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Gender equity in career technical education: women in aviation

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Gender equity in career technical education: women in aviation

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Content Running head: GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 1

GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION: WOMEN IN AVIATION

by
Kathleen Reiland

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2019

Copyright 2019 Kathleen Reiland

GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Through this research and the Women in Aviation International Conference, I had the
opportunity to interview some extraordinary women pilots with inspirational stories of
determination, service, and courage. I am indebted to them for their willingness to share their
journeys, insights, and recommendations for those women who might follow in their footsteps. I
would also like to recognize the Fullerton Chapter of the Ninety-Nines International
Organization of Women Pilots for epitomizing the generous nature of women giving back and
helping students find their way to the sky.
I would like to thank Dr. Pensavalle and Dr. Hasan for their leadership, for chairing this
dissertation, and especially, for facilitating the thought-provoking conservations with our cohort.
I would like to thank Dr. Lynn Shaw for serving on my committee and for her advocacy with
women in nontraditional careers and for her work in career technical education for the California
Community Colleges. I also want to thank my cohort, with special appreciation to Jennifer
Gerson, whose guidance was particularly helpful. To my coworkers, thank you for supporting
this research and for working tirelessly to help our students be successful in achieving their
dreams. I am also appreciative of my colleagues in the airline industry, who made this work
possible by giving me exceptional opportunities to lead and be part of the legacies that are
Pacific Southwest Airlines and US Airways.
Lastly, I would like to thank my family, especially my mother and my children for
enduring my frenetic schedule with patience and support. I am so proud of you for embracing
life, following your dreams, and prevailing with relentless determination. You are my
inspiration. Thank you, all.

GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 3

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 2
LIST OF TABLES 5
LIST OF FIGURES 6
ABSTRACT 7
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY 9
Background of the Problem 9
Statement of the Problem 14
Purpose of the Study 15
Theoretical Framework 16
Methodology 17
Significance of the Study 18
Limitations and Delimitations 18
Definition of Terms 20
Organization of the Study 21
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 22
Influence of Institutional Characteristics 23
STEM-Based Career Technical Education––Disaggregation Matters 24
Development Theories: Applicability to Women in Aviation 26
Non-Conformity to Female Norms 29
A Case for Self-Efficacy 30
The Role of College Mentors, Career Planning, and Financial Aid 31
Careers of Caring Versus Individual Achievement 32
Summary 37
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 38
Sample and Population 41
Instrumentation 42
Quantitative Instrument: Survey and Protocols 43
Data Collection 47
Quantitative Data Collection: Survey and GSE Scale 47
Qualitative Data Collection: Interview and Interview Protocols 48
Document Review: Triangulation of Data Collection 50
Limitations 51
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 4

Timeline 51
Summary 52
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS 54
Participating Stakeholders 54
Survey Results and Findings for Factors Influencing Gender Equity in Aviation 57
Interview Results and Findings: Women Who Break From Gendered Norms 70
Non-conformity to Female Norms: Catalyst Experiences 71
Culture of Caring Versus Achievement 73
Self-Efficacy 74
Influence of Institutional Characteristics 77
Document Review Findings and Results 79
Summary of Findings and Pilots’ Advice to Students 81
Summary 85
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS 86
Implications 86
The Catalyst Experience: Why Mentors and Role Models Matter 87
Knowledge and Skill Practice: Why Hands-On Training Matters 88
Motivation: Provide Opportunities for Learning to Overcome Failures and Naysayers 89
Organizational and Cultural Barriers: Mind the Gap–Disaggregated Metrics Matter 90
Future Research: Women’s Movement–Does the Era Make a Difference? 92
Conclusion 93
REFERENCES 94
APPENDIX A The Quantitative Survey Using the General Self-Efficacy Scale 98
APPENDIX B The Qualitative Interview Protocol and Script 108
APPENDIX C Survey Responses to Open-ended Questions 1-3 111

GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 5

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Literature Review Summary 34
Table 2: Methodology Overview 40
Table 3: Summary of Subjects’ Demographic Variables 44
Table 4: General Self-Efficacy Scale (Adults) 46
Table 5: Gantt Chart Schedule of Data Collection and Analysis 52
Table 6: Participating Military and Commercial Pilots 57
Table 7: Student Enrollment Age by Career Choice 59
Table 8: Ethnicity by Career Choice 60
Table 9: Students’ Previous Education Levels 61
Table 10: General Self-Efficacy Scale (Adults) 64
Table 11: Self-Efficacy Scores From High to Low 65
Table 12: Open-ended Survey Questions 66
Table 13: Survey Responses to Question 1: Coded by Theme 67
Table 14: Survey Responses to Question 1: Coded by Theme 68
Table 15: Survey Responses to Question 3–Coded by Theme 69
Table 16: Summary of Subjects Moment(s) of Inspiration 71
Table 17: Federal Aviation Administration’s Civil Airmen Data 81
Table 18: Summary of Findings and Pilot Recommendations 82
Table 19: The Catalyst Experience: Recommendations for Educators 88

Table 20: Mind the gap: Closing the Gaps–Recommendations for Educators 92
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 6

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Percentage of Cyan College students by gender enrolled in flight attendant and pilot
classes (Cal-PASS, 2018). 11

Figure 2: Flight attendant enrollment by gender–California (Cal-PASS, 2018). 13
Figure 3: Pilot enrollment by gender–California (Cal-PASS, 2018). 13
Figure 4: Spring 2019 aviation headcount by program. 55
Figure 5: Survey participation by career choice and gender. 56
Figure 6: Student survey respondents by gender and major. 58
Figure 7: Age of professional female pilot participant. 59
Figure 8: Academic history self-assessment. 60
Figure 9: Students’ previous education levels. 62
Figure 10: Financial situation. 62
Figure 11: Annual income of survey respondents. 63
Figure 12: Ranked self-efficacy sum scores. 66
Figure 13: Fall semester enrollment by gender from 1992 to 2018. 80
Figure 14: Historical trends of women as percentage of total pilots. 92

GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 7

ABSTRACT
With only 4.4% of the airline transport pilots in the United States being female (FAA,
2018), the purpose of this study was to investigate factors that influence the career choices of
women in aviation and to identify attributes that may contribute to their ability to break from
gendered norms. Under the umbrella of a transformative conceptual framework (Creswell, 2014),
this study sought to investigate and advocate for gender equity in the traditionally male pilot
career. Within that conceptual framework, the research studied a key construct in social
cognitive theory (Bandura, 1977, 2012), which suggests that a strong sense of personal self-
efficacy is related to better health, higher achievement, and more social integration (Conner &
Norman, 1995; Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995). Given that higher levels of achievement correlate
with pilots, a mixed-method research approach began with a quantitative survey analysis, using
the psychometric General Self-Efficacy Scale (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995). This scale
includes ten questions designed to measure one’s perceived self-efficacy. The operative construct
is that coping and adaption skills can predict behavior and attribution of success and persistence
in the face of barriers (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995). The survey was provided to 228 aviation
students enrolled at a community college (N=78 or 34% response rate), and 8 women pilots
(N=7 or 88% response rate). As expected, the pilots scored highest in self-efficacy with a mean
sum score of 35.5 out of a possible 40 points. Female pilot students scored higher at 33.80 than
their male counterparts at 32.63 points. Scores for female flight attendant students at 31.88 points
were almost 2 points lower than the female pilot students, but they were higher than their male
peers at 30.88 points. This quantitative analysis was followed by qualitative interviews with 6
female professional pilots, three commercial airline, and three military pilots. In 100% of the
pilot interviews, it was clear that the pilots charted their own path after witnessing an opportunity
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 8

to do something out of the ordinary. In some cases, this catalyst experience was a spur of the
moment event like a visit to an airshow, but it also came from spending time at the airport with
grandpa on Friday nights watching planes land, attending a summer flying camp, visiting the
cockpit while on a trip with mom, or watching a father fly a plane. These experiences ignited the
teens’ imagination to dream big, even when the people making those moments possible were
often skeptical about a pilot career–especially for girls. These pilots asked questions, sought
mentors, overcame failure, prepared for tough assignments, joined formal and informal support
groups, worked hard, felt pressure to represent their gender, managed stress, challenged
conventional norms, and dismissed the naysayers. Above all else, they persevered as pathmakers,
and they continue to encourage girls to join them in their journey. In spite of the pilots’ success,
a document review of the most recent enrollment and pilot hiring trends was conducted to
determine if the perception that more women pilots are being employed was valid. Due to an
overall increase in the number of pilots being hired, more women are actually being hired, but
the percentage of women airline transport pilots relative to the total number of airline transport
pilots, has only increase by .02% over the previous year or a dismal .4% since 2004. Yet, in
terms of implications for practice, there is optimism in the research findings. If educators apply
the lessons learned from these pilots into teachable moments, it could help perpetuate a tipping
point for gender equity in aviation where girls might see how they fit within a paradigm they
may never have imagined for themselves. Lastly, we are on the eve of the 100
th
anniversary of
women’s suffrage with marches, women running for office, and the “me too” movement. Future
research could determine what impact, if any, this cultural power dynamic has on women’s
empowerment and their perceived self-efficacy to pursue advanced technical careers.
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 9

CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Cyan College, a pseudonym for a California Community College, qualifies as a
predominantly Hispanic-serving 2-year public institution with 16,556 students. With the help of
two bond measures, the college has undergone major renovations that have contributed to a
beautifully maintained campus with water features and a parklike setting. Within the past five
years, various agencies have ranked it among the top five community colleges in California, and
many of its career education programs rank among the top community college programs across
the nation. By most accounts, the college is a positive place to learn and work.
Background of the Problem
Fifty percent of the departments at the college carry a career technical education (CTE)
designation under the California Taxonomy of Programs code (TOPs code), placing the college
among those with the highest percentage of CTE students served in California. Among these
CTE TOP coded programs, the Aviation and Travel Careers (ATC) Department provides
instruction for students pursuing careers as pilots, flight attendants, customer service agents,
operations control agents, and aviation managers. Career pathways for students in the ATC
Program include transfer to 4-year institutions, associate degrees, and certificates. To be hired
with a commercial airline, flight attendants typically require two years of college, while pilots
typically require a 4-year bachelor’s degree in addition to their flight time. Although the college
has a strong track record of serving CTE students since 1967, the ATC Department has struggled
to increase the number of female students pursuing higher-paying commercial pilot careers.
For the past seven years, the department has been receiving $75,000 to $85,000 annually
in Carl D. Perkins IV grant funds for the stated purpose of encouraging nontraditional students to
consider higher-paying careers as commercial pilots. For these purposes, “nontraditional” refers
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 10

to students of color and women. Since 2009, the program has seen a substantial increase in the
number of Hispanic male students in the commercial pilot program, but it is difficult to attribute
these increases to any grant-related activities because the Hispanic and White populations at the
college have shifted so disproportionately. Since 2009, when the two ethnicities were essentially
tied with about 28% to 29% each of the student population, the number of Hispanic students has
increased to 47% and the number of White students has dropped to 20%. While women make up
the majority of students at the college (by 10 percentage points), they remain substantially
underrepresented in the pilot program with a ratio of 1:3.6 of women to men. In the 2014-2015
school year, the number of women in the pilot program dropped from an all-time high of 48
students in 2011-2012 to a low of 30 students. Further, of the 144 pilot students enrolled in the
2014-2015 academic year, 76% (n = 110) were men and 21% (n = 30) were women; the
remaining four students did not report a gender. This 21% proportion of female pilot students
illustrated in Figure 1 is still higher, however, than the percentage of female airline pilots in the
United States, which remains at 4.36% (Goyer, 2016).
The ATC Program’s higher ratio of women could be viewed as a positive sign that the
grant-related counseling and mentoring efforts are effective, but only if those female students
persist and become commercial pilots. Moreover, the female pilot student ratio is only slightly
better than the ratios identified in the research, where women and girls make up fewer than 1 in 4
students in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM)-related CTE programs,
fewer than 1 in 6 students in manufacturing and architecture- and construction-related career
programs, and fewer than 1 in 10 students in transportation, distribution, and logistics (Institute
for Women’s Policy Research, 2013).
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 11

Figure 1. Percentage of Cyan College students by gender enrolled in flight attendant and
pilot classes (Cal-PASS, 2018).

Given this gender gap, it is useful to place these results in the context of aviation
programs available to community college students throughout California. Statewide, there are
two TOP codes for community college aviation programs. The first, 0950, is aligned with aircraft
maintenance programs. The second, 3020, is aligned with airport services and is disaggregated
by 6-digit TOP codes as aviation management 3020.10, pilot 3020.20, air traffic control 3020.30,
and flight attendant 3020.40. The Cyan College aviation programs all fall under the TOP code
3020, so the college’s partners typically involve four of the Southern California colleges and a
few colleges out of the area that send teams to the flying team competitions.
In addition to Cyan College, only two other California community colleges offer both
flight attendant and pilot programs. However, because the one flight attendant program is
relatively small, much of their data is not statistically significant for the purposes of this study
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 12

and, therefore, the school is not included. Coral College, also a pseudonym, is much like Cyan
College and provides the strongest comparison because it has had both flight attendant and pilot
programs for more than 20 years, and both these colleges offer similar certificates and degrees.
Although Coral College has a larger overall student population, the programs have had similar
pilot and flight attendant enrollments with similar trend fluctuations over time. Coral College has
seen some declining enrollment in the flight attendant program. However, because the two
colleges are both located with the same region, they have relatively comparable demographics,
making the overall employment outlook similar.
Notably, enrollment by gender in both college programs reflects a pattern similar to that
of other colleges in that students select career choices that reflect proportionally more women in
the flight attendant program and more men in the commercial pilot program. The correlation is
slightly less skewed at Cyan College, but these data seem to suggest a similar ascription to
gendered norms, as the statewide norms illustrated in Figures 2 and 3 below.

GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 13

Figure 2. Flight attendant enrollment by gender–California (Cal-PASS, 2018).

Figure 3. Pilot enrollment by gender–California (Cal-PASS, 2018).
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 14

While Cyan College has slightly more female students in the commercial pilot program
(23%) than the statewide average of 17%, males represent more than 80% of the students
enrolled in commercial pilot programs in California community colleges. Thus, the equity gap in
higher-paying aviation jobs not only cuts across the airline industry, it is apparent in the
institutions that train future commercial pilots. This gender equity gap in a more advanced area
of CTE education is important. Even though both pilot and flight attendant students receive
similar career counseling and mentoring at Cyan College, female students still overwhelmingly
opt for the more typically female role of flight attendant where there is far less autonomy, career
advancement, and financial security. Therefore, while the number of students receiving
certificates, degrees, and transfers is higher in the flight attendant program, those students have
selected a career with less long-term financial security.
Statement of the Problem
Research illustrates that women often pursue healthcare or child-development types of
CTE, and men continue to dominate in STEM-related CTE careers (Lester, 2010). Women in
aviation are no exception in that they still tend to opt for the more historically female role of
flight attendant where there is far less autonomy, career advancement, and financial security. The
median earnings for a flight attendant are estimated at $40,123, or less than half that of a pilot
with a median income of $88,327 (Cal-Pass Plus, 2016), and today’s top airline captains are
making close to $300,000 or more per year according to a colleague who works for a commercial
airline. Over the course of a 30-year career, choosing a flight attendant career over a commercial
pilot career could amount to a loss of $2 to $3 million in salary, seriously impacting a woman’s
lifetime earning power. A deeper exploration is necessary to understand both the expected and
unexpected realities that may be leading women from essentially the same geographic location,
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 15

with similar demographic backgrounds, to choose traditionally female careers while few others
break from female gendered norms to choose the traditionally male-oriented pilot careers.
Purpose of the Study
The literature review helps to define the issues and frame the exploration for what makes
some women choose traditional careers while others may break from historically gendered career
norms. The purpose of this study was to investigate how these issues may relate to the lack of
female participation and persistence in the commercial pilot curriculum, an advanced area of
CTE. Specifically, this research examined the development theories, attributes, and barriers that
may have implications for educators in STEM and advanced areas of CTE who hope to recruit
and maintain larger populations of women.
Although much attention and funding has been given to increasing female participation in
STEM-based CTE, we know from the literature that critical factors play a role in women
persisting. These include self-efficacy traits (Allison & Cossette, 2007; Bandura, 1977; Zeldin,
Britner, & Pajares, 2008); non-conformity to female norms (Lester, 2010; Mahalik et al., 2005);
emancipatory goals (Bloom, 2016; Clark, 2006; Josselson, 1996); support services (Szelényi,
Denson, & Inkelas, 2013); family and institutional support (Hayden, Ouyang, Scinski,
Olszewski, & Bielefeldt, 2011; Lester, 2010); financial resources; and mentors (Parker,
Barnhardt, Pascarella, & Mccowin, 2016).
The following research questions provided the foundation for investigating the theoretical
underpinnings identified in the literature as they relate to the personal characteristics and factors
that may enable some women to step away from female-ascribed careers to choose and persist in
more challenging areas of advanced STEM-based CTE.
1. What factors influence the career choices of women in aviation?
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 16

a. Are there critical factors, including women’s knowledge and skills, their
motivation, and organizational barriers (Clark & Estes, 2008) contributing to an
equity gap?
2. What attributes contribute to a woman’s ability to break from gendered norms to persist
in a traditionally male-dominated pilot career?
a. Are there unique personal characteristics that contribute to one career choice over
another?
Theoretical Framework
A key construct in social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1977) suggests that a strong sense of
personal self-efficacy is related to better health, higher achievement, and more social integration
(Conner & Norman, 1995; Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995). Given that higher levels of
achievement correlate to female pilots, this personal self-efficacy construct, together with a
conceptual framework of transformation (Creswell, 2014), provides the foundation for
investigating and advancing gender equity for women in aviation. Moving from the theoretical
analysis to a quantitative data analysis, the research sought to explore differences in self-efficacy
traits, resources, and support among male and female students enrolled in community college-
level flight attendant and pilot classes. This research was followed by a qualitative analysis of the
experiences of six women commercial or military pilots to explore further these women’s
knowledge and skills, their motivation and self-efficacy, and any organizational, empowerment,
financial, or cultural barriers they may have experienced or had to overcome (Clark & Estes,
2008). The findings were expected to illuminate unknown causal factors or barriers that may be
useful for mitigating the gender gap in collegiate commercial pilot programs.
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 17

Methodology
A mixed-methods research approach contributed to an explanatory sequential process that
began with quantitative data collection and analysis that included a General Self-Efficacy (GSE)
Scale (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995). This scale includes 10 statements designed to measure
one’s perceived self-efficacy, in which higher levels of self-efficacy reflect an optimistic self-
belief and predict successful coping mechanisms. The operative construct is that coping and
adaption skills can predict behavior and attributes of success that “facilitates goal-setting, effort
investment, persistence in the face of barriers and recovery from setbacks” (Schwarzer &
Jerusalem, 1995, p. 1). While the instrument was originally developed in Germany, it has been
used internationally, including in the United States, for several decades: “in samples from 23
nations, Cronbach’s alphas ranged from .76 to .90, with the majority in the high .80s”
(Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995, p. 1).
This short, Likert-type scale was provided via a Qualtrics link to students by their
instructors teaching in the ATC Department. The higher preponderance of women in the flight
attendant program provided a rich sample of students from essentially the same geographic
location with presumably similar demographic backgrounds from which comparisons with the
female students in the pilot program could provide illuminating differences in self-efficacy. For
comparison, the GSE Scale was also provided to male students. Survey participants answered
demographic questions, along with three open-ended questions for them to comment on their
experience. The survey results were followed by qualitative data collection through interviews
with female commercial and military pilots to further explore factors that led to their success and
to reach an interpretation of the findings (Creswell, 2014, p. 220). This mixed-methods approach
enabled the triangulation of the quantitative survey results with information that was also
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 18

collected from the qualitative interview protocol with a document review of institutional research
data from the California Community College Chancellor’s Office and employment data from the
Federal Aviation Administrations’ Civil Airmen Data.
Significance of the Study
In aviation, women overwhelmingly opt for the historically lower-paying role of flight
attendant. Understanding the underlying causes for the gender gap among commercial pilots is
important for educators wanting to find ways to encourage women to break gender norms to
pursue careers in advanced areas of CTE and STEM. While women can often be found in careers
of caring, where there is far less autonomy, career advancement, and financial security, men
continue to dominate in higher-paying STEM-related CTE fields (Lester, 2010). Within the
community colleges, men continue to dominate in the commercial pilot programs. Research is
essential to uncover the critical factors that may influence women’s career choices and enable
them to choose and persist in advanced areas of CTE.
Limitations and Delimitations
The first limitation of this study is that, among the California community colleges, there
are only three with both flight attendant and pilot programs. Although all of these programs are
located in Southern California, in the case of one community college, the program is relatively
small, making it statistically less useful. In the case of Coral College, the flight attendant
program is aligned with the school’s Hospitality Department instead of their Aviation
Department. By contrast, the flight attendant program at Cyan College includes the commercial
pilot, airport operations, and aviation management options. As a result, the flight attendant
students at Cyan presumably have greater exposure and access to the more traditionally male
aspects of aviation, which may make the generalizability of this study and its findings difficult to
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 19

gauge in other contexts and locations. The second limitation is that the data collection had to
occur during the spring semester, which may have limited the number of student participants and
the availability of data about their corresponding long-term persistence and success rates. The
third limitation is that the college is a predominately Hispanic-servicing institution, which may
mean that this study’s mixed-methods survey and interview responses were not as representative
of other populations. The final limitation includes my bias as a researcher: I have taught aviation
courses at the community college level for 18 years and am now serving as the dean, with
oversight of the program. In addition, I have worked in the airline industry for 21 years in many
capacities, including flight attendant, director of pilot/flight attendant scheduling, and director of
customer services training. While I engage with our students on a regular basis, my position and
experience could influence the willingness of the participants to be candid. To address this
potential power dynamic, I provided the instructors with the survey link and included
instructions that clarified that the survey results would be completely confidential and could not
be tracked to individual students.
Among the delimitations, the first is my purposeful selection of this community college
because of my access to and familiarity with the students and the issues associated with a gap in
the success and persistence of women in the commercial pilot program. The second is specified
in the timeline necessary to complete the data collection which is that it had to be completed in
one semester. The final delimitation was my selection of the survey instrument, the GSE Scale
(Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995), the interview questions and protocols, and the data collection
and analysis measures.

GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 20

Definition of Terms
Career technical education (CTE): In the California community college system, courses
that are identified in the Taxonomy of Programs (TOP) with an asterisk are coded as career
technical education or CTE.
Airline transport pilot: A pilot certified to fly as pilot in command for a scheduled
commercial airline.
Flight attendant: A flight attendant certified to provide safety to airline passengers.
Self-efficacy: An optimistic self-belief that predicts successful coping mechanisms. The
operative construct is that coping and adaption skills can predict behavior and attribution of
success that “facilitates goal-setting, effort investment, persistence in the face of barriers and
recovery from setbacks” (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995, p. 1). Research has found that a strong
sense of personal efficacy is related to better health, higher achievement, and more social
integration (Conner & Norman, 1995).
Social cognitive theory: Albert Bandura at Stanford University introduced the concept of
perceived self-efficacy in the context of cognitive behavior modification, which has been applied
to student achievement, emotional disorders, mental and physical health, career choice, and
sociopolitical change. It is now a key variable in clinical, educational, social, developmental,
health, and personality psychology. It represents the key construct in social cognitive theory
(Bandura, 1977).
STEM-based CTE: STEM courses are generally known to be based on rigorous academic
concepts that integrate science, technology, engineering, and mathematics in contexts that make
connections among school, community, work, and the global enterprise. STEM-based CTE
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 21

refers to the advanced nature of some CTE programs, such as aviation, that apply STEM
concepts to applied career education.
TOP Codes: The California Community College Taxonomy of Programs (TOP) code
provides state level numerical coding to collect and report information on programs and courses
throughout the state. Courses and programs delineated with an asterisk qualify as CTE.
Organization of the Study
It was important to consider the potential causes for the gender gap in female
participation and persistence in the commercial pilot curriculum, an advanced area of CTE.
Chapter Two examines several themes that emerged in the literature review. These themes
served as a starting point for evaluating the differences in women’s knowledge and skills, their
motivation and self-efficacy, and any organizational, financial, or cultural barriers they
experience (Clark & Estes, 2008). In Chapter Three, the survey and GSE Scale (Schwarzer &
Jerusalem, 1995) was used to provide foundational insight for the next step, which was to
identify the qualitative interview protocol. This purpose of this process was to elicit an
understanding of the key self-efficacy and success strategies that women use to embrace and
persist in commercial pilot training. Chapter Four examined the data collection results in the
context of the literature review and the new concepts that emerged. Finally, Chapter Five
provided a summary of the key findings and their significance for the purpose of the study. In
addition, recommendations to foster female student participation in advanced areas of CTE was
defined to inform future curricular improvements.

GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 22

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE
This literature review facilitated a thematic examination of the student development
theories, processes, and outcomes that may have implications for educators of female students in
advanced areas of historically male CTE. The conceptual framework for this research study was
transformative (Creswell, 2014) in that its purpose was to investigate and advocate for gender
equity in higher-paying advanced careers. This review included identity, gender, and moral
development theories that may help to explain and mitigate the lack of female student
participation in collegiate commercial pilot programs. Specifically, the aviation program at Cyan
College in California has a 50-year track record of serving pilot and flight attendant students.
Yet, even with grant funding, the program has been unable to increase substantially the number
of female students pursuing higher-paying commercial pilot careers. This research was essential
because, even though both pilot and flight attendant students at the college come from the same
demographic area and receive essentially the same career counseling and mentoring, females still
overwhelmingly opt for the more typically female role of flight attendant, where there is far less
autonomy, career advancement, and financial security.
This literature review considered what organizational, financial, or cultural barriers may
contribute to the gender equity gaps in STEM and advanced areas of CTE (Clark & Estes, 2008).
In addition, the literature review examined factors that may facilitate a woman’s ability to break
from female gendered norms to choose and persist in traditionally male-oriented educational
programs. These include self-efficacy traits (Allison & Cossette, 2007; Bandura, 1977; Zeldin et
al., 2008); risk tolerance (Mahalik et al., 2003); non-conformity to female norms (Mahalik et al.,
2005; Lester, 2010); emancipatory goals (Bloom, 2016; Clark, 2006; Josselson, 1996); support
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 23

services (Szelényi et al., 2013); family and institutional support (Hayden et al., 2011; Lester,
2010); and mentors (Parker et al., 2016).
Influence of Institutional Characteristics
Ask any seasoned pilot, and they will be familiar with this famous quote attributed to
Leonardo da Vinci, “For once you have tasted flight you will walk the earth with your eyes
turned skywards, for there you have been and there you will long to return.” Therefore, it is not
surprising that, in a study of 28 four-year aviation colleges, Clark (2016) found that 62% of both
male and female students said they enrolled because they wanted to fly. While their motivation
was similar, the enrollment ratio was not. There were 6.5 males to every 1 female. Clark (2016)
investigated factors that influenced student selection of a 4-year commercial aviation program,
paying particular attention to gender and race. The survey research method used identified many
factors that drove students to enroll and that enabled them to persist. Clark’s investigation
confirmed the body of research concerning the underrepresentation of female and minority
students in aviation programs, but she found no conclusive differences in institutional
characteristics that contributed to the underrepresentation.
In researching what attracted students to college aviation programs, Clark (2016) found
that the 10 most influential characteristics were educational quality, university reputation,
condition of equipment, institutional educational quality, location of institution, small class size,
safety concerns, program characteristics, student-to-faculty ratio, and distance from home. These
findings are particularly relevant to this research project because the study included a large data
sample of 740 aviation students, with 85.5%, or 642, male and 13%, or 98, female (Clark, 2006).
Notably, 79.9%, or 600, were Caucasian, and only 4.7%, or 35, were Hispanic. Clark also
disaggregated the survey values by gender, which resulted in a surprising number of similarities
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 24

between male and female students in their motivation to fly (on average, 60%) and their feeling
that having similar gender and/or ethnicity mattered far less (between 4% and 6%). Women did,
however, report higher rates of family members being very influential at 22.9% versus men at
16.4%.
Clark’s (2006) research found many similarities between men and women, especially in
their motivation to fly and their feeling that having a similar gender or race mattered far less in
their success in the aviation program. Therefore, it is conceivable that there is less developmental
difference between men and women who enroll in pilot training, and greater developmental
difference between women who choose to enroll in the pilot versus the flight attendant program.
It may be that women aspiring to be pilots have uniquely different motivations, self-efficacy
traits, non-conformity to female norms, and higher rates of family members being influential to
their success than flight attendant students.
STEM-Based Career Technical Education––Disaggregation Matters
Women in advanced areas of CTE are not always readily identifiable unless they are
disaggregated from other areas of CTE such as cosmetology, childcare, and flight attendant. For
example, women represent the largest population of students at Cyan College, but they are
significantly underrepresented in technology-related areas. Yet, in recent years, the state
administrator for the Perkins Grant decided that the college should no longer use 6-digit TOPs
codes (Cyan College, 2016). In doing so, the Commercial Pilot TOPs code of 3020.20 and the
Flight Attendant TOPs code of 3020.40 were aggregated to the 2-digit 30 TOPs code. Not
surprisingly, the predominantly female students in the flight attendant program offset the lack of
women in the commercial pilot program. On the face of it, it looked like the aviation program
had achieved all of the state’s core indicator benchmarks, nullifying the need for future funding.
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 25

Cyan College sent a justification for continuing to disaggregate these subpopulations at the 6-
digit level to address student equity. In response, the state accepted the logic, but had the staff
missed the need for this disaggregation, the lack of gender equity would have been masked in the
aggregate.
It is important to note that Cyan College has been receiving these funds for seven years—
however, with limited success. An article by the Institute for Women’s Policy Research (2013)
pointed out that women and girls make up fewer than 1 in 4 students in STEM CTE programs;
fewer than 1 in 6 students in manufacturing and architecture-and construction-related CTE
programs; and fewer than 1 in 10 students in transportation, distribution, and logistics CTE
programs. Aviation falls into the last category, transportation, and the data correlate to the
number of female commercial pilots. Both the National Coalition for Women & Girls in
Education and the National Coalition of Women, Jobs, and Job Training, both of whom
collaborated with the Institute for Women’s Policy Research, argued for the reauthorization and
strengthening of the Perkins Career and Technical Education Act to improve women’s and girls’
access to the higher-paying CTE programs. This coalition of researchers stressed that
disaggregating data by gender, race, disability, parental status, income, and English learning
status is critical to providing an accurate understanding of how women and girls are faring in
CTE (Institute for Women’s Policy Research, 2013). Therefore, while funds are available
through the Perkins Act and the California Strong Workforce Initiative to promote gender equity
in training programs, the underlying reasons for the gaps must be defined if we are to make
productive use of the funding to actually produce meaningful changes to support gender equity in
advanced areas of CTE demographics.
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 26

It is worthwhile to note that, over the last 15 years, most high schools and colleges have
moved away from using the term “vocational” education to using “career technical education,”
or, in some cases, career education. Additionally, some STEM programs at the community
colleges have also moved to align with CTE because of the substantial funding being provided
for CTE TOP coded programs by the California Community College Chancellor Office’s Strong
Workforce Initiative. In STEM, as in advanced areas of CTE, there continues to be a gap in
gender equity for the higher-paying careers. In one longitudinal study, Szelényi et al. (2013)
followed 273 women enrolled in STEM for an overall measure of professional outcome
expectations in relation to the participants’ anticipation of the chances that they would get a good
job in their field, achieve success in their career, and be able to combine a professional career
with a balanced personal life. The researchers found that, when women attended a coeducational
STEM program and discussed academic and career issues with peers, the results were positively
correlated with the outcome measures. The study also pointed to the importance of self-efficacy
and interactions with diverse peers among women in higher education STEM programs. The
implications of this study are important for this research because they provide a framework for
exploring research questions related to the significance of disaggregated outcome expectations,
self-efficacy traits, and interactions with peers within STEM-related programs. Further, the use
of career discussions about professional outcome expectations may also serve to counterbalance
preconceived ideas about gendered majors in higher education.
Development Theories: Applicability to Women in Aviation
Identity development theory suggests that students move from adolescence to adulthood
by “balancing the internal self and the external environment” (Erickson, 1968, p. 288). Social
cognitive and gender schema theories support the idea that, by the time students enroll in college,
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 27

this balancing act has developed into students having preconceived ideas about what majors and
careers are appropriate for different genders (Patton, Renn, Guido-DiBrito, & Quaye, 2016). By
the time they graduate, women’s development theory (Josselson, 1996) suggests, female students
fall into primarily one of the following four identity statuses: guardians, searchers, pathmakers,
and drifters. Guardians, also called purveyors of the heritage, represent women who graduate
from college with identity commitment but no identity crisis or questioning of messages received
during childhood: In essence, they “adopt standards about sexual morality, occupation, and
religion based on parental beliefs” (Patton et al., 2016, p. 293). Searchers, or daughters of the
crisis, also internalize and believe in family values, but, when they are exposed to other ways of
being, they struggle to reconcile the conflict and often remain in a state of ambivalence and
uncertainty long after college. Pathmakers, or pavers of the way, on the other hand, “break the
psychological ties to their childhood and form separate, distinct identities” (Patton et al., 2016, p.
295). Notably, pathmakers were “women who had taken some risks and tried out new ways of
experiencing themselves that led them to integrate a stable sense of independence…they charted
their own course” (Josselson, 1996, p. 197). These women were often reported to be dissatisfied
with their major choices in college and looked for occupational opportunities more consistent
with their ideological and interpersonal identity. Lastly, drifters, also referred to as lost and
sometimes found (Patton et al., 2016, p. 295), represented college women who were notable for
their lack of crisis and commitment, and had a tendency to withdraw from challenging situations.
Twenty years later, drifters were still thinking about starting over and hoping for better
outcomes.
From Josselson’s (1996) four categories, the pathmakers’ ability to separate from the
psychological influences of their childhood and form separate, distinct identities would seem to
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 28

make them the best candidates for pursuing nontraditional careers in advanced CTE or STEM.
Their identity status, however, is by no means static, and if they are to persist in nontraditional
fields, they must continue to reconcile the internal self against the external environment
(Erickson, 1968), along with their preconceived ideas about what is appropriate for people of
different genders.
Although Patton et al. (2016) note that much of Josselson’s (1996) research is nearly 40
years old “and likely lacks applicability to today’s college students” (p. 308), something
happened 40 years ago that is remarkably significant for women in aviation. From 1960 to 1980,
female pilot representation grew from one in 21,417 pilots to one in 4,224, or “the best
representation of female pilots in the general populations ever” (Goyer, 2016, p.1). In other
words, the number of female pilots jumped 538% from 1960 to 1980. Since 1980, that number
has remained stagnant, even dropping to one in 5,623 pilots. So, what happened? Arguably,
Josselson’s (1996) path-maker category represents the strong feminist activity that took place
between 1960 and 1980, which could conceivably be re-emerging with contemporary women’s
marches and the recent and unprecedented levels of sexual assaults being made public. However,
it is important to note that while there is some overlap with the model of feminist identity
development, which places emphasis on overcoming the anger and emotional disdain women
feel for their marginalization, Josselson’s (1996) emphasis is more about setting out on a path of
one’s own and conforming less to female norms. In other words, there is an element of activist
self-efficacy implied in the pathmaker’s ability to chart a new course that is not as readily
apparent in other identity development theories. It may be that these elements of resiliency, self-
efficacy, and conforming less to female norms needs to be recognized, encouraged, and
reinforced for women to pursue and persist in historically male careers.
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 29

Non-Conformity to Female Norms
In a recent article, Roll (2017) points to a study by Oklahoma sociologists that links a
women’s higher rate of conformity to female norms as a negative influence on the odds of their
choosing STEM majors (Beutel, Burge, & Borden, 2017). The researchers used Mahalik et al.’s
(2005) Conformity to Feminine Norms Inventory (CFNI) to scale associations between specific
feminine and masculine norms and students’ college major choices. Beutel et al. (2017) found
that, although women have made progress in their educational attainment, the gender segregation
of college majors has persisted since Mahalik’s initial findings, and this conformity to female
norms translates into similarly negative results in the labor market.
The purpose of Mahalik et al.’s (2005) initial study was to develop a psychometrically
sound method to assess women’s degree of conformity to female norms within the dominant
culture in the United States of White, middle- and upper-class heterosexuals. The initial study
results included a comparison of 753 college-age women and 98 men recruited from an
introduction to biology class:
The results indicated that women scored significantly higher than men on the CFNI total
score, as well as on 6 of the 8 Feminine Norms scores (i.e., Nice in Relationships, Sexual
Fidelity, Be Domestic, Invest in Appearance, Caring for Children, Thinness). Women did
not score significantly higher than men on Modesty and Romantic Relationship. (Mahalik
et al., 2005, p. 427)
Therefore, it may be important for college educators, student affairs personnel, and counselors to
recognize the significance of Beutel et al.’s (2017) results on career choice. In other words, if
these findings were to hold true for female pilot students, they would be less likely to conform to
female norms, whereas the flight attendant students would be more likely to conform. Identifying
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 30

ways to counterbalance this propensity for higher rates of conformity to female norms in
education may be necessary for female students to choose careers in advanced areas of CTE or
STEM.
A Case for Self-Efficacy
At some point in their lives, women and girls may be told to quit doing everything for
everyone else and take care of themselves. Being nice in relationships is identified as a female
norm in the CFNI test, whereas winning, risk taking, dominance, self-reliance, primacy of work,
and pursuit of status are aligned with male norms (Mahalik et al., 2005). Along these lines,
Goyer (2016), founder of Women of Aviation Worldwide, cites Correll’s 2004 study, suggesting
that a factor contributing to women not choosing commercial pilot careers could be that people
do not undertake activities or careers where they do not believe they can be successful. While
this lack of confidence or self-deprecating tendency may be truer for women than men, being a
commercial pilot requires a high degree of self-confidence. Female pilot students may be more
apt to believe they can be successful than their female peers in the flight attendant program, and
it will be important to evaluate this attribute in the study.
As educators, we may need to look more closely at why women in STEM-based CTE
conform less to female norms, assume greater risk, and have higher levels of confidence in their
ability to be successful. For example, in a Forbes article, Laura Begley Bloom (2016) presents
the story of Cara King, a “high-flying woman” breaking boundaries by working as a commercial
pilot and as a business manager in the male-dominated aviation industry. After being accepted to
several good colleges, she “tearfully” told her parents that she did not want to waste their money
when she did not know what she wanted to do, so she decided to delay going to college. A friend
introduced her to skydiving, which became her hobby, and she earned money working for a
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 31

small airline throwing bags and selling tickets. One day, she saw a female pilot get off the plane,
and she thought, “Holy smoke, I could be a pilot” (Bloom, 2016, p. 2). She started saving her
money and began flight lessons. It was not long before she was a commercial pilot.
There are several key points about King’s story that would qualify her as a classic path-
maker and make her experience salient to this research. King broke the psychological ties to her
childhood and parents’ expectations to form a separate and distinct identity (Patton et al., 2016).
Like the pathmakers that Josselson (1996) studied, King was dissatisfied with her college choices
and looked for occupational opportunities more consistent with her ideological and interpersonal
identity. When she saw a female pilot, she experienced what Bandura (1977) identified in his
self-efficacy theory as a “live modeling mode of induction” (p. 195). Through the vicarious
experience of seeing a woman pilot, King realized she could become a pilot, and she became a
pilot. King attributed her accomplishments to three things: seeing a female pilot, always
believing in herself, and having the self-confidence to know that she could create her own
reality. It is also noteworthy that after 4,000 skydiving jumps, King appears to have a higher
tolerance for risk than most women (and men), and being a commercial pilot involves an element
of perceived risk that may correlate with the risk-taking behaviors that Mahalik et al. (2005)
studied in male college students. This research also found that risk taking conforms more closely
to male than to female norms.
The Role of College Mentors, Career Planning, and Financial Aid
College mentors, in the form of faculty, counselors, or students, may help mitigate the
effects of gender expectations and stereotypes by challenging students’ gender schema: “If
Professor Tina (or Jose) can be a physicist (or elementary educator), then maybe I can too”
(Patton et al., 2016, p. 186). However, the number of female airline pilots remains low, at 4.36%
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 32

in the United States, leaving very few professional female pilots available to mentor students in
collegiate programs (Goyer, 2016). Further, 93% of all aircraft pilots are White (Data USA,
2017), making it even less likely that female students of color would have a female pilot mentor
of the same ethnicity. In spite of the lack of female STEM or advanced CTE mentors in
traditionally male fields, however, the research supports the idea that having any faculty mentor
as a role model is more effective than no mentor for students (Patton et al., 2016, p. 186).
Organizations such as Women in Aviation International and the Ninety-Nines
International Organization of Women Pilots encourage women to step outside preconceived
notions about careers that are appropriate for their gender. Suggestions include arranging
observation flights that allow women to experience and, therefore, visualize women flying an
aircraft. Conceivably, instructors could also approach students who appear to demonstrate a
greater sense of adventure and self-confidence and encourage them to take a pilot class and join
the flying team. Lastly, flight lessons are expensive and achieving an air transport flight rating
can cost upward of $80,000 for flight lessons alone, making it a significant barrier to overcome.
Women in Aviation International works to offset these barriers by promoting high-value
scholarship opportunities for women in aviation to help offset the financial cost of flying.
Ongoing research in this area may help determine how effective these types of experience are in
increase the ratio of female to male pilots over the long term.
Careers of Caring Versus Individual Achievement
Finally, it is well known that women are more often found in healthcare, child
development, and more traditionally female CTE careers while men continue to dominate in
STEM and advanced CTE careers (Lester, 2010); the Cyan College flight attendant program is
no exception. By comparison, of the 328 students enrolled in the historically female flight
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 33

attendant program in 2016, 56% were female, 42% were male, and 2% were undeclared (Cal-
Pass). This career choice, however, may have more to do with Gilligan’s (1982) research, which
found that, in all of the women’s descriptions of self, “identity is defined in a context of
relationship and judged by a standard of responsibility and care” (p. 160) whereas men’s
description of self is tied to individual achievement. By its very nature, a flight attendant position
involves caring for passengers, while a pilot position is more aligned with the achievement of
ratings, flight hours, larger aircraft, and higher income. Some women, and men, may choose a
flight attendant career over being a pilot because this element of care is more closely aligned
with their own identity, and educators may need to be cautious not to be dismissive of this
admirable motivation.
Carol Gilligan (1982) worked to give voice to a different moral conception than that of
Freud, Piaget or Kohlberg, where men’s psychological development had served as the
underpinnings for moral development theory. She argued for a reinterpretation of women’s
experience in nonhierarchical (male) terms. Higher-paying careers may come with more stress
and risk. Therefore, women may intentionally, or even subliminally, choose potentially less-risky
yet lower-paying careers of caring because they fit within their family construction ideology.
Changing that conception to one where a woman can see the possibility of caring both for family
and for a career of achievement may be necessary to change the status quo.

GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 34

Table 1
Literature Review Summary
Category Highlights Findings Authors
Institutional
Characteristics
Clark investigated
factors that influenced
student selection of a
four-year commercial
aviation program,
paying particular
attention to gender and
race. The study
examined was broad
in scope and included
enrollment data by
gender and race of
students in 23 four-
year post-secondary
aviation programs.

The study found,
irrespective of gender,
that most students
enrolled because they
wanted to fly (62%).
The study identified
the 10 most influential
characteristics that
attracted students to
college aviation.
These were:
educational quality,
university reputation,
equipment condition,
instruction, location,
small class size, safety
concerns, program
characteristics,
student-to-faculty
ratio, and distance
from home.

Clark, 2006; Lester,
2010.
STEM-based CTE:
Disaggregation
Matters

Perkins IV and Strong
Workforce funding.
Women in advanced
areas of CTE are not
always readily
identified unless they
are disaggregated from
other areas of CTE
such as cosmetology,
childcare, and flight
attendant.
The Commercial Pilot
TOPs code of 3020.20
and the Flight
Attendant TOPs code
of 3020.40 were
aggregated to the 2-
digit 30 TOPs code.
The female flight
attendant students
offset the lack of
female pilot students,
masking the lack of
gender equity.
Institute for Women’s
Policy Research,
2013; Szelényi,
Denson, & Inkelas,
2013.

GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 35

Table 1, continued
Category Highlights Findings Authors
Applicability of
Development Theories
Identity development:
Students move from
adolescence to
adulthood balancing
the internal self and
external environment.
Social-cognitive and
gender schema: By
college students
having preconceived
ideas about what
majors are appropriate
for different genders.
By graduation,
females fall into
primarily one of the
four identity statuses:
guardians, searchers,
path makers, and
drifters. Path-maker
attributes include a
high degree of self-
efficacy.
Josselson’s (1996)
conception of path
makers were “women
who had taken some
risks and tried out new
ways of experiencing
themselves that led
them to integrate a
stable sense of
independence … they
charted their own
course.” This attribute,
which reflects a high
degree of self-
efficacy, coincided
with the feminist
movement and the
largest growth of
female pilots in
history, which has
since retreated to
lower rates.
Erickson, 1968;
Patton, Renn, Guido-
DiBrito, & Quaye,
2016; Josselson, 1996;
Goyer, 2016; Path-
maker ideology not as
clearly delineated.
Schlossberg’s (1995)
transition theory. Rest,
Narvaez, Bebeau, &
Thomas, 1999;
Bandura, 1977;
Schwarzer &
Jerusalem, 1995);
Gilligan, 1982
Non-Conformity to
Female Norms and
Self-efficacy
Sociologists link a
women’s higher rate
of conformity to
female norms as a
negative influence on
the odds of them
choosing STEM
majors. The
researchers used
Mahalik et al.’s (2005)
Conformity to
Feminine Norms
Inventory (CFNI) to
scale associations
between specific
feminine and
masculine norms to
students’ college
major choices.
Although women have
made progress in their
educational
attainment, the gender
segregation of college
majors has persisted
since Mahalik et al.’s
(2005) initial findings
of 753 college-age
women and 98 men
recruited from an
Intro. to Biology class.
The results indicated
that women scored
significantly higher
than men on the CFNI
total score, which
translates into negative
results in the labor
market.
Beutel, Burge, &
Borden, 2017; Roll,
2017; Mahalik et al.,
2005; Rest, Narvaez,
Bebeau, &, Thoma
1999; Bandura, 1977;
Bloom, 2016.

GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 36

Table 1, continued
Category Highlights Findings Authors
Role of College
Mentors, Student
Affairs, and Career
Planning
The number of female
airline pilots remains
low at 4.36% in the
United States, leaving
very few professional
female pilots available
to mentor students in a
college program.
Further, 93% of all
aircraft pilots are
White (Data USA,
2017), making it even
less likely that female
students of color
would have a female
pilot mentor of the
same ethnicity.
College mentors, in
the form of faculty,
counselors, or
students, may help
mitigate the effects of
gender stereotypes by
challenging students’
gender schema. In
spite of the lack of
female mentors,
however, the research
supports the idea that
having any faculty
mentor as a role model
is more effective than
no mentor for
students, minoritized
for their gender in
academic majors.
Patton et al., 2016;
Goyer, 2016; Hayden,
Ouyang, Scinski,
Olszewski, &
Bielefeldt, 2011;
Parker, Barnhardt,
Pascarella, &
McCowin, 2016.
Careers of Caring vs.
Individual
Achievement
Women’s career
choice may have more
to do Gilligan’s (1982)
research, which found
that in all of the
women’s descriptions
of self, “identity is
defined in a context of
relationship and
judged by a standard
of responsibility and
care” (p. 160),
whereas men’s
description of self is
tied to individual
achievement. Gilligan
argued for a
reinterpretation of
women’s experience
in nonhierarchical
(male) terms.
Flight attendant is, by
its nature, a career of
caring, while pilot is
one of achievement.
Some women, and
men, may choose
being a flight
attendant over being a
pilot because careers
of caring are more
closely aligned with
their own identity.
Higher-paying pilot
careers may come
with more stress and
risk, so women may
choose lower-paying
but caring kinds of
careers because they
align within their
family ideology and
goals.
Bloom, 2016; Lester,
2010; Gilligan, 1982.

GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 37

Summary
The range of factors that may facilitate a woman’s ability to break from gendered norms
to choose and persist in traditionally male-oriented educational programs is broad. These factors
include self-efficacy traits (Allison & Cossette, 2007; Bandura, 1977; Schwarzer & Jerusalem,
1995; Zeldin et al., 2008); risk tolerance (Mahalik et al., 2005); non-conformity to female norms
(Mahalik et al., 2005; Lester, 2010; Roll, 2017); emancipatory goals (Bloom, 2016; Clark, 2006;
Josselson, 1996); support services (Szelényi et al., 2013); family and institutional support
(Hayden, et al. 2011; Lester, 2010); and mentors (Parker et al., 2016). Yet, it is important to
determine whether women in aviation self-select becoming a flight attendant because that career
naturally aligns with their self-identity, degree of self-efficacy, and values, or whether they avoid
becoming a pilot because of a default imbalance between the external environment’s pressure to
conform to female norms and their internal sense of confidence. The literature suggests
educators, counselors, and mentors may offer help, however, by counterbalancing traditional
norms and clearing the way for non-conformers through the creation of a college experience that
makes a substantial difference in helping pathmakers find a level of proactive self-efficacy and
equilibrium in advanced areas of CTE and STEM.

GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 38

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Efforts to increase the number of women pursuing advanced STEM-based CTE have had
limited success in traditionally male occupations such as aviation where females represent fewer
than 5% of airline transport pilots (4.36%) in the United States (Goyer, 2016). Like the airlines,
educational institutions are struggling to improve the rates of female participation in their
commercial pilot programs. While the aviation program at Cyan College has had a strong track
record of serving pilot and flight attendant students since 1967, the traditional gender association
of men with the commercial pilot career remains. This research investigated potential factors
contributing to the lack of female participation and persistence in the commercial pilot program.
According to the literature, specific factors that play a role in women persisting in STEM
and CTE programs include self-efficacy traits (Allison & Cossette, 2007; Bandura, 1977; Zeldin
et al., 2008); non-conformity to female norms (Mahalik et al., 2005; Lester, 2010; Roll, 2017);
emancipatory goals (Bloom, 2016; Clark, 2006; Josselson, 1996), support services (Szelényi et
al., 2013); family and institutional support (Hayden et al., 2011; Lester, 2010); and mentors
(Parker et al., 2016). While the literature helped to define the issues and frame the exploration of
what we did not know in the quantitative survey, the qualitative research interviews allowed for a
deeper exploration of unknown factors that may be contributing to some women choosing a
traditionally male-oriented pilot position. This study set forth a foundation for exploring
attributes that enable some women to break from gendered norms and persist in a more
technologically advanced career.
The following research questions facilitated the investigation of the theoretical
underpinnings identified in the literature as they related to the personal characteristics and
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 39

contributing factors that may enable some women to step away from female-ascribed careers to
choose and persist in more challenging areas of advanced STEM-based CTE.
1. What factors influence the career choices of women in aviation?
a. Are there critical factors, including women’s knowledge and skills, their
motivation, and organizational barriers (Clark & Estes, 2008) contributing to an
equity gap?
2. What attributes contribute to a woman’s ability to break from gendered norms to persist
in a traditionally male-dominated pilot career?
a. Are there unique personal characteristics that contribute to one career choice over
another?
A mixed-methods research approach contributed to an explanatory sequential approach
that began with quantitative data collection and analysis, using a survey and the GSE Scale
(Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995). The full survey and scale can be found in Appendix A, but,
essentially, 10 items are designed to measure one’s perceived self-efficacy. Higher cumulative
scores reflect an optimistic self-belief and predict successful coping mechanisms (Schwarzer &
Jerusalem, 1995). The operative construct is that coping and adaption skills can predict behavior
and attribution of success that “facilitates goal-setting, effort investment, persistence in face of
barriers and recovery from setbacks” (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995, p. 1). The instrument was
originally developed in Germany and has been used internationally, including the United States,
for several decades. “In samples from 23 nations, Cronbach’s alphas ranged from .76 to .90, with
the majority in the high .80s” (p. 1), which reflects good internal consistency for generalizability.
This short, Likert-type scale was provided via a Qualtrics link to students in class by their
instructors teaching in the Cyan College Aviation Program.
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 40

A mixed-methods approach facilitated the triangulation of the quantitative GSE Scale by
first comparing and contrasting the responses from two groups of community college students:
(a) female students in a traditionally male commercial pilot program, and (b) female students in a
traditionally female flight attendant program. Second, those results were compared with the self-
efficacy results of men in the same classes. These data were analyzed to determine if there were
any striking differences in perceived self-efficacy among the groups. The self-efficacy survey
responses then helped to inform the qualitative interview questions of six female commercial and
military pilots. This comparison provided a means for further exploring the themes in the
literature that emerged about critical factors that play a role in women persisting in STEM and
CTE, such as family and institutional support, mentors, emancipatory goals, and potential
barriers. Finally, to further validate the results, a document review was conducted of research
data from the California Community College Chancellor’s Office Data Mart and Civil Airmen
Data from the Federal Aviation Administration to review pilot enrollment and employability
trends.
Table 2
Methodology Overview
Data
Collection
Method
Research
Question
Addressed
Method of
Analysis
Rational Function Implementation
Survey RQ 1, 1a
Self-
efficacy
scores

Open
survey
Questions:
Comments
coded to
themes
Data
Quantitative
Foundational
Triangulations
Data
collection,
self-efficacy
scores
(Schwarzer
& Jerusalem,
1995)

Qualtrics survey

Instructors distributed
to 330 students by
email

10 minutes to
complete

Conducted
March 2019

GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 41

Table 2, continued
Data
Collection
Method
Research
Question
Addressed
Method of
Analysis
Rational Function Implementation
Interviews RQ 1, 1a,
2, 2a
Transcribed
and coded
themes
emerging
from
research
questions
In-depth data
collection

Qualitative

Triangulation
Exploration
of self-
efficacy traits
(Schwarzer &
Jerusalem,
1995)
Purposeful selection

One-to-one
interviews: 6 female
pilots (3 combat, 3
commercial)

Conducted April 2019
Document
Review
RQ 1, 2 Review
enrollment
and
employment
trends
Data

Quantitative

Triangulation
Evaluation of
org. barriers
external
factors, data
trends (Clark
& Estes,
2008)

Data documents
reviewed in May
2019.

Sample and Population
The Hispanic student population at the college has increased to 47% of enrollment.
Students in the ATC courses come from essentially the same geographic location, with
potentially similar demographic backgrounds from which comparisons of the female students in
the flight attendant and the pilot programs provided a means for illuminating differences in self-
efficacy between these two groups. Therefore, of the 228 distinct students enrolled in ATC
classes during the spring 2019 semester, 78, or 34%, responded to the survey. Both male and
female students were surveyed to eliminate a bias that might be created if students felt only
female surveys would be evaluated in this research. It was anticipated that the ratio would be
approximately three female flight attendant students for every one female pilot student, but it
came in slightly higher at 3.4 to 1. Since the survey took less than 10 minutes to complete, it was
administered by the instructor via a link during class. A second reminder email with the link was
emailed to the students from the office assistant.
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 42

For comparison, a qualitative analysis explored the themes identified in the survey and
the literature. Specifically, three commercial airline and three combat pilots, all females, were
selected for a semi-structured qualitative interview based on their willingness and availability to
participate in this research. The goal was to secure a diverse group of women, with some
Hispanic representation included since the student population at the college is predominantly
Hispanic; however, no female pilot identified as Hispanic. One pilot, however, did have to give
up citizenship in her home country to become a pilot both for the military and the airlines.
Instrumentation
Under the umbrella of a transformative conceptual framework (Creswell, 2014), this
research sought to investigate and advocate for gender equity in a traditionally male STEM-
related CTE program. Within that conceptual framework, the research studied a key construct in
social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1977, 2012), which suggests that a strong sense of personal
self-efficacy is related to better health, higher achievement, and more social integration (Conner
& Norman, 1995; Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995). Given that higher levels of achievement
correlate with female pilots, the research employed a survey instrument to measure differences in
self-efficacy traits between male and female students enrolled in flight attendant and pilot
classes. The quantitative survey was followed by qualitative interviews with three experienced
female pilots serving as combat pilots and three female pilots working in commercial aviation. In
addition to exploring the survey results, the purpose of the qualitative analysis was to further
investigate the pilots’ knowledge and skills; their motivation and self-efficacy; and any
organizational, financial, or cultural barriers they may have experienced (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Specifically, this inquiry explored identity, gender, self-efficacy, and non-conformity to female
norms (Mahalik et al., 2005; Lester, 2010; Roll, 2017) within the context of moral and women’s
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 43

development theories (Bloom, 2016; Lester, 2010; Gilligan, 1982; Josselson, 1996). The
qualitative methodology also explored the role of support from institutions, family, friends, and
mentors as it relates to women breaking with gendered career norms (Clark, 2006; Szelényi et
al., 2013; Hayden et al., 2011; Lester, 2010; Parker et al., 2016).
In this mixed-methods approach, there was some overlap between the quantitative and
qualitative data collection. Research Question 1a made use of the survey instrument, which was
administered to college students enrolled in aviation classes during the spring semester and to the
professional pilots, while Research Question 1b was addressed with the interview protocols one
month later.
Quantitative Instrument: Survey and Protocols
The psychometric scale used for the quantitative data collection was the GSE Scale
created and tested by Schwarzer and Jerusalem (1995). Permission was granted to use this
instrument, which was originally developed in Germany and has been used internationally,
including the United States, for several decades. Reliability has been tested, and “in samples
from 23 nations, Cronbach’s alphas ranged from .76 to .90, with the majority in the high .80s”
(Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995, p.1).
This short, Likert-type scale was provided via a private Qualtrics link to students in class
by their instructors teaching in the aviation courses. The full survey can be found in Appendix A;
the survey also asked students to identify demographic variables represented in Table 3.

GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 44

Table 3
Summary of Subjects’ Demographic Variables

Research Area Demographic Variables Response Choices

Demographic Gender Female

Male

Prefer not to state

Demographic Age 17–20

21–25

26–29

30–35

36–40

41–50

51–60

61–70

Over 70
RQ1a:
Organizational-
Cultural Race or Ethnicity African-American / Black
Asian or Pacific Islander

Native American, Alaskan Native

Caucasian, White

Hispanic

Other
RQ1a: Knowledge
and skills
Previous Academic History
(average overall) Exceptional student

Good student

Average student

Struggling student

GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 45

Table 3, continued

Research Area Demographic Variables Response Choices
RQ1a:
Organizational-
Financial
Financial Situation (check all
that apply) Live at home with parents

Receive financial aid

Have student loans

Family pays for some education

Family pays for all education

I am paying for my education
RQ1a:
Organizational-
Financial Hours per week at work 0–10

11–20

21–30

31–40

More than 40
RQ1a:
Organizational
-Financial Annual Income Less than $10,000

$10,000 to $19,999

$20,000 to $39,999

$40,000 to $49,999

$50,000 to $59,999

$60,000 to $69,999

$70,000 to $79,999

$80,000 to $89,999

$90,000 to $99,999

$100,000 to $149,999

More than $150,000
RQ1a:
Organizational
-Cultural Family Responsibilities No children

1 child

2–3 children

4 or more children

Primary caregiver for another person

GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 46

Table 3, continued

Research Area Demographic Variables Response Choices
RQ1a:
Knowledge
and Skills Previous Education New to college

Some college

Associate degree

Bachelor’s degree

Master’s or above

Demographic Career Choice Airport or Aviation Management

Commercial Pilot

Flight Attendant

Undecided

Other:

These demographic questions were followed by the original GSE Scale as it appears in the table
below.
Table 4
General Self-Efficacy Scale (Adults)
#
Directions: Please select the
appropriate response for each item
below.
1 =
Not at all
true
2 =
Hardly true
3 =
Moderately
true
4 =
Exactly true
1

I can always manage to solve
difficult problems if I try hard
enough.

2

If someone opposes me, I can find
the means and ways to get what I
want.

3

It is easy for me to stick to my
aims and accomplish my goals.

4

I am confident that I could deal
efficiently with unexpected events.

GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 47

Table 4, continued
#
Directions: Please select the
appropriate response for each item
below.
1 =
Not at all
true
2 =
Hardly true
3 =
Moderately
true
4 =
Exactly true
5

Thanks to my resourcefulness, I
know how to handle unforeseen
situations.

6

I can solve most problems if I
invest the necessary effort.

7

I can remain calm when facing
difficulties because I can rely on
my coping abilities.

8

When I am confronted with a
problem, I can usually find several
solutions.

9

If I am in trouble, I can usually
think of a solution.

10

I can usually handle whatever
comes my way.

Data Collection
Quantitative Data Collection: Survey and GSE Scale
The GSE scale results were summarized by adding the 10 responses to a sum score
between 10 and 40 points and a mean score which, in many research samples, was reported to be
2.9 (or a sum score of 29) (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995). The following three open-ended
questions were added to solicit information that could useful for the qualitative data collection:
1. What have been the most significant contributing factors in helping you choose and
persist in your career choice?
2. What have been the most significant challenges for you in pursuing this career choice?
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 48

3. Is there anything else we should know about what could have, or has, made you
successful?
Of the ATC students enrolled who completed the research instrument survey, only the
results of those students who selected a pilot or flight attendant career choices were tabulated and
disaggregated to determine if there were any compelling differences. Any notable findings were
further addressed in the qualitative interview sessions with the professional female pilots. The
responses to the open-ended questions were tallied and compiled into a reference document to
assist with the development of the qualitative interview protocol. Findings of institutional,
financial, or cultural barriers were explored further in the qualitative interviews along with
differences in self-efficacy, risk tolerance, non-conformance to gender norms, emancipatory
goals, or mentor support that existed between female flight attendant and pilot students.
Qualitative Data Collection: Interview and Interview Protocols
Qualitative semi-structured interviews were used because interpretative research allows
researchers the opportunity to construct knowledge from multiple realities (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). These interviews provided the means for a much deeper exploration than a purely
quantitative study because there was an opportunity to explore unanticipated responses. We
know from the literature that critical factors play a role in women persisting in STEM and CTE
programs, including self-efficacy traits, non-conformity to female norms, emancipatory goals,
and family or institutional support. Qualitative methods helped us further explore Research
Question 1a or what we do not know, which is why some women choose a traditionally male-
oriented position of pilot over the traditionally female-oriented flight attendant position. We
wanted to know how women pilots came to their career decisions and what enabled them to
persist, including any influencers, self-efficacy traits, and professional aspirations. Qualitative
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 49

research provided for a deeper exploration of these factors in the context of reaching a better
understanding of both expected and unexpected realities that may be influencing pilots. The
qualitative interviews consisted of six one-on-one semi-structured interviews with women pilots:
three commercial and three military combat pilots. The interview protocol explored factors that
influenced the career choices of women in aviation, including attributes that contributed to their
ability to break from gendered norms to persist in non-traditional careers and to overcome any
barriers or challenges.
The full qualitative interview questions can be found in Appendix B, but generally, the
questions explored the influence of conformity to (a) female norms; (b) prior academic success;
(c) cultural factors; (d) professional expectations; (e) self-efficacy traits; and (f) previous
experience with mentors, support programs such the equal opportunity program, or outside
membership in programs such as Women in Aviation International and The Ninety-Nines
International Organization of Women Pilots.
Interview location and protocol. To foster openness and alleviate any issues in power
dynamics and ensure privacy, the interviews were scheduled at the interviewees’ convenience
and in advance. Although the interviewer had met all but one of the pilots, the pilots were based
or stationed throughout the United States, so they all chose to be interviewed by phone. Each
interview was scheduled for approximately 30 minutes, but several interviews went longer, up to
an hour. These semi-structured interviews were taped with the interviewees’ permission, and
then they were transcribed using the TEMI app. In the progression from quantitative to
qualitative discovery, the analysis attempted to narrow the influential factors by systematically
excluding outliers or unsubstantiated explanations, and by validating substantiated responses to
reach an interpretation of the findings. The full protocol is included in Appendix B.
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 50

Access, entry, and ethics. As a longtime member of the college department and the
division, I did not need any special approvals to survey the students. However, to alleviate any
potential issues, I provided the survey via a Qualtrics link to the instructors so that it could be
administrated anonymously to the students. Further, as the dean, I am not currently the instructor
for any of these students, so there are “no ethical dilemmas likely to emerge with the collection
of these data” (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p. 261). I did not interview any current students. As the
interviewer for the professional pilots, I took steps in the interview process to explain the use of
pseudonyms, assuring each participant that their name and responses would not be identifiable.
To alleviate bias, I avoided any comments that could be perceived as judgmental. Instead, I
explained how the insights from our conversation would be used to help inform the program,
making it important to get their honest assessments and responses. Only participants who
appeared willing and forthcoming were included in this research.
Document Review: Triangulation of Data Collection
The California Community College Chancellor’s Office (CCCCO) has provided a source
of disaggregated data in the Data Mart and Cal-Pass Plus. These data resources for California K-
12 schools, colleges, and universities provides student achievement, enrollment trends,
demographic and degree/transfer attainment data, including longitudinal charts and labor market
employment and wage information. This data source supported the analysis of enrollment data
trends for flight attendant and pilot students. In addition, the Federal Aviation Administration
tracks pilot statistics in an annual Civil Airmen Data. This report includes the number of student
pilots, instrument rated pilots, airline transport pilots, etc. by gender. While the report does not
include the ratio of men to women pilots, it does include the information necessary to extrapolate
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 51

that ratio to determinine pilots qualified to be hired by commercial airlines. Therefore, these data
will contribute to the validation of the survey results and interview findings.
Limitations
The state of California initially allocated $200 million for the Strong Workforce Initiative
to support CTE. This commitment to career programs is unprecedented, but educational reforms
are not always research tested and not always worth the hefty price tag (McEwan & McEwan,
2003). While the purpose of this research study is to uncover why gender equity in traditionally
male CTE program has been so difficult to attain, it may be that there are no simple answers. The
implications of this study are limited to the women who enroll in the Cyan College Commercial
Pilot Program. A more robust sample would be needed to extrapolate any findings to the greater
population about why some women choose, and persist, in various CTE programs. Future
research with working female commercial pilots and other women in STEM-related CTE
programs is also needed to determine conclusively what educational strategies can be
extrapolated to help close the gender gap in other higher-paying areas of technical education.
Timeline
The first phase of the data collection commenced with the survey in early spring of 2019,
followed by the analysis. The next phase included the qualitative interviews, which occurred in
mid-spring following the analysis. The final phase of data collection included the document
analysis, which began in May, and the overall analysis was completed by June as illustrated in
below in Table 5.

GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 52

Table 5
Gantt Chart Schedule of Data Collection and Analysis
Data
Collection/Review
Feb. March April May June
Surveys -------
Analysis -------
Interviews ------- -------
Analysis ------- -------
Document Review ------- -------
Analysis ------- -------

Summary
This mixed-methodology research supports a transformative conceptual framework
(Creswell, 2014) by providing an explanatory sequential approach to investigate and advocate
for gender equity in a traditionally male occupation. Using a key construct in social cognitive
theory (Bandura, 1977), which suggests that a strong sense of personal self-efficacy is related to
higher achievement (Conner & Norman, 1995; Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995), the research
compared differences between the self-efficacy traits of male and female students enrolled in
flight attendant and pilot classes with those of women working as professional pilots. This
quantitative data discovery and analysis was followed by qualitative interviews, which facilitated
a broader interpretation of the findings (Creswell, 2014, p. 220) to explain and help mitigate the
gender gap in collegiate commercial pilot programs. Finally, this mixed-methods approach
enabled the triangulation of quantitative data from the GSE Scale, with a qualitative interview
protocol, and a document discovery of historical enrollments and employment related to this
research. This triangulation of data provided a basis for comparing and contrasting the self-
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 53

efficacy results from two groups of female community college students—those in a commercial
pilot program and those in a flight attendant program—with those attributes of women currently
working as professional pilots.

GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 54

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS

Chapter four includes the results for this mixed-methods research study addressing the
low rates of female participation in pilot related education and careers. The purpose of using the
transformative conceptual framework (Creswell, 2014) was to identify factors that may
contribute to gender inequity and explore elements that may help to mitigate the lack of women
in more technical career areas. Both the quantitative survey and the qualitative interview results
provided a basis for assessing the influence of the following themes: aviation students’
knowledge and skills, their motivation and self-efficacy, and the organizational factors, including
financial or cultural, that students may have experienced (Clark & Estes, 2008). The results are
organized in sequential order from the quantitative survey, addressing research question 1 and
1a, to the qualitative interviews, and finally to the document review addressing research
questions 1 and 2:
1. What factors influence the career choices of women in aviation?
a. Are there critical factors, including women’s knowledge and skills, their motivation,
and organizational barriers (Clark & Estes, 2008) contributing to an equity gap?
2. What attributes contribute to a woman’s ability to break from gendered norms to persist
in a traditionally male-dominated pilot career?
a. Are there unique personal characteristics that contribute to one career choice over
another?
Participating Stakeholders
Two groups of stakeholders participated in the study. The first group was a nonrandom
convenience sampling of 228 students, both men and women, enrolled in aviation classes at
Cyan Community College (N = 228). These students included those individuals seeking careers
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 55

as flight attendants, pilots, airline customer service agents, aviation managers, drone operators,
and travel consultants. The headcount and distribution by major for all aviation students enrolled
in the Spring 2019 semester was follows:

Figure 4. Spring 2019 aviation headcount by program.
Although this study focused on comparing the results of students enrolled in pilot and
flight attendant programs with working pilots, the survey link was provided to all students
enrolled in aviation courses so as not to create undo curiosity had only two groups of students
been surveyed. Of the 228 students who received the link, 78 students, or 34%, responded to the
survey. The breakdown of students responding to the survey was as follows:
Pilot
Flight
Attendant
Aviation
Management
Travel /
Tourism
Airline
Customer
Services
Other
N 89 66 39 13 8 13
% 39% 29% 17% 6% 4% 6%
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
40%
45%
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Enrollment By Major
Spring 2019 Headcount
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 56

Figure 5. Survey participation by career choice and gender.
It is not unusual to see such a high percentage of female students enrolled in flight
attendant classes; however, it is somewhat unusual to see so many female students enrolled in
airport or aviation management. Not surprisingly, there is a high number of male students
enrolled in the commercial pilot program. However, an equal number of “other” career choices
were selected, which included drone operator, airline customer service, homeland security, and
travel/tourism.
The second group who received the survey was a purposeful selection of eight female
pilots: three commercial airline pilots, one private pilot who was also a flight attendant and an
alum of the college, and five military pilots, one of whom was also an alumnus of the program.
One pilot was both a commercial and a reserve military pilot. Three pilots were also active multi-
engine flight instructors of large aircraft, and three of the military pilots were recruited from a
“Combat Pilot Panel” at the 2019 Women in Aviation International Conference in Long Beach,
California. Of this group, seven pilots completed the survey, and the six female pilots who were
not alumni from the college participated in the interviews. Since the researcher had been an
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 57

instructor of the two alumni pilots, they were not interviewed as it was felt that the 1:1 interviews
could be less than candid given the mentor role of the researcher.
The characteristics of the women who participated in the qualitative interviews and are
currently working as military and/or commercial pilots or flight instructors are illustrated in the
following table:
Table 6
Participating Military and Commercial Pilots
Participants Relevant
Characteristic 1
(e.g., Female
working pilot)
Relevant
Characteristic 2
(e.g., High
achievement level)
Relevant
Characteristic 3
(e.g., Unique
attributes)
Interview Length
1. Martina Military (Air National
Guard) and
Commercial Pilot
C-17 Military Pilot
and Commercial
Airline 757 Pilot
Immigrated to
US from Russia
to be a pilot.
Deployed
Afghanistan.
35 minutes
2. Ann Commercial Pilot Commercial Airline
B787 Pilot
Fleet Technical
Manager
36 minutes
3. Ellen

Commercial Pilot Cargo Transport Pilot
/ Captain
Attends WAI
Conferences.
60 minutes
4. Diane Military Pilot (Navy) F/A-18F Pilot and
Instructor
F18 Instructor
Deployed Syria
and Iraq.
34 minutes
5. Karen Commercial pilot International flight
Instructor
One of 4 women
among 70 flight
instructors
38 minutes
6. Rebecca Military Pilot (Navy) EP-3 Pilot Commissioned
Officer.
Deployed pilot.
28 minutes

Survey Results and Findings for Factors Influencing Gender Equity in Aviation
The survey was developed to address research question 1 and subpart 1a. Of the 22
respondents who selected flight attendant, 17 or 77% were female. Of the 12 respondents who
selected commercial pilot, only 33% were female. Three open-ended questions at the end of the
survey were coded and are addressed later in this research, but the data validate that female flight
attendant students appear more motivated to select careers of caring, enabling them to work with
other people, than careers of achievement. Unfortunately, only 4 female pilot students completed
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 58

the survey; however, the survey responses for them and the professional pilots centered around
careers of achievement. Notably, though, in the interviews, many of the pilots talked about
being responsible for the crew, the passengers, and the soldiers they were assigned to support.

Figure 6. Student survey respondents by gender and major.
Generally, the age disaggregation for students completing the survey was consistent with
the college demographics; however, pilot students tended to be slightly older than flight
attendant students.

GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 59

Table 7
Student Enrollment Age by Career Choice
Age Range in
Years
17-20 N= 21-25 N= 26-29 N= 30-35 N= 41-50 N= Total
Flight
Attendant
40.91% 9 40.91% 9 13.64% 3 4.55% 1 0.00% 0 22
Commercial
Pilot
33.33% 4 8.33% 1 25.00% 3 25.00% 3 8.33% 1 12

The professional pilots were older overall than the students as illustrated in Figure 7, but
overall, they were surprisingly young for the level of responsibility they assumed, especially for
the military pilots who were all under 40-years-old.

Figure 7. Age of professional female pilot participant.
For the purposes of this study, the pilot respondents represented fewer Hispanic students
than the flight attendant respondents and the college demographics of an approximately 50%
Hispanic population.

GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 60

Table 8
Ethnicity Breakdown of Students by Career Choice
Ethnicity Flight Attendant n Commercial pilot n Total
Hispanic 73.33% 11 26.67% 4 15
Asian or Pacific Islander 60.00% 6 40.00% 4 10
Caucasian, White 50.00% 3 50.00% 3 6
Other 100.00% 2 0.00% 0 2
African American / Black 0.00% 0 100.00% 1 1

The next three sections of the survey addressed the students’ knowledge and skill level,
their motivation and self-efficacy, and any organizational or institutional factors that may have
influenced their educational and career choices. To gauge participants’ self-assessment of their
knowledge and skill levels, respondents were asked to rate their previous academic history from
struggling student to exceptional student. As illustrated below, most respondents rated
themselves at good or better, with flight attendant students not quite as confident.

Figure 8. Academic history self-assessment.
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
Struggling Average Good Exceptional
Academic Self-Assessment
Flight Attendant Students Commercial Pilot Students Professional Pilots
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 61

By comparison, 43% of the professional pilots rated themselves as exceptional students
and 57% rated themselves as good students with no pilot rating themselves as average or
struggling. In addition, 72% of the professional pilots have a bachelor’s degree and 29% have a
master’s degree. Table 9 illustrates that students’ previous levels of education were notably
lower for flight attendant students, which may contribute to lower rates of self-efficacy in spite
of relatively high self-assessment ratings of their academic history.
Table 9
Students’ Previous Education Levels
Student Previous
Education Levels
Flight
Attendant
n Commercial pilot n Total
New to college 71.43% 10 28.57% 4 14
Some college 84.62% 11 15.38% 2 13
Master's degree or above 25.00% 1 75.00% 3 4
Bachelor's degree 0.00% 0 100.00% 2 2
Associate degree 0.00% 0 100.00% 1 1

Generally, students made comments in response to the open-ended questions about the
obstacles they faced, with many commenting on their struggles to balance their job or workload
with their studies. The data for both sets of students reflects that most students are working more
than 20 hours per week while attending school.
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 62

Figure 9. Students’ previous education levels.
Interestingly, 20% of the pilot students and 41% of the flight attendant students currently
live at home and very few students and one professional pilot have children. A much higher
percentage of pilot students are paying for their education, and, not surprisingly, they have a
higher percentage of student loans and are receiving a higher percentage of financial aid.

Figure 10. Financial situation.
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
More than 40 31-40 21-30 11-20 0-10
Hours Per Week of Work
Student Flight Attendant Student Pilot
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 63

A well-known barrier to becoming a pilot is that it can be expensive to pay for flight
lessons and accrue enough hours for commercial airline employment. Overcoming this obstacle
can be challenging, but not overcoming it can mean years at a much lower pay rate. The annual
income of survey respondents reflects these trends, but Figure 11 also illuminates the higher pay
potential of working as a professional pilot.

Figure 11. Annual income of survey respondents.
The above demographic and foundational survey responses for Research Question 1a
were followed by the General Self-Efficacy Scale as it appears below in Table 10 to compare
self-efficacy scores among students enrolled in pilot and flight attendant programs. This
psychometric General Self-Efficacy Scale, created and tested by Schwarzer and Jerusalem
(1995), provided a quantifiable means for measuring a key construct, which argues that a strong
sense of personal self-efficacy is related to better health, higher achievement, and more social
integration (Conner & Norman, 1995; Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995). Reliability for this
instrument has been tested worldwide with Cronbach’s alphas ranging “from .76 to .90, with the
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
Less than $10,000
$10,000 - $19,999
$20,000 - $29,999
$30,000 - $39,999
$40,000 - $49,999
$50,000 - $59,999
$70,000 - $79,999
$90,000 - $99,999
$100,000 - $149,999
More than $150,000
Annual Income Reported
Student Pilots Student Flight Attendants Professional Pilots
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 64

majority in the high .80s” (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995, p. 1). The General Self-Efficacy Scale
results were summarized by adding all responses to a sum score between 10 to 40 points or a
mean score, which in many prior research samples was reported to be about 22.9 for the sum
score and 2.9 for the mean score (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995).
Table 10
General Self-Efficacy Scale (Adults)
#
Directions: Please select the
appropriate response for each item
below.
1 =
Not at all true
2 =
Hardly true
3 =
Moderately
true
4 =
Exactly true
1

I can always manage to solve difficult
problems if I try hard enough.

2

If someone opposes me, I can find the
means and ways to get what I want.

3

It is easy for me to stick to my aims and
accomplish my goals.

4

I am confident that I could deal efficiently
with unexpected events.

5

Thanks to my resourcefulness, I know
how to handle unforeseen situations.

6

I can solve most problems if I invest the
necessary effort.

7

I can remain calm when facing difficulties
because I can rely on my coping abilities.

8

When I am confronted with a problem, I
can usually find several solutions.

9

If I am in trouble, I can usually think of a
solution.

10

I can usually handle whatever comes my
way.

The self-efficacy scores for all students are represented in Table 11, and they are ranked
by group of respondents from the highest to lowest scores.
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 65

Table 11
Self-Efficacy Scores from High to Low
Self-efficacy
Scores
Min.
Score
Max.
Score
Sum
Score
Standard
Deviation
Variance
Count
(N=)
Mean
Score
Professional
Female Pilots 29 38 35.50 3.10 9.58 6 3.55
Female Student
Pilots

28

38

33.80

3.92

15.36

5 3.28
Male Student
Pilots 27 39 32.63 3.84 14.73 8 3.26
Female Student
Flight
Attendants 20 39 31.88 5.48 29.99 17 3.19
Male Student
Flight
Attendants 21 39 30.8 6.4 40.96 5 3.08

As was expected, the professional pilots reported the highest self-efficacy scores, along
with the lowest standard deviation and variance. The female and male student pilot scores were
within 1.67 points of each other, but both scores were notably higher than the scores for flight
attendants. While the sample sizes are small, these results correlate with the research that argues
that a strong sense of personal self-efficacy is related to higher levels of achievement (Conner &
Norman, 1995; Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995).
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 66

Figure 12. Ranked self-efficacy sum scores.
Finally, the self-efficacy scale was followed by three open-end questions intended to solicit
information that would be useful in further developing themes for the qualitative data collection
and analysis. The questions and the number of responses are included in the table below.
Table 12
Open-ended Survey Questions
Addresses
Research
Question
Open-ended survey questions Number of overall responses

RQ 1 & 1a
What have been the most significant
contributing factors in helping you
choose and persist in your career choice?

22

RQ 1& 1a
What have been the most significant
challenges for you in pursuing this career
choice?

28

RQ 1& 1a
Is there anything else we should know
about what could have, or has, made you
successful?

22

35.5
33.8
32.63
31.88
30.8
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
Professional
Female Pilots
Female Student
Pilots
Male Student
Pilots
Female Student
Flight
Attendants
Male Student
Flight
Attendants
Self-efficacy Sum Scores
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 67

These open-ended questions were categorized by theme, and the full text of the survey
responses can be viewed in Appendix C. Themes identified in the responses to these questions
correlate with much of the literature reviewed in Chapter Two. For example, in response to the
first question, students who identified as flight attendant students noted in 64% of the responses
that they chose that career because they wanted to help, serve, or meet people. A flight attendant
career involves a great deal of caring for passengers, which supports Gilligan’s (1982) research,
which found that, women’s self-identity is intrinsically tied to relationships and “a standard of
responsibility and care” (p. 160) whereas men’s description of self is tied to individual
achievement. Notably, in Table 13, no pilot students mentioned a desire to help people, but there
were comments about achieving career success and making their families proud. These careers of
caring versus careers of achievement dynamic is discussed further in the qualitative section as it
relates to the role of the professional pilots.
Table 13
Survey Responses to Question 1: Coded by Theme
Survey Responses to Question 1–Coded by Theme
Q1: What have been the most significant contributing factors in helping you choose
and persist in your career choice?

Student Flight Attendant
Responses
Student Pilot Responses
Pilot
Responses
Themes Female Male Female Male Female
Written
Responses:
N=22 Total N=11 % N=3 % N=2 % N=6 % N=6 %
Careers of
caring, travel to
meet people &
cultures 7 64% 0% 0% 0%
Careers of
accomplishment 0% 1 33% 1 50% 4 67% 3 50%

GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 68

Table 13, continued
Q1: What have been the most significant contributing factors in helping you choose
and persist in your career choice?

Student Flight
Attendant Responses
Student Pilot Responses
Pilot
Responses
Themes Female Male Female Male Female
Passion for flying 0% 0% 1 50% 3 50% 2 33%
Family, peers 1 9% 2 67% 0% 0% 3 50%
Mentor 1 9% 0% 0% 0% 5 83%
Role model 0% 0% 0% 1 17% 3 50%
Knowledge 0% 0% 0% 0% 0%
Motivation and
Self-efficacy 1 9% 0% 0% 3 50% 2 33%
Organizational &
inst. support 3 27% 0% 1 50% 1 17% 0%

Responses to the second question are noted in Table 14, and the most frequently mentioned
challenge among flight attendant students was balancing work and school, while the pilot
students reported financial issues.
Table 14
Survey Responses to Question 2: Coded by Theme
Survey Responses to Question 2–Coded by Theme
Q2: What have been the most significant challenges in pursuing this career choice?

Student Flight Attendant
Responses
Student Pilot Responses
Pilot
Responses
Themes Female Male Female Male Female
Written
Responses:
N=28 Total N=11 % N=3 % N=2 % N=6 % N=6 %
Overcoming
financial issues 0% 0% 2 100% 3 75% 1 17%
Balancing work
and school 6 55% 0% 0% 2 33% 0%
Overcoming
knowledge &
skill gaps 3 27% 1 33% 0% 0% 2 33%
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 69

Table 14, continued
Q2: What have been the most significant challenges for you in pursuing this career
choice?

Student Flight
Attendant Responses
Student Pilot Responses
Pilot
Responses
Themes Female Male Female Male Female
Overcoming
self-doubt 1 9% 1 33% 0% 0% 0%
Inst. support 1 9% 0% 0% 1 17% 3 50%
Cultural barriers 0% 2 67% 0% 0% 0%
Gender pressure 0% 0% 0% 0% 2 33%
Motivation 2 18% 0% 0% 0% 0%
Self-efficacy 0% 0% 0% 0% 1 17%

In response to the last question which solicited information that may not have been addressed
earlier in the survey, the results in Table 15 showed flight attendant students were appreciative of
institutional support, while pilot students noted their passion for flying.
Table 15
Survey Responses to Question 3–Coded by Theme
Survey Responses to Question 3–Coded by Theme
Q3: Is there anything else we should know about what could have, or has,
made you successful?

Student Flight
Attendant Responses
Student Pilot Responses
Pilot
Responses
Themes Female Male Female Male Female
Written
Responses: N=22 n=8 % n=3 % n=2 % n=5 % n=4 %
Careers of caring,
travel to meet
people & cultures 0% 0% 0% 0% 0%
Careers of
accomplishment 0% 0% 0% 1 20% 0%

GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 70

Table 15, continued
Q3: Is there anything else we should know about what could have, or has,
made you successful?

Student Flight
Attendant Responses
Student Pilot Responses
Pilot
Responses
Themes Female Male Female Male Female
Passion for
flying 0% 0% 0% 3 60% 0%
Family, peer
support 0% 0% 0% 1 20% 0%
Mentor 0% 0% 0% 0% 2 50%
Role model 0% 0% 0% 0% 0%
Knowledge 0% 0% 0% 1 20% 0%
Financial 0% 1 20% 0%
Motivation and
Self-efficacy 2 25% 1 33% 0% 1 20% 4 100%
Organizational
& inst. support 3 38% 1 33% 2 100% 1 20% 1 25%

Interview Results and Findings: Women Who Break From Gendered Norms
The qualitative semi-structured interviews each took an average of 39 minutes, with 28
minutes being the minimum and 61 minutes being the maximum. Given that the pilots were
located throughout the United States, all 6 interviews were conducted by phone and recorded
using the Temi application with the interviewees’ permission. The interviews were all
transcribed and coded using NVivo. Interviewees were told about the use of pseudonyms and
assured that their names and responses would not be identifiable. Steps were also taken to
mitigate any power dynamics by keeping the tone conversational. All of the participants
appeared to be willing and forthcoming. Half of the interviewees were between the ages of 30
and 40. Most were White (one identified as “other”), all were currently working full-time, and all
reported making more than $50,000 per year. Four pilots reported earnings over $100,000, and
two reported earnings over $150,000. Only one pilot had children. All reported being good
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 71

(50%) to exceptional (50%) students; four had bachelor’s degrees, and two had master’s degrees.
The interviewees appeared candid and vested in the interview process.
Non-conformity to Female Norms: Catalyst Experiences
Three of the pilots identified specific moments when they were 14 to 15 years old where
they were motivated to become a pilot. The other three identified a series of experiences that led
to their decision. In some cases, these experiences were spur of the moment events that might
never have happened, but they did, and they made an impactful impression on each woman’s
trajectory to pursue a non-traditional career. These catalyst experiences are included in Table 16.
Table 16
Summary of Subjects Catalyst Experiences
Pilot Age Catalyst Experiences
Diane: Navy
F18 Pilot
15 When I was young, my grandfather took me to the airport every Friday
night to watch the planes land . . . and for my 16th birthday, I asked my
mom to go to an air show in Dallas instead of having a birthday party.
The Air Force Thunderbirds had just picked up their first female
demonstration pilot, Major Nicole Malachsowskie. We waited in a long
line to talk her, and I asked her, “How do I do I become a jet pilot?” She
was super awesome and talked to me for about 10 minutes with that huge
line of people behind us.
Karen:
Commercial
Pilot.
International
Flight Instructor
Teens My father worked at McDonell Douglas. I started young as a kid visiting
my father when he worked there. I saw the maiden voyage of the C-17.
We’d go for family day, and I’d see where they actually built planes, and
one day, I thought I’d give flying a try. I did a demo flight in an airplane,
and when we landed, I was jumping up and down–I really, I wanted to do
this . . . I started taking flying lessons and, actually, I had a female
instructor, which is really unusual. At Torrance, there were three female
instructors and we all kind of, you know, hung out and became friends.
Ann:
Commercial
Pilot. Boeing
787 Flight
Instructor
14 When I was in high school, my mother and I took a trip from Philadelphia
to Cancun. And it was during that trip that the captain invited me to the
flight deck. We talked, and he was multilingual like me, and we talked
about flying and I was I bit by the bug at that point.

GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 72

Table 16, continued
Pilot Age Catalyst Experiences
Martina: C17
and 747 & 757
pilot
14 I fell in love with aviation when I was 14 years old and my father took me
to an airshow back in Russia where I used to live. And it was even more
than we expected with the Sukhoi SU27 flanker and part of the Russian
Knights performing aerobatics. From that day on, all I wanted to do is be
a military pilot and fly fighters. And so, I told this to my dad, and he said,
“Hey, you can go skydive and fly gliders for fun once you turn 15 or 16
but never think about it as your career.” [Realizing she would probably
never be a pilot in the Soviet Union, she visited family in Washington
state and never went back]. Then, I went to a Fairchild Air Force Base
airshow in Spokane, Washington, and I saw a KC-135 tanker there. And
there was what looked like a female pilot looking out of it. I went up to
her and I, in my broken English, asked her if she was a pilot and she says,
“I fly for Air National Guard.” I said, “What is Air National Guard? I
have no idea what you’re saying right now.” But she is smiling. She just
explained it to me. She said, “Hey, if this is what you want to do, you
need a 4-year degree; then you need US citizenship, and you have to take
a bunch of tests for the Air Force.” And so that was it. That’s all I
wanted; I needed to hear from someone to tell me how to get there.
Rebecca: Navy
P-3 Pilot
Teens My father was a Navy helicopter pilot, so I kind of grew up thinking
about it. It was never really something that was like top of my mind, but
then my older sister ended up going to the Naval Academy. I applied and
ended up going. Then, while I was at the Naval Academy, basically, the
only thing I really wanted to do in the Navy was fly. I think it was mainly
based on just growing up with my dad having talked a lot about flying
throughout his life.
Ellen:
Commercial
Pilot
16-17 I am a military brat. My dad was in the Air Force, and I moved around a
bunch, and ended up in Dayton, Ohio. During high school, we had a
French exchange student one summer for about a month. We had taken
him out for his birthday, and, on the way back, there was a grass strip
airport where people were skydiving. And there was a sign that says
glider rides like 20 bucks or $25. And my dad goes, “Hey, you want to
take a glider ride sometime?” Yeah, sure, I thought. I’ll do anything once.
At that point, I was a junior in high school, and I was trying to decide
what to do with the rest of my life. We ended up going for a glider ride
and I thought, wow, this is really, really neat. How do I make this a job?

In three of the cases above, seeing other women pilots as role models also contributed to
these pilots’ positive feelings about their ability to become a pilot. Clearly, all of these pilots
were interested in finding a unique, exciting, and challenging career. They were less preoccupied
with what some researchers like Mahalik et al. (2005) have coined as female norms. In the
interviews, these pilots appeared less likely to conform to female norms in that they sought out
nontraditional careers of adventure and accomplishment typically associated with men.
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 73

Culture of Caring Versus Achievement
As the survey results showed, flight attendant students selected careers based on a desire
to help and care for others while pilot students selected careers more associated with
responsibility and accomplishment. These results correlate with research that found women are
more often found in health care, child-development, or more traditionally female CTE programs,
while men continue to dominate in STEM and advanced CTE careers (Lester, 2010). The
professional pilots in this study sought careers associated with high-level accomplishment, and
their collective experience included flying large passenger and cargo planes, being deployed in
Afghanistan, Syria, and Iraq, and being responsible for leadership in stressful situations. In one
case, a pilot said,
This is going to sound kind of weird, but I think there is a switch that gets flipped when
I’m going operational. So, on deployment, when I brief that flight, it is all about that
flight, and it is all about that mission. So, it’s kind of like switching off everything else
and being hyper-focused on this one mission. And, if you don’t get this mission done,
those guys on the ground are going to die. I mean, that is motivation enough for me to be
focused, and this is the only thing I’m worrying about. Anything that I’m feeling
personally, it’s just so minor to these guys’ lives. I know what the emergencies are, and I
have enough experience that if we have an emergency, I’m not going to freak out. So,
when we do have emergencies, I kind of take charge and, and calm the pilots down, talk
them through the emergency, and teach them while we’re doing it. When my instructor’s
hat is on and I am teaching them, I also flip that switch because now I know that they’re
relying on me to not only keep us safe, but to teach them to be safe in the future and take
over the job that I just had.
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 74

It is worth noting here that Gilligan’s (1982) research found that, in women’s descriptions
of self, “identity is defined in a context of relationship and judged by a standard of responsibility
and care” (p. 160), and men’s description of self was tied to individual achievement. Yet, the
story above suggests a melding of individual achievement goals with a great sense of
responsibility and care for the lives of others–ideal attributes for any leader, female or male.
Self-Efficacy
Research also suggests that a contributor to women not choosing commercial pilot
careers could be tied to them not wanting to undertake activities or careers where they do not
believe they can be successful (Goyer, 2016). While a lack of confidence may be truer for
women than men, being a commercial pilot requires a high degree of self-confidence. In fact, it
is not uncommon for people in the industry to refer, pejoratively, to pilots with large egos as
“sky gods.” The survey results reflected that female pilot students were more apt to rate
themselves higher in self-efficacy than their flight attendant peers, which was expected, but they
even rated themselves higher than their male peers, which may be an attribute necessary to break
from gendered norms. What was clear in all of the interviews is that the pilots had the
wherewithal to navigate the sometimes-confusing road to becoming a pilot which required
perseverance, asking questions, learning from setbacks, networking, and knowing failure in
training is not a life sentence. Several pilots shared the sentiments mentioned by Diane:
Every single one of us has failed. Guy, girl, everybody, so don’t beat yourself up too
much because all of us are Type A personalities. If we fail at one event, we feel like
failures, like terrible failures. Instead of beating ourselves up for a little setback, know
that training is built for you to have a setback; it doesn’t necessarily mean you’re not
good at your job. It just means maybe you need to see this again so you can be better at it.
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 75

This ability to look self-confidently at failure as a temporary setback as an opportunity for
learning was a common theme throughout the interviews. Three pilots talked about how they had
assumed that, because they had always been good students, flying would come easy as well, but
the flight training was much more difficult than they had imagined. Proficiency took time. They
also all mentioned the pressure they felt to do well in flight training because there were so few
women. They felt the need to do well for themselves, and for the benefit of all women pilots.
Perseverance, they felt, was clearly a top requirement as was the ability to ignore the naysayers.
It was a common theme among the interviewees to have the self-efficacy to ignore the
naysayers they came across who may have felt that women were not as innately qualified as
men. Their comments ranged from “I just think to myself that this, too, will be pass” to “If you
have that kind of mentality, you don’t deserve my time.” One example was an anecdote about a
married pilot and flight attendant who flew together, and ground crew members frequently
assumed that the flight attendant was the captain and that his wife, the pilot, was a flight
attendant. The couple was good natured about these mistaken assumptions and seemed to
welcome the opportunity to use it as a teachable moment to overcome implicit bias. This attitude
was reflected by all of the pilots in that they felt times were changing in the United States, and
anyone who saw it otherwise was just behind the times.
These pilots also demonstrated the fortitude and self-efficacy to overcome financial
barriers. Only one pilot’s family paid for her flight training at Embry-Riddle Aeronautical
University, though she was also required to work to defer costs. All of the rest had to find ways
to afford the expenses of becoming a pilot. Two went to community colleges and then to four-
year schools, earning flight ratings at local airports; two went to four-year aviation colleges that
included flight training, and two attended the Naval Academy. One pilot shared this experience:
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 76

Well, my family never had money for a car, first of all. When I graduated high school, it
kind of hit me hard because my parents didn’t have money for college and flying wasn’t
an option. I went to Daytona Beach and Embry-Riddle, quoted me $180,000 for a degree,
and I said, well, I can’t really do that. That’s a lot of money. And they said, well, we have
student loans, and I didn’t feel like taking a loan. I found a cheaper version of Embry-
Riddle, which happened to be at McCord Air Force Base. It was a lot cheaper, and it was
just come one night once a week. They said you can get your degree here, but you have to
take lower level classes somewhere else at the community college. That’s what I did. It
was a very cheap way to get my 4-year degree. And it took me a little less than four years
and I got it all done. You don’t have to go through a fancy school to get your ratings. You
can get them the local airport for a lot cheaper. I would highly recommend that.
While this community college and local flight school to a four-year school route is less
expensive, it can be tricky to navigate and stay on track, which is why the military worked for
other candidates. To illustrate the difference, here is Rebecca’s story:
Since I went to the Naval Academy, I’m a commissioned officer, so flying is part of my
job. I didn’t have to go out and get my own flying lessons or anything like that. As soon
as I was commissioned, they sent me to flight school, and that is part of my training in the
Navy. They’re basically training me to fly planes for them. So, for the next two years
while I was in flight school, I was still being paid as a naval officer. Once I got winged, I
did owe more time, which wasn’t just my Naval Academy commitment. So, the Naval
Academy commitment is a 5-year contract after commissioning. But if you go to flight
school, you owe 8 more years from winging. So, I wouldn’t be able to end my
commitment to the Navy until my 8 years is up, which is 2023. So, luckily, the Naval
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 77

Academy’s 5 years goes in tandem with the flight training. So, my Naval Academy
commitment is actually met at this point. But I still owe the time for the wings. So, it’s 2
years of flight school essentially, and then an 8-year contract after wings. So, it ends up
being about 10-years depending on how long it took you to get through flight school.
For these pilots, their view of their economic situation and their abilities seemed inextricably
linked to their degree of self-efficacy and motivation to fly. In other words, most of the pilots did
not have the money to pay for flying lessons, which can run about $150 to $200 per hour and up
to $80,000 for a commercial pilot rating. Yet, they all had all demonstrated the self-efficacy to
figure out a way to make their dream a reality, and that dream included a love of flying, seeing
the stars on a dark night, watching a beautiful sunset, and the sense of wonder they felt in flight.
Influence of Institutional Characteristics
All of the pilots mentioned the role of a family member, counselor, or instructor in
helping them navigate their journey to becoming a pilot. In some cases, however, family
members did not have the same optimism that the pilots could be successful. The common
denominator among these women is that, once they experienced their respective moments(s) of
inspiration, they did not wait for opportunities to magically appear. They each actively sought
the people, resources, and institutions that would aid them in their quest. Martina, in particular,
faced seemingly insurmountable odds; after she learned English, finished her tests, obtained her
United States Citizenship, and earned a bachelor’s degree, she went to the Air Force office to
sign up, but she was turned away. She recounted,
I gave the recruiter all my paperwork; she called me a day later, and she said we have a
problem, you can’t apply. And I said, why can’t I, and she says, “You have dual
citizenship. I’ve never worked with anyone who had Russian citizenship, but you can’t
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 78

have it and be an officer in United States Air Force.” So, I said, “Okay, what do I need to
do?” She said I would have to go through the official process of renouncing it. How long
will that take? By now we’re talking, let’s see, I was almost 28. And so, the age limit to
enter the US Air Force Pilot Training was 29 at the time. And so, I was 27. So, I was like,
okay, I’m the pushing age limit now. I called the Embassy and I said I need to start the
process. And they said, are you sure? What’s wrong with you? Why would you want to
do it? Are you a spy? I mean what? I said, no, I’m joining the armed forces, and we
cannot do this as an officer. So, they said, okay, here are the documents you need to
collect. And most of them, you have to collect back in Russia. So, it took me nine months
and about $400. I got it done. It was my mom going around the offices back in Russia
and collecting all those documents for me.
In this case, Martina’s perseverance in overcoming barriers was exceptional, but several of the
pilots talked about the need for back-up plans because becoming a pilot is so specialized that, if
something happens, such as not being able to pass an FAA medical, alternatives could be limited.
Also, had she been a man, Martina believes her chance of becoming a pilot would have been
much higher in her home country. Yet, even in the United States, the numbers remained skewed.
In a study of 28 four-year aviation colleges, Clark (2016) found no conclusive differences in
institutional characteristics that contributed to the underrepresentation of women, yet 85.5% or
642 of the aviation students were male and only 13% or 98 were female. The pilots interviewed
for this study had no complaints about their respective institutions; in fact, the general comment
was that they were happy with their choices.
Again, all of the pilots mentioned the importance of role models and mentors, which is
supported by the research that role models may help challenge students’ gender schema: “If
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 79

Professor Tina (or Jose) can be a physicist (or elementary educator), then maybe I can, too”
(Patton et al,. 2016, p. 186). However, the number of female airline pilots remains low at 4.36%
in the United States, leaving very few professional female pilots available to mentor students in a
college program (Goyer, 2016). Further, 93% of all aircraft pilots are White (Data USA, 2017),
making it even less likely that female students of color would have a pilot mentor of the same
gender and ethnicity. In spite of the lack of female STEM or advanced CTE mentors in
traditionally male fields, however, the research supports the idea that having any faculty mentor
as a role model is more effective than no mentor, especially for the “academic success and
persistence of students who are minoritized for their gender in academic majors” (Patton et al.,
2016, p. 186). Not surprisingly, the pilots interviewed for this study recommended organizations
such as the Women in Aviation International and the Ninety-Nines Internal Organization of
Women for their mentorship and advocacy for women in aviation. Two of the pilots were also
recipients of scholarships from these organizations, and one pilot summed up the need for role
models by saying, “Seeing is believing.”
Document Review Findings and Results
In the interviews with the professional pilots, it appeared that the younger pilots had
experienced fewer gender-related barriers and that they felt their numbers relative to those of
men were increasing, albeit slowly. To check their experience against the numbers of students by
gender in the Cyan Community College Program, documents available through the Community
College Chancellor’s Office website were reviewed as far back as Fall of 1992, when the data for
pilot education programs appears to have begun being tracked and maintained by gender. The
results, presented graphically in Figure 13, show that the narrow enrollment gap between the
total pilots and the male pilots ran very closely together until 2008. It appears that in 2008 an
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 80

increased number of females began to impact the trend lines; however, that gap seems to have
narrowed again less than 10 years later. It will be worthwhile to monitor this trend as the
recommendations from this research are implemented.

Figure 13. Fall semester enrollment by gender from 1992 to 2018.
One of the often-heard quotes among pilots is that women account for 4.36% (2016) or
4.38% (2017) of the airline transport pilots in the United States. This number comes from the
2017 Civil Airmen Data that is reported annually by the FAA. However, the report does not
include the ratio of women to men pilots which Women and Aviation International has included
on their website for 2017. The updated numbers for 2018 show that, although the overall number
of women pilots increased by 3,769 or 8.83% over 2017, the actual women relative to overall
pilots dropped from 7.01% to 6.26% (noted in red in Table 17) over the past year due to a
21.76% increase in male pilots (or 132,575 pilots).
0
50
100
150
200
250
Fall 1992
Fall 1993
Fall 1994
Fall 1995
Fall 1996
Fall 1997
Fall 1998
Fall 1999
Fall 2000
Fall 2001
Fall 2002
Fall 2003
Fall 2004
Fall 2005
Fall 2006
Fall 2007
Fall 2008
Fall 2009
Fall 2010
Fall 2011
Fall 2012
Fall 2013
Fall 2014
Fall 2015
Fall 2016
Fall 2017
Fall 2018
Pilot Enrollments at Cyan College
Pilot Total Female Male Not Stated
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 81

Table 17
Federal Aviation Administration’s Civil Airmen Data
2018 Civil Airmen Data 2017 Civil Airmen Data
All Women

All Women
Pilots (total) 741,881 46,463 6.26% 609,306 42,694 7.01%
Students 167,804 22,266 13.27%

149,121 19,219 12.89%
Recreational 144 10 6.94%

153 14 9.15%
Sport 6,246 240 3.84%

6,097 229 3.76%
Private 163,695 10,255 6.26%

162,455 9,971 6.14%
Commercial 99,880 6,556 6.56%

98,161 6,267 6.38%
Airline
Transport 162,145 7,136 4.40% 159,825 6,994 4.38%
Rotorcraft
(only) 15,033 NA NA

15,355 NA NA
Glider (only) 18,370 NA NA

18,139 NA NA
Flight
Instructors 108,564 7,335 6.76%

106,692 7,105 6.66%
Remote Pilots
106,321 6,188
5.82%

69,166 3,462 5.01%
Green=up, red=down over 2017
Source: FAA’s Aeronautical Center (December 31, 2018 data)

While it is true that more women are becoming pilots due to an overall increase in the
number of pilots being hired, the percentage of women airline transport pilots relative to the total
number of airline transport pilots hired, has gone up by only .02% over the previous year or .4%
since 2004.
Summary of Findings and Pilots’ Advice to Students
In all of the pilot interviews, it was clear that this conversation was not the first time they
had thought metacognitively about their path to be becoming a pilot. They related specific
examples about how they sought mentors, overcame failure, prepared for tough assignments,
joined formal and informal support groups, worked hard, felt pressured to represent their gender,
managed stress, challenged conventional norms, dismissed the naysayers, and, above all else,
how they forged their own path. They are clear pathmakers, and they continue to encourage
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 82

others to join them in their journey. For that reason, the advice they offered in the interview to
future pilots has been included in the third column of Table 18 in the pilots’ own, authentic,
voices. It is also interesting to note that many of the interviewees referred to “girl” and “boy”
pilots, subverting any pejorative sense of the words by using the terms affectionately to refer to
themselves and their peers.
Table 18
Summary of Findings and Pilot Recommendations
Theme &
Literature
Review
Summary of Findings Implications for Practice

Advice in the pilots’ own words
Careers of
Caring vs.
Individual
Achievement:
Women’s
career choice
tends to be
defined in a
context of
relationship and
judged by a
standard of
responsibility
and care. Men’s
description of
self is tied to
individual
achievement.
(Bloom, 2017;
Gilligan, 1982;
Lester, 2010)
Survey results confirmed that female students
made more comments about wanting to be a
flight attendant, “so I can feel like I am
playing my part in keeping everyone safe
while providing amazing service,” which is
aligned with Gilligan’s construct of careers of
caring. Pilot students and professional pilots
made more comments about, “I have a passion
for flying. I also want to make my family
proud.” Interview findings supported that the
professional pilots tended to be less
conforming to female norms in that only 1 of
6 pilots has children and all 6 were proud of
their accomplishments in making it through
rigorous flight training, completing their
degrees, and flying in challenging
circumstances including being shot at during
deployments. Among the professional pilots,
however, there were examples of a melding of
high individual achievement with a deep sense
of responsibility and care for the lives of
others.

One pilot offered, “I have found that women
very much doubt themselves where men who
will say, I can do that. And women go, well,
you know, I might not be able to do that. And
I’ve run into that myself as my own barrier,
and basically though the practice and
procedures, and talking and saying I don’t
understand, I am now more forward about
saying I need help.”
Make connections. Join organizations
like WAI and 99s. Go to conferences,
apply for scholarships.

Seeing is believing. Go to airshows.

Check ALPA’s website for their work
on women’s issues, including maternity
leave for pilots.

Find girl colleagues for support, when
you get fed up with the boys.

Remember boys have bad days and
make mistakes too.

Run, read, travel, de-stress.

Know that flying doesn’t always come
naturally—keep practicing until you’ve
got it.

Know that you will get stared at—
especially in places like the Middle
East. This is not a secret. There are
only about 6% of us, so we’re always
going to be a minority. People stare at
me, and you have to understand, it’s not
a negative thing. I learned how to look
passed it. But you get crazy stares; you
know, these guys haven’t seen women
for a very long time, and we get stared
at ALL the time.
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 83

Table 18, continued
Theme &
Literature
Review
Summary of Findings Implications for Practice

Advice in the pilots’ own
words
Self-efficacy: A
strong sense of
personal self-
efficacy is
related to better
health, higher
achievement,
and more social
integration
(Bandura, 1977;
Conner &
Norman, 1995;
Goyer, 2016;
Josselson, 1996;
Schwarzer &
Jerusalem,
1995;
Rest, et al.,
1999).
On the General Self-efficacy Scale, the professional
pilots had the highest self-efficacy sum scores at 35.50,
followed by female pilot students at 33.80, male pilot
students at 32.63, female flight attendant students at
31.88, and male pilot students at 30.8. These results
correlate with the research that shows higher self-
efficacy scores relate to higher achievement levels.

Above all else, persevere–for
yourself, for all women pilots.

Find role models; ask
questions.

It’s going to take time; be
patient and continue working
hard. You’re going to have to
build that time and
experience until you get to
your final goal.

Every single one of us has
failed training events. Guy,
girl, everybody, so don’t beat
yourself up too much because
all of us are Type-A
personalities.

Learn time management.
Non-
conformity to
female norms:
Sociologists
link a higher
rate of
conformity to
female norms as
a negative
influence on the
odds of them
choosing STEM
majors (Beutel,
et al., 2017;
Mahalik, et al.,
2005)
The survey results confirmed that a higher percentage of
women (60%) enroll in flight attendant courses, which
are typically more female, and 15% enroll in pilot
courses, which have been traditionally male.
Alternatively, the pilot interviews revealed more
nonconforming attributes than conforming. Several of
pilots reported that they were one of only a few women
among many men, which at times, felt like they were
treated as more fragile than the men. Being on
deployment seemed to change that perception for the
military pilots where they came to see the male pilots
“less as competitors and more like brothers.”
Be assertive. There’s a
tendency for new pilots to be
quiet and sit there. I think
that’s even more prevalent in
girls--if we hear something
that we don’t necessarily
agree with, we’re quiet. I
wish I would’ve known that
back then and been a little
more assertive.

Flip the switch to being
hyper-focused when you are
operational.

Know that some boys may not
want to fly with girls, but it is
usually the old guys. I just
remember, “This too shall
pass.”

GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 84

Table 18, continued
Theme &
Literature
Review
Summary of Findings Implications for Practice

Advice in the pilots’ own
words
Role of the
Institution and
Mentors:
Institutional
factors and
college mentors
may mitigate the
effects of gender
stereotypes by
challenging
students’ gender
schema. (Clark,
2006; Lester,
2010.)
Pilots and students generally spoke highly of the
colleges they attended, but money for flying lessons
was frequently mentioned by both. The consensus
seemed to be that it can be confusing, and institutions
could help more with the finances and guidance.
Interestingly, 20% of the pilot students and 41% of the
flight attendant students currently live at home and
very few students, and only one professional pilot, has
children of her own. A much higher percentage of pilot
students are paying for their education, and, not
surprisingly, they have a higher percentage of student
loans and are receiving a higher percentage of financial
aid.

Family and friends were often helpful mentors. Not
surprisingly, the pilots interviewed for this study, four
of whom were recruited at a conference, recommended
organizations such as the Women in Aviation
International and the Ninety-Nines Internal
Organization of Women for their mentorship and
advocacy for women in aviation. Two of the pilots
were also recipients of scholarships from these
organizations, and one pilot summed up the importance
of finding role models by saying, “Seeing is believing.”
Ask for help.

Find a tutor and mentor; it
means you want the best
chance, the best information.

Join everything that will
help you toward your goal.

Apply for scholarships.

A community college and
local flight school can be
much less expensive way to
go. For me, it meant I
graduated with no debt,
while many of my friends
still have huge student loans
they are paying off.

Pathmakers:
Students develop
preconceived
ideas about what
majors are
appropriate for
different genders.
By graduation,
females fall into
primarily four
identity statuses.
Pathmakers set
their own path.
(Bandura, 1977;
Goyer, 2016;
Josselson, 1996;
Rest, et al., 1999)
In 100% of the professional pilot interviews, it was
clear that that these women charted their own way after
seeing an opportunity to do something out of the
ordinary. In some cases, their inspiration was a spur of
the moment event, like a visit to an airshow, but
inspiration also came from spending time at the airport
with grandpa on Friday nights watching planes land, or
a summer flying camp, or visiting the cockpit while on
a trip with mom, or watching a father fly or build a
plane. These moments ignited the imagination to dream
big, even when the person making the moment possible
was often skeptical about a pilot career–especially for
girls. These girls asked questions, sought mentors,
overcame failure, prepared for tough assignments,
joined formal and informal support groups, worked
hard, felt pressured to represent their gender, managed
stress, challenged conventional norms, dismissed the
naysayers, and above all else, they figured out a way
through to their dreams, and they continue to
encourage others to join them in their journey.
Ignore the naysayers.

When someone says, “Oh
honey, girls don’t do that,”
prove them wrong.

Network with role models
who can help you.

If you apply to one program
and they say no, there are a
lot more programs. If you
were willing to accept a
failure, then you’re never
going to accomplish what
you want to be. You have to
overcome those failures.

GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 85

Summary
Airline hiring can be cyclical, but the recent uptick in hiring has recruiters out knocking
on flight school doors and creating pathways to employment that were unheard of five years ago.
More women pilots are being hired, which is good news, but men are still being hired at almost
19 times the rate of women. In fact, Federal Aviation Administration data show that, in 2004,
women accounted for 6.32% of all pilots and 4.00% of airline transport pilots, which reflects no
real progress. Yet, the number of female student pilots reported is up to 13.27%, more than two
points higher than in 2004, and, at Cyan College, they account for almost 15% of the aviation
program. Through the triangulation of data from the surveys, pilot interviews, and documents,
the findings provide factors and attributes that can contribute to women’s ability to break from
gendered norms and include recommendations to help students find a path to a pilot career. The
following chapter addresses how these findings may help inform educators working to mitigate
the equity gap in this area of technical education.

GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 86

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS
With only 4.4% of the airline transport pilots in the United States being female (FAA,
2018), the purpose of this study was to investigate factors that influence the career choices of
women in aviation and to identify attributes that may give rise to their ability to break from
gendered norms. Under the umbrella of a transformative conceptual framework (Creswell, 2014),
this mixed-methods study sought to understand and advocate for gender equity in the
traditionally male pilot career. This approach enabled the triangulation of quantitative data from
the General Self-Efficacy Scale of college students enrolled in aviation classes with the findings
of the qualitative interviews of commercial and military pilots, and a document review of
participation and completion rates in aviation education and pilot employment rates by gender.
From these results, it is clear that more women pilots are being hired, yet, in relation to the
number of men being hired, the equity gap remains substantial with approximately 95% of the
airline pilots in the world being men (Carsenat & Rossini, 2019).
Implications
Every year, our college surveys all of the students who have earned a certificate or
degree. The most frequent comments from students in the aviation program are about how much
they appreciate that their instructors work in the industry and that they provide them with inside
information about how to be successful. Not surprisingly, the research findings show that pilot
enrollment is up overall, yet the gender gap, just as it is in commercial aviation, remains
relatively unchanged in spite of increased airline hiring activity. However, many actionable areas
were identified in the research that may contribute to reducing this equity gap in education.
Given that the findings provided the impetus for considering these actionable areas, they are
provided below as possible recommendations for educators in aviation programs.
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 87

The Catalyst Experience: Why Mentors and Role Models Matter
Through their stories, the pilots shared common themes that led to their career successes.
Typically, their journeys began in their teens with an experience such as seeing an air show or a
series of experiences such as spending time with grandpa at the airport on Friday nights watching
planes land, or attending a summer flying camp, or visiting the cockpit while on a trip with mom,
or watching a father fly a plane. These experiences consistently served as a catalyst for igniting
their interest in aviation. Often though, these experiences were coupled with, or followed by, a
“seeing is believing” moment where the teens witnessed a woman flying a plane. Rather than
dismissing that aspiration as out of their reach, it occurred to these teens that, if she can do it, so
could they. In fact, one of the pilots emphasized that this “seeing is believing” experience is so
important in helping girls dream big that she tells all the men she flies with, “Take your
daughters flying.” In our own experience, the college takes students on a behind-the-scenes tour
of the airport every semester, and, on occasion, it is tempting to skip it when the semester is
busy. But, with each trip, faculty are reminded by the students’ excitement and overwhelming
appreciation that these experiences matter in terms of their motivation and ability to visualize
themselves in this career path. From the pilot interviews, it became quite clear that their similar
experiences changed the trajectory of their lives. An implication for practice would be to provide
these catalyst-type experiences as a purposeful and prioritized part of the curriculum.
To make dreams a reality, however, the pilots all recognized that they would need help in
forging their own path, so they took advantage of opportunities to talk to women pilots even if
that meant waiting in a long line at an airshow or approaching a complete stranger in broken
English and asking, “How do I do what you do?” What is so striking in their stories is that the
pilots all found role models, mentors, flight instructors, and friends—both women and men—
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 88

who provided support along the way. The women felt this support was so important to their
success that they continue to pay it forward by attending events such as the Women in Aviation
International Conferences and answering girls’ questions about “How do I do what you do?”
The following quick-reference table illustrates how re-creating this type of catalyst experience,
with a “seeing is believing” role model, and opportunities for mentorship might work to help
guide women and girls in aviation pathways.

Table 19. The Catalyst Experience: Recommendations for Educators
Knowledge and Skill Practice: Why Hands-On Training Matters
As noted in the survey and the interview findings, the pilots and pilot students rated
themselves as good to excellent students, which correlated to their higher overall levels of
education. However, gaps in knowledge can be problematic (Clark & Estes, 2008), and several
pilots shared that, because they were strong students, they expected that they would do well in
flight training. Flight training did not always come easy or naturally. They described it as being a
completely different skillset from school or driving a car because they had to learn to manage the
aircraft up and down, back and forth, side-to-side, altitude, and more. At times, they felt
Catalyst
Experience
•Facilitate:
•Air Shows
•Field Trips
•Observation
Flights
•Simulators
•Clubs/Flying
Team
Seeing is
Believing
•Arrange:
•Role Models
•Women Pilot
Guest Speakers
•Access to the
99s or WAI
•Video
Testimonials
Show the Way
•Provide:
•Mentors
•Aviation Career
Counseling
•Clear Pathways
•Peer and Family
Support
•Financial Aid
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 89

overwhelmed, but they sought tutors and practiced in flight simulators. Eventually, they began to
feel more confident until “it clicked and began to feel natural.” However, one pilot offered,
I have found that women very much doubt themselves where men will say, I can do that.
And women go, well, you know, I might not be able to do that. I’ve run into that myself
as my own barrier; basically, through the practice and procedures, and saying I don’t
understand, I am now more forward about saying I need help.
A general consensus was that it was better to ask for help when you had it available than to be
unsure about something in an emergency. Ellen, a commercial pilot, said she still starts thinking
about her upcoming flights a week in advance by checking the weather, airport, and route
because being prepared helps her anticipate the unexpected. Another pilot, Martina, said, “I
always try to schedule a day off between trips, so I can clear my head from my last trip and get
ready for the next one.” Several pilots mentioned the checklist, preflight briefings, and
emergency procedures as essential tools for ensuring competency. For educators, these tools and
hands-on practice scenarios have always been essential to aviation training, but, in this research,
even static mock-ups, video games, and flight simulators for hands-on training were identified as
being particularly helpful for critical thinking development and practical skill competencies.
Motivation: Provide Opportunities for Learning to Overcome Failures and Naysayers
Staying motivated in the face of failure requires tremendous self-efficacy. Another
resounding theme among the pilots was the need to view failure, such as a failed check-ride, as
an opportunity to learn and not as an excuse to give up. While it was not always easy to fail a
flight test, one pilot said, “Every single one of us has failed training events. Guy, girl,
everybody.” As educators, teaching coping mechanisms to manage these setbacks may help limit
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 90

motivation gaps, which, in turn, can lead to self-confidence that comes from perseverance and
practice. A Navy pilot illustrated it this way,
I know what the emergencies are, and I have enough experience that, if we have an
emergency, I’m not going to freak out. So, when we do have emergencies, I kind of take
charge, and I calm the pilots down, talk them through the emergency, and teach them
while we’re doing it.
By developing realistic scenarios in our curriculum that build upon one another with learning
outcomes that include confidence and fortitude, students may be more likely to cope with
challenges and stay motivated by viewing failure as a lesson, instead of a life sentence.
In addition, the pilots felt it was important to teach students how to manage
uncomfortable situations where someone may not want to fly with a “girl pilot,” or where they
may be treated in a sexually inappropriate way, or where they might be intimidated by male
competition are lessons. In particular, women need to know when they might ignore it,
acknowledge it, or report it. Pilots said, especially in the beginning, that women are sometimes
too quiet, and they wish they would have spoken up more at the beginning. Educational
programs that address these issues openly may help all students work together more collegially.
Organizational and Cultural Barriers: Mind the Gap–Disaggregated Metrics Matter
Over the past 60 years, the percentage of female pilots in relation to total pilots has
increased 3.41% from 2.85% in the 1960s to 6.26% currently. At this rate, increasing the
numbers may require a consent decree such as the one issued against the airlines in 1971 by the
Supreme Court which ruled on the behalf of Celio Diaz. Diaz claimed his two applications for
Pan Am were rejected on the basis of gender, and the court agreed that the airlines could not
discriminate against men for flight attendant positions (Johnston, 2007). It should be disclosed
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 91

that the researcher still remembers that one of her first job responsibilities at Pacific Southwest
Airlines based in San Diego, California, was to count and report how many men applied and
were hired as flight attendants each month to make certain the airline was in compliance with
that consent decree. Court orders notwithstanding, it is not always easy to track the actual
number of women pilots hired around the world because not everybody tracks it or makes it a
priority. Even in California, you have to disaggregate to the six-digit TOP Code to track pilot and
flight attendant students separately. Perhaps the lack of urgency to do anything about it though
has more to do with the fact that the inequity today seems to be less about qualified people being
overlooked because of their gender and more about there not being enough people of one gender
who are qualified.
As educators, we have goals for just about everything, and it would behoove us to set a
goal and advocate for it if we are ever going to move toward a culture of gender equity in
aviation. It will then be possible to measure performance and move to inclusive curriculum by
facilitating courses with more balanced gender representation. For example, educators could
work to provide some aviation courses, such as Crew Resource Management, that could include
flight attendant (mostly female) and pilot (mostly male) students to encourage broader mixed
gender participation. To encourage flight attendants to try flight training, adding a pilot course to
certification or degree requirement might provide enough of a nudge to break down barriers to
female norms where feasible. Finally, the marketing messaging must be inclusive and reflective
of women as pilots. Educators will want to look for opportunities to celebrate student milestones,
post testimonials, and advocate for equity. These recommendations for closing the knowledge,
motivation and organizational gaps (Clark & Estes, 2008), are summarized in Table 20 below.
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 92

Table 20. Mind the gap: Closing the gaps–recommendations for educators
Future Research: Women’s Movement–Does the Era Make a Difference?
The women’s movement has grown exponentially with many marches, women running
for office, talk of passing the Equal Rights Amendment, and the “me too” movement. Future
research could determine what, if any, impact this cultural power dynamic will have on women’s
empowerment and perceived self-efficacy to pursue advanced technical careers.

Figure 14. Historical trends of women as percentage of total pilots.
Knowlege &
Skill Gaps
•Facilitate:
•Hands-on
•Tutors
•Mock-up
Scenarios
•Flight Sim.
•Video Games
Motivation
Gaps
•Instruct:
•Failure as a
Lesson
•Check-rides
•Emergency
Drills
•Coping
Mechanisms
Organizational/
Cultural Gaps
•Shrink the Gap:
•Gender Goals
•Metrics/Disag.
•Advocate
•Celebrate
•Flip Marketing
•Messaging
0.00%
2.00%
4.00%
6.00%
8.00%
10.00%
12.00%
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2018
Latest
2030
Goal?
Women Pilots as a % of Total PIlots
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 93

The figure above illustrates the percentage of women pilots relative to the total pilots
tracked by the Federal Aviation Administration and reported by Goyer (2016). The last two
columns were added by the researcher to illustrate that progress from 1960 through 2018 has
been tediously slow. Based on this history, growth in the number of women pilots as a
percentage of total pilots has grown about 1% on average every 20 years, making it unrealistic
that we could increase 4 percentage points over the next 10 years to reach a goal of 10% by
2030. However, Congress passed the Nineteenth Amendment giving women the right to vote in
the United States on June 4, 1919, and it was ratified on August 18, 1920. Perhaps future
research will unveil a correlation between this 100th anniversary of suffrage with a tipping point
in gender equity among women in aviation.
Conclusion
While this study identified factors and attributes that contribute to a woman’s ability to
break from gendered norms and flourish in an advanced technical career, we still have a long
way to go. Yet, there is optimism in these research findings and among the women who are
among the 5% of professional pilots. Along their personal and professional journeys, the pilots
asked questions, sought mentors, learned from failure, prepared for tough assignments, joined
support groups, worked hard, felt pressure to represent their gender, managed stress, challenged
conventional norms, and dismissed the naysayers. Above all else, they persevered, and they
continue to perpetuate their legacy by encouraging others to follow in their footsteps. If
educators work to apply the lessons learned from these exceptional pathmakers, then perhaps
those teachable moments can facilitate a tipping point where more girls will see how they might
fit within a paradigm they may never have otherwise imagined for themselves.
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 94

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GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 98

APPENDIX A
The Quantitative Survey Using the General Self-Efficacy Scale
The Career Technical Education: Aviation Survey is a Qualtrics-based instrument that will be
provided to students enrolled in aviation classes through their instructors via a link. It will also
be provided to women pilots working in aviation. The survey includes the informed consent
authorization, demographic questions, and the General Self-Efficacy Scale. Block 3 includes the
General Self-Efficacy Scale, which will tabulate the total points from 10 to 40 points. Data will
be disaggregated to illuminate differences in self-efficacy traits.
Career Technical Education: Aviation Survey

Start of Block: SURVEY INSTRUCTION

Start of Block: Informed Consent
Q1

Welcome to the Aviation Research Study

We are interested in understanding the role of self-efficacy in students pursuing careers in
aviation. You will be presented with information relevant to your education in aviation and be
asked to answer some questions about this career. Please be assured that your responses will be
kept completely confidential.

The study should take about 10 minutes to complete. Your participation in this research is
voluntary. You have the right to withdraw at any point during the survey, for any reason, and
without any prejudice. If you would like to contact the Principal Investigator in the study to
discuss this research, please e-mail kreiland@usc.edu.

By clicking the button below, you acknowledge that your participation in the study is voluntary,
you are 18 years of age, and you are aware that you may choose to terminate your participation
in the study at any time and for any reason.

Please note that this survey will be best displayed on a laptop or desktop computer. Some
features may be less compatible for use on a mobile device.
o I consent, begin the study (1)
o I do not consent; I do not wish to participate (2)

GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 99

Start of Block: Demographics

Q2 Gender
o Female (1)
o Male (2)
o Prefer not to state (3)

Q3 Age
o 17-20 (1)
o 21-25 (2)
o 26-29 (3)
o 30-35 (4)
o 36-40 (5)
o 41-50 (6)
o 51-60 (7)
o 61-70 (8)
o Over 70 (9)

Q4 Race or ethnicity
o African-American / Black (1)
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 100

o Asian or Pacific Islander (2)
o Native American, Alaskan Native (3)
o Caucasian, White (4)
o Hispanic (5)
o Other (6) ________________________________________________

Q5 Previous academic history (average overall)
o Exceptional student (1)
o Good student (2)
o Average student (3)
o Struggling student (4)

Q6 Financial situation (check all that apply)
▢ Live at home with parents (1)
▢ Receiving financial aid (2)
▢ Have student loans (3)
▢ Family paying (or paid) for some education (4)
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 101

▢ Family paying (or paid) for my education (5)
▢ I am paying (or have paid) for my education (6)
▢ I work in the industry (7)

Q7 Hours per week at work
o 0-10 (1)
o 11-20 (2)
o 21-30 (3)
o 31-40 (4)
o More than 40 (5)

Q8Annual Income
o Less than $10,000 (1)
o $10,000 - $19,999 (2)
o $20,000 - $29,999 (3)
o $30,000 - $39,999 (4)
o $40,000 - $49,999 (5)
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 102

o $50,000 - $59,999 (6)
o $60,000 - $69,999 (7)
o $70,000 - $79,999 (8)
o $80,000 - $89,999 (9)
o $90,000 - $99,999 (10)
o $100,000 - $149,999 (11)
o More than $150,000 (12)

Q9 Family Responsibilities
o No children (1)
o 1 child (2)
o 2-3 children (3)
o 4 or more children (4)
o Primary caregiver to another person (5)

Q10 Previous education
o New to college (1)
o Some college (2)
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 103

o Associate degree (3)
o Bachelor’s degree (4)
o Master’s degree or above (5)

Q11 Career Choice
o Airport or Aviation Management (1)
o Commercial pilot (2)
o Flight Attendant (3)
o Undecided (4)
o Other (5) ________________________________________________

End of Block: Demographics

Start of Block: Block 3

Q12 I can always manage to solve difficult problems if I try hard enough.

o 1 = Not at all true (1)
o 2 = Hardly true (2)
o 3 = Moderately true (3)
o 4 = Exactly true (4)

GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 104

Q13. If someone opposes me, I can find the means and ways to get what I want.

o 1 = Not at all true (1)
o 2 = Hardly true (2)
o 3 = Moderately true (3)
o 4 = Exactly true (4)

Q14 It is easy for me to stick to my aims and accomplish my goals.
o 1 = Not at all true (1)
o 2 = Hardly true (2)
o 3 = Moderately true (3)
o 4 = Exactly true (4)

Q15 I am confident that I could deal efficiently with unexpected events.
o 1 = Not at all true (1)
o 2 = Hardly true (2)
o 3 = Moderately true (3)
o 4 = Exactly true (4)

GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 105

Q16 Thanks to my resourcefulness, I know how to handle unforeseen situations.
o 1 = Not at all true 1)
o 2 = Hardly true (2)
o 3 = Moderately true (3)
o 4 = Exactly true (4)

Q17 I can solve most problems if I invest the necessary effort.
o 1 = Not at all true (1)
o 2 = Hardly true (2)
o 3 = Moderately true (3)
o 4 = Exactly true (4)

Q18 I can remain calm when facing difficulties because I can rely on my coping abilities.
o 1 = Not at all true (1)
o 2 = Hardly true (2)
o 3 = Moderately true (3)
o 4 = Exactly true (4)

GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 106

Q19 When I am confronted with a problem, I can usually find several solutions.
o 1 = Not at all true (1)
o 2 = Hardly true (2)
o 3 = Moderately true (3)
o 4 = Exactly true (4)

Q20 If I am in trouble, I can usually think of a solution.
o 1 = Not at all true (1)
o 2 = Hardly true (2)
o 3 = Moderately true (3)
o 4 = Exactly true (4)

Q21 I can usually handle whatever comes my way.
o 1 = Not at all true (1)
o 2 = Hardly true (2)
o 3 = Moderately true (3)
o 4 = Exactly true (4)

End of Block: Block 3

Start of Block: Block 4

GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 107

Q21 What have been the most significant contributing factors in helping you choose and persist
in your career choice?
o Type response: (1) ________________________________________________

Q23 What have been the most significant challenges for you in pursuing this career choice?
o Type response: (1) ________________________________________________

Q24 Is there anything else we should know about what could have, or has, helped you be
successful?
o Type response: (1) ________________________________________________

End of Block: Block 4

GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 108

APPENDIX B
The Qualitative Interview Protocol and Script
The following interview introduction and protocol will be used for the six female pilot
interviews. Table B1 includes the interview questions as they relate to the research questions and
literature review.
Interview Introduction and Protocol
Thank you for meeting with me today. I sincerely appreciate your time in helping me
learn more about your experiences in becoming a pilot. My hope is that, in talking with you and
a few other women pilots, I will be able to learn some helpful insights that may help our aviation
students. I am particularly interested in learning about factors that may have helped you persist,
barriers you may have had to overcome, and any suggestions you might have for aviation
programs in community colleges.
With your permission, I would like to record our conversation so that I can focus on the
interview instead of my notes. I will transcribe the notes at a later time. If you don’t feel
comfortable with the recorder, just let me know and I will take notes, as I want you to feel
completely comfortable with the format. I encourage you to be completely honest with me, since
I am both interested in the positive and not-so-positive aspects of your experience so we might
learn from your insights. Please know that our conversation is completely confidential, and your
name will not appear in any of the data or the summary report. Do you have any questions?
If you are ready to begin, I will start the recording. I will first ask you if it is okay to
record our conversation, and I just need you to say your name and that it is okay to record our
conversation. Then, I will start with some questions. Feel free to stop me at any time if
something isn’t clear. If you think there is some additional information that would be helpful for
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 109

me to know about you, please know that it is okay for us to explore that area as well. We are not
on a set schedule. Ready? Great, we will get started.
Table B1

Research Questions Interview Questions Type of Question (e.g.,
Devil’s advocate, opinion,
etc.)
1. What factors influence
the career choices of
women in aviation?
1. I would like to start by asking
you about what made you decide
that you wanted to pursue a career
as a pilot.
Ice-breaker that also goes
to motivation
2. Could you walk me through
how you ended up becoming a
pilot?
Extending and filling in
detail
3. With whom did you talk to
about your decision?
Identify actor and cultural
influencers
2.What attributes
contribute to a woman’s
ability to break from
gendered norms to persist
in a traditionally male
pilot career?
4. Tell me, in detail, about how
you managed your coursework
and flight training.
Explore self-efficacy:
Bandura, A. (1977).
5. How are you feeling about
your decision now that you are a
pilot?

Interpretative question.
Dig deeper into
expectations versus
reality.
6. What type of activities have
you participated in, either on
campus or in your life, that you
believe helped you achieve your
career goals?

Identify more self-
efficacy or leadership
traits
1a. Are there critical
factors, including
women’s knowledge and
skills; their motivation;
and organizational
barriers contributing to an
equity gap (Clark &
Estes, 2008)?
7a. What kind of challenges or
barriers have you experienced
along the way, and how have you
overcome them?

7b. How did you finance your
education and flying lessons?

7c. How much assistance did you
have along the way from family,
friends, or mentors?
Interpretative question.
Explore self-efficacy.
Institutional barriers
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 110

1. What factors influence
the career choices of
women in aviation?
8. Would you describe what you
think the ideal college experience
should be for students with
similar interests?
Ideal question
9. If I were a student thinking
about a career in aviation, what
advice would you give me?
Hypothetical question
2. What attributes
contribute to a woman’s
ability to break from
gendered norms to persist
in a male-dominated pilot
program?
10a. There are some people who
think men should be pilots and
women should be flight
attendants. What would you tell
them?

Devil’s advocate
question.
Explore radical feminism.
Echols, A., 1989
11. How do your family and
friends feel about your career
choice?
Identify cultural
influences
2a. Are there unique
personal characteristics
that contribute to one
career choice over
another?
12. How do you manage the
stress and safety aspects of
flying?
Explore self-efficacy and
risk tolerance
12. What do you like to do for fun
or vacation?
Explore self-efficacy and
degree of
adventurousness
2a. 13. What else would you like to
share about your journey in
becoming a pilot that might be
helpful to future aviators?
Probe for any missed
information

Research Questions:

1. What factors influence the career choices of women in aviation?
a. Are there critical factors, including women’s knowledge and skills, their
motivation, and organizational barriers (Clark & Estes, 2008) contributing to an
equity gap?
2. What attributes contribute to a woman’s ability to break from gendered norms to persist
in a traditionally male-dominated pilot career?
a. Are there unique personal characteristics that contribute to one career choice over
another?
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 111

APPENDIX C
Survey Responses to Open-ended Questions 1-3

Survey Responses to Open-ended Question 1
Q1: What have been the most significant contributing factors in helping you choose and persist in your
career choice?
Flight Attendant Student Responses Pilot Student Responses
Pilot Responses
Female Male Female Male Female
Going to school
and participating in
the aviation flight
attendant program
as well as meeting
new people and
staying involved
within all my
classes and coming
out of my comfort
zone. (Code: Inst,
support and careers
of caring)
The experience of
getting a pilot license,
and the family‚ and
support for living in
another country and
doing what I want to
do. (Code:
Accomplishment,
family)
I work in the
industry already.
Also, the time the
classes that I need
usually are at a
convenient time
for me. (Code:
Insti. Support))
Personal
satisfaction in
the work, career,
industry. Good
relationship with
co-workers.
(Code: Self-
efficacy,
accomplishment)
My passion for the
career field and the
help and support of
peers and family.
(Code: Passion,
motivation,
accomplishment,
family)
Having the dream
to travel and meet
new people and
being able to do
what I want for a
living motivates
me. (Code: careers
of caring)
Being moderate
height, fun career,
travel
Traveling and
being in airports
and flying the
simulator or during
my flight lessons.
(Code: Passion for
flying,
accomplishment)
I have a passion
for flying. I also
want to make my
family proud.
Code: Passion for
flying &
accomplishment)
Perseverance and
mentorship. (Code:
Motivation, self-
efficacy, and
mentor)
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 112

I love to work
with people,
understand
different cultures,
and adapt to
changes. (Code:
careers of caring)
My parents
motivating me every
day and it wouldn't be
possible without the
help of my financial
aid. Code: Family, $)

I was always
interested by
pilots and
commercial
aircraft. It was
always very
impressive to see
pilots flying 200
passengers and
remain very calm.
(Code: Passion &
accomplishment)
I have a very
supportive family.
Both my parents
were in the Navy
and my Dad was
also a Navy Pilot.
He was a great
example for what I
wanted to do with
my career and is a
major reason I
joined the Navy
and became a Pilot.
(Code: Family, Role
model, self-efficacy,
accomplishment)
My family is the
factor that keeps
me going to persist
my career. (Code:
Family support)
Duty and
patriotism. (Code:
Accomplishment
and pride)
I got to experience
travel and
exceptional air
service in person
and it was truly
unforgettable. I
want to be a flight
attendant so I can
feel like I am
playing my part in
keeping everyone
safe while
providing amazing
service. (Code:
careers of caring)

I grew up
around aviation,
starting from the
age of eight I was
introduced into
the young
eagle’s program
which lead me to
the civil air patrol
program where
my passion for
aviation was
settled. After
graduating high
school and
finding out about
the classes for
aviation offered
at this college, I
was very
optimistic in
pursuing an
aviation career.
(Code: Passion
for flying, role
model, inst.
support,
accomplishment)
The most significant
contributing factors
in helping me
choose to pursue the
commercial pilot
path is being in the
aviation industry for
8 years now as a
flight attendant.
When you are
surrounded by
people that live
and breathe
aviation, the
passion is
contagious. (Code:
Passion, mentor,
role models)
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 113

Teachers (Code:
Mentors)

Making dreams
come
true. (Code: Self-
efficacy)
My given drive and
a nudge from my
flight instructor,
who was female.
(Code: Self-
efficacy/motivation,
mentor, role model)
The school has
provided ways
that could help me
get closer to my
goals in a career
(Code:
Institutional.
Support)
I was exhausted
from my current
occupation and
wanted to explore
a career that I had
wanted as a kid. I
am now able to
afford it. (Code:
Self-efficacy)
I always seek to
grow and to go
higher in life. I try
to achieve to high
levels and never
quit. I push no
matter how
difficult it seems. I
don’t give up
(Code: Motivation)
None
Being able to travel
to many places
meet people and
experience new
foods and cultures
(Code: careers of
caring)

GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 114

Having the
opportunity to fly
and meet different
people from
around the world
motivates me to
accomplish my
goal which is to
become a flight
attendant. It takes a
lot of courage and
responsibility to
achieve this career
and help many
people at the same
time. I'm glad to be
part of the Aviation
program. (Code:
careers of caring;
Inst. support)

GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 115

Survey Responses to Open-ended Question 2
Q2: What have been the most significant challenges for you in pursuing this career choice?
Flight Attendant Student Responses Pilot Student Responses
Pilot Responses
Female Male Female Male
Female
Knowing if this is
what I want to do
for the rest of my
life and not being
too scared or
nervous to pursue
it. This aviation
program has made
me 100% certain
that my
career choice is the
right choice.
(Code: Inst.
Support.
Overcoming self-
doubt.
Motivation/self-
efficacy)
Coming to a different
country by myself and
learning in another
language. (Code:
Overcoming self-
doubt and cultural
barriers)
It can be expensive.
(Code: Org-
financial)
High barriers to
entry into new
careers; e.g.
investment in
training/education,
loss of
seniority/lack of
experience, few
opportunities in
new career
industry. In the past
with other careers,
the challenges in
staying in that line
of work include job
loss (lay off),
difficult co-
workers, which I
would expect with
any career. (Code:
Org-financial)
Not understanding the
information and
asking for more
clarity and
underestimating my
own skills. (Code:
Overcoming training
obstacles, lack of
knowledge and skills)
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 116

Commuting to
school because I
live an hour away
and maybe just
some challenges of
understanding
some things.
(Code:
Overcoming
knowledge and
skill gaps)
Public Speaking,
Anxiety (Code:
Knowledge/skill)
Financial means is
the largest hurdle.
(Code: Org-
financial)
Money. It is super
expensive to fly.
Also, I often get
sick in the plane. I
need to get used to
it. (Code: Org-
financial)
Money and industry
downturns. (Code:
Lack of money and
inst. Support.
Overcoming $
obstacles).
Mainly balancing
the work and
school.
I'm working to
attain experience in
customer service
for the flight
attendant position.
(Code: Balancing
work and school)
Not speaking English
as a first language.
(Code: Overcoming
cultural barrier)

My age created
difficulties, because
I was underaged for
the legal age to
obtain my license
Flight school in the
Navy is not an easy
path. There are
definitely people that
don’t make it through
the training. I am
happy to say I did get
through but there
were definitely some
rocky patches that I
wasn’t so
sure. (Code:
Overcoming training
obstacles)
My job. (Code:
Balancing work
and school)

Inefficient processes
in the business (Code:
lack of institutional
support)
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 117

I have a full-time
job, and it is
difficult to keep up
with being a full-
time student at the
same time (Code:
Balancing work
and school)

Finances have been
the most significant
challenge in
pursuing this career
choice, because of
paying for flight
hours with an
instructor. It's hard
to balance school,
work, rent, and a
future career when
it comes to
finances. I have to
evaluate where I
have to put my
money first rather
than spending it on
flight hours to
pursue my career.
(Code: Org-
financial. Balancing
work and school)
Being a female
entering a male
dominated career,
you are treated
differently as if you
are somehow
"fragile" than your
fellow male student
pilots/pilots. The
beginning stages of
training for me had a
lot of significant
challenges in getting
my take-off and
landings down. I spent
a lot of significant
hours training for
them. (Code: Gender
pressure, overcoming
training challenges)
Getting an
interview (Code:
Skill)
Time. (Code:
Balancing)

My experience in
the industry (Code:
Skill)
Scheduling and
availability of
instructor (Code:
Inst. support)

Work and school
are not easy. But
we need the money
to survive weekly.
Having to go to
work and keeping
up with school can
be challenging
sometimes. (Code:
Balancing work
and school)

GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 118

Schedule of classes
interfere with my
job. (Code:
Balancing work
and school)

When I used to
work in the night
and had to wake up
early for school.
(Code: Balancing
work and school)

Some challenges
for me have been
being available to
relocate if the job
was offered to me.
It will definitely be
a different lifestyle
to adapt to but with
time I am sure I'll
be able to
overcome this
challenge. (Code:
M-Self-efficacy)

GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 119

Survey Responses to Question 3
Q3: Is there anything else we should know about what could have, or has, made you successful?
Student Flight Attendant Responses Student Pilot Responses Pilot Responses
Female Male Female Male Female
No Think about someone
who is supporting me.
Great
knowledgeable
professors who are
currently in the
field of study.
(Code: Org-inst.)
Passion for the job
and a natural
aptitude for the
technical details
have helped in my
other careers.
(Code: Passion,
knowledge, self-
efficacy)
Not listening to
others who think
you can't do it or are
crazy to try. (Code:
Self-efficacy)
My professors are
amazing! My
family and friends
are super
supporting. (Code:
Org-inst.)
Having a drive to
succeed (Code:
Motivation)
The flight simulator
being open for
students enrolled in
aviation classes has
been very helpful.
(Code: Org-inst.
support)
My internal
motivation has
driven me to
pursue. I want to
be successful.
(Code: Motivation,
accomplishment)
Interacting with
peers and people
with the experience
of attaining the
position I'm trying
to reach. (Code:
Mentors, self-
efficacy)
Juggling multiple
jobs has helped me
with time
management and
adapting. (Code:
Self-efficacy from
balancing work)
Professors at this
college are always
willing to help. That
definitely means a lot
when pursuing my
career. (Code: Org-
inst. support)

The college
instructors
encouraged me a
lot to do
something special
with my age and
not make it my
weakness. (Code:
Institutional
support)
Having a more
seasoned and
invested flight
instructor from the
very beginning. And
if I would do it all
over again, not go
through the ATP
accelerated program
because I have to
undo a lot of bad
flying skills, I
picked up from my
previous flight
instructor. (Code:
Inst. support
mentor, self-
efficacy)
GENDER EQUITY IN CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION 120

My job as well,
because my job
taught me how to
deal with
customers of
different
nationalities.
(Code: Self-
efficacy from work
exp)

Financial help, to
continue the
dream. (Code:
financial)
Persistence, lots of
research and asking
a lot of questions.
Surrounding myself
with those in the
same industry.
(Code: Self-efficacy
and ability to
persist)
Amazing staff is
something I will
forever be grateful
for this college.
(Code: Org-inst.)

Letting students
know where there
are locations to get
flight hours with
an instructor
would help
immensely. (Code:
Need more inst.
support)

Not at all. I love
the teachers at my
school they are so
helpful. Especially
counselor Mary
Jane, she is one of
the best counselors
at this college. I
will be thankful for
her throughout all
my career. (Code:
Org-inst. support)

Life

So far so good! But
being able to have
more field trips
would be more
exciting and fun at
the same time. I
had a great time at
the JetBlue tour!!
(Code: Org-inst
support--more field
trips.)

Abstract (if available)

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Asset Metadata

Creator Reiland, Kathleen Ellen (author)

Core Title Gender equity in career technical education: women in aviation

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 08/02/2019

Defense Date 06/17/2019

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag 2-year college aviation program: California community college aviation program,air transport pilots,attribution of success for women,aviation program,Bandura self-efficacy,careers of caring,catalyst experience,challenging conventional norms in aviation,civil airmen data,community college,conformity to female norms,Federal Aviation Administration pilots,female military pilot,female pilots,flight attendant self-efficacy,flight attendant TOP Code,gender equity in aviation,gender equity in career education,gender equity in career technical education,gender equity in STEM,general self-efficacy scale,Gilligan careers of caring,girls might see how they fit within a paradigm they may never have imagined for themselves,GSE Scale,historical trends for women pilots,individual achievement,Josselson’s pathmakers,lack of women pilots,Mahalik CFNI,mentors,mentors in career education,Ninety-Nines International Organization of Women Pilots,non-conformity to female norms,OAI-PMH Harvest,path makers,persistence in the face of barriers,pilot self-efficacy,pilot TOP Code,recommendations for educators promoting women in nontraditional careers,role models,role models in career education,Schwarzer GSE Scale,self-efficacy,self-efficacy sum scores,shortage of pilots,social cognitive theory,strong sense of personal self-efficacy,tipping point for gender equity in aviation,why hands-on training matters for women,women airline pilots,women combat pilots,women commercial pilots,women in advanced technical careers,Women in Aviation International,women in nontraditional careers,women in nontraditional education,women military pilots,Women pilots,women who break from gendered norms, influence of institutional characteristics,women's empowerment,women's movement influence on women careers

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Hasan, Angela (committee chair), Pensavalle, Margo (committee chair), Shaw, Lynn (committee member)

Creator Email kreiland@mac.com,kreiland@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-204309

Unique identifier UC11663368

Identifier etd-ReilandKat-7732.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-204309 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-ReilandKat-7732.pdf

Dmrecord 204309

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Reiland, Kathleen Ellen

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA