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A narrative analysis of students in addiction recovery in college

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A narrative analysis of students in addiction recovery in college

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Content Running head: ADDICTION RECOVERY IN COLLEGE 1
A Narrative Analysis of Students in Addiction Recovery in College
by
Vanessa H Ault
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2020
Copyright 2020 Vanessa H Ault
ADDICTION RECOVERY IN COLLEGE 2

Dedication
For Jessica, Cassandra and Melissa - for your love, guidance, and support through everything.

ADDICTION RECOVERY IN COLLEGE 3

Acknowledgements
First, I’d like to thank my parents for always supporting my adventures and for teaching
me about hard work. Thank you for always believing in me. For my sisters, for laughing and
crying with me throughout this journey and all the others. To my wonderful partner and future
husband, Chris - you and your support have been so steady and strong through this process; you
never doubted, even when I did. I cannot wait to be the Dr. Ault to your Mr. Reagan. Thank you.
My Friends. For my girls, I remember sitting with you all and saying “I think I’m going back
to school” - thank you for checking in and staying with me through this process. To my BBIBS -
thank you for teaching me so much about love and friendship. I found a sisterhood in such an
amazing group of women - thank you for allowing me space to be vulnerable and for helping me
be the best version of myself (and making me laugh along the way). To my EdD Classmates -
thank you for the energy, the laughter and the memories over the past few years. I feel I learned
something from each one of you. To the many friends, colleagues and family who have wished
me luck, asked me questions and supported me through this adventure - I cannot express what
your time, energy and positive thoughts have meant to me. Thank you.
To Dr. Briana Hinga, Dr. Quade French, and Dr. Mary Andres. Thank you for your
willingness to mentor me and stand by me through this journey. Dr. Andres, thank you for your
generous advice and guidance. Dr. French, thank you for your conversation and dedication to
my work. And Dr. Hinga, thank you for being my teacher. I cannot imagine this process
without you leading the charge; thank you for helping find my own voice and for providing the
space for it.
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Finally, thank you to the outstanding men and women who participated in this study. Thank
you for taking a chance on me; thank you for your vulnerability and your honesty. Thank you
for allowing me into your life, to share your story. I hope I do it justice. Thank you.
ADDICTION RECOVERY IN COLLEGE 5

Table of Contents
List of Tables 6
List of Figures 7
Abstract 8
Chapter One: Overview of the Study 9
Chapter Two: Literature Review 18
Chapter Three: Methodology 47
Chapter Four: Data Analysis 58
Chapter Five: Discussion 78
References 92
Appendix A 100
Appendix B 103
Appendix C 104
Appendix D 105
Appendix E 106

ADDICTION RECOVERY IN COLLEGE 6

List of Tables
Table 1: Participant statistics 58

ADDICTION RECOVERY IN COLLEGE 7

List of Figures
Figure 1: How addiction works 24
Figure 2: Conceptual model of theoretical framework 45
Figure 3: Participant identities and involvement 60
Figure 4: Participant by degree of study 60
Figure 5: Participant by race and ethnicity 61
ADDICTION RECOVERY IN COLLEGE 8

ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study is to examine the experiences of students in addiction recovery
in college. Addiction impacts a vast number of Americans each year; according to the Substance
Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, over one million adolescents received
treatment for drug and alcohol addiction in 2011 alone (SAMHSA, 2011). By utilizing
qualitative methods, specifically one on one interviews with college students in recovery, this
study aims to understand the experiences of this population of students. Furthermore, the
research looks at what addiction is and what factors might impact a student’s recovery process.
The research explores how recovery intersects with the other aspects of a student’s life, how their
environment might be a factor in that recovery, as well as their recovery capital. The research
goes on to explore support systems and recovery centers as well as the stigmas and judgements
students face on their college campuses.
ADDICTION RECOVERY IN COLLEGE 9

CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
This study will explore the experiences of college students in recovery from substance
use disorders. A substance use disorder, as defined by the American Psychiatric Association, is a
cluster of cognitive, behavioral, and physiological symptoms indicating that the individual
continues using the substance despite significant substance-related problems (American
Psychiatric Association, 2013, p. 483). A student in recovery, for the purposes of this study, is a
college student who makes an active choice to live a sober lifestyle, after previously struggling
with a substance disorder (Perron et al., 2011). Further research is needed on this group of
students, to better understand their experiences in college. It is important to include these
students because a vast number of Americans, including those in college, are impacted by
substance use disorders; in 2011 alone over one million adolescents received treatment for drug
and alcohol addiction (SAMHSA, 2011). A group of participants, composed of current college
students in recovery, were interviewed to learn of their experience in college. The hope of this
study is to share the participants’ success stories to help future students in recovery. Personal
stories, or narratives, allow participants to share their own story in their own words (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). The researcher of this study has a personal family history of substance use
disorders and a career in higher education administration, therefore, this topic is personally
important.
This chapter, Chapter One, will cover the overview of the problem and it will also outline
the study. Chapter One will also discuss the background of the problem, which will cover
foundational information related to the study. Next, this chapter will look at the statement of the
problem, which will directly define what the problem is and how it exists. After that, the
purpose of the study will be discussed; this section will include goals of the study as well as the
ADDICTION RECOVERY IN COLLEGE
10

research question. Chapter One will continue to discuss the significance of the study and will
explain what this study aims to accomplish. Finally, the organization of the study will outline
the subsequent chapters and establish expectations of the rest of the study. Chapter One will end
with a list of defined key terms to help the reader better understand the content that will follow.
Background of the Problem
Addiction to alcohol and other drugs (AOD) is not an isolated issue - substance use
disorders, in recent years, have become a national epidemic in the United States. A 2017 study
from the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) revealed that
over half of young adults used AOD at some point in their lives (SAMHSA, 2017).
Additionally, a 2016 study showed that most young adults who use alcohol also reported abusing
the substance regularly (SAMHSA, 2016). Substance abuse is not limited to alcohol misuse; in
2017, roughly 130 people died every day from opioid use or abuse (Center for Disease Control,
2017). The misuse of substances and dependency on them, impacts people of all ages, genders,
socioeconomic statuses and backgrounds (Kulesza et al., 2016).
Students in recovery are those who previously suffered from a substance use disorder, but
are now in recovery and seek support, while in college (Perron et al., 2011). These students not
only have to balance classes, exams, assignments, a job on campus, but their recovery process as
well. Often, these students have families and children or a full-time career, in addition to their
other responsibilities (Iarussi, 2018; O’Malley & Johnston, 2002). This group of students is
commonly considered to be non-traditional, often because their recovery process delays their
entrance to college (Terrion, 2013; Perron et al., 2011). What makes these students unique, is
not only their recovery, but their dedication to their academics as well (Bell et al., 2009). More
critical research is needed on this population of students to enable higher education and student
ADDICTION RECOVERY IN COLLEGE
11

affairs professionals to better support these students through their recovery process, their college
education and what lies after graduation (Lewis & Mobley, 2010; Perron et al., 2011).
The gaps in research on students in recovery is a problem because if not properly
supported or provided with adequate resources, these students can face failed classes,
stigmatization, increased dropout rates, relapse, or even death (Iarussi, 2018; Perron et al., 2011;
Terrion 2013). Students in recovery that feel a sense of community and can lean on their
professors, classmates, friends and family, have a solid foundation to build upon for recovery
(Perron et al., 2011).
Substance use disorders impact more than the health and safety of students - these
disorders are impacted by the systemic racism rooted in American society (Bell, 1995; Delgado
& Stefancic, 2007, 2017; Kulesza et al., 2016; Netherland & Hansen, 2016a, 2016b, 2017). One
such example of this is the varied response to what is now known as the opioid epidemic versus
the criminalization of people who use crack cocaine and heroin (Dasgupta, Beletsky, &
Ciccarone; 2018; Netherland & Hansen, 2016a, 2016b, 2017). In the mid 1990’s when opioid
prescriptions were an increasingly preferred method of pain relief by healthcare professionals,
opioids were disproportionately prescribed to White patients over African American patients,
even with the same ailments or injuries (Dasgupta, Beletsky, & Ciccarone; 2018; Netherland &
Hansen, 2017). In 2016, Netherland and Hansen studied media coverage of the opioid epidemic
and examined the differences of coverage based on race. Through media exposure and
manipulation, heroin users were commonly considered to be urban, criminals, and African
American and those addicted to prescription opioids were assumed to be suburban, White, and
portrayed as victims of an epidemic (Netherland & Hansen, 2016b). A 2017 study found that
African Americans and White Americans were equally as likely to use illicit drugs, however,
ADDICTION RECOVERY IN COLLEGE
12

African Americans are 60% more likely to face criminal charges for drug related charges
(Netherland & Hansen, 2017). These statistics are problematic because it reinforces stereotypes
and stigmas. This is just one example of the intersection of race and substance use - known as
intersectionality - this is not the story for all people who suffer from substance use disorders
(Crenshaw, 1988, 1990). Intersectionality will be discussed more in depth in Chapter Two.
Statement of the Problem
The problem is that college students in recovery face the common challenges typical of
college students, in addition to the challenges of striving for recovery and overcoming
stigmatization (Bell et al., 2009; Shor & Levit, 2012). Each person’s journey through addiction
and path to recovery is unique to their individual story, therefore, it is hard to pinpoint what
might work best, or not, in terms of recovery (Laudet, Harris, Kimball, Winters & Moberg, 2016;
Schuetze & Slowey, 2002). What is less known is the experiences of students who are able to
successfully navigate higher education, while in recovery. This study aims to understand how
these students achieve recovery, who supports them and what resources they utilize, if any, to
maintain their recovery status.
Research shows that people who have more social or economic capital prior to addiction -
including financial means and support of loved ones - are more likely to overcome their
addiction and achieve sobriety - this is described further in Chapter Two (Cloud & Granfield,
2008). Cloud and Granfield (2008) refer to this phenomenon as recovery capital. Recovery
capital is just one of many factors that may impact recovery. Other factors include an
individual's own desire to seek recovery, family support, financial stability, access to recovery
resources, as well as many others (Cloud & Granfield, 2008; Laudet, Harris, Winters, Moberg &
Kimball, 2015; Perron et al., 2011). In addition to the tools one can possess in recovery, their
ADDICTION RECOVERY IN COLLEGE
13

intersectionality - all the pieces that make someone who they are, including gender, race, sexual
orientation, occupation, and various other statuses - impacts their recovery as well (Crenshaw,
1988, 1990; Cho, 2013; Kulesza et al., 2016). Existing literature shows that the intersection of
one’s gender, race and recovery status is impacted by the stigmatization they face (Kulesza et al.,
2016).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to understand the experiences of students in recovery while
in college. This study will utilize the stories of participants who are current college students, in
the process of earning a bachelor’s, master’s or doctoral degree, while in recovery from a
substance use disorder. The kind of degree and their path to recovery will vary from participant
to participant. The participants must be in recovery for at least one year, prior to participating in
the study and feel comfortable to share their story, without it being a risk to their health or
recovery status. The researcher hopes to understand how each participant's individual path and
their intersectionality aided in their recovery process.
The goal of this study is to understand the various parts of a student’s recovery process,
in order to better inform recovery practices of college students in the future - this will be further
explained in Chapters Three and Four. The researcher hopes to learn if the participants utilized
or benefited from recovery support programs - either campus or community based - in their
recovery process. Furthermore, the study hopes to address stigmas and stereotypes, faced by
these students. The following research question will be asked to guide the study.
RQ: How do students in recovery describe their experience in higher education?
Significance of the Study
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The goal is to share this knowledge and best practices of how students in recovery are
able to successfully navigate college life and recovery. This study will display the personal
stories of the participants, in a way that allows them to share their own narrative. Chapter Three
will cover more details on the narrative approach and why it is important to this study. The
researcher will strive to understand the intersectionality of each individual participant and how
this impacted their journey. In addition to intersectionality, the study will incorporate
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory and Recovery Capital, to frame the research and
data collection processes. These theories will be defined and explained in the Key Terms section
and in Chapter Two.
This study is significant because it will add to what is currently missing from the existing
literature on students in recovery in college. For higher education professionals and universities
to better serve and support students in recovery, they must have a better understanding of the
needs of these students (Grahovac, Holleran Steiker, Sammons, & Millichamp, 2011). Students
in recovery need to be supported in their collegiate careers because without advocates on their
side, they are too often overlooked and lost in the crowd of students (Perron et al., 2011). It is
vitally important to support students in recovery because they often face stigmatization by
society, and too often, by their college administrators or peers - these judgements can hinder a
student’s recovery and ultimately their health (Phillips, 2013). Lastly, students in recovery are
no less deserving of support and guidance, than their classmates (Misch, 2009). The hope of this
study is to better understand the recovery support that is most beneficial to college students.
Organization of the Study
Chapter One will provide an overview of the study. This includes the background of the
problem and the purpose of the study. Additionally, this chapter states the research question that
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15

guides this study and lists the key terms and the goals of the study. Chapter Two will restate the
research question to remind the reader of the purpose of the study. Chapter Two will also
synthesize and explore the existing literature to better understand what data is available; this will
be supported with empirical evidence, in Chapter Two. The second chapter will also explain the
theoretical framework to share with the reader, the theories that guide this study, as well as an
image to better conceptualize this. Chapter Three will discuss the methodology that will be
utilized to conduct research and collect data in this study. The purpose of this is so the reader
can understand how this study will answer the proposed research question. Chapter Three will
not specifically answer the research question but explains the process of how to find the answers.
This explanation includes how the research was conducted, the methodology that guided it, as
well as how data was collected. Furthermore, Chapter Three will explain the details as to why
the sample size was selected, and how; why and how participants were recruited, how data will
be analyzed and what limitations might occur. Chapter Four presents the findings, describes
each participant in detail and articulates how the participants responded to the research questions.
Additionally, Chapter Four will describe themes that emerged from the interviews. Lastly,
Chapter Five is the discussion section; results will be broken down into a summary of the
findings, implications to put the research into practice, as well as the limitations and possible
suggestions for future studies, based on the findings.
Definition of key terms
Addiction is “a chronic condition involving a repeated powerful motivation to engage in a
rewarding behavior, acquired as a result of engaging in that behavior, that has significant
potential for unintended harm. Someone is addicted to something to the extent that they
experience this repeated powerful motivation” (West & Brown, 2013, p.15, 18).
ADDICTION RECOVERY IN COLLEGE
16

Bronfenbrenner Ecological Systems Theory: a theory that states, a person’s development is
influenced by their environment and those around them (Brofenbrenner, 1979, 1993, 2005).
Collegiate Recovery Centers (CRC) aim to maintain a safe, sober and engaging atmosphere for
students in recovery to thrive, while living a sober lifestyle in a college environment conducive
to substance usage (Cleveland, Harris, Baker, Herbert, & Dean, 2007).
Desired Centered: a desired-centered mindset allows participants to feel supported and, in a
space, free of judgement (Tuck, 2009).
Intersectionality is “the examination of race, sex, class, national origin, and sexual orientation
and how their combination plays out in various settings” (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017, p. 58).
Non-Traditional Student refers to students whose path to college differs from the traditional
college student: regardless of age, race, gender, first time in college, and socioeconomic or
recovery status (Terrion, 2013; Perron et al., 2011).
Recovery is “a voluntarily maintained lifestyle characterized by sobriety, personal health, and
citizenship” (Betty Ford Institute, 2007, p. 221).
Recovery Capital is a theory that states that those struggling with an addiction who possess
more social, physical, cultural, and human capital, are more likely to utilize these resources to
seek and successfully obtain recovery (Cloud and Granfield, 1996).
Stigma refers to a personal stain or quality that discredits an individual or group (Goffman,
1963).
Student in Recovery refers to a college student who is making an active choice to live a sober
lifestyle, after previously struggling with addiction (Perron et al., 2011; Cleveland, Harris, Baker,
Herbert, & Dean, 2007).
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Substance Use Disorder (SUD) is a cluster of cognitive, behavioral, and physiological
symptoms indicating that the individual continues using the substance despite significant
substance-related problems (American Psychiatric Association, 2013, p. 483).

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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Students who are in recovery from a substance use disorder have a unique experience in
their pursuit of higher education (Witte, Schroeder, & Hackman, 2018). These students are
described as students in recovery by Perron et al. (2011). The purpose of this study is to better
understand the experiences of students who are in recovery from an addiction to AOD, while
pursuing a college degree and what factors might impact that experience.
This chapter will look at what addiction is, what it takes to recover from an addiction, the
various pathways to recovery, support systems that aid students in their recovery process, and the
stigmatization of addiction. The study will then look at traditional college students, who may
drink or experiment with drugs, and juxtapose this with research on students in recovery.
Additionally, the study will define both non-traditional and traditional college students and
explain the differences between the two groups. These sections will provide a foundation of
understanding for what addiction and recovery is, for those who experience it. For the purposes
of this study, the terms substance use disorder and addiction will be used interchangeably - the
American Psychiatric Association states the organization avoids the use of the word addiction
because of its negative connotation; however, for this study the term addiction will be used to
combat the stigmatization (American Psychiatric Association, 2013; Shor & Levit, 2012). This
study aims to oppose stigma of substance use disorders and recovery by discussing these topics,
which are often deemed inappropriate for discussion (Shor & Levit, 2012). The chapter will
close with the theoretical framework, which will define and explain the importance of
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems, Recovery Capital and Intersectionality; specifically, how
these frames function as a critical lens to appreciate the experiences of students in recovery.
Understanding an individual’s environment is essential to comprehend how identities intersect
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19

for students in recovery. This study will look at the experiences of students in recovery and what
tools, resources, or motivating factors aid them in their recovery process while in college.
Substance use disorders are not limited to college students - addiction impacts people of
all ages, races and backgrounds (Kulesza et al., 2016). A SAMHSA (2011) study found that
over one million adolescents, between the ages of 12 and 17 years-old, needed treatment for drug
use and addiction. Furthermore, the Office of Alcoholism and Substance Abuse Services
determined that 10% of the U.S. adult population has at one point been in recovery or dealt with
issues related to substance use disorders (2012). Addiction to AOD does not impact just one
kind of person - addiction can affect anyone, regardless of race, gender identity or
socioeconomic status (Kulesza et al., 2016). This is important to note, as this study discusses the
experiences of college students in addiction recovery; many of these students battled addiction
before they complete high school, while others had completed some college coursework before
their addiction took hold.
Experimentation to Addiction
To better understand the experiences of students in recovery in college, one must start at
the beginning. For some students, experimentation with AOD starts as early as middle school,
for others it does not happen until college - and further still some students are addicted to AOD
before they even leave high school (Iarussi, 2018; Ross & DeJong, 2008; White, Becker-Blease,
& Grace-Bishop, 2006). Some individuals experiment or begin using AOD out of curiosity,
family influence, personal abuse, personal tragedy, or through access, meaning it is offered to
them (Lewis & Mobley, 2010). Though many students use AOD in high school or college, many
do not see it as an issue until after it negatively impacts their life (Brown & West, 2013). Lewis
and Mobley (2010) show that many individuals begin using AOD, by smoking marijuana
ADDICTION RECOVERY IN COLLEGE
20

casually, generally in social settings. To understand the experiences of college students in
recovery the researcher will review literature on substance use, experimentation with AOD and
what addiction actually is.
Substance Use and Abuse
There is a fine line between substance use and addiction. The purpose of this section is to
discuss common ways college students are first introduced to AOD. For many college students,
college is their first time away from home, living in their first apartment, or their first time
experimenting with substances. Traditionally aged college students, ages 18 to 23 years old, are
at the point in their development where they grapple with who they are as individuals and
contemplate their own beliefs and morals (Marcia, 1966). For many students this involves
pushing boundaries and trying new experiences. Researchers have defined the first-time
experience of drinking in college ‘The College Effect’, meaning that many students enter college
as non-drinkers, but then begin drinking and become drinkers or people who drink (Ross &
DeJong, 2008). Many students explore drugs or alcohol in social settings, such as house parties,
in Greek life events, and campus bars, among other places (White, Becker-Blease, & Grace-
Bishop, 2006). Students are often more excited about the opportunity to use AOD at this time,
than concerned with the risks.
The risks associated with drugs and alcohol can lead students to harm. Abuse of AOD
can result in negative repercussions, such as injury to the student or others, high-risk sexual
behavior, over-consumption of alcohol, or overdoses, resulting in death (Ross & DeJong, 2008).
Between 1998 and 2001 the number of alcohol related deaths and injuries increased by 6%, as
stated by Hingson, Heeren, Winter, and Wechsler (2005). According to the National Institute of
Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (2019) over 80,000 people die from alcohol related deaths each
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21

year. In 2017, SAMHSA found that 57.1% of 18 to 26-year-olds participated in drinking
alcohol, while 34.8%, of the same group, considered themselves binge drinkers (SAMHSA,
2017). Wechsler and Isaac (1992) define binge drinking as consuming more than five alcoholic
beverages, more than one time in the past two weeks. Presley, Meilman, and Lyerla (1993) show
that 82.6 % of binge drinkers were white; this is compared to 1.3% American Indian, 4.9% Asian
America/Pacific Islander, 5.1% Black and 4.7% Latino/a. In the SAMHSA (2017) study
mentioned previously, 51.1% of persons over the age of 18, used illicit drugs at some point in
their lifetime. SAMHSA (2017) describes illicit drug abuse as “the misuse of prescription
psychotherapeutics or the use of marijuana, cocaine (including crack), heroin, hallucinogens,
inhalants, or methamphetamine,” (Table 1.6B). As outlined above, the literature focuses on the
use and misuse of alcohol and other substances by college students (Hyun, Quinn, Madon, &
Lustig, 2006; Hingson, Heeren, Winter, & Wechsler, 2005; White, Becker-Blease, & Grace-
Bishop, 2006; Knight, et al., 2002). We know that many college students experiment with AOD;
when the experimentation, casual drinking and drug use go unchecked, it can lead to addiction
(Ross & DeJong, 2008).
Addiction
Research shows conflicting evidence on what actually causes addiction (Brown & West,
2013; Lewis, & Mobley, 2010). Broadus, Hartje, Roget, Cahoon, and Clinkinbeard (2010) found
that addiction educators commonly believe that addiction is a coping mechanism for struggles
such as “depression, bad family situations, inability to cope with life, avoidance of personal
problems, and to increase personal self-esteem” (p. 290). The American Psychiatric Association
(2013) adopted the following description for substance use disorders: “a cluster of cognitive,
behavioral, and physiological symptoms indicating that the individual continues using the
ADDICTION RECOVERY IN COLLEGE
22

substance despite significant substance-related problems” (American Psychiatric Association,
2013, p. 483). Other researchers believe addiction is based on circumstances - a time, a place
and an opportunity (Brown & West, 2013). Lewis and Mobley (2010) report that causes of
addiction are often hard to determine because the parameters of what addiction actually is, is
often undefined. Brown and West (2013), describe addiction as “a chronic condition involving a
repeated powerful motivation to engage in a rewarding behavior, acquired as a result of engaging
in that behavior, that has significant potential for unintended harm. Someone is addicted to
something to the extent that they experience this repeated powerful motivation” (p.15, 18). This
section will explore the list of criteria for substance use disorders, according to the American
Psychiatric Association. Though causes of addiction are hard to define, for the purposes of this
study, we will then describe the process of how a student might become addicted to better
understand the personal stories that will follow later in this study (Brown & West, 2013; Lewis,
& Mobley, 2010).
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders is an instructional guidebook
for assessing mental health disorders. Among its many definitions and diagnoses for various
disorders, is a defined set of criteria to cover a variety of issues and/or consequences that arise
from substance use disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). The American
Psychiatric Association (2013) criteria for substance use disorders is as follows:
Criterion 1: The individual may take the substance in larger amounts or over a longer
period than was originally intended.
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Criterion 2: The individual may express a persistent desire to cut down or regulate
substance use and may report multiple unsuccessful efforts to decrease or discontinue
use.
Criterion 3: The individual may spend a great deal of time obtaining the substance, using
the substance, or recovering from its effects. In some instances of more severe substance
use disorders, virtually all of the individual’s daily activities revolve around the
substance.
Criterion 4: Craving is manifested by an intense desire or urge for the drug that may
occur at any time but is more likely when in an environment where the drug previously
was obtained or used.
Criterion 5: Recurrent substance use may result in a failure to fulfill major role
obligations at work, school, or home.
Criterion 6: The individual may continue substance use despite having persistent or
recurrent social or interpersonal problems caused or exacerbated by the effects of the
substance.
Criterion 7: Important social, occupational, or recreational activities may be given up or
reduced because of substance use. The individual may withdraw from family activities
and hobbies in order to use the substance.
Criterion 8: This may take the form of recurrent substance use in situations in which it is
physically hazardous.
ADDICTION RECOVERY IN COLLEGE
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Criterion 9: The individual may continue substance use despite knowledge of having a
persistent or recurrent physical or psychological problem that is likely to have been
caused or exacerbated by the substance.
Criterion 10: Tolerance is signaled by requiring a markedly increased dose of the
substance to achieve the desired effect or a markedly reduced effect when the usual dose
is consumed.
Criterion 11: Withdrawal is a syndrome that occurs when blood or tissue concentrations
of a substance decline in an individual who had maintained prolonged heavy use of the
substance (American Psychiatric Association, 2013, p. 483).
The purpose of this list is to share the clinical terminology and indicators for counseling, medical
and psychiatric professionals. Below is an example narrative to help the reader better understand
what the above list of criteria might look like in a college student - this is in no way the outline
for every person who struggles with a substance use disorder.
Figure 1
How addiction works

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Addiction begins when a student engages in a specific behavior that leads to some kind of
sensation, feeling or experience that the student enjoys (Brown & West, 2013). That initial
experience might happen with a group of friends at a party or alone in their dorm room (White,
Becker-Blease, & Grace-Bishop, 2006). Capone, Read, and Wood (2005), found in a study of
college students’ self-reported misuse of substances, that students were more likely to justify
their own relationship with substances if they saw their friends and peers with similar behaviors.
The student is not yet addicted at this point but wants to feel the sensation again. Brown and
West (2013, p. 159), portray a simplified image of how addiction works, in Figure 1, shown
above. The individual continues to engage in the behavior in hopes of feeling a certain way
again. After a while, it may take engaging in the behavior more often, in more ways, increased
amounts, in order to achieve the desired feeling - the more the student repeats this process the
higher their tolerance becomes (Brown & West, 2013). The student will weigh the perceived
benefits against the perceived cost, but ultimately chooses to engage in the addictive behavior
again (Brown & West, 2013). After an indefinable amount of time, the student will sacrifice and
neglect other things they once cared about to be able achieve the desired feeling - the sacrifice
may impact their classes, their job, their friends and other relationships (White, Becker-Blease,
& Grace-Bishop, 2006). This is when addiction occurs - when the student will choose the
behavior they learned to crave, over other aspects of their life they once found important (Brown
& West, 2013). The student’s desire for the feeling they hope to achieve, will grow increasingly
more intense and more powerful. Attempts to wean themselves may result in increased craving
or even withdrawal symptoms (Brown & West, 2013). When a student is presented with an
opportunity and they weigh the benefits against the costs. If the student engages in the behavior,
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repeatedly to attempt to achieve the feeling they enjoyed, it becomes an addiction (Brown &
West, 2013).
The narrative above is just one path addiction can follow - there are countless others
experiences and stories that look very different from the one outlined above (White, Becker-
Blease, & Grace-Bishop, 2006). Furthermore, some students who struggle with substance use
disorders cope with more than one addiction. In a study of 480 college students, Laudet, Harris,
Winters, Moberg and Kimball (2015) found that 58% of the students struggled with AOD abuse
or addiction. Of that same group 12% had an eating disorder, 12% were addicted to sex, 41%
smoked tobacco and 66% were in treatment of mental health related issues (Laudet, Harris,
Winters, Moberg & Kimball, 2015). It is important to understand that some students start out
casually having a few drinks and do not realize that one day they might struggle with a substance
use disorder. Furthermore, there is not a one-size-fits-all cause for addiction - the same is true
for students who want to seek recovery from their addiction.
Non-Traditional Students
To better understand the experiences of students in recovery, it is important to learn about
students who do not fit the typical college student norm. It is essential to note, that not all non-
traditional students are in recovery, nor are all students in recovery considered to be non-
traditional; the categories overlap because many college students in recovery seek a college
education after achieving and maintaining their recovery status. This is important for the reader
to understand because, more often than not, people who are considered unordinary, are
commonly othered or made to feel less than; this can include people in recovery (Bowl, 2001).
For many students, this happens later in life, which can make them significantly older than their
traditional college-age peers (Terrion, 2013; Perron et al., 2011). The non-traditional student
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label is often used as an umbrella term that encompasses anyone out of the ordinary, in a college
setting. Traditional college students are typically 18 to 23 years old and attend college within a
year of graduating high school (Chung, Turnbull & Chur-Hansen, 2017). Further research goes
on to say that historically, traditional students were most often male, white, middle to upper
class, Christian, lived on or near campus, not married, nor had children and are English
proficient (Bowl, 2001; Chung, Turnbull & Chur-Hansen, 2017; Schuetze & Slowey, 2002).
More recent research will show that college students are more diverse than previously recorded;
with more women enrolled in undergraduate courses than men, and the number of students of
color enrolled in college courses increased steadily from 2000 through 2010 (National Center for
Enrollment Statistics, 2019). More specifically enrollment rates for Hispanic/Latinos, Asian, and
Multi-Racial students increased between 2010 to 2017 (National Center for Enrollment Statistics,
2019). The number of non-traditional students who attend college, increased from roughly three
million students in 1970 to close to seven million in 2006, making it the largest growing group of
students (O’Donnell, 2006). Between 2006 and 2016, this number changed; according to the
National Center for Enrollment Statistics, the number of students over the age of 25 increased by
11%. Furthermore, by 2027, NCES projects that this group will increase by another 1%;
compared to students under the age of 25 will likely increase by 5% (National Center for
Education Statistics, 2019). For the purposes of this study, non-traditional students refer to
students whose path to college differs from the traditional college student: regardless of age,
race, gender, first time in college, and socioeconomic, recovery or military status (Terrion, 2013;
Perron et al., 2011).
Traditional and non-traditional students have many similarities as well as many
differences, including the way they attend, approach and view higher education. Many
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28

traditional undergraduate students attend college in a new city, maybe a new state, and often are
on their own for the first time in their lives. Contrastingly, non-traditional students often attend
local colleges or universities, close to where their lives are established, for example where their
family lives or near where they work (Schuetze & Slowey, 2002). Another option for non-
traditional students that has become more available in recent years, is online programs and
classes - this allows students who work full time to access education at convenient times or
connect with universities far from where they live (Schuetze & Slowey, 2002). Non-traditional
students often have to relearn how to be students, while confronted with the anxiety of adulthood
- a full time job, paying bills, raising a family (Bowl, 2001). These students may live in a
traditional dorm on campus or a sober living facility; live with a partner or possibly a family, off
campus (Laudet, Harris, Kimball, Winters & Moberg, 2016; Perron et al., 2011). Stressors
unique to students in recovery include balancing school, work, and family life with meetings,
sponsor/sponsee relationships, triggering experiences, the pressure to share or not share their
recovery status with professors or classmates, as well as others. These stressors can differ from
the pressures commonly faced by traditional undergraduates, who might have financial support
from family or financial security through student loans (O’Malley, P., & Johnston, L., 2002;
Schuetze & Slowey, 2002).
Non-traditional students not only include people outside the traditional college age, but
the term is inclusive to people who chose to work before college, joined the military, or started
families at a young age, among others (Laudet, Harris, Kimball, Winters & Moberg, 2016). Also
included in the non-traditional category are those individuals whose path may not have been a
direct choice - including people with substance use disorders, mental health disorders, short or
extended experiences with homelessness, criminal charges or imprisonment (Laudet, Harris,
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Kimball, Winters & Moberg, 2016; Schuetze & Slowey, 2002). For one reason or another, by
choice or by circumstances out of one’s control, these students have various life experiences that
might delay their choice to attend college. Bowl (2001) describes the barriers that non-
traditional students often must overcome to attend college and how these life experiences make
them stand out among their classmates. The experiences of non-traditional students are another
reason they differ from their younger, traditional-aged college classmates. This can include
hiring a babysitter, attending group meetings, leaving a job early to make it to class on time,
among other responsibilities that must be negotiated by non-traditional students (Edwards, 1993;
Schuetze & Slowey, 2002).
Student Service Members/Veterans
There is a unique subpopulation of students in recovery who are military veterans; also
known as student service members/veterans (SSM/V) (Bass & Golding, 2012). It is important to
note that not all SSM/V are in recovery. Many veterans are non-traditional students because they
may have served in the armed forces soon after high school and attend college after their years of
service; therefore, they tend to be significantly older than their college peers (Aikins, Golub, &
Bennett, 2015). The opportunity for a college education was made available to many veterans
through financial assistance due to the Post 9/11 Veterans Educational Assistance Act, also
known as the ‘new GI Bill’ (Radford, 2009; Aikins, Golub, & Bennett, 2015). Research on this
population of veterans in colleges shows that many SSM/V are at higher risk of addiction or
dependence due to Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI), Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and
Substance Use Disorders (Bass & Golding, 2012). One study found that over 18% of veterans
from the Iraq and Afghanistan wars (Post 9/11) suffer from PTSD and nearly 20% of this same
group, have a TBI (RAND Center for Military Health Policy Research, 2008). In addition to
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30

depression and PTSD, veterans face high risks of suicide or attempted suicide. According to
Chiarelli, 30% of veteran suicides and nearly 45% of suicide attempts had to do with AOD
(Chiarelli, 2010). Additionally, Tanielian and Jaycox (2008) state that improvements in
technology, armor, medical advancements, as well as other innovations, resulted in less
casualties in the field; which means service members can return to active duty, often completing
multiple tours.
SSM/Vs are more likely than their non-military classmates to drink or use substance as a
coping mechanism (Whiteman, Barry, Mroczek, & Macdermid-Wadsworth, 2013). These
students can often feel disconnected from their non-military peers due to differences in age and
life experiences, such as serving in active combat or differing political views (Diramio,
Ackerman, & Mitchell, 2008). Furthermore, many universities lack services designed to help
SSM/Vs access resources or build relationships with other veterans. This lack of connection can
lead some students to use AODs to cope (Aikins, Golub, & Bennett, 2015; Barry, Whiteman,
Wadswroth, & Hitt, 2012). In a study on emotional support among veterans in college, Diramio,
Ackerman, and Mitchell (2008) found that compared to non-military students, SSM/V gradually
increased consumption of alcohol over three semesters, while non-military students maintained
relatively the same amount of consumption. Furthermore, the same study found that SSM/V
received less emotional support than their non-military student counterparts (Diramio,
Ackerman, & Mitchell, 2008). A 2012 study found that drinking for SSM/V was also related to
indicators of PTSD, depression, anxiety and other mental health problems (Barry, Whiteman,
Wadswroth, & Hitt, 2012).
Students in Recovery
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Recovery, as defined by the Betty Ford Institute (2007), is “a voluntarily maintained
lifestyle characterized by sobriety, personal health, and citizenship” (p. 221). Perron et al.
(2011) go on to describe a person in recovery as one who “[has] a history of substance misuse
that resulted in significant consequences in at least one life domain ... [and who has] made a
voluntary commitment to a sober lifestyle [that] is actively engaging in activities that promote
sobriety and overall wellness’’ (p. 50). A student in recovery is a college student who previously
struggled with a substance use disorder and makes an active choice to live a sober lifestyle. As
stated by Wiebe, Cleveland and Dean, (2010) “recovery is an ongoing process” (p. 58).
The Active Choice of Recovery
This literature review explored who might fall under the category of non-traditional
students, substance use and abuse habits of traditional students and non-traditional students in
recovery and outlined possible causes or paths to addiction; this next section will investigate why
a student might choose to be in recovery. Students in recovery, at some point in their addiction,
make the active choice to seek sobriety (Perron et al., 2011). The literature shows various
reasons why students intentionally choose to be in recovery: to improve or to leave relationships;
obtain financial resources or self-improvement, among others (Perron et al., 2011).
Students who suffer from substance use disorders may seek recovery because of existing
relationships in their lives. For some students, being in recovery may be an opportunity to
improve or mend relationships with their family, as addiction can, at times, be harmful to close
personal relationships (Iarussi, 2018; Grahovac, Holleran Steiker, Sammons & Millichamp,
2011; Terrion 2013; Perron et al., 2011). In other cases, recovery can be an escape route to
remove a student from an existing dysfunctional relationship with family, friends or a significant
other (Iarussi, 2018; Ross & DeJong, 2008). Furthermore, some students may search for a sense
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32

of belonging with a community of people in recovery - addiction can be isolating and sometimes
students are scared to lose their friends they use AOD with (Iarussi, 2018; Wiebe, Cleveland &
Harris, 2010). However, when they realize there is a community of people like them, who seek
recovery, it can give them motivation to stay sober because they are not alone (Grahovac,
Holleran Steiker, Sammons & Millichamp, 2011; Perron et al., 2011).
Other students may seek financial stability that can be associated with recovery. Bell et
al., (2009) addresses the financial opportunities that may be available through sobriety - not only
the increased chances of successfully holding a job, but the opportunity for financial support and
scholarships through campus resources and recovery centers. A common stressor, not only to
students with substance use disorders, but many typical college students, is the ability to pay for
college tuition, fees, books and rent - the ability to obtain financial support through recovery
centers is a motivating factor to achieve and maintain sobriety (Grahovac, Holleran Steiker,
Sammons & Millichamp, 2011). Additionally, if a student is able to improve his or her grades, it
may open up opportunities for merit scholarships as well (Iarussi, 2018).
Students may seek recovery because they discover resources they previously were not
aware of. The availability of resources, including, but not limited to recovery centers, medical
support, 12-step meetings, other kinds of secular or religious based groups, or one on one
counseling may encourage some students to seek help (Grahovac, Holleran Steiker, Sammons &
Millichamp, 2011). Furthermore, other students have the social capital or the support of family
and friends to go into recovery, as well as the financial ability to do so (Cloud, & Granfield,
2008).
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Some students may be legally mandated to seek recovery support. Laudet, Harris,
Winters, Moberg, & Kimball, (2015) showed that out of 480 students in recovery, 59% were
previously charged with a crime of some sort. Students who struggle with addiction can be
ordered by law enforcement or court systems to go to inpatient or outpatient recovery, or face
further criminalization (Laudet, Harris, Winters, Moberg, & Kimball, 2015). Other students may
face academic probation due to low grades from skipping class or falling behind, because of their
addiction (Iarussi, 2018). For students with substance use disorders under the age of 18, their
parents can enroll them in medical or counseling services (Grahovac, Holleran Steiker, Sammons
& Millichamp, 2011).
A larger factor that may impact a student’s choice to seek recovery is to improve their
overall wellbeing. In a study conducted by Iarussi, (2018) several students discussed their desire
to improve their personal wellness, their ability to cope with stressors and overcome shame from
life with addiction. Furthermore, for non-traditional students, they may seek recovery before
they attempt to take on the additional challenges of being a college student (Bell, et al., 2009).
Other students may seek recovery for academic improvement in their current semesters, but also
to improve overall grades and opportunities for future courses, internships and career
opportunities (Grahovac, Holleran Steiker, Sammons & Millichamp, 2011; Iarussi, 2018).
Lastly, many students seek a sense of purpose (Iarussi, 2018). Students in recovery
sometimes equate their substance use disorder to feeling lost, alone or out of control - but
recovery allows them an opportunity to focus on school and a future career, as well as family,
friends and personal relationships - thus enabling students to feel empowered (Iarussi, 2018).
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Recovery also allows students the space to share their experiences with others and in turn, help
others achieve a feeling of purpose and security.
Regardless of the reason a student decides to be in recovery from a substance use
disorder, they will require support. As one student commented, “it’s a lot easier being a student
in recovery than it was being a drunk student,” (Iarussi, 2018, p. 53). Furthermore, a student
who makes the decisions to seek recovery will face ups and downs throughout their recovery
process. It is important to understand what these students face in the recovery process to know
how to best support them.
Support Systems, Stigmas and Stereotypes
Students in recovery need support from their peers in recovery, family, classmates,
instructors, counselors, as well as others in their community (Grahovac, Holleran Steiker,
Sammons & Millichamp, 2011; Iarussi, 2018; Perron et al., 2011). Without the support of a
community, the chances of relapse are high (Iarussi, 2018). One of the many reasons students
choose to be in recovery is to improve their personal wellness and to help others. However,
students in recovery often face negativity and stigma due to their recovery process (Shor &
Levit, 2012). This section will further explore the support systems and the stereotypes that help
or harm the recovery process.
Centers and Systems of Support. Students in recovery benefit from an extra level of
care and support from their college campuses, peers and university professionals (Grahovac,
Holleran Steiker, Sammons & Millichamp, 2011). Students in recovery need a sense of
community to feel safe and like they belong (Perron et al., 2011). Furthermore, a sense of
belonging aids the recovery process for students combating substance use disorders (Iarussi,
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35

2018). CRCs are one way for students in recovery to feel comforted and safe. Recovery centers
allow students in recovery to have physical space for group meetings, one on one academic
advising and even a substance-free place to study or spend time with friends (Bell et al., 2009).
Collegiate recovery centers are one kind of support system available to students in
recovery on college campuses. Other support systems include sober-living facilities, family,
friends, as well as staff and faculty on campus and other medical or mental health resources.
According to de Miranda and Williams (2011), there are four types of recovery support services:
emotional support, information support, instrumental support, and companionship. Another
support system may show in the form of recovery capital. Recovery capital, as explained by
Cloud and Granfield (1996), is a theory that states that those struggling with addiction who
possess more social, physical, cultural, and human capital, are more likely to utilize these
resources to seek and successfully obtain recovery. Cloud and Granfield (1996) also detail that
people from all backgrounds can suffer from addiction, but those who have the means available
to seek recovery support may be more likely to do so. Furthermore, students in recovery’s own
self-efficacy is beneficial to their recovery process.
Laudet, Harris, Winters, Moberg and Kimball (2015) found that 60% of students in their
study noted they found CRC and programs helpful to their sobriety; another 33% of that same
group of students stated they would not have been able to attend college without the support of a
recovery center on their college campus. However, Finch (2004) explained that though students
feel comforted and supported in recovery centers, researchers still do not know what features of
CRC are the most helpful for students.
Students in recovery have a unique experience compared to their collegiate peers. As one
student described their experience as a college in recovery:
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“The typical college experience is most commonly defined by discovery, growth, and
redefinition of oneself. There is the potential for absolute restructuring of one’s identity,
as well as the evolution of personal values, beliefs, and concerns which are the
foundation on which identity is constructed. Therefore, the “typical” college experience
could very well be compared to sobriety, in all of its stages” (Grahovac, Holleran Steiker,
Sammons & Millichamp, 201, p. 292).
Recovery centers support students in reaching sobriety though, not all students feel adequately
prepared to handle recovery and college together at once. One student in recovery referred to the
stress of school impacting their sobriety and ability to make it to meetings weekly. This student
remembered being encouraged to wait until they were sober for a significant period of time
before pursuing school (Iarussi, 2018). Terrion (2013) describes a phenomenon that one’s belief
in their own ability to recover, makes them more likely to do so. For students to recovery, it is
vital they believe that they can recover, and it is important they feel that support from others.
Stigmas and Stereotypes. According to Bell et al. (2009) 37% of college students are
apprehensive to look for help with a substance use disorder because they assume there is a
stigma related to their addiction, and of that same group, only 6% actually sought recovery
services. Stereotypes surrounding addiction are not only held by uneducated or under-informed
persons, but by professional counselors, therapists, medical professionals and those in training
programs to professionally serve in these roles (Broadus, Hartje, Roge, Cahoon & Clinkinbeard,
2010; Cohen, Griffin & Wiltz, 1982; Shor & Levit, 2012;). Goffman (1963) described stigma as
a personal quality that discredits an individual or group. This definition is important to
understand the views staff, faculty, peers, and family might hold, and how those views may
impact the recovery of a student. The fear that students in recovery sometimes hold of being
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judged or misunderstood by medical professionals is, at times, accurate. Phillips (2013)
illustrates that students in recovery are often viewed negatively, by peers and university
professionals, which can deter students from seeking help. Cohen, Griffin and Wiltz (1982)
found in a study that surveyed both medical professionals and people in recovery, that the group
of people in recovery predicted the stigmatized responses of medical professionals more
accurately than the group of medical professionals were able to predict the responses of people in
recovery. This indicated that the group in recovery understood the stigma held by their doctors,
therapists and counselors (Cohen, Griffin & Wiltz, 1982). Pre-existing stigmas on substance use
disorders, the people who suffer from addiction and those in recovery are often based on
stereotypes filled with fear and misguided assumptions (Broadus, Hartje, Roge, Cahoon &
Clinkinbeard, 2010; Cohen, Griffin & Wiltz, 1982; Shor & Levit, 2012; Witte, Schroeder, &
Hackman, 2018). In their study of social workers in training, Short and Levit (2012) found that
some students were surprised at the intellectual abilities of the people in recovery. It was
important for this study to address the fears of students, because when working professionals are
filled with bias or judgment, the students in recovery can often feel that judgment, which might
hinder their chance of a successful recovery (Shor & Levit, 2012). As Misch (2009) describes,
students in recovery do not deserve support, guidance, and resources any less than students who
suffer from physical or mental disorders, though many students face stigmatization from
university professionals and peers.
Research has shown that stigmatization of substance use disorders and those in recovery
can deter those students who are in need of help, to avoid seeking it (Kulesza et al., 2016).
People in recovery from substance use disorders who do not feel they can seek help without
judgement, may avoid pursuing recovery all together. Phillips (2013) described that avoidance
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in recovery assistance can lead to increased criminalization. Laudet, Harris, Kimball, Winters
and Moberg (2016) found that nearly 60% of their study participants were convicted of a crime
related to their substance usage. In Kulesza et al.'s (2016) study of implicit bias of people who
had never struggled with a substance use disorder, had strong implicit associations made with
people who have struggled with addiction - specifically people who inject drugs intravenously -
being deserving of punishment, more so than deserving help. Furthermore, the same study found
similar implicit bias among medical professionals who counsel people in recovery (Kulesza et
al., 2016).
Students in recovery also face stigmas and stereotypes among their peers. Iarussi (2018)
found that students in recovery feel their traditional classmates do not understand their sobriety.
One student went on to explain her desire to be viewed by her classmates as just another student
and not someone who is in recovery (Iarussi, 2018). Witte, Schroeder, and Hackman, (2018)
found that students who previously had not interacted with people in recovery, had more social
distancing - that is, they wanted to remain distant - from students in recovery. The inverse is also
true of college students who had prior experiences with people in recovery; they showed less
social distancing from students in recovery. The study also showed that students who learned
more about addiction and recovery, grew to be more accepting of students in recovery (Witte,
Schroeder & Hackman, 2018). This shows that though stigmas may exist, educating people
about recovery can help to change their attitudes. The support of peers is not only important for
students in recovery to feel validated, but it can also help to prevent relapse. Another student in
Iraussi’s study One student who struggled to find friends who were supportive of their sobriety,
found themself drinking and going to parties, and then relapsed (Iarussi, 2018).
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Recovery. Students in recovery, as well as university staff and other professionals can
help address or confront stigmas that exist by engaging in conversations about addiction and
recovery, with both traditional college students and students in recovery (Shor & Levit, 2012).
Short and Levit (2012) found that when over 200 social work students were able to engage in
conversations with and view presentations by people in recovery, students reevaluated their own
prejudices. Wiebe, Cleveland, and Harris (2010) noted that professionals who take an active role
in supporting college students’ recoveries are taking steps to make higher education more
accessible to individuals in recovery. Furthermore, students in recovery benefit from seeing
administrators or staff at CRC, who are in recovery themselves; this allows students to see
themselves in professional settings (Grahovac, Holleran Steiker, Sammons & Millichamp, 2011).
Students in recovery can also provide a support system to their peers in recovery. Iarussi (2018)
describes the role of service in the recovery process and allows students who have been in
recovery longer, to act as a mentor to those who are new to recovery. As stated by Grahovac,
Holleran Steiker, Sammons and Millichamp (2011), “students who are courageous enough to
turn their lives around after active addiction and go to universities where temptation and
pressures are everywhere should in no way feel stigmatized” (p. 291). As Thompson (2014)
discusses acts of services, or servant leadership, allows those in recovery to give back to people
still in need.
Theoretical Framework
A primary purpose of a theoretical framework, as described by Maxwell (2013), is to
guide the study by assessing the findings, goals, methods and research questions that all coincide
with the focus of the research. A theoretical framework allows the reader to understand the
structure of the study. The purpose of this theoretical framework is to shape the way this study is
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organized and executed. The theoretical framework for this study will utilize a critical lens to
look at the environment that surrounds a student in recovery, to better understand what recovery
capital they have and the identity of the student. Moreover, this study will utilize
Brofenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory (Brofenbrenner, 1979, 1993, 2005), Recovery
Capital (Cloud and Granfield, 1996), and Intersectionality (Crenshaw, 1988, 1990) to understand
the experiences of college students in recovery. The following sections will describe further how
these theories will guide this study on the experiences of college students in recovery.
Brofenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory (Brofenbrenner, 1979, 1993, 2005) will look at the
environments of the students and who is a part of that environment. Recovery Capital (Cloud
and Granfield, 1996) aids in understanding the capital needed to reach and maintain recovery.
Lastly, Intersectionality (Crenshaw, 1988, 1990) will help the reader understand who each
participant is and how their recovery status is a part of them.
Brofenbrenner
Urie Brofenbrenner, a developmental psychologist, initially introduced the Ecological
Systems Theory in 1979. The theory encompasses the development of an individual, based on
their environment (Brofenbrenner, 1979, 1993, 2005). Bronfenbrenner described four elements
that made up this theory: process, person, context and time (PPCT) (Brofenbrenner, 1993;
Patton, Renn, Guido, & Quaye, 2016). Process is at the center of development, which focuses on
how an individual interacts with their environment. The person is composed of the individual
and their identity. The person is made up of four developmentally instigative characteristics:
invite or inhibit responses, selective responsivity, structuring proclivities and directive beliefs
(Brofenbrenner, 1993; Patton, Renn, Guido, & Quaye, 2016; Renn & Arnold, 2003).
Furthermore, a study by Capone, Read, and Wood (2005) shows that students are influenced by
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those around them. The context is made up of four levels of the individual’s environment; these
levels are the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem and macrosystem (Brofenbrenner, 1993;
Patton, Renn, Guido, & Quaye, 2016; Renn & Arnold, 2003). The last element is time; this
refers to when events occur across a person’s lifetime.
The characteristics that comprise a person, as stated above, are attributes that shape the
individual’s development (Renn & Arnold, 2003). The first characteristic, invite or inhibit
responses from the environment, refers to how individuals elicit responses from others. For
example, how a student might invite or inhibit responses from staff, faculty or other students.
Selective responsivity is how one adjusts to their environment; such as a new student getting
involved on campus or retreating to alone time in their dorm. The third attribute, structuring
proclivities, focuses on how an individual struggles, or persists, with a difficult task or activity.
The fourth characteristic, directive beliefs, describe “how individuals experience agency in
relation to their environment” (Patton, Renn, Guido, & Quaye, 2016, p.42). For example, how a
student feels their hard work pays off in the form of good grades.
The context is made up of four systems that surround the individual or the student. The
microsystem consists of the student’s individual characteristics or identity, such as age, gender,
sexual orientation or recovery status. Within the microsystem are the individual’s personal
connections and relationships, as well as the places they spend the most time; their immediate
environment (Brofenbrenner, 1993; Patton, Renn, Guido, & Quaye, 2016; Renn & Arnold,
2003). As described by Rogers, Gilbride, & Dew (2018), in reference to the relationships
formed in an individual’s microsystem, “these close relationships have extraordinary power to
normalize or stigmatize behaviors and to support or hinder optimal individual development (p.
229). The next level is the mesosystem. This system holds all the pieces of the microsystem and
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connects the microsystems together to create a cohesive environment for the individual
(Brofenbrenner, 1993; Patton, Renn, Guido, & Quaye, 2016; Renn & Arnold, 2003). Next is the
exosystem; this system does not directly hold individuals but holds connections that might
influence the meso or micro systems, such as external university financial aid departments or
where their parents work (Brofenbrenner, 1993; Patton, Renn, Guido, & Quaye, 2016; Renn &
Arnold, 2003). Lastly, the macrosystem consists of the larger culture or influences that might
impact the other subsystems (Brofenbrenner, 1993; Patton, Renn, Guido, & Quaye, 2016; Renn
& Arnold, 2003). For students in recovery, how they interact with their environment and those
close to them, impact their development. As stated by Capone, Read and Wood (2005), “Socio-
environmental factors more proximal to the individual, exert stronger influence on college
students’ drinking overtime than do perceptions of typical students drinking” (p. 31).
Brofenbrenner will be used to understand the environment that surrounds students in recovery,
more specifically who is in the environment and how those individuals help or hinder a student’s
recovery process. These influences, as well as the capital a student in recovery already holds,
can impact or impede their recovery process.
Recovery Capital
Recovery capital, as explained by Cloud and Granfield (1996), is a theory that states that
those struggling with addiction who possess more social, physical, cultural, and human capital,
are more likely to utilize these resources to seek and successfully obtain recovery. Cloud and
Granfield define capital as “a body of resources that can be accumulated or exhausted” (2008, p.
1972). The four types of capital are described as follows. Social capital is the support systems
or family and friends that might support a person in recovery. Cultural capital is how an
individual understands the nuances to fit in, either in their own culture or various subcultures.
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Physical capital refers to the financial resources available and the financial stability of an
individual. Finally, human capital includes the recovery status of family members, possible
mental health related issues and one's ability to have a job or a career, that might impact their
recovery. The researchers also detail that people from all backgrounds can suffer from addiction,
but those who have the means available to overcome their addictions, may be more likely to do
so (Cloud & Granfield, 1996). Recovery Capital will be utilized to understand what aids
students in their recovery process.
Intersectionality
The importance of using a framework of Brofenbrenner and recovery capital, is to
understand the intersection of identities of students in recovery. Many of these individuals who
struggle with substance use disorders are not only students, but mothers or fathers, they may be
people of color or white, they work to maintain a job and a social life and so on. To better
comprehend the experiences of students in recovery, we must understand their intersectionality.
Delgado and Stefancic (2017) define intersectionality as “the examination of race, sex, class,
national origin, and sexual orientation and how this combination plays out in various settings” (p.
58). Crenshaw (1988, 1990) used the term intersectionality to highlight the experiences of black
females. Crenshaw utilized Black Feminist Theory and Critical Race Theory to encompass not
only the experiences of Black women, but also as a way to address racism, sexism, politics,
social awareness, social justice (Carbado, Crenshaw and Tomlinson, 2013). Furthermore, as
described by Cho (2013), intersectionality is not a permanent state of being - it can, and does,
shift as an individual grows and changes. Intersectionality involves more than gender and race -
it is the crisscrossing of all the pieces that make an individual who they are (Cho, 2013).
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Studies have shown that the intersectionality of race, gender and substance use disorder
impacts the stigma and support experienced by the person who abuses AOD or is in recovery
(Kulesza et al., 2016). Kulesza et al. (2016) described that people of color use and/or sell drugs
at similar rates to their white counterparts, but people of color are more likely to receive harsher
criminal punishment. In comparing gender instead of race, men are more likely to receive a
harsher sentence than women (Kulesza et al., 2016). Delgado and Stefancic (2017) describe the
importance of intersectionality as a way to view someone’s experiences and experience of
oppression, and how this may differ from people of similar background. It is important to
approach topics such as oppression and intersectionality, specifically with a marginalized
population that is different from one’s own, with a sense of hope (Tuck, 2009). Intersectionality
will be used to understand who the participants are, in addition to their recovery status.
Theory of Change
Vogel (2012) describes theory of change as both a process and a product. The topic of
college students in recovery from substance use disorders is particularly sensitive due to the
vulnerability of the population, therefore the research will be approached with a desired-centered
mindset, to allow participants to feel supported and in a space free of judgement (Tuck, 2009). A
desired-centered approach allows space for hope and change (Tuck, 2009). As Tuck (2009)
describes, “a theory of change helps to operationalize the ethical stance of the project, what are
considered data, what constitutes evidence, how a finding is identified, and what is made public
and kept private or sacred” (p. 413). Theories of change are not a one-time guide or solution, but
it is a continual progression that encourages reflection and exploration of change in a specific
context (Vogel, 2012). Theory of change is not only about the end result but how each step is
taken towards change; and why that happens the way it does. As stated by Brown (2017),
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“emergent strategy is how we intentionally change in ways that grow our capacity to change the
just and liberated worlds we long for” (p. 3). Furthermore, Brown (2017) illustrates the image of
a dandelion; the seeds represent fractals which are the tiniest pieces of everything; these small
bits make up larger pieces and so on it builds. Theories of change push boundaries of change - it
encourages the reader to acknowledge change and ask why it is happening, and then dig further
into it (Vogel, 2012). Lastly, theories of change are often depicted with an image and an account
of the details (James, 2011). The researcher intends to utilize a desired centered approach, to
look at the intersectionality of students in recovery, including their environment (Ecological
Systems Theory) and the recovery capital they might have. Figure 2, below, shows how these
frames will work together to guide this study.
Figure 2:
Conceptual model of theoretical framework

Summary
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Students in recovery are in a unique position on their college campus. Many of these
students work hard to maintain their recovery status, attend class, manage relationships, work
their job and move forward with their lives - some of them just want to be a typical college
student (Iarussi, 2018). Additionally, many students in recovery are fearful of judgement and
stigmatization by their classmates, instructors and medical professionals (Broadus, Hartje, Roge,
Cahoon & Clinkinbeard, 2010; Cohen, Griffin & Wiltz, 1982; Phillips, 2013; Shor & Levit,
2012). Some students in recovery keep their recovery private, while others are open to share
their journey with others (Iarussi, 2018). Students in recovery are often considered non-
traditional students because their path to and experience in college is not the same as the typical
college student (Terrion, 2013; Perron et al., 2011). To be in recovery, while in college, first
requires a choice to seek recovery and then requires a unique kind of resilience. Furthermore,
college students are not always capable of understanding the experiences of their classmates in
recovery (Chung, Turnbull & Chur-Hansen, 2017; Shushok & Hulme, 2006; Smit, 2012; Perron,
et al. 2011). Welcoming the intersectionality, recovery capital and the environment of a student
in recovery, allows the researcher to understand how the student’s position as a college student in
recovery might impact their recovery process. This allows a student to be more than just their
recovery status (Kulesza et al., 2016).

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CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Addiction can affect people from any background, regardless of race, ethnicity or
socioeconomic status (Kulesza et al., 2016). According to the Center for Disease Control and
Prevention, 47,000 Americans died from opioid use in 2017 alone (CDC/NCHS, 2018). It is not
just opioids that cause harm; SAMHSA (2011) found that one million teenagers and adolescents
were in recovery for AOD use, abuse, and addiction. The purpose of this study is to understand
the experiences of college students in recovery. Students in recovery have a unique experience
in college; it is the goal of this dissertation to learn more about their experiences.
The following research question will guide this study:
RQ: How do students in recovery describe their experience in higher education?
Methods
Chapter Three will cover the methodology utilized for this dissertation. The researcher
employed a narrative analysis, explained below, to conduct this process. The settings,
participants and context for the study, as well as the selection process, are discussed.
Additionally, the data collection and data analysis processes are described in detail. The
researcher then discusses her own positionality and its potential impact on this study, followed
by possible limitations. Lastly, this section will discuss the credibility, trustworthiness and ethics
of the study.
Qualitative Methods
Qualitative methods were chosen to learn from personal stories and experiences of
students in recovery from a substance use disorder. As Merriam and Tisdell (2016) stated
“qualitative research is based on the belief that knowledge is constructed by people in an
ongoing fashion as they engage in and make meaning of an activity, experience or phenomenon”
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(p.23). As Maxwell (2013) describes, an intellectual goal of qualitative research is to understand
why something happens. That specifically is the goal of this study - to understand the
experiences of students in recovery and to learn what factors might impact that experience.
Qualitative methods also allow the researcher to not only conduct research but be an instrument
and a participant of the study, as well (Patton, 2015). Narrative analysis, as stated by Merriam
and Tisdell (2016) “uses the stories people tell, analyzing them in various ways, to understand
the meaning of the experiences as revealed in the story” (p 24).
Rationale for Narrative Analysis
Narrative analysis was chosen so each participant’s full story could be shared, as well as
a platform to allow the participants and the researcher to develop the narrative together, through
conversation and dialogue (Mishler, 1986; Riessman, 2008). The concept of narrative analysis is
interdisciplinary and was used in the social sciences, education and other fields, since the 1980s
(Riessman, 2008). As described by Merriam and Tisdell (2016), narratives are the personal
stories of people, and its core are the ways people experience the world. This form of analysis
uses the participant's own stories to better understand experiences that occur in particular
phenomenon (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The interview flows more like a conversation, rather
than a structured question-and-answer interview (Reissman, 2008). This is important because it
allows the participant to share topics or discuss points that the researcher may not have thought
to directly ask about; the less rigid structure allows fluidity. As stated by Riessman (2008), “the
researcher does not find narratives but instead participates in their creation” (p 21). This is
important, because Patton (2002) describes qualitative methods as believing someone’s
perspective is meaningful. Narrative analysis was chosen because it is based on lived
experiences (Reissman, 2008); the researcher will share her own lived experiences with this
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topic. Furthermore, narrative analysis allows for the participant to review their own interview’s
transcription, as part of member checks - therefore both the researcher and the participant review
the data.
Sample
Participants
Participants for this study are college students who are in recovery from an addiction to
AOD and were willing to discuss their college education and path to recovery. Twelve
participants joined the study; how these participants were recruited for the study is discussed in
the next section. These individuals were required to be in recovery for at least one year prior to
joining the study. Each participant is a current college student, who is pursuing a bachelor’s,
master’s or doctoral degree. Multiple participants were studying to be social workers or in the
medical field, among other degree paths. The final attribute is that each participant was willing
to share their story of addiction and recovery.
Recruitment
Participants were recruited for the study through various methods. The search for
participants was purposeful - as Merriam and Tisdell (2016) describe, “purposeful sampling is
based on the assumption that the investigator wants to discover, understand, and gain insight and
therefore must select a sample from which the most can be learned” (p. 96). Therefore, the
researcher selected a purposeful sample with the intention to learn from the participants’
experiences in recovery. The researcher intended to utilize a snowball sample (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016; Patton, 2015).
Initially, the researcher connected with contacts at three universities in Southern
California, to share a call for participants with their students in recovery. The researcher
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intended to interview participants from these three universities. After several weeks, the
researcher opened the call for participants to all college students in recovery from any university,
who met the remaining criteria. This was a necessary step, as the location of the participants was
not important to the study; only their experiences. The researcher was able to connect with more
participants through posting to social media and recovery support networks. The call for
participants is found in Appendix B, C and D.
The call for participants stated that participation in the study was completely voluntary;
those who decided to participate could withdraw their participation at any time and participation
was completely confidential. Patton (2015) recommends a sample size that is relevant to the
questions being asked. For the purpose of this study, to better understand the experiences of
students in recovery, the researcher selected as many participants that are needed to gain a
thorough understanding of the phenomenon (Patton, 2015).
Twelve participants were selected for this study. Each participant was selected based on
their experiences and willingness to share their story. Participants were asked to answer a brief
online questionnaire, prior to being selected for the study. The questionnaire confirmed that the
participant met the qualifications of the study, collected brief background and demographic
information, and determined the participant’s availability for the interview. There were four
inquiries made by individuals in recovery who were interested in participating in the study, but
because they had been in recovery for less than one year, they were not eligible.
Settings
For the purposes of this study, the researcher was interested in the experiences of students
in recovery, from various collegiate backgrounds; rather than from just one college or university.
The researcher did not want to limit the location to a site that might not accurately reflect the
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intention of the study (Yin, 2009). Therefore, the researcher conducted interviews with college
students in recovery, regardless of where their college was located. The participants were all
college students at various stages of their sobriety, as well as different majors and degree
programs. The choice to not limit to a specific university was decided so the researcher could
gain insight from students at various universities - including community colleges, as well as four
year private and public institutions, each with different forms of recovery support.
Data Collection
Narrative analysis utilizes interviews to better understand the personal stories of each
participant (Riessman, 2008). Specifically, for this study, interviews were utilized because it
enabled the researcher to ask participants about their experiences as a college student in
recovery. Interviews allow the researcher to gain information on what cannot be easily observed
- such as feelings or past experiences (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Weiss, 1994). The researcher
used a semi-structured interview approach, with a set of guiding questions from an interview
protocol; the open-ended approach allowed the conversation to flow freely (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). A semi-structured interview approach enabled the researcher to guide the conversation
but to also allow space for participants to add in their views and opinions, and to ask their own
questions during the interview process (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This conversational interview
structure gave the researcher the opportunity to respond to the participant’s questions and
empowered the participant to input their own views. In following the guidelines of Merriam and
Tisdell (2016) an interview protocol was designed to test out which questions were imperative to
the study and which could use revisions. The researcher made small changes to the order or
wording of the questions between interviews. The following are a few questions from the
interview protocol: Where do you attend college?; What are you studying?; Were you in
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recovery prior to going to college?; Would you like to share about your experience with
addiction?; How do you feel supported in your recovery process?; How do you feel stigmatized
or judged in recovery?; Why do you think that is? Research from the literature review also
guided the structure of the interview protocol (Maxwell, 2013).
Interviews
Interviews were utilized to better understand the experiences of students in recovery
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The site for each interview was selected based on convenience.
The researcher scheduled a private meeting space for the one participant who was able to meet in
person and used Zoom meetings for the rest of the interviews. Zoom was chosen because it
allows more flexibility for participants to join the interview, around their busy schedules.
Regardless of in-person or online, there was a private, neutral space to allow the participants to
feel comfortable (Weiss, 1994).
Each interview lasted roughly forty minutes to one hour. After each interview the
researcher wrote a private reflection of the interview and determined if any adjustments to the
interview questions were necessary (Maxwell, 2013). Participants were told to expect an hour,
but that the conversation could be shorter or longer. Online participants were assured that the
researcher was in a private office, and the interview was confidential as well.
The goal of the interview was to hold a conversation and ask questions that allowed the
participant to share their story (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The interview protocol asked
questions to gain a deeper understanding of the participant’s college campus, their major, their
experience with addiction as their experience with recovery in college - this includes but is not
limited topics of their family history of substance usage, where they attended college, why they
chose that school, experiences with incarceration, why they sought recovery, as well as other
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topics. As described in Chapter Two, the researcher approached each interview and each
participant with a desire-centered mindset to allow for a safe space, free of judgement (Tuck,
2009). One question asked the participant about where the participant goes to college, the degree
they are pursuing, and why they chose that particular institution. This question is considered
interpretive and its purpose is to understand background information about the participant
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Further questions ask participants about their identity and what it
might mean to them. The protocol then asks about the specifics surrounding the participant's
recovery process - if they were in recovery before college; if their campus offered a recovery
center, and why they chose to be in recovery.
Interviews were conducted online using the Zoom platform or in person, with the
recording application Otter, on the researcher’s phone. Each interview transcription was
downloaded - either via Zoom or Otter - and reviewed for accuracy. The researcher utilized
these specific applications because they allowed for voice and video recordings and
transcriptions, which are necessary to code and analyze the data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The
researcher took some notes throughout the interviews, when it felt appropriate to do so. Notes
taken during the interviews were commonly used as a follow up question or a topic to come back
to when the participant was done speaking. When note taking felt disruptive to the flow of the
interview, then the researcher ceased. Following Maxwell’s (2013) guidelines, the researcher
reviewed the research question and interview questions between interviews to see if changes or
additions were necessary. Furthermore, the researcher began the review process, including
analysis of each interview, as the process moved forward (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007).
Data Analysis
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The researcher utilized narrative analysis to explore the data that was collected
throughout the interview process. The researcher remained intent on the purpose of the study -
to understand the experience of college students in recovery - during the data analysis process
and kept the following research question in focus:
RQ: How do students in recovery describe their experience in higher education?
The data was methodically analyzed to search for themes and interpersonal connections
(Mishler 1986; Riessman, 2008). The researcher shared copies of the transcript with each
participant as a member check, to allow that participant to make any changes they felt were
necessary. None of the participants returned edits to the researcher, though two wrote that they
found minor recording errors; but not enough to alter the main points of their stories. In order to
achieve a robust analysis, the researcher listened to each audio recording, while carefully
following along with the corresponding transcript to fully comprehend the data; during this
process the researcher took detailed and descriptive notes. This occurred two times, for each
interview, to ensure it is thoroughly reviewed (Riessman, 2008; Mishler 1986). Next, an Excel
sheet was utilized to compile key phrases and comments that stood out. Phrases or themes that
emerged across multiple interviews became codes (Riessman, 2008; Mishler 1986). The
researcher listened to the audio from each interview a third time, while reading over the
transcript to better understand the feelings of the participants throughout their narrative.
Limitations and Delimitations
A limitation to this study was the amount of time available - time was limited due to the
functionality and timeline of the researcher’s doctoral program. Another limitation is that the
researcher is not professionally trained or certified in counseling people with substance use
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disorders. This is one reason why it was important for participants to be in recovery at least one
year and be able to reflect on their experience, without it triggering harmful memories.
Additionally, the researcher has a family history of substance use disorders, but does not, herself,
have a history of addiction.
There are several, intentionally set, delimitations for this study. According to Creswell
and Poth (2017), delimitations define the guidelines of the study. The researcher approached the
research with a desired-centered mindset. Additionally, the researcher set a parameter of
participation to require one year of sobriety. Lastly, this study will only look at the experiences
of college students in recovery and are willing to reflect on that experience. The study will
exclude those who struggled with addiction in school but were unable to be in recovery; those
with substance use disorders who are in recovery that did not attend college; those who
intentionally left school to focus on recovery and decided not to return; among other important
experiences.
Credibility & Trustworthiness
The researcher utilized the table of ‘Strategies for Promoting Validity and Reliability’, in
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) and the list of ‘Tactics for Testing or Confirming Findings’, in
Miles, Huberman, & Saldaña (2014), the researcher will check the credibility and trustworthiness
of the findings (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p. 259; Miles, Huberman, & Saldaña, 2014, p. 293).
Researcher position, or reflexivity, is described by Merriam and Tisdell (2016) as a “critical self-
reflection” (p. 259); the researcher spent time between each interview to examine the documents,
to reflect on the importance of this study and how it might be impactful to the field. Maxwell
(2013) accounts a thick description, as an extremely detailed account of the location and
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specifically what is found - following these guidelines the researcher described in detail the
methodology and findings of this study. Furthermore, the researcher was aware of the possibility
of outliers, or data that is outside the norm (Miles, Huberman, & Saldaña, 2014). Each
participant was given the opportunity to review the transcription of their own session to ensure
the researcher understood and properly captured the participant’s words and story (Creswell &
Poth, 2017). This was accomplished by the researcher emailing the transcript to the participant
soon after the interview. To ensure confirmability the researcher will utilize notes during the
interviews and while reviewing the transcripts, as well as memos and member checks (Merriam
& Tisdell, 2016).
Positionality
By descriptively articulating one’s positionality, the researcher allows the research
participants and the intended audience to gain an understanding of why this research is important
and why this study is focused on this specific topic (Patel, 2015). The researcher has a personal
connection to this topic because of a family history of substance use disorders. The researcher
herself does not suffer from a substance use disorder but chose to research this topic to
understand the student perspective. Though the researcher does not work with students in
recovery on a professional level, she feels a connection to this population due to her family
history. As someone who has worked in higher education for over 5 years and in education for
nearly 10, the researcher felt it was important to understand this group of students. It is
important for participants to better understand the intentionality of the research, through knowing
the researcher’s positionality (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Ethics
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To execute an ethical research study, the researcher utilized an ethics checklist as
described by Patton (2015) and a desired-centered theory of change (Tuck, 2009). The
importance of ethical research is that ethics shapes the lens in which a researcher will view the
community of focus - an ethical researcher will come from a desire-focused place, while a
researcher whose focus is on a deficit model is damaged-centered (Tuck, 2009). The theory of
change will help shape how the questions are formed and the researcher interprets the data
(Tuck, 2009). This research can potentially help other people who struggle with substance use
disorders and want to pursue a college degree. Students, and other people in recovery, are a
vulnerable population. The researcher’s goal is to ensure that these participants are supported
and feel valued (Tuck, 2009).
Before asking participants to join, the researcher first explained the purpose of the study
to the potential participants. Prior to the start of the interview, the researcher explained to the
participants that their story was valuable, that they could opt out at any time and their personal
narrative will remain completely confidential. Before, during, and after the interviews, the
researcher reflected on what was accomplished and what was still needed; the researcher did this
to ensure that all thoughts and feelings on the process are documented. Finally, the researcher
ensured confidentiality and organization of the data by utilizing pseudonyms for categorization.
As stated by Brown (2017), “emergent strategy is how we intentionally change in ways that grow
our capacity to change the just and liberated worlds we long for,” (p. 3). The researcher
remained ethical in order to better understand the experiences of students in recovery, during
their pursuit of higher education.

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CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS
The purpose of this study was to understand the experiences of college students in
addiction recovery and how the college experience impacted their recovery. This study aimed to
explore the various support systems that might aid a student in recovery, as well as any
stigmatizations they may face on their college campuses. The research question that guided this
study, asked:
RQ: How do students in recovery describe their experience in higher education?
This chapter will overview the participants who participated in this study as well as the themes
that resulted from the enriched discussions.
Participants
A total of 12 participants were interviewed - 11 interviews took place online, using the
Zoom platform, and one was conducted in person, per the participant’s preference. Table 1,
below shows statistics on each participant, including their gender, their program of study, degree
type (bachelors, master’s or doctoral degree) and type of institution (public university, private
university or community college). The table of statistics and charts, as well as the participant
profiles below, will allow the reader to get to know each participant and potentially understand
their personal narrative a little better.
Participant Statistics
Table 1
Participant Statistics
Participants Gender Program of Study Degree Type Institution Type
Participant 1 Female Sociology Bachelor’s Public University
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Participant 2 Male Science PhD Private University
Participant 3 Female Sociology Bachelor’s Public University
Participant 4 Female Counseling
Certificate
Program Community College
Participant 5 Female Social Work Master’s Private University
Participant 6 Female Social Work Bachelor’s Public University
Participant 7 Male Social Work Bachelor’s Public University
Participant 8 Male Community Action PhD Private University
Participant 9 Male
Teacher Preparation
Program Bachelor’s Public University
Participant 10 Female Medical Field Bachelor’s Community College
Participant 11 Male
Teacher Preparation
Program Bachelor’s Private University
Participant 12 Female Medical Field Bachelor’s Community College

Note. Some of the information above, has been adjusted to protect privacy of the participants

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Figure 3
Participants Identities and Involvement

Figure 4
Participants by Degrees of Study

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Figure 5
Participants by Race/Ethnicity

Participant Profiles
Each participant was willing to share their personal journey through their college
experience, addiction, recovery and other personal trauma’s that have shaped their recovery
process and story. The participant profiles listed below are brief summaries of each participant’s
personal narrative. The purpose of the participant profiles is to introduce the reader to each
participant, in order for the reader to gain a little insight into the participant’s journey. Some
aspects of these stories may be adjusted to protect the privacy of the participant. Additionally,
each participant was given a pseudonym, for anonymity.
The first participant, Amelia, is a female college student in recovery, working on a
bachelor’s degree in sociology and a minor in social justice. She attended a few community
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colleges before she was in recovery. She grew up in a family of police officers and struggled
with depression and anxiety, associated with her family’s work. She developed a medical
condition, related to her substance abuse, which caused her to be hospitalized over 10 times.
After what she described as emotional and physical bankruptcy, Amelia reached sobriety through
inpatient and outpatient rehab and resources. She is now actively involved in the recovery center
on her college campus and speaks to groups of students about recovery.
Matthew is a male college student who is a military veteran and working towards a PhD
in a science field, at a private university. This participant suffered from a military service-related
injury and struggled with addiction while recovering from his injury. Since his recovery, from
both his injury and addiction, Matthew was able to provide support for other students in recovery
as both a sponsor and helping with on campus recovery programs.
Phoebe is a female college student studying sociology at a public university. Phoebe was
already in college when she began to use marijuana to help with anxiety, but soon discovered she
was bipolar. She sought recovery, so she could properly manage her bipolar disorder. She was
able to take very little time off from school and is on track to graduate. She is now involved in
leading recovery meetings on her campus.
Molly, is a female student, working on a counseling certificate program at a community
college. She grew up in a happy household, as she wanted to clarify, but had one parent who
struggled with a substance use disorder. She experimented in high school with marijuana,
alcohol and other substances but her addiction grew as she faced various personal traumas:
including the loss of her father to addiction, her brother’s murder and being sexually assaulted.
After struggling with addiction for many years, she was able to recover through a court mandated
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program. Now in recovery for over five years, she wants to give back to people in recovery by
working as a substance abuse counselor with adults and adolescents.
Tammy is a female student who is pursuing a master’s degree in social work. Tammy is
also a parent, a veteran, and a former medical professional. She left the medical profession after
her personal struggles with addiction. She also faced incarceration related to substance use.
Now in recovery, Tammy works at an intensive outpatient center and wants to continue to work
with people in recovery, as a social worker.
Ashely, is a female college student, earning a bachelor’s degree in social work. She is
also a parent, a first-generation college student, was previously incarcerated and has been in
recovery for over 10 years. She is involved in her CRC and hopes to one day provide recovery
support for her local community, as there is not currently a local center in her community.
Specifically, she would like to focus on support for women and children.
William is a male college student at a public university. He is studying social work
because of a personal connection with a social worker he met during a therapy session. William
saw himself in this counselor and felt inspired to pursue a similar career to help people in
recovery as well. He is involved in his on-campus recovery community and is very open with
his classmates and friends about his recovery status. He does not feel like his recovery status
should hold him back from being social with friends and classmates and offers to be the
designated driver for his friends.
Alexander, is a male college student, earning a PhD in community action research at a
private university. He is also a parent and involved in his campus recovery network. Alexander
was also involved in the establishment of the recovery networks at his previous universities. He
hopes to use his next degree to continue to help people in recovery from a research and
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practitioner point of view by looking at systemic and structural issues surrounding substance
abuse and mental health in his local community.
Jerry, is a male college student, working on a teacher education program. He reached
recovery later in life, after working in another field for many years. Jerry contributes his
recovery in part to a teacher who called out his substance use and held him accountable to be in
recovery to be able to participate in class. Now in recovery, he is open with his students and his
community about his recovery process. Furthermore, he is willing to sponsor anyone who is in
need of a sponsor.
Cait, is a female student at a community college, earning a degree in a medical related
field. She does not know if her campus has a recovery center, because her involvement is
focused on community recovery. Cait is also a parent, a first-generation college student and she
was previously incarcerated. She is focused on completing her degree and providing a good life
for her daughter.
Nick is a male college student pursuing a teacher preparation program. After the tragic
loss of a sibling at a young age and the terminal illness of a parent (though the parent survived),
he began to suppress his feelings; he later turned to substances to achieve this. This participant is
now in recovery, is involved in the recovery center on his campus but does not feel a tight
connection to his peers. He feels a closer connection to and is supported by his recovery network,
with whom he built a community through shared experiences and recovery, in a different city
than where he currently lives.
Caroline is a female college student, who is earning a degree in the medical field at a
community college. She grew up knowing of Alcoholics Anonymous and other related support
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groups, due to the substance addiction of one of her parents. She is involved in her home group
and community recovery programs - and is a volunteer at her local animal shelter.
Findings
This section will describe the themes that emerged across the interview process. The
goal of narrative analysis is to learn about lived experiences of participants, and themes that
emerge are commonalities among the participants’ stories (Reissman, 2008). The data collected
in this study revealed the following:
I. Students in recovery commonly face stigmatization on their college campuses, in
classrooms and among peers.
II. These students need a foundation of support to achieve and maintain their
recovery, and they find support in various ways.
III. Finally, students in recovery hold acts of service in high regard and personally
important to their own recovery process.
The sections below will provide further detail on each of these topics.
Stigmatization and Judgement
Among the participants the feelings of facing stigmatization on campus and among peers,
teachers and university administrators, were mixed. At the start of the interviews, five
participants said they did not feel stigmatized, however as the conversation progressed, they later
changed their statement to recall significant moments of feeling judged or stigmatized. The
remaining participants had concrete examples. Even among those who did not have an example
of facing stigmatization in their classroom or on their campus, there was an overlying fear of
being stigmatized or judged by peers, professors and administrators.
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Stigma on campus. One participant began to say that he does not face stigmatization on
his campus, but as he shared, he seemed to realize that he does. He shared that he is open with
being in recovery, but not his full story;
“I’ll tell people I drank and had issues with pills, but I cannot tell anybody I was a heroin
addict or junkie. That’s [being a heroin addict] stigmatized … Overall, people are pretty
okay with it. Nowadays, especially if you're doing well, if you're doing well and it’s been
a few years. ...We have an opiate crisis, and a lot of people are dying. I know people
want to help.”
This participant felt that his recovery was acceptable only to a certain point; as if there are some
substances that are okay to have had a history with but not with others. He was not alone in that
sentiment.
Many participants felt judgment on their past, and not how far they have come in their
recovery. Participants fear potential impact to their future careers. Cait described the fear that
sharing her recovery status could possibly impact her career once she finished school; when
speaking about being stigmatized, she said:
“I never had a bad experience with it. But, um, I don't know, like it is kind of personal. I
guess I would say because like I don't really know who these people are and everything.
So, it's like, and I don't want to say the wrong thing that could mess up my career. Right
now, I'm in the process of getting a misdemeanor filed because they do a background
check on you when you go into your program because all my felonies are sealed all that
stuff's done, but I just don't want them to, like, look at me, because there's so much
people believe … It's a disease or whatever or there's other people that are like, no, you're
just a junkie. You're never going to change this and that and like I guess it's because I
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don't want to be judged. Yeah, I don't want to be judged like the people I need to know
about me know about me.”
Ashley also spoke of a fear of being judged. When she was asked about facing stigma on
campus, she said
“I feel like people judge other people before they know the full story. So, I don't really
want to get judged by things of my past. Because I have been to prison and everything
like I have a felony charge and I have a bunch of charges. So, I don't really want to tell
people a lot of that. It's none of their business and then I don't want to be looked at any
different or talked about, you know, because they don't know me now.”
Students in recovery seem to face the fear of judgement as much as actual stigmatization. The
fear can hold students back from connecting with professors or classmates.
Stigma in the classroom. Students not only face stigmas on their campus but in
classrooms as well. Before the researcher asked about being stigmatized on campus, when
discussing a current class that focuses on recovery counseling, Molly shared about facing
judgement from a teacher in class:
“Our teacher has her own opinions on recovery and just kind of thinks that when you’re
clean, and you have a job and your life looks good that you don't need recovery anymore;
but my beliefs are different. I attend 12 step meetings, I’m very connected. I'm in
service and like, that's going to be my lifelong journey, you know, and she just doesn't
see it that way… She's not in recovery.”
This participant continued to describe how her teacher believes addiction and recovery are like a
switch, that once one turns off their addiction, they should be fine - that recovery should not be
an ongoing practice. Molly also described feeling pressure to not speak up in this class, “It is a
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challenge. In the beginning I was speaking very outspoken about what I believed, and she would
find a way to shut me down. So now I just don't speak up any more.” Classrooms are meant to
be an environment where students feel safe and guided by their teachers.
Stigma in social settings. Participants also face stigmatization and the fear of being
stigmatized in social settings. When asked if he ever faces stigmatization because of his recovery
status, William replied,
“Not that I can think of, other than that, like when someone asked me to go to drink. I
won't go out to drink with strangers, because I know like they're just kind of here, but I'll
go out like with my friends and be the DD and just like just hang out and I'll be social and
in recovery. But like strangers. Yeah, because then you have to go through that whole,
like, what do you mean, like they get offended when I'm not drinking kind of thing. So,
like, that's kind of the stigma.”
Stigma regarding the past. Students in recovery struggle with a fear of being
stigmatized and the emotional weight of being judged when it actually happens, on their
campuses and in classrooms. One of the most difficult aspects of this is that many students in
recovery feel their recovery is a significant accomplishment in their lives, so it is challenging for
them when they share their recovery status and people react negatively. As Amelia described, “I
feel like whenever I tell someone I'm in recovery, they don’t hear that I'm doing something
positive for my life. And that I'm actually in a very good place. They hear I have a problem”.
Students in recovery are impacted by the judgements and fear of perceived judgment of those in
their daily lives and environment. University peers, faculty and administrators can impact a
student in recovery’s recovery status by making them feel badly about themselves (Iarussi,
2018).
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Support Systems
The interviews provided further support to what research already showed - that people in
recovery need a support system to help them reach and maintain recovery (Perron et al., 2011).
For the participants whose campuses did not offer recovery programs on campus already, some
help to create resources for students and others sought support in community resources off
campus. Through their recovery capital, many students already had support in place before they
struggled with addiction to AOD. However, other students found support through relationships
made after they sought recovery.
Participants spoke of the support they receive in the various relationships they have with
people they met through recovery or with their families. Multiple participants have partners who
are also in recovery or they met their partners at AA meetings or rehabilitations centers. For
others, having a partner that understands is helpful. Jerry said, “the support of my wife is huge.
No matter what, like if I say it has to do with [recovery] no matter what plans we have, if it's our
anniversary, anything like that, she says, no, go to a meeting first, then we'll have our dinner
after”.
Counselor support. One participant spoke of a platonic relationship that formed and
aided his recovery processes. William described this as:
“So, a lot of it had to do with, I've been in and out of multiple different rehab centers and
with different therapists and I kept getting with therapists that I could never really address
my traumas with. And then the final one, I finally like, so it's the reason I want to go into
social work, I met with this social worker and he was also in recovery. He had like four
or five years. He's all tatted up, you know, it looked like one of us. So, like I just felt
really comfortable and I just let it all out and I knew he could tell when I was lying. So
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essentially, like I think that's what really helped us having someone that I could relate
with on the other side. And that's kind of why I'm going into social work, because I want
to give somebody that feeling that I felt in that room, if that makes sense.”
This participant was able to form a connection with someone he felt he identified with and felt he
could relate to.
Family support. Other participants spoke of family support - specifically the support of
their parents. Parents showed support in different ways for these participants - some gave
literature on substance use, some attended meetings with their loved one, others provided a place
to stay or bailed their child out of jail when needed. Ashley said that seeing her father's
emotional struggle with her addiction and incarceration impacted her and was a turning point
where she decided to commit to recovery: “My Dad visited me in prison, and he cried. That's the
first time I ever saw my dad cry so it kind of hit home.” Furthermore, even after the loss of a
parent, participants still felt support.
Support through loss. Two participants shared tragic stories of each losing their
mothers, early in their recovery process. Both participants found strength in the memories of
their mothers and were able to grieve and process their traumatic loss, while staying sober. As
one participant described the loss of her mother:
“It's really a difficult thing. And I also feel like in recovery, everyone has their own
traumatic experiences but there's not like a handbook, you know, to be like this is how
you get through this. So, it's been really difficult… But using didn't even really come up.
You know, in my mind, I did think well geez, you know, people probably understand if I
do this, people will be like, look what happened to her, you know, no wonder she's
relapsed; but I just felt like it would be such a disservice to my mom, you know. She
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would be so disappointed in me and I didn't want that. So, I stayed sober through it and
you know I shared it.”
The other participant had similar things to say about losing her mother during recovery:
“That was a tough time. It was a really tough time. I used all my resources, I used my
tools, all the things that I learned in the 12 step meetings; called my sponsor and
journaled… using crossed my mind, of course. Because I knew that drugs would make
those thoughts go away in a heartbeat, you know, even if it was going to be temporary, it
would do the trick. And I thought about it, but I didn't do it; I didn't use; I stayed clean…
A year after she had passed away, I completed my bachelor's degree and I got married,
you know, got a decent paying job where I get my insurance paid by my employer and
vacation. Like, my life is completely different today. She missed out on a lot of those
things. But, you know, she would be proud.
Support through parenting. Four participants are parents and attribute a lot of their
desire to maintain their recovery to offer the best support for their child/children. Some of the
participants had their child/children while they were still dealing with addictions and struggled
with the balance of feeding their addiction and raising a child. One participant discussed losing
custody of his child for a time and the joy and pride he felt when he was able to have his child
live with him again full time:
“Last summer was a major milestone. I had been seeing, and being an active part of my
son’s life, which previously had looked like [seeing him] every other weekend or once a
month. Having a weekend until summer before last, having him for six weeks and then
this past summer, he moved in full time. That's been a major milestone.”
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The participants that are parents spoke of providing a better life and future for their
child/children and the thought of this is a powerful motivator for them to maintain recovery.
Support in the workplace. Many participants find support in the workplace. Many of
the participants work in recovery related facilities - either on or off campus. When discussing
support at her job - that is not related to recovery - Cait was describing her boss, “Because a lot
of them [coworkers and managers] are understanding, like even our head boss. He's not in the
program or nothing. And he's like, very supportive of us and he actually likes us because we
work harder.”
Support on campus. Additional support takes place in on campus recovery centers. A
few of the participants find support in community programs, while others are involved in the
campus recovery centers and networks that exist on their college campus; furthermore a few of
the participants are helping to build recovery centers on their campuses. Amelia regularly speaks
to classes on campus about the opportunities for recovery on her campus, on behalf of her
campus’s recovery center. She reflected on a recent presentation she did, she said:
“I said at the beginning, I don't know what your guy's experience with recovery is you
were in it or you know someone or but I'm going to try to describe this as if you've never
experienced it at all. You know there were some people who are just in class, not caring
about being in class just there for the seat credit, but I focused on the kids who actually
had reactions.”
Another student spoke of establishing new AA meeting, that combine both students and
people from the local community, at his campus:
“Right now, we only get maybe three people per meeting. It takes a while; once it gets
around it will become big just needs to be circulated more. At first, I think the only ones
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that do it for veterans and formerly incarcerated… half the people are students the other
half are from the sober living down the street. And, like students [don't come during
finals], but it's the other guys who like are keeping the meeting alive until the students get
back. It's a pretty cool dynamic because we have guys in there, like just did 30 years in
prison, you know, and then you'll have sorority girls in there. So, it's a really interesting
dynamic, but we're all the same, you know, we have a similarity in common.”
Phoebe also spoke of the lack of resources at her college campus. She is now working with a
grant fund to establish recovery resources.
“There were health services and mental health services, but there wasn't anything
specifically for recovery. So, we've been doing weekly meetings. So, I do one every
week and this other girl does one every week... And now we're starting to branch out into
doing social events as well. So, I'm heading that up.”
When asked about support systems on campus, Alexander described a counselor that he found to
be supportive:
“One of the orientations, me, and I actually had a friend who was also in recovery, who
was also transferring to [the university] at the same time. We asked something very
specific about recovery support or like support for people, struggling with
addiction...they responded very nicely that [the university] didn't have one. But then after
that session one of the therapists came up and asked us, more specific questions… [We
got into] a conversation with her and she was one of the most supportive people that I've
ever met. [She had] been working there for like 20 years and has been wanting to start
like a CRC but hadn’t had like the capacity or student support. And so, she asked if we
would be open to helping to start a collegiate recovery community.”
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Support systems, such as college recovery centers, allow students in recovery to build a
community and find connections and people they can rely on. Research shows these systems are
vital for students to maintain a successful recovery process (Perron et al., 2011).
Acts of Service
A major theme that came up in various ways across every single interview, were acts of
service. Serving others, giving back, paying it forward, mentoring, sponsoring, coaching,
teaching, were just some of the ways the participants used to describe the way they are in service
to others.
Community resources. Service takes multiple forms. It can be as direct as fundraising
or putting in time with someone. It can also take the form of having a career goal that focuses on
helping others. One participant had a service mindset when discussing her goals for after she
completed her degree,
“We do not have a rehabilitation center here. So that's what I want to do. I want to give
back the way that people gave to me when I was in this process. So, I want to open up a
[community] center for women, not just women, but women and children because, you
know, a lot of these people in addiction have kids and you know they struggle, just as
much as the next parent”.
For this participant, as well as others, they have devoted their careers and their lives to providing
support to other people in recovery, just as that support was given to them.
Sponsorship. For many people in recovery, service takes the form of being a sponsor to
other people in recovery. Alcoholics Anonymous (2019) defines a sponsor as “an alcoholic who
has made some progress in the recovery program shares that experience on a continuous,
individual basis with another alcoholic who is attempting to attain or maintain sobriety through
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AA.” Jerry described his experience as a sponsor: “yes, I do sponsor; anybody that raises their
hand and they say, hey, I'm looking for a sponsor. Then I raise my hand, say, hey, I'm a
sponsor.” Each sponsor is first a sponsee before they are able to sponsor other people - a
sponsee is the counterpart to the sponsor or the individual being sponsored. For many students
in recovery, the transition from sponsee to sponsor is even more impactful. Caroline described
the support of her sponsor and her ability to sponsor other women:
“So, I go to Narcotics Anonymous meetings, sometimes Alcoholics Anonymous, but
usually NA is my main program and then I attend women's meetings, mostly. Which is
really awesome because then you get support from, you know, just other women in the
program. And then I have a sponsor and I worked all 12 steps and continue to work step
by step. So that's where I find my people and the people who support me to know
everything about me. So yeah, that's where I get most of my support...So my sponsor
helps me a lot. And then I sponsor other women as well to help them like you know get
through the program and work their stuff. So that's actually really helpful for me to do
that, even though it would seem like the sponsor is helping the sponsee more it really
helps me as well because I'm sharing my experience. I'm, you know, sharing all those
things that I did. And hopefully, they don't have to go through, so I find support mainly
with other women in the program and with my sponsorship family.”
Sponsorship is a way to build community and support amongst students in recovery. It is a way
to have someone to lean on and to give back to the community as well.
Sharing personal stories. Participants regularly commented on how they share their
personal journey with addiction at AA or NA meetings. Though many had not shared their
narrative outside of a group of peers, and others spoke out regularly, they all had a similar
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message: that speaking out about recovery was a way to help others. When one participant was
asked why he shares his story, he responded:
“I feel like I am very fortunate to have gotten to where I've gotten... it wasn't like just me
or my actions that got me here. I've had a lot of support to help me to get to where I am
today. And I feel like I would be doing a disservice and not giving back if I didn't share
my story.”
When Molly was asked about her career choice and why she decided to pursue a career in
substance abuse counseling, she said
“The 12 STEP program and drug court gave me my life back. You know, and I didn't
even think I was worth it, like who wants to put all their eggs in my basket, I'm a junkie.
You know I'm saying, like, I'm never gonna be anything… I want to be able to do the
same thing and provide the same hope to other females and I say females, because a lot of
females out there are really hurt and have experienced a lot of trauma. Not only like
sexually and physically, but mentally... I want to pass the torch and let them know that
there is light at the tunnel and that they are worth it, you know. And no matter how many
times they relapse, they're still worth it... I don't know, I just can't turn down another drug
addict, whether it's a man or a woman, you know, if they want help. Then I'm going to, I
want to be there to be able to help. And I think that getting the most education that I
could possibly get would only help the next person. So, I could be an advocate for them,
a voice for them.”
Students in recovery turn to acts of service as a way to give back to their campus and their
community. By supporting other people in recovery, either as sponsors or speaking about their
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personal story, or studying for a career in recovery aid, these students are able to support a
community that they once needed support from.
Summary
In conclusion, 12 college students in recovery were interviewed to discuss their
experiences in recovery on their college campuses. The themes that emerged are that students in
recovery often face stigmatization or fear judgement on their campus and in their classrooms;
they themselves need a community to feel supported during their recovery process and; they are
committed to serving others in various forms, whether sharing their story, their career plans or
sponsoring others in recovery. Chapter 5 will address a brief summary of the findings,
suggestions of how to support students in recovery as college administrators, and
recommendations for future research.

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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION
Students in recovery are in a unique position on their college campuses. They juggle
their recovery process, among their classes, a job, possibly a family, and so on. The students in
recovery in this study were able to speak of their experiences on their college campuses; and how
that experience impacted their recovery. Many of the participants from this study are first
generation college students, some are parents, and two are veterans. Each participant was
willing to share their personal struggle with addiction and their journey through recovery. The
participants’ stories were able to help answer the research question and address the purpose of
this study.
The problem of focus for this study is that college students in recovery face common
challenges, typical of college students, in addition to their recovery status and if not properly
supported, these students can feel stigmatized, fall behind in classes, drop out of school or return
to AOD use that could result in overdose or death (Iarussi, 2018; Perron et al., 2011; Terrion
2013). Every student’s individual journey through addiction and recovery is very personal, so it
can be difficult to find the best practice for everyone in recovery (Laudet, Harris, Kimball,
Winters & Moberg, 2016; Schuetze & Slowey, 2002). However, there are common practices
such as Alcoholics Anonymous or Narcotics Anonymous, that many people in recovery turn to
for guidance (Alcoholics Anonymous, 2019).
The research question that guided this study asked the following:
RQ: How do students in recovery describe their experience in higher education?
The way participants were able to answer this research question will be addressed later in this
chapter, in the Summary of Findings section. The purpose of this study was to learn from
students in recovery about their experiences in recovery while in college. This study was
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approached with a desired centered theory of changed and utilized a theoretical framework that
centered on Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory, Crenshaw’s intersectionality and
Cloud and Grandfield’s, recovery capital (Tuck, 2009; Bronfenbrenner, 1979, 1993, 2005;
Crenshaw, 1988; 1990; Cloud & Granfield, 2008). The study utilized the personal narratives of
current college students, who self-identified as being in recovery. Those personal stories were
analyzed using a narrative analysis approach. The participants were all in college for a
bachelor’s, masters or doctoral degrees, in varying fields, while in recovery from a substance use
disorder. Many of the participants considered themselves to be non-traditional students because
they were older than their traditional aged college peers; only one participant was 23 years old,
the rest were 26 or older. The participants were students of sociology, social work, teacher
education, and medical related fields, among other focuses. Through this study the researcher
hoped to learn what aided students in their recovery processes on their college campuses and
their local communities - as well any factors that make them feel stigmatized or othered.
The rest of this chapter will discuss the findings of the research study, the implications
for practice and recommendations for future research, and finally the conclusion of the study.
The interviews found that students in recovery face stigmatization and the fear of being
stigmatized on their campus; they rely heavily on their friends, family and recovery networks for
support in their recovery process; and lastly, students in recovery highly value being of service to
others. The implications for practice will focus on how university administrators and staff can
support students in recovery and how universities can help establish recovery networks.
Recommendations for future research will address the following topics: a study of students in
recovery from one university or a region; a study on traditionally aged college students, ages 18
to 23, to see if their experiences differ from the results in this study; the final recommendation
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would be to research the experiences of students of color in recovery. The chapter will end with
a conclusion that is a personal reflection from the researcher.
Summary of the Findings
Each of the 12 interviews with participants, who are all college students in recovery,
resulted in similar themes: students in recovery commonly face and fear stigmatization based on
their recovery status; need support from college peers and instructors, family and other people in
recovery, to successfully navigate and maintain recovery; and lastly, college students in recovery
hold being of service to others as an important factor of their own recovery and supporting the
recovery of others. The themes described above, speak to the experiences of these students on
their college communities.
Stigmas
Many participants gave direct examples of facing stigmas on their college campuses,
amongst peers, administrators and faculty. This stigmatization often made participants fearful of
sharing their recovery status. This connects to what Phillips (2013) addressed, that students in
recovery can often avoid seeking help, if they feel stigmatized or judged. Furthermore,
participants spoke of a fear of being judged for their past by their classmates or teachers, so
many kept their recovery status to themselves, as Iarussi (2018) described. It is important to
address that students often felt a fear of stigma or judgement even if they had not yet experienced
stigma on their campus. Many participants had an expectation that the judgement was there; this
could be a possible connection to shame, based on their past experiences with addiction. The
intersectionality of who each participant was as well as those in their environment, impacted
their experience of this fear (Crenshaw, 1988; 1990; Brofenbrenner, 1979, 1993, 2005). Kulesza
et al. 's (2016) study showed a strong implicit bias against people who struggle with a substance
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use disorder and even more so with those who inject drugs intravenously; this study actually
justifies one participant’s choice of sharing his struggle with alcohol with his classmates and
teachers but keeping his past addiction to heroin to himself. Judgements held by people who are
not in recovery, against those who struggle with an AOD addiction or those in recovery, are
often guided by fear-based stereotypes and assumptions (Broadus, Hartje, Roge, Cahoon &
Clinkinbeard, 2010; Cohen, Griffin & Wiltz, 1982; Shor & Levit, 2012; Witte, Schroeder, &
Hackman, 2018).
Not every participant felt this way; some were very open about their recovery status - one
specifically mentioned that he makes a point to attend office hours of his professors, early each
semester and to personally address his recovery status. However, even for those who were open
with their recovery status, there was still an overlying fear of being judged for it. Participants
feared being stigmatized by those close to them, such as peers and college administrators; these
individuals exist in the participant's personal environments (Brofenbrenner, 1979, 1993, 2005).
The participants’ ability to achieve recovery, regardless of stigmatization shows that they had
recovery capital in other forms, such as personal support or financial resources (Cloud &
Granfield, 2008). As discussed by Misch (2009), students in recovery deserve the same level of
support, guidance, and resources from university professionals and peers. Students in recovery
can often turn to support systems they can rely on when faced with judgement on campus; a
sense of belonging can help students in their recovery process (Iarussi, 2018).
Support Systems
Though many participants face stigmatization and judgments, they are able to maintain
recovery through their own determination and the support of others. Systems of support showed
up in many ways for the participants of this study. The participants commonly found support
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among peers in recovery, family members and involvement in their CRC. Reliable support from
family, classmates, instructors, counselors, as well as others in their community, allow students
in recovery to feel valued and aids in their recovery; this falls in line with what the literature
review previously described by Grahovac, Holleran, Steiker, Sammons and Millichamp (2011),
Iarussi (2018) and Perron et al. (2011). The support of those close to them, allows students in
recovery to feel a sense of community, to feel safe and like they belong (Brofenbrenner, 1979,
1993, 2005; Perron et al., 2011).
In every interview, the participant’s mentioned the support of a family member, a child
or a spouse and the significance these individuals played in the participant’s recovery status; the
intersectionality of the identities the participants hold, being a partner, a son, a father, and so on,
aids in their ongoing recovery (Crenshaw, 1988; 1990; Kulesza et al., 2016). Many of the
participants are supported by their spouses/partners, some of which are in recovery as well.
Others discussed that being a parent was a major motivator to maintain recovery for them; to
provide a better life for their child/children. The participants also found a lot of support and
community in people they met in recovery. One participant was inspired to pursue social work,
by a counselor he felt he could connect with. Other participants spoke of the relationships they
formed with their sponsors or sponsees and how that support helped their recovery process.
Several the participants are involved in recovery centers on their campus. Some
participants work at their campus’ CRC, while others lead meetings. Other participants work in
small teams, to create recovery resources for their campus, because there is no support available
for students in recovery. Recovery centers allow students in recovery to seek resources, have a
safe space for group meetings or counseling sessions, and or have a study space (Bell et al.,
2009). In alignment with Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory of how individuals are
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influenced by those around them, support systems and recovery centers create a comfortable
environment where students in recovery can be surrounded by caring and like-minded
individuals (Brofenbrenner, 1979, 1993, 2005). Furthermore, students often feel comfort from
their recovery center and want to be involved to give that support to other students in recovery
(Grahovac, Holleran Steiker, Sammons & Millichamp, 2011).
Acts of Service
A major point that all students stressed or agreed strongly with, when asked about, were
acts of service. Each participant discussed their dedication to serving others in various ways,
similar to what Thompson (2014) stated. For some it was with their chosen major or career path.
Other participants gave time by being a sponsor to others in recovery. A few participants
commented that their participation in the study was an act of service. As one participant
described, she felt that during her addiction she had been selfish and only focused on serving
herself and her addiction; but now in recovery, she is dedicated to serving others. Being of
service to others allows students in recovery to support their peers in recovery as well, which
aids the first student in their recovery process as well (Iarussi, 2018). Acts of service allow
students in recovery to give back to a community that supported them when they were in need
and to support those who are still in need (Thompson, 2014). Acts of service align with the
theoretical framework because participants utilize the recovery capital that they possess to
support and give back to others in recovery; the intersectionality of identities as being in
recovery, as social workers or teachers or medical professionals, and as mentors or sponsors to
form networks of individuals who support one another (Brofenbrenner, 1979, 1993, 2005; Cloud
& Granfield, 1996; Crenshaw, 1988, 1990).
Implications for Practice
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Wiebe, Cleveland, and Harris (2010) discuss the need of university professionals to
actively support college students in recovery, to ensure college is more accessible to these
students. Working with students in recovery is not only the job and responsibility of medical or
mental health professionals and substance abuse counselors; all university personnel should be
equipped with the knowledge and compassion to work with students in recovery. If a campus
has a recovery center or offers recovery services, the staff of the CRC may help support students
in their campus needs, however many colleges and universities do not offer recovery services.
For example, academic advisors should keep in mind when a student might prefer to attend
recovery meetings when helping to plan course scheduling. Furthermore, faculty and academic
coaching should be able to provide academic guidance for students in recovery who may need
extra support.
For universities and colleges that do not have existing support or resources for students in
recovery on their campuses, they should provide support for students who want to establish
CRCs. Universities often have limited resources or allocated funds for specific support services.
However, like in the case of Phoebe, she worked with a small group to apply for and utilize a
grant to support the newly developed recovery support network on her campus. This shows that
support for recovering students can come from just a few people who want to help.
Below is a list of 10 suggestions for various university departments and stakeholders and
how they might support students in recovery. These suggestions are based on the interview
process and what some colleges and universities are currently doing well or what some
participants feel their campus environments are missing.
To help fight stigma on campus:
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● First Year Experience - Education on available recovery resources and where to
find them on campus
● Deans/Provosts/Board of Directors - Regularly having open conversations with
students, staff or faculty in recovery to make recovery conversations a regular part
of campus life
● Campus Activities/Student Affairs - Substance free events or sections at tailgates,
sporting events or other campus events
● Registrar/Academic Advisors - Substance use, abuse and addiction awareness
courses for credit or requirement of general education
To provide support for students in recovery:
● Student Health Services - Collaboration between mental health, medical health
and recovery services
● Residential Education/ Housing - Sober living floors or dormitories
● Student Basic Needs - Access to food, housing, or emergency funds to students in
recovery in need of support
● Campus security/ Local Police Office - Contact campus recovery services for
students with low-level drug or alcohol crimes or consumption violations before
seeking criminalization
To provide opportunities of service for students in recovery:
● Admissions - Recruit for students in recovery by advertising recovery support
available on campus and utilize current students to help share their experience
● Peer Recovery Mentor Program – allow upper classmen in recovery to mentor
lower classmen in recovery and campus life
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The research in this study aligns with research that shows that college students in
recovery need support of their university peers, professors and administrators to feel supported
and to thrive (Grahovac, Holleran Steiker, Sammons & Millichamp, 2011; Wiebe, Cleveland, &
Harris, 2010; Bell et al., 2009; Iarussi, 2018; Perron et al., 2011). The suggestions above are
some ways this can be achieved. Furthermore, it is possible that the themes found in this study,
described above, could be applied to all people in recovery. The experiences of the participants,
other than some experiences taking place in classrooms or with teachers, could take place
elsewhere. It is possible these experiences are applicable to being in recovery and not unique to
only college students in recovery. Further research on people in recovery could help determine
how the experiences of students in recovery compare to people in recovery, outside of an
academic setting.
Recommendations for Future Research
The researcher of this study has three general recommendations for future research on
students in recovery. The first recommendation would be to do a study on a specific area or
university. The second recommendation would be to focus specifically on traditional college
students - specifically those 18 to 23 years old, to see if their experiences differ. The third
recommendation would be to focus on the experiences of students of color in recovery. These
recommendations stem from the existing research on students in recovery and from the data
collected during this study.
A study on students in recovery in a specific university or city/region could dive into the
resources available, or not, in the community and the needs of its students. One participant in
this study spoke of her experience going to a recovery center, hours away from where she lived,
because there was nothing available in her local community. This experience is very specific to
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where this participant lives. A study that focused, for example, on this participant's community,
might be able to find how not having local community or university resources can impact or even
hinder a student’s recovery process. Furthermore, for universities that have established recovery
networks, it would be beneficial to uncover what students find helpful to their recovery process.
Some campus recovery centers, as described by the participants in this study, offer events such
as guest speakers or movie nights, while others are just for recovery meetings. A dive into one
of these communities could look at what the sense of community is like and if it is beneficial to
their students in recovery there. This study would fall in line with current research that states a
sense of community is important for students in recovery (Iarussi, 2018; Wiebe, Cleveland &
Harris, 2010; Grahovac, Holleran Steiker, Sammons & Millichamp, 2011; Perron et al., 2011).
A study such as this could utilize Bronfenbrenner’s (1979, 1993, 2005) theories to see the impact
of the environment on the recovery process, for one university or community.
The second recommendation would be to look specifically at traditionally aged college
students in recovery - specifically those who go into college without an addiction, quickly form
an abusive relationship with AOD, and seek help and treatment while still in college. This would
be a very niche study but could uncover details about the role of substance in typical college life.
In this study, only one participant could fit this specification. However, many of the participants
spoke of their attempts to go to college prior to sticking with recovery. Ross and DeJong (2018)
call this the College Effect, describing students who enter college as non-drinkers and develop
AOD addiction in college. Further research by White, Becker-Blease, & Grace-Bishop, (2006)
discuss the campus social environments that involved dorm or fraternity parties, campus bars,
and so on, that encourage drinking and consumption. Recovery Capital could be utilized to
guide this study to understand the capital that aid students in recovery through college (Cloud &
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Granfield, 1996). Furthermore, college campuses that heavily promote their collegiate sports
through tailgating and campus bars can lead to negative consequences on game days (Lenk,
Toomey, and Erickson, 2009; Filce, Halls, & Phillips, 2016). A study on students that fit this
group could investigate not what causes students to engage in AOD use, but specifically what
kind of support and programing can aid in recovery, while maintaining an active social life on
campus.
The researcher initially planned to incorporate the tenets of Critical Race Theory into this
study because of the connection to recovery. After exploring CRT as a framework to this study,
the researcher felt that Recovery Capital, Brofenbrenner and Intersectionality would best guide
the purpose of this study specific study; however, CRT would be a strong framework to focus on
a study of college students of color in recovery. The researcher felt that tenets one, two, and
four, specifically connected with the experiences of students in recovery. The first tenet declared
that “racism is routine, not exceptional” (Delgado & Stefancic, 2007, p. 1). Here the researchers
express that racism is not a thing of the past, but an everyday part of life for many people of
color (Delgado & Stefancic, 2007, 2017; Tate, 1997). This is imperative to understanding that
people of color experience racism in a way that is not always obvious to the outside observer.;
this is similar to how students in recovery face judgement and stigmatization (Kulesza et al,
2016). A future study could explore how stigmas, stereotypes, and prejudice impact everyday
life, if at all, for students of color in recovery. The second tenet, interest convergence is the
notion that white people only want to help people of color, when the result will benefit them as
well. Delgado & Stefancic (2007) reference Derrick Bell’s 1980 work that discussed the case of
Brown v Board of Education, which addressed the segregation of schools as unconstitutional,
was actually in favor of white people in power. The understanding of interest convergence could
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be utilized to understand how and when, students in recovery receive help, and who are the
students who get help. Furthermore, Bell (1995) describes the use of counter-storytelling, tenet
four, as an “unapologetic use of creativity”. For students in recovery, sharing their narrative is a
way for them to speak of their experiences free from stigma or judgement of what the norm
should be. A future study could utilize a narrative analysis method to fully hear the experiences
of students in recovery. In addition to CRT, intersectional could be used to better understand the
students’ experiences based on their various characteristics (Crenshaw, 1988; 1990). By utilizing
a critical lens, future researchers can employ these tenets to better understand the experiences of
students of color in recovery and how these circumstances impact their time in college.
Conclusion
The process of writing this dissertation has been incredibly personal for me. My oldest
sister has been in recovery for over seven years, with a history of addiction going back years
before that. At the time of her addiction, I was quite young and was not completely aware of
what was going on; I was content to brush things aside as just a part of life. That changed as I
grew older, left home for college, and began to notice the struggles she faced. When I applied to
graduate school my senior year of college, one university notified me that my GPA was too low
and asked me to explain. I remember sitting in my apartment near my college campus and
reflecting, for maybe the first time, on what I had accomplished in the past four years in college.
Instead of writing about what I had done, I wrote about my sister’s addiction, the death of my
infant niece, and how my family was all still grieving and trying to move forward. Years later,
when I applied to my doctoral program, I wrote about my sister’s recovery. I also wrote about
how my desire to work in education initially began years earlier with my nephew, her son; that I
had wanted to help kids like him, who faced obstacles outside of their control. My career in
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education led me from a classroom teacher to higher education, but the goal to be a support
system and mentor for students who needed extra care, remained the same. When the time came
to pick a topic for my dissertation, it seemed serendipitous to write about the topic that had
inspired me throughout my own journey with education. I often feel that my sister’s addiction,
alongside the guidance of my other two sisters, influenced the path I took and choices I made in
my education, profession and personal life. Their support got me to where I am now.
My oldest sister did not go to college, but I found myself curious about what it might
have been like for her if she had. I thought of my own love of learning and wondered if my
experience might have been different if I had suffered from a substance use disorder, instead of
her. These questions guided me as I began my own research on students in recovery. It was an
interesting experience to speak to people I had never met before about such personal topics. In
most of the interviews, I felt an immediate and personal connection with these individuals. I
laughed with them and cried with them as they shared their most personal stories of addiction
and recovery. It continued to amaze me each time someone opened up to me and trusted me.
Some of the participants were very confident in their story, because they shared it on a regular
basis. Others stumbled over words or would stare off camera, when they spoke of their past
addiction. When I started to realize a participant had not shared their story with anyone else
before, I would ask them why they chose to share with me. The answers were almost always the
same - they wanted to help. If it was possible that their story could help address stigma or help
another person in recovery, they wanted to do it. To me, this was an amazing demonstration of
strength and character for these individuals; to discuss their past, which many of them wanted to
move forward from, just for the possibility to help someone else. That is what I hope this
research will accomplish, to help students in recovery.
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As a researcher and someone who works in higher education, as well as the sister of
someone in recovery, I feel it is incredibly important for universities and communities to
acknowledge the resilience of students and individuals in recovery. This demographic of
students utilize their recovery capital, to make the active choice to lead a life in recovery (Cloud
& Granfield, 1996). Many students in recovery, like the participants of this study and like my
sister does today, find themselves in a position to give back to others struggling with substance
use disorders or working towards recovery. The intersectionality of each part of them plays a
role in how their recovery will take place (Crenshaw, 1988, 1990), and ultimately their
environment and the people they surround themselves with, are an active choice in their recovery
(Brofenbrenner, 1979, 1993, 2005).

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Appendix A

Interview protocol

Introduction
First, I want to thank you for being a part of this study. I look forward to hearing your story.

Explanation of the purpose of interview
Through this study I hope to understand your experience as a college student in recovery. Keep
in mind, there are no right or wrong answers, and please trust that I am coming from a place of
understanding and will listen to you, without judgement. I have a list of guiding questions that
will guide our discussion but would love to hear your story as you want to tell it. We can refer to
my questions as needed be please ask me questions or add comments when you have them.

[Why this is important to me …]

Explanation of confidentiality
I will be interviewing other participants who are also college students in recovery. Each
interview will be confidential. I will not publish your name or connect you directly with anything
that you say. I may use a quote or excerpts in the study, but I will use a pseudonym, in place of
your real name.

Request to record
Because my goal is to understand your experience, I want to be sure to capture every moment we
spend together - with your consent, I would like to record our meeting. Are you okay with me
recording this conversation? If so, I will start the recording shortly. After our meeting, I will
transcribe the recording

Member Check
After the study, I will share an unedited copy of the transcription with you to ensure that
everything that was said was recorded and captured appropriately. If there is any part that is
transcribed incorrectly, we can edit it at that time.

Freedom not to answer
At any point, if you want me to stop recording please let me know - and we will stop. If there are
any questions or topics that you would rather not answer or discuss that is completely fine. Your
participation is completely voluntary and appreciated.

Timeframe
I anticipate our conversation will last roughly an hour, but we may end sooner or later depending
on how our conversation goes. There’s not an exact time frame.
( However, I have reserved this conference room for a full two hours, so in case we run over, we
will not be disturbed. )

ADDICTION RECOVERY IN COLLEGE
101

Before we begin, I just want to thank you, again, for your participation in this study. I look
forward to hearing your story and learning from you. Lastly, do you have any questions for me?
If not, I’ll start recording now.

College
● Where do you attend college?
● Do you work full time/part time as well?
● What are you studying?
● Have you attended any other colleges?
● Do you hold any other degrees?
● Were you in recovery prior to going to college?
● How long have you been in recovery?

I’d like to ask some background questions regarding your identity
● How would you describe your identity - for example, if someone asked you to describe
yourself, what would you say?
● What do these identities mean to you?

Recovery
● Does your college have a recovery center? Or any kind of recovery support?
● Would you like to talk about your experience with addiction?
● Why did you seek recovery?
● How has recovery impacted your personal life?
● What has your recovery process been like?
○ Did you use AA or NA or another kind of support group?
○ Where did you seek treatment?
○
● Do you feel you have a community in recovery?
● Do you feel like recovery impacted your choice to attend college?

Support v. Stigma / support systems
● How do you feel supported in your recovery process?
○ How are you supported
○ Who makes you feel supported?
○ Why do you think they support you
● Do your coworkers and/or classmates know of your recovery status?
○ Why or why not?
● Do you feel like you face stigma on your campus - how so?
○ Do you recall who made you feel this way?
○ Why do you think they did/said/made you feel that way?
ADDICTION RECOVERY IN COLLEGE
102

● How have you felt oppressed in your addiction or recovery at your school, if at all?

● Have you shared your personal story of recovery before?
● Why or why not?
● where/for what reason?
ADDICTION RECOVERY IN COLLEGE
103

Appendix B
Call for Participants - Solicitation Email

Dear Potential Participant,

My name is Vanessa and I am a Doctoral Candidate at the University of Southern California. I
am looking for participants to join a study that will be used for my dissertation. I hope to
understand the experiences of students in addiction recovery during college, as well as, the
factors might impact that experience. This topic is incredibly close to my heart because addiction
and recovery have been a part of my family for many years. I hope this study will potentially
provide better support to students in recovery, in the future.

Potential participants must meet the following requirements:
1. Over the age of 18
2. Must be in recovery for at least one year, prior to participating in this study
3. Must be currently or recently enrolled in college courses
4. Be willing to share their experience with recovery

Selected participants will join me for a one on one interview about their experiences with addi
ction recovery - interviews will last roughly an hour to an hour and a half. Interviews will be
held in person or via zoom, depending on availability.

Participation in this study will be completely voluntary and confidential. Participants are
encouraged to suggest other possible participants, who may be interested to join the study.
Participants will be given a $15 gift card for their participation, at the end of the interview
process.

If you are interested in participating in this study, please reach out to me directly. You will be
notified if you are selected to join this study.
Thank you for your interest in this study and I hope to hear from you soon.

Warm Regards,
Vanessa Ault

ADDICTION RECOVERY IN COLLEGE
104

Appendix C
Call for Participants Flyer 1

ADDICTION RECOVERY IN COLLEGE
105

Appendix D
Call for Participants Flyer 2

ADDICTION RECOVERY IN COLLEGE
106

Appendix E
Dissertation Participant Questionnaire

Thank you for your interest in this study. Please complete the brief questionnaire below. Any
information you share will be confidential.
● Name:
● Email:
● Are you at least 18 years of age or older?
○ Yes
○ No
● Are you a current college student?
○ Yes
○ No
○ Other
● Where do you currently attend college/Where were you recently enrolled? (Please
include college/university name, city and state)
● What are you studying? (Degree, area of focus, major, etc.)
● How long have you been in recovery?
○ 0 - 6 months
○ 6 months - 1 year
○ 1 - 2 years
○ More than 2 years
○ Other
● Are you willing to share your personal story on your recovery process, in a one on one
interview?
○ Yes
○ No
● Please select your race or ethnicity
○ African American/Black
○ American Indian/ Native American
○ Asian/ Asian American/ Asian Pacific Islander
○ Hispanic/ Latino/a/x
○ White/Caucasian
○ Multiracial
○ Prefer not to answer
○ Other
● Please select your gender identity
○ Gender Queer, Gender Non-Confirming, Non-Binary
○ Woman
ADDICTION RECOVERY IN COLLEGE
107

○ Man
○ Transgender
○ Prefer not to answer
○ Other
● Please select your preferred pronouns
○ She/her/hers
○ He/him/his
○ They/them/their
○ Ze/Hir/Hirs
○ Prefer not to answer
○ Other
● Other/Additional Identities (check all that apply)
○ In Recovery
○ First Generation College Student
○ Adopted
○ Undocumneted/ DACA
○ Veteran
○ Foster Youth
○ Parent
○ LGBTQ+
○ Religious Minority
○ Prefer not to answer
○ Other
● General availability for in person or online interview? (for example: weekends only;
MWF after 5, etc).
● Do you have any questions for me at this time?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this study is to examine the experiences of students in addiction recovery in college. Addiction impacts a vast number of Americans each year

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Asset Metadata

Creator Ault, Vanessa H. (author)

Core Title A narrative analysis of students in addiction recovery in college

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 07/22/2020

Defense Date 06/01/2020

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Addiction,Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory,collegiate recovery centers,desired centered,intersectionality,non-traditional student,OAI-PMH Harvest,recovery,recovery capital,stigma,student in recovery,substance use disorder

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Hinga, Briana (committee chair), Andres, Mary (committee member), French, Quade (committee member)

Creator Email vanessahault@gmail.com,vault@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-346204

Unique identifier UC11664331

Identifier etd-AultVaness-8731.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-346204 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-AultVaness-8731.pdf

Dmrecord 346204

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Ault, Vanessa H.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA