University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Closing the achievement gap for marginalized students using the college-going culture: a promising practices study

(USC Thesis Other)

Closing the achievement gap for marginalized students using the college-going culture: a promising practices study

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content

Closing the Achievement Gap for Marginalized Students Using the College-Going Culture:
A Promising Practices Study
by
Obioma Amarachi Ude

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2020

Copyright 2020 Obioma Amarachi Ude

ii

DEDICATION

"For every one of us that succeeds, it's because there's somebody there to show you the way out.
The light doesn't always necessarily have to be in your family; for me, it was teachers and
school."
- Oprah Winfrey

To the Academy of Higher Learning, early college enterprise, and the teachers who paved the
way for all minorities like myself to succeed, and saw the value in us before we saw it in
ourselves: THANK YOU.

This is for you: Ms. Enwemanya (third-grade teacher); Mrs. Skipka (sixth-eighth grade teacher);
Ms. Stinson (HS French teacher); Mr. Fortune and the late Ms. Cherry (HS Math teachers); the
late Ms. Martinez (HS Guidance Counselor); Mr. Yip (HS AP), and Mr. Gaskins (HS Principal).
Thank you for holding me to higher standards and forcing me to prove myself in and out of the
classroom. Thank you for going beyond your titles as teacher, staff, or principal and affording
me the opportunities to make it this far in my education: I did it!

iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
"Believe in yourself, learn, and never stop wanting to build a better world."
- Mary McLeod Bethune
Was it in my plans to earn a terminal degree? No. But as I progressed in my career, one
thing became evident to me – I needed a seat at a table. I wanted to make sure that when I sat at a
table amongst the decision-makers, I would not be there to plead my case but instead have a
voice that counts. So I decided to arm myself with a tool I can control, having a terminal degree.
So here I am, earning a degree that spans across all disciplines: Organizational Change and
Leadership.
When I started this program, I didn’t know what to expect. I went through the process –
applied, got accepted, started classes, met all milestones, attended all immersions, met my
classmates, and yet – I started and graduated with the imposter syndrome. Some way, somehow,
I found the inner strength to keep pushing forward, but I have to humbly give praise to God and
Times Square Church for keeping me. Thank you for all of the answered prayers every semester
and moments that I fasted to get through the hard times. This journey was hard, every semester
grew more challenging, but I would not trade this experience for the world. Through all of the
sleepless nights, loud and silent tears, missed events, poor diet, classes held at the airport or
camping grounds, reading, writing, and completing assignments on the NYC trains at all hours –
I am finally here.
To everyone that kept me humble, safe, and sane through this process:
To my committee: Dr. Tracy Tambascia, Dr. Raquel Sanchez, and Dr. Alan Green.
Thank you for supporting me every step of the way and challenging me to believe in myself and
my work. Thank you for seeing my potential and making me rise to the occasion every step of

iv

the way. I could not have done this without you. Dr. T, thank you for your patience, allowing me
the room to trust the process and bringing me this far.
To my inspirations and cheerleaders: Dr. Lynn Minnart, Dr. Alicia Williams, Joanne
Algranati, and Natasha Martinez. Thank you for pushing me, believing in me, and supporting me
throughout the entire process. From the pep talks, lunch dates, happy hours, check-ins, office
drop-ins, text messages, and notes manifesting my completion from the start – I am forever
indebted to you. And to my team who encouraged me and supported my journey: Dr. David
Kanter, Dr. Nandini Thiyagarajan, Dr. Jordan Sheridan, Dr. Sonali McDermid, Dr. Anne
Rademacher, Dr. Colin Jerolmack, Mari Roberts, and many more; I couldn’t have done it
without your flexibility, feedback, care, willingness to help during the process and endless
advice! THANK YOU!
To my family, who have been proud of me since I started this journey: To my
grandmother, who didn’t get the chance to pursue her education, I got this for you. To my
mother, who made the ultimate sacrifice to afford me this opportunity - I took it all the way
(Mama I made it!). To my dad, brother, sister, cousins, baby niece and nephew (you made it right
on time), and extended family who encouraged me whenever I needed to hide from the world or
used me as bragging rights to the world, this is our degree. Thanks for celebrating me
prematurely and speaking this into existence. I am forever grateful for each of you, and I hope to
continue to make you proud.
To my village, who never held my absence from major events against me, my friends!
Busola O., Dahlene S., Jennifer “Benn” C., Kriston J., Spencer R., Jermaine D., Lloyd D jr.,
Crystal P., Brandon R., Christine C., Fati S., Shaela A., Loren S., Diann P., Z Barr, Yomi B. and
many more that goes unnoticed – THANK YOU for every “I’m proud of you” and “keep going;

v

you got this!” From the encouraging text messages, phone calls, home visits, weekend trips or
vacations that I brought my laptop along as my plus one, revising my papers, cooking for me,
still including me on event invitations even though you knew I couldn’t attend, checking to make
sure I met my deadlines, sending care packages, checking my pulse, or simply just being there –
all without judgment: my gratitude can never be repaid, and I thank you.
To the USC community and Organizational Change and Leadership Program Cohort 9 –
We Made It! Special THANKS to Debbie Lindgren and Caroline Gray (the editor) for always
keeping me entertained during class, studying with me, keeping me accountable, and writing
with me during the cold winter weekends. Despite our locations, we made time to check-in,
laugh, cry, get through life’s challenges, and make sure we made it to the other side. To be part
of this incredible group of folks in Cohort 9 still makes the imposter syndrome linger over my
head! I am in awe of our journey, but I find solace in knowing that we are here to make real
changes in the world across all disciplines! But I can’t forget the professors that set the tone for
my journey in this program. Special thanks for instilling some of life’s greatest lessons: “Let
your research guide your topic” - Kimberly Ferrario (let your experiences shape your purpose);
“Play in the sandbox” – Anthony Maddox (be open to the world of the unknown and embrace all
the unexpected experiences). I will keep USC in my spirits and continue to “Fight On!” We are
now Trojans for life.
#FightOn

To the late great Kobe Bryant and Gianna Bryant, may the world continue to honor your legacy
and work ethic.
#MambaMentality
#BlackLivesMatter

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION…………………………………………………………………………………… ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS…………………………………..…………………………...……… iii
LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………………………..ix
LIST OF FIGURES…………………………………………………………………………..…...x
ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………………...xi
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………..……1
Organizational Context and Mission……………………………………………..………..2
Organizational Performance Status.…………………………………………………..…...3
Related Literature……………………………………………………………………..…...3
Importance of a Promising Practice Project……………………………………………….4
Description of Stakeholder Groups………………………………………………………..5
Stakeholder Group for the Study………………………………………………………......6
Purpose of the Project and Questions………………………………………………………6
Methodological Framework…………………………………………………………….....6
Key Definitions……………………………………………………………………………8
Organization of the Project……………………………………………………….………..9

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ……………..…………………………….……….10
Creating a College-Going Culture in the School ……………….……………….……….10
Closing the Achievement Gap ………………………………………………….….…….12
Achievement Gap …………………….………………………………………………..12
Achievement Gap and Marginalized Students ………………...…………….…………13
Marginalized Students and Subject Areas ………………...……………………..……..16
Teacher Influence ………………………………………………………………...……20
College-Going Culture ………………………………………………………………...21
Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences Framework…………….……....22
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences …..……….……....23
Knowledge and Skills ………………………………………………………….………23
Knowledge About College-Going Culture …………………….…….……………...25
Effectively Incorporate College-Going Culture Strategies in the Classroom …….…26
Teachers Evaluate Their Classroom Expectations to Increase College Readiness......27
Motivation …………………………………………………………………………......30
Self-Efficacy Theory………………….……..…………………………………….....31
Expectancy-Value Theory .………….……….....…………………………………...31
Organization…………….………………………………….…….…------.….………...35
Cultural Model and Trust ……….……….…………………………..…...…………..35
Cultural Setting and Resources ………….……………………….....…………...…...37
Conceptual Framework………..…………………………………………………………38
Conclusion ...………………………………………………….………………………….43

vii

CHAPTER THREE: METHODS………………………………………………………………..45
Participating Stakeholders……………………………………………………………….45
Interview and Focus Group Sampling Criteria and Rationale…………………………46
Criterion 1…………..………………...……………………………………………...46
Criterion 2……………………..……...……………………………………………...46
Criterion 3…………………....…………….………………………………………...46
Recruitment Strategy…………………...……………………………………………...47
Data Collection and Instrumentation……………………………………………….……48
Instrumentation……………………………………………………………………...…48
Interviews and Focus Group……………………………………………………………50
Interview Protocol…….….…..………………………………………………………50
Interview Procedures…………………………………………………………………50
Focus Group Protocol…………………………………………………...……………51
Focus Groups Procedures …………………………………..…………………..……52
Data Analysis…………………………………………………………………………….53
Credibility and Trustworthiness………………………………………………………….54
Credibility………………………………………………………………………......….54
Trustworthiness……………………………………………..………………………….55
Ethics…………………………………...……………………..………………………….56
Limitations and Delimitations……………………………….…………………………...57
Limitations……………………………………………...……………………………...57
Delimitations………………………………………………………………..………….58
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………….…58

CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS……………………………………………………………...…..59
Participating Stakeholders……………………………………………………………….59
Interview Participants………………………………………………………………….60
Focus Group Participants……………………...……………………………………….61
Findings………………………………………………………………………………….61
College Centered Approach..……………………………………...…………………...63
College Styled Classrooms.…….……………………………...……………………..65
Student Interactions…………..………………………………………………………...74
Differentiated Learning.…………………………………………….………………..76
Advisory……….…..…………………………………………………………………81
Safe Space……………………………………….………….....……………………..84
Positive School Environment……………………….……………………..…………...89
Leadership Support for Teachers……........…………………………………………..90
School-Wide Approach……………..………………………………………………..95
Conclusion……...……………………………………………………………………..…97

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION………………………………………………………………..99
Organizational Context and Mission……………………………………………………..99
Organizational Performance Status…………………………….……………………..100
Description of Stakeholder Goal…………………………………………………..…100
Purpose of the Project and Questions……………………………………….…..……100
Recommendations for Practice…………………………………………………...……..101

viii

Recommendations 1…………………………………….……………………...……..102
Recommendations 2…………………………….……………………………...……..102
Recommendations 3…………………………………………….……………...……..104
Recommendations 4…………………………………………………….……...……..105
Recommendations 5………….………………………………………………...……..107
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan………………..……………….……...108
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators……………………………….……………..109
Level 3: Behavior…………………………………………………………….……….110
Critical Behaviors………….……………………………………………….……….110
Required Drivers……………………………..…………………………….……….111
Level 2: Learning……………………………………………………………………..112
Learning Goals.…………………………………………………………….……….112
Level 1: Reaction……………………………………………………………………..115
Evaluation Tools…………………………………………………………...…..……..116
Immediately Following the Program Implementation…………………….………..116
Delayed for a Period After the Program Implementation..………………….……….117
Data Analysis and Reporting…………………….……………………………..……..117
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach……………………………………..……...118
Limitations and Delimitations………………………………………………..…………118
Limitations………………………………………………..………………………..…118
Delimitations………………………………………………..………………...………119
Future Research………………………………………………………………..………..119
Conclusion………………………………..…………………………………………….121

References………………………………………………………………………………………123

Appendices...……………………………………………………………………………………135
Appendix A: Information Sheet……………….…………………………………...…...135
Appendix B: Interview Protocol……………………………..…………………………137
Appendix C: Focus Group Protocol………………………….………..………………..140
Appendix D: Mapping of KMO Questions……………………………………………..143
Appendix E: Post-Training Evaluation Questionnaire……………….………………....146
Appendix F: Summary Table of Influences……………………………………………..149
Appendix G: Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations……………...150
Appendix H: Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations………………151
Appendix I: Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations……………..152

ix

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Knowledge Influences ..………………………………...……………………………….29
Table 2 Motivation Influences …………………………..….…………………………………....34

Table 3 Organizational Influences ……..………………………………………………………...38

Table 4 Interview population demographics………………………………………………...…....60
Table 5 Focus Group population demographics…………………………………………...……..61
Table 6 Research Questions and Emerging Themes Found in Data………………………….......62
Table 7 Validated influences - college centered approach………………………..……………....64
Table 8 Validated influences - student interaction………………………………………………..75
Table 9 Validated influences - positive school environment…...…………………………….......90
Table 10 Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes………….........109
Table 11 Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation…………………....110
Table 12 Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors………………..………………….…111
Table 13 Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program……………………...…..115
Table 14 Components to Measure Reactions to the Program……...……………………………116

x

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Gap Analysis Process Chart.……………………………………………….……………..7
Figure 2 Average NAEP Reading Scale Scores of 12th-Grade Students….………………….......15
Figure 3 Average NAEP Math Scale Scores of Fourth-Eighth Grade Students…………..……...17
Figure 4 Average NAEP Reading Scale Scores of Fourth-Eighth Grade Students.……………..19
Figure 5 Conceptual Framework……………………...………………………………………….42

xi

ABSTRACT
What contributes to marginalized students' academic success in secondary school and
matriculation into college? This dissertation examined how the Academy of Higher Learning
college-going culture successfully helped to close the achievement gap of marginalized students.
Bettinger and Long (2009) explained that while students meet the standards for high school
graduation, they perform below academic expectations at the college level. The division between
high school competencies and college readiness poses a threat to students' postsecondary
academic performance. Additionally, students admitted to college through remediation programs
often experience lower graduation rates (Calcagno et al., 2007). This qualitative case study
aimed to understand the knowledge, motivation, and organizational assets used by seventeen
focal teachers at the Academy of Higher Learning that contributed to their marginalized students'
academic success and successful matriculation to higher institutions. The conceptual framework
used for the study was Clark and Estes's (2008) gap analysis, which highlights how a highly
successful public school addressed the achievement gap by employing institutional practices that
fostered a college-going culture within the school. Findings from this case study validated all
five of Clark and Estes's assumed college-going assets, which included cultivating a college
centered approach, constant student engagement, and implementing a positive school
environment. This study provides recommendations of transferable practices to other schools and
institutions committed to supporting implementation and evaluation plans that increase student
matriculation into higher institutions.

Keywords: Achievement Gap, Student Success, Marginalized Student, College-Going Culture,
Gap Analysis.

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Students encounter many difficulties as they transition from the K-12 system to higher
education. Some of these difficulties result from a lack of alignment between the K-12 and post-
secondary curricular structures (Michaels et al., 2011; Maloney 2007; Domina, 2007). While
high school curriculum addresses secondary school standards, they do not always address college
preparation (Holme et al., 2010). High performance in high school does not guarantee college
preparation due to the differences in high school and college standards (D’Agostino & Bonner,
2009). The disparity between high school and post-secondary standards has resulted in a growing
achievement gap between marginalized and non-marginalized students (Welton & Williams,
2015; Brown, 2009; Olszewski-Kubilius, 2006). When K-12 and post-secondary educational
systems fail to collaborate on a common goal for students, the gap will result in difficult
transitions for students moving from K-12 to higher education (Welton & Williams, 2015).
Some secondary schools address this issue by creating a college-going culture for their
students. Holland and Farmer-Hinton (2009) described a robust college-going culture as an
academic environment that provides information and resources while encouraging further
structured and unstructured discussions that prepare students for attending and graduating from
college. A college-going culture enhances academic results for marginalized students (Allen et
al., 2009) and addresses the needs of individual student that challenges their desires to attend
college (Bosworth et al., 2014). Roderick et al. (2011) explained that high school students whose
teachers exposed them to a college-centered atmosphere were 12% more inclined to pursue post-
secondary education.

2

Organizational Context and Mission
The Academy of Higher Learning (AHL) (a pseudonym) is a secondary school serving
students from sixth to 12
th
Grade. AHL was established in 2006 through a partnership between
the City Board of Education and the university system of the city. AHL’s mission mainly focuses
on providing holistic education to students by bridging the gaps among middle school, high
school, and post-secondary education, while providing them with robust support systems (School
Mission, n.d.). According to the School Mission (n.d.), AHL seeks to create an environment that
enables all students to learn by soliciting ongoing support from the staff, students, parents,
college, and the community.
Academy of Higher Learning (AHL) identifies as an Early College High School, serving
marginalized students with diverse interests to successfully navigate from sixth to 12
th
Grade
through their unique partnership with Higher Learning University (HLU) (a pseudonym). AHL
embarked on an ambitious experiment in hopes of better preparing students to navigate their
educational careers from an earlier age and allows students to take college-level courses once
they enter the 11
th
grade. At the high school level, students gain access to most of the resources
and facilities at HLU, a strategy used to introduce a college-going culture to the students. AHL’s
partnership with Higher Learning University created a community that includes students, staff
members, teachers, and parents from the middle school and high school, along with some faculty
and higher education staff from HLU. AHL serves over 600 students; African American students
account for 25% of the student body; Latino/a students 30%; Asian students 5%; White students
40%; and 19% of students who identify as special needs (Department of Education, 2018).

3

Organizational Performance Status
Academy of Higher Learning is an institution where 99% of its students complete
approved college or career preparatory courses and exams. Teachers at AHL provide rigorous
instruction that has resulted in high student achievements; 93% of students graduate college-
ready, which is measured by their ability to meet the collegiate standard by bypassing remedial
courses (AHL 2017-2018 School Quality Snapshot).
The School Quality Snapshot is an annual report produced by the state Department of
Education that provides the general public with a review of a school’s performance and
conditions. The 2017–18 School Quality Snapshot revealed that AHL has continuously produced
high performing students from marginalized groups. Additionally, 91% of the students who
graduate from AHL also enrolled in college or other post-secondary programs within six months.
For perspective, the mean graduation rates for comparable schools are 78%, local schools at
47%, and the city at 49%. The Academy of Higher Learning is a model institution for high
school graduation.
Related Literature
Historically, colleges and universities have dealt with the issue of the educational
achievement gap among marginalized students by acknowledging the role of race in contributing
to the disparity. The achievement gap is described as the contrast in academic performance,
where one subgroup outperforms the other (Kotok, 2017). Racial achievement gaps between
marginalized and non-marginalized students are the most studied and examined discrepancies in
the United States (Covay Minor, 2016). Reardon (2016) explained that racial segregation is
associated with the academic achievement gap, and it is most prevalent in high-poverty schools,
which are usually populated with marginalized students. The marginalization of a student may

4

exist due to cultural differences, socioeconomic status, and knowledge gaps, which may require
additional assistance for the student in their learning environments (Akin & Neumann, 2013).
The study also found that due to federal oversight, the effectiveness of high-poverty schools may
be more scrutinized compared to low-poverty schools due to their ability to provide valuable
academic work and college preparation for their students (Reardon, 2016). High poverty schools
receive higher federal funding due to higher-expenditure per pupil and need to adhere to federal
funding reporting requirements (Garrison-Mogren & Gutmann, 2012). College-going culture is
recognized, along with college readiness and college access, as critical factors that increase
college preparation for marginalized students (Bethea, 2016). Although high schools are
intended to provide students with the knowledge and skills to pursue post-secondary education,
the misalignment of standards between both sectors is creating a flawed system where students
are not sufficiently knowledgeable about college expectations (Kirst & Venezia, 2001). K-12 and
post-secondary sectors need to be aligned for change; however, real educational reform cannot
be solely accomplished by the K-12 system (Kirst & Venezia, 2001).
Importance of a Promising Practice Project
Studying high performing schools that close the achievement gap for marginalized
students is crucial for identifying key strategies that can remedy the achievement gap. It is
important to understand how schools can close the achievement gap through an integrated
curriculum and not rely on supplementary programs to do so. Various initiatives such as iMentor
and college readiness access and success program (CRASP) were developed by school leaders,
counselors, teachers, and community leaders to improve marginalized students’ knowledge and
aspirations about college (Merrill et al., 2015; Yavuz, 2016); however, such programs are not
implemented in every school across the nation. Despite initiatives implemented to assist students

5

with college preparation (Yuvuz, 2016), the disparity in their achievement gap will continue to
impact the educational system in the United States. A partnership between K-12 and higher
education that will help sustain higher education standards at the K-12 levels would not only
produce a successful transition between the systems but will also increase educational
opportunities for many students (Michaels et al., 2011).
Studying promising practices can help identify appropriate training and support
strategies, which ultimately results in the sustained vitality of the United States educational
system. With adequate training and supports in place, marginalized students can experience
increased academic rigor, overcome difficulties in a variety of social settings, and expand
opportunities for post-secondary academic success. These experiences can have a profoundly
positive impact on the overall quality of life for marginalized students.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
A stakeholder group is a group of individuals who directly contribute to and benefit from
the achievement of the organization’s goal. Some stakeholders to consider at AHL are students,
teachers, and administrators. Students are important in achieving the organization’s performance
goal because the assessments are based on the students’ performance. Teachers also play a key
role in the achievement of the organization’s performance goal because they are responsible for
the delivery of the in-class knowledge and experience that students need to pass their
assessments. Lastly, administrators play a critical role by creating a supportive environment and
school culture that encourages students and teachers to perform at their maximum potential in
hopes of achieving the organization’s performance goal.

6

Stakeholder Group for the Study
Although shared efforts from all stakeholder groups would be necessary to accomplish
the overall goal of increasing college preparation for marginalized students, it is essential to
understand the promising practices and strategies utilized by AHL teachers as they implemented
the policies and procedures that align with college expectations. Thus, the stakeholders of focus
for this promising study will be the teachers at the Academy of Higher Learning.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project is to study the teachers’ role in aligning secondary and post-
secondary education by creating a college-going culture. The analysis will focus on the assets in
the areas of knowledge and skill, motivation, and organizational resources. The questions that
will guide the promising practice study are the following:
1. What are the teachers’ knowledge and motivation related to creating a college-going
culture for marginalized students?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and teachers’
knowledge and motivation?
3. What recommendations in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational
resources may be appropriate to foster a college-going culture at another school?
Methodological Framework
A qualitative case study was used to study the Academy of Higher Learning’s assets in
the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources. Teachers’ assets were
examined through a focus group and interviews.
The methodological framework applied to this study is Clark and Estes's (2008) gap
analysis, which solves organizational performance problems. The assumption associated with

7

this analysis is that organizations frequently rush to solutions rather than understand the root
cause of the problems. Figure 1 provides a map that uncovers the underlying causes of the
performance issues and helps create evidence-based solutions.

Figure 1. Gap Analysis Process Chart.
The first step in this gap analysis process is to simplify the organization’s goal that allows
success to be measured. The next step entails assessing the current achievement status of the goal
to create a baseline. It is assumed that the baseline would be lower than the organizational goal.
The difference between the baseline and the organization’s goal is the analyzed gap.
The most critical step in the gap analysis process is how to filter the causes of the gap in
hopes of discovering the root causes. Clark and Estes provide a thorough framework that
discusses three factors in organizational problems. The first factor is whether individuals possess
sufficient knowledge and skills to achieve the goal. The second factor is whether individuals are
adequately motivated to reach the goal. The third factor is whether the organization hinders their
employees’ ability to accomplish the goals due to lack of resources or training, inadequate
managers, or outdated processes. The gap analysis process utilizes a research-based approach

8

that hypothesizes the assumed cause, identifies appropriate tools to assess those assumptions, and
use the tools to validate the assumptions.
Once the root causes are recognized, solutions are created based on the needs of the
organization. It is ultimately the organization’s decision to implement the proposed solutions,
which would be assessed over time to gauge if the goals are met or need to be reexamined.
This process can be amended to fit a promising practice study. Although key aspects of
the process may remain the same, the analytical process can be adjusted to fit the needs of the
organization. The promising practice organization has proven substantial progress towards the
goal and decline in the gap. Additionally, the organization has assets that positively influence
their high performance. The same gap analysis focusing on knowledge, motivation, and
organizational assets is conducted to confirm the influence of those assets. The solutions
generated from the research may be valuable to other organizations.
Key Definitions
College readiness: a student who is ready for university-level education that can qualify for
admission and succeed in an entry-level, credit-bearing institution course that will result in a
baccalaureate degree or certificate without the need for remedial coursework
College-going culture: the environment, attitudes, and practices in classrooms, schools, and
communities that encourage students and their families to acquire adequate information and
perspective to improve access to and succeed in post‐secondary education
Marginalized population: a society or group that is or has been historically treated as
unimportant, insignificant, powerless, or of lower status; this may include Black, Latino/a,
Indigenous, and people occupying low-income communities

9

Organization of the Project
Five chapters are used to organize this study. This chapter provided the reader with the
fundamental concepts and terminology commonly found in a discussion about access for
marginalized students. The organization’s mission, goals, and stakeholders, as well as the initial
concepts of gap analysis, were introduced. Chapter Two provides a review of the current
literature surrounding the scope of the study. Topics of college readiness, creating a college-
going culture, and access for marginalized students will be addressed. Chapter Three details the
assumed causes for this study, methodology, participant selection, and data collection and
analysis. In Chapter Four, the data and results will be assessed and analyzed. Chapter Five
provides recommendations, based on data and literature, for closing the perceived gaps as well as
recommendations for an implementation and evaluation plan.

10

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
This literature review will examine the impact and the causes of the achievement gap on
the marginalized population, along with the development of a college-going culture to address
this disparity in the United States K-12 educational system. The review begins with general
research on the elements of a college-going culture as it relates to college readiness, followed by
an overview of the benefits of a college-going culture environment. The review then presents the
challenges of implementing college-going culture strategies in and out of the classroom. This
section includes current research on teacher preparation and practices in urban schools.
Following the extensive research literature, the review turns to the gap analysis framework
(Clark & Estes, 2008), and will examine the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences on teachers’ ability to implement a college-going culture within their classroom
setting.
Creating a College-Going Culture in the School
College-going culture is a critical element to increase college readiness for marginalized
students (Convertino & Graboski-Bauer, 2018; Welton & Williams, 2015) and addresses the
achievement gap for marginalized students, which has been a long-standing concern in the
educational systems (Kirst & Venezia, 2001). The negative impact of the growing achievement
gap against marginalized students (Convertino & Graboski-Bauer, 2018; Hursh, 2007; Kirst &
Venezia, 2001; Welton & Williams, 2015) has prompted a closer look at the influence of their
school environment. School-wide emphasis on college-going culture must be established to
ensure student college-readiness (McClafferty et al., 2002). Welton and Williams (2015) added
that college-going culture is most successful when implemented by all stakeholders in a school.
In addition, Oakes (2003) and Schneider (2007) agreed that all stakeholders must set high

11

expectations on academic success for all students and provide the appropriate support, resources,
and preparation needed for post-secondary education. Students who are exposed to the idea of
higher education in their K-12 school setting will not only be knowledgeable about future
educational opportunities, but will be well prepared for the academic rigor at the higher level
(McKillip et al., 2013; Oakes, 2003). Holland and Farmer-Hinton (2009), McDonough (2004),
and Wimberly (2002) explained that marginalized students rely heavily on their school
administration to provide essential information about college preparation, the process of applying
to colleges, and how to succeed upon admission. However, many schools lack the resources to
encourage the idea of college to their students (Farmer-Hinton & McCullough, 2008). These
resources may include providing the student with a roadmap on how to enroll in college
(McClafferty & McDonough, 2000) by learning how to navigate the paperwork process for
college application, enrollment services, and financial assistance (Auerbach, 2002). Studies also
indicate that teachers’ ability to foster a college influence in their classrooms and curriculum has
a great impact on student expectations, which further enhances a students’ likelihood to pursue
college (Hornstra et al., 2015; Schneider, 2007; Oakes, 2003; Welton & Williams, 2015).
Holland and Farmer-Hinton (2009) added that school settings, both in and out of the classrooms,
must be saturated with information and resources that create space for ongoing formal and
informal discussions about post-secondary education preparation.
Further research studies clearly state that a sense of belonging impacts college students’
likelihood to persist to graduation (Demi et al., 2010; King, 1996; McCollough, 2011). To
normalize post-secondary attendance, Welton and Williams (2015) explained that schools should
communicate to students that college readiness is a standard, leading students to “believe that

12

college is for them and is not reserved for the exceptional few who triumph over adversity to rise
above all others" (Oakes, 2003, p. 2).
Lastly, studies in the United States provide evidence of a strong correlation between
teachers’ decision to encourage college elements in their classroom or utilize supplemental
resources in their curriculum and students’ decision to successfully pursue a college education
(McClafferty et al., 2002; McCollough, 2011; Oakes, 2003; Welton & Williams, 2015).
McClafferty et al. (2002) and Welton and Williams (2015) revealed that college-going culture
could be promoted through classroom instruction if teachers included discussions regarding post-
secondary education in their curriculum. Furthermore, McCollough (2011) added that student
support from teachers in collaboration with students' families motivates students to attend
college. Further assessment of teachers’ implementation of college-going culture and its impact
on college readiness for marginalized students will help clarify its impact on the achievement
gap.
Closing the Achievement Gap
The sections below will frame this study by addressing the issues related to the essential
role teachers play in their students’ lives. This section also explains teachers’ role in influencing
the achievement gap for marginalized students.
Achievement Gap
Studies have shown that the academic achievement gap is a persistent problem in
education (Bailey & Dynarski, 2011; Reardon, 2013; Roach, 2001). Dating back to the 1950s,
educators believed that the 1954 ruling of Brown v. Board of Education would begin the process
of eliminating racial academic gaps (Madyun, 2011). Madyun (2011) and Mickelson (1990)
found that after the desegregation of schools, teachers and administrators were not cognizant of

13

identifying the learning gaps between students. After the Brown ruling, school officials were
required to reexamine styles of teaching, along with learning differences for marginalized and
non-marginalized students (Madyun, 2011). Despite the efforts to desegregate schools,
systematic segregation has reemerged in the school systems. Re-segregation of schools emerged
in the early 1980s, which was also the beginning of the gap in academic achievement between
minority students and their non-minority counterparts (Bailey & Dynarski, 2011; Brown-Jeffy,
2006). More recent studies have revealed growing racial and socioeconomic disparities between
schools with a significant minority student body and schools with a larger White population
(Brown-Jeffy, 2006; Madyun, 2011; Reardon, 2013).
Over the last four decades, communities have become increasingly segregated
residentially in the United States (Reardon & Bischoff, 2011), and in many places, schools have
grown more segregated by income (Reardon, 2013). Kornrich and Furstenberg (2013) revealed
that high-income families spend almost seven times as much on the education of their children as
low-income families, an increase from a ratio of four times as much from the 1970s. The
achievement gap is not a phenomenon of current times, but rather a deep-rooted issue embedded
in America’s history. It is vital for researchers to understand the impact of the reemergence of
segregation in schools and its influence on the achievement gap.
Achievement Gap and Marginalized Students
Research shows that the divide in educational attainment between minorities and White
have remained, despite efforts to close the gap (Reardon, 2013; Slavin & Madden, 2006).
Academic achievement is measured by standardized exams in the K-12 system (Reardon, 2013).
According to the National Center for Education Statistics, achievement gaps were apparent
among 12
th
Grade students. The White-African American student achievement gap was greater

14

in 2015 (30 points) than in 1992 (24 points), while the White-Hispanic gap in 2015 (20 points)
was not significantly changed from 1992 (Musu-Gillette et al., 2017). Musu-Gillette et al. (2017)
also revealed that the achievement gap between White students (295 points) and Hispanic (276
points) students in reading amongst 12
th
Graders was not significantly different from 2013 and
1992. In addition, the 2015 average reading score for African American students (266 points)
decreased from their 1992 score (273 points), and the decline was also evident in the 2013
reading score. Musu-Gillette et al. (2017) also found that the average math scores for 12
th
Grade
White students were greater than the scores for their Hispanic, African American, and American
Indian/Alaska Native peers in every survey year since 2005; however, Asian American students
scored greater (a gap of 11 points) than White students in 2015. Figure 2 shows an overview of
the 12
th
Grade reading scores by race and ethnicity in 1992, 2013, and 2015.

15

Figure 2
Average National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) Reading Scale Scores of 12
th
-
Grade Students, by Race/Ethnicity: 1992, 2013, and 2015.

Schools that serve predominately minority students are usually far less funded and have
less qualified teachers than those attended by White students (Pitre, 2014; Slavin & Madden,
2006). Teacher quality may be a contributing factor in the unequal access to education for
marginalized students. Schools with primarily a marginalized student body suffer from
overcrowded classes, fewer materials, teacher turnover, and a lack of textbooks that make it
difficult for teachers to assign homework to students because texts must be shared in class (Pitre,
2014).

16

Marginalized Students and Subject Areas
The academic gap between marginalized and White students develops early in
elementary school (Slavin & Madden, 2006). According to Musu-Gillette et al. (2017), the
academic achievement gaps were apparent among fourth- and eighth- grade students. Spanning
over 15 years from 1990 through 2015, the average math scores for White fourth- and eighth-
grade students were consistently higher than the scores of their African American and Hispanic
peers (Musu-Gillette et al., 2017). The gap among White students and African American students
at the fourth-grade level decreased to 24 points in 2015 from 32 points in 1990. Figure 3 depicts
an overview of the fourth- and eighth- grade math scores by race and ethnicity in 1990, 2013,
and 2015.

17

Figure 3
Average National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) Mathematics Scale Scores of
Fourth- and Eighth- Grade Students, by Race/Ethnicity: 1990, 2013, and 2015.

Similarly, Musu-Gillette et al. (2017) added that the White-Hispanic achievement gap of
18-points in 2015 did not differ from the results from 1990 and White students scored higher
than all other student groups including American Indian/Alaska Native, Pacific Islander, and
students of two or more races. Asian American students scored higher (gap of 11 points) than
White students (Musu-Gillette et al., 2017). At the grade 4 level, the White-African American
academic gap in reading reduced to 26 points in 2015 from 32 points in 1992, along with a

18

decrease to 24 points in 2015 from 32 points in 1990 in mathematics. The White-Hispanic gap of
24 points in reading did not differ from the scores from 1992 and remained consistent with the
unchanged gap of 18 points from in 2015 and 1990 (Musu-Gillette et al., 2017). Comparable
patterns remained at the eighth-grade level. Musu-Gillette et al. (2017) data revealed that at the
eighth-grade level, the White-Hispanic academic gap in reading reduced to 21 points in 2015
from 26 points in 1992 but there was no measurable difference in the 22 points gap in 2015 and
the gap in 1990 in mathematics; however, the White-African America gap persists with no
measurable differences in both reading (26 points – 2015 and 1992) and math (32 points – 2015
and 1990). Figure 4 shows an overview of the fourth- and eighth- grade reading scores by race
and ethnicity in 1990, 2013, and 2015.

19

Figure 4
Average National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) Reading Scale Scores of Fourth-
and Eighth- Grade Students, by Race/Ethnicity: 1990, 2013, and 2015.

The achievement gap has an enduring impact on marginalized students. Research showed
that when the gap appears in elementary schools, it continues throughout high school, which
impacts graduation rates, college attendance and completion, and thus widens disparities in
socioeconomic status (Reardon, 2013; Slavin & Madden, 2006; Verdugo, 2011). It is essential
for researchers to realize significant points in childhood learning when learning gaps begin to be
apparent for different racial groups to determine effective programs to close the gap as students
proceed to higher learning.

20

Teacher Influence
Teachers can be influential in the lives of their students. The level of expectations that
teachers have on their students can be instrumental in the student’s performance in the
classroom. Teachers may have a low expectation of students due to racism and bias (Darling-
Hammond, 2007; Fusarelli, 2004; Olszewski-Kubilius, 2006). It is the teachers’ responsibility to
recognize student capabilities and set their standards accordingly. Teachers’ level of expectations
of their students correlates with student achievement (Hursh, 2007; Tomlinson & Jarvis, 2014).
High teacher expectations influence students’ sense of belongingness and perception of the
school, and students are more likely to perform better academically when their teachers set high
expectations for academic achievement (Tomlinson & Jarvis, 2014). It is crucial for teachers to
set a higher standard for students in the classroom despite their racial background or societal
biases.
Students require a strong web of support for a successful high school career. Teachers
can be influential in creating the web of support by engaging external stakeholders in their
curriculum. Studies have shown an increase in academic performance with unified support from
teachers and parents in the learning process (Olszewski-Kubilius, 2006; Tomlinson & Jarvis,
2014; Welton & Williams, 2015) and when parents were involved in their learning process. Lack
of parental involvement in the students’ education plan is a contributing factor to low academic
performance. Olszewski-Kubilius (2006) added that teacher and parent collaborations increase
student performance because similar standards are set in and out of the classroom. Parent
involvement at school allows parents to foster similar learning tools at home, which leads to self-
efficacy and accountability for the students (Tomlinson & Jarvis, 2014). There is a correlation
between increased positive school perception by students and trust between teachers and parents

21

when schools engage parents in the learning environment (Holland & Farmer-Hinton, 2009;
Tomlinson & Jarvis, 2014; Welton & Williams, 2015). It is essential for parents to know the
programs and opportunities that are available for their socioeconomic class that promotes
educational advantages and access for the students.
College-Going Culture
College-going culture increases student learning, college readiness, and college
attendance (Aldana, 2014). A college-going culture in the school environment increases the
likelihood of marginalized students attending post-secondary education (Aldana, 2014; Oakes,
2003; Schneider, 2007; Welton & Williams, 2015) and must be inclusive of all students despite
background and socioeconomic status, so traditionally marginalized students are not alienated in
the process (Aldana, 2014). College-going culture in high minority schools reduces the
achievement gap for minority students (Calaff, 2008; McClafferty et al., 2002; McDonough,
2004; Welton & Williams, 2015) and helps eliminate the culture of failure and low academic
success. Aldana (2014) stated that college-going culture facilitates practices, strategies, and
guidelines that influence positive student outcomes.
Establishing a college-going culture in schools helps to create a stronger relationship with
colleges and universities, which will, in turn, normalize college attendance for marginalized
students (Welton & Williams, 2015). Several effective college-going culture elements supported
by research include: 1) teachers actively engaging in post-secondary discussions; 2) staff sets
high expectations for student achievement; 3) teachers are also involved in college readiness
initiatives; 4) family involvement; 5) cohesive collaboration between secondary and post-
secondary institutions; 6) easily accessible college information and resources; 7) ongoing efforts
by staff to reinforce college-readiness initiatives; and 8) an inclusive counseling model (Holland

22

& Farmer-Hinton, 2009; McClafferty et al., 2002; Oakes, 2003; Olszewski-Kubilius, 2006;
Schneider, 2007; Tomlinson & Jarvis, 2014; Welton & Williams, 2015). It is essential for all
members of a school community to promote the college-going culture for the students.
Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences Framework
Clark and Estes (2008) developed an analytic framework that explains stakeholder and
organizational performance goals and recognizes the gap between the current performance status
and the performance goal. Identifying this gap allows for this framework to investigate the
stakeholder knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that could affect the
performance gaps (Clark and Estes, 2008). Knowledge and skills influences reveal if
stakeholders know how to accomplish the performance goal (Krathwohl, 2002). This is
categorized into four subgroups: (a) factual; (b) conceptual; (c) procedural; and (d)
metacognitive. Motivation influences involve stakeholder’s decision to consider reaching the
goal, persistence towards the goal, and mental efforts to attain the goal (Clark & Estes, 2008;
Rueda, 2011). Motivational influence considers ideologies, such as self-efficacy theory and
values theory (Rueda, 2011). Lastly, organizational influences to consider regarding
stakeholder’s performance includes workplace culture, resource availability, and work processes
(Clark & Estes, 2008).
Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis model will identify teachers’ knowledge,
motivation, and organizational needs to meet the goal of closing the achievement gap for
marginalized students and increasing college access. The assumed influences will be discussed in
the following sections. The first section will discuss the knowledge and skills that influence
stakeholder’s performance goal. The second section will examine the motivational influence on
the stakeholder achieving the set goal. The final section will consider the organizational

23

influence on the stakeholder’s attainment of the goal. However, in this promising practice model,
the study will examine the assets that contribute towards the reduction of the achievement gap
against marginalized students. Following these sections, the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences on performance will be explored through the methodology discussed in
Chapter 3.
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Influences
This review of current academic research focuses on the two dimensions that teachers
need to accomplish their stakeholder performance goals. This stakeholder group's performance
goal is to implement strategies that cultivate a college-going culture for the traditionally
marginalized students.
Knowledge and Skills
The first dimension required by teachers to achieve their goal is the knowledge and skills
influence. One of the leading goals for educators to increase college readiness for marginalized
groups of students is to create a college-going culture in their classrooms. Specific knowledge
and skills are needed to accomplish this goal. It is critical to understand the gap in knowledge
that impacts the success or failure of the teachers’ goal in order to evaluate teachers’ knowledge
as it pertains to their students’ academic development. A closer investigation of the gap in
knowledge is required to understand the needs of achieving the stakeholder’s goal. The gap
analysis is a means of a problem-solving approach to improve performance and accomplish
organizational needs, in which knowledge of skills is one of the areas that the gap analysis
process focuses on (Rueda, 2011). Clark and Estes (2008) further explained that the knowledge
and skills component is a critical factor in gap analysis, which determines if people understand
how to accomplish their performance objectives. In this study, the gap analysis framework will

24

be utilized to guide the following research, along with the literature review that follows in
sections below.
The literature reviewed in the paper will emphasize specific characteristics of knowledge
and skills dimension that influence the accomplishments of the college-going culture goal for
marginalized students. The four knowledge types that teachers need to attain their performance
goals are factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive (Krathwohl, 2002). Factual
knowledge is the first type of knowledge. Factual knowledge is the essential element teachers
must be familiar with to solve their performance problems, such as terminology, details, and
elements in a specific discipline, context, or domain (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). The
second type of knowledge is conceptual knowledge. Krathwohl (2002) and Rueda (2011)
described conceptual knowledge as the focus on the relationship among the essential elements
that allow for a broader understanding for teachers to solve their performance problems. These
factors include categories, classifications, principles, generalizations, theories, models, and
structures of a particular area (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). Procedural knowledge is the third
type of knowledge. Krathwohl (2002) and Rueda (2011) explained that procedural knowledge
centers around the notion of knowing how to do something. This element includes components
such as skills, algorithms, and techniques (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). Metacognitive
knowledge is the fourth and final knowledge component that teachers need to address their
performance problems. Metacognitive knowledge is the teachers’ ability to be aware of their
mental state and process while solving problems (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). While Rueda
(2011) further explained metacognitive knowledge allows teachers to recognize the when and
why to resolve an issue, Krathwohl (2011) added that metacognitive knowledge involves
“strategic knowledge, knowledge about cognitive tasks, and self-knowledge” (p. 214).

25

Based on assessments of the current research, three knowledge influences of teachers will
be reviewed in the next section, followed by a categorization of these influences into one of the
four knowledge types just examined. Particularly, teachers will need to understand the college-
going culture concept, know how to foster the college-going culture strategies in their classrooms
effectively, and evaluate their classroom expectations to increase college readiness. This
categorization into types of knowledge will help to determine the methodology to assess any
knowledge gaps of teachers.
Knowledge About College-Going Culture
The first knowledge influence that teachers need to achieve their performance goal is to
understand the college-going culture and its impact on student success. Corwin and Tierney
(2007) described a college-going culture as a means to encourage student learning, college
readiness, and college matriculation for all students. Understanding the value of a college-going
culture has been found to enhance academic results for marginalized students (Allen, et. al,
2009). College-going culture addresses the limitations of aspirations and attendance for
marginalized students (Bosworth et al., 2014). High school students whose teachers exposed a
stable college-centered atmosphere were 12% more inclined to pursue post-secondary education
(Roderick et al., 2011).
Aldana (2014) confirmed that teachers’ commitment to facilitating a college-going
culture is imperative to achieve the goal of preparing their students for post-secondary
achievement. The author further explains the importance of teachers taking on additional roles in
their students’ lives as it relates to academics. Teachers absorbing the additional role of the
counselor increases communication trust and create a comfortable space for students (Aldana,
2014).

26

Thus, teachers need to know what college-going culture is and the value it brings to
increase college readiness for their students effectively. This knowledge influence is categorized
as factual knowledge because it focuses on the direct understanding of the college-going culture
and its influences on students. Therefore, the method to assess whether a factual knowledge gap
exists would be through individual interviews (Clark & Estes, 2008) of teachers’ proving their
knowledge of college-going culture influences in their classrooms.
Effectively Incorporate College-Going Culture Strategies in the Classroom
The second knowledge influence that teachers need to achieve their performance goal is
knowing how to incorporate college-going culture strategies in the classroom effectively.
Teacher characteristics, course offerings, and classroom structures influence students’ college
aspirations (Hill, 2008). Influencing college aspirations for students requires vital support from
teachers, adequate resources, and the value of the role teachers’ play to accomplish the purpose
of supporting college-going in their classrooms (Bosworth et al., 2014). Teachers can
strategically involve families in their curriculum (McCollough, 2011) and absorb additional roles
as students’ counselors to engage students outside of the classroom (Aldana, 2014).
In efforts to gauge a comprehensive understanding of the methods to encourage college-
going cultures in classrooms, it is beneficial for the students when teachers integrate the element
of family engagement in their lesson plans (McCollough, 2011). McCollough (2011) focused
mainly on student support from teachers in collaboration with students' families with the
implementation of a Family Science program and how it motivates students to attend college.
Family Science program is a “Department of Education – funded partnership ... [introduced] to
science teachers at Falfurrias High School (TX), [that connects] local middle and elementary
school students and their families [to join events]” (McCollough, 2011, p. 51). Survey results

27

from the program revealed that students that engaged in the experience were inspired to pursue a
career in teaching or motivated to attend college.
Teachers also serving as their students’ school counselors can be valuable in creating a
college-going culture (Aldana, 2014). Aldana (2014) researched the teacher/counselor role,
explaining that it encouraged students to develop multi-strand relationships with their
teacher/counselor, which allowed for formal and informal meetings and discussions regarding
college attendance. At the site where the research was conducted, senior-year counselors (also
teachers) were also known as the college counselor, which helped foster and carry the
conversations of college readiness and college attendance in-and-out of the classroom. The
teacher/counselor model highly encouraged the college-going culture within the classrooms
(Aldana, 2014).
Fittingly, teachers must be able to incorporate college-going culture strategies into their
classrooms effectively. This knowledge influence is categorized as procedural knowledge as it
focuses on how to do something, specifically, how teachers can effectively incorporate college-
going culture strategies in the classroom. Hence, the method to assess whether a procedural
knowledge gap exists would be through interviews (Clark & Estes, 2008) with teachers. The
focus of the interviews would be to assess how they establish a college-going culture in their
classrooms with their students.
Teachers Evaluate Their Classroom Expectations to Increase College Readiness
The third knowledge influence that teachers need to achieve is assessing their ability to
self-evaluate the expectations they set for their students as it pertains to increasing college
readiness. To create a college-going culture, establishing strong expectations for all students in
the classroom is vital. Students who attend an urban high school where there is a college-going

28

culture due to teachers’ high expectations are more likely to aspire to go to college and
eventually enroll in the four-year institution of their choice (Roderick et al., 2011). Turner et al.
(2015) added that teacher expectations could be a contributing factor to the achievement gap for
marginalized students. Therefore, teachers need to have the ability to set high expectations with
equal treatment of students in their classrooms. Teachers’ ability to self-evaluate their skills
shape their ability to foster an effective college-going culture in their classrooms. This
knowledge influence is categorized as metacognitive knowledge since it centers on teachers’
awareness and knowledge of their own cognition and monitoring the effect they have on
students’ college aspirations. Accordingly, the strategy to evaluate whether a metacognitive
knowledge gap exists would be through surveying (Clark & Estes, 2008) the teachers. The
surveys would incorporate open-ended questions expecting teachers to show metacognitive
analysis before and after their class sessions with their students. Table 1 illustrates an overview
of the three knowledge influences, corresponding knowledge types, and methods to assess how
knowledge gaps impact the stakeholder goals.

29

Table 1
Knowledge Influence, Knowledge Type, and Knowledge Influence Assessment

Global Goal
Increase in college-readiness and number of marginalized students that pursue post-secondary
education.
Stakeholder Goal
Teachers will implement effective strategies that cultivate a college-going culture in the
classrooms.
Knowledge Influence Knowledge Type Knowledge Influence Assessment
Teachers know how to
prepare students for college.
Declarative
(Factual)
General education teachers asked to
identify collaborative teaching
techniques and the teachers’ role.
Sample: I understand the components
necessary to produce college-ready
students.

Teachers know how to
foster a college-going
culture.

Declarative
(Factual)
General education teachers asked to
identify collaborative teaching
techniques and the teachers’ role.
Sample: I understand the methods
involved in creating a college-going
culture.

Teachers know how to
incorporate college-going
culture strategies in the
classroom.

Procedural General education teachers asked to
implement a teaching strategy that
encourages college-going culture with
any given lesson plan.
Sample: I know how to implement the
curriculum/lesson plan that entails
college-going culture elements.

Teachers know how to
evaluate their classroom
expectations to increase
college readiness.
Metacognitive General education teachers asked to
monitor the effectiveness of their
expectations as it aligns with the goal
of college readiness.
Sample: I can monitor the
effectiveness of my classroom
expectations as it aligns with the goal
of college readiness.

30

Motivation
The second dimension required for teachers to achieve their goal is motivation. Clark and
Estes (2008) explained motivation as the process in which goal-directed activity is instigated and
sustained. The authors further explained that motivation necessitates three main factors: active
choice, persistence, and mental effort. Active choice perspective regards the teachers’
willingness to engage actively and pursue their performance goals; persistence dimension
describes teachers’ ability to progress in the direction of their objective despite obstructions and
diversions; and mental effort perspective explains teachers’ determination of the amount of effort
they choose to exert towards achieving their goals and doing so (Clark & Estes, 2008). A
deficiency in any of these areas can negatively impact performance. Clark and Estes (2008) also
suggested that a proper analysis of motivation and its impact on an organization can aid teachers’
efforts to close the gap of their current status against their overall performance goals. When this
gap issue is addressed and reduced, teachers ultimately increase their ability to achieve their
goals.
Teachers are capable of accomplishing their goals by understanding performance gaps as
it relates to their stakeholder goal. It is imperative for teachers to understand the motivation
influences that affect their ability to reach their goal of creating a college-going culture in the
classroom for their students. The motivation influences to be examined in the next sections will
be the self-efficacy theory and the expectancy-value theory. Further discussion of the motivation
levels of teachers to achieve the global goal of increasing college readiness for marginalized
students, as indicated by these motivational theories, will be examined. The kind of motivation
influence will dictate the strategy to survey any motivation gaps of teachers.

31

Self-Efficacy Theory
The first motivational influence related to teachers in accomplishing their global goal is
self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is a person's self-perception as it relates to their innate capacity to
accomplish their goals (Pajares, 2006). The basis of this belief is grounded mainly in mastery
experience, vicarious experience, social influences, and physiological responses (Pajares, 2006).
Mastery experience gauges an individual’s interpretation of their own performance; vicarious
experience is experienced through observing others execute similar tasks; social influences are
mainly inspired by intentional and unintentional external feedback an individual receives through
either verbal messages or social persuasions; and physiological responses represent the
physiological and emotional state along with an individual’s temperament (Pajares, 2006). The
author concludes that success produces an increase in self-efficacy, whereas failure reduces it.
To accomplish their goal, teachers need to feel confident in their ability to foster a college-going
culture in their classrooms. Those who possess more significant levels of confidence in their
abilities will attain higher levels of self-efficacy (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009). Teachers with
greater levels of self-efficacy to encourage a college-going culture and increase college readiness
for their students will, in turn, be more motivated to accomplish the global goal (Goroshit &
Meirav, 2014). The methodology to evaluate the possible existence of a motivation gap, based on
the self-efficacy motivation influence, will be through individual interviews (Clark & Estes,
2008) of teachers.
Expectancy-Value Theory
The second motivational influence related to teachers in accomplishing their global goal
is expectancy value. Eccles (2006) explained the expectancy-value motivational theory as two
fundamental motivational questions: “Can I do the task?” (Expectancy) and “Do I want to do the

32

task?” (Value). Eccles (2006) emphasized that if people believe that a task is important, they will
be more likely to be engaged in the task and persist in completing the task at hand. With these
findings, the author asserts that the foundation of the expectancy-value theory is that optimal
engagement in an activity is achieved when individuals see the value of the work that they are
doing and have an expectation for success for performing the task. The expectation of success to
perform a task is rooted in an individual’s self-efficacy to complete the task (Eccles, 2006). Self-
efficacy, as it relates to teachers achieving their goal, was reviewed in detail in the previous
section.
In addition to expectancy, the second requisite of the expectancy-value theory, having a
high perceived value of doing a task, requires teachers to see the value in cultivating a college-
going culture in their classroom and increasing college readiness for their students. If teachers
see the importance of the work that they do, they will be increasingly motivated to continue
doing so (Green, 2002). The perceived value of their work is determined by four paradigms of
the value aspect of the expectancy-value theory: intrinsic interest, attainment value, utility value,
and perceived cost (Eccles, 2006; Magidson et al., 2014).
The first value construct is the intrinsic interest value of doing a task (Eccles, 2006;
Magidson et al., 2014; Wigfield et al., 2006). The authors explained intrinsic interest as the
happiness one hopes to experience while taking part in the task. If teachers enjoy their
interactions with students and all supporting constituents, they will be more likely to place a high
value of intrinsic interest on applying a college-going culture that will result in an increase in
college readiness for their students, which will likely lead to the active choice of executing
strategies to reach the goal.

33

The second value construct is the attainment value individuals get from performing tasks
(Eccles, 2006; Eccles et al., 1998; Wigfield et al., 2006). The authors explained attainment value
as the degree to which participating in the task is predictable with one's mental self-view or
character. If tasks are relatable to those performing the task, they are likely to value doing the
tasks (Eccles, 2006). If teachers can identify with their students with pursuing post-secondary
education, then they are more likely to place a high value on the significance of creating a
college-going culture that promotes college readiness for their students. This will most likely
encourage teachers to implement related strategies that will yield the optimal outcome for their
students.
The third value construct is the utility value of performing a task (Eccles, 2006; Eccles &
Wigfield, 2002; Magidson et al., 2014). The authors explained utility value as the relation for
encouraging one's long-term goals or in helping one acquire quick or long-term rewards. If
teachers recognize that fostering a college-going culture and encouraging college-readiness for
their students can help them accomplish their classroom benchmarking goals, then they are more
likely to engage in strategies that will encourage college-going culture. Reaching their
benchmark goals will inspire a greater emphasis for teachers to consider their utility value, thus
implementing strategies that support this notion.
The fourth value construct is the anticipated cost of performing a task (Eccles, 2006;
Green, 2002; Wozney et al., 2006). The authors explained the perceived cost as the cost of taking
part in the task. Teachers have the responsibility to perceive the low cost of time, energy, fear of
failure, and possible anger from parents or other vital stakeholders to effectively implement
college-going culture and increase college readiness for the students in hopes of reaching the

34

performance goal. If teachers can acquire this mindset, they are more likely to be motivated and
persist in implementing strategies that support this assertion in their classrooms.
Based on the motivation influence, the methodology to assess whether a motivation gap
exists will be through interviews (Clark & Estes, 2008) of teachers. Table 2 illustrates an
overview of how two of the motivational influences of teachers’ and the methods to assess
motivation gaps could impact the stakeholder and global goals.
Table 2
Assumed Motivation Influence and Motivational Influence Assessments

Global Goal
Increase in college-readiness and number of marginalized students that pursue post-secondary
education.
Stakeholder Goal
Teachers will implement effective strategies that cultivate a college-going culture in the
classrooms.
Assumed Motivation Influences Motivational Influence Assessment
Self-Efficacy – Teachers need to be confident in
their ability to foster a college-going culture in
their classrooms.
Written survey item:
I am confident in my ability to use strategies
to increase college readiness for my students.
I am confident in my ability to enhance the
college-going culture in my classroom.
(not confident at all-very confident)

Interview:
How confident do you feel about your ability
to use college-going culture strategies?
How confident do you feel about your ability
to increase college readiness for your
students?
Value - Teachers need to see the attainment value
in creating a college-going culture in their
classrooms for marginalized students.
Written survey item:
The work I do is important in supporting my
students’ and institutions academic goals.
(not important at all very important)

Interview:
How important is the work you do for
students and the institution?

35

Organization
The third dimension required for teachers to achieve their goal is to receive support from
their organization. Clark and Estes (2008) explained that work processes and resources are
necessary for change, and an examination of the organizational culture is needed for
organizational improvement. Organizational culture ultimately impacts all efforts to improve
performance, noting that the success of their attempts bears on the consideration of the specific
organizational culture. Rueda (2011) added that organizational structures, policies, and practices,
along with cultural settings and models, can heavily influence an organization’s performance and
goal achievement. The author continues to convey that in order for organizations to sustain great
performance, it is essential to monitor and structure the essence of the overall culture for
organizational learning. Cultural models and cultural settings are two driving forces for
organizational success. This section will examine three constructs that influence organizational
culture: cultural model and settings framework by Gallimore and Goldenberg’s (2001), resource
alignment theory supported by Clark and Estes (2008) and Collins (2001) and trust influence by
Korsgaard et al. (2002).
Cultural Model and Trust
Clark and Estes (2008) demonstrated that examining an organization’s culture is crucial
for performance improvement while understanding that an effective institution encompasses
work processes and material resource management. Cultural models are explained by Gallimore
and Goldenberg (2001) as a set of values, beliefs, and attitudes that have been established in an
organization over time as a result of the change, have been ingrained in the identity of the
organizational model. Rueda (2011) added that cultural models could help form an organization's
structure through its practices, procedures, and policies. Cultural models also impact employee

36

performance due to the influence peers have on each other (Schein, 2004). Thus, a cultural model
is a crucial element in an organization’s success.
Academy of Higher Learning (AHL) has established a culture of trust in their institution.
The AHL continues to support teachers by establishing trust in their ability to create a college-
bound culture for historically marginalized students while encouraging college access. The
institution steadily refers to the notion of trust as the foundational element for the work they do.
According to their 2017-2018 Comprehensive Educational Plan, AHL has named trust as a
strategic goal that their team works cohesively towards, as well as a shared vision and objective
for improving student outcomes and college readiness. Similarly, the strategic plan reveals
mutual respect among members of the school community, including, administrators, staff,
students, and parents. Thus, as a promising practice study, AHL has proven that establishing a
positive cultural model has been a critical element for teachers to continue to enrich their
students while closing the achievement gap for their marginalized groups. According to AHL’s
2017-2018 School Quality Snapshot data, 100% of teachers expressed that they trust their
principal, and 100% of teachers reported they trust one another. Colquitt et al. (2007) discovered
that when high levels of trust are present in an organization, the organization produces high-
quality employees and services, and experience higher retention rates and employee satisfaction.
The authors added that employees in organizations who have a core value of trust enjoy their
work, are more efficient, are motivated to take risks, are innovative, believe in the organization’s
mission and vision, and display the organization’s principle behaviors. Therefore, AHL will
continue to thrive as an organization due to their ability to sustain a trusting cultural model.

37

Cultural Setting and Resources
Cultural setting is described as an indicator of the model that can be explored and
observed (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Clark and Estes (2008) added that cultural setting is
the specific areas where behaviors transpire, such as what is happening and with who, where,
when, and why it is happening. The cultural setting in an organization affects the ability of
teachers to reach their goal of strategically implementing a college-going culture for their
marginalized students. For an organization to achieve success, they need to be able to align their
resources, processes, and procedures with the goals of the organization (Clark & Estes, 2008;
Collins, 2001).
Academy of Higher Learning (AHL) has established a culture of support in their
institution. The AHL continues to provide teachers with adequate time and resources to enable
them to integrate elements of a college-going culture in their physical classroom and their
curriculum. According to AHL’s 2017-2018 Comprehensive Educational Plan, AHL disclosed
that they foster a supportive environment where the school actively creates a classroom and
school culture where students feel safe, supported, and challenged by their peers and teachers.
AHL also promotes, provides, and prides itself in having an effective school leadership, where
principal and their staff lead by example, cultivating and providing instructional and social-
emotional support and encouraging professional growth to teachers that drive student success. In
light of the promising practice study, AHL has shown that having a positive cultural setting is an
influential organizational aspect for helping teachers reach their stakeholder goals. Additionally,
according to AHL’s 2017-2018 School Quality Snapshot data, 100% of teachers agree that the
principal effectively communicated a clear vision for their school, and 100% of teachers revealed
that adequate materials and resources were provided across all grade levels for building their

38

curriculum, instruction, and learning materials. Kuh et al. (2010) revealed that student success is
enriched when practices, procedures, and resources align with the institution’s mission. Thus,
AHL will continue to be an exemplary institution because of their ability to provide resources to
their teachers in support of their goals. Table 3 shows an overview of how two of the
organizational influences of teachers’ and the methods to assess organizational gaps could
impact the stakeholder and global goals.
Table 3
Organizational Influence and Organizational Influence Assessment
Conceptual Framework
A conceptual framework is a visual product that depicts the “the systems of concepts,
assumptions, expectations, beliefs, and theories that supports and informs your research”
(Maxwell, 2013, p. 39). The literature review revealed the key concepts, terms, models, and
theories that have constructed the framework for this study. This framework influenced the
Global Goal
Increase in college-readiness and number of marginalized students that pursue post-
secondary education.
Stakeholder Goal
Teachers will implement effective strategies that cultivate a college-going culture in the
classrooms.
Assumed Organizational Influences Organization Influence Assessment
Cultural Model Influence:
The AHL needs to support teachers by
establishing trust in their ability to create a
college-going culture for marginalized
students and encourage college access.
Observations of how trust is established
between teachers and the school leadership
team.
Cultural Setting Influence:
The AHL needs to provide teachers with
adequate time and resources to be able to
integrate elements of college-going culture in
their physical classroom and their
curriculum.
Survey or interview questions about
teachers’ time management skills and
resource availability.

39

development of the problem of study, the formation of the research questions, the decision
process of selecting the appropriate methodology for collecting data and analysis, and provided a
clear explanation of the findings (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Rocco & Plakhotnik, 2009).
Clark and Estes (2008) theorized that knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences are the contributing factors in the successful performance of stakeholders in using
data to initiate change. These potential factors were presented independently in previous
sections. However, there is a correlation between them that creates an interrelationship; thus,
they do not operate in isolation. These assumed influences begin to shape the conceptual
framework. The literature review presented above provided several knowledge, motivation, and
organizational factors, but for this research, those factors have been narrowed down to the
elements that have the most significant impact on the college readiness of marginalized students.
After reviewing the literature reviews on the role teachers’ play in closing the achievement gap
for marginalized students, the gap analysis process allowed for the root causes that directly
influence the promising practice to be considered. In this section, the relationship between
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences will be explored.
The conceptual framework was grounded on the emerging themes from the literature
review. Those responsible for closing the achievement gap for marginalized students, including
teachers, students’ families, and school leadership, are affected by specific knowledge and
motivational factors. This study focuses specifically on the role teachers play in closing the
achievement gap for marginalized students. Teachers’ ability to create high expectations for their
students have a great influence on students’ perspective on attending college (Turner et al.,
2015). Also, students’ success is influenced by the teachers’ ability to foster and sustain a
college-going culture in their physical classroom and through their curriculum, the school

40

leadership’s ability to support teachers’ efforts towards their goal, and positive attitude towards
change. Structures that have been identified, such as stakeholders, trust, and collaboration are all
key factors needed to create a college-going culture. With these systems in place, a cohesive
environment that fosters college readiness has been established.
The relationship between teachers and the school environment creates an overall college-
going culture. College-going culture will encourage students to not only consider college as an
option after high school but be able to visualize their success through college. Therefore, when
teachers can demonstrate their understanding of college readiness and college-going culture, they
are motivated to share those values with their students (Eccles, 2006). For example, teachers are
required to earn a college degree and receive their license to enable them to teach. This means
that teachers can impart their college experiences with their students and better prepare them for
the world of opportunities that they will be exposed to through college. With experience,
teachers can truly understand the value of thoroughly preparing their students for college and the
impact of creating a college-going environment for their marginalized population.
Similarly, when teachers experience high self-efficacy in their ability to foster an
effective college-going environment in their physical classrooms or through their curriculum,
they are illustrating their understanding of college readiness and the importance of promoting a
college-going culture environment for marginalized students (Pajares, 2006). If a teacher is very
confident in their ability to identify with their marginalized students and show them that college
can also be an option for them, they may consider implementing strategies in their curriculum to
maintain a college-friendly atmosphere in the classrooms. Some teachers might consider having
college representatives visit their class or create year-long student cohorts that represent different
institutions. Some of these strategies allow college to be a common part of the students’ daily

41

routine or conversation, which has great impact on the likelihood of students pursuing higher
education.
The interplay between teachers’ knowledge and motivation influences has a great impact
on their stakeholder goal because their efforts demonstrate their commitment to achieving the
greater goal of effectively implementing strategies to close the achievement gap for marginalized
students (Allen et al., 2009). Creating and sustaining a college-going culture requires more than
the traditional systems and structure in schools, such as conversations with guidance counselors
and limited advanced placement courses. The basis of this model is effective school leadership
support. The endorsement for teachers sustaining a college-going culture from the school
leadership and institution as a whole creates trust between the parties. A commitment from the
school leadership that encourages college readiness allows key structures and systems to be in
place to effectively create and sustain a college-going culture within the classrooms while also
changing the school culture. For example, the school principal may implement ‘college day’
where all teachers and staff members are required to represent their colleges and universities or
create articulation agreements and have college faculty present in their school buildings. In
addition, principals can also encourage college visits for their students starting from freshman
year, require all students to take at least one advanced placement course, or create a competition
for students, where they work with college students to create a joint project. These efforts from
the institution depict total support for teachers’ effort in maintaining the college-going culture
and promoting college readiness. These strategies can also begin to set the tone for students to
inquire about college and inspire conversations with different teachers or staff members about
their college choices and experience. Figure 5 displays the conceptual framework for this study

42

and illustrates the interaction between the knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors that
influence teachers.

Figure 5. Conceptual Framework Ed.D. 2020

ORGANIZATION:
Academy of Higher Learning (AHL)
Cultural Settings and Cultural Model:
Cultural Model Influence:
The AHL needs to support teachers in creating a college-going culture for
marginalized students to continue and encourage college access.

Teachers will continue to implement effective strategies that
cultivate college-going culture in the classrooms to foster
college readiness and college access for marginalized
students.
STAKEHOLDER:
Teachers
Knowledge:
Factual: Teachers understand college readiness and college-
going culture. Procedural: Teachers effectively incorporate
college-going culture strategies in the classroom.
Motivation:
Self-Efficacy: Teachers are confident in their ability to foster a
college-going culture in their classrooms. Value: Teachers see
the value in creating a college-going culture in their classrooms
for marginalized students.

43

In summary, the conceptual framework depicts how systems and structures are executed
and sustained to support a college-going culture in schools. Structures that encourage and value
college readiness and college attendance in high schools are institutionalized for continued
success. Teachers are the front-line in creating and maintaining a college-going culture, but it is
ultimately the institution’s endorsement and ability to embody the college-going culture, school-
wide, that drives the systems in place to maintain such atmosphere. As depicted in Figure 1,
teachers’ efforts in understanding college and strategically including college elements in their
curriculum or classroom, motivate them to share their values with their students and promote
confidence in them to continue encouraging conversations with their students. These influences
were deliberately placed inside the frame of the organizations’ influence because teachers are
active stakeholders and influencers within their institution. Therefore, the alignment of both
teachers’ knowledge and motivation, along with the institution providing support to teachers’
efforts, results in the achievement of the teachers’ goals of implementing effective strategies that
cultivate a college-going culture in the classrooms for marginalized students, which is placed
outside of the circles. Overall, this framework illustrates a system that is collaborative in
fostering a college-going culture in schools that promote college-readiness and encourages
college attendance.
Conclusion
This study was designed to identify promising practices that enable college-going
cultures in secondary schools as a means to close the achievement gap for marginalized students.
The literature review confirmed the notion that knowledge and skills, motivational theories, and
organizational models promote the use of college-going influences in the classroom for higher
achievement for marginalized students (Clark & Estes, 2008). Krathwohl (2002) suggested that

44

teachers require specific factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive aspects of
knowledge to implement college-going strategies in their classroom and curriculum effectively.
Motivational theories influence teachers’ ability to implement college-going strategies in their
classroom and curriculum successfully (Clark & Estes, 2008). Lastly, the institution and school
leaders shape the cultural models that strengthen or weaken the success rates of college-going
cultures to improve college-readiness for marginalized students (Gallimore & Goldenberg,
2001). These three dimensions, although independent of each other, have a bearing on teachers’
performance and ability to create and sustain college-going environments for marginalized
students (Clark & Estes, 2008). Much of the literature review revealed that best practices for
encouraging the college-going culture include collaborative learning, a web of support, and
mentoring for students. The conceptual framework presented teachers’ efforts to include college
elements in their work while receiving support from their senior administrators. The next chapter
will present the study’s methodological approach to determine strategies and challenges
experienced by teachers for creating and implementing a college-going environment.

45

CHAPTER THREE: METHODS
The purpose of this study was to explore the exemplary practices used at the Academy of
High Learning School (AHL), including the development of a college-going culture that is
helping close the achievement gap. Academy of Higher Learning has been successful in
graduating high numbers of marginalized students who are college-ready and attend college upon
graduation. A 2017-2018 School Quality Snapshot of AHL revealed that 93% of students who
graduate meet the city university’s standard for avoiding remedial courses, and 91% of students
who graduate enrolled in college or a post-secondary program within six months of graduation.
This study utilized a gap analysis of the knowledge, motivation, and organization models to
identify the promising practices used by teachers to foster a college-going culture for
marginalized students. The guiding questions for this study are:
1. What are the teachers’ knowledge and motivation related to creating a college-going
culture for marginalized students?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and teachers’
knowledge and motivation?
3. What recommendations in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational
resources may be appropriate to foster a college-going culture at another school?
Participating Stakeholders
The participating stakeholders for this study were teachers at the Academy of Higher
Learning because of their daily work with marginalized students in the classroom. To ensure
participants’ confidentiality, pseudonyms was utilized in this study. Participants’ profiles
composed of a wide range of years of experience within AHL, along with a balance of racial and
gender diversity.

46

Interview and Focus Group Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criteria selection is critical to achieving purposeful sampling (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
The research question for this study were addressed with purposeful sampling and conducting
individual interviews, along with a focus group with three criteria.
Criterion 1
The participant must be an Academy of Higher Learning teacher who had been at the
school for at least four years. Teachers who had witnessed a full cycle of a student from the ninth
grade to the 12
th
Grade were able to offer in-depth knowledge about their experiences at the high
school. Moreover, teachers who had been at the school for over a decade were able to provide a
unique perception of the motivation to continue their work at this school.
Criterion 2
The participant must teach an academic course. This excludes participants who teach
physical education or elective courses. Academic courses differ from non-academic courses such
as gym class because they are the target elements for a students’ college admission. This
criterion is critical because it provided a lens into the preparation for students’ academic
achievement and college readiness. A teacher who had served in this role was able to speak on
their ability to foster a college-going culture in their classrooms and their work. The teachers also
provided insight into the Academy of Higher Learning’s contributions in supporting them to
foster an effective college-going environment for their students.
Criterion 3
At least four individuals must have had teaching experience in schools other than the
Academy of Higher Learning to participate in this study. The rationale for this criterion is that
these participants were able to compare the knowledge and motivation needed to succeed at AHL

47

in comparison to their previous institutions, along with the unique strategies employed to achieve
the global goal of closing the achievement gap for the marginalized population. These
individuals also provided valuable insight into the cultural differences between AHL and the
other institutions that may have had a similar student body composition. Moreover, these
individuals allowed insight regarding the transferability of the promising practices at AHL.
Recruitment Strategy
The individual interviews and focus group utilized a purposeful sampling approach.
Homogeneity for interviews is encouraged by Krueger and Casey (2009). There were individual
interviews with 12 teachers from the Academy of Higher Learning and one focus group with five
teachers. Identifying participants that satisfy the three criteria mentioned in the previous section
resulted in data that represented a fraction of the stakeholder group. Thus, a specific and
personalized recruitment strategy was optimal for this study.
First, the researcher contacted the principal at the Academy of Higher Learning to gain
permission for the study. During this contact, the researcher inquired about the required
clearances needed to conduct the study. Once permission was granted, the principal assisted the
researcher in identifying participants for the study. Then, a general recruitment email with a link
to a screening survey was sent to all teachers by the assistant to the principal. Based on their
responses, respondents were reviewed against the three criteria identified. When the participants
agreed to participate in the study, the researcher contacted them to offer meeting times.
Following, a personalized email invitation was sent to the selected participants to introduce the
purpose of the study, provide detailed information regarding the time frame for the interviews
and focus group (approximately 60 minutes), along with an Information Sheet, proposed
location, and interviewer’s contact information and biography. The email specified a deadline to

48

confirm participation. Upon the participants’ confirmation, the interviewer contacted respondents
to schedule the interviews and focus group. Gaining trust and forming a partnership with the
principal along with making the interviews convenient for the participants optimized participant
involvement and completion.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
The University of Southern California Institutional Review Board (IRB) provided the
researcher with the necessary authorization to collect data. Permission to gain access to the
selected school was also secured. The researcher used purposeful sampling to choose participants
based on established criteria. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) explained purposeful sampling as a
selection process that is based on the objective of the study and the characteristics of a
population.
All potential participants received a recruitment email requesting their participation in the
study, which also included clarifying criteria for participation. Participants received a thorough
explanation of the interview and focus group processes to assure confidentiality. Before
conducting the interviews and the focus group, the protocols were rehearsed on comparable
populations to validate the questions were sensible to participants, and responses were related to
the research questions. Also, piloting these questions informed the researcher of the possible
length of the sessions. The interview and focus group sessions were aimed to last nearly an hour
and were conducted in person.
Instrumentation
This study used a semi-structured interview and focus group methods for data collection.
Semi-structured interviews allow for follow-up questions, which Creswell (2014) and Patton
(2002) explained provides in-depth, explanatory responses that relate to the participants’ initial

49

answers. Merriam (2009) added that semi-structured interviews allow for unforeseen emerging
topics that could be of value to the researcher, and follow-up questions allows the researcher to
understand the participants’ perception further and are useful to gain valuable information. The
researcher conducted interviews and a focus group to validate the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational factors that were identified in the conceptual framework. Interviews served as the
primary method to collect data for the knowledge and motivational influences, while the focus
group served as the secondary data collection method for organizational influences.
Qualitative studies often begin with engaging the subjects at the early stages of the
research through individual interviews and ends with focus group interviews in the reflection
phase (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Triangulation is the usage of multiple data collection tools in
qualitative research to help increase the credibility of the study (Merriam, 2009). Maxwell
(2013) added that the use of multiple data collection methods constructs a check and balance to
each other while verifying the strengths and limits that confirm a single assumption. The use of
data from two sources, interviews and a focus group, served to triangulate findings in this study.
Triangulation of the data collection methods increased trustworthiness of the data around
fostering a college going culture in this study. During the data collection, the themes of college
centered approach and student interactions emerged from the interviews. Subsequently, the
researcher verified its impact on enhancing the college-going culture for marginalized student
during the focus group. The focus group participants were able to confirm the researcher’s
findings that college centered approach and student interactions were key factors in sustaining a
healthy college environment for marginalized students. The author added that triangulation
provides the investigator with an additional understanding of the research.

50

Interviews and Focus Group
The interview and focus group protocols used in the study can be found in the
Appendices. The interview protocol can be found in Appendix B and the focus group protocol
can be found in Appendix C.
Interview Protocol
Interviews provide access to one’s inner thoughts and experiences, along with an
interpretation of their personal views (Weiss, 1994). The interviews were conducted in English
and followed a semi-structured style of questions (Merriam, 2009) with predetermined follow-up
questions. A semi-structured interview is the best data collection method because it allows room
for probing questions. Probing inserts the subjects into the study as participants, allowing them to
be treated as experts of the subject matter (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). The authors also added that
probing validates the interviewer’s desire to learn and honor the subject’s experiences and
perceptions. Interviews began with identifying questions that will be aimed to establish the
number of years at the institution, in their current positions, and using the college-going culture
model. The interview questions were aimed to support the assumed influences of both
knowledge and motivation that were established in the conceptual framework. Interviewing each
teacher fostered candid conversations between the researcher and the subject. Furthermore,
interviews encouraged a more intimate dialogue that provided the researcher with a concrete,
uninfluenced insight into the teachers’ understanding of the subject matter and will to carry out
the duties to produce effective results.
Interview Procedures
The researcher conducted interviews during the school year, following the public school
academic calendar. Interviews were held before the focus group to generate the raw, authentic,

51

unbiased responses from the participants. The interviewer did not want to risk peer influence on
the responses gathered during the data collection process (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). With 31
teachers from AHL, 12 of them were interviewed for this study. The 12 selected participants
varied in levels of experience and span across ninth - 12
th
Grade levels, which provided a reliable
sampling of the AHL teacher population. The interviews followed an informal structure to foster
a conversational dialogue with the teachers in order to get more candid responses. Teachers were
asked for their time and site preference for the interviews. Individual interviews were conducted
in-person at their school site to provide them with the comfort of being in the natural
environment. During the interviews, the researcher recorded and took notes with the consent of
the participants. Interviews were transcribed after each session in its entirety and reviewed for
accuracy.
Focus Group Protocol
A focus group is a type of interview that is usually facilitated in a group setting with
people who have in-depth knowledge of the topic (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Similar to the
interview data collection data, the focus group was in English with a semi-structured style of
questions (Merriam, 2009). The focus group followed an informal, semi-structured dialogue with
the participants to create a welcoming environment that allows them to share their views and
provides an opportunity for participants to refine their thoughts in accordance with new shared
information from their peers (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The semi-structured format was the
most feasible for this study to create space for participants to hear and learn from other
participants’ views (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
In contrast to individual interviews, there were fewer questions for the focus group to
allow more time for the participants to delve into each question. The focus group questions were

52

intended to provide context on the support that the institution provided to their teachers. The
focus group questions were designed to validate the organizational factors that were established
in the conceptual framework and contributed unique data that is not accessible through
individual interviews. Focus group interviews did not only have participants share their views
and hear others’ perspectives; it also afforded participants the opportunity to reflect on their
ideologies and experiences (Hennink, 2014).
Focus Group Procedures
Similar to individual interviews, the focus group interview was held during the school
year. Focus groups, as explained by Robinson and Leonard (2019), allow for a comprehensive,
collaborative exploration of the research topic and encourages interactions amongst participants.
Unlike individual interviews, the focus group incited influence and agreeance of other
participants on the study questions. The sampling size for the focus group followed the same
protocol for selecting participants for individual interviews, with five AHL teachers - different
from the interviewees - participating in the study. There was one focus group session that lasted
approximately one hour. The focus group had an informal structure to create a healthy
environment that invites honest dialogue on each question. Teachers received an email to select
the date, time, and venue that accommodated all schedules. Once a date and time was selected
with a site, the researcher conducted the focus group in-person. The participants were informed
about the focus group process, and each participant was provided with an information sheet
regarding their participation in the study. Also, participants were notified about the note-taking
and recording that occurred during the discussions, which were transcribed after the session was
completed. The transcriptions were secured in the researcher’s cloud memory drive. The
participants did not receive any compensation for participating in the study; however, the

53

researcher awarded the school with an annual scholarship to encourage its efforts with the
marginalized group. The award was disclosed to the principal at the completion of the study to
avoid influencing the participants’ responses.
Data Analysis
Data analysis is the process of making meaning of collected data that provides answers to
the research questions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Patton (1990) explained that qualitative
researchers typically use inductive analysis because the critical themes emerge from the data.
Data collected through interviews and a focus group was analyzed according to the research
questions. The data collected from the interviews and focus group were coded to correspond to
the assumed influences noted in chapter two that reflects Clark and Estes's (2008) knowledge,
motivation, and organization factors.
Data collection and analysis coincide in and out of the field (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
During this synchronization, Bogdan and Biklen (2007) have ten suggestions to help navigate
this structure. First, the authors suggest narrowing the study. Next, they suggest making clear and
concise decisions regarding the type of study to achieve. Thirdly, the researcher should start
developing their analytic questions, which will be followed up by seeking specific leads to
pursue as field notes and memos are reviewed. Next, it is suggested to keep a researcher’s
notepad to write as many observer’s comments as possible. Bogdan and Biklen (2007) pointed
out that data collection can be overwhelming during the interview process and recommend that
researchers keep a journal to write memos where they can reflect on challenges faced in the
setting and rationalize the meaning as it relates to the larger methodological and theoretical lens.
They move on to recommend that the researcher test out potential themes on their participants.
Following, the authors advise revisiting the literature used in the early stages of the research,

54

while in the field. After, they suggest trying out concepts to explore a greater understanding of
the data. Lastly, the authors recommend using a visual device to help bring more context
regarding the phenomena, which can provide clarity to the analysis.
Data were organized, coded, narrated, and thoroughly examined (Creswell, 2014) to
make recommendations based on the findings that emerged through data analysis. During the
interviews and focus group data analysis process, priori categories of knowledge, motivation,
and organization assets were used to determine the purpose of using data for continuous
improvement along with utilizing open coding to identify unexpected emerging themes or
patterns that either validate or disprove the assumed assets. Coding interviews and focus group
allowed the researcher to identify important details from the data. Details from the interviews
and the focus group were categorized and sorted by topics. Coding simplifies the process of
identifying details for future use in the research. The coding process allowed for analysis of the
response where the researcher identified similar responses and the frequency of the codes. This
process allowed the researcher to link codes and themes with the appropriate theoretical models.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Credibility
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) explained that credibility is the degree to which the results
from a research aligns with reality. The interviews and the focus group were used to compare
and cross-check the collected data. An additional strategy to improve the credibility of the study
included active participation from the participants by conducting the interviews and focus group
in person at the preferred times and location. The researcher was candid and transparent with the
participants during the interview process to increase the credibility of the study. Maxwell (2013)
and Probst and Berenson (2014) explained that the researcher should be fully transparent with

55

their preconceived position to address reflexivity, which can impact the research process. Thus,
to increase credibility and combat investigator biases, the researcher maintained a journal to
document immediate reflections during data collection. Additionally, participants were provided
with full disclosure of the researcher’s participation in the process to affirm further that the
provided information were to be coded to protect their privacy. Lastly, peer examination was
used to increase credibility through a collaborative effort with peer review and the researcher’s
dissertation committee.
Trustworthiness
Trustworthiness is generally contingent on the researcher’s ethics (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). The investigator formally requested consent from the study site to gain permission from
the governing bodies to conduct the research. Merriam (2009) suggested that investigators can
confirm data trustworthiness in three ways. First, data collection was triangulated amongst
interviews, focus group, and journal entries. The researcher provided the participants with a brief
presentation about the purpose of the research and shared the research questions, the significance
of the study and its impact on a larger problem, and the ultimate goal for the research. This step
humanized the researcher to the participants, which provided a welcoming environment to build
rapport with the participants during the data collection process. Research revealed that creating a
collaborative partnership and positive rapport during interviews and focus group results in the
gathering of valuable data (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007; Weiss, 1994). Secondly, the interview
protocol and focus group protocol confirmed the voluntary and confidentiality of the participants
in the study. This study offered anonymity and privacy during all of the interviews and the focus
group. Lastly, participant validation was verified by the main participants that their ideas and
responses were accurately reflected by the researcher. Therefore, the researcher kept a journal to

56

collect reflections after the interviews and the focus group were conducted. Interviews and focus
group were recorded by audio, transcribed, and assessed after each meeting.
Ethics
This study was held at a public high school, concentrating on teachers’ innovation in the
classroom. There is no affiliation between the chosen institution and the researcher. This study is
a promising practice research delving into the mechanisms that teachers use to foster a college-
going culture in their classroom and curriculum. Teachers were informed of how their
participation will assist the marginalized students at other schools. Framing the study as such
provided the participants with some comfort understanding that their jobs were not
compromised.
Ethical principles were highly considered in this study. Conducting qualitative research
requires a great deal of credibility and understanding to execute a trustworthy study in an ethical
manner (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Therefore, it was critical to honor the participants of the
study by being as ethical as possible throughout the entire process. As suggested by Glesne
(2011) and Krueger (2009), participation in this study were voluntary, and participants
understood that they could withdraw from the study at any time without any punishment. The
researcher informed the participants the purpose of the study, the process of the study, and how
their responses would be utilized in the study. Glesne (2011) explained that participants’ right to
privacy should always be held in high consideration. The author continued to add that
participants should feel confident and safe with their participation, and their anonymity should be
of great concern. Pseudonyms were used to protect the identity of the school and its participants
to provide more security.

57

The researcher agreed to the rules and regulations set forth by the University of Southern
California Institutional Review Board (IRB) to ensure that the study upholds the utmost ethical
conduct required to implement the study. Rubin and Rubin (2012) explained that fulfilling
promises made to participants contribute to a study’s credibility and trustworthiness. Thus, the
researcher honored the promises made to the participants, understanding that it will not only
further the credibility and trustworthiness of the study but will continue to validate the study’s
ethical position. To eliminate any possibility of a compromised study, incentives were not
provided to the participants. Participants were treated with respect throughout the study (Rubin
& Rubin, 2012). This means that participants were not pressured into participating in the study
and were treated with respect from the first point of contact to the last. All data acquired via
individual interviews and focus group were stored in a secured location for the safety and
protection of the participants. At the conclusion of the dissertation, all data were destroyed.
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations
As with all studies, there were a few limitations that were beyond the control of the
researcher. First, this study focused on one group of stakeholders. Excluding other stakeholders
that contribute to the creation of a college-going environment prevented potential factors in the
knowledge, motivation, and organization dimensions to emerge. In addition, this study only
focused on one school in one district, creating a geographic limitation. Although efforts were
made for the findings to be transferable to other schools, the sample size of teachers within the
selected school hindered generalization. Therefore, it will be difficult for every school to
implement this study's promising practices. Also, a qualitative study is subjective by nature. This
factor introduced research bias as a result of the researcher’s interpretation of the collected data.

58

The researcher was intentional to alleviate any bias; this was acknowledged and mitigated as
much as possible.
The researcher understood that despite their efforts to encourage honest responses, it was
not possible to verify the participants’ truthfulness. Lastly, the time constraints of the Ed.D
program posed limitations for this study. The researcher collected data over a one- month period
which impacted the number of interviews and focus group held and limited the sample size,
which inevitably impacted the results of the study.
Delimitations
The researcher selected a school that possesses specific criteria for this study. The school
was a low-income, urban secondary school with over 50% representation of the marginalized
population in the student body. The selected school site demonstrated an effective college-going
culture. For this study, the research measured effectiveness by the positive school-wide outcomes
as it relates to college attendance. The positive school-wide outcomes were defined explicitly by
the high graduation rates compared to the city and district averages, college and career readiness,
and post-secondary enrollment rates. Although this study focused on one school, other
institutions may benefit from the study’s application of Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis
regarding performance improvement.
Conclusion
This chapter provided an overview of the qualitative case study method and data analysis
that was used to conduct this study. It also provided the conceptual framework for the study.
Chapter 4 presents the results and findings in relation to the purpose of the study.

59

CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
The goal of this study was to explore the promising practices at a high school that closes
the achievement gap for marginalized students by fostering a college-going culture. This study
examined the strategies used at the Academy of Higher Learning (AHL) to close the
achievement gap for marginalized students. This chapter presents a discussion of the findings of
the research conducted at AHL, including a detailed look at participants’ individual interviews
and focus group, guided by the following research questions:
1. What are the teachers’ knowledge and motivation related to creating a college-going
culture for marginalized students?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and teachers’
knowledge and motivation?
3. What recommendations in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational
resources may be appropriate to foster a college-going culture at another school?
Qualitative methods were used to attain a deeper understanding of the phenomena studied
(Merriam, 2009). Data collection occurred through individual interviews with twelve participants
and a focus group with five participants. The data collection occurred in-person at the AHL
campus over four weeks. After a brief overview of the participants, the findings are presented
under the major themes that emerged from the data.
Participating Stakeholders
Seventeen participants were purposefully selected for this study. Of the 17 participants,
12 agreed to partake in a one-hour individual interview, and five agreed to a one-hour focus
group. All of the participants are teachers at the Academy of Higher Learning (AHL), who has

60

taught at the high school level for at least four years. Pseudonyms are used in this study to
protect participants’ confidentiality.
Interview Participants
Participants were emailed an invitation to participate in the study, which included a
screening survey. Five individuals completed the survey, which was followed up with an online
poll to indicate days and times feasible to host the interviews. The first few interview participants
were asked to refer other teachers who fit the criteria for the interviews. Participant referrals,
along with help from the principal’s assistant, generated seven more participants who agreed to
be interviewed. Seven of the 12 teachers interviewed have worked at AHL for over four years,
and seven have taught in public schools for over ten years. Table 4 depicts an overview of the
interview participants.
Table 4
Interview Population Demographics
Participant Subject Taught Grades Taught Years at AHL
Number of Years Teaching
in Public Schools
Michael Mathematics &
Special Education
9
th
, 10
th
5 10
Kaila Chemistry 9
th
, 10
th
9 9
Nasir History 11
th
9 10
Stokely Living
Environment
9
th
4 4
Kennedy Foreign Language –
Spanish
9
th
, 12
th
4 20
Noah Economic/
Government
11
th
, 12
th
4.5 4.5
Hunter Global/Geography 9
th
, 11
th
9 11
Nayely Mathematics 10
th
, 11
th
, 12
th
4 10
Peyton Mathematics 9
th
, 10
th
4 4
Spencer Science/History/
French
9
th
10 14
Caleb English 9
th
5 17
Leah-Anna Science 12
th
6 8

61

Focus Group Participants
Similar to the individual interviews, participants were emailed an invitation to participate
in the study, which included a screening survey and an indication of their willingness to partake
in the focus group. Five individuals volunteered to take part in the focus group. The five
participants were different from those that took part in the individual interviews. Three of the
five teachers who participated in the focus group worked at the Academy of Higher Learning for
over four years, and three had taught in public schools for over ten years. Table 5 shows an
overview of the focus group participants.
Table 5
Focus Group Population Demographics
Participant Subject Taught Grades Taught Years at AHL
Number of Years Teaching
in Public Schools
Noelle Economics 11
th
, 12
th
4 4
Parker Science 9
th
, 11
th
6 12
Naomi History 9
th
, 10
th
10 11
Zhenga Mathematics 12
th
7 7
Amari Mathematics 10
th
, 12
th
4 16

Findings
This section discusses the study’s findings from the interviews and focus group in
accordance with the research questions. In exploring the data collected, three themes emerged
that addresses the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences: 1) college-centered
approach, 2) student interactions, and 3) positive school environment. The data revealed that the
development and implementation of a college-centered approach required setting higher
standards for their marginalized students as a way to close the gap. Additional evidence reflected
a strong emphasis on student interactions between students and personnel at the institution.
Lastly, AHL fostered a positive school environment led by their strong leadership. Within each

62

of these themes, systems and structures were developed, implemented, and sustained that
contributed to marginalized students’ achievement and a college-going culture. Teachers in the
study demonstrated not only procedural knowledge and factual knowledge but also displayed
high self-efficacy and placed a high value on fostering a college atmosphere for marginalized
students. The study also revealed that a trusting relationship between the organization and the
teachers was critical to support teachers’ efforts in promoting college access for their
marginalized students. This chapter closes with a discussion of these findings. Table 6 illustrates
the research questions as addressed by the emerging themes.
Table 6
Research Questions and Emerging Themes Found in Data
Research Question College Centered Approach Positive School Environment Student Interactions
What are the teachers’
knowledge and
motivation related to
creating a college-
going culture for
marginalized students?

X

X

X
What is the interaction
between
organizational culture
and context and
teachers’ knowledge
and motivation?

X

X

X
What
recommendations in
the areas of
knowledge,
motivation, and
organizational
resources may be
appropriate to foster a
college-going culture
at another school?

X

X

X

63

College Centered Approach
Academy of Higher Learning (AHL) is grounded in an early college enterprise designed
to target the achievement gap against marginalized students and prides itself on its efforts to hire
qualified teachers who aspire to meet that same goal. The school has a partnership with Higher
Learning University to help reinforce their commitment to providing a college-going culture for
all of who the vast majority are considered culturally, racially, or economically marginalized.
With strong school leadership, dedicated administrators, and persistent teachers, the school has
created a positive school environment that fosters a college-going culture.
Continuous efforts to reinforce the college focus sets the tone for the campus.
Research supports the idea that constant emphasis indicates that college readiness is a standard
that helps normalize the pursuit of higher education (Welton & Williams, 2015). The teachers
appeared to be dedicated to the efforts of encouraging their marginalized students to reach this
school mission.
In analyzing the data from the interviews, the teachers validated the procedural
knowledge and factual knowledge of college-going culture and college readiness through a
college-centered approach. In addition, the study confirmed the motivation assets through
teachers’ demonstration of their confidence in their ability to provide a college-going culture
along with realizing the value of providing such culture to marginalized students. Table 7
displays the influences that were validated through the college centered approach.

64

Table 7

Influences Validated Through College Centered Approach

Influence Type Assumed Influence Validated?
Knowledge
Factual Teachers understand college readiness and a college-
going culture.
Yes
Procedural Teachers effectively incorporate college-going culture
strategies in the classroom for their
marginalized students.
Yes
Motivation
Self-Efficacy Teachers are confident in their ability to foster a
college-going culture in their classrooms for
their marginalized students.
Yes
Value Teachers see the value in creating a college-
going culture in their classrooms for their marginalized
students.
Yes
Several interview participants expressed an emphasis on promoting a college driven
environment in their classrooms via discussions, classroom models, and extra time to focus on
college readiness. Caleb, who has taught ninth-grade English at AHL for five years, expressed
that “the school encourages the teachers to be creative in blending college strategies in our lesson
plans and make time for the [marginalized] students. It’s part of our Honor Code.” Leah-Anna
described her feelings about the school’s efforts to normalize college to their students and stated:
When I came to [AHL for] … my interview … I remember one teacher reminding [two]
students to meet them in a classroom during their lunch period to go over the materials
covered in class. The Black student asked the teacher, who is White, … if they can bring
their college essay to the session. I knew then that something was different at this school,
and this is where I needed to be … six years later, I make sure to write a letter of
recommendation for all of my students, especially [for] those who are afraid to ask or
doubt themselves.

65

The continuous effort to embed college promotion in the foundation of teacher interactions with
students creates an inviting space that standardized college attendance to marginalized students.
Teachers’ determination to create space for students to be equipped with the tools that will afford
them college access proves that a college-going culture is essential for closing the achievement
gap. During the focus group, Naomi, Parker, and Amari also said that they came early to school,
sacrificed their lunch periods, or stayed late after school to go over college applications, essays,
and financial aid with their marginalized students. They acknowledged that the extra time spent
with the students to complete one college application is time that they may not get in their
household, and they feel obligated to provide them with a fair chance to have college as an
option. Amari, a 10
th
and 12
th
Grade math teacher at AHL, expounded on the notion and said,
“the culture at this school … if I may speak for this group, our goal is to get each student into at
least one college … and we help, even if it costs us time.” The other participants in the focus
group nodded in agreeance with the notion. The interview participants’ and focus group
participants’ statements regarding the apparent existence of college culture at the school’s
foundation highlights that there is a transparent college-centered approach for all, including
marginalized students.
College Styled Classrooms
The interview data validated teachers’ procedural knowledge of how to efficiently
incorporate college-going elements in their classroom for the encouragement of their
marginalized students. The interview participants displayed conscious and unconscious
assumptions that influenced their behaviors and actions within their classroom with their
marginalized students. The interview participants reported that having a college styled classroom
helps normalize the idea and functionalities of college amongst the marginalized students. While

66

waiting for some of the interviews, I noticed that some classroom seating was organized lecture-
style, as opposed to the traditional cluster seating in groups of four. Additionally, three teachers
discussed the use of syllabi in their classes to familiarize students with college materials at an
early age. When asked about how they foster a college-going environment in their classrooms
specific to marginalized students, all of the interview participants explained that they all set
higher standards for their students and strive to create space to have daily conversations
surrounding the topic of college. Kennedy expressed:
I read many articles, … on how minority students are going to college and not finishing.
So, my goal is to make sure that they don’t fall into remedial courses when they finish
here with me. I make sure to always set high standards for my students, especially my
minority students .… They’re going to make it. You have to have that mindset with them,
not that they might, not perhaps, but they will. I went to [community college], I
graduated, I have two master’s degrees. I tell them, “if I can do it, you can do it.”
Similarly, other interview participants echoed the same notion about their minority students.
Nasir stated that as he teaches history, he relies on his minority students to help shape the
discussions, so they are aware of the biases against them. He explained that, in doing so, “Black
and Hispanic students … have to also have higher standards for themselves because the world
simply is not fair.”
Setting high standards for marginalized students encourages them to perform better
academically. Tomlinson and Jarvis (2014) found that when teachers set high expectations for
their student achievement, students are motivated to meet those expectations. The interview
participants said that they strive to make their classrooms as similar to those of a college class,

67

thus setting higher standards for all of their students inclusive of the marginalized students.
Nayely, a fourth-year math teacher, shared about one of her star students:
I remember it was the first day teaching 10
th
-grade math and this Spanish girl … said to
me, “don’t expect much from me in this class, I’ve always sucked at math” .… she
already set the expectation low for herself .… I always [explain that 80 is the passing
grade in my class]. But I kept on her, I studied with her and did one-on-one reviews with
her before every test … she got a 92% [on her first test] … she was so happy … [and
became] … one of my star students. This is what makes me come back day after day to
this place.
Eight out of the 12 interview participants explained that they strategically build in college
content in their lesson plans, expect their students to model college behaviors in the classroom,
and allocate time in and out of the class to provide additional support to marginalized students.
Zhenga and Noelle both explained during the focus group that, with the support of the school
leadership, they could propose trainings and collaborate with other teachers in the school on how
to maximize their impact on their marginalized students. Noelle went on to say that she gave her
students “mock exams and I usually add college-level questions [to the exams], so my Black and
Hispanic kids are familiar with that level of critical thinking and analysis. Parker actually
suggested it to me, and it actually works.” Zhenga added that she has mystery lunches with her
marginalized students, where she orders a variety of food during the lunch hour and based on the
students’ selection, they will review an element of college. She further explained that this idea
allows students to eat food with which they are familiar or unfamiliar, but also learn new
information about the college, the college process, or college expectations.

68

Kennedy discussed her “can-do” mindset when engaging her marginalized students,
while Nasir decided to actively rely on his marginalized students to guide the classroom
discussions. In addition, Nayley had the drive to dedicate more time to her marginalized students
to help them hold themselves to higher standards. Zhenga and Noelle employed strategies to
engage their marginalized students in and out of the classrooms. All of these examples from the
data validated the procedural knowledge asset.
College Structured Teaching and Skills. The misalignment between high school and
college can contribute to the achievement gap against marginalized students (Kirst & Venezia,
2001). Michaels et al. (2011) explained that collaborative efforts between K-12 and higher
education could provide a smooth transition for students. At AHL, teachers work hard to
introduce the concept of college to their students, with some focus on their marginalized
population. Creating a college atmosphere in the high school setting normalizes the notion of
attending college to marginalized students who usually are not afforded the opportunity to attend.
The participants explained that they strive to have their students adhere to college-level standards
and equip them with the skills to meet those goals. The interview data validated the teachers’
factual knowledge of understanding college readiness and college-going culture and their
procedural knowledge to foster a college-going culture environment for their marginalized
students successfully. In analyzing the data from the interviews and focus group, the teachers
also demonstrated self-efficacy in creating a college-going environment for marginalized
students.
Several interview participants explained how they infused college elements in their
content, delivery, and expected classroom behavior for their students. Nasir, who taught in the

69

history department, expressed that although his department did not promote lecturing to their
students, he believes it takes away from the college culture and stated:
I would find time … to throw in lectures .… I'll have a straight lecture period where I'll
organize it [like] a college classroom … [sometimes] … I even physically maneuver the
room around … to look more like a lecture hall …. Having lectures, essay writing, and
introducing different experiences that they will have in the future [helps] to build up that
rigor and … stamina.
Similarly, several interview participants said they introduced college-level writing and
vocabulary in their class, so their assignments and in-class work would prepare their students for
college-level work. All of the interview participants said that they used one or more of the
following tools in their lesson plans to engage their marginalized students in college-level
content: discussion style teaching, lecture-style teaching, group discussions, research, heavy
essay writing with an emphasis on MLA format, and lecture-style seating. Exhibiting college
behaviors in the classroom was also a focal point for teachers. Kennedy explained that she did
not accept late homework from her students and “expect[s] them to model college behavior in
[her] class.” When asked about the skills teachers try to instill in their students to get them to
thrive in college, Nayely explained that she works to prepare her marginalized students for
college. She further explained:
When I’m teaching, I refer to the SATs … and the [state exams] … I [explain the
importance of SATs] .… We have conversations about ACT, which is not popularly
known. I do also bring in GRE questions … I want them to see beyond the [state exams]
that they do … I find that I’m harder on the marginalized students because, as a Jamaican

70

woman, I know how hard it is out there for our kind, and I want to erase those limitations
for my students in my class.
Other participants shared that incorporating college rigor into their lesson plans helped their
students with time management and stress management. Spencer explained that a few of his
assignments tend to be research-heavy and assigned at least one group assignment to his
students. Stokely also said that he assigned his ninth-graders an end of term project that has both
a five-page and presentation component to it. He went on to explain that he is “not expecting
college-level work but to introduce them to a way of thinking and approaching this level of
assignments. I don’t want them to be intimidated when they have to do it (later).” The
participants’ explanation of introducing college-level vocabulary, managing time management,
and stress management validated their factual knowledge of understanding of college readiness
and a college-going culture.
While 10 out of 12 interview participants agreed that a college-going mentality was
critical in their classrooms, the following examples highlighted the idea that embedding the
college-going culture in their lesson plans allowed them to set higher standards for the
marginalized student population. Hunter was very confident in his ability to foster a healthy
college-going atmosphere for their marginalized students, validating the motivation influence of
self-efficacy. He went on to explain that he wants:
Black and Hispanic students [to] pass their state exams … so they can have access to
college but, more importantly, … have the discipline to meet and surpass their academic
goals .… Over that last few years, the percentage of students who have passed their state
exams in my class have risen from 85% to 88%, then 92%, 98%, and now 100% [which
we have to sustain].

71

Hunter, along with other participants’ in the study, confirmed the motivational asset of self-
efficacy; the interview participants were confident in their ability to create a positive college-
going atmosphere for their marginalized students. Six other teachers who participated in the
interview also validated the motivation influence of self-efficacy by exhibiting high self-efficacy
in their ability to (a) sustain the college-going climate in their classrooms; (b) having
assignments that allowed students to do in-depth research on the colleges or universities that they
plan to attend, and (c) having clusters in their classroom that represent different types of
university. Michael explained that in his class, he grouped the students by types of universities,
and he started each class with each group breaking a college myth from that type of university’s
perspective. He expressed he wanted to help students learn accurate information about the cost of
attendance for marginalized students and the types of scholarships, grants, and aid that are
available to afford an ivy league education or a state college education. Pajares (2006) explained
that when teachers display high self-efficacy, they are presenting their knowledge and
understanding of college readiness. The data collected from the interviews validated the assumed
motivation influences related to the teacher’s belief in their ability to foster a
college-going culture in their classrooms for their marginalized students.
Hill (2008) reported that classroom structures and teacher characteristics heavily
influenced students’ desires to attend college, which aligns with the findings from this study.
During the focus group, Naomi, Noelle, and Amari all explained that they share their college
experiences with their students and dissolve all college myths to humanize the college
experience to their students.
Allocated College Time. Dedicating time for the improvement of students is beneficial
to the marginalized population while creating a college-going atmosphere. Marginalized students

72

may need additional help to fully grasp the material being taught in class or need extra time
dedicated to learning more about their college opportunities. While many marginalized students
are not provided time to investigate opportunities in higher education in their high schools,
having dedicated teachers who create space for those students to dedicate time to college
readiness concepts can be vital.
The interview data validated the motivational value influence, confirming that the
teachers saw the value in creating a college-going environment for their marginalized students.
Interview participants at AHL emphasized that they create time in and out of the classroom to
provide marginalized students additional time to concentrate on college content. Several
interview participants admitted that they use their lunchtime, free periods, and after school hours
as time to provide more tutoring to their marginalized group, whom they happen to see usually
need additional help. While waiting for one of my interviews, I observed a teacher reviewing
math materials with her students in preparation for an upcoming exam. I overheard her telling
her students that she will text all of their teachers during that period to let them know that the
students will be late for their class or will miss that period. This additional time is also part of
their efforts to ensure that all students succeed at their school.
Some interview participants explained how they create time in their classrooms to
provide additional help to marginalized students in efforts to get them up to speed with
challenging materials. Nasir explained a concept he follows for his class:
A system we have in place is called our target 12, where we look at the 12 – not
necessarily the lowest students in the grade but 12 kids who we feel … are borderline
between success and not succeeding, and we work closely … and provide services to

73

them and … [do] talk protocols [where we] will talk about what's working, what's not
working for them.
Another interview participant added how they deliver extra time in their classroom to give
additional help to the marginalized population. Caleb explained that he offers small groups in his
class; “I create small groups so the minority students can get more individualized attention.”
Extra time allocated to reviewing concepts and studying in class can help marginalized students
with learning challenging materials. Caleb and Peyton both explained that they use their
lunchtime to offer extra help to their marginalized population. Peyton stated:
During lunch, a lot of students come in here to … get extra help, print out stuff, [ask] can
you read my paper - things like that because they don’t get that stuff at home, like
printing .… If you came in my classroom during lunch, there [are at least 20] kids in here
of all different ethnicities, but mostly lower-income. They're talking about colleges, …
their recommendation letter, where [they’re] going to school, … [studying] for the SATs
… when they’re not here, [I question it].
Peyton, Caleb, and Nasir, along with other teachers, made a conscious effort to spend additional
time with their marginalized students outside of the classroom. Their strategy of devoting time in
and out of the classroom for their marginalized students to afford them the help they may not get
from home or their counselors validated the teacher’s motivational asset of seeing the value in
creating a college culture for their students. Other interview participants also explained that they
focus on other topics with their marginalized students, such as different majors, their personal
experiences, challenges as first-generation students, financial aid, study abroad opportunities,
internships, and recommendation letters. These conversations allow marginalized students to
thoroughly explore their options and have the comfort of asking relevant questions about their

74

future and the possibility of higher education. Allen, Kimura-Walsh, and Griffin (2009)
explained that understanding the value of a college-going culture has been linked to marginalized
students’ higher academic performance.
Student Interactions
The second emergent theme focuses on interactions with students. Academy of Higher
Learning possesses the framework for a mission and vision of a higher-performing high school
that begins with a deliberate college-centered approach. The interview participants, along with
the focus group participants, firmly believed that the engagement between students and their
teachers is a critical factor in the success of their marginalized students. They understood that a
healthy interaction would move beyond the classroom. The study’s participants identified three
main ideas that support their vision for increasing their marginalized students’ achievement. The
three components are providing individualized instruction for students, participating in advisory,
and creating a safe space for marginalized students to feel understood, supported, and trusted in
their relationship with their teachers. In analyzing the data from the interviews, the participants
validated the importance of factual and procedural influences of college-going culture and
college readiness knowledge through student interactions. Also, the data confirmed the
motivation assets through teachers’ high self-efficacy in their ability to provide a college-going
culture along with realizing the value of offering such culture to marginalized students. Table 8
displays the influences that were validated through the student interaction theme.

75

Table 8

Influences Validated Through Student Interactions

Influence Type Assumed Influence Validated?
Knowledge
Factual Teachers understand college readiness and a college-
going culture.
Yes
Procedural Teachers effectively incorporate college-going culture
strategies in the classroom for their
marginalized students.
Yes
Motivation
Self-Efficacy Teachers are confident in their ability to foster a
college-going culture in their classrooms for
their marginalized students.
Yes
Value Teachers see the value in creating a college-
going culture in their classrooms for their marginalized
students.
Yes
With the Academy of Higher Learning’s strong focus on college-going culture, the
teachers who participated in the interviews reported that they are mindful of the level of student
engagement at the institution. The participants firmly believed that the success of the
marginalized students at their school stems from a very consistent engagement with them.
Hunter, Noah, and Kaila all expressed that their marginalized students require constant
conversations about college to make it a realistic goal for them. Hunter further explained that:
Black boys need a constant reminder that college is doable for them. They have so much
… against them already, and they need someone to have these conversations with them
and believe in them .… I need them to believe in themselves.
All of the focus group participants also expressed their understanding that the core values of the
school require a college-going focus along with a student-centered approach. Zhenga explained:
We have [marginalized kids] coming to this school from all over the city. Some of their
families suffer financially … [so we] fundraise … every year … for application fees ….
[Sometimes I have them imagine their dream job] … we talk about the difference

76

between careers and jobs … the degree required and then high school. Once I’m able to
[connect it] for them … college just happens to be a part of that conversation. That’s
usually when they take it seriously and become inquisitive.
Differentiated Learning
Interview participants at AHL reported that differentiated learning is a tool to meet the
learning speed of their students in their class. Differentiated learning, as explained by Dinç
(2017), is a method of teaching that engages all students in a diverse classroom a range of
options to understand new information. The interviews confirmed that the teachers have the
procedural knowledge to foster a college-going environment for their marginalized students
successfully. Some of the interview participants explained that this method allows them to
provide their marginalized students more attention to keep up with the success of other students.
Kaila stated:
Equipping marginalized students with the right tools to have true access to college
requires more than the cookie-cutter teaching. You have to truly care and take it
personally because their success is your success, and if you don’t feel that, you’re
standing in their way.
Five other interview participants agreed that differentiated learning “removes the pressure from
the marginalized students to keep up with their peers.” Noah added that:
Providing students a different way to learn the same materials has been really helpful .…
Sometimes from their test results or assessments, I know that they need things spelled out
for them a little more, and I have to show them step by step what they need to do and
explain why they need to do it.

77

Nine interview participants explained that allowing students different ways to learn allowed them
the opportunity to learn at their own pace and provides them with a level of autonomy. Peyton
strongly believes that students should choose how they learn. She explained that all of her
lessons are created with the student’s choice and stated:
Students have [the] chance to choose how they want to learn, so it’s not me picking for
them .… There [are usually] three different stations, … direct instructions in the front
where I’m teaching [the students]; they’re usually the [marginalized group]. Then, there’s
independent instruction in the middle where they have the same packet as the direct
instruction, but they’re working on their own or with a partner. And then there [are]
quizzes in the back, [through] an online website .… [Students spend] 15 minutes at their
chosen station, and if they feel that the quizzes are too hard, they can always [change
after their 15 minutes].
Similarly, Hunter explained that he puts his students in unit groups from one (low
comprehension) to three (mastery). He groups each number together and students get the
opportunity to “physically move up in groups,” which has shown a positive impact on the
marginalized students’ motivation. He also said that this method of grouping students allows
students to monitor their progress on the unit topics. The data validated the motivational value
influence.
When asked about how their practices in the classroom account for the racial differences
in their student cohorts, eight interview participants explained that they have to be “culturally
aware” and six interview participants recognized that they have to “set smaller goals for the
[marginalized students].” Kaila stated:

78

[The] students that I've noticed are low performing are Black and Hispanic males .… I
feel like I constantly have to reinforce deadlines … and make small goals for [them] .…
I've noticed … [when they have] … deadlines, [it’s usually] invested in their minds .… I
have to set that goal for them, and they may not like it, but I show them that their college
professors will not be as lenient as me.
Other interview participants reported that along with providing their marginalized students small
goals to accomplish, they find that it is also effective to put them in small groups. Kennedy
further noted that smaller groups allow for one on one attention between teachers and the
marginalized students. Michael and Nasir said that they recognize racial barriers and
incorporated strategies to help combat those challenges. Nasir explained that he noticed that his
minority students would usually have more difficulty preparing for class at home. He continued
to say:
[This] called for a huge amount of differentiation. So what happens if a student doesn't
read at home? How do I determine that they actually are prepared? .… I incorporated …
Google Forms and [hold them accountable] because I saw that [they] didn't do [the
readings] at home. But when [they] come in, the kids who didn't read [are] … separated
[into] a small group and I … work with [them] for the rest of the class.
Caleb added that “finding ways to create different levels of learning material can be challenging
because it requires innovation, but [that’s what we need to] tap into the knowledge in our
[marginalized] students.”
By striving to create differentiated learning to reach their marginalized students, the
interview participants validated the procedural knowledge and the motivational value influences.
Ten out of the 12 interview participants stated that they try to instill some level autonomy to their

79

students to choose how they learn while all of the interview participants agreed that a school-
wide initiative called benchmarking has proven to be effective with the marginalized population.
Benchmarking. Benchmarking is a school-wide initiative that evaluates students’
performance in a unit against the level of proficiency they should have at the end of that unit.
The interview participants explained benchmarking as a tool that allows students to monitor their
level of understanding in a unit and allows them the opportunity to seek additional help to reach
the mastery level in that unit. The teachers who participated in both the interviews and the focus
group mentioned benchmarking as a tool that is encouraged by the school leadership, and they
have found that it allows students to monitor their learning, thus providing them with a sense of
belongingness with their learning progress. Noelle explained that benchmarking “is an actual,
physical display of where the students are, so they can actually see it for themselves. So I like to
challenge them more because they are now aware of their level of proficiency so they get to
work towards something they can see.” Spencer added to the notion that he uses folders to
motivate the students. He said:
I hand out all of the folders with different levels of worksheets in them … blue [mastery
level], yellow and green [basic level] …. So, I know they’re usually excited to end the
class or week … or unit in blue, and it gives them motivation. So, what I like to do is put
college-level work in some of the worksheets in the blue folder, and they work just as
hard if not harder to complete it. My black and Hispanic students usually turn it into a
friendly competition amongst themselves to see who will get to blue first … and they
encourage each other.
Kennedy, Hunter, and Nasir all expressed that they also strategically infused their mastery levels
with some level of college content to challenge their students. Hunter further explained:

80

I don’t want my Black and Latino students to be shocked when they see college work. I
don’t want them to feel defeated like they weren’t prepared for it. So introducing them in
ways that is not aggressive is my goal, but I also want them to be realistic about
comprehending the material.
Michael explained that all of the teachers have a benchmarking poster in their classroom
and often refer to it every week. He continued to expound that “it’s an additional tool to keep our
students accountable for what they’re learning and not learning … it’s my job to get all of my
students to the mastery level at the end of every unit by any means necessary.” Noah and Leah-
Anna echoed his beliefs and added that benchmarking motivates the marginalized students to get
to the mastery level, especially when they notice their friends reach that level; it “gives them
something to build towards.” Noah stated that although he monitors the students’ progress, he
sets an expectation in his class that students must monitor their progress so they do not rely on
him. He further explained that it was a way to instill accountability in his students, and it has
been effective. Leah-Anna went on to add:
If one of the [cool] boys … reach the mastery level … everyone thinks it’s cool … [gets]
motivated to get to the same level … [leading to a] friendly competition .… Reminds me
why I do this every day.
Strategies to monitor individual students’ progress allowed teachers to focus on those
who need additional help. Benchmarking, designed as a uniformed strategy, will enable students
to monitor their progress in all of their classes with the same tool. Marginalized students can
evaluate their progress and receive additional help to meet the same level as their peers. The
interview participants validated the procedural knowledge asset through the use of

81

benchmarking. The participants believed that the use of benchmarking in the classrooms allows
marginalized students to be challenged, preparing them for the college mindset.
Advisory
Advisory is an enrichment cluster led by teachers at the Academy of Higher Learning.
Several interview participants explained advisory as a supplemental program where each teacher
is assigned a group of students and are responsible for imparting non-academic life skills to
them. Some of the topics covered through advisory may include social and emotional skills,
college readiness, reinforcement of the school’s Honor Code, budgeting, career discussions and
presentations, and aptitude tests. All interview and focus group participants mentioned advisory
as a tool to learn more about their marginalized students outside of the traditional classroom
setting and enhance the teacher-student relationship. They also explained that advisory provides
the students an opportunity to express themselves through art, music, dance, self-defense,
architecture while learning different talents from their teachers.
The participants validated the motivational value asset by recognizing the benefits of
sustaining a college centered environment for their marginalized students. The data gathered
from the interviews showed that teachers who took on additional roles in their students’ lives at
the school increased communication and trust between them and the students. The interview
participants at AHL expressed that students are more open during advisory, which helps foster a
healthy relationship before the students enter their classroom. When asked about what they do
differently to account for the needs of the marginalized students due to the racial and systemic
influences, Caleb stated:
I take advisory seriously because that’s my opportunity to get to know my [marginalized]
students. … my Black and Hispanic students like music, so [they] … teach me their

82

favorite dance moves [and lyrics, which] … I use … in my class. My Asian students are
sometimes quiet [because of a] language or culture barrier, so, [they] … teach me …
simple phrases in their native tongue …. I greet my Asian students in either Chinese,
Korean, Vietnamese … and then I get my Italian students [in it and learn from them too].
When my Black students feel left out, [we come up with] … cool handshakes … so
[everyone is greeted] different[ly] … and nobody feels left out.
Noah added that “dual-roles of teaching and running advisory gives … that extra time to have
daily conversations surrounding college readiness.” Nayely went on to explain that “any
opportunity to normalize college attendance for our marginalized students is taken advantage of
here at AHL.” Seven of the interview participants praised the advisory program as a great way to
reach the marginalized students and provide them with opportunities and conversations that they
may not have if they were not at AHL. Noah, an Economics and Government teacher, went on to
say:
In my advisory, I like to have my students see themselves as the future of our country
regardless of their race. So [I help] … register them to vote … [because we know] …
most of our [marginalized] students will not … register [or see the purpose]. We usually
… discuss … the history of our country and how we can change the narrative [through
voting] …. Working with marginalized students … I feel it’s my duty to give them that
voice that they feel has been silenced … and I create a safe space to address the history of
our country. I want them to know what they’re faced against when they leave us, so I
know I have to prepare them.

83

Kaila echoed the same sentiments as Noah. Kaila stated that she enjoys using Advisory as an
opportunity to erase the student-teacher barriers. She explained that she takes the opportunity to
motivate her students to want to succeed beyond AHL. She added:
Most of our students graduate with [an associate degree], but during Advisory, I like to
have a real-life conversation with them .… They’re already exposed to college and … but
now what? What's your next step past [an] associates degree because you realize, I can’t
really do a ton with this degree, I need any more .… A lot of the students [are financially
driven], so we use Advisory to explore the [profitable] majors … [so they] know what
they want to pursue in college.
The data validated the procedural knowledge and motivational value assets. Teachers who take
on additional roles beyond their primary position confirmed the knowledge and motivation assets
by knowing how to maintain a college mindset and valuing the concept of college-going culture
at their school. Eleven of the interview participants at AHL understood that engaging in advisory
increases their relation to their marginalized students, and some use it as an opportunity to
perform additional college readiness strategies to their students. Also, all of the interview
participants shared that participating in advisory was a helpful way to connect with their
marginalized students, which encourages their efforts to create safe spaces, in and out of the
classrooms, to foster healthy relationships with their students. Aldana (2014) explained that
when teachers absorb roles outside of their immediate job function, it increases the relationship
values with their students, strengthens communication and trust, and fosters a healthy space for
students.

84

Safe Space
Some of the interview participants expressed that creating a safe space for students to
express themselves is a practical approach to connect with the marginalized students. The safe
space allows the marginalized students to comfortably communicate their feelings and emotions
or address any issues they may face in and out of the classroom. Interview participants
mentioned that being able to engage marginalized in a space where they feel valued, heard, and
understood helps to remind them of the importance of their work. Thus, validating both
motivational assets of self-efficacy and value. Also, several interview participants expressed that
engaging their marginalized students in a safe space was a soft reminder to think beyond the
academic aspects of succeeding as a college student, validating the factual knowledge asset.
Some AHL interview participants revealed that marginalized students often respond to
the lessons when they feel comfortable to explore the subject. Caleb explained that creating “that
comfortable space requires a lot of communication and relationship building with them.” When
asked about how they addressed the needs of the marginalized students once they identify a
learning gap, all of the teachers who participated in the interviews explained that they have to
make themselves and their material relatable to the students, engage them in daily conversations
about college or provide emotional care for them. Stokely stated:
With my marginalized students, … I have to always create a safe space … in the hallway,
during advisory, [in] class, or … in the streets. I want them to always feel secure and
cared for when they interact with me … if my Black and Hispanic students don’t feel
respected and heard, they will not engage, and that affects their learning … so I … create
that space [safe] for them ….

85

The information presented by the collected data showed that providing marginalized students an
environment where they feel comfortable to be themselves without judgment is essential to their
learning. Holland and Farmer-Hinton (2009) explained that a school setting must be a safe space
to engage students with ongoing formal and informal discussions. All of the interview
participants at AHL identified relatability, constant conversations, or emotional care as leading
techniques in creating a safe space for their marginalized students.
Relatability. Several interview participants at AHL expressed that the ability to establish
a causal connection with the marginalized students is vital in their learning process. Many
teachers who participated in the study said that they were able to break through to their
marginalized students once they were able to show relation to them. Understanding the social-
emotional aspect of college success validates the factual knowledge asset. All of the Caucasian
teachers that participated in the study, which was a majority of the participants, expressed that it
is their daily task to connect with every student because they educate a diverse group of students.
The participants expressed that acknowledging the diversity of the student body challenges them
to find a unique connection, specifically, with the marginalized students. Michael, an older
White male, explained that he chooses to “learn their language and study their personalities …
We make up raps all the time about math equations, and if that helps them study and learn the
material, then, let’s rap.” Spencer added that he usually invites visitors that reflect the
demographics of his students to speak with them. He continued to say:
I know when I stand in front of that room, they see me like yet another White man. I’m
not blind to it, and I know as much as I want to say these are things we may have in
common; they still see what they see. But I bring in my buddies from different fields and
even some past students to show them someone who looks like them or have similar

86

stories as them. The visual is a powerful tool when you see the students’ [response] .… I
really like representation in my classroom, and I want them to see themselves, and not
only me.
Other interview participants agreed that when marginalized students feel a connection to their
experiences or the course material, they are more willing to learn. Some interview participants
shared their experiences of being first-generation college students and the response from their
marginalized students. Others shared examples of how they relate their course content to the
students’ lives. Stokely, a science teacher shared about his engagement with his marginalized
students:
They simply don’t see any relation to the material, so they don’t want to learn it .… I
don’t … ask them what they want to be, but I shift the focus on their lives. I ask them
what they do when they get sick. They take medicine, and I explain the science behind
medicine, and then I talk about the pharmacist or chemist who makes the drugs and how
much their potential salary can be .… When they … connect to the information, they …
[engage with] the material .… Just talk to them about their life, careers, and money. I
guarantee you they will listen.
The interview and focus group participants agreed that academic achievement requires social and
emotional components. Information gathered from the interviews showed that providing
emotional care to marginalized students is essential to their learning process. Several interview
participants at AHL expressed that being compassionate, accepting and treating each student as a
unique individual had a positive impact on their marginalized students. They believe that it is
imperative to show their students that they matter. Thus, validating the factual knowledge asset
of understanding what is needed for a college-going mindset and success.

87

Stokely said that he “begins every class with a pep talk” to get them ready for class.
Hunter corroborates this notion by adding that he reinforces his care and imparts on his
marginalized students to “never give up.” He stated:
You have to show them you care and that you respect them. That’s the only way
[marginalized students] will open up to you and only then will they be able to learn in
your class … you can’t embarrass them because they will never trust you again. You
have to show them that they can come to you under any circumstance, so you have to go
that extra mile and reach them emotionally.
Nayely described a story about her interactions with her students and her efforts to show them
that she cares about student absence:
We have to [be mindful of the distance traveled and situations] they’re coming from …
trying to teach them the Pythagorean Theorem makes no difference, but once they see
that you care, you’d be surprised … you have to check in with them .… If you say to a
kid who’s always absent, “Hey, I missed you yesterday” … they’re used to people
[sarcastically] saying, “welcome back!” but if you say, “I missed you yesterday. Why do
you keep doing this?” that alone makes them feel very important like they matter …
which they are. They respond when you care.
Relatability, along with social-emotional care, provides students with a sense of belongingness in
their environment. Marginalized students benefit from this notion because when they have a
sense of belongingness, they are more open to learning. Research has shown that when students
feel the pride of belonging, they are more likely to continue to graduation (Demi et al., 2010;
King, 1996; McCollough, 2011).

88

Conversations. The research findings validated the motivational asset of self-efficacy
due to the participants’ confidence in catering to the social factors required for college success.
Daily conversations were another useful tool that some of the interview participants identified to
connect with their students. Many of the AHL interview participants expressed that constant
conversations with their marginalized students, especially an informal one, helped create a safe
space for learning. They also noticed that through their discussions, marginalized students tend
to be more inviting on various topics and subject matters. Kennedy stated:
One thing I realized from working at other schools is that teachers from other schools
never made the time to simply talk to their students. They were always under pressure to
pass the exams, but … [at AHL], teachers take the time to talk to their students and get to
know their students .… You can learn a lot about your students [and] what they’re going
through. You have to know your students because … things heavily affect them,
especially our [marginalized students].
Several interview participants expounded on the idea of conversations and agreed that
understanding a student holistically makes teaching them more relaxed. Four of the interview
participants explained that they start every class with an inspirational conversation with their
students in efforts to get them in the right mindset to learn. Hunter believed in the daily
reminders to the students and “building them up to believe in themselves and be confident.” He
went on to add:
I have a section in the back [of my class] … designated [for private conversations] ...
[Hardships] affect their learning. I want them to know that they can come to me and talk
about any hardships .… We have a lot of students that [travel far]. For those students, I
know they come in tired, [so] I … talk to them and allow them one-day to detox … which

89

means I don’t expect too much from them on that day but they know they have to come
ready for the rest of the week .… If the student isn’t doing well, they won’t perform well.
The interview participants explained that carving out the time in class to talk to the marginalized
students helps create stronger relationships between students and teachers. Some participants
allocated the first few minutes of their class to “check-in on [their] students.” Caleb explained
that he begins every class with a five-minute conversation surrounding college. He revealed that
he deliberately allows a different student to lead the college discussions at the start of each class
to allow them the opportunity to talk about college and ask questions and engage their peers. He
went on to add that the students “ask everything from college parties to the games and what
majors can make them the most money. Sometimes the conversations go longer than expected,
but if they’re asking really good questions, I don’t mind it.” The interviews presented data that
validated teachers’ motivational self-efficacy assets through healthy conversations about college
with their marginalized students.
The contributing factors that focused on student interactions included differentiated
learning, advisory and belonging to a safe space. Healthy interactions between students and
teachers promote academic achievement for marginalized students, as expressed by the interview
participants. Thus, student interactions proved to be a critical factor for marginalized students'
academic progress. The study’s data validated the factual and procedural knowledge assets along
with the motivational influences of self-efficacy and value.
Positive School Environment
The data uncovered a theme of a positive school environment at the foundation of the
school. The positive school environment appears to be the result of healthy school leadership and
a practical school-wide approach. The focus group participants validated the organizational

90

cultural model, explaining that the school leadership supports teachers in fostering a college-
going culture for their marginalized students. Also, the participants believed that a positive
cultural model is instrumental in cultivating a supportive and trusting relationship with the
organization. Table 9 displays the influences that were validated through a positive school
environment.
Table 9
Influences Validated Through Positive School Environment

Influence Type Assumed Influence Validated?
Organizational
Cultural Model 1 The AHL supports teachers in creating a college-
going culture for marginalized students to continue
and encourage college access.
Yes
The positive school environment at AHL serves as the foundation for fostering a
productive college-going culture. Focus group participants at AHL expressed that their success is
attributed to the positive school climate provided and maintained by the school leadership. When
asked to describe the relationship between AHL leadership and its staff, Parker, one of the focus
group participants, voiced that the leadership “provides a very positive and great support to their
staff. They have an open-door policy and are willing to take and apply feedback.” All of the
other teachers participating in the focus group agreed with the statement.
Leadership Support for Teachers
All of the focus group participants, along with three out of the 12 interview participants,
agreed that effective school leadership is the most important factor in fostering a thriving
college-going culture at the school. Focus group participants, Naomi and Noelle, explained that
school leaders establish the foundation for the campus and determine the structures to develop
procedures for implementation and sustainability. Several of the focus group participants

91

attributed the Academy of Higher Learning’s success to its leadership for developing strong
teacher support and encouraging collaboration amongst its teachers.
The teachers’ lounge, where the focus group was held, had a series of rules that reinforce
an “open space” policy. These rules reinforced the following principles that were at the
foundation of the school: welcome all students that enroll in their school, make the best of a
given situation and accept whatever transpires, accept that things happen at the right time, and
acknowledge when it ends. Amari and Noelle believed that these beliefs supported the mindset
that contributes to the positive school environment at AHL. In addition to these rules is a law that
governs their teachers’ mentality at work: if one finds themselves neither learning nor
contributing during a meeting, they are allowed to proceed to a more suitable environment that
enables them to learn and contribute. The rules encouraged teachers to participate during the
meetings and keep the focus on the positive aspects of any situation that they come across. Some
of the focus group participants pointed out the rules as an example of the school leadership
emphasizing their openness and transparency with the teachers. Therefore, leadership support
validated the organizational cultural model.
When asked to describe any influence their school leadership has on their pedagogical
decisions, all focus group participants agreed that the school leadership regularly imparts new
initiatives to reach the marginalized students. Naomi, a focus group participant, explained that
the leadership understands the challenges they face in the classroom because they also teach. She
explained that having the shared experience provides the leadership team a unique lens when
identifying the needs and solutions for their marginalized students. The focus group participants
frequently acknowledged their support and trust from the school leadership, validating the
organizational cultural model asset. Amari explained:

92

Those that are willing to try new initiatives or techniques [of teaching], [the leadership
team] will give [them] the support. They're very open if you want something for the kids.
[Their attitude is,] “we will support it. How do we support it? Just do it, get it done”, and
[they] help you with it, but you have to get it done.
When asked about other support they received from AHL that encourages their priority of
creating a college-going culture for their marginalized students given the existence of the
education attainment gap, Parker and Amari reported that they receive testing data that breaks
down the achievements or lack thereof by race, ethnicity, gender, and grade. They explained that
they use this data to help analyze and identify which groups of students need additional help.
When they noticed the trend that showed that their marginalized students often fell in the group
that needed more help, they attempted a “cycle of revision of strategy,” which allows them to
find new ways to disseminate information to the students that might be in danger of falling
behind. Along with data, Parker stated that the teachers “are encouraged to attend professional
development geared towards cultural responsive pedagogy.” The focus group participants
believed that the strong leadership support that they have is at the foundation of their success
with their marginalized students, validating the organizational asset.
The teachers who participated in the focus group felt that they received great support
from their organization. Some focus group participants also recognized the high level of trust
between the teachers and the school leadership. Parker, Naomi, and Zhenga all explained that
trust is a critical factor in the support provided to teachers. They went on to explain that having
the trust of the leadership team plays a significant role in their success and gives them the
confidence and motivation to continue their work. Zhenga expressed that there is mutual trust
between the leadership team at AHL and the teachers. She further explained that “they believe in

93

us, and we believe in them .… They trust and support our decisions in most matters we present to
them, as long as it makes sense, we have their support … we’re lucky.” The rest of the
participants agreed with her statement. In addition, Amari said that the leadership team had
conversations with all teachers throughout the year (beginning, middle, and end) to “check-in on
the climate and progress of their [minority] students.” In addition to the conversations, Noelle
added that they are required to participate in cluster meetings, which are a monthly check-in
between the school leadership and subject-specific teachers. At these cluster meetings, teachers
are encouraged to share their promising practices and brainstorm ideas while allowing the school
leadership an opportunity to learn about the challenges those teachers face. The collected data
validated the organizational cultural model asset at AHL, confirming the school leaders’
endorsement of their teachers to create a college-going environment for the marginalized
students.
Collaboration. The focus group participants at AHL explained that their leadership
strongly encourages teachers to work together to achieve the school’s mission of closing the
achievement gap for the marginalized students. All of the focus group participants were vocal
about the collaborative spirit carried throughout the school that stems from their leadership.
Parker, who has also worked at other institutions, said, “a lot of other places talk about
collaboration … but this school is really [a] collaborative effort. Everyone works together …
constantly talking about teaching styles, … the lesson plans, [and] people share ideas.” Naomi
expressed that she talks to other teachers about their exam experiences in college and tries to
mirror the exam formats in her class. She further explained that her history classes in college
were “exclusively essay writing. So now, [in my class] there’s a big focus on essay writing in
terms of the thematic essays.”

94

The focus group participants agreed that they are constantly sharing knowledge amongst
themselves. When asked how AHL promotes collaboration among teachers around pedagogical
practices, all of the five focus group participants mentioned intervisitation or vertical teaming.
Naomi described intervisitation as a classroom visit between the teachers at AHL, where teachers
can learn new techniques from one another and have the opportunity to try the learned strategies
in their classroom. The rest of the focus group participants agreed that they found this to be
helpful and encourage feedback from their peers. Noelle mentioned another strategy similar to
intervisitation called inquiry groups. She defined it as an opportunity for teachers to test and
evaluate other’s teaching strategies and report their findings in small groups. These cycles last
for eight sessions, and the cycles of inquiry occur two or three times a year.
The data from the study found that fostering a strong collaboration amongst the teachers
is strongly encouraged by the leadership. During the focus group, all of the participants discussed
various collaborative opportunities they have been offered. Parker described vertical teaming – a
partnership between teachers at different grade levels whose goal is to help marginalized
students gain the necessary academic skills for success. He further explained that teachers from
the ninth grade would partner with teachers in higher grades based on the subject and level and
align the teachings in the subject matter.
For example, I teach ninth-grade science and someone else teachers 11
th
-grade science.
The 11
th
-grade teacher would work closely with me to see what I’ve taught the students
back in ninth grade and build from that, so it … helps bridge the gap from prior
knowledge. They usually pair ninth and 10
th
, 10
th
and 11
th
and so but sometimes
depending on the subject, they will do ninth and 11
th
then 10
th
and 12
th
.

95

He also added that this strategy was a solution to teachers’ lack of awareness of what their
colleagues were teaching their students at various levels. Welton and Williams (2015) revealed
that failure to align learning systems result in students facing challenges to transition to the next
level. Vertical teaming allows for the alignment of students’ study, so they are better prepared
academically to pursue higher levels of learning. The collaborative efforts promoted by the
school leadership validates the organizational cultural model asset.
School-Wide Approach
Academy of Higher Learning utilizes a holistic approach to foster a college-going culture
within the school. A school-wide approach indicates that all components are essential in
promoting a college-going culture at the school. This supports the research that suggested that a
school-wide approach is a crucial element grounded in the notion that college-going culture is
most useful for marginalized students by curating an environment that addresses the college
culture explicitly (McClafferty, et al., 2002). The endorsement from the school leadership for
such an approach validated the organizational cultural-model asset that the focus group
participants believe that AHL’s leadership supports their aspirations to create and sustain a
college-going culture for marginalized students. When considering the college-going culture and
the school-wide approach, Zhenga stated:
It's a school-wide culture thing … not getting your associate's degree is … the most
embarrassing thing you can do. It's actually … shameful, the kids actually feel shame and
dishonor … and feel sad to their teachers and parents. They get very [apologetic], and I
tell them you don't need to apologize to me that you're not getting your associates degree,
you need to apologize to yourself because you didn't get this opportunity .… Not taking
college classes is embarrassing for them.

96

When asked about tools they might deem necessary to prepare marginalized students for going to
college, Noelle expressed that they need to be exposed to more than they know. Three other
participants from the focus group agreed that broadening the marginalized students’ experience
shifts their expectations for themselves. Noelle went on to add:
Exposure is a huge thing we like to push for our marginalized students. We want to
expose them to a world outside of what they know. We take them on trips, … offer them
internships that we post in staff offices, so they also have an extra layer of folks at the
school encouraging them .… Every year, the school sends students abroad, and this year,
we’re taking them to [Europe] .… The school even holds fundraisers for the students to
make it more affordable for them.
Four out of the five participants in the focus group emphasized that to prepare marginalized
students for college, the efforts come from them, the school leadership, and the staff members.
Zhenga explained that teachers would need to monitor students’ goals and break down each step
of a goal and explain it to them; promote positive goal setting which can also be encouraged by
the staff members and school leadership; normalize college attendance by exposing them to
college-level content, and allocate time to get to know the students. The teachers at AHL who
participated in the focus group believed that advocating for marginalized students and supporting
them in their journey is essential in their achievement. Amari added that:
We can’t afford to be siloed and expect the students to be great. We have to work with
each other and make sure that we are carrying the same tune … surrounding college or
career .… We have a staff lunch where every single teacher or administrator is required
to attend .… [Our purpose is to share] one voice … [that] college is a [viable option] for
[them].

97

The data from the focus group showed that school leadership at the Academy of Higher
Learning provides support to their teachers to help promote a positive school environment for
their students. The data further validated the organizational cultural-model assets, that the school
leadership supports and trusts the teachers in their efforts to create a college-going culture for
their marginalized students. As a result of their efforts, the data collected from the focus group
confirmed that a positive school environment fosters a healthy collaborative approach amongst
teachers and the school leadership.
Conclusion
This chapter revealed the study’s findings of three emergent themes that lay the
foundation for the structure and systems that were developed, implemented, and sustained at the
Academy of Higher Learning. The combination of a college-centered approach, student
interactions, as well as an emphasis on a positive school environment are the structures that
contribute to a healthy college-going culture at AHL. First, the teachers, with the support of the
school leadership at the school, focused on a college-centered approach to reach their
marginalized students. In this, teachers created college styled classrooms, infused their lesson
plans with challenging content that reflected college-level work, and dedicated additional time to
focus on college readiness for the marginalized population in and out of the classroom. Secondly,
the school has a strong emphasis on fostering student interactions through the implementation of
differentiated learning, allowing teachers to provide more direct instruction time to marginalized
students. The teachers also managed a cohort of students through advisory, where they engaged
students in discussions surrounding college readiness while learning non-academic life skills.
The creation of safe space in and out of the classroom to provide emotional care also proved to
be critical. Lastly, the leadership at the school focused on implementing a school-wide approach

98

that sustains a positive school environment and a college-going culture. It is important to
consider the implications of these findings, along with information the data did not reveal.
Chapter 5 provides an in-depth analysis of these results and offer recommendations for future
research to provide insight into promising practices for creating a college-going culture for
marginalized students to help close the achievement gap.

99

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION
The purpose of this study was to explore the influences that contribute to the success of
college-going culture for continuous academic achievement for marginalized students. This
paper applied the gap analysis model to examine assumed influences within the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational dimensions (Clark & Estes, 2008). Through twelve individual
interviews and a focus group, a total of five assets were validated, as discussed in chapter 4.
Participants possessed various knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences that
shaped their experiences and inspired their goal for increasing academic achievement for
marginalized students. This chapter discusses the participants’ experiences and the
recommendations categorized by knowledge, motivation, and organization.
An implementation plan and an evaluation plan based on the new Kirkpatrick and
Kirkpatrick (2016) model will be used to achieve the recommended solutions. This chapter will
conclude with a discussion of limitations and delimitations of the study, along with a discussion
of future research in the field. The next section will address the organization’s status, the
stakeholder group, and the purpose of the study.
Organizational Context and Mission
The Academy of Higher Learning (AHL) (a pseudonym) is a secondary school serving
students from sixth to 12
th
Grade. AHL’s mission mainly focuses on providing holistic education
to students by bridging the gaps among middle school, high school, and post-secondary
education, while providing them with robust support systems (School Mission, n.d.). AHL
identifies as an Early College High School, serving marginalized students with diverse interests
to successfully navigate from sixth to 12
th
Grade through their unique partnership with Higher
Learning University (HLU) (a pseudonym). Their unique partnership allows AHL students to

100

have access to HLU’s resources once they enter the ninth grade and take college-level courses
starting in the 11
th
grade.
Organizational Performance Status
Academy of Higher Learning (AHL) is an institution where 99% of its students complete
approved college or career preparatory courses and exams. Teachers at AHL provide rigorous
instruction that has resulted in high student achievements; 93% of students graduate college-
ready, which is measured by their ability to meet the collegiate standard by bypassing remedial
courses (AHL 2017-2018 School Quality Snapshot). The School Quality Snapshot is an annual
report produced by the state Department of Education that provides the general public with a
review of a school’s performance and conditions.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
A stakeholder group is a group of individuals who directly contribute to and benefit from
the achievement of the organization’s goal. Some stakeholders to consider at AHL are students,
teachers, and administrators.
Although shared efforts from all stakeholder groups would be necessary to accomplish
the overall goal of increasing college preparation for marginalized students, it is essential to
understand the promising practices and strategies utilized by AHL teachers as they implemented
the policies and procedures that align with college expectations. Thus, the stakeholders of focus
for this promising study will be all teachers at the Academy of Higher Learning.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to study the teachers’ role in aligning secondary and post-
secondary education by creating a college-going culture. The analysis focused on the assets in
the areas of knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational resources.

101

The questions that guided the promising practice study are the following:
1. What are the teachers’ knowledge and motivation related to creating a college-going
culture for marginalized students?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and teachers’
knowledge and motivation?
3. What recommendations in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational
resources may be appropriate to foster a college-going culture at other schools?
Recommendations for Practice
There are five recommendations in this section based on validated and discovered
knowledge, motivation, and organization findings at the Academy of Higher Learning (AHL),
which could be of use to other public high schools serving marginalized students. These
practices are recommended because they can be applied outside of highly structured
environments like the early college system. Providing training and data that gives teachers the
knowledge and skills needed to prepare marginalized students for college readiness can influence
the organizational culture at other high schools to improve with structure and resources that will
enable their teachers to meet their goals with their marginalized students.
The knowledge, motivation and organizational assets are effective in closing the
achievement gap through the use of the college-going culture and may help other schools
develop effective practices. The knowledge and motivation influences were validated based on
the emerging themes generated from individual interviews with teachers from AHL and literature
review. The organizational influences used as promising practices that were identified by AHL
teachers were also validated through a focus group and review of the literature.

102

Recommendation #1: Establish Monthly Training for Teachers to Understand the Concept
of College-Going Culture and its Impact on Marginalized Students.
The findings from this study indicated that 100% of the ninth - 12
th
Grade teachers who
participated in this study had in-depth, declarative knowledge about college readiness and a
college-going culture. Research shows that prior knowledge can help or hinder the learning
process (APA, 2015). The participants demonstrated their understanding of college-going
culture, which was very helpful in engaging the marginalized students in the topic. They
explained that it provided them the security to share their personal stories and the impact college
had on their future.
Petkovska (2015) studied teacher training that focused on recognizing marginalized
groups in order to assess the necessary environment needed for academic achievement and the
security of diverse learners. Providing on-going training about college-going culture to teachers
would serve two purposes: provide them with in-depth knowledge of the college-going culture
theory and explore its impact on college readiness and college access for marginalized students.
During these trainings, teachers can be encouraged to participate in the learning process by
sharing their college stories and understanding how their experiences can help shape their
marginalized students’ perspective on higher education. If a school adopts this on-going training
for college-going culture, it will foster buy-in from teachers and school leadership that could
allow a college-going culture to be embedded into the new foundation of the school.
Recommendation #2: Create a Peer-Mentorship Program for Teachers to Learn Strategies
and Techniques to Incorporate College-Going Culture for Marginalized Students.
Academy of Higher Learning belongs to the Middle College National Consortium
(MCNC), whose mission is to expand college access for the underrepresented population through

103

college-going culture. MCNC houses 40 public schools on college campuses in almost 20 states
across the nation. The findings of this study indicated that 100% of the ninth - 12
th
Grade teacher
participants in this study had procedural knowledge of how to infuse college-going culture
strategies in their classrooms, specifically for marginalized students. Naomi, Noelle, Parker, and
Zhenga explained during the focus group that they shared their promising practices with one
another. Similarly, Hunter, Michael, Nasir, and Noah spoke about their participation in
mentoring programs to help coach teachers from other schools with their techniques and
strategies with teaching marginalized students. Rees and Shaw (2014) studied peer-mentor
training as a useful tool to increase shared knowledge amongst teachers through “involvement
(engaging in supportive networks to establish trust in the institution), regimen (establishing an
effective routine), self-management (being able to regulate one’s work), and social skills/
networking (commitment to strong social ties and collegial outreach)” (p. 1).
Thus, establishing a peer-mentoring program that allows schools to be mentored by the
teachers and school leadership from successful schools in MCNC would be advantageous. The
peer-mentoring training will allow non-MCNC-teachers to pair up MCNC teachers who have
proven successful with incorporating college-going culture in the classroom experiences for
marginalized students. MCNC teachers would be able to provide other high school teachers with
one-on-one college-going culture strategy coaching while sharing promising practices. These
mentorships could take place in-person or virtually to allow more schools the opportunity to
participate in the mentorship program. Some strategies that AHL teachers used to expose their
marginalized students to college includes hosting a college day, offering a capstone course with a
focus on colleges, introduce classroom visitations from college personnel, tie in lessons plans to
meet the core curriculum and their own personal agendas, present differentiated learning to

104

provide learning ranges up to college-level material, and set designated time within lesson plans
to address college solely (experiences, myths, access, and preparation). Marginalized students
who learned in classrooms managed by teachers who participated in the peer-mentoring will be
assessed to detect any possible increase in rigorous academic achievement.
Recommendation #3: School Leaders Should Aim to Create a New Culture That Supports
Teachers’ Needs in an Effort to Increase Teacher Efficacy.
School leaders play a critical factor in developing teachers’ efficacy in their school
environment (Kinsey, 2006). Bandura (1997) suggested that self-efficacy is increased as
individuals succeed in a task. Researchers also suggested that in the educational setting, the self-
efficacy of teachers influence their teaching performances and their students’ motivation and
success (Klassen & Chiu, 2010; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2007; Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy,
2001). The findings of this study indicated that 100% of AHL teachers are confident in their
ability to foster a college-going culture for their marginalized students in their classrooms. Caleb,
Kennedy, Leah-Anna, and Noah specifically attributed this ability to the school culture and
positive support they receive from their administration. Teachers with high self-efficacy
experience lower difficulties in their teaching abilities, lower levels of job-related stress (Betoret,
2006), and higher levels of job satisfaction (Klassen et al., 2009).
In accordance, school leaders should create a new culture that supports teachers’ needs in
an effort to increase teacher efficacy. School administration should aim to empower teachers by
providing them with opportunities to participate in making important school decisions,
encouraging collaboration between administration and teachers, acknowledging their hardships
and celebrating their successes, and offering valuable professional development. Recognizing
teacher efficacy can reinforce the “can do” mindset for them. Bandura (2006) explained that the

105

“can do” mindset depicts judgment of competency, whereas the “will do” expression exerts a
statement of intention. From a theoretical perspective, one may conclude that increasing self-
efficacy in teaching practice would increase performance and benefit students under their care.
Creating a new school culture that prioritizes teachers’ needs can encourage teachers from
schools that serve a large number of marginalized students to be more confident in their ability to
deliver a college-going culture to their marginalized students. Klassen and Chiu (2010) explained
that in order for teachers’ beliefs about their capabilities to be reflected, self-efficacy should be
operationalized, thus, utilizing the phrase “can do” rather than “will do.” Teachers who feel
valued are more likely to persist in their efforts when working with the marginalized population.
School administrations that routinely recognizes the challenges, efforts, and accomplishments of
their teachers help to increase their success, confidence, and retention. Also, authentically
recognizing the teachers who are effectively working with marginalized students, through
modeling of excellence, can have a positive impact on teacher efficacy. Relatedly, Pajares (2006)
added that modeling and feedback increase self-efficacy.
Recommendation #4: Schools Should Implement a Monitoring System to Examine
Students’ Achievements That Highlight Their Success From the Previous Year and, in
Turn, Increase the Importance Teachers Place on Working With Marginalized Students.
All of the teachers who participated in the study expressed that they valued their work
with marginalized students when they were able to see the students’ success. Some teachers were
able to monitor their marginalized students’ success against passing the state exams, completing
college-level course(s), earning an associate degree upon high school graduation, or being
accepted into a college/university. They explained that they felt that the work and additional time
invested in their marginalized students adequately prepared them for success. They went on to

106

add that the annual school quality review that shows the high levels of student achievement
serves as a reassurance for the work that they do. The results and findings of this study indicated
that 100% of AHL teachers see the attainment value in creating a college-going culture in their
classrooms for marginalized students. Eccles (2009) explained that individuals are more likely to
engage in an activity when they see the value in the work that they do. This would suggest that
providing teachers the opportunity to receive annual statistical data that analyzes the positive
trends of incorporating college-going culture strategies targeted to their marginalized students
would increase their expectancy-value.
Accordingly, other schools that serve large numbers of marginalized students should
consider monitoring the successes of their students and provide statistical figures of marginalized
students’ achievements in and out of the classroom that demonstrate the positive results.
Providing teachers with these data can increase their judgment of their capabilities of working
with marginalized students and encourage their belief about the importance of the work that they
are doing. The expectancy-value theory of motivation suggests that a person’s beliefs on their
likelihood of success estimates how well s/he performs on an activity and the extent s/he values
or enjoys the activity. For example, distributing the statistics of the success of all marginalized
students at the start and end of each academic year can set the standard of achievement to help
increase the value teachers place on college-going strategies. Ibrahim, Aulls, and Shore (2017)
explained that the expectancy-value theory hypothesizes that attainment values are critical
factors of task values that directly impact students’ achievement decisions and performance.

107

Recommendation #5: Create Team Building Activities Aimed to Establish Trust Between
Teachers and School Leadership.
The interview and focus group data indicated that trust was an essential part of effective
school leadership. Gregory (2017) explained that trust is a critical factor in creating a positive
school culture along with strong leadership in the schools. The participants explained that trust
from school leadership inspired them by providing clear instructional vision, specifically to
closing the achievement gap for marginalized students. Cosner (2009) also suggested that
principals considered trust as an essential element of leadership, which motivated them to
participate in trust-building exercises based on their knowledge of the importance of trust. The
participants explained that AHL leadership promotes trust by having team building activities
built into their monthly meetings along with their annual Team Building Bash that has taken
forms of the escape room, trivia, and spaghetti tower contests and teams are able to win a trophy.
They also explained that participating in these forms of teambuilding exercises help build trust
amongst the teachers and with the school leadership and staff.
The study’s participants also explained that AHL school leadership provides a positive
and supportive environment for their teachers to express their goals and challenges during their
meetings openly. They have attributed some of their success with their marginalized students to
their ability to voice their opinions and concerns amongst each other and to their leadership team.
Clark and Estes (2008) explained that job satisfaction increases when all organization
stakeholders agree on the culture, mission, goals, and resources required to achieve goals. This
suggests that the school leadership should cultivate a culture of participation with all
stakeholders in achieving their school’s goal of increasing college access for their marginalized

108

students by encouraging feedback and communication from all stakeholders to build a culture of
trust.
Therefore, if other schools’ leadership teams can provide an environment that promotes
trust between them and their teachers, the teachers might be more likely to be confident in their
ability to teach marginalized students. Cosner (2009) noted that some principals addressed trust
concerns amongst their team by setting, enforcing, and reinforcing norms of engagements that
encouraged trust. During their monthly meetings, principals should opt to begin with a team-
building activity to enhance social relations within the team and allow the teachers the openness
to address any matter with their leadership team. The repetition of this strategy over time will
encourage open communication between the teachers and school leaders, which is vital in
establishing trust. Clark and Estes (2008) stated that when individuals communicate regularly
and openly amongst each other regarding plan and processes, organizational performance
increases.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Drawn from the original Kirkpatrick Four-Level Model of Evaluation, the model that
informed this implementation and evaluation plan is the New World Kirkpatrick Model
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The authors allude that the evaluation process requires
identifying the organization’s goal and work backward, which will allow the leading indicators
to emerge to help close the gap between suggested solutions and the organization’s goal.
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) identified the four levels of evaluation – reaction, learning,
behavior, and results – which they suggest are best implemented backward. Creating effective
change begins at level 4 – results, which examines the benefits of an organization from a
suggested solution. Level 3 reflects on the behavioral adjusted that was influenced by the

109

recommended solution. Level 2 measures the new skills and knowledge gained by employees
and level 1 – reaction, assesses the immediate response from members of an organization.
Creating a backward implementation and evaluation plan allows for the alignment of all phases
from start to finish are following the organization’s goal (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Table 10 shows the proposed Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators in the form of
outcomes, metrics, and methods for both external and internal outcomes for lower-performing
schools. If the internal outcomes are met as expected as a result of the training and organizational
support for the lower performing schools, then the external outcomes should also be realized.
Table 10
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
Increase the number of
marginalized students taking
college-level courses at a
lower-performing school.
Review any students’ schedule to
confirm that they are taking at
least one (1) college-level or AP
course.

Solicit data from the scheduling
office.
Increase the number of
college partnerships with
lower-performing schools by
creating an articulation
agreement.
The successful establishments of
articulation agreements built over
an academic year amongst
multiple high schools and
colleges.
Bi-annual review with the high
school/college partnership
director.
Internal Outcomes
Increase the number of
college-level or AP courses
offered to students.
Review the school’s curriculum in
any marking period to ensure that
enough college-level courses are
being offered to all students.

Solicit data from the school
principal or AP of academics.
Increase in teachers’
confidence and satisfaction of
working with marginalized
students.
Review teachers’ lesson plans to
encourage college-level content
and differentiated learning in their
curriculum.
Classroom observations of
teachers to confirm their ability
to disseminate challenging work
with marginalized students.

110

Level 3: Behavior
Critical Behaviors
The first critical behavior is that teachers from the MCNC enterprise should provide peer-
mentoring training to teachers from lower-performing schools through physical or virtual
classroom observations. The second critical behavior is that MCNC teachers should provide
training on methods to incorporate college-going cultures to teachers from lower-performing
schools effectively. The third critical behavior is that MCNC teachers should provide other
schools with strategies to monitor the successes of their marginalized students’ achievements
beyond the classroom. The specific metrics, methods, and timing for each of these outcome
behaviors appear in Table 11.
Table 11
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical Behavior Metric(s)
Method(s)
Timing
MCNC teachers should
provide peer-mentoring
training to teachers from
lower-performing schools
through physical or virtual
classroom observations.
The number of
schools visited by
MCNC teachers.
MCNC should allow their teachers
one day of visitation to other
schools and serve as an observer to
the lower performing schools’
better-performing teachers to
bestow the knowledge needed for
them to train their colleagues
effectively.

Monthly
MCNC teachers should
provide training on methods to
effectively incorporate
college-going cultures to
teachers from lower-
performing schools.

The number of
attendees at the
training.
MCNC should host training during
professional development days.
Monthly
MCNC teachers should
provide other schools with
strategies to monitor the
successes of their
marginalized students’
achievements beyond the
classroom.
The number of
students
monitored after
graduation each
year.
Keep a database that monitors
specifically marginalized students’
graduation rates, acceptance rate,
attendance rate, and job placement
post-graduation.
Annually

111

Required Drivers
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) explained that the required drivers’ used for
monitoring, reinforcing, encouraging, and rewarding behavior. AHL teachers received the
support of their principal and assistant principals to encourage their current knowledge and
motivation to work with marginalized students. At lower-performing schools, the teachers will
require support from their school leadership in sustaining a targeted strategy of working
effectively with marginalized students. Rewards should be established for the achievement of
performance goals to increase the organizational support of teachers working with marginalized
students. Table 12 shows the recommended drivers to support the critical behaviors of new
reviewers.
Table 12
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing Critical Behaviors Supported
Reinforcing
Team meetings with school leaders, teachers,
and staff to review the mission and vision of
the organization.
Weekly 1, 2, 3
Team meeting to identify areas of
improvement and strengths of working with
marginalized students.
Weekly

1, 2, 3
Encouraging
Peer mentoring Monthly 1, 2, 3
MCNC provides coaching to other schools. Monthly 1, 2, 3
Rewarding
An incentive for the teachers who incorporate
any level of college influence in their
materials.
Quarterly 1, 2, 3
Recognize the teachers who had the most
impact on the progress of the marginalized
students
Annually 1, 2, 3
Monitoring
Review teachers’ lesson plans and physical
classrooms to check for college influences.
Semesterly 1, 2, 3

112

Organizational Support. The organization supports the critical behaviors of the ninth
through 12
th
Grade teachers, as noted through the recommended solutions identified in the
organizational gaps section. Recognizing the success of AHL, cultivating a culture of trust and
participation through the critical behavior of providing teachers at low performing schools with
peer-mentoring training through classroom observations and training on methods to incorporate
college-going cultures can be addressed. With AHL’s success, conducting inclusive meetings
where the organizational vision, mission, and goals are communicated continuously, the critical
behavior of monitoring marginalized students’ achievements beyond the classroom can be
addressed.
Level 2: Learning
Learning Goals
Following the completion of the recommended solutions, the stakeholders can afford
other teachers to:
1. Identify classroom needs for marginalized students.
2. Create a template/guide that incorporates elements of college topics.
3. Create an end-of-term college driven project for each grade.
4. Identify various ways to incorporate college-conversation in daily dialogue
with marginalized students.
5. Create lesson plans that speak to college-level work for marginalized students.
6. Implement inter-visitation at their institution.
7. Maintain a daily progress journal of the frequency of college-influence towards
marginalized students.
8. Provide training on social-emotional learning for marginalized students.

113

9. Maintain an accountability system through the organization.
10. Assess marginalized students’ success towards college readiness through
benchmarking.
Program. The previously listed learning goals will be achieved with on-going, year-long
professional development days tailored to assist teachers working with marginalized students to
identify the specific tools and skills needed to lead the students towards college readiness.
MCNC teachers will be able to impart their knowledge and skills that have proven to be effective
on their marginalized student body on teachers from other schools during professional
development days, have the opportunity to do classroom observations throughout the school year
at other schools, and provide feedback. Although it is optimal for MCNC teachers to serve other
schools by delivering their services in-person, it is feasible via distance learning.
During the professional development days, teachers from other schools will be provided
with action plans that are specifically tailored to working with marginalized students. Lesson
plan and unit templates with examples will be shared with each teacher for modification of their
classroom needs. Principals can delegate each grade supervisor with outcomes to assist teachers
with their lesson plans that will be geared towards the college readiness of marginalized students.
Also, relevant teaching strategies to infuse college-going culture will be practiced. Training on
how to incorporate college-going elements in the classroom will be held during professional
development days during the school year, and the classroom observations will occur weekly with
a team of MCNC teachers delivering their services in rotation to other schools. This will
minimize the number of classes MCNC teachers will miss with their students while maximizing
the impact on other schools. During the observations, teachers from other schools will be able to
receive feedback from MCNC teachers to improve their teaching moving forward. During the

114

summer, teachers can take advantage of a workshop series that focuses on the college-readiness
of marginalized students. Summer workshops will allow open discussions, peer modeling, group
training, role-playing scenarios.
Evaluation of the Components of Learning. Demonstrating declarative and procedural
knowledge is often required to resolve problems with knowledge influence. Learners need to
view the training as a precursor to applying their newly learned knowledge and skills effectively
and confidently in the classroom. Table 13 lists the evaluation methods and timing for these
components of learning.

115

Table 13
Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”
Knowledge checks through discussions, “pair,
think, share,” and other individual/group
activities.
Periodically during the in-person
workshop and documented via
observation notes.
Demonstration in the classroom of the college-
going concept.
During the workshop.
Action plan of the understanding of the college-
going culture concept.
At the end of the workshop - but taking
notes along the way.
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”
Knowledge checks through discussions, “pair,
think, share,” and other individual/group
activities.
Periodically during the in-person
workshop and documented via
observation notes.
Demonstration in groups and individually using
the job aids to perform the skills successfully.
During the workshops.
Quality of feedback from peers during group
sharing.
During the workshops.
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Classroom observations of non-AHL teachers by
AHL teachers.
During the workshops.
Discussions amongst learners on the value of
marginalized students going to college.
During the workshops.
Pre- and post-test assessments. Before and after the workshops.
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”
Reflection on college-driven discussions focusing
on marginalized students.
End of week journaling.
Discussions following practice simulations. During training sessions.
Reflection on the achievements of marginalized
students.
At the end of each term.
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”
Discussion on implementation strategies. During the workshops.
Pre and post-training assessment. Before and after the training program is
completed
Create an individual action plan. At the end of the workshop.
Level 1: Reaction
The workshops proposed by MCNC must be engaging and appropriate for the needs of
the non-MCNC teachers’ daily tasks and jobs. Hence, an assessment of the proposed

116

recommendations must occur to ensure that other high school teachers from low performing
schools have a positive response to the workshops. Engagement, relevance, and satisfaction of
the learner are considered when developing a program. Table 14 lists the evaluation methods and
timing of the components that will be used before, during, and after the workshops to examine
learners’ reactions to the workshops.
Table 14
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
Attendance During the workshops
Course evaluation End of the semester
Completion of assigned tasks During the workshops
Observation by AHL teachers Monthly
Participation in activities During the Workshops
Relevant questions raised On-going; During the workshops
Relevance
Check-ins with participants through discussions or
surveys
After every class meetings and
workshops
Course evaluation End of the semester
Customer Satisfaction
Check-ins with participants through discussions or
surveys
After every class meetings and
workshops
Course evaluation End of the semester

Evaluation Tools

Immediately Following the Program Implementation
During the in-person workshops, the instructors will check-in with the learners. These
check-ins will evaluate Level 1 categories of the relevance of the content to their work with
marginalized students, engagement the learners have with the workshop materials and plans of
delivery, and the learners’ overall satisfaction with the workshop that will help shape their ability
to foster a holistic learning environment. Level 2 category check-ins will evaluate the learners’

117

attitudes and commitment towards applying newly learned information from the workshops in
the classrooms and interactions with marginalized students throughout the school year.
Delayed for a Period After the Program Implementation
At the end of each marking period (approximately six weeks), after the implementation of
the training from MCNC teachers, principals and assistant principals will complete a survey that
contains open and scaled items to measure their teachers’ Level 4 and Level 3 progress. In
addition, non-MCNC teachers will complete a self-evaluation that includes both open-ended and
Likert scale survey items to measure, from the participant’s perspective, the level of impact their
progress has on the organizational goals (Level 4), the degree that their performance of critical
behaviors to meet the organization’s goals (Level 3), confidence and value of applying their
training (Level 2), and satisfaction with and relevance of the training (Level 1). These evaluation
methods should be reviewed by school leadership to determine if the workshops are useful
approximately six-weeks after the start of the school year.
Data Analysis and Reporting
Results from both data collecting instruments will be shared in a textual and graphical
report throughout the organization. The report that details the first instrument’s findings will
focus on Level 1 and Level 2 results within one month of the completion of the survey. The
report that reveals the delayed instrument will showcase Level 3, and Level 4 determinations will
be released twice a year - in January, following the mid-year teacher evaluations and again in
July, following end-of-year teacher evaluations. These reports will be comprehensively designed
for non-educators to read and determine the level of success the newly implemented training
programs had on the larger goal of utilizing the college-going culture to help mend the
achievement gap for marginalized students at their organization.

118

Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach
All methodological approaches have strengths and weaknesses. The framework
developed by Clark and Estes (2008) was instrumental in understanding how knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences impacted teachers’ ability to foster a college-going
culture that helps minimize the achievement gap for their marginalized students. Considering
alternative approaches would have produced different outcomes. Approaching this study through
the lens of the marginalized students, school staff, or school leadership team might have
generated unique outcomes that would yield different recommendations. Although surveying
teachers, having more interview participants, and observing classrooms may have led to
additional themes in merging the concept of college-going with marginalized students, the
framework was still valuable in creating interview and focus group questions. Thus, the
framework was fitting for the chosen stakeholders. The framework was suitable for an in-depth
examination of teachers’ knowledge and motivation skills surrounding college-going culture for
marginalized students and the role that the organization play in providing them with the
resources to support their goal. Despite the time and human capital required by this framework, it
was still a viable tool to analyze and gauge the success of the stakeholders and the problem of
practice.
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations
As with all studies, a few limitations are present. In this study, there are a few limitations
to note. First, the findings in this study are based on one high performing high school. The
culture of this school is well established and has shown continuous success over the years.
Therefore, the transferability of the solutions from this school to other schools that are struggling

119

academically with their marginalized population could fluctuate due to the capital of that school.
Second, there was a small sample size of participants in the study: 12 individual interview
participants and five focus group participants. Small sample sizes provided limited information.
Having more participants in both data collection methods could reveal additional information
beyond the perceptions of the student-teacher interactions. This data could have provided
additional validated assets as well as created new assets in the knowledge, motivation, and
organization dimensions. In addition, there is a possibility that the individual interviews and
focus group responses may not have been candid and reflect the teachers’ accurate perceptions
(Clark & Estes, 2008) on the effectiveness of fostering a college-going culture for marginalized
students. Lastly, as a promising practice study, problems and gaps were not discussed about the
school. It is critical to consider these points in the application of these solutions to other schools
serving marginalized students. The sample chosen for this promising practice study reflects the
teachers of a high performing school. Countless contributing factors may prevent other schools
from replicating the success and practices of this institution.
Delimitations
This study is delimited to the idea that it is content specific to the high performing
school’s mission and vision. Also, this study is context-specific to the overwhelming focus of
college readiness and attendance as a culture as it relates to marginalized students. Finally, this
study is also delimited to the demographics of the teachers, school size, and school culture, as
they may not reflect the teachers and school elements at other high schools.
Future Research
This study explored the promising practices of one high school that is successful in
closing the achievement gap for marginalized students. The study included the perspectives of

120

teachers and the elements that facilitate college-going culture factors at the Academy of Higher
Learning. Despite the efforts to gather comprehensive responses to the research questions,
additional questions were revealed during the data collection process and analysis. As a result,
this section will propose recommendations for future studies.
The data collection for this study occurred at one high school. This study was delimited
to one specific high school despite the data uncovering many promising practices and
viewpoints. An examination of practices in other schools within the same district would be
crucial because every school in the same district still produces different outcomes of
marginalized student achievement, a unique composition of teachers, and various resources
afforded to teachers to achieve this success with all of their students including the marginalized
population. For instance, the Academy of Higher Learning identifies as an early college high
school, which means that they have a partnership (articulation agreement) with a college that
helps infuse the college-going culture to every student that enrolls. Another study may choose to
explore a non-early college high school that achieves the same results with their marginalized
students. Examining the viewpoint of participants from a non-early college high school may
likely reveal opposing viewpoints learned from this study and help identify the advantages and
disadvantages of both types of high schools.
Secondly, a study that examines the school leadership’s perspective may provide insight
into some of the study’s findings. The study showed that teachers play a crucial role in creating a
college-going culture for marginalized students; further consideration of the role that the school
leadership plays in creating such culture at the high school could provide complementary
information to help draw broader conclusions about its importance. It would be fascinating to
understand how the school leadership’s vision and mission to create a culture-going culture for

121

marginalized students affects the school’s practices for providing college access to that
population.
The final recommendation for future research is to examine the success that teachers
from other schools who were trained by the teachers from the Middle College National
Consortium (MCNC) had with their marginalized students. If teachers from MCNC conducted
trainings to new teachers within and outside the MCNC, a future study could investigate the
teachers that took part in the trainings, their job experiences before the trainings, and the impact
the trainings had on their ability to affect marginalized students’ academic success after the
trainings positively. The study would offer more evidence on the effectiveness of the Academy
of Higher Learning’s promising practices, providing an authentic illustration of the drive of the
teachers at the Academy of Higher Learning.
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to identify promising practices exercised by the Academy
of Higher Learning that promotes college-going culture and college readiness for marginalized
students. Using the Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analysis framework, knowledge, motivation,
and organizational influences were studied and evaluated through a literature review along with
interviews and a focus group with organizational stakeholders. All five assumed factors within
each of the three dimensions were validated via the triangulation of individual interviews, a
focus group, and journal entries. Once validated, a recommendation was presented for each asset
for other teachers to replicate in their classrooms. It is anticipated that the study’s finding will be
valuable for current and new teachers and will inform high schools and school leadership the
importance of cultivating a productive college-going culture that promotes academic
achievement and college readiness for marginalized students.

122

Moreover, this study provides teachers with some tools to help close the achievement gap
using the college-going culture. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick’s (2016) New World Model was
used to create a training program implementation and evaluation plan to ensure expectations are
met. The model provides carefully curated learning tools and assessment instruments that
monitor the steps between the organization’s goal and the organization meeting the goal.
Utilizing this model can ensure that teachers or schools that choose to implement a college-going
culture for their marginalized students to address the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
elements that were identified and validated in this study. This notion is confirmed by Kirkpatrick
and Kirkpatrick (2016), suggesting that systematic data analysis will provide the resources
necessary to optimize the successful outcomes of future initiatives. Should this occur, it will
translate into teachers taking accountability in the academic achievement of their marginalized
students and reassure them on their purpose of helping close the achievement gap, especially
with those facing challenges working with marginalized students.

123

References
Akin, I., & Neumann, C. (2013). Identifying proactive collaboration strategies for teacher
readiness for marginalized students. Journal of College Teaching & Learning (Online),
10(4), 235.
Aldana, U. S. (2014). Moving beyond the college-preparatory high school model to a college-
going culture in urban catholic high schools. Journal of Catholic Education, 17(2).
Allen, W. R., Kimura-Walsh, E., & Griffin, K. A. (2009). Towards a brighter tomorrow:
College barriers, hopes and plans of Black, Latino/a, and Asian American students in
California. Information Age Publishing, Inc.
Auerbach, S. (2002). "Why do they give the good classes to some and not to others?" Latino
parent narratives of struggle in a college access program. Teachers College Record,
104(7), 1369-1392.
Bailey, M. J., & Dynarski, S. M. (2011). Gains and gaps: A historical perspective on inequality
in college entry and completion. In G. Duncan & R. Murnane (Eds.), Whither
opportunity? Rising inequality, schools, and children's life chances (pp. 117–132).
Russell Sage Foundation.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. Freeman.
Bandura, A. (2006). Guide for constructing self-efficacy scales. In F. Pajares & T. Urdan (Eds.),
Adolescence and education: Vol. 5. Self-efficacy and adolescence (pp. 307–337).
Information Age.
Bethea, K. A. (2016). College prep and access from the perspective of DIVERSITY COLLEGE
ADMISSION PROFESSIONALS. College and University, 91(3), 2-11.

124

Betoret, F. D. (2006). Stressors, self-efficacy, coping resources, and burnout among secondary
school teachers in Spain. Educational Psychology, 26, 519 –539.
Bettinger, E. P. & Long, B. T. (2009). Addressing the Needs of Underprepared Students in
Higher Education Does College Remediation Work? The Journal of Human Resources,
50(1), 108-158.
Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. K. (2007). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to
theories and methods (5th ed.). Allyn and Bacon.
Bosworth, K., Convertino, C., & Hurwitz, J. T. (2014). Common purpose and different
approaches to support college-going in five southwestern districts. American Secondary
Education, 43(1), 4-24.
Brown, D. G. (2009). Closing the achievement gap: A study of minority achievement compared
to the achievement of their Caucasian counterparts in Nassau County school districts
since the enactment of no child left behind (Order No. AAI3352021).
Brown-Jeffy, S. (2006). The Race Gap in High School Reading Achievement: Why School
Racial Composition Still Matters. Race, Gender & Class, 13(3), 268-279,281-285,287-
294.
Calaff, K. P. (2008). Supportive schooling practices that support culturally and linguistically
diverse students' preparation for college. NASSP Rulletin, 92, 95-110.
Calcagno, J.C., Crosta, P., Bailey, T., & Jenkins, D. (2007). Stepping stones to a degree: The
impact of enrollment pathways and milestones on community college student outcomes.
Research in Higher Education, 48(7), 775-801.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-007-9053-8

125

Clark, R. E., & Estes, F. (2008). Turning research into results: A guide to selecting the right
performance solutions. Information Age Publishing, Inc.
Collins, J. C. (2001). Good to great: Why some companies make the leap ... and others don't.
Harper Business.
Colquitt, J. A., Scott, B. A., & LePine, J. A. (2007). Trust, trustworthiness, and trust propensity:
a meta-analytic test of their unique relationships with risk taking and job performance.
Journal of applied psychology, 92(4), 909.
Convertino, C., & Graboski-Bauer, A. (2018). College readiness versus college worthiness:
Examining the role of principal beliefs on college readiness initiatives in an urban U.S.
high school. The Urban Review, 50(1), 45-68.
Corwin, Z. B., & Tierney, W. G. (2007). Getting there and beyond. Building a culture of
college-going in high schools. USC Center for Higher Education Policy Analysis:
http://www.uscrossier.org/pullias/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/2007_
Corwin__Tierney_Getting_There_–_and_Beyond.pdf
Cosner, S. (2009). Building organizational capacity through trust. Educational Administration
Quarterly, 45(2), 248-291.
Covay Minor, E. (2016). Racial differences in math test scores for advanced math Students. The
High School Journal, 99(3), 193-210.
Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods
approaches. SAGE Publications.
D'Agostino, J. V. & Bonner, S. M. (2009, April). High School Exit Exam Scores and University
Performance. Educational Assessment, 14(1), 25-37.

126

Darling-Hammond, L. (2007). Race, inequality and educational accountability: The irony of 'No
Child Left Behind'. Race Ethnicity and Education, 10(3), 245-260.
Demi, M., Coleman-Jensen, A., & Snyder, A. (2010). The rural context and secondary school
enrollment: An ecological systems approach. Journal of Research in Rural Education,
25(7).
Dinç, E. (2017). Differentiated learning environment-A classroom for quadratic
equation, function, and graphs International Association for the Development of the
Information Society.
Domina, T. (2007). Higher education policy as secondary school reform: Texas public high
schools after hopwood. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 29(3), 200-217.
Eccles, J. (2006). Expectancy value motivational theory.
http://www.education.com/reference/article/expectancy-value-motivational-theory/.
Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of
Psychology, 53, 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153
Eccles, J. S., Wigfield, A., & Schiefele, U. (1998). Motivation. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), Handbook
of child psychology (Vol. 3, 5th ed.). Wiley.
Farmer-Hinton, R. L., & McCullough, R. G. (2008). College counseling in charter high schools:
Examining the opportunities and challenges. The High School Journal, 91(4), 77-90.
Fusarelli, L. D. (2004). The potential impact of the No Child Left Behind Act on equity and
diversity in American education. Educational Policy, 18(1), 71-94.
Gallimore, R., & Goldenberg, C. (2001). Analyzing cultural models and settings to connect
minority achievement and school improvement research. Educational Psychologist.
https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3601_5

127

Garrison-Mogren, R., & Gutmann, B. (2012). State and district receipt of recovery act funds. A
report from charting the progress of education reform: An evaluation of the recovery
act's role. NCEE 2012-4057.
Glesne, C. (2011). Becoming qualitative researchers: An introduction (4th ed.). Pearson.
Goroshit, M., & Hen, M. (2014). Does emotional self-efficacy predict teachers' self-efficacy and
empathy? Journal of Education and Training Studies, 2(3), 26-32.
Green, S. K. (2002). Using an expectancy-value approach to examine teachers' motivational
strategies. Teaching and Teacher Education, 18(8), 989-1005.
Gregory, J. L. (2017). Trust relationships in schools: Supporting or subverting implementation of
school-wide initiatives. School Leadership & Management, 37(1-2), 141-161.)
Hennink, M. M. (2014). Focus group discussions. Oxford University Press.
Hill, L. D. (2008). School strategies and the "college-linking" process: Reconsidering the effects
of high schools on college enrollment. Sociology of Education, 8(1): 53-76.
https://doi.org/10.1177/003804070808100103
Holland, N. E. & Farmer-Hinton, R. (2009). Leave no schools behind: The importance of a
college culture in urban public high schools. The High School Journal, 92(3), 24-43.
Holme, J. J., Richards, M. P., Jimerson, J. B., & Cohen, R. W. (2010). Assessing the effects of
high school exit examinations. Review of Educational Research, 80(4), 476-526.
Hornstra, L., Mansfield, C., van, d. V., Peetsma, T., & Volman, M. (2015). Motivational teacher
strategies: The role of beliefs and contextual factors. Learning Environments Research,
18(3), 363-392.
Hursh, D. (2007). Assessing No Child Left Behind and the rise of neoliberal education policies.
American Educational Research Journal, 44(3), 493-518.

128

Ibrahim, A., Aulls, M. W., & Shore, B. M. (2017). Teachers’ roles, students’ personalities,
Inquiry learning outcomes, and practices of science and engineering: The development
and validation of the McGill attainment value for inquiry engagement survey in STEM
disciplines. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 15(7), 1195-
1215.
Jennings, P. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (2009). Teacher social and emotional competence in
relation to student and classroom outcomes. Review of Educational Research, 79(1), 491–
525.
King, J. (1996). The decision to go to college: Attitudes and experiences associated with college
attendance among low-income students. College Entrance Examination Board.
Kinsey, G. (2006). Understanding the dynamics of no child left behind: Teacher efficacy and
support for beginning teachers. Educational Leadership and Administration, 18, 147-
162,172.
Kirkpatrick, J. D., & Kirkpatrick, W. K. (2016). Kirkpatrick’s four levels of training evaluation.
ATD Press.
Kirst, M., & Venezia, A. (2001, September). Bridging the Great Divide between Secondary
Schools and Post-Secondary Education. Phi Delta Kappan, 83(1), 92-97.
https://doi.org/10.1177/003172170108300118
Klassen, R. M., Bong, M., Usher, E. L., Chong, W. H., Huan, V. S., Wong, I. Y., & Georgiou, T.
(2009). Exploring the validity of the Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Scale in five countries.
Contemporary Educational Psychology, 34, 67–76.

129

Klassen, R. M., & Chiu, M. M. (2010). Effects on teachers’ self-efficacy and job satisfaction:
Teacher gender, years of experience, and job stress. Journal of Educational Psychology,
102(3), 741-756.
Kornrich, S., & Furstenberg, F. (2013). Investing in children: Changes in parental spending on
children, 1972 to 2007. Demography, 50(1), 1–23.
Korsgaard, M., Brodt, S., & Whitener, E. (2002). Trust in the face of conflict: The role of
managerial trustworthy behavior and organizational context. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 87(2), 312–319.
Kotok, S. (2017). Unfulfilled potential: High-achieving minority students and the high school
achievement gap in math. The High School Journal, 100(3), 183-202.
Krathwohl, D. R. (2002). A revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy: An overview. Theory Into Practice,
41(4), 212–218.
Krueger, R. A., & Casey, M. A. (2009). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research
(4th ed.). SAGE Publications.
Kuh, G., Kinzie, J, Schuh, J., and Whitt, E. (2010). Student success in college: Creating
conditions that matter. Jossey-Bass.
Madyun, N. H. (2011). Connecting social disorganization theory to African-American outcomes
to explain the achievement gap. Educational Foundations, 25(3-4), 21-35.
Magidson, J. F., Roberts, B. W., Collado-Rodriguez, A., & Lejuez, C. W. (2014). Theory-driven
intervention for changing personality: Expectancy value theory, behavioral activation,
and conscientiousness. Developmental Psychology, 50(5), 1442-1450.

130

Maloney, P. A. (2007). Partnerships, policy, and educational change: The role of mathematics
and science in K-16 reform. Florida Journal of Educational Administration & Policy,
1(1), 1-10.
Maxwell, J. A. (2013). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (3rd ed.). SAGE.
McClafferty, K. A., & McDonough, P. M. (2000, November). Creating a K-16 environment:
Reflections on the process of establishing a college culture in secondary schools. Paper
presented at the annual conference of the Association for the Study of Higher Education.
McClafferty, J. K., McDonough, P., & Nunez, A. (2002, April). What is a college-going culture?
Facilitating college preparation through organizational change. Paper presented at the
Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association.
McCollough, C. A. (2011). Creating a college-going culture. Science Teacher, 78(3), 51-55.
McDonough, P. M. (2004). The school-to-college transition: Challenges and prospects.
American Council on Education Center for Policy Analysis.
McKillip, M. E., Godfrey, K. E., & Rawls, A. (2013). Rules of engagement: Building a college
-going culture in an urban school. Urban Education, 48(4), 529-556.
Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. Jossey-Bass.
Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2016). Qualitative research: A guide to design and
implementation. (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass.
Merrill, L., Siman, N., Kang, D., Soltani, J., & Wulach, S. (2015). The effect of iMentor's
college ready program on high school students' college aspirations and non-cognitive
skills. Society for Research on Educational Effectiveness.
Michaels, H. R., Hawthorne, K., Cuevas, N. M., & Mateev, A. G. (2011). Creating seamless K-
16 pathways: Role of assessment. Research & Practice in Assessment, 6, 15-21.

131

Mickelson, R. (1990). The attitude-achievement paradox among Black adolescents. Sociology
of Education, 63, 44-61.
Musu-Gillette, L., de Brey, C., McFarland, J., Hussar, W., Sonnenberg, W., & Wilkinson-
Flicker, S. (2017). Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 2017
(NCES 2017-051). U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education
Statistics. http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch.
Oakes, J. (2003). Critical conditions for equity and diversity in college access: Information
policy and monitoring results. All Campus Consortium on Research for Diversity.
University of California. http://escholarship.org/
Olszewski-Kubilius, P. (2006). Addressing the achievement gap between minority and
nonminority children: Increasing access and achievement through project
EXCITE. Gifted Child Today, 29(2), 28-37.
Pajares, F. (2006). Self-efficacy theory.
http://www.education.com/reference/article/self-efficacy-theory/.
Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods (2nd ed.). Sage
Publications, Inc.
Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research & evaluation methods (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications.
Petkovska, V. (2015). Coping with marginalized students inclusion in EL teacher training.
Journal of Education and Practice, 6(18), 216-219.
Pitre, C. C. (2014). Improving African American student outcomes: Understanding educational
achievement and strategies to close opportunity gaps. Western Journal of Black Studies,
38(4), 209-217.

132

Probst, B., & Berenson, L. (2014). The double arrow: How qualitative social work researchers
use reflexivity. Qualitative Social Work, 13(6), 813-827.
Reardon, S. F. (2013, May). Educational Leadership: The Widening Income Achievement Gap.
Faces of Poverty, 70(8), 10-16.
Reardon, S. F. (2016). School segregation and racial academic achievement gaps. RSF: The
Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences, 2(5), 34-57.
Reardon, S. F., & Bischoff, K. (2011). Growth in the residential segregation of families by
income, 1970–2009 (Project US 2010 Census Brief). National Bureau of Economic
Research. www.s4.brown.edu/us2010/Data/Report/report111111.pdf.
Rees, A., & Shaw, K. (2014). Peer mentoring communities of practice for early and mid-career
faculty: Broad benefits from a research-oriented female peer mentoring group. The
Journal of Faculty Development, 28(2), 5-17.
Roach, R. (2001). In the academic and think yank world, pondering achievement-gap remedies
takes center stage. Black Issues in Higher Education, 18(1), 26-27.
Robinson, S. B. & Firth Leonard, K. (2019). Designing quality survey questions. SAGE
Publications.
Rocco, T. S., & Plakhotnik, M. S. (2009). Literature reviews, conceptual frameworks, and
theoretical frameworks: Terms, functions, and distinctions. Human Resource
Development Review, 8(1), 120–130.
Roderick, M., Coca, V., & Nagaoka, J. (2011). Potholes on the road to college: High school
effects in shaping urban students' participation in college application, four-year college
enrollment, and college match. Sociology of Education, 84(3), 178-211.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0038040711411280

133

Rubin, H. J., & Rubin, I. S. (2012). Qualitative interviewing: The art of hearing data (3rd ed.).
SAGE Publications.
Rueda, R. (2011). The 3 dimensions of improving student performance. Teachers
College Press.
Schein, E. H. (2004). Organizational Culture and Leadership (3rd ed.). Jossey-Bass.
Schneider, B. (2007). Forming a college-going community in US public high schools. Michigan
State University.
Skaalvik, E. M., & Skaalvik, S. (2007). Dimensions of teacher self-efficacy and relations with
strain factors, perceived collective teacher efficacy, and teacher burnout. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 99, 611– 625.
Slavin, R. E., & Madden, N. A. (2006). Reducing the gap: Success for all and the achievement of
African American students. The Journal of Negro Education, 75(3), 389-400.
Tomlinson, C. A., & Jarvis, J. M. (2014). Case studies of success: Supporting academic success
for students with high potential from ethnic minority and economically disadvantaged
backgrounds. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 37(3), 191-219.
Tschannen-Moran, M., & Woolfolk Hoy, A. (2001). Teacher efficacy: Capturing an elusive
construct. Teaching and Teacher Education, 17, 783– 805.
Turner, H., Rubie-Davies, C., & Webber, M. (2015). Teacher expectations, ethnicity, and the
achievement gap. New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies, 50(1), 55-69.
Verdugo, R. R. (2011). The Heavens May Fall: School Dropouts, the Achievement Gap, and
Statistical Bias. Education and Urban Society, 43(2), 184–204.
Weiss, R. S. (1994). Learning from strangers: The art and method of qualitative interview
studies. The Free Press.

134

Welton, A., & Williams, M. (2015). Accountability strain, college readiness drain: Sociopolitical
tensions involved in maintaining a college-going culture in a high "minority", high
poverty, Texas high school. The High School Journal, 98(2), 181-204.
Wigfield, A., Eccles, J. S., Schiefele, U., Roeser, R. W., & Davis-Kean, P. (2006). The
development of achievement motivation. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), Handbook of child
psychology (Vol. 3, 6th ed.). Wiley.
Wimberly, G. L. (2002). School relationships foster success for African American students.
ACT. http://www.act.org/research/policymakers/reports/index.html
Wozney, L., Venkatesh, V., & Abrami, P. C. (2006). Implementing computer technologies:
Teachers' perceptions and practices. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education,
14(1), 173-207.
Yavuz, O. (2016). Educational leadership and a comprehensive reform for improving
underrepresented urban students’ college access. International Journal of Education
Policy and Leadership, 11(10)
http://dx.doi.org.libproxy1.usc.edu/10.22230/ijepl.2016v11n10a684

135

Appendix A
Information Sheet

University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Pkwy, Los Angeles, CA 90089

CLOSING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP FOR MARGINALIZED STUDENTS USING
THE COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE:
A PROMISING PRACTICES STUDY

You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who
voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You should
ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This research study aims to understand how fostering a college-going culture reduces the
achievement gap for marginalized students.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in a 60-minute audio-taped
individual interview and/or focus group. You do not have to answer any questions you don’t
want to; if you don’t want to be taped, handwritten notes will be taken.

CONFIDENTIALITY
Any information that is obtained in connection with this study and that can be identified with you
will remain confidential and will be disclosed only with your permission or as required by law.
The information collected about you will be coded using a pseudonym or initials and numbers,
for example abc-123, etc. However, the information, which has your identifiable information,
will be kept separately from the rest of our data.

Any identifiable information obtained in connection with this study will remain confidential.
Your responses will be coded with a false name (pseudonym) and maintained separately. The
audio-tapes will be destroyed once they have been transcribed.

The members of the research team, transcribers, and the University of Southern California’s
Human Subjects Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and
monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.

INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

136

FOCUS GROUPS
Due to the nature of focus groups, your confidentiality cannot be guaranteed. However, in order
to maintain the confidentiality of the group, you are asked not to discuss the content of the group
with anyone not in the group, or to discuss who participated in the focus group.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
Principal Investigator Obi Ude via email at oude@usc.edu or phone at (646) 842-2823 or Faculty
Advisor Tracy Tambascia at tpoon@rossier.usc.edu.

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board, 1640 Marengo Street, Suite 700,
Los Angeles, CA 90033-9269. Phone (323) 442-0114 or email irb@usc.edu.

137

Appendix B
Interview Protocol

Hello, thank you for volunteering your time to help with this study. This study is looking at some
of the promising practices teachers like yourself exercise in the classroom to create a college-
going culture for your students. Your skills and techniques with your students are helping solve
the significant problem of closing the achievement gap for marginalized students, as I understand
over 90% of the graduates of this school attend college and continue for at least three semesters –
so I thank you for your efforts thus far. I’d like you to be candid in your responses and to assure
your anonymity; I will be using pseudonyms for the name of the school and participants’ names
should I happen to quote any information. For example, I may write something like, “one of the
participants stated that…” In keeping my findings confidential, I will be storing the data
collected in a safe box in my apartment. Once my dissertation is complete, I will discard all of
the data collected. I plan to collect accurate data. Therefore, I plan to record our conversation, if
that’s okay with you, and I will also be jotting down notes along the way. Please feel free at any
point to let me know if there are questions you’re uncomfortable answering or if you’d like to
withdraw from the study entirely. I can assure you that nobody will be aware of your decisions or
your statements during this interview. Before we proceed, I need you to please sign this consent
form that states everything I just explained. If you need a minute to review the statements, you
are more than welcome to. Pen? I will start recording now.

138

Questions
KNOWLEDGE

So before we start, tell me a little about your background. What do you teach at AHL, and how
long have you been here? Why did you decide to teach at this school?

What are your main goals in the classroom?

Thanks for that insight. That was really great.

Now, as it pertains to creating a college-going culture, what are your goals in the classroom?

Follow-Up Question: To reach those goals, what kinds of ideas/skills do you try to equip your
students with in order to get to college?

Great insight.

Can you explain how your desire to teach them these skills relates to your teaching philosophy?

I want to expand a bit on your goals in the classroom.

As it pertains to creating a college-going environment, how do your lesson plans help students
set meaningful goals for themselves?

Tell me a little bit about practices that you believe lead to a college-going mindset in your
students?

Thanks. This is really helpful. Let’s shift gears a little bit.

Tell me how do you address the full range of student learning needs?*

Great. You’ve come across many students in your career.

I’d like to hear how do your practices in the classroom account for student differences?

Describe your ability/strategies to foster a college-going environment for your students.

You’re giving me a lot of valuable information.

MOTIVATION

Let’s switch gear a bit.

How do you know that these practices in the classroom are effective?

What gives you confidence that the practices you use in the classroom are effective?*

139

Interesting, now tell me a little bit about how your students respond to your college-going
strategies?

How do your practices address the needs of marginalized students?*

As it pertains to marginalized students, how has working with these students impacted you?

Wow, we definitely need more teachers like you in the system. I can see why your students are so
driven. AHL is a reputable underdog in the public school system; let’s discuss their impact on
the work that you do with your students.

*Do you have any last thoughts you’d like to add?
*Do you have any questions for me?

I’d like to thank you again for your time to do this interview with me. I’m overwhelmed by all of
the valuable information you provided me in this short hour – time flew by! I just want to remind
you that all of this information will be kept in a safe place and will be discarded after my
dissertation is over. I can’t thank you enough for your time. I will stop the recording now.

140

Appendix C
Focus Group Protocol
My name is Obi Ude, and I am a graduate student at the University of Southern
California (USC). I will be facilitating today’s focus group on creating a college-going culture
for your students. The purpose of this focus group is to learn more about how AHL supports your
goal of fostering a healthy college-going culture for your students. All of you have been asked to
participate because you are teachers who have varied experiences with working with
marginalized students and exposing them to the idea of college in some form. It is my
expectation that your opinions and experiences will help me learn more about the level of
support provided by your school to enable your continuous efforts with your students. After the
focus group concludes, the information we discussed will be categorized into themes and topics
before being analyzed for my research. I will then use the information to help me generate
recommendations on how other schools can reach their goal of closing the achievement gap for
their marginalized population using the college-going culture. Your personal information will not
be connected to the results of this focus group.
You were given an information sheet regarding your participation in the study when you
entered the room. By receiving this information sheet, you agree to participate in my college-
going culture focus group and to keep our discussion confidential. If you feel uncomfortable for
any reason after reviewing the information sheet, you are free to leave at any time. Please take a
moment to read them over.
Before we begin, I would like to go over a few ground rules for the focus group. These
are in place to ensure that all of you feel comfortable sharing your experiences and opinions.

141

Ground Rules:
1. Confidentiality – As per the information sheet, please respect the confidentiality of your peers.
I will be the only person reviewing this information, and if need be, I will anonymously share the
information with relevant personnel from USC. The information provided during my research
process will not be shared with any members or your school or district.
2. One Speaker at a Time – Only one person should speak at a time in order to make sure that we
can all hear what everyone is saying. If someone sparks your thought process on a particular
topic, please write it down and share it afterward. Here is a sheet of paper to jot down your
thoughts.
3. Use Respectful Language – In order to facilitate an open discussion, please avoid any
statements or words that may be offensive to other members of the group.
4. Open Discussion – This is a time for everyone to feel free to express their opinions and
viewpoints. You will not be asked to reach a consensus on the topics discussed. There are no
right or wrong answers.
5. Participation is Important – It is important that everyone’s voice is shared and heard in order
to make this the most productive focus group possible. Please speak up if you have something to
add to the conversation!
Questions - ORGANIZATION
1. How would you describe the relationship between AHL leadership and its staff?
2. Describe any role your principal or VP plays on your pedagogical decisions.
That’s impressive.
3. What support, if any, do you receive from your school to enact your priorities?
a. Follow-up question: Which support(s) tools are most helpful?

142

4. If at all, how does AHL promote collaboration among teachers around pedagogical practices?
So, I have one final question.
5. Throughout your career so far, what have you learned is necessary to prepare marginalized
students for going to college, overall?
*Do you have any last thoughts you’d like to add?
*Do you have any questions for me?
Thank you for participating in today’s college-going culture focus group. As a reminder, I will
be reviewing the information gained from this session and, if needed, share anonymously with
personnel from USC for research purposes in order to produce promising practices to help close
the achievement gap for marginalized students. If you think of any additional thoughts or
comments that you would like to share, please contact me at oude@usc.edu.

143

Appendix D
Mapping of KMO Questions
Research Questions:
1. What are the teachers’ knowledge and motivation related to creating a college-going
culture for marginalized students?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and teachers’
knowledge and motivation?
3. What recommendations in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational
resources may be appropriate to foster a college-going culture at other schools?
KMO Influences
[LIST the KMO influences you will be examining in your study or include the tables]
K = Factual: Teachers understand college-going culture.
Procedural: Teachers effectively incorporate college-going culture strategies in
the classroom.
M = Self-Efficacy: Teachers are confident in their ability to foster a college-going culture in
their classrooms.
Value: Teachers see the value in creating a college-going culture in their classrooms for
marginalized students.
O = Cultural Model: The AHL supports teachers in creating a college-going culture for
marginalized students to continue and encourage college access.

144

Research Question
KMO
Construct
Questions Data
Demographic N/A Tell me a little about your background. Interview
Demographic N/A What do you teach at AHL, and how long
have you been here? Why did you decide
to teach at this school?
Interview
What are the teachers’ knowledge
and motivation related to the global
goal of creating a college-going
culture?
K-F What are your main goals in the
classroom?
Interview
What are the teachers’ knowledge
and motivation related to the global
goal of creating a college-going
culture?
K-F Now, as it pertains to creating a college-
going culture, what are your goals in the
classroom?

Interview
What are the teachers’ knowledge
and motivation related to the global
goal of creating a college-going
culture?
K-P Follow-Up Question: To reach those goals,
what kinds of ideas/skills do you try to
equip your students in order to get to
college?
Interview
What are the teachers’ knowledge
and motivation related to the global
goal of creating a college-going
culture?
K-F Can you explain how your desire to teach
them these skills relates to your teaching
philosophy?
Interview
What are the teachers’ knowledge
and motivation related to the global
goal of creating a college-going
culture?
K-P As it pertains to creating a college-going
environment, how do your lesson plans
help students set meaningful goals for
themselves?

Interview
What are the teachers’ knowledge
and motivation related to the global
goal of creating a college-going
culture?
K-F Tell me a little bit about practices that you
believe lead to a college-going mindset in
your students?

Interview
What are the teachers’ knowledge
and motivation related to the global
goal of creating a college-going
culture?
K-P Tell me, how do you address the full range
of student learning needs?
Interview
What are the teachers’ knowledge
and motivation related to the global
goal of creating a college-going
culture?
K-P I’d like to hear how do your practices in
the classroom account for student
differences?

Interview
What are the teachers’ knowledge
and motivation related to the global
goal of creating a college-going
culture?
K-P Describe your ability/strategies to foster a
college-going environment for your
students.
Interview
What are the teachers’ knowledge
and motivation related to the global
goal of creating a college-going
culture?
M-SE How do you know that these practices in
the classroom are effective?

Interview
What are the teachers’ knowledge
and motivation related to the global
goal of creating a college-going
culture?
M-SE What gives you confidence that the
practices you use in the classroom are
effective?
Interview
What are the teachers’ knowledge
and motivation related to the global
goal of creating a college-going
culture?
M-V Tell me a little bit about how your students
respond to your college-going strategies?

Interview

145

What are the teachers’ knowledge
and motivation related to the global
goal of creating a college-going
culture?
M-V How do your practices address the needs
of marginalized students?

Interview
What are the teachers’ knowledge
and motivation related to the global
goal of creating a college-going
culture?
M-V As it pertains to marginalized students,
how has working with these students
impacted you?
Interview
What is the interaction between
organizational culture and context
and teachers’ knowledge and
motivation?
O-CM How would you describe the relationship
between AHL leadership and its staff?
Focus
Group
What is the interaction between
organizational culture and context
and teachers’ knowledge and
motivation?
O-CM Describe any role your principal or VP
plays on your pedagogical decisions.
Focus
Group
What recommendations in the areas
of knowledge, motivation, and
organizational resources may be
appropriate for solving the problem
of practice at another organization?
O-CM What support, if any, do you receive from
your school to enact your priorities?
Follow-up question: Which support(s)
tools are most helpful?

Focus
Group
What recommendations in the areas
of knowledge, motivation, and
organizational resources may be
appropriate for solving the problem
of practice at another organization?
O-CM If at all, how does AHL promote
collaboration among teachers around
pedagogical practices?
Focus
Group
What recommendations in the areas
of knowledge, motivation, and
organizational resources may be
appropriate for solving the problem
of practice at another organization?
O-CM Throughout your career so far, what have
you learned is necessary to prepare
marginalized students for going to college,
overall?
Focus
Group
K-F=Factual, K-P=Procedural, M-Value, M-SE=Self Efficacy, O-CM=Cultural Models

146

Appendix E
Post-Training Evaluation Questionnaire
Date: ______
Participant #: ______
Instructions: Please respond to all questions accurately based on the knowledge you gained
from today’s topic.

1. Overall evaluation
1.1 Today, what impressed me or interested me most was ... (please explain why)
1.2 Today, what facilitated my learning was …

1.3 The topics or issues that were not clear to me today were …

1.4 I would like the following topics to be discussed in this or future workshops …

1.5 My recommendations for tomorrow are ...

2. To what extent did you agree with the following:
Preparedness Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Neutral =
neither agree
nor disagree
with the
statement
Agree Strongly
Agree
2.1 I feel prepared to lead student instruction
for marginalized students.
1 2 3 4 5
2.2 I am confident about entering the
classroom with a large population of
marginalized students.
1 2 3 4 5
2.3 I am mindful of creating content/lesson
plans for marginalized students.
1 2 3 4 5

147

2.4 I feel prepared to manage marginalized
students’ behavior.
1 2 3 4 5
2.5 I feel comfortable with the workload of
my job.
1 2 3 4 5
2.6 I feel supported by the organization staff. 1 2 3 4 5
2.7 I feel supported by my immediate
school’s staff.
1 2 3 4 5
2.8 I have been provided with adequate
materials to encourage college-going
culture for marginalized students.
1 2 3 4 5
2.9 I am aware of whom to contact for
assistance.
1 2 3 4 5
2.10 I feel comfortable asking for assistance. 1 2 3 4 5
KNOWLEDGE - BEFORE TRAINING
3. Rate your knowledge in the following
areas:
Very Low Low Moderate High Very
High
3.1 Setting big goals for your classroom 1 2 3 4 5
3.2 Creating a college-going culture in the
classroom
1 2 3 4 5
3.3 Benchmarking/monitoring 1 2 3 4 5
3.4 Setting high goals for marginalized
students
1 2 3 4 5
3.5 Effectively setting meaningful goals
for marginalized students
1 2 3 4 5
3.6 Unit planning 1 2 3 4 5
3.7 Executing challenging lessons for
marginalized students
1 2 3 4 5
KNOWLEDGE - AFTER TRAINING

148

3. Rate your knowledge in the following
areas:
Very Low Low Moderate High Very
High
3.8 Strategies for continuously increasing
teacher effectiveness via college-
going tactics
1 2 3 4 5
3.9 Initiating conversations related to
college goals/mindset/behaviours
1 2 3 4 5
3.10 Encouraging higher standards within
the classrooms for marginalized
students
1 2 3 4 5
3.11 Benchmarking/monitoring 1 2 3 4 5
3.12 Culturally relevant teaching strategies 1 2 3 4 5
3.13 Differentiated instruction 1 2 3 4 5
3.14 Flexible grouping 1 2 3 4 5
4. DEMOGRAPHICS
4.1 What is your gender? ____ Male ____ Female ____ Non-binary
4.2 What is the highest degree or level of school you have completed? If currently enrolled, highest degree
received?
___No schooling completed ___Nursery school to 8
th
grade
___Some High School, no diploma ___High School graduate, diploma or equivalent (ex: GED)
___Some college credit, no degree ___Trade/technical/vocational training
___Associate degree ___Bachelor’s degree
___Master’s degree ___Professional degree
___Doctorate degree

Titles of degrees obtained:
_______________________________________________________________________
4.3 Which best describes your level of professional experience with teaching?
___ No prior professional experience ___ < 1-year experience
___ 1-year experience ___ 2 years’ experience ____ 3+ years’ experience
4.4 Do you identify as a first-generation student? ____ Yes ____ No
4.5 Which best describes your comfort level with marginalized students?
___Very Uncomfortable ___ Uncomfortable ___ Neutral ___Comfortable
___Very Comfortable

Thank you for completing this survey.
Your input is appreciated and will be used to help improve our training program.

149

Appendix F
Summary Table of Influences

Influence Type Assumed Influence Validated?
Knowledge
Factual Teachers understand college readiness and a
college-going culture.
Yes

Procedural Teachers effectively incorporate college-going
culture strategies in the classroom for their
marginalized students.

Yes
Motivation
Self-Efficacy Teachers are confident in their ability to foster a
college-going culture in their classrooms for
their marginalized students.

Yes
Value Teachers see the value in creating a college-
going culture in their classrooms for their
marginalized students.
Yes
Organizational
Cultural Model 1 The AHL supports teachers in creating a college-
going culture for marginalized students to continue
and encourage college access.
Yes

150

Appendix G
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations

Assumed
Knowledge
Influence
Validated
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
(Declarative)
Teachers
understand
college
readiness and
a college-
going culture.
Y Y Prior knowledge can
help or hinder learning
(APA,
2015).

To develop mastery,
one must acquire
component skills,
practice incorporating
them, and know when
to apply the learned
knowledge (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).
Provide teachers with on-
going training that explains
the theory and value of
college-going culture and
college readiness to create
buy-in from all teachers at all
levels.
(Procedural )
Teachers
effectively
incorporate
college-going
culture
strategies into
the classroom
for their
marginalized
students.
Y Y How individuals
organize knowledge
influences can impact
how
they learn and apply
what they know
(Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).

Procedural knowledge
refers to knowing how
to do something
(Krathwohl, 2002).
Provide teachers peer-
mentoring training on how to
incorporate different college-
going culture strategies in
their classroom experiences
for marginalized students,
which may include college
day, capstone course
surrounding colleges,
classroom visitations from
college personnel to expose
the world of
colleges/universities to their
students.

151

Appendix H
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations

Assumed
Motivation
Influence

Validated
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Self-Efficacy –
Teachers are
confident in their
ability to foster a
college-going
culture for their
marginalized
students in their
classrooms.
Y Y Self-efficacy is
increased as
individuals succeed
in a task (Bandura,
2000).

Modeling and
feedback increase
self-efficacy (Pajares,
2006).
School leaders should aim to
create a new culture that
supports teachers’ needs in
an effort to increase teacher
efficacy.
Value - Teachers
see the attainment
value in creating a
college-going
culture in their
classrooms for
marginalized
students.
Y Y Individuals are more
likely to engage in an
activity when it
provides value to
them. (Eccles, 2009).
Lower performing schools to
monitor the successes and
provide statistical figures of
marginalized students’
achievements beyond the
classroom to demonstrate the
positive public impact
resulting from careful
planning, executing, and
monitoring the action plan of
delivering effective college-
going culture strategies for
marginalized students.

152

Appendix I
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations

Assumed
Organization
Influence

Validated
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation

Context-Specific
Recommendation
Cultural Model
Influence:
The AHL
supports teachers
by establishing
trust in their
ability to create a
college-going
culture for
marginalized
students and
encourage college
access.

Y Y Job satisfaction
increases when all
organization
stakeholders agree on
culture, mission,
goals, and resources
required to achieve
goals (Clark & Estes,
2008)
Other organizations should
conduct inclusive meetings
where the organization
communicates the vision,
mission, and goals, along
with individual and team
accomplishments, in efforts
to build trust between the
staff and the leadership
team.
Other schools should
cultivate a culture of
participation with all
stakeholders in achieving
organization goals by
encouraging feedback and
communication by all
stakeholders to build trust.
Cultural Setting
Influence:
The AHL
provides teachers
with adequate
time and
resources to be
able to integrate
elements of a
college-going
culture in their
physical
classroom and
their curriculum.
Y N Not a priority.

Abstract (if available)

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

Gender beyond the binary: transgender student success and the role of faculty

PDF

Educational resiliency factors contributing to college success for adolescent mothers

PDF

Closing the achievement gap: what can be done?

PDF

Promising practices to promote and sustain a college-going culture: a charter-school case study

PDF

Addressing the education debt: how community college educators utilize culturally relevant pedagogy to support Black and Latinx student success

PDF

Perceived factors for narrowing the achievement gap for minority students in urban schools: cultural norms, practices and programs

PDF

Collaborative instructional practice for student achievement: an evaluation study

PDF

Closing the achievement gap for students with disabilities: a focus on instructional differentiation - an evaluation study

PDF

Narrowing the achievement gap: a case study of an urban school

PDF

Factors impacting retention rates amongst underrepresented students: an evaluation study

PDF

Winning the organizational leadership game through engagement: a gap analysis

PDF

A case study in student retention at a Northern California private Jewish day school: a gap analysis

PDF

Factors contributing to student attrition at a healthcare university: a gap analysis

PDF

Teacher role in reducing the achievement gap: an evaluation study

PDF

Academic dishonesty among international students: Exploring aspects of language and culture

PDF

Understanding the factors that contribute to successful school reconstitution: A promising practice

PDF

A methodology for transforming the student experience in higher education: a promising practice study

PDF

Closing the completion gap for African American students at California community colleges: a research study

PDF

The impact of dual enrollment programs on first-year college success for Hispanic students from low-socioeconomic-status communities: a promising practice

PDF

Advancing Black identity and culture in predominantly White colleges and universities: a promising practice study

Asset Metadata

Creator Ude, Obioma Amarachi (author)

Core Title Closing the achievement gap for marginalized students using the college-going culture: a promising practices study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 07/27/2020

Defense Date 05/08/2020

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag achievement gap,college-going culture,gap analysis,marginalized student,OAI-PMH Harvest,student success

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Tambascia, Tracy Poon (committee chair), Green, Alan Gilford (committee member), Sanchez, Raquel (committee member)

Creator Email obiude1002@gmail.com,oude@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-339985

Unique identifier UC11663443

Identifier etd-UdeObiomaA-8793.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-339985 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-UdeObiomaA-8793.pdf

Dmrecord 339985

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Ude, Obioma Amarachi

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA