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Examining regular high school teachers’ roles in enhancing students academic performance: a gap analysis

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EXAMINING REGULAR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS’ ROLES IN ENHANCING
STUDENTS ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE: A GAP ANALYSIS

by

Kyuyeun Hahm

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2020

Copyright 2020 Kyuyeun Hahm
ii
Acknowledgements

This thesis becomes a reality with the support and help of many individuals. I would like
to extend my sincere thanks to all of them.
Foremost, I’d like to thank our God Almighty for giving the wisdom, strength, knowledge,
and good health in getting me through this process.
I would like to express my gratitude towards my family. First, I would like to thank my
parents. Dad, you are my first role model who always highlighted the power of learning and
education. As a business leader, you are the true definition of a servant leader, and you instilled
such a profound sense of work ethic within me. Mom, I cannot fully express my gratitude to you
for prayers and unconditional love you have provided me throughout my life.
Thank you to my husband for always being there for me and helping me embrace
challenges and achieve my goals. Your loving support allowed me to accomplish a goal I never
thought possible. Thank you to my son, Joseph who encouraged me to reach for my dreams
despite the obstacles. You always cheered me up and motivated me to be my best and served my
inspiration to pursue this undertaking. Thank you to my sister who continually reminds me of the
joys in life. You told me how proud you are, and that helped me in completion of this paper.
Thank you to my dissertation committee for sharing your knowledge and wisdom. Finally, thank
you to my incredible chair, Dr. Yates, for your continuous support, patience, and motivation, all
of which helped me throughout this entire complicated process. You are everything a good
educator should be: stern at times, but good-natured; clever, passionate, and fun. I am truly
lucky to have you as my chair. Fight On!
iii

Table of Contents
Acknowledgements ……………………………………………………………………………… ii
List of Tables ………………………………………………………………………………….. viii
List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………………… iii
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………….......iii

CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY……………………………………………… 1
Introduction of the Problem of Practice………………………………………………..… 1
Organizational Context and Mission……………………………………………………... 3
Organizational Performance Status……………………………………………………….. 4
Related Literature…………………………………………………………………………. 6
Importance of Addressing the Problem………………………………………………....... 7
Organizational Performance Goal....................................................................................... 8
Description of Stakeholder Groups...................................................................................... 9
Stakeholders Groups’ Performance Goals........................................................................... 9
Stakeholder Group of the Study......................................................................................... 10
Critical Behaviors for the Stakeholder of Focus................................................................ 11
Purpose of the Project and Questions…………………………………………………… 12
Conceptual and Methodological Framework …………………………………………… 12
Definitions.......................................................................................................................... 13
Organization of the Project.................................................................................................13

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE................................................................ 15
Changes in the Education System in Korea ..................................................................... 16

iv

Historical Background of Education System…………………………………………… 16
Current Issues of Education Policies and Practice: Benefits and Risks………………… 19
Gaining Admission to College in Korea........................................................................... 21
How Colleges Evaluate Applicants........................................................................ 21
Testing Requirements............................................................................................. 22
Other Requirements................................................................................................ 23
Understanding Roles and Responsibilities of Teachers ................................................... 24
Influence of the Changes and Consequences on Teachers………………………. 24
Changing Role of Teachers in Education………………………………………... 25
Teachers’ Perspectives on Education……………………………………………………. 26
Teachers’ Understanding of the Current Education Policies……………………. 26
Teachers’ Barriers……………………………………………………………….. 27
Conceptual Framework…………………………………………………………………. 30
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences………………….. 31
Knowledge and Skills............................................................................................. 31
Motivation............................................................................................................... 40
Organization............................................................................................................ 47
Summary........................................................................................................................... 52

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY………………………………………………………..53
Purpose of the Project and Questions .............................................................................. 53
Conceptual and Methodological Framework ................................................................... 53

v

Assessment of Performance Influences………………………………………………….56
Knowledge Assessment.......................................................................................... 57
Motivation Assessment........................................................................................... 64
Organization/Culture/Context Assessment............................................................. 68
Participating Stakeholders and Sample Selection ............................................................ 73
Sampling ................................................................................................................ 74
Recruitment............................................................................................................. 74
Instrumentation and Data Collection…………………………………………………… 74
Survey Design and Data Collection…………………………………………….... 75
Interview Protocol Design and Data Collection…………………………………. 75
Data Collection…………………………………………………………………………. 75
Surveys…………………………………………………………………………… 76
Interviews ............................................................................................................... 76
Data Analysis ................................................................................................................... 76
Trustworthiness of Data ................................................................................................... 77
Role of Investigator…………………………………………………………………….. 77
Limitations........................................................................................................................ 77

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS……………………………………………….79
Participating Stakeholders................................................................................................ 79
Data Validation…………………………………………………………………………. 79
Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes................................................................... 80
Factual Knowledge................................................................................................. 81

vi

Conceptual Knowledge........................................................................................... 86
Procedural Knowledge ........................................................................................... 93
Metacognitive Knowledge ......................................................................................95
Results and Findings for Motivation Causes.................................................................. 100
Value..................................................................................................................... 100
Self-Efficacy......................................................................................................... 105
Mood..................................................................................................................... 106
Attribution............................................................................................................. 108
Results and Findings for Organization Causes............................................................... 109
Resources ............................................................................................................. 109
Policies, Processes, and Procedures…………………………………………….. 112
Cultural Settings………………………………………………………………… 116
Summary of Validated Influences ................................................................................. 118
Knowledge............................................................................................................ 118
Motivation............................................................................................................. 120
Organization ......................................................................................................... 121

CHAPTER FIVE: RECOMMENDATIONS AND EVALUATION ………………………… 122
Purpose of the Project and Questions…………………………………………………. 122
Recommendations to Address Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Influences...122
Knowledge Recommendations…………………………………………………. 123
Motivation Recommendations………………………………………………….. 134
Organization Recommendations………………………………………………... 139

vii

Summary of Knowledge, Motivation and Organization Recommendations ..................145
Knowledge Recommendations Summary............................................................. 145
Motivation Recommendations Summary ............................................................ 146
Organization Recommendations Summary.......................................................... 147
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan ............................................................148
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations ................................................ 148
Implementation and Evaluation Framework ....................................................... 149
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators ............................................................. 150
Level 3: Behavior ................................................................................................ 152
Level 2: Learning ................................................................................................ 156
Level 1: Reaction ................................................................................................ 161
Evaluation Tools ................................................................................................. 161
Data Analysis and Reporting .............................................................................. 163
Summary of the Implementation and Evaluation.......................................................... 164
Limitations and Delimitations........................................................................................ 165
Recommendations for Future Research ......................................................................... 165
Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 166

References………………………………………………………………………………………168
Appendix A: Survey Questions………………………………………………………………...185
Appendix B: Interview Questions………………………………………………………………194
Appendix C: Immediate Program Evaluation Tool…………………………………………….198

viii

Appendix D: Evaluation Instrument Delayed for a Period After Program Implementation.......200
Appendix E: Informed Consent and Information Sheet………………………………………..202

viii

List of Tables
Table 1: Organizational Mission, Organizational Goal, and Stakeholder Performance Goals…...9
Table 2: Summary of Assumed Knowledge Influences on Teachers’ Ability to Achieve the
Performance Goal……………………………………………………………………....38
Table 3: Summary of Assumed Motivation Influences on Teachers’ Ability to Achieve the
Performance Goal……………………………………………………………………....45
Table 4: Summary of Assumed Organization Influences on Teachers’ Ability to Achieve the
Performance Goal………………....................................................................................51
Table 5: Summary of Knowledge Influences and Method of Assessment………………………59
Table 6: Summary of Motivation Influences and Method of Assessment.................................... 66
Table 7: Summary of Organization Influences and Method of Assessment……………….........70
Table 8: Survey Results for Factual Knowledge of the Current Changes in CSAT in 2020…… 81
Table 9: Survey Results for Factual Knowledge of the 2015 Revised Curriculum…………...... 84
Table 10: Survey Results for Declarative Conceptual Knowledge of Promoting a Positive
Learning Environment……………………………………………………………….. 86
Table 11: Survey Results for Declarative Conceptual Knowledge of Promoting Student
Academic Achievement……………………………………………………………… 88
Table 12: Survey Results for Declarative Conceptual Knowledge of Facilitating Student-
Centered Learning……………………………………………………………………. 90
Table 13: Survey Results for Declarative Conceptual Knowledge of Meeting Students’ Social
and Emotional Needs…………………………………………………………….........92
Table 14: Survey Results for Procedural Knowledge of RTI…………………………………....94
Table 15: Survey Results for Metacognitive Knowledge of How the School Uses Data………. 96

ix

Table 16: Survey Results for Metacognitive Knowledge of Promoting Active Learning………97
Table 17: Survey Results for Metacognitive Knowledge of Using Data……………………….98
Table 18: Survey Results for Motivational Value for Teachers’ Role and Responsibility….....101
Table 19: Survey Results for Motivational Value for Making Students Feel Comfortable
Asking Questions……………………………………………………………………..102
Table 20: Survey Results for Motivational Value for Meeting Social and Emotional Needs
of Students…………………………………………………………………………...104
Table 21: Survey Results for Self-Efficacy for Confidence in Teaching and Supporting
Students………………………………………………………………………………105
Table 22: Survey Results for Teachers’ Mood…………………………………………………107
Table 23: Survey Results for Teachers’ Attribution……………………………………………108
Table 24: Survey Results for Teachers’ Resources (Time, Funds, Data Resources, and PD)….110
Table 25: Survey Results for Organizational Policies, Processes, and Procedures………….... 113
Table 26: Survey Results for Perception of Organizational Policies, Processes, and
Procedures....................................................................................................................116
Table 27: Survey Results for Organizational Culture…………………………………………..117
Table 28: Assessment Summary of Assumed Knowledge Gaps……………………………….119
Table 29: Assessment Summary of Assumed Motivation Gaps……………………………….120
Table 30: Assessment Summary of Assumed Organizational Gaps……………………………121
Table 31: Summary of Knowledge Influence and Recommendations…………………………124
Table 32: Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations…………………….......135
Table 33: Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations………………………139
Table 34: Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes……………..151

x

Table 35: Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation………………….152
Table 36: Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors……………………………………..154
Table 37: Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program………………………..160
Table 38: Components to Measure Reactions to the Program…………………………………161

xi

List of Figures
Figure 1: Sequence of steps in the Gap Analysis Process ………………………………………55
Figure 2: Components of Attributional Retraining (AR)……………………………………….138
Figure 3: A Model of the Process of Teachers Change………………………………………...142

xii

Abstract
This case study uses Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis framework to identify current
performance levels and goals, determine performance gaps, diagnose causes, and recommend
research-based solutions. The purpose of this improvement study was to identify the underlying
knowledge, motivation, and organization (KMO) assets that would affect teachers’ ability to help
students to improve academic performance in top college entrance rates. Mixed methods were
used to collect survey data from 28 participants and interview data from five participants to
identify and validate the knowledge and skills, motivation, and organization root causes that may
contribute to teachers failing to meet students’ academic, social and emotional needs. The
validated assumed influences for declarative factual knowledge, conceptual knowledge,
procedural knowledge, metacognitive knowledge, value, self-efficacy, mood, attribution,
resources, policies, processes and policies, and cultural settings were identified, and validated
causes were assessed and classified as either assets or needs. Findings from this study indicated
that teachers lack the knowledge to improve student academic performance in college entrance
rates and struggle with lack of resources. This study makes recommendations for other regular
school sites to adopt the teacher assets through ongoing training and coaching supports to foster
a positive learning environment and improve college readiness and success for all students of
regular high schools.

1

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

Introduction of the Problem of Practice
The problem of low college entrance rates to prestigious universities of regular high
schools is important to solve for a variety of reasons in the Republic of Korea (Korea, hereafter).
In Korea, there are three main types of high schools: regular high schools, special purpose high
schools, and vocational high schools. Most middle school students choose to go to regular high
schools that are focused on everything from a general education through various academic fields.
The regular high schools in this study are traditional non-autonomous schools that do not belong
to the elite schools such as science, foreign language, international, art specialty high schools, the
autonomous private high schools, and schools for gifted students. Golden Lake High School
(GLHS), which is the focus of the study, belongs to regular high schools where most students are
from middle or lower socioeconomic status (Bilbu, 2019).
High performing students, supported by their parents from high socioeconomic status,
enter elite high schools, which require an entrance exam. If parents cannot afford the tuition for
an elite school or the cost of private tutoring to prepare their children for elite schools, their only
option is to send them to regular high schools that have no entrance requirements and are
relatively less expensive. Therefore, only students from middle or lower socioeconomic status
and whose grades are normal or low have no choice but to choose regular high schools. Because
the admission committee of top universities is reluctant to admit students from regular high
schools, students in low socioeconomic schools have fewer opportunities to enter top universities.
This inequality disadvantages students of lower socioeconomic status doubly -- not only are they
denied their right to equal opportunity for quality education; their low socioeconomic status is
reinforced for themselves and for future generations because in Korean society, education is

2

considered the primary means to upward socioeconomic mobility. This demonstrates that
education has become not only a visible example of existing socioeconomic inequality in Korean
society, but a compounding factor for exacerbating it (Byun & Kim, 2010). In Korea, the
growing socioeconomic divide in the realm of educational access and academic performance is
an increasing cause for concern.
To enter prestigious universities in Korea, students must achieve a top high school GPA,
participate in a number of extracurricular activities and, most of all, and perform well on the
college entrance exam. The college-entrance exam in Korea is the one that all students prepare
for “from kindergarten till they are a senior in high school” (Seth, 2002). Among other
alternative processes to enter colleges, the College Scholastic Ability Test (CSAT) is the most
common and respected way to get into university. Most Korean parents believe that entering
prestigious universities such as Seoul National University (SNU), the most prestigious academic
institution in the country, is the first key that unlocks the door to their children’s future success.
This obsession with education has led to the result that over 70% of high school graduates goes
on to four-year universities (Korean Educational Statistics Service, 2018).
In order to yield high results on the college entrance rates, a top priority of high schools
in Korea is to align their instructional activities with the needs of students and parents that are
extremely education oriented. When this occurs, some regular high schools have succeeded in
accepting high-performing students and have even surpassed elite schools in the college entrance
rates. For example, in a regular high school, located adjacent to GLHS, the site for this study, 14
students were admitted to SNU, ranking first among all regular high schools in 2019 (Kwon,
2019, January 31).

3

Briefly stated, if Korean students’ needs, both academically and personally, are served
better by their schools and teachers, then they have a higher potential for academic achievement
and participation in extracurricular activities, which, in turn, increases their potential for
acceptance in top universities. A positive school climate has a significant positive impact on
academic achievement and reduces the negative impact of poor socio-economic background
characteristics on academic achievement (Berkowitz, Moore, Astor, & Benbenishty, 2017).
Organizational Context and Mission
GLHS is a boy’s high school serving 1,120 students with middle or lower socio-
economic status from 10
th
to 12
th
grade in Seoul, Korea. Currently, there are 62 male and 34
female regular teachers. GLHS is part of the 11 district education offices managed and overseen
by the Seoul Metropolitan Office of Education. GLHS was founded in 1953 and is located
adjacent to one of the three areas in Seoul: Gangnam, Sŏcho and Songpa - areas that are
commonly known for their heavily concentrated wealth and a high standard of living. As such,
mothers in the three areas are able to invest and support their children’s academic achievement
with private tutoring and/or academic counseling, etc. (Mundy, 2014).
According to Kim (2014), there is a positive correlation between parents’ socioeconomic
status and the admission rate to SNU. In the three districts, the number of successful candidates
for admission to SNU is almost 8 to 15 times greater than other districts in Seoul (Kim, Ryu, &
Son, 2015). Although the income levels and living standards of the parents of GLHS were not as
high as those of the above three districts, geographic proximity to one of the three regions and
high enthusiasm for education in Korea have contributed to parents’ education fervor for their
children in GLHS. As such, the parents of GLHS have called for higher levels of school
commitment to improve education programs.

4

From the early 1980s to the mid-2000s, among 33 high schools in the school district,
GLHS was among the top five high schools with college entrance rates to SNU. However, the
number of students being admitted to SNU has dropped by approximately one-third since then as
SNU began to select students through multiple assessment portfolios since 2013 (Kwon, Lee, &
Shin, 2017; Shin, 2018). As a side note, GLHS is recognized in Korea for its prestigious soccer
training programs that have produced Korea’s outstanding national team managers and players.
Organizational Performance Status
The performance problem of practice GLHS is having is its continuous plunge in college
entrance rates at the most competitive universities in Korea since the late 2000s. For instance, the
number of students who were admitted to SNU dropped from 13 in 2007 to 5 in 2018 (Shin,
2018). Since 2000, the Korean government has requested universities to consider diverse
screening methods into the admission system in order to mitigate students’ competition for
preparing for the entrance exam. Therefore, major universities started to require a good GPA,
extracurricular activities such as recognition and test scores, and an interview, an essay test, an
aptitude test, and a practical test, all of which are administered by individual colleges. An
analysis of the history of the Korean college admission system shows that from among the
various college-administered tests, the academic achievement test and the essay test are the most
crucial and controversial screening factors (Choi & Park, 2013).
Most applicants find it difficult to effectively prepare for the essay test through the
existing high school curriculum, as each college independently formulates questions for the
essay test with different tendencies, range, and difficulty levels (Lee, 2005). The current trend of
maintaining the college-administered test material unrelated to the subjects taught in high school
by covering extensive subjects and topics to recruit elite students have resulted in higher

5

competition among students and the proliferation of expensive private tutoring (Choi & Park,
2013).
The elite high schools have infrastructure, teaching ability of teachers, and other diverse
activities, which enhances students' school record so that they can enter top colleges (Lee, 2018).
The elite high schools and some regular high schools in the wealthy Gangnam neighborhoods
offer programs that regular high schools in other areas are unable to imitate (Jin, 2016). This
means that the elite high schools have won the competition of sending students to top-tier
universities in Korea, making the competition of entering special-purpose high schools as hard as
one of entering top colleges. In 2018, top universities selected more than 60 % of students via
this alternative process, not unlike the U.S. formula (Lee, 2018). Aside from regular high
schools like GLHS with long histories and good reputations, the elite high schools such as
autonomous private high schools and special-purpose private high schools offer various
academic and extracurricular programs, which leads to higher entrance rates to top universities in
Korea. Because getting accepted to the elite high schools is the first step toward entry into top-
tier universities, the competition among middle graders to enter elite high schools is fierce. Thus,
students with good academic performance mostly go to the elite schools, not regular high schools
like GLHS.
The current change in academic trend has affected the poor performance of GLHS for the
last 10 years. Because students with good grades in the school district go to adjacent foreign
languages or other elite high schools instead of entering GLHS, college entrance rates to top
universities have decreased. Considering there are regular high schools that yield good results by
creating competitive differentiation among regular high schools, it is important to improve

6

students’ academic performance and provide academic programs that fit students’ needs in order
to fulfill its mission.
Related Literature

In Korea, children between the ages of six and 15-six years of primary school and three
years of lower secondary-are required to attend school. Three years of upper secondary school,
which is separated into three types of high schools: academic, vocational, and “other” (foreign
language, art, and science talented) schools. Students interested in vocational schools must
choose their field of study before applying to postsecondary institutions (Metzger, Maynard,
Vultaggio, Daizen, Promboon, Ip, & Park, 2010). The Ministry of Education (MOE) has been
responsible for all types of education and the formulation and implementation of policy in the
field of academic activities, science and education, provision of administrative and financial
support to the entire school system, and supervision of teacher-training colleges and human
resource policy since 1948 (The Dutch Organization for Internationalization in Education, 2015).
As a way to diversify high school education and stir up competition among high schools,
the MOE introduced autonomous private high schools in 2002, which made it possible that
autonomous private high schools exercise greater control over their admissions, curriculum and
finances. In this policy, the elite schools do not receive government subsidies. Thus, they have a
strong financial incentive to improve the quality of their education, as schools failing to do so
will lose students and will likely close (Park, 2016). The competition to enter the academically
developed or specialized high schools including foreign language and science talented schools as
well as the autonomous private schools is fierce because those schools have achieved high
college acceptance rates at top universities, which have resulted in further academic
discrepancies among high schools in South Korea (Choi & Park, 2013). Out of total 2,358 high

7

schools in Korea, the autonomous private schools represent 1.7 percent, foreign language high
schools 1.2 percent, science high schools 0.8 percent, schools for the gifted 0.3 percent,
international schools 0.2 percent, and regular high schools 66 percent (Bookcomma, 2019).
Importance of Addressing the Problem
The problem of poor academic performance in college entrance rates is important to
solve for a variety of reasons. As a result of the continuous low college entrance rates, teachers
and students of GLHS have been suffering from lack of motivation, pride in their school, and the
decreasing number of good performing students who apply for GLHS every year. Thus, attention
must be given to how to improve students’ academic performance considering not only academic
but also motivational factors. In particular, when provided with differentiated academic support
that meets individual needs, GLHS can help students be better prepared for college and close the
college entrance rate gap. For students from low socioeconomic status, support programs can
help students progress their learning in such a way that benefits their competence needs (Legault
& Pelletier, 2006). Without these supports in place, students of GLHS, most of whom suffer
from lack of motivation and self-competence, will continue to fail to enter the colleges of their
choice and face limited employment opportunities later on. As elite high schools have dominated
entry into prestigious universities in the last 10 years, reflecting Korea's polarized education
scene, it is not just the problem of the students of GLHS, but that of all the students who attend
regular high schools that account for nearly 95 % of all high schools in Korea (Education
Statistics, 2018).

8

Organizational Performance Goal
As the number of students who get into Seoul National University is a definite indicator
of the competitiveness of high schools in Korea, GLHS’s goal is that by June 2021, it will be
among the top 25 regular high schools with the most graduates getting into Seoul National
University in Korea. In 2018, only five students of GLHS, with 1.3% of acceptance rate, got
admission in Seoul National University, making the school fall out of top 100 (Shin, 2018,
August 17). In order to be among the top 25, at least eight or nine graduates of GLHS need to be
admitted to Seoul National University. It is important for GLHS to achieve the goal because low
college acceptance rates to Seoul National University might demonstrate that the school does not
provide high-quality education. The poor performance in college acceptance rate to Seoul
National University might lead to the decreasing number of high performing students who apply
for GLHS every year and further deterioration of the quality of education.
Therefore, attention must be given to how to enhance students’ academic performance
considering teachers’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences. Without teachers’
academic, emotional and social support in place, students of GLHS will not be able to reach their
full potential and fail to get into the colleges at their choice.
The leadership team established this goal to double the current acceptance rate to 2.6%
after the meeting with the leadership teams from other regular schools, which was hosted by the
Seoul Metropolitan Office of Education. The achievement of GLHS’ goal will be measured by
the report on college entrance in spring released by the Seoul Metropolitan Office of Education.

9

Description of Stakeholder Groups
The comprehensive stakeholder groups for this project include administrators, teachers,
and students. Administrators will want to identify the challenges that teachers face, address and
solve the problem. As administrators have the decision-making power in most issues, the goal
will not be reached without the administrators’ proactive effort. Second, teachers play a crucial
role as the director because they are the ones that design, coordinate, and manage newly
implemented programs that will help the students be better equipped with college admission
requirements. Lastly, students need to exert their effort in finishing assignments and participating
in extracurricular activities, both of which are an important part of college admission.
Stakeholders’ Performance Goals
Table 1 shows GLHS’ mission and organizational goal as well as the goals for the
stakeholders, the stakeholder of focus and the critical behaviors for that stakeholder.
Table 1
Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Organizational Mission
The mission of GLHS is to be an inclusive community united by the pursuit of educational
excellence, building self-confidence through success, and learning with integrity.
Organizational Performance Goal
By June 2021, GLHS will be among the top 25 regular high schools with 2.6% of graduates
getting into Seoul National University in Korea.
Teachers Administrators Students
By December 2019, teachers
will develop academic plans
that meet individual student
needs and the requirements for
By September 2019,
administrators will develop an
action plan to address the
problems of the current
By January 2020, students will
complete plans and
requirements for entering
colleges to be prepared to meet

10

getting into top colleges using
differentiated instruction
strategies.
academic programs. the current college entrance
requirements.

Critical Behaviors
A critical behavior is an action the stakeholder takes that we can see (the video test) that
is critical to achieving the goal. (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016)
1. Teachers need to create a positive learning environment.
2. Teachers need to make a student-centered approach to learning to provide instructions
tailored to the diverse requirements for getting into college.
Stakeholder Group for the Study
The stakeholders of focus of this study will be teachers in GLHS because it is important to
understand the barriers the teacher is experiencing as they develop academic plans for individual
learners and implement effective teaching to enhance student learning. The stakeholders’ goal is
that teachers will develop academic plans that meet individual student needs using differentiated
instruction strategies. The progress toward the goal will be measured by activities such as
semiannual report writing on student academic performance, student college admission
requirements review, and report writing on barriers faced by teachers in implementing new
teaching approaches.

11

Critical Behaviors for the Stakeholder of Focus
The behaviors described in Table 1 are believed to be critical for teachers to develop
academic plans that meet individual student needs and further achieve the organizational goal.
First, teachers will need to create a positive learning environment. According to the School
Discipline Consensus Report (The Council of State Governments Justice Center, n.d.), a
positive learning environment contributes to students’ academic achievement and success and
are associated with improved grades and test scores; strong attendance; positive relationships
between students, adults, and their peers; and minimal engagement in risky behaviors.
Teachers are an essential part of fostering the type of learning environment in the
classroom that supports student success. For teachers to develop and implement effective
teaching strategies and programs, it is important that teachers first provide a caring and positive
learning to meet the academic, social, and emotional needs of students to create a positive school
climate. Creating a positive learning environment requires teachers’ focus on students’ social
and emotional learning (SEL), which supports students’ deeper learning.
Additionally, teachers need to have a student-centered and personalized approach to
learning to provide instruction tailored to students’ different learning needs (Patrick, Kennedy &
Powell, 2013). This student-centered approach to learning tailored instruction enables teachers to
find students’ unique strengths and needs and engages them in challenging and standards-based
academic content. Personalizing learning further helps students develop skills including thinking
critically, using knowledge and information to solve complex problems, working collaboratively,
communicating effectively, learning how to learn, and developing academic mindsets.

12

Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project is to conduct a gap analysis to examine the knowledge,
motivation and organizational influences that might lead to the organizational problem described
above, poor academic performance in college entrance rates. While a complete gap analysis
would focus on all GLHS stakeholders, for practical purposes, the stakeholders to be focused on
in this study are all teachers of GLHS. The analysis will begin by generating a list of possible or
assumed interfering influences that will be examined systematically to focus on actual or
validated causes.
As such, the questions that guide this study are the following:

1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that interfere with
teachers’ goal of developing academic plans that meet the requirements for getting into
top colleges using differentiated instruction strategies by December 2019?
2. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions?
Conceptual and Methodological Framework
The conceptual framework is Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis, a systematic,
analytic method that helps to clarify organizational goals and identify the gap between the actual
performance level and the preferred performance level within an organization. The
methodological framework is a mixed methods case study. Assumed knowledge, motivation and
organizational influences that interfere with organizational goal achievement will be generated
based on personal knowledge and related literature. These influences will be assessed by using
surveys, interviews, a literature review, and content analysis. Research-based solutions will be
recommended and evaluated in a comprehensive manner.

13

Definitions
● CSAT -- The College Scholastic Ability Test. It is a type of standardized test accepted by
South Korean universities. CSAT plays an important role in education in South Korea. It
is commonly believed that the CSAT will determine which university the student will
enter.
● KICE -- The Korea Institute for Curriculum and Evaluation develops and administers the
CSAT.
● SEL -- Social and Emotional Learning is the process through which children and adults
understand and manage emotions, set and achieve positive goals, feel and show empathy
for others, establish and maintain positive relationships, and make responsible decisions.
● SMOE -- The Seoul Metropolitan Office of Education is a school board in Seoul, South
Korea.
Organization of the Project
Five chapters are used to organize this study. This chapter provides the reader with the
key concepts and terminology commonly found in a discussion about low performing regular
high schools. The organization’s mission, goals and stakeholders as well as the initial concepts of
gap analysis were introduced. Chapter Two provides a review of current literature surrounding
the scope of the study. Topics of students’ academic achievement, support and interventions,
education policies, changing roles of teachers, and challenges facing teachers will be addressed.
Chapter Three details the assumed interfering elements as well as methodology when it comes to
choice of participants, data collection and analysis. In Chapter Four, the data and results are
assessed and analyzed. Chapter Five provides solutions, based on data and literature, for closing

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the perceived gaps as well as recommendations for an implementation and evaluation plan for
the solutions.

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CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction
Due to most Koreans’ belief that the path to a successful life is a good education; that is,
a university degree at a prestigious university (Hultberg, Calonge & Kim, 2017), the college-
entrance exam in Korea is the one that all students prepare for “from kindergarten till they’re a
senior in high school” (Seth, 2002). Among other alternative processes to enter colleges, the
College Scholastic Ability Test (CSAT) is the most common and respected way to get into
university. Most Korean parents believe that entering prestigious universities is the first key that
unlocks the door to their children’s future success. This obsession with education led to the result
that “over 70% of high school graduates go to four-year universities” (Korean Educational
Statistics Service, 2018). Thus, when high schools fail to meet the expectations of parents that
their children will meet the requirements of getting into college and yield high results on the
college entrance rates, they risk falling behind in the competition and eventually close.
The purpose of this literature review is to examine scholarly research that identifies the
current school practices and the consequences of these practices. This chapter first reviews the
historical background of Korean education system and current issues of education policies and
practices. Then, it reviews how to gain admission to College in Korea by examining test
requirements and other requirements to get into college. It further reviews the role of teachers,
followed by the explanation of the knowledge, motivation and organizational influences’ lens
used in this study. Next, teachers’ perspectives on education with regard to knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences are examined.

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Changes in the Education System in Korea
Historical Background of Education System
The development of the education system in Korea can be explained by exploring various
historical factors which include the Confucian tradition, the government-led co-development of
economy and higher education (Shin, 2012), and sociocultural tradition (Kwon, Lee, & Shin,
2017). First, the Confucian tradition has systematically influenced the development of higher
education in Korea (Shin, 2012). According to Marginson (as cited in Shin, 2012), four features
of the Confucian tradition relate to higher education development in East Asia: strong
government initiatives, private investment in accomplishing universal higher education, once-a-
year college entrance examination, and extensive investment to establish a world-class research
university.
Korea has a centuries-old tradition in which learning and attainment has been valued in
society. This tradition, usually associated with Confucian philosophy, was influenced by China
more than fifteen centuries ago (Kim & Choi, 2015; Kwon, Lee, & Shin, 2017; Shin, 2012).
With the adoption of Confucian ideas, individuals of merit were selected through a highly
competitive regional and national examination, which served as the means of selection for
prestigious government positions (Kwon, Lee, & Shin, 2017). In addition, in the Confucian
culture, education functions as a means of improving social status with noticeable growth in
knowledge-based innovations (Marginson as cited in Shin, 2012). These Confucian ideas have
influenced the educational enthusiasm of the Korean people and brought problems such as over-
education and shadow education at the same time (Dawson, 2010; Kim & Choi, 2015).
The noticeable feature of Korean higher education is that its growth has been related to
rapid economic development since the 1960s and developed through strong governmental
leadership (Shin, 2012). The rapid economic growth also gave the Korean people upward

17

mobility through investment, particularly in higher education, and created a sizable middle class
(Park, 2010 as cited in Kim & Choi, 2015). Even though the standard of living of the working
class increased, they remained relatively low in the hierarchy of Korean society. Accordingly,
the urban working class generally supported egalitarian educational policies due to their strong
desire for social mobility, which was still possible if they attained higher education credentials.
As a result, the demand for higher education and the rising cost of private tutoring were
accelerated in the 1980s (Kim & Choi, 2015). In order to alleviate rising educational competition,
the Korean government implemented a series of educational policies from the 1960s to the 1980s
(Kim & Choi, 2015), one of which was the cut-off score policy and the name of the test was
changed to the College Scholastic Testing Assessment (CSTA) in 1982 (Kwon, Lee, & Shin,
2017). The CSTA was an achievement test administered as a college entrance examination until
1992, which was meant to serve as an indicator of students’ academic achievement level with a
reduced number of test subjects from seventeen to nine (Kwon, Lee, & Shin, 2017). Korea has
controlled school education through a national curriculum based on traditional education systems
(Schleicher as cited in So & Kang, 2014) until the Korean government adopted a new policy in
1992 (So & Kang, 2014). The new policy focused on expanding local and school autonomy to
determine their curriculum with an awareness of “the danger of a standardized school curriculum
and over-controlling of the national curriculum” (So & Kang, 2014, p. 800). The major changes
include establishing the CSAT in 1993, which focuses on students’ aptitude for post-secondary
education and granting more autonomy to the individual post-secondary institutions with regard
to the college admissions process (Korea Institute for Curriculum and Evaluation as cited in
Kwon, Lee, & Shin, 2017; So & Kang, 2014). Since the 1990s, the discourse on competitive
Korea was centered on restoring the legalization of elite schools and private tutoring (Park as

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cited in Kim & Choi, 2015).
In recent years, there were several changes in middle and high schools. The
major changes are: (1) the 2009 and 2015 curriculum revision and educational policy that
puts an emphasis on the development of individual character and Creative Experiential Learning
(CEL) by combining discretionary activities and extracurricular activities; (2) the emphasis of
school accountability for the results of the national-level achievement test given to students
in the sixth grade of elementary school, third year of middle school, and second year
of high school; (3) the evaluation of schools and teachers; (4) diversification of middle
and high schools and expansion of the right to select high schools; and (5) changes in policies for
entrance to universities from a single test to multiple assessment portfolios (Kim & Eom, 2017;
Kwon, Lee, & Shin, 2017). In addition to these changes, the government made revisions in the
national university admission system such as “Reform Measures for the 2002 University
Admission System” and the “Reform Measures for the 2008 University Admission System”
(Ministry of Education & Human Resources Development, 2004). The purpose was to mitigate
student competition for preparing for the entrance exam and to reduce students’ use of shadow
education by decreasing the weight of CSAT score and increasing that of high-school GPA in the
process. Lee (2018) stated that the government requested universities and colleges to enforce
extendedly diverse methods of ‘special admission’ into their admission system and to use only
high-school records except the CSAT scores in their admission process to evaluate applicants’
potentials and abilities. ‘Special admission’ would consider diverse screening materials such as
teachers’ recommendation, an essay exam, and an interview or test conducted by the university
rather than the CSAT score and high-school GPA (S. J. Lee, 2011).
In sum, given Korea’s history and experience with education, it is important to take into

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account socio-cultural factors embedded in the high -stake exam-based education system in
Korea, which is closely related to economic development. In spite of the government’s effort to
expand curriculum autonomy and change the exam-driven culture in education, the new college
admission system proved ineffective in moderating parent spending on shadow education (Lee,
2018). The deeply-rooted exam-based tradition and historical and socio-cultural influence still
remain as the form of college entrance examination and civil service examination to this day.
The current performance-driven education has often been credited with fueling the nation's
economic success but is also widely criticized.
Current Issues of Education Policies and Practices: Benefits and Risks
Korean students’ academic records have been one of the most important factors for them
to enter top universities and from there a successful career. As argued by Lee (2006, p. 2), ‘self-
cultivation through education’ has contributed to Korea's economic boom over the last few
decades. Driven by Korea’s strong zeal for education, Korean students have shown astonishing
academic achievement in the international assessments (Kwon, Lee, & Shin, 2017). Since 1995,
Korea has been participating in the OECD’s Program for International Student Assessment
(PISA) and the International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) assessments and
education policies have been implemented or revised based on the results of these standardized
tests (Kwon, Lee, & Shin, 2017). According to the OECD’s PISA report 2015, Korea is reported
as one of the highest performing OECD countries (OECD, 2016). In TIMSS, which assessed the
achievement of mathematics and science of the fourth and eighth grades in 57 countries with
more than 580,000 student participants, Korea ranked 2nd at the eight-grade level in the math
achievement scores and 4th in the science achievement scores (Stephens, Landeros, Perkins, &
Tang, 2016).
Even though the results from both the PISA 2012 and TIMSS 2015 report that Korea is

20

one of the top countries in academic achievement in reading literacy, mathematics and science,
Korean students showed less level of intrinsic motivation compared to other OECD countries
(OECD, 2013). Most Korean students’ main motivation for learning is closely related to
instrumental motivation, where entering a good university to improve their career prospects is
highly valued (Kwon, Lee, & Shin, 2017). In addition, a low index of happiness with their
overall lives as well as their learning among Korean students has been a serious problem, with an
increase in Korean teenage suicide rates (OECD 2011; So & Kang, 2014).
Lack of students’ intrinsic motivation of learning might be linked with Korean parents'
excessive emphasis on education and overinvestments in private education. Even though
widespread use of “shadow education” is considered as harmful to educational and fiscal equity
in Korea, 83.6% of five-year olds and 35.5% of two-year olds attended private academies in
2016 according to a survey conducted nationwide by the Korea Institute of Child Care and
Education (Chung, 2017). Parental strong zeal for providing their children with better
educational opportunities, as well expressed in the phrase ‘education fever’ (Lee & Shouse, 2011;
Seth, 2002), has contributed to producing one of the most highly educated labor forces in the
world (Hultberg, Calonge, & Kim, 2017; Lee & Shouse, 2011). However, overinvestments in
private education are increasingly becoming a considerable financial burden for low-income, as
well as middle-income households (Hultberg, Calonge, & Kim, 2017). So and Kang (2014)
stated that overinvestments in private after-school tutoring programs carry negative individual
and social/economic consequences, which will be detrimental to Korean society in the long term.
Recent research and data suggest that the unemployment rate and the salaries of college
graduates have either stagnated or deteriorated, with negative impact on their borrowings and
consequently on their mental health (Yoo et al., 2016). Park (2011) also argued that while over-

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education contributed to the growing Korean economy with highly qualified workers, the
expansion of higher education led to the lack of intermediate skills. Furthermore, the overall
increase in the number of university graduates outpaced labor market demand, leaving many
college graduates unemployed (Cheon, 2014; Spring, 2014). As argued by Kim & Choi (2015),
the irony of the fact that higher education expansion, which was initially expected to reduce
inequality, escalated educational competition and deepened inequality in Korea.
Therefore, Korean policy makers need to approach shadow education with a longer term
perspective reducing family spending and promoting equitable access to learning. Pressure to
achieve the highest grades among students and parents and overinvestment in private education
are shaped largely by the quest of doing well in standardized examinations to enter a choice
university. Competition over admission into top universities has become extremely fierce due to
increased admission requirements to enter the universities.
Gaining Admission to College in Korea
How Colleges Evaluate Applicants
As graduating from a prestigious college is considered the most effective way for a
Korean to improve his/her social status, competition among students is fierce to gain admission
to a prestigious college (Avery, Roth, & Lee, 2014; Lee & Kim, 2013). Most high school
graduates are willing to spend another year in prep school to get an extra chance to apply to a
highly ranked college (Avery, Roth, & Lee, 2014). This intense competition of getting into a top
college might be closely related to the Korean government’s active involvement in designing
college admissions systems and regulating the admissions policies of both public and private
colleges (Avery, Roth, & Lee, 2014).
In order to mitigate the competition among high school students preparing for the college
entrance exam, the government has tried to reform the college admissions system by providing

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more application options for students and the autonomy of individual colleges in admissions
decisions (Avery, Roth, & Lee, 2014; Lee, 2018). Lee (2018) further argued that a major purpose
of the big reforms for the national university admission system in recent years was to put less
emphasis on the CSAT and more importance on a long-term decisive factor such as
high-school GPA. The reforms also include diversifying evaluation (screening materials), ways
of admission process, and times for applying (screening periods) (Lee, 2018). As a result, the
universities and colleges were enforced to adopt diverse methods of ‘special admission’ into
their admission system in addition to ‘general admission’ (Lee, 2018). While CSAT score and
high-school GPA are considered as the key criteria for screening in ‘general admission,’ ‘special
admission’ would consider various screening materials, such as a recommendation of a high
school principal and teachers, an essay exam, high-school records including GPA, and an
interview or test conducted by the university (Lee & Shouse, 2011).
In short, the ways of the admission process vary depending on the type of college
admissions in Korea. In general, admission to college requires successful academic performance
and extracurricular activities that fit into students’ intended majors.
Testing Requirements
Most colleges use the CSAT score and the high school GPA as major college admission
criteria. The CSAT is designed to measure the students’ scholastic ability required for college
education and it has been administered by the Korea Institute for Curriculum and Evaluation
(KICE) for more than 26 years since its introduction in 1993 as the most important standardized
screening tool for college entrance (Kwon, Lee, & Shin, 2017). It focuses on evaluating thinking
skills based on cross-curricula issues in the subjects of five subjects: Korean language,
mathematics, English (all students choose these three subjects), social studies/science/vocational
training (students choose one of these three subjects), and a second foreign language/Chinese

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characters and Classics (Kwon, Lee, & Shin, 2017; Nuffic, 2015). Another major factor required
for college admission is the high school GPA. Latest two big reforms of the college admissions
system implemented in 2002 and 2008 were aimed at normalizing high school education by
reducing the weight of the CSAT score as well as mitigating the intensity of students’
competition in college entrance preparation (Lee & Kim, 2013).
In sum, the CSAT score and the students’ high school GPA are used as the primary
criterion for evaluation in the college admissions process. While CSAT score and high-school
GPA are considered as the important criteria for screening in ‘general admission,’ the entrance
opportunities made available by way of ‘special admission’ would consider additional
requirements and diverse screening materials.
Other Requirements
Korean students are allowed to choose a process based on demonstrated academic ability
such as high school GPA and CSAT scores, or the one used to recruit talented students by way of
special admission. The crucial criteria for screening in ‘special admission’ include portfolios,
extra-curricular activities at school, recommendation of a high school principal and teachers, an
essay exam, and an interview or test conducted by the university in addition to the CSAT score
and high-school GPA (Nuffic, 2015). Talented students from disadvantaged backgrounds or
from low SES are also selected by way of special admission (Lee & Kim, 2013).
In a governmental effort to decrease the weight of the CSAT score, universities and
colleges were requested to enforce extendedly diverse methods of ‘special admission’ into their
admission system, which overall resulted in heavier workloads for teachers and students along
with the expansion in private tutoring. The current changes of the college admission system
including various screening methods affected high-school education and the changing role of
teachers. Amid intense competition for entering universities and changes of the college

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admission system, teachers have been struggling to meet the public expectations of taking
responsibility to implement the public meaning of education and keep the subject knowledge and
skills needed for exams updated.
Understanding Roles and Responsibilities of Teachers
Influence of the Changes and Consequences on Teachers
The educational role of school teachers in Korea has historical and cultural roots to the
neo-Confucian humanistic tradition. According to Bhang and Kwak (2019), it is generally
believed that the origin of test-oriented learning culture dates back to the Confucian tradition of
learning centered on the national civil service examination in Joseon dynasty (1392–1897). In
addition, the Confucian tradition of learning emphasizes the cultivation of students’ moral
character rather than their intellect character in education, if not in our educational practice today
(Bhang & Kwak, 2019). Thus, in addition to teaching subjects well, most Koreans tend to expect
school teachers to be ‘good people’ so as to deliver ‘good character education’ rather than the
way private tutors do (Bhang & Kwak, 2019). This educational tradition may still be in effect in
the form of criterion in the Korean people’s minds in judging what ‘good’ education is or what
makes a teacher a good teacher or not (Bhang & Kwak, 2019).
It is believed that school teachers are less skilled than private tutors and most students do
not even complain much about them as most Koreans tend to expect school teachers to care for
their students the way guidance counselors (Bhang & Kwak, 2019). However, as the actual
curriculum in today’s classroom cannot help from focusing on test-preparations, mostly the
CSAT (Kwon, Lee, & Shin, 2017), there has been an increasing demand for improving public
education. It is criticized that the responsibility that the neo-Confucian teachers were committed
to is still focused more on “tradition, than future generations; their educational ideality lies in the
past” (Bhang & Kwak, 2019, p.10).

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In sum, school teachers have long been immersed in the Confucian view of education in
their everyday practice of teaching, even in a modern, fast changing system of education. Thus, it
is important for teachers to open themselves to the new changes so as to learn how to inspire and
motivate students to achieve their dreams. In order to successfully help students engage in
learning, school teachers need to clearly understand their changing roles in education.
Changing Role of Teachers in Education
The learning environment is a critical factor in explaining students’ motivation for school
and their learning outcomes (Eccles & Roeser 2011; Pintrich, 2004). Eccles and Roeser (2011)
further noted that teachers are key stakeholders who shape the learning environment. Thus, one
of the most important tasks of a teacher is to create a learning environment that enhances
students’ motivation and engages students in learning (Hornstra, L., Mansfield, C., Van Der
Veen, I., Peetsma, T., & Volman, M., 2015).
According to Arendt (2006), there are two forms of responsibility to which school
teachers are supposed to be committed: “responsibility for tradition as the human world of
artifacts and responsibility for young students of the future generation” (p.193, as cited in Bhang
& Kwak, 2018). However, most school teachers stick to traditional teaching which is based upon
a teacher-centered rather than a student-centered approach (Bain, 2004) even though Korean
people have consistently demanded that teachers be changed to accommodate the postmodern
condition of Korean society (Bhang & Kwak, 2018). Teacher-centered approach assumes that
teachers are the gatekeepers of knowledge whose job is to transmit their knowledge through a
lecture, with students as passive receivers during the learning process (Brown, Castor, Byrnes-
Loinette, Bowman, & McBride, 2016). Teacher-centered approach also uses extrinsic rewards
and punishments to encourage learning (Turner, 2010). Reeve (2009) further explained that
contextual conditions, such as school regulations, national standards or high-stakes testing, can

26

push teachers towards controlling strategies.
One of the key changing roles of teachers in Korea is to create student-centered learning
by being more responsive to the varied needs of their students (Dimartino & Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2006) and providing learning opportunities and
activities reflecting a particular learning culture for the specific groups of students (Cabı, 2018).
The strategies to develop student-centered approaches include project-based learning, journaling,
reflective writing, exhibitions and portfolios, and community-based learning (Dimartino &
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2006). Berrett (2014) further argued
that the teacher's role should change from the expert who controls and imparts knowledge to that
of a facilitator. Another important role of teachers is to meet social and emotional needs of
students. Teachers must be aware of students’ emotional needs throughout the teaching and
testing process, creating caring and respectful environments so students can reach their full
academic potential (Butler, 2016).
In today's world, teaching is a multifaceted profession; teachers are required to focus on
the needs, abilities, interests of students, and meeting students’ social and emotional needs, all of
which might lead to creating a positive learning environment. The current education policies and
a new learning environment continue to require that teachers’ roles and responsibilities change.
However, recent changes in the education policies of the government have stirred controversy
among teachers, creating teachers’ barriers and challenges to effective teaching and learning.
Teachers’ Perspectives on Education
Teachers’ Understanding of the Current Education Policies
As students are heavily dependent upon private education for college admission, which
became noticeably widespread over the last decade, the private education gap among regions and
social classes further widened while the competitiveness of public education weakened in South

27

Korea (Kim, Y. C., Kim, Y. J., & Loury, 2014). Kim, et al (2014) suggested that where students
live has a significant impact on student performance, as there are differences among educational
environments that affect “the student’s motivation to learn, total study time, and other peer-
influenced factors or quality of role models” (p.111). Thus, parents are blaming schools and
educators for their inability to improve the quality of learning and for not moving towards
alleviating their financial burden (Kim, G. J., 2002). Amidst public distrust of formal education,
however, teachers are criticizing the education reform and contend that the reform has damaged
their morale and working conditions. Further, teachers’ organizations are skeptical about the
feasibility of the current curriculum (the National Guidelines of the 2015 Revised National
Curriculum) because the new curriculum requires many challenging components, including
various new teaching and learning methods for more interactive classrooms; students
participation-oriented classes; a mixed use of similar subject areas when introducing or
explaining a certain phenomenon, etc. (Cho & Huh, 2017, December).
In short, teachers contend that there are many side effects of the current college admission
policies on education and the current curriculum such as educational inequity and a decline in
teacher morale. The major factors that contributed to teachers’ criticism of the current college
admission policies are the knowledge, motivational, and organizational barriers to authentic
teaching.
Teachers’ Barriers
Teacher knowledge barriers. The admission rules made by the Korean government in
1994 have been criticized to create the knowledge, motivational, and organizational barriers to
effective teaching. First of all, according to recent changes in admission reforms that introduced
early applications in 1994, the national exam (CSAT) was administered to all students before the

28

start of early applications, thereby allowing colleges to develop additional individualized exams
to further differentiate applicants during the regular admissions process (Avery, Roth, & Lee,
2014). Students find it difficult to effectively prepare for the test only through the existing high
school curriculum, as each college independently develops the test with varied range and
difficulty levels (Lee, 2008 as cited in Choi & Park, 2013). Even though the college-administered
test should aim to measure applicants’ higher-order thinking abilities that are closely associated
with the subjects included in the high school curriculum, the current trend of keeping the college-
administered test unrelated to the subjects taught in high school and beyond the high school
curriculum would more likely result in the higher investment on private tutoring because most
high school teachers are not able to cover such extensive subjects and topics (Choi & Park,
2013).
In addition, the Korean government has urged teachers to promote creative teaching
through education reforms. However, as stated by So and Hu (2019), Korean teachers seem to
adjust the concept of creativity to Korea’s distinctive college entrance exam-oriented school
culture. Korean teachers perceive that creativity helps students better study subject contents, and
students’ creativity can be “acknowledged only when it is grounded in or relevant to the subject
contents covered in class (So & Hu, 2019, p.8). Kim (2007) further noted that most Korean
teachers consider that creativity education, which includes students’ diverse questions and
answers, conflicts with or is irrelevant to exam preparations in Korea.
Teacher motivation barriers. The current admission policy caused a distorted state of
high school education and had a negative impact on teachers’ motivation (Choi & Park, 2013).
The CSAT was made for the purpose of measuring students’ higher-order thinking such as
analytical thinking, problem solving, and creative thinking abilities (Choi & Park, 2013). The test

29

consists of multiple-choice question format because the multiple choice format has significant
advantages in terms of “ready scoring and objectivity” (Choi & Park, 2013, p115). However, as it
is difficult to measure such abilities through multiple choice questions, the validity of the CSAT
has been criticized. In order to increase students’ score mainly focusing on rote learning, high
school teachers’ instructions cannot help but concentrating on the contents in the textbooks or of
the books referenced to the CSAT. Due to teacher-centered rote learning, most students do not
engage in learning at school while depending on private tutoring, which mainly contributes to
lowering teachers’ sense of efficacy and motivation (Richards, 2011; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2016).
Historically, strongly influenced by Confucianism, Korean teachers have held high social
status and authority as strong influences on students’ character and academic achievement
(Moon & Morash, 2004). In spite of their historically privileged position, however, Korean
teachers’ victimization and violation of teachers’ authority in school has indicated an
upward trend (Jang,Yoo, & Lee, 2012). According to Espelage et al. (2013), teacher‐directed
violence includes bullying and intimidation, verbal threats, theft, and physical attacks, all of
which endanger the well‐being of those involved in the school (Espelage et al., 2013).
In particular, victimized teachers experience decreased physical and emotional well‐being, life
satisfaction, and teaching performance (Moon, Morash, Jang, & Jeong, 2015) and increased
fearfulness and stress (Dworkin, Haney & Telschow, 1988 as cited in McMahon et al., 2017).
Teacher organization barriers. Considering the limited time and resources available to
high school teachers, teachers will not be able to cover a wide range of subjects and topics of the
college-administered test which lacks a clear rubric for scoring (Choi & Park, 2013). Thus, high
school teachers have had problems with direction on how to guide their students (Choi & Park,
2013) amid parents and students' distrust over public education. Further, Lim & Eo (2014)

30

suggested that Korean teachers are now facing various increasingly challenging school climates,
making them vulnerable to job stress and burnout. For instance, the Korean government has
introduced diverse reward systems to create higher levels of competition between individual
teachers within a school under the pretext of improving the quality of school education (Lim &
Eo, 2014). However, those policies for teachers have often caused a higher level of
organizational politics, which leads to teacher burnout in Korean teacher society (Chan, Lau, Nie,
Lim, & Hogan, 2008; Lim & Eo, 2014).
In brief, it is critical for educational policy makers and school administrators to be
sensitive to challenges facing public education and the characteristics of teachers in developing
and implementing education policies. The above literature provides the historical background
and controversies of the current education policies in Korea and teachers’ assumed barriers. The
conceptual framework for validating the assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences appear in the sections that follow.
Conceptual Framework
This study will examine the teacher’s role in enhancing student performance using the
Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analysis framework. In this framework, Clark and Estes suggest that
three areas that can contribute to the performance gap are knowledge, motivation, and
organizational culture (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011).
The purpose of this study was to conduct a gap analysis to determine the causes of the
barriers present for regular high school teachers in successfully meeting the requirements for
getting into major universities in Korea, thus closing the college admission gap between GLHS
and other regular high schools.

31

In this study, the analysis explored three critical factors that must be examined when
analyzing the performance of regular school teachers. In order to close the gap, regular school
teachers should have the knowledge and skills needed to achieve their performance goals while
being motivated and the school should also support teachers so that they can achieve the
organization’s performance goals.
The Clark and Estes (2008) framework will focus on analyzing the causes for a school
not achieving an equal college admission rate versus other regular high schools. First, the study
will examine research regarding the knowledge influences that regular high school teachers’
needs. Teachers will need to know how to achieve the goal of equal college admission rates, as
well as what skills they possess or need to acquire. Next, the study will examine research
regarding motivational influences. Teachers will need to examine their own thought processes
regarding working towards the goal of equal college admission rates, persistence in order to
reach this goal, and the mental effort that they will need to expel in order to create college
admission rate equality. Finally, the study will look at the organizational influence that affects
how regular high school teachers improve instruction. Specifically, teachers will need to look at
organizational barriers in the form of school policies, district policies, and the Korean education
system in achieving college admission rate equality.
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences
Knowledge and Skills
In order to close the achievement gap, teachers will need to be cognizant of current
college admission policies. In addition, teachers will need to analyze problems of their teaching,
the school policies, and the impact on student performances. One area that teachers will need to
address is their knowledge and skill, including declarative, conceptual, procedural, and

32

metacognitive influences (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001; Clark & Estes, 2008), which all
contribute to the stakeholder gap. Teachers will need to understand not only what students’
academic needs and intended majors but how to help them meet college admission requirements.
Further, teachers will need to know principles and models of creating a positive learning
environment.
Declarative factual knowledge influences. Rueda (2011) suggests that factual
knowledge is knowledge that is basic to specific disciplines, contexts, or domains. These include
elements such as terminology or principles that one must know or be familiar with in order to
understand and function effectively or to solve a problem on a given subject. In order to reach
the organization goal of closing the student performance gap in college admissions, teachers will
first need to be aware of the declarative factual, or fact based, knowledge influences. Declarative
knowledge refers to the knowledge of “specific content elements such as terms and facts”
(Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001, p. 42). In the context of college admissions in Korea, factual
knowledge applies to the current college admission criteria for screening in general admission
and special admission.
Teachers need to know the current college admission policies. Educational policy and
classroom teaching are critically connected (Heineke, Ryan, & Tocci, 2015). Understanding
educational policy includes being aware of the historical background and the different levels that
the current education policies come from as well as the important criteria for screening in both
general and special admission. Being aware of the current educational policy enables teachers to
further analyze what those policies mean for teachers and students, and what is best for their
students (Heineke, Ryan, & Tocci, 2015). This benefit to students is that they can receive
effective instructions that incorporate educational policies in lessons (Heineke, Ryan, & Tocci,

33

2015). In addition, as it takes time for students to be prepared to meet college admissions
requirements of each college, teachers need to have the updated knowledge of the important
criteria for college admissions, which is critical for closing the gap in college admission rates.
Teachers need to know students’ academic needs and intended majors. Teachers need
to know individual students’ academic needs by first recognizing what is required in learning,
which enables teachers to identify appropriate instructional strategies and tools for students with
varied academic needs (Watson & Houtz, 2002). Rutledge, Cohen-Vogel, Osborne-Lampkin,
and Roberts (2015) further suggested that effective high schools attend to both students’
academic and social emotional learning needs. This data can be used to improve the learning
experiences of all students (Schildkamp & Visscher, 2010;Wilcox & Angelis, 2011).
Conceptual knowledge influences. Conceptual knowledge refers to categories,
classifications, schemas, mental models, or theories which represent the knowledge an individual
has about how the different parts are interconnected and function together (Anderson &
Krathwohl, 2001). In the context of a school setting, and in relation to student academic
improvement, teachers need to be aware of what strategies, principles and models of creating a
positive learning environment are to help their students engage in learning and achieve their
learning goals. Being aware of conceptual knowledge influences will expand on what teachers
know and help them make better decisions on principles and practices for effective instruction.
Teachers need to know strategies, principles, and models of creating a positive
learning environment. Teachers need to know strategies for building a positive learning
environment, which is a key ingredient toward student success (Sutliff, Higginson, & Allstot,
2008). A positive school climate is essential to promote the three components of support:
academic, behavior, and social-emotional needs (O’Malley, M., Voight, A., Renshaw, T., &

34

Eklund, K., 2015). In order to promote student motivation, engagement, and achievement and
maximize students’ effective learning, teachers need to use different strategies including “teacher
emotional support, teacher academic support, promotion of classroom mutual respect, and
promotion of task-related interaction” (p. 377). The increased use of student-centered learning is
another strategy to build a positive learning environment, which includes Team-Based Learning,
Incentive-Based Learning, Flipped Classroom, and self-assessed learning (Bradford, J., Mowder,
D., & Bohte, J., 2016).
Comprehensive student record screening has become the norm for entrance at most major
universities including Seoul National University (Jin, 2016). In 2019, for instance, SNU recruited
79.1% of students through comprehensive student record screening on a rolling basis requiring
extracurricular activities such as student government, school clubs, volunteer work, career
building, and outside reading with the aim of reflecting individual students’ dreams and talents
("College Admission Information," 2019). In order to recruit students who have strong academic
passion about their intended majors, Seoul National University and other major universities put
emphasis not only on high academic records but also on student engagement in the classroom
and extracurricular activities. For instance, one of the highest performing regular schools located
in Seoul has tried to focus on student-centered learning including project-based learning called
research and education (R&E), team-based learning, and activities that combine critical reading,
writing and group discussion (Kim, 2013).
Teachers need to create positive school climates through their expressed care and concern
for students’ intellectual growth, and educational success both academically and social
emotionally (Rutledge, Cohen-Vogel, Osborne-Lampkin, & Roberts, 2015). Highly performing
regular high schools focus on reflecting students’ opinions on creating a positive learning

35

environment such as making a small ecological park in a school or redesigning student school
uniforms with more functions (Kim, 2013). In addition, as students exhibiting social skills
problem patterns face the greatest academic and behavioral challenges, teachers also need to
know “the patterns and mindsets of students' social skills” to improve students’ academic and
behavioral outcomes (Tan, K., Sinha, G., Shin, O., & Wang, Y., 2018, p. 1). If teachers have
strong social emotional supports in place, including those that promote student engagement, high
expectations of student behavior, and positive school climates, they will see decreases in the
number of disciplinary infractions (Elias, 2006; Galloway & Lasley, 2010), which might
contribute to improving student achievement.
Procedural knowledge influences. Procedural knowledge is knowing how to do
something; a learner acquires these skills either implicitly or explicitly (Rueda, 2011). In order to
improve student academic performance, teachers need to know how to implement change.
Specifically, in order to facilitate effective learning of all students, teachers need to know how to
provide academic interventions. An academic intervention is a strategy used to instruct a new
skill, build fluency in a skill, or encourage a learner to apply an existing skill to new situations or
settings (Wright, 2012). Academic interventions are needed especially for students who
demonstrate low levels of academic engagement, thus missing learning opportunities and having
greater academic difficulties compared with peers (Lannie & McCurdy, 2007). Low levels of
academic engagement may further have negative effects on the learning of other students
(Ducharme & Shecter, 2011). Response-to-intervention (RTI) is a model of prevention and early
intervention for learning and behavior problems (Grosche & Volpe, 2013). The main ideas of
RTI are: (a) instruction across multiple tiers is research-based; (b) all learners are regularly
screened for academic and behavior problems; (c) student response to instruction is frequently

36

assessed; (d) teachers make instructional decisions based on data; and (e) if data indicate the
need for more educational support, high-quality classroom is provided with some type of
progressively more intense, specific, and individualized intervention (Brown-Chidsey & Steege,
2005; Burns, Deno, & Jimerson, 2007). Additionally, teachers need to know that students
perform better when they are encouraged to make right answers (Kruger, Strong, Daly,
O’Connor, Sommerhalder, Holtz, … Heifner, 2016). The chances of improving academic
performance increases substantially when teachers “maximize response rates (Kruger et al.,2016,
p. 36).
Metacognitive knowledge. Metacognitive knowledge refers to an individual’s awareness
of the learning process and the cognitive processes involved in learning (Mayer, 2008).
Cognitive processes include remembering relevant information from long-term memory,
understanding and building meaning from information, carrying out a procedure or process in a
given situation, and evaluating and making judgements based on criteria and standards (Mayer,
2008).
In terms of students’ academic achievement and college admissions rate, this process
requires that teachers remember how to reflect on the role of data and its subsequent review in
order to address barriers to improving student achievement and improve instruction. The
emerging emphasis has been placed on the use of data and hard evidence from which to inform
practice rather than “simply using anecdotes, gut feelings or opinions as the basis for decisions”
(Mandinach, 2012, p. 71). For example, a teacher would want to be familiar with explanations in
student performance data, behavioral data, attendance, and other less quantitative information to
understand why a particular subset of students was struggling academically. Doing so will build
upon a teacher’s knowledge and the ability to link student performance data with a variety of

37

factors. This will ultimately result in a change or improvement in a teacher’s instructional
strategies.
Teachers need to know how to reflect on the role of data to address problems that
negatively affect student performance. Teachers need to know data-driven decision making
(DDDM), which pertains to “the systematic collection, analysis, examination, and interpretation
of data to inform practice and policy in educational settings” (Mandinach, 2012, P. 71).
According to Mandinach (2012), DDDM is a generic process that can be applied in classrooms
to improve instruction as well as in administrative and policy settings. Mandinach (2012) also
found that high performing schools were more likely to use data, such as grades, test scores,
attendance records, and disciplinary data to address student problem areas on an individual basis
and improve student achievement. Effective high schools encourage administrators, teachers and
staff to use data aimed at improving student achievement (Schildkamp & Visscher, 2010;Wilcox
& Angelis, 2011) and support training programs for the use of data systems (Spillane, 2012).
Clearly, reflection on how to use data provides value in improving not only instructional
practices for teachers to align appropriate instructional strategies with the needs of individual
students (Mandinach, 2012) but also student achievement. Further, research has shown that using
data in instructional decisions can lead to enhanced student performance (Wayman, 2005;
Wayman, Cho, & Johnston, 2007; Wohlstetter, Datnow, & Park, 2008). With appropriate
analysis and interpretation of data, educators can make informed decisions that enhance student
performance. When it comes to improving instruction and student academic achievement,
Hamilton et al.(2009) suggested that understanding of effective data use helps teachers to
identify and address learning difficulties and academic needs.

38

Table 2 shows the types of knowledge influences and the related research that teachers
will need as they look to improve instructional practices to enhance student performance and
meet the college admission requirements. The Table lists the declarative factual knowledge
(knowing the current college admission policies and student academic needs), declarative
conceptual knowledge (knowing strategies, principles, and models of creating positive learning
environment), procedural knowledge (knowing how to provide an academic intervention that can
enhance students’ academic success), and metacognitive knowledge (how to use multiple sources
of data to address problems and improve instruction and student performance).
Table 2
Summary of Assumed Knowledge Influences on Teachers’ Ability to Achieve the Performance
Goal
Assumed Knowledge Influences Research Literature
Declarative Factual
Teachers know the current college admission policies
including the important criteria for screening in
general admission as well as special admission.
Heineke, A., Ryan, A., & Tocci, C.
(2015).
Declarative Conceptual
Teachers know strategies, principles, and models of
creating a positive learning environment.
Sutliff, M., Higginson, J., & Allstot,
S. (2008).

Patrick, H. (n.d.)
Teachers know what strategies of meeting students’
social-emotional needs are.

O’Malley, M., Voight, A., Renshaw,
T., & Eklund, K. (2015).
Back, L., Polk, E., Keys,
C., & McMahon, S.(2016).
Teachers know what strategies of principles, and Bradford, J., Mowder, D., & Bohte, J.
(2016).

39

models of facilitating student-centered learning.
Teachers know how to detect students’ social and
emotional needs throughout the teaching and testing
process.
Tan, K., Sinha, G., Shin, O., & Wang,
Y. (2018).

Butler, A. (2016).
Procedural
Teachers know how to provide an academic
intervention that can enhance students’ academic
success (RTI) to meet students’ academic needs.

DiMartino, J. (2006).

Brown-Chidsey, R., & Steege, M.
(2005).

Burns, M., Deno, S.,
Jimerson, S., Jimerson, S., Burns, M.,
& Vanderheyden, A. (2007).

Kruger, A., Strong, W., Daly, E., O’
Connor, M., Sommerhalder, M., Holtz,
J.,… Heifner, A. (2016).

Grosche, M., & Volpe, R. (2013).

Lannie, A. L., & McCurdy, B. L.
(2007)

Ducharme & Shecter (2011).
Metacognitive
Teachers know how to reflect on…
The problems of the current education system and the
school curriculum.
Their teaching practices by using data and its
subsequent review in order to address problems and
improve instructions.

The new role of teachers in the current education
system.
Bhang, J., & Kwak, D. (2018).

Kwon, S., Lee, M., & Shin, D. (2017).

Mandinach, E. (2012).

Wilson, N., & Bai, H. (2010).

Schildkamp & Visscher, (2010)

Wilcox & Angelis (2011)

Spillane (2012).

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Motivation
General theory. Motivation is usually defined as a set of beliefs that influence people’s
movement towards attainment of valued goals (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). Motivation can be
observed using three common indicators; choice, persistence and mental effort (Schunk, Meece,
& Pintrich, 2012; Rueda, 2011). According to Clark and Estes (2008), there are three motivation
indicators. The indicators are active choice, persistence, and mental effort. Active choice refers
to deciding to choose one activity over another. Persistence is the continuation of a behavior until
the goal is obtained and the need is reduced (Pintrich & Schunk, 2009). Mental effort is the work
needed to generate new learning and knowledge. According to these definitions, teachers may
have some deficits in these areas when looking at instructional practices. Relying on past
teaching practices and roles is leading to lower student performance and college admissions rate
than that of other high schools.
In relation to student academic achievement, an example of active choice and persistence
is when teachers work to create a positive learning environment. Creating a positive learning
environment is closely related to promoting academic performance (Back, Polk, Keys, &
McMahon, 2016), which is a result of purposeful action by the teacher. Another example of
active choice is when teachers provide an academic intervention such as RTI that can help, in
particular, low levels of academic students’ academic engagement (Lannie & McCurdy, 2007).
Teachers need to be active and persistent to create the positive school and classroom climate and
provide an academic intervention needed to enhance student achievement.
Mental effort is when one is using familiar information to solve a problem that requires
new information (Rueda, 2011). As it relates to student achievement in college admissions,
teachers can use the information of the current education policies and multiple sources of student

41

data to implement efficient practices and translate the data into actions that inform instruction
(Mandinach, 2012).
Teacher’s specific factors. Teachers need to value the teacher’s changing role and
responsibilities. When teachers value what their changing role and responsibilities are, they can
become devoted to learning how to enhance student engagement by actively meeting student
social and emotional needs. Teachers will need to have self-efficacy in order to be equipped with
the skills necessary to provide effective instruction for students, which leads to achieving the
organizational goal.
Value. Eccles (1983) suggests that three components of task value are important in
motivating individuals to accomplish an established goal: “the individual's perception of the
importance of the task, their personal interest in the task, and their perception of the utility value
of the task which is determined by individuals’ perceptions of the usefulness of the task for
future goals” (p. 465). Rueda (2011) also explains that “the higher an individual values an
activity, the more likely he or she chooses, persists, and engages in it” (p.43). In the context of
improvement in instructional practices for student high achievement, teachers first need to value
their changing roles and responsibilities in the new education system. Teachers also need to
value a positive learning environment and the social and emotional needs of students, which
contribute to students’ higher academic achievement.
Teachers need to value their changing role and responsibilities. Arendt & Kohn (2006)
describe two forms of responsibility to which public school teachers need to be committed:
responsibility for tradition and responsibility for young students of future generations. Bhang &
Kwak (2018) explain that most public school teachers in Korea today are still directed more to
tradition than to the future because they have long been immersed in the Confucian view of

42

education. As a result, teachers need to value their new role and responsibilities of helping young
students to “encounter the world of tradition without discouraging their newness” (Kwak, 2018,
p. 10).
Teachers need to value a positive learning environment. A positive school climate has
a significant positive impact on academic achievement and reduces the negative impact of poor
socio-economic background characteristics on academic achievement (Berkowitz, Moore, Astor,
& Benbenishty (2017). Extrinsically, teachers need to value a positive learning environment and
continue providing interventions to support and improve school climate (Berkowitz, Moore,
Astor, & Benbenishty, 2017) as it relates to students’ academic achievement. Additionally,
teachers need to perceive value for their efforts in making the positive influence of school and
classroom climate improvement on students’ achievement, especially for those from lower SES
backgrounds.
Teachers need to value the social and emotional needs of students. The attributes of
effective teachers include perceiving the social and emotional needs of students, which results in
student academic achievement (Nezhad & Nezhad, 2014). In Klem and Connell’s study (2004),
students who reported having quality relationships with their teachers were found to be about
three times more engaged than students who report having poor relationships. Thus, teachers
need to value the relationship between students and teachers to better understand the social and
emotional needs of students, which has an important influence on their academic competences
(Sakiz et al., 2012; Wentzel, Battle, Russell, & Looney, 2010).
Self-efficacy. In this context, self-efficacy refers to a teacher’s confidence in their ability
to complete a task or performance goal, or belief that they have the ability to make a difference
in the long term (Clark & Estes, 2008; Bandura, 1999). Research has shown that there is a

43

positive correlation between teacher self- efficacy and students’ motivation and achievement
(Mojavezi & Tamiz, 2012). In order to effectively improve instructional practices to promote
students’ academic achievement, self-efficacy is a crucial characteristic for teachers to possess.
Teachers need to have confidence that they can teach effectively. Teachers’ self-
efficacy is based on their perceived ability to make an impact on students' learning (Somech &
Drach-Zahavy, 2000) by having a positive attitude and by adjusting their teaching strategies to fit
both the students and the material, recognizing that different students learn in different ways.
Teacher self-efficacy contributes to promoting students' achievement (Malmberg et al., 2014)
and engaging students in the lessons (Holzberger, Philipp, & Kunter, 2014). In addition, teachers’
self-efficacy plays an essential role in introducing new teaching approaches (Rimm-Kaufman &
Sawyer, 2004) and using more instructional teaching strategies (Klassen & Chiu, 2010).
Research has shown that a teacher with high levels of self-efficacy has more confidence in their
“capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to […] be successfully
capable of teaching” (Bandura, 1997, p. 3). Finally, teachers, who have relatively higher teacher
self-efficacy, are more likely to positively impact student learning in spite of external factors
such as low socioeconomic status, or students' lack of motivation (Tucker et al., 2005). With a
high-level of self-efficacy in teaching practice, teachers are more likely to enhance student
performance (Malmberg et al., 2014) and achieve the organizational goal.
Mood. Clark and Estes (2008) refer to mood as an attitude about pursuing and achieving
a goal. In this case, a teachers’ mood about the goal will affect how they handle the task. If
teachers believe that the task is not possible, or do not believe it is worthwhile, they may develop
negative emotions and attitudes that would adversely affect their instructions and ability to
promote students’ academic achievement.

44

Teachers need to feel positive about their ability to overcome current barriers and
challenges they may face to achieve the organizational goal. Teaching is a highly emotional
and demanding profession associated with high levels of stress that may cause job dissatisfaction,
psychological disorders, and decreased well-being (Chang, 2009; Brackett et al., 2010; Keller et
al., 2014). Given the pivotal role of teachers in student academic achievement and the success of
the organization, the emotional well-being of teachers is crucial not only for themselves, but for
their students ( Jiang et al., 2016; Lee et al., 2016). In order to overcome negative work-specific
variables such as low teacher self-efficacy, burnout, or reduced engagement, it is important for
teachers to have emotional intelligence (EI). EI refers to the integration of the ability to perceive,
appraise, and express emotion accurately; the ability to access, and/or generate feelings; the
ability to understand emotion and emotional knowledge; and the ability to regulate emotions
(Mayer et al., 2016). If teachers have EI in their workplace, they embrace more challenging tasks
and overcome barriers and challenges in spite of barriers and challenges in enhancing student
engagement and academic performance. Teachers’ positive emotions have the power to reduce
the influence of negative emotions (Pablo, Marí a, Gutiérrez-Cobo, Juan, & Rosario, 2017),
encouraging teachers to be invested in their students’ success at learning.
Attribution. They way teachers evaluate the attributed cause(s) of a students’ failure
influences their behavior towards the student (Jager & Denessen, 2015). When a student
performs poorly, teachers can ascribe this failure to different causes (Georgiou et al., 2002). In
order to promote students’ meaningful learning and academic achievement, teachers need to
have a higher sense of efficacy and accept part of the responsibility for the student’s success and
failure and support the failing student (Georgiou et al., 2002). Additionally, Woodcock and Jiang

45

(2013) suggest that teacher attributions for student performance impact teachers’ instructional
behaviors.
Table 3 shows the types of motivation and the related research that teachers of regular
high schools will need as they work to improve students’ academic achievement to meet the
organizational goal of increasing college admissions rate.
Table 3
Summary of Assumed Motivation Influences on Teachers’ Ability to Achieve the Performance
Goal
Assumed Motivation Influences Research Literature
Author, Year; Author, Year.
Value
Teachers value their changing role and responsibilities.
Bhang, J., & Kwak, D. (2018).
Arendt, H., & Kohn, J. (2006).
Teachers value a positive learning environment Linda, P. & Barry, F. (2010).
Rahim B., Javad A., Ghafour A.,
Navideh J., & Hojjat M. (2014).
Berkowitz, R., Moore, H., Astor,
R., & Benbenishty, R. (2017).
Teachers value the social and emotional needs of
students, which affects student academic performance
and goal achievement.

Butler, A. (2016).

Cook, C., Faulkner, S., & Howell,
P. (2016).

Nezhad, A., & Nezhad, A. (2014).

Kashy‐Rosenbaum, G., Kaplan,
O., & Israel‐Cohen, Y. (2018).

46

Self-Efficacy
Teachers can teach and support students effectively with
a positive attitude by adjusting their teaching strategies to
fit both the students and the material, recognizing that
different students learn in different ways.
Bandura (1997).
Klassen, R. M., & Tze, V. M. C.
(2014).

Kleinsasser, R. (2014).
Somech & Drach-Zahavy (2000).

Malmberg et al. (2014).
Holzberger, Philipp, & Kunter
(2014).

Rimm-Kaufman & Sawyer
(2004).

Tucker et al. (2005).
Mood
Teachers feel positive about their ability to overcome
current barriers and challenges they may face to achieve
the organizational goal.

Pablo Fernández-Berrocal, Marí a
J. Gutiérrez-Cobo, Juan
Rodriguez-Corrales, & Rosario
Cabello. (2017).
Jiang, J., Vauras, M., Volet,
S., & Wang, Y. (2016).

Lee, M., Pekrun, R., Taxer, J.,
Schutz, P., Vogl, E., & Xie, X.
(2016).

Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., &
Caruso, D. R. (2002).
Attribution
Teachers attribute their success and failure to support
students to their own efforts.
Wang, H., & Hall, N. (2018).
Georgiou, S., Christou, C.,
Stavrinides, P., & Panaoura,
G. (2002).
Woodcock & Jiang (2013).

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Organization
Individuals within an organization may possess the knowledge, skills, and motivation
required to accomplish an organizational goal; however, organizational barriers can create
problems with knowledge, skills, and motivation within an organization (Rueda, 2011).
Additionally, organizational barriers such as lack of resources, bureaucracies, and structures may
prevent a goal from being achieved (Clark & Estes, 2008). For example, the organizational goal
cannot be achieved when teachers do not have opportunities for professional development.
Another example of a lack of organizational support is when teachers are not motivated enough
to persist when they face barriers. Teachers may also not feel supported if they do not have
adequate resources to implement effective strategies or programs to support students’ better
performance. Finally, teachers need to be supported in the pursuit of improving equity to provide
quality instruction to all students to improve overall students’ academic performance.
Resources. Resources are defined as materials that are necessary to achieve a goal. In the
case of teachers, examples would be resources and administrative assistants to help teachers
implement effective teaching strategies and professional development (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Teachers who are interested in helping students meet the individualized college exams should be
offered planning time. Additionally, teachers should be offered professional development in
order to increase their knowledge for creating effective teaching and learning environments.
Teachers need time to implement programs that help students prepare for
individualized college exams. Cohen, Raudenbush, & Ball (2003) suggest that effective teachers
plan carefully, use appropriate materials, establish clear goals for students, and provide feedback
on student work regularly. They also use class time effectively employing coherent strategies for
instruction. According to Cohen, Raudenbush, & Ball (2003), instruction refers to “no particular

48

form of discourse but to teachers’ and students’ connected work, extending through, days, weeks,
and months” (p.121). In addition, teachers need time to adapt to new curricular reforms and
information about effective instructional practices, review student data from multiple sources for
decision making, and check student learning on a regular basis (Merritt, 2016). Moreover,
studies show that collaborative learning among teachers has a positive influence on successfully
supporting student learning and on student academic achievement (Goddard, Goddard, &
Tschannen Moran, 2007; Jackson & Bruegmann, 2009). Collaborative work among teachers for
learning and exchanging new teaching strategies and skills may require additional time that can
be used to encourage teachers to collaborate actively with one another to support student learning,
in turn enhancing their own expertise (Choi & Park, 2016).
Teachers need funds for professional development to increase their knowledge.
Numerous studies indicate that teacher quality, especially with respect to pedagogical content
knowledge, has a significant impact on student learning and achievement (Meister, 2010; Opfer
& Pedder, 2011). Unfortunately, many teachers are not adequately prepared for their assigned
teaching positions (Palardy & Rumberger, 2008).
According to Hirsh (2001), the professional development of teachers is the best way to affect
their quality of teaching. In addition, Starkey et al. (2009) suggest that professional development
programs are necessary not only for new teachers but also for veteran teachers. Thus, there is no
doubt in the literature with regard to the importance of continuing professional development to
help teachers in developing their existing skills and acquiring new ones. Van Driel & Berry
(2012) suggest that the development of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) includes
knowledge of promoting student learning such as “teachers’ understanding of how students learn,
or fail to learn, specific subject matter” (p. 26). In the context of teachers of students’ academic

49

achievement, PCK should be mainly focused in professional development programs (Driel &
Berry, 2012).
Policies and procedures. Policies, processes, and procedures refer to systems that are
put in place in the organization (Clark & Estes, 2008). Policies may refer to both the school
district’s policies and those defined by the Seoul Metropolitan Office of Education. Processes
can refer to district processes as well as individual school processes. Finally, procedures are
unique between the school, the district, and country.
Teachers need to feel that the school policies and procedures support their instruction.
Administrative support is defined as “the school’s effectiveness in assisting teachers with issues
such as student discipline, instructional methods, curriculum, and adjusting to the school
environment” (Borman & Dowling, 2008, p. 380). Increasing teachers’ perceptions of
administrative support may be achieved through a renewed emphasis on implementation of the
Interstate School Licensure Consortium (ISLLC) standards, which was developed in 1988 as part
of an effort to improve the quality of educational leadership in the public schools in the U.S.
(Tickle, Chang, & Kim, 2011). The ISLLC standards involve the administrative support that
school leaders should exhibit and implement when working with teachers (Tickle, Chang, & Kim,
2011). When teachers perceive that administration supports their instruction in a manner that
encourages them to achieve the organizational goal, they are working within an environment that
is supportive of enhancing their ability to help students to succeed.
Cultural setting. Culture refers to an organization’s core values, goals, beliefs, emotions,
and processes in the context of the school environment (Clark & Estes, 2008). Clark and Estes
(2008) suggest that the issue of trust can create or break an organization's culture because trust is
a major factor in work motivation and de-motivation. Clark and Estes (2008) further explain if

50

organizational dishonesty and unfairness are removed, employees will be motivated to achieve
their goals. Distrust towards the leadership team with regards to problem-solving abilities in an
organization may decrease work commitment among teachers. In addition, if there is a conflict
between the organizational culture of perceived distrust and its performance goals, positive
behavioral changes among teachers will not occur (Clark & Estes, 2008). The cultural model
problem can be solved if the leadership team is continuously involved in the candid
communication with teachers to foster a climate of trust (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Teachers need to be in a culture that creates a positive and supportive climate that
ensures they feel a part of the team. Research shows that effective schools have coherent
behavior management systems that build confidence in the school’s behavior management
systems (Rutledge, Cohen-Vogel, Osborne-Lampkin, & Roberts, 2015). Confidence creates
feelings of safety and trust among administrators, faculty, students, and parents (Akey, 2006). A
quality learning environment helps achieve the organizational goal, which is possible in a
positive and supportive climate. A positive environment emphasizes positive and healthy
relationships among and between all school stakeholders and students (Cook, Faulkner, &
Howell, 2016). These relationships develop through “an understanding of the developmental
spectrum, appropriate dispositions and behaviors, and supportive organizational structures”
(Cook, Faulkner, & Howell, 2016, p. 7). When teachers are part of a culture that enhances trust
and supportive climate, they can better help students achieve.
Table 4 shows the types of organizational influences and the related literature that school
leaders will need to consider building capacity in teachers in order to promote academic
achievement among students and to achieve the organizational goal. The table lists resources
(need time to implement programs that help students’ effective learning and professional

51

development), policies, processes, and procedures (support effective instruction) and culture
(creates a positive and supportive climate).
Table 4
Summary of Assumed Organization Influences on Teachers’ Ability to Achieve the Performance
Goal
Assumed Organization Influences Research Literature
Resources
Teachers need time to implement programs that help students
prepare for individualized college exams including
extracurricular activities that compliment students’ intended
majors.
Cohen, D., Raudenbush,
S., & Ball, D. (2003)

Merritt, E. (2016).

Goddard, Goddard, &
Tschannen Moran (2007).

Jackson & Bruegmann
(2009).
Teachers need funds for professional development to increase
their knowledge.

Driel & Berry (2012).
Opfer, V. D. & Pedder, D.
(2011).
Meister (2010).
Palardy & Rumberger
(2008).
Policies, Processes, & Procedures
Stakeholders need to feel that policies, processes, and
procedures support their instruction.
Brill & McCartney(2008).
Borman & Dowling
(2008).

Tickle, B., Chang, M., &
Kim, S. (2011).
Culture
Teachers need to be in a culture that creates a positive and
supportive climate that ensures they feel a part of the team.
Akey, T. M. (2006).
Cook, C., Faulkner, S., &
Howell, P. (2016).

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Summary
The purpose of this literature review was to examine related research that addresses
current problems and/or findings in regard to student academic achievement. Considerations to
requirements in the areas of knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational factors were
presented in order to effectively achieve the organizational goal. First, teachers need to have
knowledge of the current college admission policies, students’ academic needs and intended
majors, strategies of creating a positive learning environment and student-centered learning, and
how to detect students’ social and emotional needs. Teachers also need to be aware of how to
provide an academic intervention and how to use data to enhance instructional practices and to
better help students to achieve. In terms of motivation influences, teachers need to take into
account the motivational factors such as how they value their changing role and responsibilities,
a positive learning environment, and meeting students' social and emotional needs. Teachers also
need to have confidence that they can teach and support students effectively and to feel positive
about their ability that they can overcome current barriers and challenges they may face in
achieving the organizational goal, while attributing their success and failure to support students
to their own efforts. Finally, a positive and supportive school climate needs to be fostered to
increase academic achievement and to help close the college admissions rate.

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CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to conduct a gap analysis to examine the knowledge,
motivation and organizational influences that interfere with the organizational problem of poor
academic performance in college entrance rates. While a complete gap analysis would focus on
all Golden Lake High School (GLHS) stakeholders, for practical purposes, the stakeholders to be
focused on in this study were all teachers of GLHS. The analysis began by generating a list of
possible or assumed interfering influences that was examined systematically to focus on actual or
validated causes.
The questions that guide this gap analysis are the following:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that interfere with
teachers’ goal of developing academic plans that meet the requirements for getting into
college using differentiated instruction strategies by December 2019?
2. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions?

Conceptual and Methodological Framework
The framework for the methodology in the study was the Clark and Estes (2008) Gap
Analysis. The Gap Analysis is a systematic and analytical framework that assists in identifying
causes of performance gaps, helps to clarify organizational goals and to implement appropriate
performance solutions. The methodology identifies and quantifies three significant causes of
performance problems: knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational culture and context
(Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011).
The study integrated survey and qualitative data. A qualitative methods study led one to
learn the meaning that “the participants hold about the problem or issue, not the meaning that the

54

researchers bring to the research” (Creswell, 2014, p.186). According to Creswell (2014),
qualitative interviews are useful when participants can provide their views and opinions as well
as historical information. Patton (1987) also suggested that interviews involve questions which
enable researchers to understand people’s goals, intentions, desires, values, feelings, knowledge,
sensations, or demographics. For this study, assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences that impede organizational goal achievement were assessed by using surveys and
interviews.
This study utilized an improvement model to conduct a gap analysis by analyzing the
causes of the barriers for regular high school teachers in successfully helping students achieve.
The primary focus for the performance gap centered on building teachers’ capacity for providing
effective instruction and intervention in order that they can achieve the organizational goal. For
this purpose, three critical factors: the knowledge and skills required to enhance students’
performance, teachers’ motivation that leads to creating a positive learning environment, and the
organizational effort needed to achieve the organizational goal of reducing achievement gaps of
college admissions rate were analyzed. In this present study, the Clark and Estes’ (2008)
framework was used to examine the causes of a high school’s low college admissions rate
compared to those of other high schools.
Figure 1 is a schematic drawing showing the sequence of steps in the Gap Analysis
Process. In addition, the figure displays the cyclical nature of the Gap Analysis Process.

55

Figure 1.
Gap Analysis Process. Clark, R.E. & Estes, F. (2008). Turning research into results. Charlotte,
NC: Information Age Publishing, Inc.
The steps of the Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analysis Process Model are as follows:
Step 1: Goals - Identify the organizational goal.
Step 2: Current Achievement - Determine the current levels of performance with respect
to the identified goal areas.
Step 3: Gaps - Determine gaps between goals and current performance.
Step 4: Causes - Hypothesize causes in knowledge and skills, motivation, and
organizational culture, and empirically validate which of these three is the root cause.
Steps 1, 2 and 3 were addressed in Chapter One. The following steps are discussed in Chapters
Four and Five of the dissertations and are not incorporated into this methodology chapter.
Step 5: Solutions - Plan systemic and individual gap-closing solutions.
Step 6: Implement - Implement systemic and individual gap-closing solutions.
Step 7: Evaluate - Evaluate and modify solutions for continual improvement.

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Assessment of Performance Influences
This study used the gap analysis approach to examine the root causes of the college
admissions rate gap of GLSH versus other regular high schools. The study was focused on
teachers of GLHS as the stakeholder as they are the ones that can have the largest impact on
student achievement. The analysis focused on causes for this problem due to gaps in the area of
teachers’ knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational resources. This study utilized
both surveys and interviews to assess teachers’ knowledge and skills, motivation, and
organizational resources.
In order to meet the goal of reducing the gap in college admissions rates for Seoul
National University and other top-tier universities, teachers need specific knowledge and skills.
Particularly, they need to be aware of declarative factual knowledge (knowing the current college
admission policies, curriculum revision, and students’ academic needs and intended majors),
declarative conceptual knowledge (knowing strategies of creating a positive learning
environment and students’ social and emotional needs), procedural knowledge (how to provide
an academic intervention), and metacognitive knowledge (knowing how to use data and its
subsequent review).
Successful teachers are also highly motivated. Therefore, this study assessed three types
of teachers’ motivation such as teachers’ values (valuing teachers’ changing responsibilities, a
positive learning environment, and students’ social and emotional needs), teachers’ self-efficacy
(the confidence that they can teach and support students effectively), teachers’ mood (positive
feelings about their ability to persist through barriers) and teachers’ attribution (attributing their
successes and failures to support students to their own efforts). Finally, teachers need to have
sufficient organizational support to increase students’ academic achievement and to help close

57

the gap in college admissions rates. These include resources (time to prepare for effective
instruction and professional development), policies, processes, and procedures (support
instruction), and culture (fosters a positive and supportive climate that ensures they feel a part of
the team).
Knowledge Assessment
Table 3, derived from the literature review in Chapter Two, lists the assumed knowledge
influences that affect a teacher and instructional practice.
Declarative knowledge. Teachers were asked closed-ended items for recall and
recognition of their knowledge. Closed-end items allowed for a sense of uniformity and relative
ease for scoring and analysis (Fink, 2017). Items included multiple answer questions. Teachers
were also asked open-ended questions in order to assess declarative factual knowledge. Open-
ended questions required teachers to express opinions and to summarize their current college
admission policies, curriculum revision, and their knowledge of students’ academic needs and
intended majors.
Conceptual knowledge. To assess declarative conceptual knowledge, closed-end items
included multiple answer multiple choice questions. Additionally, teachers were asked open-
ended questions in order to allow them to elaborate on concepts and to provide additional
information. According to Anderson and Krathwohl (2001), understanding is best defined as
constructing meaning from instructional messages. In the case of students’ academic
achievement, teachers are required to understand students’ social and emotional needs in
addition to strategies, principles, and models of creating a positive and student-centered learning
environment, which is essential for organizational goal achievement.
Procedural knowledge. Application refers to the ability to carry out a procedure in a

58

given situation (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). In order to assess procedural knowledge,
question items considered a teacher’s ability to apply the procedural knowledge to their
instructional practices. In the context of students’ academic achievement, teachers need to be
able to utilize strategies or principles to provide an academic intervention such as RTI for
students who need more educational support. To assess procedural knowledge, both open-ended
and closed-ended questions were included. Open- ended questions were utilized to evaluate the
steps that a teacher would use to provide prevention and early research-based intervention for
learning and behavior problems based on data. Closed-ended questions used multiple answer
multiple choice questions to assess a teacher’s ability to help students to achieve.
Metacognitive knowledge. In order to assess metacognitive knowledge, question items
addressed a teacher’s ability to reflect upon their awareness and knowledge of their own
cognition. Metacognitive knowledge encompasses strategic knowledge, knowledge about
cognitive tasks, and self-knowledge (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). In the context of instruction
for students’ academic achievement, metacognitive knowledge refers to a teacher’s ability to
reflect on the role of student performance data and their ability to link data with a variety of
factors. In order to assess metacognitive knowledge, this survey relied on both open-ended and
closed-ended questions. Open-ended questions were used to prompt teachers to think about
students’ current academic performance and problems. Multiple-choice questions were used in
order to prompt teachers to ponder and reflect their role in precisely addressing the needs of
students and the importance of their ability to understand why a particular subset of students was
struggling academically by examining a variety of data resources.
Table 5 shows the types of survey items that were used to assess teachers’ assumed
knowledge influence. The Table lists both survey and interview items built around declarative

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factual, declarative conceptual and metacognitive knowledge influences.
Table 5
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Method of Assessment
Assumed Knowledge
Influences
Survey Items Interview Items
Declarative Factual (terms,
facts, concepts)
Stakeholders need to know...
Teachers need to know the
current college admission
policies including the
important criteria for
screening in general
admission as well as special
admission.
Which of the following are the
current changes in CSAT in
2020? Check all that apply.
1. Students will choose two
subjects for social studies
and science regardless of
curriculum tracks: liberal
arts and natural sciences.*
2. 50 percent of the CSAT
questions will be based on
EBS course books.*
3. All universities including
Korea Advanced Institute
of Science and
Technology or two-year
colleges will expand the
portion of admission up to
40% based on CSAT
scores by 2022.
4. In addition to English and
national history, two more
subjects - a second
foreign language and
Chinese characters - will
be graded absolutely
starting in 2022.*
5. None of the above
What are the major
college admission criteria
in general admissions and
special admissions? Please
focus your answers on the
top 10 universities.

What is your
understanding of the
major current changes in
college admission
policies?

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Teachers need to know the
Education Revisions of
2015.
The following revisions were
made in the 2015 Revised
Curriculum. Mark all that apply.
1. The use of technology is
more emphasized in
mathematics learning in
the school field than
before. *
2. The contents of Korean,
English and math are
reduced.*
3. The educational contents
based on key concepts are
restructured and the
similar educational
contents within the same
subject or between
different subjects are
integrated. *
4. A school may
automatically organize
and operate the number of
units of courses, but
completion time should
be observed.
5. Classes can be integrated
based on the educational
contents.*
6. None of the above
What is your
understanding of the 2015
Revision? What are the
priorities and major
revisions?

Students’ academic needs
and intended majors.

Main Q: What are your
students’ academic needs
and intended majors?

Probing Q: What
strategies do you think
help teachers better
identify students’
academic needs and
intended majors?

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Declarative Conceptual
(categories, process models,
principles, relationships)
Stakeholders need to know...
Strategies, principles, and
models of creating a positive
learning environment.

Which of the following promote
a positive learning environment?
Check all that apply.
1. Limiting providing
opportunities to challenge
difficult tasks if students
are not engaged
2. Putting more weight on
support rather than on
challenge
3. Having empathic
communications with
students*
4. Encouraging students to
make own decisions that
impact their learning*
5. None of the above
Main Q: What are some of
the strategies, principles,
and models of creating a
positive learning
environment that you are
familiar with?

Probing Q: What areas in
this school would you
identify as problem areas
in regard to creating a
positive learning
environment?

Probing Q: What are your
thoughts about the impact
of a positive school
climate on supporting
student academic
performance, behavior,
and social-emotional
needs?
Which of the following promote
student academic achievement?
Check all that apply.
1. Helping students work
their way to the correct
answer themselves *
2. Correcting wrong answers
without delay and explain
in a clear way
3. Asking tough questions if
students give the correct
answer to a question *
4. Using slang words in
class to arouse students’
interest.
5. None of the above

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How to facilitate student-
centered learning.
Select all that apply:
Student-centered learning
includes:

1. Involving students in
planning, implementation,
and assessments.*
2. Limiting students’ chance
to take charge of
activities, when they may
not quite have all the
content skills.
3. Reducing teacher direct
instruction but limiting
interest-based activities.
4. Using open-ended
questioning techniques. *
5. None of the above
In what way do you embed
activities that will enhance
student-centered learning?
How to meet students’ social
and emotional needs
throughout the teaching and
testing process.

The following strategies help
teachers meet students’ social-
emotional needs. Select all that
apply:
1. Fostering supportive
relationships between
school and home*
2. Teaching students
relaxation techniques and
other appropriate ways to
reduce stress *
3. Have a predictable daily
routine with carefully
planned transitions *
4. Making discipline and
punishment clear and
applying them without
exceptions
5. None of the above
Main Q: What are your
thoughts about meeting
students’ social-emotional
needs?

Probing Q: How do you
support the development of
students’ social-emotional
needs?

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Procedural
Stakeholders need to know
how to…
How to provide an academic
intervention that can
enhance students’ academic
success (RTI)

What are the core assumptions of
RTI? Select all that apply:
1. Diagnostic test results
should be the top priority
in decision making.
2. Early intervention is
critical to preventing
problems from getting out
of control.*
3. Not only teachers but also
counselors, psychologists
and other specialists
should work as a team
when they assess students
and plan interventions.*
4. Research based
interventions should be
implemented to the extent
possible.*
5. Diagnostic test results
need to be shared among
schools to better support
students.
6. None of the above
Let’s say you have a
student who has no
academic goals with low
motivation. Please tell me
what steps you would take
in enhancing student
engagement and helping
the student find his
intended major.
Metacognitive
Teachers need to know how
to reflect on…
Their teaching practices by
using data and its
subsequent review in order
to address problems and
improve instructions.

Our school uses data to identify
areas of strength as well as areas
of concern and problem to
enhance individual student
academic achievement.

1. Strongly disagree
2. Somewhat disagree
3. Neither agree nor disagree
4. Somewhat agree
5. Strongly agree

Select all that apply.
In order to promote active
learning, I could:
1. use case-based problem
solving exercises. *
2. use classroom debate,

64

with limited opportunities
for students to choose the
topic of discussion.
3. use peer instruction
exercises.*
4. involve students in the
development of classroom
activities.*
5. None of the above

Select all that apply: To address
student problem areas and
improve student achievement, I
could use data on:

1. grades and test scores *
2. attendance records *
3. disciplinary data *
4. Peer relationships *
5. None of the above

Main Q: What data does
your school utilize to
address students’
academic or behavioral
problems?

Probing Q: How does
your school use a variety
of data to enhance
students’ performance?
*Expected answers
Motivation Assessment
Table 6 is derived from the literature review in Chapter Two and lists the assumed
motivation influences that affect teachers and their ability to support students’ academic
achievement.
Value. In order to assess value, question items addressed teachers’ values and the effect
of these values in relation to their roles in enhancing students’ academic performance. Among
three indicators that relate to motivational factors in an organization: active choice, persistence,
and mental effort (Clark & Estes, 2008), teachers’ active choice to value their new role and
responsibilities of helping students to achieve is critical. As Clark and Estes (2008) describes, it
is critical for teachers to be actively pursuing a work goal without intending on avoiding or
delaying their efforts towards it. Teachers also need to value a positive learning environment and
the social and emotional needs of students, all of which lead to students’ academic competences.

65

In order to assess value, this survey relied on both open-ended and closed-ended questions.
Open-ended questions were used for teachers to think about their changing role in the current
education system and to examine how their values drive their decisions in regards to building a
positive learning environment A closed-end Likert scale was used to prompt teachers to think
about their changing role and responsibility, a positive learning climate, the social and emotional
needs of students, teacher confidence, and instructional effectiveness.
Self-Efficacy. In this context, self-efficacy refers to a teacher’s confidence to complete a
task or performance goal, and their ability to form positive relationships with students, making a
difference in the long term (Clark & Estes, 2008; Bandura, 1999). Self-efficacy plays an
important role in building commitment to achieving an organizational goal. With a high-level of
self-efficacy in teaching practice, teachers are more likely to promote student achievement and
become more effective in achieving the organization’s goal. In order to assess self-efficacy, this
survey relied on both open-ended and closed-ended questions. Closed-end items asked teachers
to identify their own confidence levels in regard to their instruction. Teachers were also asked to
answer open-ended questions in order to allow them to elaborate on their own teaching practices.
Mood. Mood is an attitude about pursuing and achieving a goal (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Thus, a teacher’s mood about their ability will affect how they handle the task and how the
organization achieves the goal. In this context, mood is the state of being positive, pushing
through barriers and challenges in order to enhance instruction and improve students’ academic
performance. When teachers feel positive about their ability to overcome obstacles they face to
help students to achieve, they may become more effective in achieving the organization’s goal.
In order to assess mood, this survey used both open-ended and closed-ended questions.
Attribution. Attribution as defined by Schunk, Meece, and Pintrich (2008) involves the

66

perceived causes of outcomes. Attribution theory focuses on the analysis of individual’s beliefs
as to why certain events occur and the correlation of those beliefs to motivation (Anderman &
Anderman, 2006). As teachers’ attributions impact their students’ motivation and performance
(Natale et al., 2009), teachers need to have the responsibility for the student’s success and failure
and reflect on their instructional efficiency. Closed-end items were asked to prompt teachers to
think about their attribution for student success or failures.
Table 6 shows the items that were used to assess teachers’ motivational influences that
teachers need when they work to improve students’ academic achievement to meet the
organizational goal of increasing the college admissions rate. The table lists both survey and
interview items built around value, self-efficacy, mood, and attribution.
Table 6
Summary of Motivation Influences and Method of Assessment
Assumed Motivation
Influences
Survey Items Interview Items
Value
Stakeholders need to value...
Teachers’ changing role and
responsibilities.

Indicate your agreement.
I value my changing role and
responsibility for helping
students to achieve their
academic goals.
1. Strongly disagree
2. Somewhat disagree
3. Neither agree nor
disagree
4. Somewhat agree
5. Strongly agree
How do you value your
changing role and
responsibility for helping
students to achieve?

A positive learning
environment.
I attempt to make my
students feel comfortable
asking questions.

Main Q: How do you value
a positive learning
environment?

67

1. Strongly disagree
2. Somewhat disagree
3. Neither agree nor
disagree
4. Somewhat agree
5. Strongly agree
Probing Q: Can you
provide any examples of a
time when you thought
about your school or class
in terms of a positive
learning environment?
Meeting the social and
emotional needs of students
affects student academic
performance and goal
achievement.

I value meeting the social
and emotional needs of
students to promote student
performance.

1. Strongly disagree
2. Somewhat disagree
3. Neither agree nor
disagree
4. Somewhat agree
5. Strongly agree

Self-Efficacy
Stakeholders need to have
confidence that…
They can teach and support
students effectively.

Indicate how confident you
are right now in your ability
to teach and support students
effectively.
I am confident that I can
teach and support students
effectively.
1. Strongly disagree
2. Somewhat disagree
3. Neither agree nor
disagree
4. Somewhat agree
5. Strongly agree
Describe a time when you
taught and supported
students effectively.
Mood
Stakeholders need to feel
positive about…
Teachers need to feel positive
about their ability to overcome
current barriers and challenges
they may face to achieve the
organizational goal.
Overall, I am satisfied with
my job as a teacher.

1. Strongly disagree
2. Somewhat disagree
3. Neither agree nor
disagree
4. Somewhat agree
5. Strongly agree

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I feel positive about my
ability to persist through
barriers and challenges I may
face to achieve the
organizational goal.
1. Strongly disagree
2. Somewhat disagree
3. Neither agree nor
disagree
4. Somewhat agree
5. Strongly agree

Main Q: Describe your
feelings towards your
ability to persist through
barriers and challenges you
may face to enhance
students’ academic
performance and achieve
your school’s goal.
Probing Q: In what ways
do you or do you not feel
positive about your ability
to persist through barriers
and challenges you may
face to enhance students’
academic performance and
achieve your school’s goal?

What barriers to improve
your school climate would
you identify, and what
makes these barriers?
Attribution
Teachers attribute their success
or failure to support students to
their own efforts.
My success or failure in
supporting students is due to
my own efforts.

1. Strongly disagree
2. Somewhat disagree
3. Neither agree nor
disagree
4. Somewhat agree
5. Strongly agree

Organization/Culture/Context Assessment
Table 7 is derived from the literature review in Chapter Two and lists the assumed
organizational influences that affect teachers in order to improve students’ academic

69

performance to meet the organizational goal of increasing the college admissions rate.
Resources. In order to assess organizational barriers, question items addressed a
teacher’s access to resources. Organizational resources include access to funding, staffing, and
physical space (Clark & Estes, 2008). In the context of teachers, resources would be time and
professional development. Teachers who are interested in developing and implementing
programs that help students prepare for individualized college exams would be offered release
time by the organization. In addition, teachers who are interested in increasing their knowledge
would be offered the funds to pay for professional development. In order to account for resources
that teachers need, open-ended questions were used to prompt teachers to elaborate on how much
access they have to needed resources. Closed-ended questions were utilized on the survey
portion.
Policies, Process, and Procedures. Policies, processes, and procedures refer to systems
that are put in place in the organization in order to facilitate the work of the employees (Clark &
Estes, 2008). In the context of this study, policies refer to education code or the school district’s
policies. Processes may refer to district processes as well as those in place at the site. In addition,
procedures refer to the established methods for accomplishing the organization’s tasks. When
teachers feel that policies, processes, and procedures support their instruction in a manner that
are supportive of implementing effective academic interventions and instructional practices, they
are working within an environment that supports their ability to enhance students’ performance.
In order to assess policies, processes, and procedures, open-ended items were used to prompt
teachers to elaborate on their level of beliefs that policies, processes, and procedures align with
those of the district and facilitate and support their instructional practice. Multiple choice and
multiple answer questions were asked on the survey portion.

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Culture. Culture refers to an organization’s core values, goals, beliefs, emotions, and
processes (Clark & Estes, 2008). In the context of the school environment, one example is when
a school creates a positive and supportive climate that ensures teachers feel a part of the team. To
assess culture, open-ended items were used to prompt teachers to elaborate and reflect on their
level of beliefs that the school culture is supportive of positive relationships among and between
all school stakeholders and students. Multiple choice and multiple answer questions were asked
on the survey portion.
Table 7 shows the types of survey and interview items that were used to assess teachers’
organizational barriers. The Table lists both survey and interview items built around resources,
policies, processes, and procedures, and culture.
Table 7
Summary of Organization Influences and Method of Assessment
Assumed Organization
Influences
Survey Items Interview Items
Resources (time; finances;
people)
Teachers need time to
implement programs that help
students prepare for
individualized college exams
including extracurricular
activities that compliment
students’ intended majors.
Indicate your agreement.
I have time to create lessons
and implement programs that
meet students’ academic
needs and help students
prepare for individualized
college exams.
1. Strongly disagree
2. Somewhat disagree
3. Neither agree nor
disagree
4. Somewhat agree
5. Strongly agree
Describe the resources
(such as time, funds, and or
PD) you have to improve
your teaching and facilitate
implementation of
academic programs.

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Teachers need funds for
professional development to
increase their knowledge.

I have funds to engage in
professional development to
improve instructional practice
and better support student
achievement.

1. Strongly disagree
2. Somewhat disagree
3. Neither agree nor
disagree
4. Somewhat agree
5. Strongly agree

My school provides various
data sources and professional
development opportunities so
that teachers can use and
analyze objective data to
improve student achievement.

1. Strongly disagree
2. Somewhat disagree
3. Neither agree nor
disagree
4. Somewhat agree
5. Strongly agree
Describe the professional
development opportunities
you have participated with
regard to student academic
achievement.

In what areas would you
like to receive professional
development?

Policies, Processes, &
Procedures
Stakeholders need to feel that
policies, processes, and
procedures support their
instruction and enhance
student achievement.
My school’s policies align
with the district goal of
improving student academic
performance.

1. Strongly disagree
2. Somewhat disagree
3. Neither agree nor
disagree
4. Somewhat agree
5. Strongly agree

I believe that the school
policies, processes, and
procedures support the
implementation of effective
instruction.

1. Strongly disagree
In what ways do you or do
you not feel that your school
and/or district procedures
support your instruction to
help students achieve?

What are the barriers in your
school policies, processes,
and procedures, if any, that
prevent effective teaching
and learning?

What additional school
policies, processes, and
procedures that relate to
instructional practices would
you like to see
implemented?

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2. Somewhat disagree
3. Neither agree nor
disagree
4. Somewhat agree
5. Strongly agree

My school provides diverse
extracurricular activities that
help students achieve their
goals.

1. Strongly disagree
2. Somewhat disagree
3. Neither agree nor
disagree
4. Somewhat agree
5. Strongly agree

My school provides students
with the opportunity to
explore various occupational
pathways.

1. Strongly disagree
2. Somewhat disagree
3. Neither agree nor
disagree
4. Somewhat agree
5. Strongly agree

My school is actively
developing a revised
curriculum and a changed
way of instruction to adapt to
2015 curriculum reform.

1. Strongly disagree
2. Somewhat disagree
3. Neither agree nor
disagree
4. Somewhat agree
5. Strongly agree

I am familiar with the school
policies, processes, and
procedures that relate to the

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implementation of effective
instruction.

1. Strongly disagree
2. Somewhat disagree
3. Neither agree nor
disagree
4. Somewhat agree
5. Strongly agree
Culture
Teachers need to be in a
culture that creates a positive
and supportive climate that
ensures they feel a part of the
team.
The culture of my school
creates positive and
supportive relationships
among school stakeholders
and students.
1. Strongly disagree
2. Somewhat disagree
3. Neither agree nor
disagree
4. Somewhat agree
5. Strongly agree
To what extent does your
school’s culture enhance
positive relationships
among all school
stakeholders and students?
In what ways could your
school improve its culture
to build positive
relationships between
teachers and students?

Participating Stakeholders and Sample Selection
The stakeholder group of focus for this study was teachers of a regular high school in
South Korea. The regular high schools in this study are traditional non-autonomous schools that
do not belong to the elite schools such as science, foreign language, international, and art
specialty high schools, the autonomous private high schools, and schools for gifted students.
The survey population included 28 teachers employed and working at GLHS for more than three
years. Three years was selected as the criteria because GLHS does not assign homeroom teachers’
roles to those who are newly hired and in their first year of teaching. As high school homeroom
teachers play critical roles in the college preparation and application process, it is important to
include teachers who have experience as a homeroom teacher in the survey. In addition, teachers
in their second year of teaching start working as homeroom teachers who take important roles in

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helping students achieve their college goals. However, because it might be their first year of
being in charge of class, most teachers in their second year will not have the opportunity to not
only fully consider their teaching strategies and students’ social and emotional needs but to
address organizational problems in regard to deeply-rooted low teacher morale and student
achievement. Thus, the survey was conducted targeting only teachers employed and working at
GLHS for more than three years in order to increase the validity of survey data.
Sampling
All 32 of the teachers were invited to participate in the survey via email between
September 9
th
and September 23
rd
in 2019. At the end of the survey, teachers were asked to click
on a link that sent respondents to another screen to capture their names and contact information if
they would be willing to participate in an interview. Five teachers were randomly selected from
the list in order to mitigate selection bias.
Recruitment
For the purpose of this study, the researcher sent an email invitation directly to the
participant pool for both the survey and interview portions. The participants completed the
survey online using Qualtrics. For the interview, a Skype Video Interview was used in a face-to-
face setting.
Instrumentation and Data Collection
The instrumentation used for this study consisted of an on-line survey sent to participants
and an interview protocol. Survey items were built from the Tables listed above in Chapter Three
and Qualtrics was used. The second instrument used for this study was a face-to-face semi-
structured interview protocol.

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Survey Design and Data Collection
Twenty seven survey items were designed to validate the assumed causes of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational barriers derived from the lists in Tables 5, 6, and 7. Survey items
designed around knowledge were based on a multiple-choice format and assess a respondent's
awareness of declarative factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive factors related to
improving student achievement. Survey items designed to assess motivation and organizational
influences used a five-response Likert scale. Some items are based on (a) strongly disagree; (b)
somewhat disagree; (c) neither agree nor disagree; (d) somewhat agree; (e) strongly agree.
Qualtrics maintained confidentiality and no identification of the survey respondents was
collected. For confidentiality purposes, anonymous data were collected without identifiers. Data
were backed up and saved on a computer that is password protected. The survey questionnaire
can also be found in Appendix A.
Interview Protocol Design and Data Collection
Nineteen interview questions were designed derived from the Tables listed in Chapter
Three. The interview questions were developed to reflect on the respondents’ own practices
improving student achievement, with other topics explored at the interviewer’s discretion to
allow for deeper probing. Participants were all district employees with more than three years of
teaching experience in Golden Lake High School (GLHS). The one-to-one interviews were
conducted, recorded, and transcribed by a single interviewer. All interview materials and notes
were locked up in a secured location. The interview questions can also be found in Appendix B.
Data Collection
Following University of Southern California Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval,
participants were solicited by the vice-principal and the teaching director of the school to

76

participate in the survey. The researcher provided the teaching director with an email which
included a link that would allow respondents to access and complete a survey and participate in
an interview.
Surveys
The survey was delivered to 32 teachers of Golden Lake High School (GLHS) by email
in October 2019. The survey was in the field for two weeks from the date of their distribution,
with a reminder on the 7th day and the 14th day. In the survey instructions, participants were
notified that respondents’ identifiers would remain anonymous. Data were collected and backed
up and saved on a computer that is password protected.
Interviews
The interviews were conducted using Skype and were arranged at participants’
convenience for the interviews. The interviews lasted approximately 40 minutes. At the end of
the survey, a link, which captured participants’ names and contact information, was provided to
give participants the option to self-select into the interview process. From the compiled interview
list, five participants were randomly selected for the interviews. Before starting the interviews,
the researcher requested that the interview be recorded to ensure accuracy of data and conduct
the interviews with no proxy. After the interviews, participants were thanked for their
participation.
Data Analysis
For surveys, descriptive statistics such as mean and standard deviation scores were used
to analyze the data gathered from surveys. In order to validate the assumed influences of
knowledge, motivation, and organization, quantitative data were triangulated by using the
interview data to increase credibility and quality of the survey results. In addition, member

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checking was used to solicit feedback on preliminary findings from the people interviewed in
order to identify the researcher’s own bias and to ensure internal validity (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016).
For interviews, qualitative data were collected through semi-structured interviews.
Interviews were coded in order for data to be sorted into categories that represented the areas of
knowledge and skills, motivation, and organization. These data were used to formulate
recommendations along with the data collected from the surveys.
Trustworthiness of Data
In order to maintain the credibility and trustworthiness of this study, the identities of the
individuals who participated in this study were protected. In addition, member checks were used
to solicit feedback on preliminary or emerging findings from the interview participants and better
capture their perspectives (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). With regard to confidentiality of data, all
data was backed up and saved on a computer with a password and interview transcripts were
locked up in a secure location.
Role of Investigator
The investigator in this study is the author of this study. As such, the investigator
obtained permission from the IRB at the University of Southern California in order to ensure the
validity of the study and protect the confidentiality of the participants. The investigator
responded to all requests for information or materials solicited by the IRB and conducted the
study in accordance with IRB-approved research protocol.
Limitations
The limitations of this study are the size of the study, the limited time frame of the study,
limited access, and cultural or other biases. A longer term study of teachers’ practices would

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have further explored if there is a change in a teacher’s knowledge, motivation, and perceived
organizational influences through responses to survey and interview items. The study consisted
of self-selected teachers at Golden Lake High School. Due to the nature of the study, looking at
potential biases of teachers, there was a possibility that respondents were not entirely
forthcoming with information, though measures to evoke trustworthiness were built into the
survey. Finally, there are relational limitations. Some teachers at Golden Lake High School did
not elect to be part of the study and may not participate in subsequent professional development
training which may be developed from the study.

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CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS

The purpose of this chapter is to report the findings from data collected related to the
knowledge, motivation and organizational barriers leading to low college entrance rates to
prestigious universities of regular high schools in Korea. Multiple sources of quantitative and
qualitative data were collected to assess the assumed KMO causes identified in Chapters Two
and Three. Specifically, survey and interview data were collected to understand the knowledge,
motivation, and organization challenges teachers encounter to teach and support students
effectively. The results have been organized into corresponding assumed knowledge, motivation,
and organization categories.
Participating Stakeholders

The stakeholders for this study were 28 teachers employed and working at Golden Lake
High School for more than three years. Four teachers had served for 3-5 years; nine had served
from 6-10 years; seven had served 11-15 years; seven had served for 16-20 years; and one had
served for 21years or more.
Thirty-two surveys were distributed, with 28 completed, representing an 88% return rate.
In addition to the quantitative survey, five GLHS teachers were interviewed to gain a more in-
depth understanding of the perceived causes for the gaps in knowledge and skills, motivation,
and organization culture.
Data Validation

This study utilized two sources of data: surveys and interviews. In order to validate the
assumed causes, the assumed KMO causes were first assessed using a survey. Chapter Three
contains a discussion of assumed causes and a description of the survey. This survey was
administered using Qualtrics software. Twenty-eight participants answered the survey and five of

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these 28 participants took time to participate in an hour-long interview, which was recorded and
transcribed. The survey results provided data to assess the assumed knowledge, motivation, and
organization influences. Each survey item was analyzed individually. The criteria used to
validate the presence of a gap were as follows. For survey items where participants were asked to
“mark all that apply”, results less than 80% choosing the correct answer indicated a need. In
addition, survey results on a Likert Scale with less than 80% agreement indicated a need.
Interview data was used to confirm or challenge survey results. Each interview item was
transcribed and analyzed as they applied to assumed needs. Interview responses were collected
until saturation was reached for the majority of responses. In most cases themes emerged through
interview responses. If interview responses varied to a high degree it was assumed that saturation
could not be met. When four out of five participants met an assumed cause with agreement, that
cause is determined as an asset. In some cases where a gap appeared in either the survey
evidence or the interview evidence, the evidence that appeared most compelling determined
whether the assumed cause was validated or not. For example, the survey data might validate an
influence as a need, but the interview may indicate that there appeared to be an asset. In this case,
the interview responses were considered to be capable of confirming an issue if all interviewees
provided relevant examples.
Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes
GLHS Teachers’ knowledge and skills were assessed by surveys and interviews. In order to
meet the goal of closing the gap in elite college admissions, teachers of GLHS need to examine
their knowledge and skill. The results are presented for each assumed cause within the categories
of declarative factual knowledge, conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge, and

81

metacognitive knowledge. These results are used to assess whether an assumed cause should be
considered as a need.
Factual Knowledge
Influence 1. Teachers know what the current changes in CSAT in 2020 are.
Survey results. Teachers were asked to identify the current changes in CSAT in 2020 out
of a list of four changes. The accuracy in identifying the changes of CSAT in 2020 ranged from
28.57% for one item to 67.85% for one item, which indicates that not all teachers are completely
aware of what the current changes are. As seen from Table 8, the correct choices one, two, and
four were selected by 67.85%, 50%, and 28.57% of respondents respectively. Only 28.57% of
the teachers responded correctly that two more subjects such as a second foreign language and
Chinese characters will be graded absolutely starting in 2022, which indicates that most teachers
are not sure of the changes in grading standards in two foreign languages. As teachers of GLHS
did not actually meet the 80% threshold for three of the four changes in CSAT in 2020 that were
correct, this influence is determined in the survey as a need. See Table 8.
Table 8
Survey Results for Factual Knowledge of the Current Changes in CSAT in 2020
# 1 Factual Knowledge Item (n = 28) Percentage Count
Which of the following are the current changes in CSAT in 2020?
Check all that apply.

1 Students will choose two subjects for social studies and science
regardless of curriculum tracks: liberal arts and natural sciences.*
67.85% 19
2 50 percent of the CSAT questions will be based on EBS course
books.*
50.00% 14
3 All universities including Korea Advanced Institute of Science and
Technology or two-year colleges will expand the portion of
7.14% 2

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admission up to 40% based on CSAT scores by 2022.
4 In addition to English and national history, two more subjects - a
second foreign language and Chinese characters - will be graded
absolutely starting in 2022.*
28.57% 8
5 None of the above 17.85% 5
*Expected answers

Interview findings. Participants were asked, “What are the major college admission
criteria in general admissions and special admissions?” There was a variety of understanding
among the participants interviewed regarding their factual knowledge of the current changes in
CSAT in 2020. Participant 1 demonstrated a precise awareness by saying, “In 2020, the
percentage of the CSAT questions linked to EBS course books will be reduced from 70% to
50%.” However, regarding the rest of the changes in CSAT, the responses were all incorrect.
Participant 3 said, “In addition to English and national history, only a second foreign language
will be graded absolutely starting in 2022”, which is not an expected response. Three out of five
participants answered correctly that “students will choose two subjects for social studies and
science regardless of curriculum tracks: liberal arts and natural sciences.”
In addition, participants were asked, “What is your understanding of the major current
changes in college admission policies?” Participant 4 said that teachers have to keep checking
admission plans of each university because they change a little bit every year.” However, three
out of five participants did not demonstrate any knowledge of the key admission policies of top
six universities. All participants stated that it might be difficult for teachers to know all the
changes in CSAT in 2022 unless they recently were and/or are currently in charge of 12th
graders.

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Responses of all five participants show their partial factual knowledge of the essential
changes in CSAT starting in 2022 with a lack of a clear understanding of the need to know them
clearly. In regard to the major current changes in college admission policies, all participants did
not know precisely the recent key admission plans of top six universities in Korea. Thus, this is
considered for improvement.
Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.

Document analysis. Document Analysis was not conducted for this influence.

Summary. Based on the survey findings and the interview responses, the assumed
influence that teachers know the current changes in CSAT in 2020 was determined as a need.
Influence 2. Teachers know what the revisions made in the 2015 Revised
Curriculum are.
Survey results. Teachers were asked to identify the revisions made in the 2015 Revised
Curriculum out of a list of five revisions. The accuracy in identifying the revisions ranged from
35.71% for one item to 64.29% for one item. As shown by Table 9, 64.29% of respondents
correctly acknowledged that classes can be integrated based on the educational contents in the
2015 Revised Curriculum. In regard to three other correct choices, the correct responses ranged
from 35.71% to 46.43%, which indicates that most teachers are not aware of the important
revisions made in the 2015 Revised Curriculum. Teachers of GLHS failed to meet the 80%
threshold for all four of the five changes in the 2015 Revised Curriculum that were correct. In
order to be determined as an asset, all four of the components were required to meet the 80%
threshold. Therefore, this influence is determined in the survey as a need. See Table 9.

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Table 9
Survey Results for Factual Knowledge of the 2015 Revised Curriculum
# 2 Factual Knowledge Item (n = 28) Percentage Count
The following revisions were made in the 2015 Revised
Curriculum. Check all that apply.

1 The use of technology is more emphasized in mathematics
learning in the school field than before. *
35.71% 10
2 The contents of Korean, English and math are reduced.* 42.86% 12
3 The educational contents based on key concepts are restructured
and the similar educational contents within the same subject or
between different subjects are integrated. *
46.43% 13
4 A school may automatically organize and operate the number of
units of courses, but completion time should be observed.
32.14% 9
5 Classes can be integrated based on the educational contents.* 64.29% 18
6 None of the above 3.57% 1
*Expected answers

Interview findings. Participants were asked, “What are the revisions made in the 2015
Revised Curriculum?” Participant 2 said, “Classes can be integrated based on the educational
contents, which means additional work. Most teachers do not like the idea.” Participant 3 said,
“the educational contents based on key concepts are restructured. Therefore, the content that
students need to study will be increased.” Participant 5 said, “Don’t know.” Overall, all
participants showed lack of awareness of the key revisions made in the 2015 Revised Curriculum.
Hence, this cause is considered for improvement.
Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.

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Document analysis. Document Analysis was not conducted for this influence.

Summary. Based on the survey findings and the interview responses, the assumed
influence that teachers know the 2015 Revised Curriculum is determined as a need.
Influence 3. Teachers know what students’ academic needs and intended majors are.
Survey results. Surveys were not conducted for this influence.
Interview findings. Participants were asked, “What are your students’ academic needs
and intended majors and what strategies you think help teachers better identify students’
academic needs and intended majors?” Participant 1, who teaches math, stated, “ I counsel
students with current academic performance and behavioral problems semesterly as planned by
school and additionally if needed. For students who have hard time learning, I usually spend
lunch time checking in on student learning progress.” Participant 3 and 4, who were in charge of
12th graders for more than 5 years, asserted, “ as you know, we, homeroom teachers in Korea,
play many roles; acting as counselors, administrators, and disciplinarians. As students make their
transition to college, understanding students’ academic needs and intended majors is one of our
highest priorities.” Overall, all participants showed awareness of students’ academic needs and
intended majors are. Hence, this cause is considered an asset.
Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.
Document analysis. Document Analysis was not conducted for this influence.

Summary. Based on the interview findings, teachers of GLHS know students’ academic
needs, intended majors, and strategies to identify them. Hence this influence is considered an
asset.

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Conceptual Knowledge
Influence 1. Teachers know what strategies of promoting a positive learning
environment are.
Survey results. Teachers were asked to identify strategies of promoting a positive
learning environment out of a list of five strategies. The accuracy in identifying the strategies
ranged from 74.07% for one item to 81.49% for one item. As shown by Table 10, 70.37% of
participants somewhat agreed that they would limit providing opportunities to challenge difficult
tasks if students are not engaged, which indicates that most teachers do not have the correct
knowledge of how to encourage disengaged students to learn better. In addition, 81.49% of
respondents showed agreement with the statement that having empathic communications with
students can promote a positive learning environment, which indicates that nearly all respondents
are aware that having empathic communications with students is essential to improve student
achievement. Overall, as only one of the two components was above the 80% threshold for
questions that asked respondents to respond to a prompt using a Likert Scale, this influence is
determined in the survey as a need. See Table 10.
Table 10
Survey Results for Declarative Conceptual Knowledge of Promoting a Positive Learning
Environment
# 3

Please rate the following statements on the scale: Strongly Disagree, Somewhat Disagree,
Neither Disagree or Agree, Somewhat Agree, Strongly Agree
1 Declarative Conceptual Knowledge Item
(n =27 )

Which of the following promote a positive
learning environment? Check all that apply.
Somewhat or
Strongly
Disagree.
Neither

Somewhat or
Strongly Agree
*Expected

Count
2 Limiting providing opportunities to 29.63% 8 70.37% 19 27

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challenge difficult tasks if students are not
engaged
3 Putting more weight on support rather than
on challenge
48.15% 13 51.85% 14 27
4 Having empathic communications with
students*
18.52% 5 81.49% 22 27
5 Encouraging students to make own
decisions that impact their learning*
25.92% 7 74.07% 20 27
* Strategies of promoting a positive learning environment

Interview findings. Participants were asked, “What are some of the strategies, principles,
and models of creating a positive learning environment that you are familiar with?” In response,
Participant 1 said, “Six or seven out of 10 students in my math class look unmotivated and bored,
but it is hard for teachers to spend time to encourage every student to engage in class. We are
always out of time. That’s the reality in a regular high school.” Participant 4 noted, “All teachers
might know the importance of creating a positive learning environment by challenging difficult
tasks and helping them learn at their own pace, but it is a theoretical possibility in multi-level
classrooms at a regular high school.”
The responses from all five participants indicated that they seemed to know the
importance of fostering a positive learning environment. However, they did not have their own
specific strategies of promoting a positive learning environment. Thus, this influence is
considered for improvement.
Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.

Document analysis. Document Analysis was not conducted for this influence.

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Summary. Based on the survey and interview findings, this assumed influence should be
considered a declarative conceptual knowledge gap and is determined as a need.
Influence 2. Teachers know what strategies of promoting student academic
achievement are.
Survey results. Teachers were asked to identify strategies of promoting student academic
achievement out of a list of five strategies. The accuracy in identifying the strategies ranged from
32.14% for one item to 39.29% for one item, which indicates that most teachers are not aware of
the strategies that they need to use in order to promote student academic achievement. However,
75% of participants incorrectly acknowledged that they need to empathize with students by
informing them that the task might be unpleasant, boring or difficult when teaching challenging
material. Overall, teachers of GLHS did not meet the 80% threshold for two strategies of
promoting student academic achievement that were correct. To be determined as an asset, both
components were required to meet the 80% threshold. Therefore, this influence is determined in
the survey as a need. See Table 11.
Table 11
Survey Results for Declarative Conceptual Knowledge of Promoting Student Academic
Achievement
# 4 Declarative Conceptual Knowledge Item (n = 28) Percentage Count
Which of the following promote student academic achievement?
Check all that apply.

1 Helping students work their way to the correct answer themselves
*
32.14% 9
2 Correcting wrong answers without delay and explain in a clear 35.71% 10

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way
3 Asking tough questions if students give the correct answer to a
question *
39.29% 11
4 Using slang words in class to arouse students’ interest 35.71% 10
5 When teaching challenging material, empathizing with students by
informing them that the task might be unpleasant, boring or
difficult
75.0% 21
*Expected answers

Interview findings. Interviews were not conducted for this influence.

Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.

Document analysis. Document Analysis was not conducted for this influence.

Summary. Based on the survey findings, this cause is recommended for improvement.
Overall, teachers showed lack of conceptual awareness of helping students to become
independent learners and achieve their academic goals. Specifically, the areas of improvement
relate to knowledge given a far below threshold rating for helping students work their way to the
correct answer themselves (32.14%) and asking tough questions if students give the correct
answer to a question (39.29%). All participants did not have precise knowledge of using
questioning as scaffolding to independent learning. In addition, results from the survey and
interviews indicated that improvement is also recommended in the aspect of when and how to
empathize with students in class in order to enhance student academic achievement.
Influence 3. Teachers know what strategies of principles and models of facilitating
student-centered learning are.

90

Survey results. Teachers were asked to identify student-centered learning strategies out of
a list of four strategies. The accuracy in identifying the strategies ranged from 67.86% for one
item to 71.43% for one item. 67.86% of participants responded correctly that involving students
in planning, implementation, and assessments can facilitate student-centered learning. In addition,
71.43% acknowledged that student-centered learning strategies require using open-ended
questioning techniques. However, teachers of GLHS failed to meet the 80% threshold for two
strategies of facilitating student-centered learning that were correct. To be determined as an
asset, both components were required to meet the 80% threshold. Therefore, this influence is
determined in the survey as a need. See Table 12.
Table 12
Survey Results for Declarative Conceptual Knowledge of Facilitating Student-Centered
Learning
# 5 Declarative Conceptual Knowledge Item (n =28) Percentage Count
Student-centered learning includes:
Check all that apply.

1 Involving students in planning, implementation, and assessments.* 67.86% 19
2 Limiting students’ chance to take charge of activities, when they
may not quite have all the content skills.
7.14% 2
3 Reducing teacher direct instruction but limiting interest-based
activities.
10.71% 3
4 Using open-ended questioning techniques. * 71.43% 20
5 None of the above 3.57% 1
*Expected answers

Interview findings. Participants were asked, “In what way do you embed activities that
will enhance student-centered learning? Participant 1, who has 27 years of teaching experience,

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stated, “ Over the past 10 years, reducing teacher-centered instruction has been highlighted in
education, and I also believe that it is one of the most important teaching strategies that can
motivate students. I have tried to include as many group activities as possible to involve students
in the learning process, but my students didn’t seem engaged. Some students even asked me
during group activities if we had enough time to complete the lesson before the midterm exam.”
Participant 2 and 5 indicated that student-centered learning required increasing student
engagement in learning. However, all five participants indicated that there were certainly limits
to not only involving students in planning, implementation, and assessments, but also using
open-ended questioning techniques because there is lots of content to be covered within 50
minutes. They further stated that they were put under too much pressure to meet curriculum and
assessment needs based on district-mandated tests.
Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.
Document analysis. Document Analysis was not conducted for this influence.

Summary. Based on the survey and interview findings, the assumed influence that teachers
have a conceptual knowledge of enhancing student-centered learning is determined as a need.
Influence 4. Teachers know what strategies of meeting students’ social and emotional
needs throughout the teaching and testing process are.
Survey results. Teachers were asked to identify strategies of meeting students’ social and
emotional needs throughout the teaching and testing process out of a list of four strategies. The
accuracy in identifying the strategies ranged from 67.86% for one item to 78.57% for one item.
Teachers of GLHS came close to the 80% threshold for only one of the three strategies of
meeting students’ social and emotional needs throughout the teaching and testing process that
were correct. A total of 78.57% of the teachers responded correctly that fostering supportive

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relationships between school and home is crucial for teachers to meet students’ social-emotional
needs. However, the respondents failed to meet the 80% threshold for three strategies of meeting
students’ social and emotional needs that were correct. In order to be determined as an asset, all
three components were required to meet the 80% threshold. Therefore, this influence is
determined in the survey as a need. See Table 13.
Table 13
Survey Results for Declarative Conceptual Knowledge of Meeting Students’ Social and
Emotional Needs
# 6 Declarative Conceptual Knowledge Item (n =28 ) Percentage Count
The following strategies help teachers meet students’ social-
emotional needs. Select all that apply

1 Fostering supportive relationships between school and home* 78.57% 22
2 Teaching students relaxation techniques and other appropriate
ways to reduce stress *
67.86% 19
3 Have a predictable daily routine with carefully planned transitions
*
75.0% 21
4 Making discipline and punishment clear and applying them
without exceptions
7.14% 2
5 None of the above 0 % 0
*Expected answers

Interview findings. Participants were asked, “What are your thoughts about meeting
students’ social-emotional needs?” All participants indicated that it was crucial to maintain
supportive relationships between school and home. Participants 1 further stated, “I teach students
efficient ways to reduce stress. For example, all my students do a 10-minute meditation every
morning.” All five participants had awareness of how to support the development of students’
social-emotional needs. Participant 5 indicated that they set academic and behavior goals at the

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beginning of the school year and have a predictable daily routine with carefully planned
transitions.
Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.

Document analysis. Document Analysis was not conducted for this influence.

Summary. The assumed influence that teachers have conceptual awareness of how to
meet students’ social-emotional needs was determined to be a need in the survey results; however,
the influence was determined to be an asset in the interview responses. The correct responses in the
survey results nearly met the 80% threshold. Conversely, 100% of interview participants knew and
gave examples of multiple ways to assess students’ social-emotional needs. Therefore, this influence
is determined to be an asset.
Procedural Knowledge
Influence 1. Teachers know strategies of how to provide an academic intervention
that can enhance students’ academic success (RTI).
Survey results. Teachers were asked to identify strategies of how to provide an academic
intervention that can enhance students’ academic success out of a list of five strategies. The
accuracy in identifying the strategies related to response to intervention (RTI) ranged from 17.86%
for one item to 89.29% for one item. A total of 89.29% of the teachers responded correctly that
teachers, counselors, psychologists and other specialists should work as a team when they assess
students and plan interventions, which indicates that most teachers are aware of the aspect of an
academic intervention to improve students’ academic achievement. In contrast, only 17.86% of
participants responded correctly that early intervention is critical to preventing problems from
getting out of control, which indicates that most teachers are not sure of the best possible strategy
from the options. In addition, 21.43% of participants responded correctly that research based

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interventions should be implemented to the extent possible, which demonstrates that most
teachers are not aware of the core assumptions of RTI. As Teachers of GLHS did not meet the
80% threshold for two of the three RTI strategies that were correct, this influence is determined
in the survey as a need. See Table 14.
Table 14
Survey Results for Procedural Knowledge of RTI
# 7 Procedural Knowledge Item (n =28 ) Percentage Count
What are the core assumptions of RTI? Select all that apply.
1 Diagnostic test results should be a top priority in decision making. 3.57% 1
2 Early intervention is critical to preventing problems from getting
out of control.*
17.86% 5
3 Not only teachers but also counselors, psychologists and other
specialists should work as a team when they assess students and
plan interventions.*
89.29% 25
4 Research based interventions should be implemented to the extent
possible.*
21.43% 6
5 Diagnostic test results need to be shared among schools to better
support students.
53.57% 15
6 None of the above. 3.57% 1
*Expected answers

Interview findings. Participants were asked, “If you have a student who has no academic
goals with low motivation, what steps would you take in enhancing student engagement and
helping the student find his intended major?”
Participant 1, who teaches Korean language, stated, “ I always try to help students who
struggle and have a hard time learning using one-hour lunch time every day. For about 20
minutes, I can check in on student progress, monitor things. But most importantly, I believe

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having personal instruction sessions on a regular basis helps identify and support students with
learning and behavior needs.” Participant 3 asserted, “counselors, psychologists and other
specialists should help teachers and work as a team when assessing students and planning
interventions… but many people still believe that it is teachers’ sole responsibility to assess and
provide appropriate interventions.” When prompted to explain the concept of RTI, the response
by all five participants was, “it might be helpful if we can share diagnostic test results among
schools to better support students.” As all participants showed lack of awareness of the
importance of providing research-based intervention and the precise knowledge of RTI, this
influence is recommended for improvement.
Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.

Document analysis. Document Analysis was not conducted for this influence.

Summary. Based on the survey and interview findings, the assumed influence that
teachers know the core assumptions of RTI and the steps to provide an academic intervention
that can enhance students’ academic success was determined as a need.
Metacognitive Knowledge

Influence 1. Teachers know if the school uses data to address students’ academic
problems and enhance individual student academic achievement.
Survey results. Teachers were asked to rate the level of their agreement for Golden Lake
High School’s using data to enhance individual student academic achievement. Only 55.55% of
teachers agreed that GLHS uses data to identify strengths and problems to improve student
academic achievement. In order to be determined as an asset, the level of agreement was
required to meet the 80% threshold for questions that asked respondents to respond to a prompt

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using a Likert Scale. Therefore, this influence is determined in the survey as a need. See Table
15.
Table 15

Survey Results for Metacognitive Knowledge of How the School Uses Data

# 8 Metacognitive Knowledge Item (n = 27) Percentage Count
Our school uses data to identify areas of strength as well as areas
of concern and problem to enhance individual student academic
achievement.

1 Strongly disagree 0 % 0
2 Somewhat disagree 11.11% 3
3 Neither agree nor disagree 33.33% 9
4 Somewhat agree * 40.74% 11
5 Strongly agree * 14.81% 4
*Expected answers

Interview findings. Interviews were not conducted for this influence.

Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.

Document analysis. Document Analysis was not conducted for this influence.

Summary. Based on the survey findings, the assumed influence that teachers know if the
school uses data to address students’ academic problems and enhance individual student
academic achievement was determined to be a need.
Influence 2. Teachers know strategies of how to promote active learning.
Survey results. Teachers were asked to identify strategies of promoting active learning
out of a list of four strategies. The accuracy in identifying the strategies ranged from 53.57% for
one item to 82.14% for one item. The correct choices one, three, and four were selected by

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64.29%, 82.14%, and 53.57% of respondents respectively. Teachers of GLHS met the 80%
threshold for only one of the three correct strategies responding that they could use peer
instruction exercises, which indicates that most teachers are aware of the importance of using
peer instruction exercises to enhance active learning. In order to be determined as an asset, all
three components were required to meet the 80% threshold. Therefore, this influence is
determined in the survey as a need. See Table 16.
Table 16
Survey Results for Metacognitive Knowledge of Promoting Active Learning
# 9 Metacognitive Knowledge Item (n =28 ) Percentage Count
In order to promote active learning, I could:
1 Use case-based problem solving exercises. * 64.29% 18
2

Use classroom debate, with limited opportunities for students to
choose the topic of discussion.
25.0% 7
3 Use peer instruction exercises.* 82.14% 23
4 Involve students in the development of classroom activities.* 53.57% 15
5 None of the above 0% 0
*Expected answers

Interview findings. Interviews were not conducted for this influence.

Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.

Document analysis. Document Analysis was not conducted for this influence.

Summary. Based on the survey findings, the assumed influence that teachers know
strategies on how to promote active learning was determined to be a need. Considering the
expected choices that received less than 60% result, there is a need for additional training for

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teachers on involving students in the development of classroom activities to enhance active
learning.
Influence 3. Teachers know what data they need to use to address student problem
areas and improve student achievement.
Survey results. Teachers were asked to identify data that they need to address student
problem areas and improve student achievement out of a list of four data. Responses to this
question were widely varied. The accuracy in identifying the correct data ranged from 21.43%
for one item to 85.71% for one item. Teachers of GLHS came close to the 80% threshold for
peer relationships (78.57%) out of the four to improve students’ academic achievement that were
correct. The respondents met the 80% threshold for one data: grades and test scores. Specifically,
21.43% and 53.57% of participants stated that they would use disciplinary data and attendance
records respectively to address student problem areas and improve student achievement. The
wide range of responses falls below the 80% threshold, which indicates that most teachers are
not aware of what data they need to use to help students enhance their performances. In order to
be determined as an asset, all four components were required to meet the 80% threshold.
Therefore, this influence is determined in the survey as a need. See Table 17.
Table 17

Survey Results for Metacognitive Knowledge of Using Data

# 10 Metacognitive Knowledge Item (n = 28) Percentage Count
To address student problem areas and improve student
achievement, I could use data on:

1 grades and test scores * 85.71% 24
2 attendance records * 53.57% 15
3 disciplinary data * 21.43% 6

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4 Peer relationships * 78.57% 22
5 None of the above 3.57% 1
*Expected answers

Interview findings. Participants were asked, “What data does your school utilize to
address students’ academic or behavioral problems?” Participants 1 and 3 indicated that they had
used only attendance records and grades and test scores, which are available on the National
Education Information System (NEIS), web-based integrated administration system for Korea's
education organizations. As it contains records on every student in South Korea, the first thing
we do is look up student data on NEIS. Participants 5 asserted, “I think my school needs to
better focus on helping teachers have easy access to disciplinary data in addition to test scores or
attendance records. In addition to students’ grades and test scores, I prefer to use disciplinary
data which I would get from a school counsellor and other teachers. But it always takes too much
time to get reliable disciplinary data because of lack of colleagues’ support and cooperation.”
Participants 4 stated, “I believe that test scores and peer relationships best tell us about what
problem areas are and how to improve student achievement. But I don’t think high school
students are reluctant to tell teachers about peer relationship problems, so I mostly refer to grades
and attendance records to find out student problems.
The responses from all five participants indicated that they were not well aware of what
data their school utilizes in detail and what and how to use data to address students’ academic or
behavioral problems.
Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.

Document analysis. Document Analysis was not conducted for this influence.

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Summary. Based on the survey and interview findings, this influence is recommended for
improvement. This improvement should highlight what and how to use data to address student
academic and behavioral problems and facilitate student achievement. Specifically, the areas of
improvement relate to knowledge given a below threshold rating for attendance records (53.57%)
and disciplinary data (21.43%).
Results and Findings for Motivation Causes
GLHS Teachers’ motivation was assessed by surveys and interviews. In order to meet the
organizational goal, teachers of GLHS need to be aware of their motivation. There are three
types of motivation that teachers of GLHS need as they work to improve student achievement
and reduce the gap in elite college admissions. Results of surveys and interviews are presented
for each assumed cause within the categories of value, self-efficacy, mood, and attribution.
Results of surveys and interviews were used to assess whether an assumed cause should be
considered as a need.
Value
Influence 1. Teachers value their changing role and responsibility for helping
students to achieve their academic goals.
Survey results. Teachers were asked to what extent they agree with the following
statement: “I value my changing role and responsibility for helping students to achieve their
academic goals.” As shown in Table 18, the sum of the responses of participants that somewhat
and strongly agreed is 88.99%, which indicates that they value their changing role and
responsibility for helping students to achieve their academic goals. As teachers of GLHS met the
80% threshold for questions that asked respondents to respond to a prompt using a Likert Scale,
this influence is determined in the survey as an asset. See Table 18.

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Table 18

Survey Results for Motivational Value for Teachers’ Role and Responsibility

#11 Motivation Item (n = 27) Percentage Count
To what extent do you agree with the following statement?
I value my changing role and responsibility for helping students
to achieve their academic goals.

1 Strongly disagree 0 0
2 Somewhat disagree 0 0
3 Neither agree nor disagree 11.11 3
4 Somewhat agree * 55.66 15
5 Strongly agree * 33.33 9
*Expected answers

Interview findings. Participants were asked, “How do you value your changing role and
responsibility for helping students to achieve?” Participant 4, who was a music teacher, said, “I
highly value my role and responsibility as a music teacher for helping my students to achieve
their academic goals. I believe music can inspire and improve students’ learning.” Participant 3
said, “we value our responsibility for changing the lives of students, not only academically but
we can have a huge influence on their students in many ways. But it is possible only when
students trust us.” Participant 1 asserted, “We all value our role and responsibility for helping
students succeed and we all want to contribute. Well, I’d like to help students even after I retire.”
Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.

Document analysis. Document Analysis was not conducted for this influence.

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Summary. Based on the survey and interview findings, teachers of GLHS value their
changing role and responsibility for helping students to achieve their goals. Hence this influence
is considered an asset.
Influence 2. Teachers attempt to make their students feel comfortable asking
questions in order to build a positive learning environment.
Survey results. Teachers were asked to what extent they agree with the following
statement: I attempt to make my students feel comfortable asking questions. As shown in Table
19, 77.77 % of participants somewhat and strongly agreed that they attempt to make their
students feel comfortable asking questions. Results were below the 80% threshold established
showing that teachers of GLHS do not adequately try to make students feel comfortable asking
questions. Therefore, this cause is recommended for improvement. See Table 19.
Table 19

Survey Results for Motivational Value for Making Students Feel Comfortable Asking Questions

#12 Motivation Item (n = 27) Percentage Count
To what extent do you agree with the following statement?
I attempt to make my students feel comfortable asking questions.

1 Strongly disagree 0 0
2 Somewhat disagree 3.70 1
3 Neither agree nor disagree 18.52 5
4 Somewhat agree* 44.44 12
5 Strongly agree* 33.33 9
*Expected answers

Interview findings. Teachers were asked, “How do you value a positive learning
environment? “Can you provide any examples of a time when you thought about your school or

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class in terms of a positive learning environment?” Participant 3 stated, “During summer break, I
make a digital newsletter for parents, posting photos and updates on Instagram or Twitter,
creating a class blog. I believe this is a great way to engage students when class isn't in session.”
Participant 5 said, “I always try to set a class goal, such as the whole class achieving 70 percent
or higher on an assessment. After assessment, we discuss the strategies, processes, or study
habits that students used to be successful and what they learned and might do to improve on the
next assessment. Once the class has achieved the goal, the whole class holds a celebration.. such
as bringing in sweets or showing some funny or interesting (appropriate) online videos in class.”
Participants 2, a Korean language teacher, said, “I usually include group discussions to
increase student engagement and motivation. I also help them express freely their opinions about
the topic of their choice and ask questions to me and one another.”
Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.

Document analysis. Document Analysis was not conducted for this influence.

Summary. The assumed influence that teachers attempt to make their students feel
comfortable asking questions was determined to be a need in the survey results; however, the
influence was determined to be an asset in the interview responses. The correct responses in the
survey results nearly met the 80% threshold. Conversely, 100% of interview participants valued a
positive learning environment and provided specific examples of how they helped build a positive
learning environment. Therefore, this influence is determined to be an asset.
Influence 3. Teachers value meeting the social and emotional needs of students to
promote student performance.
Survey results. Teachers were asked to what extent they agree with the following
statement: I value meeting the social and emotional needs of students to promote student

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performance. As shown in Table 20, the sum of the responses of participants that somewhat and
strongly agreed is 88.99%, which indicates that they value meeting the social and emotional
needs of students, which affects student academic performance and goal achievement. As
teachers of GLHS met the 80% threshold for questions that asked respondents to respond to a
prompt using a Likert Scale, this influence is determined in the survey as an asset. See Table 20.
Table 20

Survey Results for Motivational Value for Meeting Social and Emotional Needs of Students

#13 Motivation Item (n = 27) Percentage Count
To what extent do you agree with the following statement?
I value meeting the social and emotional needs of students to
promote student performance.

1 Strongly disagree 0 0
2 Somewhat disagree 0 0
3 Neither agree nor disagree 11.11 3
4 Somewhat agree* 55.66 15
5 Strongly agree* 33.33 9
*Expected answers

Interview findings. Interviews were not conducted for this influence.
Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.

Document analysis. Document Analysis was not conducted for this influence.

Summary. Based on the survey findings, teachers of GLHS value meeting the social and
emotional needs of students in order to improve student achievement. Hence this influence is
considered an asset.

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Self-Efficacy

Influence 1. Teachers are capable of teaching and supporting students effectively.

Survey results. Teachers were asked “Indicate how confident you are right now in your
ability to teach and support students effectively.” As shown in Table 21, 81.48 % of participants
were confident in their ability to teach and support students. 18.52% of teachers were neither
confident nor diffident in their abilities. These responses were above the 80% threshold
established, which indicates that there is a required level of confidence in regard to teachers’
ability to teach and support students effectively. See Table 21.
Table 21

Survey Results for Self-Efficacy for Confidence in Teaching and Supporting Students

#14 Self-Efficacy Item (n = 27) Percentage Count
Indicate how confident you are right now in your ability to teach
and support students effectively.
I am confident that I can teach and support students effectively.

1 Strongly disagree 0 0
2 Somewhat disagree 0 0
3 Neither agree nor disagree 18.52 5
4 Somewhat agree * 74.07 20
5 Strongly agree * 7.41 2
*Expected answers

Interview findings. Participants were asked, “Describe a time when you taught and
supported students effectively.” Participants 1 said, “There are several students that I helped
achieve their academic goals. They all got into Seoul National University. I recall that I put lots

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of effort into meeting each student’s both emotional and academic needs whenever they needed
my help. I still remember that I was hospitalized after I had completed writing several
recommendation letters for my students’ rolling admissions.” Participant 4, a math teacher, said,
“I am confident that I can teach students effectively. I use technology to help turn traditionally
dull subjects like math into interactive and fun activities.” Participant 3, an English teacher,
indicated that she made her lessons interactive and fun by using game activities such as
crossword puzzles and Bingo.
Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.

Document analysis. Document Analysis was not conducted for this influence.

Summary. Based on the survey findings and interview results, teachers have required a
level of self-efficacy to teach and support students effectively. Hence, this cause is determined as
an asset.
Mood
Influence 1. Teachers feel positive about their job and their ability to persist
through barriers and challenges they may face to achieve the organizational goal.
Survey results. Table 22 assessed the mood of respondents. 49.93% of respondents
agreed that they are satisfied with their job as a teacher, which indicates that there is a lack of
teachers’ job satisfaction. 66.66% of respondents agreed that they feel positive about their ability
to persist through barriers and challenges they may face to achieve the organizational goal,
which indicates that teachers do not feel positive about their ability in overcoming obstacles to
help student achievement. The respective results, 49.93% and 66.66% - each below 80%
threshold- indicates that teachers do not feel positive about their job and their ability to overcome
barriers to achieve the organizational goal. See Table 22.

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Table 22

Survey Results for Teachers’ Mood

Mood Item

Please rate the following statements on the scale: Strongly Disagree, Somewhat Disagree,
Neither Disagree or Agree, Somewhat Agree, Strongly Agree
#
Question
Somewhat or
Strongly
Disagree.
Neither
Somewhat or
Strongly Agree
*Expected
Count
15
(n = 26)
Overall, I am satisfied with my job as a
teacher.
50.0% 13 49.93% 13 26
16
(n=27)
I feel positive about my ability to persist
through barriers and challenges I may
face to achieve the organizational goal.
33.33% 9 66.66% 18 27

Interview findings. Participants were asked, “In what ways do you or do you not feel
positive about your ability to persist through barriers and challenges you may face to enhance
students’ academic performance and achieve your school’s goal?” Participant 4 said, “I feel that
more and more is expected from my school’s administration. For example, I need to offer
constant support to my students, keep a line of communication open with parents, give more
personalized help to students to succeed, and compile large amounts of data, such as grades and
student growth indicators on NEIS. I’m burned out at work every day.” Participant 2 said,
“Teachers are being made accountable for more than they should. Whenever I face challenges, I
do not feel supported or encouraged to overcome problems.” Participants 1 and 3 described that
they needed support to overcome challenges and obstacles in teaching, but most of the time, they
did not feel a lot of cooperative effort among teachers.

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Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.

Document analysis. Document Analysis was not conducted for this influence.

Summary. Based on the survey findings, teachers' job satisfaction levels were low- less
than 50%. Results from the interviews indicate that teachers did not feel supported when they
faced obstacles. Based on the survey and the interview findings, teachers did not feel positive
about their ability and school’s support to overcome barriers to achieve the organizational goal.
Hence, this influence is determined as a need.
Attribution
Influence 1. Teachers attribute their success or failure to support students to their
own efforts.
Survey results. Teachers were asked “to what extent they agree with the following
statement: “My success or failure in supporting students is due to my own efforts.” As shown in
Table 23, a result of only 18.51% respondents agreed that they attributed their success or failure
to their own efforts, which indicates that most teachers do not have positive attributions in
helping their students perform better. Therefore, this cause is recommended for improvement.
See Table 23.
Table 23

Survey Results for Teachers’ Attribution

#17 Attribution Item (n = 27) Percentage Count
Indicate your agreement.
My success or failure in supporting students is due to my own
efforts.

1 Strongly disagree 3.70 1

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2 Somewhat disagree 33.33 9
3 Neither agree nor disagree 44.44 12
4 Somewhat agree * 14.81 4
5 Strongly agree * 3.70 1
*Expected answers

Interview findings. Interviews were not conducted for this influence.

Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.

Document analysis. Document Analysis was not conducted for this influence.

Summary. Based on the survey findings, teachers do not attribute their success or failure
to support students to their own efforts. Hence, this cause is determined as a need.
Results and Findings for Organization Causes

GLHS Teachers’ perceptions of organizational influences that facilitate goal achievement
were assessed by surveys and interviews. Results of surveys and interviews are presented for
each assumed cause within the categories of resources, policies, processes, and procedures, and
cultural settings. Results of surveys and interviews were used to assess whether teachers of
GLHS had access to the resources that they felt they needed to enhance student performance.
Resources
Influence 1. Teachers have time, funds, data resources, and PD opportunities to
better support student achievement.
Survey results. Teachers were asked to what extent they have time, funds, data resources,
and professional development (PD) opportunities to support student achievement. As shown in
Table 24, the respective results 32.0%, 46.16%%, and 44.44% - below 80% threshold - indicate
that teachers of GLHS do not have time to implement programs that help students to prepare for

110

individual college exams, funds to engage in PD, various data sources so that teachers can use
and analyze objective data to improve student achievement. Therefore, this influence is
recommended for improvement. See Table 24.
Table 24

Survey Results for Teachers’ Resources (Time, Funds, data resources, and PD)

Resources Item

Please rate the following statements on the scale: Strongly Disagree, Somewhat Disagree,
Neither Disagree or Agree, Somewhat Agree, Strongly Agree
# Question Somewhat or
Strongly
Disagree.
Neither
Somewhat or
Strongly Agree
*Expected
Count
18
(n = 25)
I have time to create lessons and
implement programs that meet
students’ academic needs and help
students prepare for individualized
college exams.
68.0% 17 32.0% 8 25
19
(n=26)
I have funds to engage in professional
development to improve instructional
practice and better support student
achievement.

53.85% 14 46.16% 12 26
20
(n=27)

My school provides various data
sources and professional development
opportunities so that teachers can use
and analyze objective data to improve
student achievement.

55.55% 15 44.44% 12 27

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Interview findings. Participants were asked to describe the resources they have in order
to improve their teaching and facilitate implementation of academic programs. Participants 4
said, “My school provides lots of data sources…sometimes too many data sources. But the
problem is that most teachers feel overwhelmed by data and they do not know how to interpret
data and connect them with other kinds of data.” Participant 1 said, “The most serious problem is
that teachers do not have enough time to address diverse learning needs to promote each
student’s motivation and engagement in the learning process and improve academic performance.
Every day we need to juggle multiple tasks. In order to create new lessons, we spend hours at
home at night.” Participant 4 said, “I usually work during the summer break and there are many
things to do: new assessments and programs, new lessons, new methods, PD, and planning, etc.”
With regard to PD opportunities that participants participated with regard to student academic
achievement, participant 5 said, “I have participated in PD, which was about how to apply
research-based differentiated ideas and activities for student achievement. I think it was quite
helpful because, in particular, I learned useful questioning techniques that I can use in class. But,
teachers should pay for highly effective PD out of their own pockets. Most free PD is useless.”
Participant 2 said, “We all need PD to enhance or better our teaching or classroom environment.
But it is frustrating to attend PD based on the fact that we will get points regardless of whether
we will actually learn something new and useful. Personally, I’d like to receive a PD about how
to integrate technology into class. I don’t want to waste my time anymore trying to meet the
required number of PD hours that my school set per semester.”
Overall, all participants indicated that they did not have enough time to implement
differentiated programs that can lead to academic achievement for students and funds for PD
opportunities that they need to improve their instructional practice. All participants further

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responded that there was a gap in PD opportunities available that might help teachers use modern
classroom technologies. Hence, this influence is determined as a need.
Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.

Document analysis. Document Analysis was not conducted for this influence.

Summary. Based on the survey and interview findings, this cause is determined as a need.
This improvement should highlight teacher resources: time, funds, and PD opportunities that
help teachers utilize the latest technologies in classrooms and analyze objective data to enhance
student achievement.
Policies, Processes, & Procedures
Influence 1. Teachers work in an organizational environment where policies,
processes, and procedures help students achieve their goals.
Survey results. Tables 25 assessed organizational policies, processes, and procedures
in aspects of alignment with the district goal of improving student academic performance, the
implementation of effective instruction, extracurricular activities that help students achieve their
goals, the opportunity that the school provides for students to explore various occupational
pathways, and a revised curriculum and a changed way of instruction to adapt to 2015
curriculum reform. The five respective results 74.07%, 51.85%, 62.96%, 70.37%, and 66.66% -
each below 80% threshold - indicate that organizational policies, processes, and procedures are a
limitation for teachers of GLHS to improve student achievement. See Table 25.

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Table 25

Survey Results for Organizational Policies, Processes, & Procedures
Policies, Processes, & Procedures Item (n=27)

Please rate the following statements on the scale: Strongly Disagree, Somewhat Disagree,
Neither Disagree or Agree, Somewhat Agree, Strongly Agree
# Question Somewhat or
Strongly
Disagree.
Neither
Somewhat or
Strongly Agree
*Expected
Count
21

My school’s policies align with the
district goal of improving student
academic performance.
25.92% 7 74.07% 20 27
22 I believe that the school policies,
processes, and procedures support the
implementation of effective instruction.
48.15% 13 51.85% 14 27
23 My school provides diverse
extracurricular activities that help
students achieve their goals.
3.04% 10 62.96% 17 27
24 My school provides students with the
opportunity to explore various
occupational pathways.
29.63% 8 70.37% 19 27
25 My school is actively developing a
revised curriculum and a changed way
of instruction to adapt to 2015
curriculum reform.
33.34% 9 66.66% 18 27

Interview findings. Participants were first asked, “In what ways do you or do you not feel
that your school and/or district procedures support your instruction to help students achieve?”
Participant 2 said, “I don’t feel that my school and district procedures support my instruction to
enhance student achievement. In order to help students achieve, teachers need better and more
holistic support and to be treated with dignity. But, I don’t think school leaders take my opinions

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seriously.” Participant 4 said, “When faced with large class sizes with different levels of students,
grading, ensuring quality of instruction, communicating with parents and other school and
district requirements, it is difficult to get everything accomplished in a set amount of time. But it
feels like I am struggling all by myself.”
For the second interview question, participants were asked, “What are the barriers in your
school policies, processes, and procedures, if any, that prevent effective teaching and learning?”
Participant 5 said, “I understand that teaching styles and classroom rules may differ between
teachers, but the basic guidelines should be consistent rather than dependent on the whim of each
teacher. However, it doesn’t seem that school leaders have a clear understanding of school
policies and disciplinary guidelines. A couple of months ago, for example, I got complaint calls
from parents regarding dress code rules, which varied depending on who the teachers in charge
were in each class. What is worse is that school leaders often shift the blame onto teachers when
they get complaints from parents.”
For the last question, participants were asked, “What additional school policies,
processes, and procedures that relate to instructional practices would you like to see implemented?
Participant 1 said, “School policies and procedures about using smartphones should be specific
and objective. My school allows students to use cell phones between classes and during
lunchtime. But in some classes, students are allowed to use cell phones and I have no idea how to
guide students in their cell phone use. There should be clearer policies and procedures about
using cell phones at school.” Participant 3 also indicated that she had problems in dealing with
smartphones in class. She said, “During class, I always struggle with students who try accessing
social media on their phones, take pictures of other students, or videotape class activities without
their permission. I remember when I confiscated a student’s smart phone in class; I got a

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complaint call from his parents later. But I was not able to give them a clear answer about school
policies and explicit guidelines about using smartphones.” All participants agreed that they
needed support from school administration when dealing with cell phones in the classroom,
which may help unify the school and make sure parents and students know what to expect.
Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.

Document analysis. Document Analysis was not conducted for this influence.

Summary. Based on the survey and interview findings, this cause is determined as a need.
All participants indicated that they did not work in a school where policies, processes, and
procedures help students achieve their goals.
Influence 2. Teachers are familiar with the school policies, processes, and
procedures that relate to the implementation of effective instruction.
Survey results. Teachers were asked to what extent they agree with the following
statement: “I am familiar with the school policies, processes, and procedures that relate to the
implementation of effective instruction.” As shown in Table 26, the sum of the responses of
participants that somewhat and strongly agreed is 81.48%, which indicates that they are familiar
with the school policies, processes, and procedures that relate to the implementation of effective
instruction. As teachers of GLHS met the 80% threshold, this influence is determined as an asset.
See Table 26.

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Table 26

Survey Results for Perception of Organizational Policies, Processes, and Procedures

#26 Policies, Processes, & Procedures Item (n=27) Percentage Count
Rate the level of your agreement for the following statements.

I am familiar with the school policies, processes, and procedures
that relate to the implementation of effective instruction.

1 Strongly disagree 0 0
2 Somewhat disagree 0 0
3 Neither agree nor disagree 18.52 5
4 Somewhat agree * 74.07 20
5 Strongly agree * 7.41 2
*Expected answers

Interview findings. Interviews were not conducted for this influence.

Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.

Document analysis. Document Analysis was not conducted for this influence.

Summary. Based on the survey findings, teachers of GLHS perceive that they are
familiar with the school policies, processes, and procedures that relate to the implementation of
effective instruction. Hence, this cause is excluded from improvement.
Cultural Settings

Influence 1. Teachers work in an organizational culture that creates positive and
supportive relationships among school stakeholders and students.
Survey results. Teachers were asked “to what extent they agree with the following
statement: “The culture of my school creates positive and supportive relationships among school

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stakeholders and students.” As shown in Table 27, a value of 62.96% - below the 80% threshold
- indicate that teachers of GLHS do not work in a school culture that cultivate positive and
supportive relationships among school stakeholders and students. Therefore, this cause is
considered a need. See Table 27.
Table 27

Survey Results for Organizational Culture

#27 Cultural Settings Item (n = 27) Percentage Count
Rate the level of your agreement for the following statements:
The culture of my school creates positive and supportive
relationships among school stakeholders and students.

1 Strongly disagree 0 0
2 Somewhat disagree 11.11 3
3 Neither agree nor disagree 25.93 7
4 Somewhat agree* 44.44 12
5 Strongly agree* 18.52 5
*Expected answers

Interview findings. Participants were asked, “To what extent/in what ways does your
school’s culture enhance positive relationships among all school stakeholders and students? In
what ways could your school improve its culture to build positive relationships between teachers
and students?” Participant 3 said, “It is important to foster a supportive environment that
promotes strong relationships among teachers, students, and families. This is because creating a
positive school climate based on strong relationships forms bedrock for student achievement.
More importantly, in order to build positive relationships between teachers and students, school

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needs to offer various events and opportunities that invite students’ experiences into school and
the classroom and communicate that all students are valued.” Participant 5 said, “We need
advisory programs where students can learn non-traditional academic skills or social-emotional
skills even once a week for 30 to 50 minutes. I believe advisory programs can improve
relationships with teachers and students. Participant 1 and 2 indicated that their school had kept
working on improving students’ sense of belonging and fostering positive teacher-student
relationships, but there might be a notable perception gap between teachers and students in
regard to how to build positive teacher-student relationships. Essentially, all participants agreed
that their school needed to come up with new ideas that reflected students’ lifestyles and
generational identities.
Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.

Document analysis. Document Analysis was not conducted for this influence.

Summary. Based on the survey and interview findings, the culture related influence is
considered a need.
Summary of Validated Influences
Knowledge

Gaps in nine of the 11 assumed knowledge influences were identified for improvement
through surveys and interviews. Table 28 presents an overview of the results of the assessment of
each assumed knowledge influence. Recommendations to improve each cause identified for
improvement will be discussed in Chapter Five.

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Table 28

Assessment Summary of Assumed Knowledge Gaps

Assumed Knowledge Cause

Asset or Need
Declarative Factual Knowledge
Teachers know what the current changes in CSAT in 2020 are. Need
Teachers know what the revisions made in the 2015 Revised Curriculum
are.
Need
Teachers know what students’ academic needs and intended majors are. Asset
Declarative Conceptual Knowledge
Teachers know what strategies of promoting a positive learning
environment are.
Need
Teachers know what strategies of promoting student academic achievement
are.
Need
Teachers know what strategies of principles and models of facilitating
student-centered learning are.
Need
Teachers know what strategies of meeting students’ social and emotional
needs throughout the teaching and testing process are.
Asset
Procedural Knowledge
Teachers know strategies of how to provide an academic intervention that
can enhance students’ academic success (RTI).
Need
Metacognitive Knowledge
Teachers know if the school uses data to address students’ academic
problems and enhance individual student academic achievement.
Need
Teachers know strategies of how to promote active learning. Need
Teachers know what data they need to use to address student problem areas
and improve student achievement.
Need

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Motivation

Gaps in two of the six assumed motivational influences were identified for improvement
through surveys and interviews. Table 29 presents an overview of the results of the assessment of
each assumed motivation influence. Recommendations to improve each cause identified for
improvement will be discussed in Chapter Five.
Table 29

Assessment Summary of Assumed Motivation Gaps

Assumed Motivation Cause

Asset or Need
Value
Teachers value their changing role and responsibility for helping students to
achieve their academic goals.
Asset
Teachers attempt to make their students feel comfortable asking questions
in order to build a positive learning environment.
Asset
Teachers value meeting the social and emotional needs of students to
promote student performance.
Asset
Self-Efficacy
Teachers are capable of teaching and supporting students effectively. Asset
Mood
Teachers feel positive about their job and their ability to persist through
barriers and challenges they may face to achieve the organizational goal.
Need
Attribution
Teachers attribute their success or failure to support students to their own
efforts.
Need

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Organization

Gaps in three of the four assumed organizational influences were identified for
improvement through surveys and interviews. Table 30 presents an overview of the results of the
assessment of each assumed organizational influence. Recommendations to improve each cause
identified for improvement will be discussed in Chapter Five.
Table 30

Assessment Summary of Assumed Organization Gaps

Assumed Organization Cause

Asset or Need
Resources
Teachers have time, funds, data resources, and PD opportunities to better
support student achievement.
Need
Policies, Processes, & Policies
Teachers work in an organizational environment where policies, processes,
and procedures help students achieve their goals.
Need
Teachers are familiar with the school policies, processes, and procedures
that relate to the implementation of effective instruction.
Asset
Cultural Settings
Teachers work in an organizational culture that creates positive and
supportive relationships among school stakeholders and students.
Need

Chapter Five studies proposed solutions for each cause recommended for improvement.
Each solution for these influences will be presented based on empirical evidence and
recommendations identified through relevant academic literature.

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CHAPTER FIVE: RECOMMENDATIONS AND EVALUATION
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project is to conduct a gap analysis to examine the root causes of the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational barriers leading to low student performance and
college entrance rates to top universities of regular high schools in Korea. While the complete
gap analysis would focus on all regular high school teachers in Korea, for practical purposes, the
stakeholders who were focused on in this study are teachers of Golden Lake High School (GLHS)
located in Seoul, Korea. The gap analysis approach (Clark & Estes, 2008: Rueda, 2011) assisted
in the analysis of the causes of this problem due to gaps in the area of teachers’ knowledge and
skills, motivation, and organizational resources and culture. The analysis began by generating a
list of assumed influences followed by systematic analysis of solutions that teachers of regular
high schools can utilize to help enhance student achievement.
As such, the questions that guide this study are the following:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that interfere with
teachers’ goal of developing academic plans that meet the requirements for getting into
top colleges using differentiated instruction strategies by December 2019?
2. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions?
Recommendations to Address Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Influences
The assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related to student
performance and top college admission rates were examined to determine teachers’ strengths and
areas for improvement. This chapter provides recommendations for each knowledge, motivation,
and organizational influences which have been validated as needs through surveys and
interviews completed by the school site. As indicated in the tables, each influence has been

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given a high priority for achieving the organizational goal. Furthermore, each table lists the
evidence-based principles that support any related recommendations and a brief statement
outlining the context-specific recommended solution. The recommendation for each cause was
based on applying the principle. Following the table, a detailed discussion is provided for each
high priority cause, the principle, the solution, and support for the solution based on the literature.
Knowledge Recommendations
Introduction. In the following knowledge domain, there are four subdomains composed
of (a) declarative factual; (b) declarative conceptual; (c) procedural; (d) metacognitive. Through
data collection and analysis from surveys and interviews, two gaps in GLHS teachers’ factual
knowledge, three gaps in conceptual knowledge, one gap in procedural knowledge, and three
gaps in metacognitive knowledge were identified. As indicated in Table 31, eight out of a total of
nine validated knowledge influences were given a high priority for achieving the organizational
goal and one in the metacognitive domain was deemed as a medium priority. The emphasized
high priority validated influences can be adopted to effectively improve student academic
achievement.
Clark and Estes (2008) conceptual framework suggests using evidence-based and context-
specific recommendations for each influence. Therefore, Table 31 outlines the validated
knowledge influence, priority, principle and citation, and context-specific recommendation.
Following Table 31, detailed descriptions of each recommendation are provided.

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Table 31
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Knowledge
Influence
Priority
High
Low
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation for
Improvement
Factual
Teachers know what the
current changes in CSAT
in 2020 are.

High Information learned
meaningfully and
connected with prior
knowledge is stored
more quickly and
remembered more
accurately because it
is elaborated with
prior learning (Schraw
& McCrudden, 2006).

To develop mastery,
individuals must
acquire component
skills, practice
integrating them, and
know when to apply
what they have
learned (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).

Break down complex
tasks and encourage
individuals to think
about content in
strategic ways
(Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).

Ask teachers to identify
prior knowledge of the
current changes in CSAT
in 2020 and the revisions
made in 2015 Revised
Curriculum before
providing them with
learning materials.

Prior to the start of the
school year, provide
training for teachers and
a frequent PD
opportunities spread out
over short learning
sessions throughout the
year for teachers to
identify and understand
important points and
make connections with
the previous CSAT and
curriculum.

Break down the content
of new changes in CSAT
in 2020 and revisions in
Revised Curriculum in
2015 and provide
information in
manageable parts,
utilizing a PowerPoint
presentation and videos
as visual aids.
Provide tasks that
promote selecting,
organizing, and
integrating teachers’
factual knowledge of
Teachers know what the
revisions made in the
2015 Revised Curriculum
are.

High

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CSAT in 2020 and
Revised Curriculum in
2015.
Conceptual
Teachers know what
strategies of promoting a
positive learning
environment are.
High Information learned
meaningfully and
connected with prior
knowledge is stored
more quickly and
remembered more
accurately because it
is elaborated with
prior learning (Schraw
& McCrudden, 2006).

How individuals
organize knowledge
influences how they
learn and apply what
they know (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).

To develop mastery,
individuals must
acquire component
skills, practice
integrating them, and
know when to apply
what they have
learned (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).

Provide experiences
that help people make
sense of the material
rather than just focus
on memorization
(Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).
In the weekly school
staff meetings,
provide teachers with
training on a positive
learning environment by
role-playing teacher and
student experiences with
different classroom
expectations using
provided worked
examples.

Prior to the start of the
school year, provide
teachers with information
about key strategies of
promoting a positive
learning environment and
highlight the role of
teachers in promoting it.
Teachers know what
strategies of promoting
student academic
achievement are.
High How individuals
organize knowledge
influences how they
learn and apply what
they know (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).

Provide teachers with
data of the schools that
perform better than their
school and ask teachers
to compare strategies and
discuss ways to adapt to
their school.

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To develop mastery,
individuals must
acquire component
skills, practice
integrating them, and
know when to apply
what they have
learned (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).

Addressing a conceptual
knowledge gap from
Chapter 4, explain that
most teachers’
misconceptions about
teaching strategies of
promoting student
academic achievement
might lead to student
underperformance.
Teachers know what
strategies of principles
and models of facilitating
student-centered learning
are.
High How individuals
organize knowledge
influences how they
learn and apply what
they know (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).

To develop mastery,
individuals must
acquire component
skills, practice
integrating them, and
know when to apply
what they have
learned (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).

Provide teachers with
worked examples of
strategies of promoting
student-centered
learning.

Provide opportunities for
teachers to observe a
mentor teacher, and then
teach the lesson to their
own students. The
mentor teacher can
provide evidence-based
methods that support
learner-centered teaching
and targeted feedback
which can be powerful in
improving instructional
practice.

Model effective strategy
use, including “how” and
“when” to use strategies
of facilitating student-
centered learning.
Procedural
Teachers know strategies
of how to provide an
academic intervention
that can enhance
students’ academic
success (RTI).
High Modeling to-be-
learned strategies or
behaviors improves
self-efficacy, learning,
and performance
(Denler, Wolters, &
Benzon, 2009).

Targeting training and
instruction between
Provide tasks that are too
difficult to be completed
independently, but can be
completed within
assistance.

Provide teachers with
guidance, modeling,
coaching, and other
scaffolding during

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the individual’s
independent
performance level and
their level of assisted
performance promotes
optimal learning
(Scott & Palincsar,
2006).

Information learned
meaningfully and
connected
with prior knowledge
is stored
more quickly and
remembered
more accurately
because it is
elaborated with prior
learning
(Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).

Integrating auditory
and visual
information
maximizes working
memory capacity
(Mayer,
2011).
Decreasing
extraneous
cognitive load by
effective instruction
(particularly when
intrinsic load is high)
enables more effective
learning (Kirshner et
al., 2006).

How individuals
organize
knowledge influences
how they
learn and apply what
they know
training activities.

Provide worked
examples and case
studies and require
teachers to work as a
group to demonstrate the
RTI process.

As the teachers lack prior
knowledge of RTI as
indicated by the survey
and interview findings
from chapter 4, use the
following steps to
improve awareness.

Step 1. Stimulate
teachers’ prior
knowledge from long-
term memory and
process new knowledge
and employ learning
strategies by sharing with
the entire group what
they know about RTI.
For example: teachers
will be asked to complete
a test to assess and help
them retrieve their
knowledge of RTI.

Step 2. Based on the test
results, teachers will be
asked to self-evaluate
their current level of
knowledge and identify
the knowledge gap.

Step 3. Present new
knowledge using
examples, activities, and
practice that guide the
proper use of learning
strategies. For example:
The PowerPoint slides

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(Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).

Feedback can make
the learning visible
and raise students’
assessment
capabilities about
their learning (Mayer
& Alexander, 2016).

will include the content
and learning strategies of
the course. Following the
lecture, show teachers a
video demonstration
showing a worked
example of how to apply
the concept of RTI,
based on fictitious
students for example and
provided instructor
feedback.

Step 4. Have teachers
discuss the learning
problems and behavior
problems that require
interventions, techniques
to efficiently manage the
problems, the referral
process, and evidence
about how teaching
efficacy is related to the
referral judgement.
Metacognitive
Teachers know if the
school uses data to
address students’
academic problems and
enhance individual
student academic
achievement.
Medium The use of
metacognitive
strategies facilitates
learning
(Baker, 2006).

During regular teacher
training sessions, provide
school data that were
used to identify students’
academic problems and
how they were utilized to
improve student
academic achievement.
Then have teachers
discuss and assess
strength and areas for
improvement.
Teachers know strategies
of how to promote active
learning.
High The use of
metacognitive
strategies facilitates
learning
(Baker, 2006).

Learning and
During regular teacher
training sessions, remind
teachers of the
importance of promoting
active learning and have
them create goals around
1-2 instructional

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motivation are
enhanced when
learners set goals,
monitor their
performance and
evaluate their progress
towards achieving
their goals.
(Ambrose et al., 2012;
Meyer, 2011)
techniques, monitor and
assess their progress.
Teachers know what data
they need to use to
address student problem
areas and improve student
achievement.
High Self-regulatory
strategies, including
goal setting, enhance
learning and
performance (APA,
2015: Dembo &
Eaton, 2000; Denler,
et al., 2009).
During regular teacher
training sessions,
teachers explain what
data is available and
what they need to use to
address student problem
areas and improve
student achievement.
Then, have teachers
identify their knowledge
gap in using data and set
objectives for data use,
monitor their progress,
and make adjustments.

Declarative factual knowledge solutions. Gaps in each of the two assumed declarative
factual influences were determined as a need through surveys and interviews. Significant gaps
were identified with respect to teachers’ awareness of the current changes in CSAT in 2020 and
the revisions made in the 2015 Revised Curriculum. To address these gaps, it is necessary to
have the factual knowledge of the above changes in CSAT in 2020 and the 2015 Revised
Curriculum for teachers to identify and analyze any problems of the implementation of the
current school curriculum. In addition, teachers need to make better application plans based on
the standards for the organization of the high school curriculum and unit assignment, and the
guidelines on curriculum organization and operation, presented in a general theory of the 2015
revised curriculum (Korea Institute for Curriculum and Evaluation, 2017).

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To close the knowledge causes, recommendations are formulated based on learning
principles. First, ask teachers to identify prior knowledge of the current changes in CSAT in
2020 and the revisions made in 2015 Revised Curriculum before providing them with learning
materials (Mayer, 2011). According to Schraw and McCrudden (2006), information learned
meaningfully and connected with prior knowledge is stored more quickly and remembered more
accurately because it is elaborated with prior learning. This would suggest that guiding learners
to make connections with what they already know would support their learning. In addition, prior
to the start of the school year, provide teachers with frequent PD opportunities spread out over
short learning sessions for teachers to identify and understand important points (Mayer, 2011;
Schraw & McCrudden, 2006). Schraw and McCrudden (2006) suggest that it encourages learners
to think about content in strategic ways to break down complex tasks. When presenting
information, the content of new changes of CSAT in 2020 and revisions in Revised Curriculum
in 2015 are broken down in manageable parts, providing words and pictures rather than words
alone (Mayer, 2011; Schraw & McCrudden, 2006). Finally, to develop mastery, teachers receive
training on component skills, practice integrating them based on the purpose and standards of the
changes and revisions of each content, and explain what they have learned (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).
Declarative conceptual knowledge solutions. Gaps in three of the four assumed
declarative conceptual influences were determined as a need through surveys and interviews.
These gaps were identified with respect to teachers’ awareness of strategies of promoting a
positive learning environment, student academic achievement, and student-centered learning.
According to Schraw and McCrudden (2006), how individuals organize knowledge influences
how they learn and apply what they know. This would suggest that guiding learners to organize

131

each strategy of promoting a positive and student-centered learning environment and student
academic achievement would support their learning. In addition, individuals must acquire
component skills, practice integrating them, and know when to apply what they have learned
(Schraw & McCrudden, 2006).
The recommendation might be that teachers receive training prior to the start of the
school year and on a weekly basis. First, prior to the start of the school year, teachers are
provided with the information about key strategies of promoting a positive learning environment
and a job aid to help them identify and understand important points. In addition, in the weekly
staff meetings, teachers get training on a positive learning environment by role-playing teacher
and student experiences with different classroom expectations utilizing provided worked
examples. Schraw and McCrudden, (2006) suggest that, in the event that prior knowledge exists,
linking new information to prior knowledge improves effectiveness of learning. Building on this
principle, the recommendation might be to address the knowledge gap from Chapter Four and
explain that teachers’ misconceptions about their strategies of improving student academic
achievement might lead to student underperformance. Further, it is important to provide teachers
with data of the schools that perform better than their school and ask teachers to compare
strategies and discuss ways to adapt to their school utilizing worked examples. Lastly, to reduce
the gap in teachers’ awareness of the strategies of promoting student-centered learning
environments, it is recommended to provide opportunities for teachers to observe a mentor
teacher, and then teach the lesson to their own students. The mentor teacher can provide
evidence-based methods including “how” and “when” to use strategies of facilitating student-
centered learning that support learner-centered teaching and targeted feedback.

132

Procedural knowledge solutions. Gaps in the assumed procedural knowledge influence
were recommended for improvement through surveys and interviews. This gap is related to
teachers’ awareness of the core assumptions and strategies of how to provide an academic
intervention that can enhance students’ academic success. To help develop the procedural skills
effectively, Scott and Palinesar (2006) suggest that targeting training and instruction between the
individual’s independent performance level and their level of assisted performance promotes
optimal learning. The recommendation then might be to provide learners with an opportunity to
collaborate with peers who have slightly higher levels of proficiency and skill after practicing
new knowledge using examples and activities which include the concept of RTI and how to
apply the RTI.
To develop mastery, Mayer (2011) states that it is important to have learners identify
prior knowledge before a learning task. Additionally, Mayer (2011) suggests that integrating
auditory and visual information maximizes working memory capacity. Kirshner et al. (2006)
argue that decreasing extraneous cognitive load by effective instruction enables more effective
learning. Consistent with the learning principles, the following steps are recommended to
improve teachers’ procedural awareness of RTI. First of all, stimulate teachers’ prior knowledge
from long-term memory and process new knowledge and employ learning strategies by sharing
with the entire group what they know about RTI. For example, teachers will be asked to
complete a test to assess and help them retrieve their knowledge of RTI. Second, based on the
test results, teachers will be asked to self-evaluate their current level of knowledge and identify
the knowledge gap. Third, as Anguinis and Kraiger (2009) suggest that worked examples and
case studies support learning, present new knowledge using examples, activities, and practice
that guide the proper use of learning strategies and require teachers to work as a group to

133

demonstrate the RTI process. For example, the PowerPoint slides will include the content and
learning strategies of the course. Following the lecture, based on the important points about RTI,
individuals must also practice integrating components and skills and know when to apply what
they have learned (Schraw & McCrudden, 2006). For example, show teachers a video
demonstration showing a worked example of how to apply the concept of RTI, based on
fictitious students for example and provided instructor feedback. Lastly, have teachers discuss
the learning problems and behavior problems that require interventions, techniques to efficiently
manage the problems, the referral process, and evidence about how teaching efficacy is related to
the referral judgement. Provide learners with an opportunity to collaborate with peers who have
slightly higher levels of proficiency and skill. During the discussion, feedback will be provided
to make the learning visible and raise students’ assessment capabilities about their learning
(Mayer & Alexander, 2016).
Metacognitive knowledge solutions. Gaps in each of the three assumed metacognitive
influences were recommended for improvement through surveys and interviews. Among them,
the two metacognitive influences will be prioritized because they are closely tied to the mission
of the organization and the primary objective of improving student academic achievement. The
two prioritized influences are in respect to teachers’ awareness of how to promote active learning
and what data they need to use to address student problem areas and improve student
achievement. Learning and motivation are enhanced when learners set goals, monitor their
performance and evaluate their progress towards achieving their goals (Ambrose et al., 2012;
Meyer, 2011). Further, self-regulatory strategies, including goal setting, enhance learning and
performance (APA, 2015: Dembo & Eaton, 2000; Denler, et al., 2009). These learning principles
would suggest that learners would benefit from establishing targeted goals and use them as

134

guidelines to monitor and assess their progress. The recommendation then would be to remind
teachers of the importance of promoting active learning and have them create goals around 1-2
instructional techniques, monitor, and assess their progress during regular teacher training
sessions. Additionally, to improve teachers’ understanding of what data they need to use to better
understand student problem areas and instructional practices to address those needs, the
recommendation would be to provide opportunities for teachers to identify their knowledge gap
in using data and set objectives for data use, explain what data is available and what they need to
use to promote active learning, discuss their strategies and processes related to the learning task,
and make adjustments.
Motivation Recommendations
Introduction. In the following motivation domain, four subdomains consist of (a) value;
(b) self-efficacy; (c) mood; (d) attribution. Through data collection and analysis from surveys
and interviews in this study, a total of two validated motivation influences were identified. The
gap in teachers’ mood is related to teachers’ job satisfaction and their ability to persist through
barriers. Teachers of GLHS also showed the gap in attributions in helping their students perform
better. These gaps were both deemed as a high priority. The emphasized high priority validated
influences can be adopted to effectively enhance student academic achievement.
Clark and Estes’ (2008) conceptual framework suggests using evidence-based and
context-specific recommendations for each influence. Therefore, Table 32 outlines the validated
motivation influence, priority, principle and citation, and context-specific recommendation.
Following Table 32, a detailed discussion for each high priority cause and recommendation and
the literature supporting the recommendation are provided.

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Table 32
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Motivation
Influence
Priority
High
Low
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Value
No gaps were identified.
Self-Efficacy
No gaps were identified.
Mood
Teachers feel positive
about their job and their
ability to persist through
barriers and challenges
they may face to achieve
the organizational goal.
High There is an indirect
relationship between
learning climate and
teachers’ energy and
efforts invested in
their work,
organizational
commitment, and
subjective well-being,
mediated by teacher
job satisfaction
(Eldor, 2016).

A positive
relationship between
various positive
climates for teachers
and teacher
motivation and well-
being (Shapka, &
Perry, 2012)

The degree of teacher
participation in
decision making at the
school unit has been
linked to job
satisfaction (Menon &
Athanasoula-Reppa
2011).

Provide teachers with
less structured, ongoing,
school-embedded
learning opportunities
which encourage team
learning, inquiry, and
dialogue.

Provide as much
autonomy as possible
when it comes to
choosing instructional
strategies, designing
lessons, and providing
academic support.

Provide mentor programs
where teachers are paired
up with a mentor or peer
support to provide
scheduled social
emotional check-ins
around the status of
the learning environment
as well as to share
strategies of improving
student achievement.

Provide school
administrators with
regular training such as

136

Positive emotional
environments
support motivation
(Clark & Estes,
2008).

Learning and
motivation
are enhanced when
learners have positive
expectancies for
success (Pajares,
2006).
information seminars, an
orientation week, and
measures that help
teachers participate in
decision making.
Attribution
Teachers attribute their
success or failure to
support students to their
own efforts.
High Learning and
motivation are
enhanced when
individuals attribute
success or failures to
effort rather than
ability. (Anderman &
Anderman, 2009)

Provide feedback that
stresses the process of
learning,
including the
importance of effort,
strategies, and
potential
self-control of
learning. (Anderman
& Anderman, 2009)
Provide teachers with
attribution-informed
interventions such as
Attributional Retraining
(AR).

Provide accurate
feedback that identifies
the skills or
knowledge the individual
lacks, along with
communication that
skills and knowledge can
be learned, followed by
the teaching of these
skills and knowledge.

Mood solutions. This gap was identified through surveys and interviews. According to
Shoshani and Eldor (2016), it is crucial to create a teacher learning climate – a less structured,
inherent, and continuous one, conducted on-the-job. Shoshani and Eldor (2016) suggest that
there is an indirect relationship between learning climate and teachers’ energy and efforts
invested in their work, organizational commitment, and subjective well-being, mediated by

137

teacher job satisfaction. Additionally, teacher learning climate and teacher job satisfaction may
potentially affect students’ school engagement (Shoshani & Eldor, 2016). Learning climate
involves a wide variety of activities and opportunities throughout the school life – inquiry,
dialogue, collaboration, and a shared vision – through which teachers can create, acquire, and
transfer knowledge, and engage in learning behaviors (Desimone, 2009, as cited in Shoshani &
Eldor, 2016). These principles would suggest that learners would benefit from working in a
learning climate where they experience relatedness, social interaction, and autonomy when it
comes to choosing instructional strategies, designing lessons, and providing academic support. In
addition, Clark and Estes (2008) suggest that positive emotional environments support
motivation. This would suggest that teachers would benefit from mentor programs where they
are paired up with a mentor or peer support to receive scheduled social emotional support around
the status of the teacher learning environment as well as sharing strategies of improving student
achievement on a weekly basis. In addition, according to Menon and Athanasoula-Reppa (2011),
the degree of teacher participation in decision making at the school unit has also been linked to
job satisfaction. The recommendation would be that school administrators participate in regular
training such as information seminars, an orientation week, and measures that encourage teachers
to be involved in decision making.
Attribution solutions. This gap was identified and validated through surveys. According
to Anderman and Anderman (2009), learning and motivation are enhanced when individuals
attribute success or failures to effort rather than ability. Additionally, attribution is improved by
providing feedback that stresses the process of learning, including the importance of effort,
strategies, and potential self-control of learning (Anderman & Anderman, 2009).

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Building on these principles, the recommendation would be to provide teachers with
attribution-informed interventions such as Attributional Retraining (AR); an intervention that
encourages causal attributions for failure experiences that are personally controllable in nature,
while at the same time discouraging attributions that either absolve responsibility through
external attributions or focus instead on internal, uncontrollable factors (Haynes et al., 2009).
Attribution-informed interventions such as AR are expected to prove effective in facilitating
adaptive changes in teachers’ willingness to support students (Woodcock & Jiang, 2013). In
order to improve the attributions of teachers of GLHS, it is recommended to provide AR training
prior to the start of the school year using a map, such as the one in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Components of Attributional Retraining (AR). Haynes et al. (2009). A review of
attributional retraining treatments (p.253). Springer, Dordrecht.

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Organization Recommendations
Introduction. In the following organizational domain, there are three subdomains consisting
of a) resources; b) policies and procedures; c) cultural settings. Through data collection and
analyses in this study, a total of three validated organizational influences were identified. Each
validated influence was identified and supported by the data gathered from surveys and
interviews. The selected high priority validated influence can be used to effectively enhance
student performance of GLHS. Clark and Estes’ (2008) conceptual framework suggests using
evidence-based and context-specific recommendations for each influence. Therefore, Table 33
outlines the validated organizational influence, priority, principle and citation, and context-
specific recommendation.
Table 33
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Organization
Influence
Priority
High
Low
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Resources
Teachers have time,
funds, data resources, and
professional development
(PD) opportunities to
better
support student
achievement.
High Effective change
efforts ensure that
everyone has the
resources (equipment,
personnel, time, etc.)
needed to do their job,
and that if there are
resource shortages,
then resources are
aligned with
organizational
priorities (Clark &
Estes, 2008).

Provide teachers with
long term and
curriculum-based PD in
each semester for
teachers to analyze their
practice, share their
experiences, and
collaborate with one
another in order to gain
more knowledge needed
to enhance student
achievement.

Hire more school
administrative assistants
and reduce teachers’
administrative work so
that teachers can use time

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to support students
efficiently.

Allocate or shift funds to
provide teachers with
time to create lessons and
implement programs that
meet students’ academic
needs and help students
prepare for
individualized college
exams.
Policies and Procedures
Teachers work in an
organizational
environment where
policies, processes, and
procedures help students
achieve their goals.

High Effective
organizations insure
that organizational
messages, rewards,
policies and
procedures that
govern the work of
the organization are
aligned with or are
supportive of
organizational goals
and values
(Clark & Estes, 2008).
Conduct an informal
audit of the school
policies and procedures
to check for alignment or
barriers to improving
student achievement.
Cultural Settings
Teachers work in an
organizational culture
that creates positive and
supportive relationships
among school
stakeholders and
students.
High Effective change
efforts use evidence-
based
solutions and adapt
them, where
necessary, to the
organization’s culture
(Clark & Estes, 2008).

Effective change
efforts ensure that all
key stakeholders’
perspectives inform
the design and
decision-making
process leading to the
change (Clark &
Estes, 2008).
Conduct student surveys
on how to build positive
relationships between
teachers and students in
order to identify key
elements that need to be
considered in the change
process.

Provide teachers with
multiple training sessions
and hold regularly
scheduled meetings with
administrators, teachers,
student council in order
to gather input, generate
ideas, and discuss
improvement plans based

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on student surveys. As a
part of this process, share
the problems and ways of
improving the school
culture discussed during
the meetings.

Hold a regular faculty
meeting where a difficult
conversation that might
encompass the principal's
leadership style, staff
morale, decision-making
processes, or resource
allocation can be openly
discussed.

Administrators are
recommended to provide
teachers and students
with opportunities to
role-play how a difficult
conversation might go to
consider a situation from
another person's point of
view and reflect on some
possible solutions.

Resources solutions. Surveys and interviews identified gaps in resources. These gaps
are in four specific areas: time to create lessons and implement programs that meet students’
academic needs, funds to engage in professional development (PD), various data sources, and PD
opportunities. According to Clark and Estes (2008), effective change efforts ensure everyone has
the resources (equipment, personnel, time, etc) needed to do their job, and that if there are
resource shortages, then resources are aligned with organizational priorities. This suggests that
teachers need protected time to focus just on creating lessons and implement programs that
promote each student’s motivation and engagement in the learning process and further improve
academic performance.

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According to Stigler (as cited in Willis, 2002), PD plays a crucial role in enhancing
instructional practice and it should be ongoing and curriculum-based. Further, teacher PD is an
attempt to bring about “change in the classroom practices of teachers, change in their beliefs and
attitude, and change in the learning outcomes of students” (Guskey, 1986, p. 5). As presented in
Figure 3, Guskey proposed an ordered framework to help understand trends that seem to “typify
the dynamics of the teacher change process” (p. 7).
Figure 3. A Model of the Process of Teacher Change (Guskey, 1986).
This model proposes that teachers’ beliefs and attitudes are largely determined by their
classroom experiences. If their experience results in a change in student learning outcomes,
Guskey suggests that the teacher then uses this to make a judgement about the effectiveness of
their own teaching. This developmental sequence shows that for change to occur in teaching, PD
needs to be on-going and requires continual support to be sustained (Rogers, 2007). The
recommendation would then be to provide on-going PD for teachers to analyze their practice,
share their classroom experiences, and collaborate with one another to see change in students’
learning outcomes and teachers’ own beliefs and attitudes. In addition, it is necessary to hire
more school administrative assistants and reduce teachers’ administrative work so that teachers
can use time to support students efficiently. Lastly, it is also recommended to allocate or shift
funds to provide teachers with time to create lessons and implement programs that meet students’
academic needs and help students prepare for individualized college exams.

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Policies and procedures solutions. Surveys and interviews identified gaps in policies
and procedures. These gaps are in five specific areas: the school policy alignment with the
district goal of improving student academic performance, school support for teachers in regard to
implementation of effective instruction, diverse extracurricular activities for students, various
occupational pathways for students, and revised curriculum adaptation. Clark and Estes (2008)
argue that effective organizations ensure that organizational messages, rewards, policies and
procedures that govern the work of the organization are aligned with or are supportive of
organizational goals and values. The recommendation would be to conduct an informal audit of
the school policies and procedures to check for alignment or barriers to improving student
achievement.
According to Pellerin’s study (as cited in Gregory, Cornell, & Fan, n.d.), authoritative
school climate where school rules are fairly and consistently applied and high support is
provided for students benefits students. In addition, consistent rules, which are clearly
communicated among teachers and students, may help strengthen the authority of teachers (Tyler
1997). This suggests that administrators of GLHS should focus on making school policies and
rules clear and consistent, which may benefit both teachers and students by creating a positive
school climate.
Cultural setting solutions. Surveys and interviews identified a gap in the assumed
setting. Clark and Estes (2008) suggest that effective change efforts use evidence-based solutions
and adapt them, where necessary, to the organization’s culture. This would suggest that the
administrators and teachers of GLHS need to use evidence-based solutions to build trust and
commitment between teachers and students, which leads to the capability to achieve the
organization's goals. The recommendation would then be to conduct student surveys on how to

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build positive relationships between teachers and students in order to identify key elements that
need to be considered in the change process. Provide teachers multiple training sessions in order
to gather input and generate ideas based on student surveys.
As mentioned by participants during the interview, lack of teachers' trust in school
leaders is considered a major obstacle that hinders creating a positive school culture where
teachers are respected and valued as professionals. According to Clark and Estes (2008),
effective change efforts ensure that all key stakeholders’ perspectives inform the design and
decision-making process leading to the change. Additionally, Roland Barth (2002) and John
D'Auria (2010) argued that there are concerns that are never mentioned in a public forum, but are
continuing sources of anxiety for staff members. Stone, Patton, and Heen (1999) stressed that
having difficult conversations lead to a healthy school culture. Building upon these principles,
the recommendation would then be to hold regularly scheduled meetings with administrators,
teachers, and student council in order to gather ideas and discuss improvement plans. As a part of
this process, share the problems and ways of improving the school culture discussed during the
meetings. It is further recommended to hold a regular faculty meeting where a difficult
conversation that might encompass the principal's leadership style, staff morale, decision-making
processes, or resource allocation can be openly discussed. In addition, administrators are
recommended to provide teachers and students with opportunities to role-play how a difficult
conversation might go to consider a situation from another person's point of view and reflect on
some possible solutions.

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Summary of Knowledge, Motivation and Organization Recommendations

Knowledge Recommendations Summary

Three recommendations are proposed relating to factual knowledge. First, ask teachers to
identify prior knowledge of the current changes in CSAT in 2020 and the revisions made in 2015
Revised Curriculum before providing the learning materials. Secondly, prior to the start of the
school year, provide training for teachers and frequent PD opportunities spread out over short
learning sessions throughout the year for teachers to identify and understand important points
and make connections with the previous CSAT and curriculum. Break down the content of new
changes in CSAT in 2020 and revisions in Revised Curriculum in 2015 and provide information
in manageable parts, utilizing a PowerPoint presentation and videos as visual aids. Lastly,
provide tasks that promote selecting, organizing, and integrating teachers’ factual knowledge of
CSAT in 2020 and Revised Curriculum in 2015.
The recommendations for conceptual knowledge are as follows. First, in the weekly
school staff meetings, provide teachers with training on a positive learning environment by role-
playing teacher and student experiences with different classroom expectations using provided
worked examples. Secondly, prior to the start of the school year, provide teachers with
information about key strategies of promoting a positive learning environment. Third, provide
teachers with data of the schools that perform better than their school and ask teachers to
compare strategies and discuss ways to adapt to their school. In addition, explain that most
teachers’ misconceptions about teaching strategies of promoting student academic achievement
might lead to student underperformance. Also, provide teachers with worked examples of
strategies of promoting student-centered learning and opportunities for teachers to observe a

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mentor teacher, and then teach the lesson to their own students. Lastly, model effective strategy
use, including “how” and “when” to use strategies of facilitating student-centered learning.
The recommendations for procedural knowledge include providing tasks that are too
difficult to be completed independently, but can be completed within assistance. In addition,
provide worked examples and case studies together with guidance, modeling, coaching, and
other scaffolding during training activities. Also, require teachers to work as a group to
demonstrate the RTI process. The recommendation specifically for metacognitive knowledge is
to remind teachers of the importance of promoting active learning and have them create goals
around 1 or 2 instructional techniques, monitor and assess their progress during regular teacher
training sessions. Additionally, teachers are recommended to explain what data is available and
what they need to use to address student problem areas and improve student achievement.
Thereafter, teachers can identify their knowledge gap in using data and set objectives for data use,
monitor their progress, and make adjustments.
Motivation Recommendations Summary
The recommendations to improve teachers’ mood include providing teachers with less
structured, ongoing, and school-embedded learning opportunities, autonomy in choosing
instructional strategies, designing lessons, and offering academic support. Mentor programs are
also recommended to provide scheduled social emotional check-ins and strategies of improving
student achievement. Additionally, it is recommended to provide school administrators with
regular training such as information seminars, an orientation week, and measures that help more
teachers to participate in decision making. The recommendation for attribution is to provide
teachers with attribution-informed interventions such as Attributional Retraining (AR) and

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accurate feedback that identifies the skills or knowledge that the individual teachers lack,
followed by the teaching of these skills and knowledge.
Organization Recommendations Summary
The recommendation for resources is to provide teachers with long term and curriculum-
based PD in each semester for teachers to analyze their practice, share their experiences, and
collaborate with one another in order to gain more knowledge needed to enhance student
achievement. Also, allocate or shift funds to provide teachers with time, specifically by hiring
more school administrative assistants and reduce teachers’ administrative work so that teachers
can use time to support students efficiently. The recommendation for policies and procedures is
to conduct an informal audit of the school policies and procedures to check for alignment or
barriers to improving student achievement. The recommendation for the cultural setting is to
conduct student surveys on how to build positive relationships between teachers and students in
order to identify key elements that need to be considered in the change process. Further, it is
recommended to provide teachers with multiple training sessions and hold regularly scheduled
meetings with administrators, teachers, and student council to gather input, generate ideas, and
discuss improvement plans based on student surveys. As a part of this process, the problems and
ways of improving the school culture discussed during the meetings can be shared. Also, hold a
regular faculty meeting where a difficult conversation that might encompass the principal's
leadership style, staff morale, decision-making processes, or resource allocation can be openly
discussed. Lastly, administrators are recommended to provide teachers and students with
opportunities to role-play how a difficult conversation might go to consider a situation from
another person's point of view and reflect on some possible solutions.

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Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations
The mission of GLHS is to be an inclusive community united by the pursuit of
educational excellence, building self-confidence through success, and learning with integrity.
The organization works to fulfill that mission with an approach that emphasizes effective
teaching, newly revised curriculum, clear and consistent school policies, and comprehensive
support. The organization’s problem of practice is the continuous low college entrance rates,
which resulted in lack of teacher and student motivation and the decreasing number of good
performing students who apply for GLHS every year. In recent years, the acceptance rate in
Seoul National University has averaged from 1.3% to 1.5%. This suggests that GLHS is not
maximizing the achievement, enrichment and advancement of every student who needs to be
fully equipped with college admission requirements and prepared to enter the college of their
choice.
The goal of the organization is to improve students’ academic performance and increase
the number of graduates getting into Seoul National University in Korea. The strategic
performance goal is to double the current acceptance rate of 1.3% to 2.6% by improving teacher
instruction and student achievement. The goal for the stakeholder of focus then is that all
teachers of GLHS develop academic plans that meet individual student needs and the
requirements for getting into top colleges using differentiated instruction strategies.
This study examined the knowledge and skills, motivational, and organizational assets
that teachers of GLHS had that could be adopted and recommended for other teachers at other
school sites. As elite high schools have dominated entry into prestigious universities in the last
10 years, it is not just the problem of the students of GLHS, but that of all the students who

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attend regular high schools that account for nearly 95 % of all high schools in Korea (Education
Statistics, 2018). The desired outcome for this project is to develop the necessary knowledge
competency and bridge the organizational gaps to improve student achievement. The proposed
solution, a comprehensive training program and frequent PD opportunities throughout the year,
should produce the desired outcome-- an increase in the number of students getting into top
universities, particularly, Seoul National University in Korea. In line with the desired outcome
are the goals of ensuring that teachers of GLHS have the requisite knowledge, motivation, and
organizational support to make a student-centered approach to learning to provide instructions
tailored to the diverse requirements for getting into college.
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
Recommendations to improve knowledge, motivation, and organizational practices of
teachers of GLHS will be implemented and evaluated utilizing the New World Kirkpatrick
Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) define training as
the process to increase participant knowledge and skills, and propose three major reasons to
evaluate training programs:
1. To improve the program.
2. To maximize transfer of learning to behavior and subsequent organizational results.
3. To demonstrate the value of training to the organization.
The New World Kirkpatrick Model is used to monitor and evaluate the impact that training
programs have on an organization and determine areas of growth and improvement in broad,
mid-level, and narrow terms. The Kirkpatrick Model includes four levels that begin with Level 4,
“Results,” which focuses on to what degree learning events and reinforcement resulted in
attaining targeted outcomes (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Level 3 focuses on “Behavior”

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and examines to what degree participants applied their learning from the training in their
respective fields (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Level 2 is the “Learning” level that
examines to what degree participants acquired the knowledge, skills, and attitudes from the
program (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Lastly, Level 1 begins with “Reaction” and focuses
on to what extent participants had a favorable and positive reaction to the training program.
The New World Kirkpatrick Model differs from the historical Kirkpatrick model with
added criteria in Level 1 and Level 2 (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). For example, in the
traditional Kirkpatrick Model Level 1, outcomes consisted of satisfaction, whereas The New
World Kirkpatrick Model Level 1 introduces the need to establish measures of engagement and
relevance. Similarly, Level 2 outcomes in The New World Kirkpatrick Model now include
dimensions of motivation and commitment components. The Kirkpatrick model recommends
that the training evaluation efforts begin backwards with Level 4 in order to keep the focus on
what is most important and understand the organizational goals and desired outcomes to build
toward (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The different levels and training program
recommendations are expanded in more detail below.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
According to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016), Level 4 is defined as the extent to
which target outcomes occur as a result of the learning event and reinforcement provided. Thus,
Level 4 is related to both the purpose and mission of the organization (Kirkpatrick and
Kirkpatrick (2016). In addition, Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) state that results in Level 4
describe the organization’s ability to “accomplish the mission while responsibly using the
resources available” (p. 12). Leading indicators are the short-term observations and
measurements to monitor whether critical behaviors are leading to the desired results and

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identify barriers to success (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The proposed leading indicators
with external and internal outcomes, metrics, and methods are outlined in Table 34 below.
Table 34

Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes

Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
Increase in the number of
students getting into top 5
universities.
Data from school information
system(www.schoolinfo.go.kr)
released annually by Korean
Ministry of Education.

School administration, head
teachers, and a school
counselor will compare annual
acceptance rates to top
universities.

The school administration will
report top college enrollment
rates to public platforms
(media and website).
Increase in community
publicity regarding the
academic achievement of
students.
The number of publicity articles
that highlights the alternative
school.
The school administration will
monitor the articles in local
newspapers.
Increase in the parents’
perception of the school
as academically rigorous
and preparing for college.
The number of parent positive
feedback. Focus on the number
of parents satisfied with the
school and recommending the
school to other parents.
Site administrators will
monitor the positive feedback
parents submit to the school’s
front office and district through
the semestral stakeholder
feedback survey.
Increase of district
resources allocated.
The number/amount of
resources/funds allocated to the
site.
The school administration will
keep a log of allocated funds.
Internal Outcomes
Decrease in number of
students transferring to
other adjacent regular
high schools and elite
schools.
The number of students
transferring to other adjacent
regular high schools and elite
schools in the first and second
year of school
School counselors will monitor
the number of students
transferring to other adjacent
regular high schools and elite
schools.
Increase of college
readiness skills among
students.
The number of college
acceptance letters of seniors.

The counselor will log
acceptance letters submitted by
any students who are accepted
to college.
Increase in teacher
engagement in training
Percentage of teachers attending
weekly meetings, semestral
The head teacher will use the
meeting records to report

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and PD. training, and on-going PD on a
regular basis.

The number of ideas being
generated and evaluated in every
meeting and training session.

The number of discussions
threads and posts each month
among administrators and
teachers.
percent participation, the
number of ideas proposed, the
number of ideas evaluated, and
the number of online
discussion threads and posts
created.
Decrease in number of
students who demonstrate
academic or behavioral
challenges.
The number of academic and
behavioral problems.
School counselors will monitor
the number of students who
demonstrate academic or
behavioral problems.

Site will have administrators
conduct an annual parent
survey on academic or
behavioral problems.

Level 3: Behavior
Critical behaviors. According to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) Level 3 Behavior
is a comprehensive, continuous performance monitoring to what degree learners demonstrate and
apply their learning from the training to their work. Critical behaviors are defined as the
observable actions to indicate a transfer from learning to practice (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick,
2016). The three critical behaviors identified in this project and the metrics, methods, and timing
to evaluate each critical behavior are outlined in Table 35 below.
Table 35

Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical Behavior Metric(s)
Method(s)
Timing
Modifying instruction
with appropriate
instructional strategies
of creating student-
centered learning
The number of times
in a lesson that the
teacher executes a
strategy to modify
instruction.
Instructional coaches
and peer or mentor
teachers in each
department will
observe teacher
Monthly

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based on ongoing
student performance
data.
instruction to identify
and describe strategies
executed.
Creating a positive
classroom community
and culture that
promotes learning.
The number of times
interactions between
teachers and students
that reflect positive
messaging, support,
motivation,
encouragement, and
other indicators of a
positive learning.
School administration
will use a standard
observation checklist
to count the number
of positive
interactions and
describe what was
said and done in
example interactions.
Bi-Weekly
Identifying and
applying strategies of
providing instructions
tailored to the diverse
requirements for
getting into college.
The number of lessons
that incorporate
strategies of providing
instructions tailored to
the requirements for
getting into college.
Instructional coaches,
school counsellors,
and peer or mentor
teachers in each
department will
organize a monthly
review with a steering
committee that will
use a standard
observation checklist
that includes a number
of the common and
different requirements
for college
admissions, and
descriptions of teacher
and student actions.
Monthly

Required drivers. Required drivers are also included in Level Three. Kirkpatrick and
Kirkpatrick (2016) define required drivers as how critical behaviors are reinforced, monitored,
encouraged, and rewarded. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) describe reinforcement as job
aids, the reminders of learning, and refreshers; encouragement as a formal and regular method of
coaching and mentoring; rewarding as extrinsic or intrinsic incentives; and monitoring as
measuring for important initiatives and non-negotiable behaviors for accountability purposes.
The required drivers displayed in Table 36 will support the critical behaviors identified in Table
35.

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Table 36
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing
Critical Behaviors
Supported
1, 2, 3 Etc.
Reinforcing
Site administrators will
provide teachers with follow-
up support including refresher
courses in-person or online and
toolkits and web-based
materials for continued
reference.
ongoing 1, 2
Site administrators will
provide job aids during
training and maintain them
thereafter reflecting the latest
lessons.
ongoing 2
Instructional coaches will
provide site administrators and
teachers with an updated
college admissions checklist.
semesterly 2
School administration will
publish a periodic stakeholder
update highlighting the
organizational mission, goals
of teachers, performance gaps
with regard to goal
achievement, actions aimed at
aiding in student achievement,
and next steps.
monthly 1, 2
Encouraging
Peer teachers (department
chair or mentor teachers) will
provide mentoring around
pedagogy in addition to
providing social emotional
support.
bi-weekly 1, 2
Teachers will meet to
collaborate on lessons to
enhance student engagement
and promote active learning.
weekly 2
Site administrators will
conduct instructional coaching
ongoing 1, 2

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as a follow up to observation
walkthroughs in order to
provide targeted coaching
around instruction.
Rewarding
Through the monitoring of
student academic and
behavioral data, site
administrators will nominate
teachers to share best practices
with peer teachers.
annually 1, 2
Site administrators will share
student progress and celebrate
it.
monthly 2
Monitoring
Department coordinator and
administration will conduct
anonymous teacher surveys on
PD opportunities, mood,
attribution, and a healthy
school culture.

Department coordinator and
administration will further
administer anonymous student
surveys on perceptions around
learning, motivation to study,
and a positive learning school
environment.
Results from the surveys will
be used to make adjustments to
classroom protocols and
instruction.
semesterly 1, 2
Site administrators will review
school, district and nationwide
scholastic achievement tests
before the start of fall semester
and at the end of the year to
track progress toward school
wide student achievement
goals and make adjustments to
practices.
Two times a year in August
and February
2

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Organizational support. Based on the recommendations in the above tables, the
organization will need to provide support in the following ways. First, teachers will need to be
supported to participate in on-going PD of their needs in and outside of the school. Therefore, the
organization needs to allocate or shift funds to provide teachers with PD and protected time to
focus on their learning. Next, the organization will need to provide collaboration times and a
location for teachers in order to gather input and generate ideas on enhancing student
achievement and creating a positive learning environment. Weekly staff meetings where
individuals from multiple levels (instructional coaches, school site administrators, head teachers,
counselors, and teachers) have the opportunity to openly communicate their ideas, plans, and
progress are needed. Teachers will also need regular opportunities when they can meet and
collaborate with mentor teachers on lessons to enhance student engagement and promote active
learning. Finally, the administrators and teachers need to become familiar with all the available
data to better address student problem areas and monitor and improve student performance. In
order to effectively support teachers’ critical behaviors, administrators’ effort to increase teacher
involvement in a wide array of school decision making will be an important prerequisite.
Level 2: Learning
Level 2 is defined by Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) as “the degree to which
participants acquire the intended knowledge, skills, attitude, confidence, and commitment based
on their participation in the training.” (p. 42). The New World Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016)
Model includes commitment and confidence. The degree to which a participant is willing to
apply the new knowledge and skills in their job role is commitment and the extent to which
participants believe they can apply newly acquired knowledge in their job role is confidence

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(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The degree to which teachers acquire the intended attributes
will be positively correlated to the quality of the learning goals, program, and evaluation.
Learning goals. Based on validated gaps identified in Chapter Four, teachers will be able
to do the following items when the proposed recommendations or solutions have been achieved:
Knowledge

1. Identify the current changes and revisions made in CSAT and curriculum and
understand important points and make connections with the previous CSAT and
curriculum. (Declarative Factual)
2. Compare strategies of other schools regarding how to promote a positive and
student-centered learning environment and discuss ways to adapt to their school.
(Conceptual)
3. Demonstrate when and how to apply the RTI steps to enhance students’ academic
success. (Procedural)
4. Describe strategies of how to promote active learning and what data to use to improve
student achievement and create goals of effective instructional techniques, monitor and
assess their progress. (Metacognitive)
Motivation
5. Feel positive about their job and their ability to use instructional strategies, design
lessons and provide students with academic support. (Mood)
6. Understand attribution-informed interventions (AR) and attribute success or failures to
support students to their own effort. (Attribution)

Program. The learning goals in the section above will be accomplished through a
recommended program that will help increase the knowledge and motivation of teachers of

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GLHS. Additional recommendations also will be made for school site administrators, but
because the primary focus of this study was to change teaching practice and improve teachers’
mood and learning climate, administrator roles will simply be highlighted to clarify how their
support is related to teacher success and the organizational goal achievement. First, in order to
increase teachers’ knowledge and skills, multiple trainings will be provided throughout the
academic school year. The main priorities of PD training’s content will emphasize identifying
and understanding important points about CSAT in 2020, Revised Curriculum in 2015, and
strategies of promoting a positive and student-centered learning environment as well as applying
the appropriate RTI process. The training will also allow teachers to become data-driven when
addressing student problem areas and enhancing student achievement and understand key
strategies of promoting active learning while increasing the frequency of feedback and ensuring
an appropriate allocation of resources to implement the program.
Teachers. Starting in every summer and winter vacation, several full day trainings
focusing on strategies of facilitating positive, active, and student-centered learning will be
offered. A portion of the training will include developing a feasible plan using evidence-based
methods in collaboration with mentor teachers and role-playing exercises. The other
recommendation is to design training sessions on the current changes in CSAT and revised
curriculum and ask teachers to track their own growth in acquiring the necessary knowledge and
self-evaluate their own progress. In regard to developing effective and efficient data applications,
the recommendation is to offer short training on how to use data and resources during midterm
and final exam week where most teachers have more time out of class for planning instruction
and grading papers. During the exam period, teachers will also be advised to use available data
and resources to analyze the test results in a way to support further instructional decision making.

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Lastly, during every summer and winter vacation, several full day training courses focusing on
strategies of how to provide an academic intervention (RTI) will be provided. The training will
emphasize modeling strategies of the proper steps for providing RTI , demonstrating a worked
example of how to apply the concept of RTI, practicing managing the learning problems and the
referral process, and providing feedback on the learners’ use of RTI strategies with helpful
suggestions and direction. Additional ongoing mentoring support should be provided by teacher
peers to serve to improve teachers’ mood and attribution.
Administrators. In order to support the development of teachers’ knowledge, skills, and
motivation, a deliberately designed administrator training program will also be beneficial to
improve student academic achievement. Starting in the summer, school site administrators who
are inexperienced with the current changes in CSAT in 2020 and the revisions made in the 2015
Revised Curriculum will join teachers in their training to learn about the overall changes in
educational needs that accompany the revisions. A portion of the training will include the
analysis and discussion of strength and areas of improvement based on a quarterly parent survey
on instruction and student positive learning. In an intensive separate summer and winter training,
administrators will learn about how to navigate the multiple data sources to address students’
academic problems. Another component of their training will focus on analyzing data of the
schools that perform better than GLHS and discuss ways to improve student performance.
Using small group discussion and role-playing with scenarios, administrators will practice the
crucial strategies and models of helping students achieve and provide feedback to teachers. The
training will be revisited once in the spring in order to monitor progress of the program and make
any adjustments necessary.

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Evaluation of the components of learning. In an effort to meet performance goals,
teachers need the knowledge, skills, and motivation to apply their takeaways from the training
program. According to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016), it is important to use both formative
and summative evaluation methods, including small group discussions, knowledge checks,
surveys, pre- and post-tests, and self-reports. Each of these methods will be employed to monitor
teachers’ attainment of the learning goals. Table 37 outlines the evaluation methods and timing
for the learning components.
Table 37
Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program.
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”
Knowledge checks using multiple-choice
items and through table group discussions
during weekly meetings and professional
development trainings
During workshops/learning session
Pretests and post tests Before and at the end of workshops/learning
session
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”
Scenarios in which procedural knowledge is
demonstrated in the solution
During workshops/learning session

Pre-test and post-test Before and at the end of workshops/learning
session
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Discussion about the value and rationale During workshops/learning session
Discussion of any issues During workshops/learning session
Survey with Likert scale At the end of workshops/learning session
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”
Small group discussion about concerns,
anticipated barriers, questions
During workshops/learning session
Peer mentorship, coaching or peer check ins During and after workshops/learning session
Survey with Likert scale At the end of workshops/learning session
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”
Discussion of any issues and praises if
applicable
During and after workshops/learning session
Survey with Likert scale At the end of workshops/learning session

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Level 1: Reaction
According to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016), Level 1 is described as the extent to
which participants react to a learning event. Important aspects of Level 1 evaluations include
elements of participants’ engagement, the relevance of the program, and participants’ satisfaction
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Customer satisfaction is defined as how satisfied participants
are with the training, engagement is described as the level of participation and contribution
participants demonstrate, and relevance is the opportunity participants apply what they learned
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Each aspect of Level 1 will be assessed through a variety of
methods and timings. Table 38 outlines the recommended methods to measure teacher reactions
to the training program.
Table 38
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program.
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
Attendance rate At the beginning of the training
Asking meaningful questions During the training
Active interaction during group activities During the training
Completion of hypothetical practice scenarios During the training
Survey with Likert scale After the training
Relevance
Pulse check with survey and/or informal
discussion
During the training
Survey with Likert scale After the training
Customer Satisfaction
Discussion training evaluation After the training
Survey with Likert scale After the training

Evaluation Tools
Immediately following the program implementation. Teachers who participate in the
program will be asked to engage in evaluation activities regarding the impact the program had on

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their knowledge, skills, and motivation within the organization. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick
(2016) suggest that purposeful evaluations are critical at Level 1 and Level 2 in order to provide
meaningful feedback regarding the quality of training and to what extent learning and skills are
developing. According to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016), both immediate and delayed
evaluation needs to be conducted after Level 1 and Level 2 of the training program. After the
training in Level 2, teachers will engage in post-tests as a follow up and aligned to the pre-tests,
complete surveys to demonstrate their learning and share in discussions with mentors and peer
teachers to communicate their plan for applying the knowledge and skills of what they learned.
Learners will be asked to respond to an anonymous survey at the end of the learning activity.
Learners will be asked to respond to Level 1 reaction prompts to the learning activity that will
include feedback on engagement, relevance, and customer satisfaction. Learners will also be
asked to respond to Level 2 reaction prompts to the learning activity that will include feedback
on declarative knowledge, procedural skills, attitude, confidence, commitment. See Appendix C
for the survey and post-test.
Delayed for a period after the program implementation. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick
(2016) suggest both formative and summative assessments are critical to assess the level of
participant implementation after the training. In addition, delaying the evaluation helps
participants to reflect more on the impact of the program and allows time for participants to
apply what was learned (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). For the purpose of this program, the
delayed evaluation will be sent out 16 weeks after the final learning activity utilizing a
combination of Likert Scale questions and open-ended questions to elicit feedback from
participants regarding changes that have occurred as a result of the program (see Appendix D).
The New World Kirkpatrick Model (2016) describes how training, implementation, and

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evaluation are critical elements to ascertain the value of a training program. According to the
model, the evaluation following a delayed period addresses Level 1 (reaction), Level 2 (learning),
Level 3 (behavior), and Level 4 (results and leading indicators) outcomes (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). Level 1 reaction prompts will include feedback on engagement, relevance,
customer satisfaction. Level 2 reaction prompts will include feedback on declarative factual
knowledge and procedural skills, attitudes, confidence, and commitment as a result of their
training. Level 3 reaction prompts will include feedback on the extent to which the learner is
engaging in critical behaviors. Level 4 reaction prompts will assess the level to which the learner
is reaching the organizational goal. The proposed evaluation tool to be used 16 weeks after the
program implementation is presented in Appendix D.
Data Analysis and Reporting
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) suggest that training effectiveness and the value of
the training to the organization can be determined based on the outlined collection of both
formative and summative data. The reporting of significant findings will be presented not only to
teachers but also to other stakeholders who contribute to the program’s success and the
organizational goal achievement including the organization’s leadership, instructional coaches,
and parents. Findings will include results and themes from immediate evaluation and delayed
evaluation, as well as internal and external outcomes from Level 4 and metrics related to critical
behaviors from Level 3. Data on student academic progress and college admission rates will be
shared semesterly and at the end of the school year, with a celebration organized at the end of the
year for administrators, teachers, and students with high achievement. In addition, a dashboard
that is visible on the school website will keep all key stakeholders informed regarding the
achievement. Lastly, a separate report will be created to review the Level 1 and Level 2 findings

164

and shared with teachers to improve the quality of planning of future PD (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Summary of the Implementation and Evaluation
The New World Kirkpatrick Model (2016) is the framework that was used to design the
implementation and evaluation of this study for key stakeholders who play a crucial role in
enhancing student academic performance as evidenced at Golden Lake High School. The model
helped establish a framework for identifying measurable outcomes related to a broad mission
statement as well as specific learning outcomes and reactions.
The New World Kirkpatrick Model (2016) indicates that each of the four levels of
training and evaluation have or have not met the desired outcomes for each component
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). For this study, the four levels of training and evaluation were
used to determine that teachers of GLHS have the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
support to develop and improve strategies to help students achieve. According to the New World
Kirkpatrick Model (2016), the training program begins with Level 4, with the identification of
external and internal outcomes, metrics, and methods to evaluate whether targeted outcomes
were achieved. Next, in Level 3, the program establishes the critical behaviors to assess if
teachers are using the training that they received once they are working with students. In Level 2,
learning outcomes are identified and teachers are evaluated on their learning of declarative
factual knowledge and procedural skills, attitudes, confidence, and commitment as a result of
their training. Finally, in Level 1, methods to assess how teachers are reacting and implementing
training are developed to determine the participants’ satisfaction, engagement, and the relevance
of the training. In order to implement change and maximize desired learning outcome, it is
critical to evaluate and analyze data during program implementation.

165

Limitations and Delimitations
This study focuses on the knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs and assets
that contribute to GLHS teachers' ability to help students to improve academic performance and
increase top college acceptance rates in order to narrow the achievement gap within the
district and provide equitable education opportunities for all students. This context involves at
least three dominant stakeholders: the district administration, site administrators, teachers,
students, parents, and the community. However, to maintain the feasibility of this study, the
study was delimited by examining the perspectives of one stakeholder group, teachers. In
addition, as approximately 30% of teachers within GLHS participated in this study, this could
hinder what Merriam and Tisdell (2016) refer to as maximum variation sampling where a diverse
sample selection is needed to encourage a greater degree of application of the findings. Therefore,
may not be generalizable or transferable to other high schools. Another limitation of this study
was self-selection bias since participation was voluntary. The study was also limited by the
design of the survey and interview instruments as the validity and reliability of the instruments
were not tested across multiple studies. A final limitation is the researcher’s position or
reflexivity because the researcher works within the same organization as a teacher. Therefore,
during the study, unforeseen biases and assumptions could have impacted multiple levels from
the design of the methodology to the analysis of the data to the organization of the findings.
Recommendations for Future Research
The current study focused on teachers at one high school located in Seoul, Korea as the
stakeholder group. Future studies could consider improving the generalizability by substantially
increasing and diversifying the sample size to compare several similar high schools in the same

166

or a variety of districts as well as to uncover any needs that affect general high schools in other
urban areas in Korea. In addition, future research can include the instrument of observation
to examine the interaction between teachers and students in natural settings. Observational data
could supplement self-report data such as surveys and interviews used in this study by examining
actual behaviors. Finally, it should be noted that there are many factors influencing college
admission rates internal and external to GLHS, and this study focused on teachers’ role in
enhancing student performance within the school. Thus, future studies could consider student
performance and top college admission rates in terms of the external barriers that students of
GLHS face related to conditions such as school socioeconomic status and varying levels of
parent involvement. As additional influences on student performance within the school, future
studies could also consider site administrator and teacher degree level, and organizational
rigidity, etc.
Conclusion

The objective of this study is to improve academic performance in college entrance rates
of GLHS and overcome the perceived barriers to teachers in helping students be better prepared
for college and close the prestigious college entrance rate gap. GLHS has been outperformed by
neighboring comparative general high schools and this study aimed to analyze the knowledge
and skills, motivation, and organizational influences preventing the teachers, a key stakeholder,
from enhancing student achievement. By applying the Clarke and Estes (2008) Gap Analysis
framework, the study examined the validated influences of knowledge, motivation, and
organization that were leading to student performance and top college admission rates that were
lower than that of all other schools in the district. Drawing on learning principles, solutions were
formulated and an implementation plan using the New World Kirkpatrick Model (2016) was

167

suggested. Teachers, rather than students, were selected as the stakeholder because they play the
critical role in improving student achievement and have the largest amount of exposure to
students during the school day. Though this study focused on high school performance in the
college admissions, the recommendations and solutions discussed are applicable to fostering a
positive learning environment and improving instruction across content and schools.

168

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APPENDIX A: Survey Questions

Q1. 교사로 재 직하신 기간 을 선택해 주 세요.
나는 ________ 년 동안 교사로 재 직하고 있다.
I have worked in the field of education for ____ years.
Q2. 담당 과목을 적어 주세 요. What subject do you teach?
Q3. 다음 중 2020 년 수능 개편안에 해 당되는 것을 모두 골라 주세 요.
Which of the following are the current changes in CSAT in 2020? Check all that apply.
❏ 사회/ 과 학탐구 의 경우, 계열 구분 없이 최대 2 과목을 자 유롭게 선 택할 수 있다.
Students will choose two subjects for social studies and science regardless of curriculum tracks:
liberal arts and natural sciences.
❏ EBS 연계율이 50% 로 축소 되고 과목 특 성에 따라 간접 연계로 전 환된다.
50 percent of the CSAT questions will be based on EBS course books.
❏ 카이스트 와 2 년제 대학을 포함한 모든 대학은 2020 년까지 정시 비율을 최대 40% 까지
확대한다.
All universities including Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology or two-year
colleges will expand the portion of admission up to 40% based on CSAT scores by 2022.
❏ 제 2 외국어, 한문은 절 대평 가로 바뀐 다.
In addition to English and national history, two more subjects - a second foreign language and
Chinese characters - will be graded absolutely starting in 2022.
❏ 모두 해당 사항 없음. None of the above
Q4. 2015 개정 교육과정의 내용에 해 당되는 것을 모두 골라 주세 요
The following revisions were made in the 2015 Revised Curriculum. Check all that apply.
❏ 수학 수업 에서 교사 들의 IT 활용이 더욱 권장되 었다.

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The use of technology is more emphasized in mathematics learning in the school field than before.
❏ 국어, 영어, 수학 교과 내용 이 축소되 었다.
The contents of Korean, English and math are reduced.
❏ 각 학교들 은 자체적 으로 과목 이수단 위를 조정 할 수 있 으나 이수 시 간은 학 교마다
통일되어 야 한다.
A school may automatically organize and operate the number of units of courses, but completion
time should be observed.
❏ 수업은 같은 과목 혹은 다른 과목 간에 서로 연계 되거나 통합 운영 될 수 있다.
The educational contents based on key concepts are restructured and the similar educational
contents within the same subject or between different subjects are integrated.
❏ 과목간 겹 치는 필수 내용들 은 재개편 되 거나 통 합된다.
Classes can be integrated based on the educational contents.
❏ 모두 해당 사항 없음. None of the above

Q5. 학생들의 학업 성취도 향상을 위한 효과적 인 수업 방법을 모두 골라 주 세요.
Which of the following promote student academic achievement? Check all that apply.
❏ 학생이 처 음에 답변 을 못한 경우 결국 그 학생이 정 답을 말할 수 있도 록 한다.
Helping students work their way to the correct answer themselves
❏ 학생이 오 답을 말한 경우 교 사가 학생 의 답을 수 정하고 재 정리하 여 설명한 다.
Correcting wrong answers without delay and explain in a clear way
❏ 정답을 말한 학생에 게는 좀 더 어려운 질 문을 추 가적으 로 물어본 다.
Asking tough questions if students give the correct answer to a question
❏ 수업 중에 는 학생들 과의 공감 형성 및 흥미 유발을 위해 학생들이 쓰는 은어 및 유행 어를
쓴다.
Using slang words in class to arouse students’ interest

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❏ 어려운 부 분을 수업 할 때는 학생들이 지루해 하 거나 힘들 수 있음을 알려주 고 공감 해 준다.
When teaching challenging material, empathizing with students by informing them that the task
might be unpleasant, boring or difficult
Q6. 학습자 중심의 교 육에 해당되는 것을 모두 골라 주 세요.
Student-centered learning includes: Check all that apply.
❏ 학생들을 학습 계획, 실행, 그리고 평 가에 모두 참여 시 킨다.
Involving students in planning, implementation, and assessments
❏ 학생들이 학습 내용 을 모두 이해하지 못했을 경우, 학생 의 자체적 활동 기회 를 제한 한다.
Limiting students’ chance to take charge of activities, when they may not quite have all the
content skills.
❏ 학생 중심 의 학습 활 동에 중 점을 두되, 흥미 위주의 활동 은 최대한 제 한한다.
Reducing teacher direct instruction but limiting interest-based activities
❏ 개방형 질문(open-ended) 을 사용한다.
Using open-ended questioning techniques
❏ 모두 해당 사항 없음. None of the above
Q7. 다음 각 항목에 대해 선 생님의 학생 지도/ 수업 방식 에 해당되 는 것을 표 시해 주 세요.
Please rate the following statements on the scale.
Q8. 학생들의 사회 정 서적 니즈를 충 족시키 는 방안에 해당되는 것을 모두 골라 주 세요.
The following strategies help teachers meet students’ social-emotional needs. Select all that apply.
❏ 학교와 가 정의 긴밀 한 협력
Fostering supportive relationships between school and home
❏ 명확한 규 율과 벌칙 을 세우 고 예외 없이 적용한 다.
Making discipline and punishment clear and applying them without exceptions
❏ 학생들이 학교 생활 을 항상 예측 가능 하도록 필 요에 따라 세심하 고 완만한 과도기 를
갖는다.

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Have a predictable daily routine with carefully planned transitions
❏ 학교에서 모든 학생 들에게 휴식을 취 하는 방법(relaxation technique) 과 스 트레스 감소
방법을 가 르친다.
Teaching students relaxation techniques and other appropriate ways to reduce stress
❏ 모두 해당 사항 없음. None of the above
Q9. 다음 중 기초 학력 미달 학생의 학 력증진 방 안과 관 련되는 것을 모두 골라 주세 요.
What are the core assumptions of RTI? Select all that apply.
❏ 모든 결정 에는 기초 학력진 단 결과가 최 우선시 된다.
Diagnostic test results should be a top priority in decision making.
❏ 최대한 빠른 개입이 중요하 다.
Early intervention is critical to preventing problems from getting out of control.
❏ 학생 지도 는 교사뿐 만 아니 라, 다양한 방 면의 전문 인력 의 협조가 중 요하다.
Not only teachers but also counselors, psychologists and other specialists should work as a team when they
assess students and plan interventions.
❏ 학업적 지 원은 반드 시 객관 적 조사/연구 결과 에 기초해 야 한다.
Research based interventions should be implemented to the extent possible.
❏ 학교간 기 초학력 진단 결과 를 공유하 고 서로 협 력한다.
Diagnostic test results need to be shared among schools to better support students.
❏ 모두 해당 사항 없음. None of the above
Q10. 아래 각 사항에 대한 선 생님의 생 각을 표시 해 주세 요.
Please rate the following statements on the scale.
Q11. 학생들의 능동적 인 학 습을 돕기 위한 방안 에 해당 되는 것을 모두 골라 주 세요.
In order to promote active learning, I could:
❏ 사례중심 의 문제 해결 능력 배양에 중 점을 둔다.
use case-based problem solving exercises.

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❏ 토론을 적극 활용하 되 토론 주제 선정 은 교사가 주도적 으로 이끈 다.
use classroom debate, with limited opportunities for students to choose the topic of discussion.
❏ 또래/동료 가르침(peer instruction) 방법을 적극 활용 한다.
use peer instruction exercises.
❏ 학습활동 개발에 학 생들을 직접 참여 시 킨다.
involve students in the development of classroom activities.
❏ 모두 해당 사항 없음. None of the above.
Q12. 학생들의 학업 성 취도 향상과 문제 해결을 돕기 위해 필요한 사 항을 모두 골라 주세요.
To address student problem areas and improve student achievement, I could use data on:
❏ 학교 성적 및 각종 시험 점수 grades and test scores
❏ 출결 사항 attendance records
❏ 징계 기록 disciplinary data
❏ 교우 관계 peer relationships
❏ 모두 해당 사항 없음. None of the above
Q13. 다음 각 항목에 대해 선 생님의 학생 지도/ 수업 방식 에 해당되 는 것을 표 시해 주 세요.
Please rate the following statements on the scale.

전혀 그렇 지
않다.
Strongly
disagree
별로 그렇 지
않다.
Somewhat
disagree
중간이다.

Neither agree
nor disagree
어느 정도
그렇다.
Somewhat
agree
매우
그렇다.
Strongly
agree
학생과 " 공감적" 의사
소통을 한다.
Having empathic
communications with
students

수업 중 학업 에 관심 을
갖지 못하 는 학생에
대해서는 어려운
문제들은 일단 피하 도록
배려한다.

190

Limiting providing
opportunities to challenge
difficult tasks if students
are not engaged
학생들이 자신의 학 습에
영향을 미칠 수 있는
결정을 스 스로 하도 록
격려한다.
Encouraging students to
make own decisions that
impact their learning

학생 지도 시 학생들 이
어려운 일에 도전하 도록
하는 것보 다, 그들을 지원
하는 것에 더 무게를
둔다.
Putting more weight on
support rather than on
challenge

나는 학생 들의 학업 목표
달성을 돕기 위해
교사로서 의 역할 과
책임감을 소중히 여 긴다.
I value my changing role
and responsibility for
helping students to achieve
their academic goals.

나는 학생 들의 효율 적인
학습의 극 대화를 위해
사회적, 감정 적인 도 움을
주는 것이 중 요하다 고
생각한다.
I value meeting the social
and emotional needs of
students to promote student
performance.

나는 교사 로서 나의
직업에 만 족한다.
Overall, I am satisfied with
my job as a teacher.

나는 학생 들을
효율적으 로 가르 치고
도와줄 수 있 다고
확신한다.
I am confident that I can
teach and support students

191

effectively.
나는 학생 들의
학업성취 도 향상 을 위해
극복해야 할 장애물 을
해결할 능 력이 있다 고
믿는다.
I feel positive about my
ability to persist through
barriers and challenges I
may face to achieve the
organizational goal.

학생들을 지도하 는 데에
있어서 나의 성공과
실패는 전 적으로 내
자신의 노 력에 달려
있다고 생 각한다.
My success or failure in
supporting students is due
to my own efforts.

나는 효과 적인 수업
방안에 대한 우리 학교
정책 및 실행 방안에 대해
잘 알고 있다.
I am familiar with the
school policies, processes,
and procedures that relate
to the implementation of
effective instruction.

내 수업 중에 는 학생 들이
질문을 편 안하고
자유롭게 한다.
I attempt to make my
students feel comfortable
asking questions.

우리 학교 는 개별
학생들의 대학 입학 준비
지도를 위해 준비할
시간을 부 여한다.
I have time to create
lessons and implement
programs that meet
students’ academic needs
and help students prepare
for individualized college
exams

나는 좀 더 나은 수업

192

방법 개발 과 학생들 의
역량강화 를 위한
교사연수 에 참여 하도록
재정 지원 을 받는다.
I have funds to engage in
professional development
to improve instructional
practice and better support
student achievement.
우리 학교 는 교사에 게
학생 지도 에 필요한
다양하고 객관적 인
자료를 충 분히 제공 하고
활용방법 에 대한
교사연수 를 제공 한다.
My school provides
various data sources and
professional development
opportunities so that
teachers can use and
analyze objective data to
improve student
achievement.

우리 학교 는 교사와 학생
간의 긍정 적인 관계
형성을 위해 노력한 다.
The culture of my school
creates positive and
supportive relationships
among school stakeholders
and students.

우리 학교 정 책은
학생들의 학업성 취도
향상을 위한
지역교육 청의 정책 및
실행과 일 치한다.
My school’s policies align
with the district goal of
improving student
academic performance.

193

나는 우리 학 교의 교육
정책, 과정, 절차 가 내가
효율적인 수업을 하는
데에 도움 을 준다고
생각한다.
I believe that the school
policies, processes, and
procedures support the
implementation of
effective instruction.

우리 학교 는 다양한 비
교과 프로 그램을
운영하고 있으며
학생들의 입시 경쟁 력
향상에 도 움을 주고 있다.
My school provides
diverse extracurricular
activities that help students
achieve their goals.

우리학교 는 학생 들에게
진로 탐색 기 회를 마 련해
준다.
My school provides
students with the
opportunity to explore
various occupational
pathways.

우리 학교 는 2015 년
개정된 교 육과정 에 맞춰
커리큘럼 및 수업 방식
변화에 적 극적으 로
대응하고 있다.
My school is actively
developing a revised
curriculum and a changed
way of instruction to adapt
to 2015 curriculum reform.

우리 학교 는 학생들 의
학업적 강 점과 개선 점
파악과 지 도를 위해
객관적 자 료를 활용 한다.
Our school uses data to
identify areas of strength
as well as areas of concern
and problem to enhance
individual student
academic achievement.

194

APPENDIX B: Interview Questions
1. What are the major college admission criteria in general admissions and special
admissions? Please focus your answers on the top 10 universities. What is your
understanding of the major current changes in college admission policies?
주요 10 개 대학의 일반전형과 수시전형에 대해 말씀해 주시기 바랍니다. 또한

최근의 대학입시 정책 변화에 대해 어떻게 생각하시나요?

2. What is your understanding of the 2015 Revision? What are the priorities and major
revisions?
2015 개정 교육과정에 대해 말씀해 주세요. 주요 개정 내용이 무엇인가요?
3. What are your students’ academic needs and intended majors? What strategies do you
think help teachers better identify students’ academic needs and intended majors?
학생들의 학업적 니즈와 희망하는 대학 전공에 대해 알고 계시나요? 학생들이
학업적으로 도움이 필요한 부분과 원하는 전공을 좀 더 잘 파악하기 위해 어떤
방법을 사용하시나요?
4. What are some of the strategies, principles, and models of creating a positive learning
environment that you are familiar with? What areas in this school would you identify as
problem areas in regard to creating a positive learning environment?
긍정적인 학업환경 조성을 위해 선생님은 어떤 방법을 사용하나요? 수업 중 어떤
전략이나 모델을 활용하시나요?
5. What are your thoughts about the impact of a positive school climate on supporting
student academic performance, behavior, and social-emotional needs?
긍정적인 학교 환경이 학생의 학업역량, 행동, 그리고 사회 정서적 니즈에 미치는

195

영향과 관련하여 선생님의 생각을 말씀해 주세요.
6. In what way do you embed activities that will enhance student-centered learning?
선생님은 학업자 중심 교육을 활성화 시키기 위해 어떤 활동들을 어떻게
활용하나요?
7. What are your thoughts about meeting students’ social-emotional needs? How do you
support the development of students’ social-emotional needs?
학생들의 사회 정서적 니즈에 대한 선생님의 의견을 말씀해 주세요. 학생들의 사회
정서적 니즈와 관련하여 학생들에게 어떤 도움을 주고 계신가요?
8. Let’s say you have a student who has no academic goals with low motivation. Please tell
me what steps you would take in enhancing student engagement and helping the student
find his intended major.
예를 들어, 학업목표와 동기가 부족한 학생이 있다고 가정해 보겠습니다. 이 경우,
선생님은 학생의 좀 더 적극적인 수업참여와 대학전공을 찾는 데에 도움을 주기
위해 어떤 단계를 밟을 건가요?
9. What data does your school utilize to address students’ academic or behavioral problems?
How does your school use a variety of data to enhance students’ performance?
선생님의 학교는 학생들의 학업적 어려움 혹은 문제적 행동을 파악하기 위해 어떤
자료를 사용하나요? 또한 선생님의 학교는 학생의 학업성취도 향상을 위해 다양한
자료를 어떻게 활용하나요?
10. How do you value your changing role and responsibility for helping students to achieve?
선생님은 학생들의 목표달성을 돕기 위한, 교사로서의 역할과 책임감을 어떻게
생각하나요?

196

11. How do you value a positive learning environment? Can you provide any examples of a
time when you thought about your school or class in terms of a positive learning
environment?
긍정적인 학업환경에 대해 선생님은 어떻게 생각하나요? 긍정적인 학업환경
조성을 위해 선생님의 학교나 학급에서 기울인 노력이 있다면 자세히 말씀해
주세요.
12. Describe a time when you taught and supported students effectively.
학생들을 효과적으로 가르치고 도움을 준 경험이 있다면 자세히 말씀해 주세요.
13. Describe your feelings towards your ability to persist through barriers and challenges
you may face to enhance students’ academic performance and achieve your school’s goal.
학생들의 학업성취도 향상과 학교 목표를 달성하기 위해 극복해야 할 장애물들이
있을 텐데요. 이를 극복할 능력에 대한 선생님의 생각을 자세히 말씀해 주세요.
14. What barriers to improve your school climate would you identify, and what makes these
barriers?
학교 분위기를 개선시키기 위해 극복해야 할 장애물은 어떤 것이 있나요? 어떤
부분이 이러한 장애물을 야기하는 지 자세히 설명해 주세요.
15. Describe the resources (such as time, funds, and or PD) you have to improve your
teaching and facilitate implementation of academic programs.
선생님의 학업성취도 향상과 학업 프로그램을 개선을 위해 선생님은 학교로 부터
어떤 지원을 받고 계신가요? 시간, 재정적 지원, 교사연수에 있어서, 학교로부터
받고 계신 지원에 대해 말씀해 주세요.
16. Describe the professional development opportunities you have participated with regard to

197

student academic achievement. In what areas would you like to receive professional
development?
선생님이 근무하는 학교는 학업성취도를 높이기 위해 어떤 교사 연수 기회를
마련해 주는지 말씀해 주세요. 또한 선생님은 어떤 교사 연수를 받고 싶으신가요?
17. In what ways do you or do you not feel that your school and/or district procedures
support your instruction to help students achieve?
선생님은 효율적인 수업을 위해 학교 혹은 지역교육청으로부터 어떤 도움을 받고
계신지 말씀해 주세요.
18. What are the barriers in your school policies, processes, and procedures, if any, that
prevent effective teaching and learning? What additional school policies, processes, and
procedures that relate to instructional practices would you like to see implemented?
학교 정책 및 과정 등과 관련하여, 교사의 효율적 수업과 학생들의 학업성취도
향상을 위해 극복해야 할 장애물에는 어떤 것들이 있나요? 또한, 교사 수업의 질을
향상하기 위해 반드시 실행되어야 할 학교 정책 및 과정들은 어떤 것들이 있나요?
19. To what extent does your school’s culture enhance positive relationships among all
school stakeholders and students? In what ways could your school improve its culture to
build positive relationships between teachers and students?
선생님의 학교는 학교 관계자들과 학생들 간의 긍정적인 관계형성을 위해 어떤
노력을 기울이고 있나요? 또한 교사와 학생 간의 긍정적인 관계 형성을 위해
학교는 어떤 지원이 필요한 지 선생님의 의견을 말씀해 주세요.

198

APPENDIX C
Immediate Program Evaluation Tool
Section 1
The following questions are related to components of your learning, mainly the knowledge and
skills you now have as a result of the training. Please select the best possible answer for
questions with multiple choices and be concise as possible for open-ended questions.

1. Which of the following changes and revisions made in CSAT and curriculum?

a. The use of technology is more emphasized in mathematics learning in the school
field than before.*
b. A school may organize and operate the number of units of courses,
but completion time should be observed.
c. The contents of only Korean and math are reduced.*
d. The educational contents based on key concepts are restructured and the similar
educational contents within the same subject or between different subjects are
integrated. *
e. Classes can be integrated based on the educational contents.*
2. Demonstrate when and how to apply the RTI steps to enhance students’ academic
success.

3. Describe strategies of how to promote active learning and what data to use to improve
student achievement

Section 2

Please rate the degree to which you agree or disagree with each of the following statements
related to training to improve student achievement. A 1 indicates that you Strongly Disagree and
a 5 indicates that you Strongly Agree.
1. The learning activities helped me to reinforce what I was taught during 1 2 3 4 5
the training.

2. After receiving feedback during the training, I feel confident to apply 1 2 3 4 5
what I learned into the classroom.

3. I am committed to using the knowledge, awareness, and/or skills I 1 2 3 4 5
learned to enhance student achievement.

4. I believe the feedback I received during the role-playing of scenarios 1 2 3 4 5
was valuable to utilize attribution-informed interventions (AR).

199

5. I believe the feedback I received during the role-playing of scenarios was 1 2 3 4 5
valuable to designing a positive and student-centered learning environment.

6. Participation and interaction among participants were encouraged. 1 2 3 4 5
Section 3
Please provide answer responses for feedback purposes to the following questions. Your
responses will remain anonymous. That is, your name or any personally identifiable information
will not be retained.
1. Which part of the training did you find irrelevant for enhancing student achievement?
How would you change the training?

2. What were the three most important things you learned from this session?

3. What kind of help might you need to apply what you learned?

4. What specific outcomes are you hoping to achieve as a result of the changes you will
Implement after this session?

200

Appendix D

Evaluation Instrument Delayed for a Period After Program Implementation

Please rate your agreement with this statement on a scale of 1-5.
- 1 = Strongly Disagree
- 2 = Somewhat Disagree
- 3 = Neither disagree nor agree
- 4 = Somewhat Agree
- 5 = Strongly Agree

Level 4 - Results and Leading Indicators

The following questions evaluate the quality of performance results after program
implementation.

1. Parent perception of the school as academically rigorous and 1 2 3 4 5
preparing for college has increased.

2. Please describe how parent perception of the school as academically rigorous and preparing
for college has changed since the completion of the training program.

3. The number of students transferring to other adjacent 1 2 3 4 5
regular high schools and elite schools have decreased.

4. Teacher engagement in training and PD have increased since 1 2 3 4 5
the completion of the training program.

5. Please describe how college readiness skills among students have improved in reading
intervention classes since the completion of the training program.

6. The number of students who demonstrate academic or behavioral 1 2 3 4 5
challenges have decreased.

7. Community publicity regarding the student academic achievement of 1 2 3 4 5
has increased.

Level 3 - Behavior

The following questions evaluate changes in behavior as a result of the training program.

8. I have modified instruction with appropriate instructional strategies of
creating student-centered learning based on ongoing student performance data. 1 2 3 4 5
9. I created a positive classroom community and culture to promote learning. 1 2 3 4 5

201

10. Since completion of the training program, have you used what you learned in training at
work? If so, what have you used?

Level 2 - Learning

The following questions evaluate elements of what you learned from the training program,
mainly any changes in your attitude, confidence, and commitment.

11. What is the importance of applying what was learned from the training program?

12. Please comment on how confident you feel about applying what you have learned to
monitoring and assessing student progress?

13. Since completion of the training, describe any changes in your classroom instruction.

Level 1 - Reaction

The following questions evaluate your reactions to the training program.

14. I have been able to use what I learned from the training program to my job. 1 2 3 4 5

15. Please provide a concrete example of how you applied into the classroom what you learned
during the program training.

16. I feel more positive about the impact teachers have on student achievement. 1 2 3 4 5

202

APPENDIX E
Informed Consent/Information Sheet
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Pkwy, Los Angeles CA, 90089

TEACHERS’ ROLE IN ENHANCING STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT
You are invited to participate in a research study. Your participation is voluntary. This document
explains information about this study. You should ask questions about anything that is unclear to
you.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to address the causes of the barriers present for teachers in
successfully fostering student achievement. We hope to learn how to enhance student
performance and close the college admission rate between regular high school students and elite
high school students. You are invited as a possible participant because you are teachers that work
full-time at a regular high school.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to answer a survey and participate in a
one-on-one interview. For a survey, you will complete the online using Qualtrics. At the end of
the survey, a link, which captures participants’ names and contact information, will be provided
to give participants the option to self-select into the interview process. For the interview, a Skype
Video Interview will be used in a face-to-face setting.

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will receive $10 the Starbucks e-gift card for your participation. The card will be given to
you when you return the questionnaire.

CONFIDENTIALITY
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California Institutional
Review Board (IRB) may access the data. The IRB reviews and monitors research studies to
protect the rights and welfare of research subjects. When the results of the research are published
or discussed in conferences, no identifiable information will be used. There will be no
identifiable information obtained in connection with this study. Your name, address or other
identifiable information will not be collected.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
The Principal Investigator is Kyuyeun Hahm (khahm@usc.edu)

The Faculty Advisor is Kenneth Yates, Ed.D. (kennetay@usc.edu) (310) 963-0946

203

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, please contact the
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board at (323) 442-0114 or email
irb@usc.edu.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Hahm, Kyuyeun (author)

Core Title Examining regular high school teachers’ roles in enhancing students academic performance: a gap analysis

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 07/27/2020

Defense Date 05/26/2020

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education,enhancing student performance,OAI-PMH Harvest,regular teachers' role

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Yates, Kenneth Anthony (committee chair), Castruita, Rudy Max (committee member), Krop, Cathy Sloane (committee member)

Creator Email khahm@usc.edu,potatohahm@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-344054

Unique identifier UC11663436

Identifier etd-HahmKyuyeu-8788.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-344054 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-HahmKyuyeu-8788.pdf

Dmrecord 344054

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Hahm, Kyuyeun

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA