior leaders
in public relations.

The study is intended to explore the competencies that influence senior leaders in public relations
in making strategic decisions about diversity and inclusion practices.

Please complete this survey by October 1, 2018 and indicate your interest in participating in a
follow-up interview. Follow the link here: https://usc.qualtrics.com

Your input is extremely valuable. I appreciate your participation and thank you in advance for
your time.

If you have any questions or concerns, please contact me at aerialel@usc.edu

Survey Questions
1. Please provide your current job title.
2. Please provide the industry of your current organization.
3. How many years have you been in your current role?
• 10 or less
• 10-15
• 15-20
• 20-25
• 25+
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175
4. How many years have you been engaged in the practice of diversity/inclusion (ie.
managing teams that practice D/I, writing communication plans targeting D/I, conducting
multicultural research or outreach, talent recruitment, etc)?
• 5 or less
• 5-10
• 10-15
• 15-20
• 20-25
• 25+
5. How much formal training or education have you had in the area of diversity/inclusion?
(Select all that apply)
• I have participated in trainings and workshops throughout my career provided
by my current or former employers.
• I have participated in trainings and workshops throughout my career provided
by consulting firms.
• I have participated in trainings and workshops throughout my career provided
by industry organizations.
• I have participated in trainings and workshops throughout my career provided
by university courses, certification programs or online webinars.
• I have participated in very few trainings and workshops in the area of
diversity/inclusion.

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6. Intercultural Competencies: Rate the intercultural competencies that you feel - either
through direct experience, example, or research - are most important for senior PR
leaders to have. (4-Point Scale on Importance)

Competency Highly
Critical
Important Somewhat
Important
Not Important
at all
• Intercultural Sensitivity
• (ex. empathy, tolerance,
openness, acceptance)

• Intercultural Awareness)
• (ex. differences,
nuances, behaviors,
norms)

Intercultural
Communication
(ex. listening, relating,
observing, adapting)

Intercultural Experiences
(ex. direct references,
exposure, interactions,
events)

Intercultural Research
(ex. data, patterns, facts)

7. Intercultural Competencies: Rate your level of confidence in your ability to perform these
competencies.

Competency Highly
Competent
Competent Somewhat
Competent
Not
Competent
at all
• Intercultural Sensitivity
• (ex. empathy, tolerance,
openness, acceptance)

• Intercultural
Awareness)
• (ex. differences,
nuances, behaviors,
norms)

Intercultural
Communication
(ex. listening, relating,
observing, adapting)

Intercultural
Experiences

COMPETENCIES OF SENIOR PR LEADERS FOR D/I

177
(ex. direct references,
exposure, interactions,
events)
Intercultural Research
(ex. data, patterns, facts)

8. Diversity/Inclusion Competencies: Rate the intercultural competencies that you feel -
either through direct experience, example, or research - are most important for senior PR
leaders to have. (4-Point Scale on Importance)

Competency Highly
Critical
Important Somewhat
Important
Not
Important
at All
Organizational Culture

Audience
Awareness/Research

Recruitment, Retention and
Advancement
•

Training, Learning and
Development

Leadership Commitment

Business Results/Outcomes

Competitive Advantage
Relationship
Management/Quality

Globalization/Global
Perspectives

9. Diversity/Inclusion Competencies: Rank your level of confidence in your ability to perform
these competencies. (1- highest; 10 - lowest)

Competency 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Organizational Culture

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178
Audience
Awareness/Research

Recruitment, Retention
and Advancement
•

Training, Learning and
Development

Leadership Commitment

Business
Results/Outcomes

Competitive Advantage
Relationship
Management/Quality

Globalization/Global
Perspectives

10. Leadership: Rate how you feel intercultural competence - either through direct experience,
example, or research – impacts the ability for senior PR leaders lead/manage the following areas:
(4-Point Scale on Importance)

Area Highly
Critical
Important Somewhat
Important
Not Important
at All
Internal
Communication

Investor
Communication

Media Relations

Corporate
Communications

Corporate Social
Responsibility

Community
Relations

Marketing
Communication

COMPETENCIES OF SENIOR PR LEADERS FOR D/I

179

Integrated/Digital
Communication

11. Thank you for completing this survey. For the second phase, it would be very much
appreciated if you would consider doing a brief in-person interview in NYC to further discuss
diversity/inclusion. Please indicate your best availability. A link will be provided to confirm your
participation.
• October 11 or 12
• November 15, 16 or 19
• November 30
• I can only do a video interview

COMPETENCIES OF SENIOR PR LEADERS FOR D/I

180
Appendix B
Interview Protocol
1. How would you describe your ability to communicate interculturally?
2. How knowledgeable do you perceive yourself to be about communicating to intercultural
audiences?
3. Tell me about how lead/guide your staff to think interculturally about the work you do.
4. As a leader, what competencies do you think you apply most when communicating
interculturally? (Internally? Externally?)
5. What training resources and opportunities have you accessed in attempt to build your
competency for intercultural communication?
6. How would you describe your organization’s approach to diversity and inclusion
strategies?
7. As a leader, what competencies do you think you apply most when developing diversity
and inclusion strategies? (Internally? Externally?)
8. What influences your strategic decisions about diversity and inclusion within your
organization?
9. How does your organization identify and allocate the resources needed to implement
diversity and inclusion initiatives? If so, how?
10. Describe a diversity and inclusion initiative you’ve led or participated in.
11. How do you know when your organization has missed the mark (failed/fallen short)
regarding an issue of diversity and inclusion? (Internally? Externally?)
12. As a PR industry leader, how do see your role in influencing how diversity and inclusion
is valued
COMPETENCIES OF SENIOR PR LEADERS FOR D/I

181
13. What types of training resources or formal education do senior PR leaders need to
strengthen their competencies toward diversity and inclusion?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The goal of this field study is to identify the competencies that senior leaders in the public relations (PR) industry need to design, implement and execute diversity and inclusion practices. In addition, this study will make recommendations about training and education in diversity and inclusion for senior PR leaders and provide solutions for an established set of competencies based upon the findings. Despite incremental efforts to increase training and education for PR leaders in the area of diversity and inclusion, there is little agreement across the industry about the core competencies needed by leaders to manage more diverse, globally astute organizations and communicate effectively with diverse publics (Turk 2006, Toth, 2009

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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Asset Metadata

Creator Ellis, Aerial Monet (author)

Core Title Intercultural competencies of senior leaders in public relations practicing diversity and inclusion: a field study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Global Executive

Publication Date 08/15/2019

Defense Date 08/13/2019

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag diversity,diversity practices,diversity strategies,inclusion,Intercultural communication,intercultural competence,multicultural,OAI-PMH Harvest,Public Relations,Training

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Filback, Robert (committee chair), Ford, Rochelle (committee member), Krop, Cathy (committee member)

Creator Email aerialel@usc.edu,amonetellis@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-214805

Unique identifier UC11663311

Identifier etd-EllisAeria-7786.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-214805 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-EllisAeria-7786.pdf

Dmrecord 214805

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Ellis, Aerial Monet

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA