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The preparation, recruitment, and retention of principals in southern California

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The preparation, recruitment, and retention of principals in southern California

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Content Running head: PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 1
THE PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION OF
PRINCIPALS IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
by
Rena Fairchild
____________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2020
Copyright 2020 Rena Fairchild
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 2
DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to my incredible husband, Gregg. His unwavering support made
the long hours away from our family possible. I am so blessed to have a partner who completely
believes in me. I thank him for keeping me focused on what is most important in life while
allowing me the freedom to pursue my personal and professional adventures. Jocelyn, my study
buddy, found her love of Harry Potter in the hours spent across the table from me as I studied
and wrote. She always encouraged me that I can do anything while still being a great mom.
Andrew always gave me the love and snuggles that I needed to pick me up at the end of a long
day, and his affirmations kept me going. He always reminded me that family matters more than
anything else.
This work is also dedicated to my mom, without whom I would not have taken on this
endeavor. I thank her for helping me to pursue my dreams. She may not have gotten her musical
trio, but I hope that this achievement helps to fulfill one of her dreams as well.
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 3
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Many people helped to make this accomplishment possible. I acknowledge my disserta-
tion chair, Dr. Michael Escalante, for his invaluable leadership, guidance, and expertise. I thank
him for encouraging me from my first leadership class to my final dissertation defense.
Next, I acknowledge my dissertation committee, Dr. Owen Crosby, Dr. David Cash, and
Dr. Michele Doll, for giving their time and support for my study. Their words of encouragement
fueled me for the final stretch.
The participating principals, immediate supervisors of principals, human resources
administrators, and superintendents were generous with their time and insights to inform this
study.
This journey was made possible and enjoyable with an incredible Thursday cohort. I
appreciate their commitment when our late Thursday evenings shifted to early Sunday mornings;
this was truly a team effort! I thank my fabulous OC Crew, including Lara Gruebel, Kerri Braun,
Beth Rabel Blackman, and Gloria Olamendi. We spent long hours laughing and commiserating; I
could not have chosen better friends and colleagues with whom to spend the past 3 years. I will
miss our weekly time together, but I know that we will be forever connected.
I acknowledge my village: the Isas, who helped with everything from making my first
online class possible to keeping our home life real; my friends and family, who checked in and
encouraged me; the entire Myford staff for making me feel that I can do anything; and my
TerraNova family for keeping me in their prayers, even in my absence.
Finally, to the one and only God: Through Christ all things are possible.
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication 2
Acknowledgments 3
Abstract 7

Chapter 1: The Problem 8
Background of the Problem 8
Statement of the Problem 9
Purpose of the Study 10
Research Questions 10
Significance of the Study 10
Overview of Methodology 11
Assumptions 12
Limitations 12
Delimitations 12
Definition of Terms 13
Organization of the Dissertation 14
Chapter 2: Review of the Literature 16
History of the Principalship 16
Principal as General Manager 17
Principal as Professional and Scientific Manager 18
Principal as Administrator and Instructional Leader 19
Principal as Curriculum Leader 20
Diversity of Principals 21
Women in the Principalship 21
Racial Diversity in the Principalship 22
Preparation Programs 24
Traditional Preparation Programs 25
Fieldwork Experiences 28
Nontraditional Preparation Programs 29
Nonprofit Organizations 31
Recruitment 32
Candidate Qualities 33
District Leadership Programs 34
Tapping 34
Retention 35
Mentoring 36
Coaching 39
Factors Impacting Retention 39
Theoretical Framework 40
Four Frames 41
School Leadership That Works 44
The Principal: Three Keys to Maximizing Impact 47
Conceptual Framework 48
Figure 1. Conceptual framework for the study 49
Chapter Summary 50
Chapter 3: Research Methodology 51
Research Questions Restated 52
Research Design 53
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 5
Population and Sample 54
Access and Entry 54
Instrumentation 55
Quantitative Instrumentation 55
Qualitative Instrumentation 56
Data Collection 56
Data Analysis 57
Credibility and Trustworthiness 58
Ethical Considerations 59
Chapter Summary 60
Chapter 4: Presentation of Findings 61
Participant Selection 62
Surveys 62
Table 1. Survey Participants and Response Rates 63
Interviews 63
Results Relating to Research Question 1 64
Learning Opportunities 65
Job-Related Preparation 68
Mentors and Networking 70
Summary of Results for Research Question 1 72
Results Relating to Research Question 2 72
Mentors and Networking 73
Tapping and Leadership Development 76
Desired Characteristics 78
Summary of Results for Research Question 2 81
Results Relating to Research Question 3 81
Relationships and Networking Within the District 82
Mentors 85
Meaningful Work and Making a Difference 86
Summary of Results for Research Question 3 87
Chapter Summary 88
Chapter 5: Discussion, Implications, and Recommendations 90
Purpose of the Study Restated 91
Summary of Findings 92
Research Question 1 92
Research Question 2 94
Research Question 3 95
Limitations 97
Implications 97
Recommendations for Future Study 98
Conclusion 98
References 100
Appendices
Appendix A Research Participants’ Invitation E-Mail 111
Appendix B Informed Consent 112
Appendix C Principal Survey 113
Appendix D Human Resources Administrator Survey 120
Appendix E Immediate Supervisor of Principal Survey 124
Appendix F Superintendent Survey 128
Appendix G Principal Interview Guide 132
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 6
Appendix H Human Resources Administrator Interview Guide 134
Appendix I Immediate Supervisor of Principal Interview Guide 136
Appendix J Superintendent Interview Guide 138
Appendix K Question Alignment Matrix 140
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 7
ABSTRACT
The K–12 public school principalship is a complex position that continues to evolve and
become increasingly challenging. Today’s principals are responsible not only for the academic
and social-emotional needs of the students but also for development and training of staff, creat-
ing and sustaining strong relationships with families, and collaborating with the community.
Administrative preparation programs often do not support aspiring principals adequately in the
areas that lead to their success in the position, instead focusing on the managerial aspects of the
job. This qualitative study examined the preparation, recruitment, and retention of public school
principals in southern California. Perspectives from principals, immediate supervisors of princi-
pals, human resources administrators, and superintendents were considered to identify common
themes in response to the research questions. Learning opportunities, on-the-job preparation
experiences, and networking relationships were found to be valuable in the preparation of princi-
pals. Taking advantage of networking opportunities, having current administrators tap potential
candidates, and demonstrating characteristics unique to the district were all viewed as valuable
for principal recruitment. Relationships with others in the district, having a mentor, and finding
the work meaningful were important in the retention of principals. The themes in this study have
implications for traditional university preparation programs, district personnel, and aspiring prin-
cipals. Future research can examine how districts can implement these findings to develop a
strong pipeline of future administrators.
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 8
CHAPTER 1: THE PROBLEM
The role of the K–12 principal has changed drastically in the past several hundreds of
years from a lead teacher to a key political and instructional change agent (Brown, 2005; Bru-
baker & Simon, 1986; Kavanaugh, 2005). Today’s principal is responsible for hiring and training
teachers and support staff and serves as manager of budgets, overseer of state and federal com-
pliance, administrator of special education laws and services, and liaison for collaborative
parent-school relationships, all while maintaining high levels of student achievement under the
watchful lens of public accountability. The role of a principal is critical to public education but
increasing responsibilities negatively affect the number of teachers who pursue the principal
position, as well as the number of principals who remain in the position (Stark-Price, Munoz,
Winter, & Petrosko, 2006; Whitaker & Vogel, 2005). It is imperative that school boards and
superintendents understand the most effective preparation programs, recruitment strategies, and
retention characteristics of principals so these principals can lead schools effectively. This
chapter contains the background of the problem, statement of the problem, purpose of the study,
research questions guiding the study, significance of the study, limitations, delimitations, and
definition of terms.
Background of the Problem
The principalship is multifaceted and many potential candidates do not recognize the
complexity of the position (Baker, Punswick, & Belt, 2010; Kavanaugh, 2005). Most principal
candidates hold the necessary prerequisites but do not have a thorough understanding of the
requirements of the job. The pressures of accountability systems, expectations placed on princi-
pals, low compensation for high demands, and the inordinate amount of time required for the job
have led to challenges in retaining successful principals (Norton, 2002).
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 9
The responsibilities of the principalship have become more challenging and complex due
to decades of mandated reform, rapidly changing demographics, technological advances, and
dwindling financial support for schools (Fullan, 2014; Hoyle & Wallace, 2005; Marzano,
Waters, & McNulty, 2005; Spillane & Lee, 2014). Although many principals are successful in
the position, the pipeline of aspiring principals with potential for success may be insufficient
(Meyer & Feistritzer, 2003; Normore, 2006). Research has shown that 1 in 5 principals left their
schools within 2 years and many school districts report a lack of qualified applicants
(Pijanowski, Hewitt, & Brady, 2009). Given the potential for an insufficient pipeline of princi-
pals, as well as principals leaving the position, further consideration should be given to principal
preparation, recruitment, and retention.
Statement of the Problem
The job of the principal has become more complex and challenging, with roles, responsi-
bilities, and expectations continually evolving since the inception of the position in the mid-
1600s (Brubaker & Simon, 1986). Aspiring principals must thoughtfully consider the proper
preparation, recruitment strategies, and skill sets for ongoing retention and success in the posi-
tion. Preparation programs offered by universities and nonuniversity entities, have made attempts
to train prospective principals to be recruited and successful in the position but may have fallen
short in their efforts (Davis & Darling-Hammond, 2012; Hess & Kelly, 2007; Jackson & Kelley,
2002). Support for current principals, including networking, mentoring, and coaching, has con-
tributed to most principals’ ongoing success in the position (Matthews & Crow, 2003; Service,
Dalgic, & Thornton, 2016); however, principal turnover remains high (Hull, 2012). The fact that
disparities exist in the recruitment and retention of female principals and principals of color
magnifies the problem for these subgroups (Hill, Ottem, & DeRoche, 2016; Hoff, Menard, &
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 10
Tuell, 2006). These inadequacies signify an overall problem in principals’ preparation, recruit-
ment, and retention.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this qualitative study was to examine the preparation, recruitment, and
retention of California K–12 school principals. While the most significant direct influence on
student achievement is the teacher, the second most critical influence is the principal (Fullan,
2014). It is important to identify the preparation and supports that principals must have in order
to meet the challenges and complexities of the principalship, as well as the retention efforts that
districts must utilize to keep principals in this crucial role.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided this study:
1. How have training programs and professional experiences prepared principals to
manage the complexities and challenges of the principalship?
2. What are the perceptions of principals, immediate supervisors of principals, human
resources administrators, and superintendents regarding strategies to recruit successful principal
candidates?
3. What are the perceived strategies that support the retention of principals?
Significance of the Study
This study should serve to provide greater understanding of the complex processes
involved in the preparation, recruitment, and retention of principals, which would be valuable for
school boards, superintendents, and human resource personnel in a school district. School district
personnel who oversee hiring for principal positions have an interest in selecting candidates who
are best suited for the position. Richardson, Watts, Hollis, and McLeod (2016) reported a
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 11
discrepancy between what school districts indicate as their desired characteristics and what the
principal position actually entails. Specifically, a lack of clearly defined characteristics is
reported to be one of the primary reasons that school districts do not hire the best candidates
(Schlueter & Walker, 2008). By recruiting and hiring people who align with the district vision
and supporting them once in the position, school districts will establish a strong foundation of
school leaders to advance educational opportunities for students.
This study may also positively influence multiple stakeholders who are involved in the
training of aspiring principals. Teacher leaders who seek an administrative credential will be well
served to complete a program, whether university or nontraditional, that prepares them with the
knowledge and skills that they will need to be successful in the position. Professional organiza-
tions such as the Association of California School Administrators (ACSA) or the National Asso-
ciation of Elementary School Principals (NAESP) can design support for administrators to be
retained in the field. School districts can establish mentoring and coaching relationships that
develop and strengthen leadership skills (Sciarappa & Mason, 2014). Current principals will gain
insight into strategies to foster greater satisfaction in their positions.
Overview of Methodology
The study was conducted by a team of 12 doctoral candidates from the University of
Southern California (USC). Research questions, surveys, and interview protocols were devel-
oped by the team and analyzed individually by each candidate. A mixed-methods approach was
used to gather the perspectives of superintendents, human resources personnel, immediate super-
visors of principals, and principals in order to understand their perspectives of the preparation,
recruitment, and retention of principals. The qualitative interviews informed the study as it
emphasized an understanding of the issue and can reveal the meaning of a problem (Creswell,
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 12
2014). A quantitative survey was distributed to southern California superintendents, human
resources personnel, immediate supervisors of principals, and principals. The data from the
interviews and survey were triangulated to establish validity of the study. This process was based
on the assumption that data from the surveys and interviews provided consistent information
after analysis and coding (Creswell, 2014).
Assumptions
The study included assumptions that the data collected from superintendents, human
resources personnel, immediate supervisors of principals, and principals were truthful in nature.
The research team conducted the study collaboratively and ethically. It was assumed that partici-
pants would have experience and opinions about the preparation, recruitment, and retention of
principals. Finally, it was assumed that the data samples reflected the beliefs of others in similar
positions in California.
Limitations
The first limitation of the study was that the results are limited to the participants in the
study. The participants responded voluntarily, which may have reduced the generalizability of
the study. Second, the results of the study are limited to southern California school districts. Par-
ticipants were selected based on constraints and accessibility of the research team. Third, the
study was constrained by time and resources available to gather the data, which could have
reduced the generalizability of the study. Fourth, the validity of the study was dependent on the
reliability of the survey and interview instruments.
Delimitations
The first research delimitation of the study was that the surveys and interviews were
completed by superintendents, human resources personnel, immediate supervisors of principals,
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 13
and principals in southern California. The participants reflected a convenience sample of public
school personnel.
Definition of Terms
For the purpose of this study, the following terms are defined based on the reviewed liter-
ature.
Association of California School Administrators (ACSA): The largest umbrella organiza-
tion for school leaders in the United States, serving more than 17,000 California educators
(ACSA, 2019).
Beginning principal: A principal who has been in the principalship for less than 4 years.
Change agent: A leader who challenges the status quo (Marzano et al., 2005).
Coaching: A task-oriented, performance-driven relationship with a focus on increasing an
specific skills.
Colleagues: Peers who work in the same profession and are at the same level in their job.
Direct supervisor: A district office administrator who oversees the evaluation and men-
toring of a site principal.
Human resource personnel: Persons working in the human resources department of a
school district to oversee hiring practices.
Mentee: The person who is the “learner” in the mentoring relationship (Kerka, 1998).
Mentor: A person who holds experience and knowledge and works with others to develop
their skills (Cohen, 1995).
Mentoring: A relationship in which an experienced person provides guidance and support
personally and professionally to a less experienced person (Haney, 1997).
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 14
Preparation program: A university, professional organization, or embedded training
program that supports a principal candidate in obtaining the knowledge and skills necessary for
the principalship.
Principal: The person whose main responsibility is to serve as the educational and
instructional leader of the school (Brayfield, Wells, & Strate, 1957; Waters, Marzano, &
McNulty, 2003).
Principal recruitment: The processes or strategies used by school district personnel to
seek qualified people for principal positions.
Principal retention: The processes or strategies used by a principal or school district per-
sonnel to support retention of principals in the position.
Principalship: The general position of principal, especially the head of an elementary
school, middle school, or high school.
School district: A local education agency that operates schools in a local geographic
location.
Superintendent: The administrator or manager in charge of multiple schools in a school
district.
Tapping: The informal process of current administrators identifying and encouraging
teachers with leadership skills to pursue administrative positions.
Organization of the Dissertation
This dissertation is organized in five chapters. Chapter 1 has been an introduction to the
study of the preparation, recruitment, and retention of public school principals. The chapter
includes a brief background of the problems facing today’s principals and the increasing respon-
sibilities that they carry. Also included in the chapter are the research questions, purpose of the
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 15
study, the significance of the study, limitations and delimitations of the study, and the definition
of terms. Chapter 2 contains a review of the literature and the theoretical framework that guides
the study. Chapter 3 describes the methodology and design that were used for the study, as well
as a description of the sample and population, survey and interviews, data collection, and data
analysis. Chapter 4 presents an analysis of the survey and interview data collected from the par-
ticipants, together with an evaluation of how the data addressed the research questions. Chapter 5
presents a discussion of the conclusions, implications, and recommendations for further study of
the preparation, recruitment, and retention of principals.
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 16
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
This chapter presents the review of literature to provide context for the necessity of
effective principal preparation, recruitment, and mentorship. The role of principals has become
increasingly demanding with higher expectations for greater accountability. This review of the
literature begins with the history of the principalship and how the role has changed over the
years, including the shift toward increased diversity in the field. Preparation programs, recruit-
ment strategies, and mentoring models as they relate to principals are discussed. The conceptual
framework of leadership that guides this study is presented.
History of the Principalship
The role, required knowledge and skills, and perception of a school principal in the
United States has changed drastically since the beginning of public education. Originally consid-
ered a “headmaster” or “head teacher,” early principals were identified as teachers who demon-
strated some leadership or organizational skills in schools that served a community with enough
families to warrant more than one teacher (Brubaker & Simon, 1986). These “principal teachers”
served multiple roles, ranging from monitoring other teachers, implementing board policies, and
even performing clerical and janitorial tasks (Brown, 2005). These early principals often taught
the highest grade level at the school and maintained the relationship between the school and the
community. One consequence of the additional responsibilities began to emerge as these princi-
pal teachers were both colleagues and supervisors (Brubaker & Simon, 1986). These principals
experienced the beginnings of discord due to conflicting responsibilities of managing and lead-
ing. However, the primary role of these early principals was still teaching; additional responsi-
bilities were simply considered clerical chores or tasks that had to be accomplished. Over the
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 17
years, the responsibilities, expectations, and expertise of principals grew in scope to today’s
image: an instructional leader and visionary for the students and community.
Principal as General Manager
In the 1800s, the principal became an appointed position with primary responsibility to
serve as a liaison between the school board, the teachers, and the community (Brubaker &
Simon, 1986; Kavanaugh, 2005). These “principals as general managers” were released from
teaching responsibilities in the 1900s and were charged with maintaining the educational culture
of the school (Brubaker & Simon, 1986). During this time in the United States, population
growth due to increased immigration, as well as urbanization, required principals to expand their
responsibilities to include maintaining social order, developing strong citizens, and stimulating
economic growth (Brown, 2005). In large urban areas, the principalship became a full-time posi-
tion with responsibilities including supervising classrooms and teachers, conferring with teach-
ers, conducting demonstration lessons, overseeing testing, and leading teacher meetings
(Brubaker & Simon, 1986). Principals during this time became increasingly less of teachers and
more managers who oversaw the operations of the school. According to Brubaker and Simon
(1986), up to 58.8% of the principals’ time was spent on clerical duties. School superintendents
and boards of education began to allocate resources for principals to expand the curriculum and
help teachers to develop effective teaching strategies (Brubaker & Simon, 1986). As principals
began to be viewed as teachers of teachers and responsible for teachers’ professional growth,
there was an increase in the perceived prestige and power of the principal position (Kafka, 2009).
Principals were valued as having a skill set that was separate and distinct from teaching.
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 18
Principal as Professional and Scientific Manager
As the demands to prepare America’s youth for a productive role in society and in the
world increased, so did the requirements to hold a principal position. In 1921, the Department of
Elementary School Principals was established by a group of 51 principals to promote their pro-
fession; the organization grew to thousands in the next few years (Kavanaugh, 2005; NAESP,
2018). This explosive growth, along with the goal of promoting professionalism of the principal
position, underscores the transformation of the principal role from merely a head teacher to a
leader with greater responsibilities and significance.
Publication of Ralph Tyler’s Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction (1949)
changed the landscape of education by advancing the concept that curriculum planning and
development as a focus of study can affect teaching and learning (Brubaker & Simon, 1986).
Principals and their interactions with teachers were now viewed as scientific and the “principal
as professional and scientific manager” dominated the perception of the principal’s role until the
1970s (Brubaker & Simon, 1986). Principals during this time were responsible for applying
research-based practices and empirical data to support teaching strategies with a value-free
process (Beck & Murphy, 1993; Kavanaugh, 2005). Their responsibilities were grounded in a
more concrete and methodical practice of evaluating teaching and learning.
As a result of this increased expectation of principals, by 1932, nearly half of the states
had adopted principal certification standards (Brown, 2005). The criteria to become a principal
had evolved along with the job responsibilities. It was also during this period as “scientific
manager” that the Soviet launch of Sputnik in 1957 increased public attention on the science
education of students and increased content area materials as well as national education funding
(Brown, 2005). The role of principal had effectively shifted to one with higher expectations in
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 19
order to participate in a global environment. A view of the principal as a democratic leader of a
school in which all students could participate focused on student excellence and students were
viewed as a product of the schooling experience (Beck & Murphy, 1993).
Principal as Administrator and Instructional Leader
During this time, the civil rights movement and Brown v. Board of Education forced
schools to address inequities such as segregation and economic disparities (Brown, 2005). As
principals began to address larger societal concerns, their responsibilities broadened to include
not only issues of racial tension, bilingual education, and education for disabled student, but also
issues of nonacademic needs such as substance abuse, teen pregnancy, and union negotiations
(Brown, 2005). This “principal as administrator and instructional leader” is the current view of
the principal and identifies the dual roles that today’s principals play: to be an instructional
leader but also to manage the organization of the school site (Brubaker & Simon, 1986).
According to Brubaker and Simon (1986), the current principal must be able to make a
decision, implement the decision, and deal with public reaction. Murphy (1998) described the
following elements as necessary for today’s principal: greater attention to matters of practice in
the design and delivery of educational experiences, movement toward a professional school
model, recognition of the importance of craft knowledge, and emphasis on values, social context,
core technology, inquiry, and new forms of leadership. The 1983 report A Nation at Risk: The
Imperative for Educational Reform, published by President Ronald Reagan’s National Commis-
sion on Excellence in Education (1983), spurred American education into a period of extensive
school reforms to “tighten educational standards, strengthen professional certification require-
ments, and increase accountability” (Brown, 2005, p. 22). The report underscored a belief that
American schools were failing and that principals lacked the knowledge and skills that were
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 20
needed to lead; instructional leadership became the new standard for principals (Murphy, 1991).
With this additional requirement of principals, preparation for the position became more critical.
Principal as Curriculum Leader
The new wave in describing the “principal as curriculum leader” (Brubaker & Simon,
1986) combines all of the responsibilities outlined in the history of the principal while adding the
dimension of creating and sharing a vision for the school. This concept of the current and future
principal emphasizes empowerment of teachers as change agents in school improvement (Brown,
2005). In addition to being “first-rate instructional leaders,” Brown summarized the expectations
they have been placed on principals:
Principals are being exhorted to be highly skilled building managers, outstanding human
resource directors, and competent negotiators. They are expected to be change agents and
problem solvers who provide visionary leadership, moral leadership, and cultural leader-
ship while practicing transformational leadership, collaborative leadership, servant lead-
ership, and distributive leadership. (p. 29)
Copland (2001) called today’s principals “superprincipals” and asserted that the demands
of the position are “a largely unattainable ideal of mythological proportions” (p. 531). The
responsibilities of principals continue to grow exponentially with current demands related to
public education. Today’s principals are required to lead and manage a multitude of responsibili-
ties. They are required to be the visionary and change agent for a school while they are held
accountable for student success.
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 21
Diversity of Principals
Women in the Principalship
As the role of the principal has changed over the years, so has the demographics of who
holds the position. In a field that was once dominated by White males, a goal of today’s princi-
pals is to reflect a more accurate representation of the diversity of the students whom they serve.
In the history of the principalship, White men have dominated the landscape (Coleman, 2005;
Sanchez & Thornton, 2010). The position of educational administrator has often been viewed as
a masculine role, and women and minority groups have received little encouragement and
support to become principals (Coleman, 2005; Sanchez & Thornton, 2010; Winter, Rinehart,
Keedy, & Bjork, 2004). However, it is important that diversity in leadership be reflected in
schools in order to broaden perspectives and experiences. Normore (2006) suggested that women
lead differently from men and that their transformational leadership style is needed in schools.
While there has been in increase in the percentage of female principals in public schools
in the past 30 years and a balance has been nearly achieved (Hill et al., 2016), barriers continue
to exist for women in leadership. Indeed, women comprise 75.9% of the teaching population but
only comprise 50.3% of principal positions, which indicates a disparate percentage of women in
higher leadership roles (Glass, 2000; Grogan & Shakeshaft, 2010; Sanchez & Thornton, 2010).
Kruse and Krumm (2016) found that, as women moved out of teaching, their hiring as adminis-
trators was dependent on male “gatekeepers.” Although case studies have shared examples of
positive male gatekeepers and shown that these connections were an important factor in the
advancement of women in leadership roles (Kruse & Krumm, 2016), more women entering the
ranks of higher leadership in education would mitigate the effects of gender in the hiring process.
While women are invested in doing well in the position, they are not confident in their abilities to
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 22
do so, despite having greater preparation, more advanced degrees, and more lower-level admin-
istrative experience than their male counterparts (Kruse & Krumm, 2016). Kruse and Krumm
(2016) argued that this increased experience is due to women delaying pursuit of administrative
positions until their children are grown; women tend to prioritize family before career advance-
ment.
Another factor that points to the need for more women in administrative leadership is the
difference in effects of leadership styles between women and men. Research in the field of edu-
cation suggests that the leadership behaviors employed by women are more effective than those
utilized by men in improving school outcomes (Fuller, Pendola, & LeMay, 2018). A leadership
style that includes building community and fostering collaboration has been associated with a
greater likelihood of improving student outcomes and meeting state accountability goals (Fuller
et al., 2018; Kruse & Krumm, 2016). While these findings reflect broad categorizations of the
impact of gender on student outcomes, it is important to examine the effects of gender as it
relates to school accountability. With a large pool of female candidates in the teaching ranks, the
role of recruitment to the principal position is critical to attract the most qualified candidates.
Racial Diversity in the Principalship
In addition to the need for more women in educational leadership roles, it is imperative to
have greater diversity of administrators who reflect the cultures of the students. It is also crucial
for schools to represents the diversity of students to serve as role models to influence student
engagement and academic performance (Fernandez, Bustamante, Combs, & Martinez-Garcia,
2015). Data point to a widespread overrepresentation of White non-Latinos among classroom
teachers, assistant principals, and principals, with the underrepresentation of Latinos nearly
double that of Blacks (Kerr, Miller, Kerr, & Deshommes, 2016). Specifically, Latinos are
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 23
underrepresented as assistant principals, principals, and administrators and Blacks are
overrepresented as assistant principals and principals but underrepresented as administrators
(Kerr et al., 2016). With the growing diversity of students in the United States, this diversity
should be reflected in educational leadership. Currently, Latino students are the fastest-growing
ethnic group in schools in the United States (Fernandez et al., 2015). Sanchez, Thornton, and
Usinger (2008) argued that effective minority leaders can exert a strong influence on impact
school improvement, especially when they are placed in schools with a high concentration of
minority students. According to Fernandez et al. (2015), Latino/a administrators can create a
strong foundation for Latino/a students to participate and invest in their schools and in society.
Increasing the diversity of school administrators should be taken with caution, however.
While there are benefits to having minority principals lead schools that reflect the diversity of the
student population such as serving as role models and advocates (Fernandez et al., 2015; Sanchez
et al., 2008), choosing administrators based solely on student demographics could unintention-
ally lead to old segregation patterns (Sanchez et al., 2008). Latino/a participants in a study by
Fernandez et al. (2015) reported that they were ill equipped and ill prepared to lead and address
issues related to race and culture, which they believed ultimately led to their failure. Specific
training for administrators of color would be examined from a perspective other than that of the
traditional White male privileged perspective (Fernandez et. al., 2015) and embrace a perspective
of cultural sensitivity and responsiveness.
The intersection of race and gender should be addressed in the examination of adminis-
trative diversity. Minority women in particular face challenges that are different from those of
minority males and While females. In their study of Asian American women in educational lead-
ership, Liang and Peters-Hawkins (2017) found a lack of representation and voice for this
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 24
minority population. They determined that Asian American women faced discrimination that was
different from and greater than that for White women and Asian American men (Li, 2014; Liang
& Peters-Hawkins, 2017). Asians are not consistently considered an underrepresented minority
because they are not educationally or socioeconomically disadvantaged and research has shown
that women and minorities may be an overlooked population of school administrators (Liang &
Peters-Hawkins, 2017). The perspectives of minority female principals would be unique to their
backgrounds and their experiences have been limited in the literature.
It is important to recognize and understand that administrative positions should be held
by a diverse population of qualified persons across race and gender. Normore (2006) challenged
districts to have proactive selection process to identify future school administrators. Nogay and
Beebe (2008) recommend that school districts consider the role of leadership differences when
developing administrative teams in order to complement each other’s strengths and weaknesses.
It is critical for school districts to examine and remove barriers that keep minority and women
candidates from applying for administrative positions. In addition, it is vital for school districts to
recruit qualified principal candidates from a broad and diverse field of individuals.
Preparation Programs
The school principal’s job is as varied and diverse as the student population they serve.
From teacher supervision to supporting student learning to managing the physical site, principals
are expected to be experts in a wide range of tasks (Hine, 2003). New principals may enter the
position with little on-the-job training. While some countries train principals through an appren-
ticeship model (Coleman & Others, 1996), in the United States it is possible to become a princi-
pal through a preparation program or comparable assessment that varies by state. In their
analysis of school leadership preparation programs, Murphy and Vriesenga (2006) determined
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 25
that there is very little research on the subject of principal preparation programs and even less on
the effectiveness of these programs. However, much research indicates that the role of the prin-
cipal is integral to the academic success of students (Gentilucci & Muto, 2007; Hernandez &
Roberts, 2012; Waters et al., 2003). While the role of the principal is significant in creating a
positive impact on student achievement, there is no strong direct connection from preparation
programs in developing these effective principals. Instead, the pathways to effective
principalship include a wide variety of experiences, skills, and preparation.
Traditional Preparation Programs
There are a wide variety of credentialing programs offered by universities. as well as by
nontraditional non-university programs, that offer educators an administrative credential. As the
job expectations for principals have changed over the years, so have the requirements and cre-
dentialing programs that prepare these site leaders. A traditional path to a principal position
includes obtaining an administrative credential program from a university program. However,
states differ greatly in their requirements for approval of principal preparation programs.
According to researchers at the University Council for Educational Administration who surveyed
states’ policies and regulations on principal preparation and licensure, five key areas comprise
effective leadership preparation programs: explicit selection process, state oversight, strong
clinical experience, district-university partnerships, and experience requirements (Superville,
2017). They found that only two states require all five key areas in their principal preparation
programs. with 27 states requiring two, three, or four key areas and 22 states requiring one or no
key area (Superville, 2017). Orr and Orphanos (2011) found that participation in an exemplary
leadership preparation program was significantly associated with engaging in such exemplary
leadership practices. In particular, the stronger the preparation program and effective leadership
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 26
practices employed, the greater the school improvement progress and school effectiveness
climate (Orr & Orphanos, 2011).
Examination of traditional preparation programs points to common content areas:
managing for results, managing personnel, technical knowledge, external leadership, norms and
values, managing classroom instruction, and leadership and school culture (Hess & Kelly, 2007).
While these content areas may lead to a foundational understanding of the principal position,
they do not specifically address issues of data, productivity, accountability, or working with the
parent population, which may leave new principals unprepared for the demands of the job (Hess
& Kelly, 2007). Principals may be overwhelmed by the immediate expectations placed on them
when they first take over a school. Parents’ needs and student and teacher issues must be
addressed in order to maintain or establish the culture of the school. A study of principals indi-
cated that. while they expressed contentment with the preparation of their preservice programs,
they considered themselves to be underprepared in addressing the needs of special populations
(Styron, Ronald, & LeMire, 2011). The unique needs of the special education population, along
with the legal aspects of their educational program, would be difficult to learn in a traditional
preparation program.
These findings are consistent with Cray and Weiler’s (2011) examination of superinten-
dent’s perceptions of new principals. They found that superintendents identified perceived
deficits of new principals in the areas of experience with and understanding of the range of
demands of the position, understanding of differentiated instructional strategies and best
practices, and functional use of personnel management strategies (Cray & Weiler, 2011). While
principal preparation programs offer content knowledge, as one superintendent in the study
stated, “I don’t think the preparation was adequate for helping this individual become a leader of
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 27
a team. All the management principles and learning strategies don’t count for much if the leader
doesn’t listen or respect an experienced voice” (Cray & Weiler, 2011, p. 936). Conceptual
information may be valuable but does not necessarily translate to practical application that leads
to success at the school site. The research points to the importance of aligning principal prepara-
tion programs with the reality of the demands of the school site, especially in an era of account-
ability (Hess & Kelly, 2007).
When comparing high-quality program elements in exemplary preparation programs, Orr
and Orphanos (2011) identified more thorough and rigorous expectations for principals:
 A well-defined theory of leadership for school improvement that frames and inte-
grates the program features around a set of shared values, beliefs, and knowledge;
 A coherent curriculum that addresses effective instructional leadership, organizational
development, and change management and that aligns with state and professional
standards;
 Active learning strategies that integrate theory and practice and stimulate reflection;
 Quality internships that provide intensive developmental opportunities to apply
leadership knowledge and skills under the guidance of an expert practitioner–mentor;
 Knowledgeable (about their subject matter) faculty;
 Social and professional support, including organizing students into cohorts that take
common courses together in a prescribed sequence, formalized mentoring, and
advising from expert principals;
 The use of standards-based assessments for candidate and program feedback and
continuous improvement that are tied to the program vision and objectives. (Orr &
Orphanos, 2011, p. 22)
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 28
Similarly, Darling-Hammond, Meyerson, LaPointe, and Orr (2007) identified successful
preparation programs to include (a) a comprehensive and coherent curriculum aligned to state
and professional standards; (b) a philosophy and curriculum that emphasize leadership of
instruction and school improvement; (c) student-centered instruction; (d) knowledgeable faculty;
(e) support in the form of a cohort or mentoring; (f) vigorous, carefully targeted recruitment; and
(g) administrative internships. While it might be tempting to revamp and restructure preparation
programs to align with identified effective strategies, Hess and Kelly (2007) cautioned that the
solution is not simply to rearrange coursework. They stressed that “true redesign requires a new
curriculum framework and new courses aimed at producing principals who can lead schools to
excellence” (Hess & Kelly, 2007, p. 23).
Fieldwork Experiences
In addition to the coursework provided in successful traditional preparation programs,
much research points to the need for real-life learning experiences. According to Barnet (2004),
universities can provide these opportunities by pairing a student with an active administrator to
provide mentorship during coursework. These types of experiences would prepare future admin-
istrators with the on-the-job realities once in the position. In their examination of the perspec-
tives of school leaders on their administrative internship, Thessin and Clayton (2013) found that
administrators identified their real-world, hands-on experiences as interns as essential to their
preparation. Another study found that university-based principal preparation programs that were
identified as innovative and exemplary integrated their coursework with work at school sites
(Davis & Darling-Hammond, 2012). These participants were recruited by local school districts,
completed the program in a cohort model, and were assessed through multiple performance
measures, including a structured portfolio (Davis & Darling-Hammond, 2012). Instead of
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 29
preparation programs that merely address leadership and administrative content, these programs
integrate fieldwork experiences in conjunction with coursework.
It is important to caution that these preparation programs would do well to strengthen
their program by including a wider range of experiences to capture the breadth and depth of the
principals’ responsibilities. Clayton and Myran (2013) found in their analysis of administrative
interns that most of the activities that the interns experienced were in the categories of safety and
organizational management and the least-mentioned activities were instructional leadership and
communication/community relations. These administrative responses point to the need to align
program goals from theory to practice (Clayton & Myran, 2013). Lochmiller and Chesnut (2017)
highlighted research that points to preparation programs that include content on school and
instructional leadership without specifically addressing specialized skills or a particular approach
to leadership action. Furthermore, because the mentorships are served within the school district,
program structures serve to reinforce the status quo and leadership behaviors that the districts
want to change (Lochmiller & Chesnut, 2017). Despite these challenges, it is clear that there is
great value in obtaining fieldwork experience in the principal preparation programs. Unfortu-
nately, many programs do not provide any fieldwork experiences for aspiring principals.
Nontraditional Preparation Programs
Some states and districts have recently started to pursue nontraditional preparation
programs for site administrators. With the changing role of principals, these licensure programs
prepare administrators for a position that includes accountability, information technology, and
broader changes in management and organization (Hess & Kelly, 2005). Such innovators argue
that the responsibilities for innovation in education have necessitated a shift to seek people who
have do not maintain the status quo as school systems have in the past (Hess & Kelly, 2005).
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 30
According to Hess and Kelly (2005), recent efforts to alter principal preparation include states
changing licensure and certification provisions, as well as having various providers, both non-
profit and for-profit organizations, offer alternatives to traditional content and delivery of the
program.
While most states allow for alternative certification routes, the National Center for Edu-
cation Information (NCEI) reported that only 12 states have these alternative certification routes
for principals (Hess & Kelly, 2005). Furthermore, states may vary greatly in their required quali-
fications for principals. For example, Florida’s local school boards have the right to set qualifi-
cations for principal candidates, Arkansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, and Ohio have a tiered licensure
system, and several states have no state policy regarding preparation programs. (Education
Commission of the States, 2018; Hess & Kelly, 2005). In California, aspiring principals can
demonstrate their competency by receiving a passing score on the California Preliminary
Administrative Credential Examination (CPACE).
Another type of nontraditional preparation program uses partnerships with university-
based schools of education. According to the Education Commission of the States, more than
half of the states have created these principal academies. California State University, Fresno has
this type of principal academy, which includes two phases: Phase 1 is focused on instructional
leadership and individuals are considered “master teachers” and Phase 2 consists of working as
an assistant administrator while taking transformational leadership courses (Hess & Kelly, 2005).
This tiered program allows administrators to gain a stronger appreciation of teaching and
learning and then gain experiences with the practical day-to-day demands of the position.
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 31
Nonprofit Organizations
Nonprofit organizations such as the KIPP School Leadership Program seek to recruit
diverse potential principals who will later lead KIPP schools (Hess & Kelly, 2005). This highly
selective program includes a 6-week summer institute that is taught by faculty in their education
and business schools. Their three-strand curriculum includes material in transformational leader-
ship, instructional leadership, and organizational leadership (Hess & Kelly, 2005). This cohort
model combines coursework in educational content, as well as business management, negotia-
tion, and conflict resolution (Hess & Kelly, 2005). In addition, the program depends on nomina-
tions for candidates and embed quality control throughout the process (Hess & Kelly, 2005).
A similar program, New Leaders for New Schools (NLNS) recruits diverse individuals
with demonstrated skills and strength to lead urban schools (Hale & Moorman, 2003). The goal
of NLNS is for their program to become a model for principal recruitment, preparation, and
support for others (Hale & Moorman, 2003). The Principal Residency Network program recruits
strong candidates and contends that the best training is provided by the practical lessons that are
learned on the job. The candidates’ work is personalized to their environment and they are
required to complete a portfolio documenting their experiences (Hale & Moorman, 2003).
These types of nontraditional program rely heavily on selective recruitment of candidates
and personalized instruction that represents the wide array of responsibilities of principals (Hale
& Moorman, 2003). This recruitment strategy is effective in creating a pipeline for future
administrators but it should be used with caution. According to Hess and Kelly (2005), new
programs, although promoted as innovative, fail to address major barriers that discourage new
administrators. Instead, programs of all types should ensure that the approaches that are adopted
serve to encourage an innovative type of leader, not simply one that fits an existing mold.
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 32
Recruitment
In examining the need for diversity in administrative positions, it becomes clear from the
literature that there is an overall shortage of qualified candidates. This shortage across the United
States is due in part to the large numbers of retirees from the Baby Boom generation, leaving a
gap between the number of open positions and the number of candidates ready to fill the ranks
(Winter et al., 2004). The shortage also exists because of the nature of the principal job itself.
Factors such as increased responsibilities, increased accountability for student performance
based on high-stakes achievement tests, long hours, low salary, stress, public criticism, and work
environment also have a negative impact on the number of teachers who pursue administrative
credentials and a principal position (Stark-Price et al., 2006). Whitaker and Vogel (2005) found
that only 59% of the respondents in their study were in administrative positions 5 years after
completion of their administrative credential.
Among those who pursue administrative credentials, not all are equally qualified nor do
qualified candidates actively seek principals positions (Gajda & Militello, 2008). Those who
pursue an administrative position are often well into their teaching careers; while they have
greater educational experience, they have less time as a principal before retirement (Gajda &
Militello, 2008). Gajda and Militello (2008) recommended seeking aspiring administrators
earlier in their careers so that they would have a longer career as an instructional leaders.
According to Ash, Hodge, and Connell (2013), some effective recruitment strategies include
identifying the needs of the school, identifying the preferred candidate qualifications, seeing the
candidates in action, and ensuring that candidate selection is based on leadership practices that
are known to be effective in increasing student achievement. School districts cannot rely solely
on the number of eligible applicants to fill vacancies. Instead, they must actively recruit qualified
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 33
candidates from their teacher pool to be future leaders (Doyle & Locke, 2014; Winter et al.,
2004).
Candidate Qualities
In order to recruit successful future principals, it is critical to have a clear understanding
of the qualities that would be desired to improve student achievement in a particular school
district. According to Schlueter and Walker (2008), a lack of clearly defined criteria is reported
to be one of the primary reasons that school districts do not hire the best candidates for positions.
Instead, 46% of the participating districts did not use any written criteria and, of those that did
so, only 21% reflected the ability to create and sustain change within a district (Schlueter &
Walker, 2008). In their study of identification of future school leaders, Myung, Loeb, and Horng
(2011) identified a need for principals with skills beyond an administrative credential. However,
they also recognized that the strategy for recruitment that identifies future leaders in the teaching
pool does not align with the culture of public education in which the goal is for all to be success-
ful (Myung et al., 2011). Recruitment appears to run counter to the core belief that all individuals
have equal access and opportunity in public education.
In the pursuit and recruitment of future principals, only some teachers are selected based
on specific criteria that have identified them as strong principal candidates. Some of the desired
characteristics identified by Browne-Ferrigno and Muth (2008) are that these individuals already
be high-quality teachers and that they work with high-quality principals who establish high aca-
demic, environmental, and leadership goals. In a study of potential administrators for low-
performing schools, Stark-Price et al. (2006) found that teacher leaders were the second most
likely group to achieve success, aside from existing principals. Efforts to recruit teacher leaders
would be a valuable strategy for school district to examine. Teacher leaders in a school district
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 34
not only understand the district philosophy but are able to gain experiences and build relation-
ships that would help them in career advancement. Petzko (2002) argued that women and minor-
ities must be actively recruited to provide a strong pool of future principals.
District Leadership Programs
Some districts offer leadership programs in order to recruit and train aspiring future prin-
cipals. According to Browne-Ferrigno and Muth (2008), leadership programs must recruit and
train people who have both the skills and the desire to be school principals. The Los Angeles
Unified School District in California offers the Aspiring Principals Program, which provides
teacher leaders professional development in instructional and operational aspects of the principal
position (Los Angeles Unified School District, 2019). Other district programs, such the New
York City (NYC) Leadership Academy, similarly “recruit, prepare and support creative and
passionate leaders with the skills, capacity and knowledge to lead schools that improve student
learning and academic growth” (NYC Leadership Academy, 2019, website). Cities such as
Chicago Boston, and Louisville have followed the NYC Leadership Academy as a model for
principal recruitment (NYC Leadership Academy, 2019). These district leadership programs
seek to identify leaders in the district who show potential for becoming principals. By taking a
proactive approach to recruiting potential principals by offering a training ground, school
districts can build a pipeline for future administrators who can support and lead the district
vision.
Tapping
An effective pathway to recruiting future principals is to have existing administrators
actively seek and “tap” promising leaders to consider pursuing administrative experience
(Farley-Ripple, Raffel, & Christine Welch, 2012). These selected individuals may have
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 35
opportunities to gain experience prior to filling a principal position and thus be better equipped
to handle the demands of the job. Principals tend to tap teachers who take on leadership respon-
sibilities and who have been members of the school leadership teams (Myung et al., 2011).
Often, teachers who are tapped have an active role in a variety of school activities. It is less clear
whether those who are tapped seek leadership experiences or if those who seek leadership expe-
riences are tapped by their principals. However, it is important to note here that this strategy of
tapping potential principals may continue to reinforce a lack of diversity in the recruited popula-
tion, as principals tend to tap male teachers and teachers of a similar race before tapping other
equally qualified individuals (Myung et al., 2011). These findings underscore the need for prin-
cipal recruitment to consider seeking talented and qualified individuals who represent a diverse
pool of candidates.
Another benefit to tapping to recruit qualified candidates is that it provides future princi-
pals leadership opportunities prior to entering an administrative program. Browne-Ferrigno and
Muth (2008) found that the current process for attaining administrative credentials without expe-
rience leads to many graduates not using their certification and continuing to seek a principal
position. Potential future principals who are provided a variety of leadership opportunities may
be more likely to pursue principal positions upon completion of an administrative credential or
comparable certification because they would be better prepared for the demands of the job. In
addition, they would be more likely to have a stronger foundation based on early experiences that
prepared them for the position.
Retention
Much research points to the fact that, while there are large numbers of educators attaining
their administrative credential, not all pursue an administrative position (Gajda & Militello,
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 36
2008). The barriers that influence this decision to not become a principal must be addressed by
education institutions in order to recruit highly qualified individuals. Furthermore, once in the
position, nearly half of all principals do not stay in the field beyond 5 years (Viadero, 2009).
School districts must examine the factors related to retention of principals and actively embed
strategies to increase retention.
One strategy in the successful preparation of today’s principal is to provide a coach or
mentor to support prospective principals to gain administrative experience prior to entering the
field. While a mentor can serve to fulfill both professional and personal roles with a mentee, the
coaching relationship is focused on growing the mentee’s capacity in a particular skill or area.
Bloom, Castagna, and Warren (2003) pointed to consensus that traditional preparation programs
do not fully prepare candidates for the principalship. As administrators begin their careers, men-
toring and coaching both can be key ingredients in helping principals in their first few years.
Bloom et al. (2003) stressed the need for both new and experienced principals to receive ongoing
coaching and mentoring to provide support and professional development.
It is also critical to examine the factors that influence the decision by a principal to leave
the profession. Supported principals have an increased probability of remaining in leadership
positions and becoming strong principals (Bloom, Castagna, Moir, & Warren, 2005). By
addressing mentoring and coaching, school districts can retain highly qualified principals to lead
their schools.
Mentoring
Some university preparation programs have begun to see value in providing internships
and on-the-job training opportunities for future principals and have incorporated mentoring in
their administrative programs. In an overview of a mentorships program, Syed (2015) found that
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 37
one goal of a mentorship program is to connect schools and administrators in order to create a
culture that allows schools to grow with support and guidance from the school district. A review
of the literature points to an overall positive effect of mentorship (Farver & Holt, 2015; Petzko,
2002; Sciarappa & Mason, 2014; Syed, 2015) but also notes challenges in the relationship
between mentor and mentee. While some mentors may feel a lack of confidence to advise their
mentees adequately (Coleman & Others, 1996), mentees must be confident that their mentors are
well prepared, good listeners, and instrumental in strengthening instructional leadership
(Sciarappa & Mason, 2014).
In examining a pre-service model of pairing new school principals with experienced prin-
cipals in a mentor relationship, Coleman and Others (1996) found that both groups regarded the
relationship as beneficial because it created opportunities for personal and professional reflec-
tion. However, they also found several problems inherent in the relationship, including chal-
lenges to find time to meet, the ability of the mentor to listen actively and not “fix the problem,”
the loss of privacy felt by the new principals, and the apprehension of both parties toward the
relationship (Coleman & Others, 1996).
Relationships that are created for the purposes of mentorship may not be as valuable as
those that are created organically with an established trusted colleague or may require additional
time in creating a foundation of trust and dialogue. The relationship between mentor and mentee
should be built on more than simply experience and novice status of the mentee. Effective men-
torships require both parties to be candid in their experiences in order to grow from them.
According to Farver and Holt (2015), coaching relationships require a supportive environment, a
relationship built on trust, confidential conversations, leadership support, reflection, coaching
language in the communication, coaches as co-constructors, and coaches as a thinking partner.
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 38
With these strategies in place, coaching and mentoring can be a valuable support for new
administrators. Furthermore, within a school district, these relationships between new and expe-
rienced administrators can help to establish a common district vision (Farver & Holt, 2015).
Another valuable aspect of mentorship and coaching is that they provide an avenue for
training principals regarding professional development. All principals, regardless of experience,
need job-embedded training (Warren & Kelsen, 2013). In addition, during times of initiative
change and new instructional and policy demands, mentorship is critical in supporting learning
by district leaders. Hussin and Al Albri (2015) found that, when policy implementers issued a
top-down change, they often failed to address the professional knowledge and skills of princi-
pals. Specifically, policy changers may fail to understand transformational leadership and the
need for principals to inspire, motivate, and effect change in their teaching staff (Hussin & Al
Abri, 2015).
Mentorship programs within professional organizations such as the NAESP, ACSA, and
California Association of Latino Superintendents and Administrators (CALSA) seek to provide
professional support to school administrators. Mentorship within a school district for new and
experienced principals helps to strengthen their knowledge base and supports their ongoing
learning and professional development. In examining the efficacy of NAESP mentorship,
Sciarappa and Mason (2014) found that mentees reported high levels of satisfaction with their
mentorship in the areas of developing instructional leadership skills and problem solving. Other
areas in which mentors provided valuable support were time management, making priority deci-
sions, working with parents, supporting the school culture, building trust, and communication
with staff. As principals enter the field of administration, they are often overwhelmed with the
demands of the job; a mentor can be instrumental in suggesting how to handle an overwhelming
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 39
workload. Bloom et al., (2003) found that principals in a supportive mentor or coaching relation-
ship were not only more engaged in instructional leadership but were spending more time on
instructional issues than principals who were not in a supportive relationship.
Coaching
Similar to mentorship, coaching models provide a structured relationship for principals to
learn from and grow with peers. Coaching addresses specific skills for principals to improve,
such as classroom instruction and leadership practices (Lochmiller, 2018). These coaching rela-
tionships may be defined by the individual to focus on desired outcomes. Coaching helps princi-
pals to establish and communicate a common vision and mission, build relationships with staff,
and support school goals (Farver & Holt, 2015). A coaching partnership benefits principals by
providing a supportive environment, ensuring confidential conversations with a trusting person,
establishing opportunities for reflection, and offering leadership support (Farver & Holt, 2015;
Lochmiller, 2018). A coaching model in a school district would lead principals to feel connection
to the goals of the district while receiving support specific in leading their schools.
Factors Impacting Retention
In addition to supporting principals when they first enter the position, school districts
would examine the factors related to decisions to leave. Some of the commonly stated reasons
for leaving the field are stress, low salary, time requirements, frustration with too little time to
focus on instruction, and pressures of testing accountability (Fuller, Hollingworth, & Young,
2015; Gajda & Militello, 2008). The principal role has increased in scope to such a degree that
providing adequate and competitive compensation for required skills can be fiscally problematic.
It is impossible to expect less from the position, which then poses the challenge of how to retain
principals when the job requirements are the stated reasons for leaving the field. Instead, other
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 40
avenues of meeting the job demands must also be addressed (Doyle & Locke, 2014; Stark-Price
et al., 2006; Winter et al., 2004). If the job is made more attractive, more principals will be
recruited and retained in the field.
Whitaker (2001, 2003) offered school districts several recommendations to attract and
retain strong leaders: (a) re-examine the role of principals, (b) provide ongoing support and
mentoring for principals, (c) provide increased salaries and incentives, (d) develop partnerships
with university programs as a recruitment strategy, encourage and (e) develop teacher leaders
and assistant principals to apply for the job. Restructuring the role of the principal and allowing
teacher leaders to assume some administrative responsibilities would benefit school districts
twofold: It would address the overwhelming job demands that influence principals’ decision to
leave the field and it would provide an internal pipeline of future leaders. By providing ongoing
mentoring, districts would support not only their new principals but also their experienced ones
(Farver & Holt, 2015; Warren & Kelsen, 2013). Principals noted that other challenges to their
job included time spent understanding special education law and implementation and student
behavior (DiPaola & Tschannen-Moran, 2003). A teacher leader or an assistant principal at all
levels who could address these issues would allow principals to invest more time in instructional
leadership. However, Petzko (2002) cautioned that the assistant principal position should not be
relegated to discipline and attendance issues but should be viewed as a rigorous training ground
for future principals.
Theoretical Framework
Multiple theories of leadership have been offered and many models reflect the interests of
this study. This study was grounded in the leadership theories of the four-frame model of effec-
tive leadership (Bolman & Deal, 2013), the three keys to maximizing impact (Fullan, 2014), and
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 41
school leadership that works (Marzano et al., 2005). The influence of these theories was exam-
ined in the data collected on preparation, recruitment, and retention of principals.
Four Frames
Bolman and Deal (2013) proposed a framework for leadership to address the ways in
which managers can approach their work. These frameworks—structural, human resources,
political, and symbolic—work together to provide a lens through which to makes sense of
organizations. Each frame is comprised of various concepts, metaphors, and values that allow
managers to understand the organization and determine how to lead it most effectively. Using
multiple lenses, managers are more effective than if they are limited to a single lens (Bolman &
Deal, 2013). Principals would be better equipped to lead their schools by using a variety of
lenses. Similarly, school board members and superintendents should utilize a combination of
these four frames at various times to meet their needs. The frames allow managers to prioritize
their work based on the needs of the organization in particular situations.
Structural frame. The structural leader implements a process suited for the situation.
This leader focuses on clarifying organizational goals and is focused on tasks, setting goals, and
establishing systems of change. Less important are the personalities and personal agendas of
members of the organization. Similar to a factory model, the structural frame assumes that (a)
organizations exist to meet goals and objectives, (b) performance is increased through speciali-
zation, (c) control is utilized to ensure that efforts are coordinated, (d) rationality is of greater
focus than personal agendas, (d) structures are organized for their current circumstances, and (e)
problems are solved through structural adjustments (Bolman & Deal, 2013). Principals and
school administrators with a structural lens examine the systems and mechanisms of the school.
The structural leader values clarity of roles to increase efficiency and enhance performance
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 42
(Bolman & Deal, 2013). Problems arise in the organization when processes and systems do not
fit the situation.
Human resources frame. The human resources frame emphasizes the needs of organi-
zation members and posits that the greatest asset to an organization is its people (Bolman &
Deal, 2013). This leader focuses on personalities and interests of members and how they inter-
sect with the organization. Similar to a family model, the human resources frame assumes that
(a) organizations exist to meet the needs of the people, (b) organizations work in a symbiotic
relationship with people, (c) a poor fit between individuals and the organization will cause the
organization to suffer, and (d) a good fit benefits both the individual and the organization
(Bolman & Deal, 2013). In a school setting, a principal who employs a human resource frame is
focused on the teachers, staff, students, and parents in order to raise the quality and success of
the school. The focus of the human resource frame is the people and the relationships within the
organization. Focus on empowering and motivating individuals to do their best will lead the
organization to be successful. Problems arise when the focus on individuals fails to address the
realities of conflict and scarcity in the organization (Bolman & Deal, 2013).
Political frame. The political leader understands the political reality of the organization.
including the importance of various interest groups. This model is similar to a contest or arena,
where various groups compete for limited resources or power. The political frame assumes that
(a) organizations are comprised of different individuals and interest groups, (b) the various inter-
est groups have different values and beliefs, and (c) the most important decisions are centered on
allocating limited resources (Bolman & Deal, 2013). A principal with a political lens views
school stakeholders as having competing interests. In a school district, the political frame is often
used in contract negotiations between the district representation and union groups. Problems
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 43
arise when the power is too broadly distributed or distributed in the wrong areas (Bolman &
Deal, 2013).
Symbolic frame. Using a symbolic lens, the leader uses vision statements and values to
evoke inspiration and motivation (Bolman & Deal, 2013). Similar to a theater, the symbolic
frame views organizations as comprised of individuals who have roles to play. Rituals, ceremo-
nies, and stories help to capture the attention of members. The symbolic frame assumes that (a)
what happens is not as important as what it means, (b) events and actions can be interpreted in
multiple ways, (c) individuals create symbols to find direction, (d) rituals and ceremonies are
important in helping people find purpose, and (e) culture bonds an organization and unites
people to accomplish desired goals (Bolman & Deal, 2013). Mission and vision statements or a
mascot are representative of a principal who leads using a symbolic frame. Problems arise with
the structural frame when members do not play their part well or when the symbols no longer
have impact (Bolman & Deal, 2013).
Bolman and Deal (2013) argued that an effective leader utilizes all four frames at various
times and for various purposes. Holding multiples perspectives when addressing situations
allows school administrators to engage with the stakeholders in various ways to lead the organi-
zation. A variety of effective strategies could be employed with different frames to solve
problems. With a structural frame, a leader would communicate and realign policies; with a
human resources frame, a leader would offer staff new skills training, participation, and
involvement; with a political frame, a leader would arrange opportunities for stakeholders and
interest groups to negotiate; and with a symbolic frame, a leader would facilitate the creation of
new symbols and rituals for the organization. By utilizing all four frames, leaders are better
skilled to lead their schools effectively.
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 44
School Leadership That Works
Marzano et al. (2005) conducted a meta-analysis of 35 years of leadership research to
understand how much of student achievement is due to the leadership of that school. The content
of their meta-analysis included 69 studies, 2,802 schools, approximately 4,000 teachers, and
nearly 1,400,000 students. They asserted that leadership qualities have a significant effect on
student outcomes and provided a framework for current school administrators (Marzano et al.,
2005). Specifically, they identified 21 responsibilities of school leaders: affirmation; change
agent; contingent rewards; communication; culture; discipline; flexibility; focus; ideas/beliefs;
input; intellectual stimulation; involvement in curriculum; instruction and assessment;
knowledge of curriculum, instruction, and assessment; monitoring/evaluating; optimizer; order;
outreach; relationships; resources; situational awareness, and visibility. The responsibilities with
the greatest correlation to student academic achievement are discussed below.
Situational awareness. It is important for leaders to be aware of their organization and
how to address issues. Situational awareness refers to the ability of a leader to perceive the
details of operating the school and use the information to address current and potential problems
(Marzano et al., 2005). These leaders accurately predict what could go wrong, understand the
relationships among the staff, and are aware of issues in the school that could surface and cause
problems (Marzano et al., 2005). Leaders who have situational awareness can anticipate
problems and are proactive in resolving issues before they negatively affect the organization.
Flexibility. Marzano et al. (2005) found that effective leaders must be able to adapt to
various situations as needed and must be comfortable with discord. Similar to Bolman and
Deal’s (2013) recommendations that leaders use multiple lenses, Marzano et al. (2005) recom-
mended that leaders shift their perspectives and strategies in addressing various situations.
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 45
Leaders should be more or less directive as the situation needs, they should encourage people to
express diverse and contrary opinions, and they should be comfortable with making major
changes in the organization (Marzano et al., 2005). By demonstrating flexibility, leaders are
better equipped to address situations as they arise.
Discipline. Marzano et al. (2005) defined discipline as it relates to the ability to protect
teachers from distractions. When teachers are shielded from distractions, they are better able to
maintain instructional focus (Marzano et al., 2005). Distractions can take the form of interrup-
tions. such as public address announcements and phone calls to the classroom, to negative effects
that accompany new initiatives (Marzano et al., 2005). By demonstrating discipline, effective
leaders allow teachers to focus on their task of teaching.
Outreach. Effective leaders are advocates for their school and use outside resources to
support their work. By communicating with all stakeholders, leaders build partnerships and a
community that extend beyond the school (Marzano et al., 2005). Outreach also refers to the
work in which school leaders engage when they communicate district compliance issues
(Marzano et al., 2005). Communicating celebrations and accomplishments to the public is
another way in which leaders can build support for their schools.
Monitoring/evaluating. One of the most effective ways to improve learning is to provide
specific and meaningful feedback. Marzano et al. (2005) found that effective leaders provide
constructive feedback that positively affects student achievement. Specifically, effective leaders
engage in a continuous cycle of monitoring the effectiveness of the school’s instructional
practice and keep abreast of the impact of how the school’s practices affect student achievement
(Marzano et al., 2005). Instead of scheduled formal evaluation observations, effective leaders are
regularly in the classrooms. providing feedback to the teachers.
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 46
Another framework of effective leadership presented by Marzano et al. (2005) is the
concept of first- and second-order change. Marzano et al. (2005) argued that change is one of the
constants of K–12 education and that leaders must adjust their leadership styles to the type of
change they are facing.
First-order change. First-order change is incremental and can be viewed as the next
logical step that a school would take in a given situation. In managing the day-to-day operations
of a school, the top leadership responsibilities that are most conducive to first-order change
include monitoring/evaluating, culture, ideals/beliefs, knowledge of curriculum, instruction and
assessment, and involvement in curriculum, instruction, and assessment (Marzano et al., 2005).
Marzano et al. (2005) suggested that situational failures in schools can occur when first-order
change strategies are utilized for second-order changes.
Second-order change. Second-order change is a drastic change from the current situa-
tion and is referred to as “deep change” (Marzano et al., 2005, p. 66). Contrary to the responsi-
bilities required for first-order change, second-order change requires leaders to demonstrate the
following ranked responsibilities: knowledge of curriculum, instruction and assessment, opti-
mizer, intellectual stimulation, change agent, monitoring/evaluating, flexibility, and ideals/
beliefs (Marzano et al., 2005). Leaders of deep change must be aware of how the innovation will
affect the school’s curricular program and how the innovation can produce exceptional results
with staff support, and they must be able to challenge the status quo (Marzano et al., 2005).
Second-order change leaders must be risk takers and be able to lead staff through the change
without a guarantee of results.
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 47
The Principal: Three Keys to Maximizing Impact
Fullan (2014) argued that many of the current solutions to problems faced by principals
actually make the situations worse and recommended a restructuring of the role of principal. He
discussed the many increased responsibilities that principals hold and cautioned that the defini-
tion of instructional leadership can be too narrow, too confusing, too tedious, or outright impos-
sible (Fullan, 2014). He argued that individuals are motivated by two factors: to do the right
thing based on intrinsic motivation and to work with others in accomplishing worthwhile goals
(Fullan, 2014). In discussing system change, Fullan (2014) identified wrong and right drivers—
the policies and strategies used by school leaders. Wrong drivers are those that do not support
whole system reform; they include accountability, individualistic solutions, technology and
fragmented strategies. Right drivers are capacity building, collaborative effort, pedagogy, and
systemness. These driver are similar to the responsibilities that Marzano et al. (2005) identified
as necessary for first- and second-order change. By developing skills to have an impact on
others, principals can become more effective in leading their schools.
The first key: Leading learning. Principals are considered instructional leaders who
spend more and more time on instruction without widespread results (Fullan, 2014). Fullan
(2014) challenged principals to devote their time and energy to developing the group by leading
teachers in a process of learning to improve their teaching. It is important to note that the princi-
pal does not lead all instruction. Rather, the principal ensures that learning is the focus of the
work in the school. A key component of leading learning is that the principal learns alongside
teachers so that they determine collaboratively what works and what does not work. Professional
capital is the interaction of human, social, and decisional capital that, when combined, produce
the greatest results. Human capital refers to the human resources dimensions of the teaching
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 48
staff, social capital refers to the interaction and relationships of the staff, and decisional capital
refers to the capacity to choose well and make good decisions (Fullan, 2014).
The second key: Being a district and system player. Fullan (2014) encouraged princi-
pals to build external networks and partnerships. By learning from the practices of other schools,
principals can increase learning in their own schools. Networks can extend in two ways:
intradistrict development and learning beyond the district (Fullan, 2014).
The third key: Becoming a change agent. Just as Marzano et al. (2005) identified the
importance of leading through innovative, second-order change, Fullan (2104) challenged prin-
cipals to move people and organizations forward through difficult conditions when there is no
guarantee of success. He argued that, while the passion required for principals to lead through
change is instrumental, it must be paired with skill (Fullan, 2014). Passionate leaders who do not
have the competency to lead change must focus on developing the skills to be change agents.
Conceptual Framework
The researcher has adopting a conceptual framework (Figure 1) that illustrates how 21st-
century principals can be successful in leading their schools by demonstrating the skills identi-
fied in the theoretical framework. Principals who lead effectively will move fluidly among the
four frames (Bolman & Deal, 2013), demonstrate skills with various responsibilities (Marzano et
al., 2005), and practice the three keys to maximize their impact (Fullan, 2014).
As principals navigate school situations, they are most effective when they consider
which of the four frames identified by Bolman and Deal (2013) best suit the problem. There are
times when principals need to use a combination of the structural, human resources, political,
and symbolic frames to lead their schools. Principals who are cognizant of the power of each of

PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 49

Figure 1. Conceptual framework for study. Based on (a) Reframing Organizations: Artistry,
Choice, and Leadership (5th ed.), by L. G. Bolman and T. E. Deal, 2013, San Francisco, CA:
Jossey Bass; (b) The Principal: Three Keys to Maximizing Impact, by M. Fullan, 2014, San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass; and (c) School Leadership That Works: From Research to Results,
by R. J. Marzano, T. Waters, & B. A. McNulty, 2005, Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervi-
sion and Curriculum Development.

the frames are best prepared to anticipate reactions and responses by various stakeholder groups.
Similarly, principals who recognize the need for first-order or second-order change can use the
most effective responsibilities for that situation, as suggested by Marzano et al. (2005). There are
times when principals need to demonstrate flexibility, situational awareness, or discipline; there
are other times when principals should focus on monitoring/evaluating, culture, or ideals/beliefs.
In addition, principals should engage continually in a cycle of learning in order to be change
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 50
agents in their schools (Fullan, 2014). The critical practices identified by Fullan (2014) include
being a lead learner, being a district and system player, and becoming a change agent; all should
be part of the principal’s ongoing work.
Chapter Summary
The role of the principal has changed dramatically since the first days of public educa-
tion. Principals have moved from being lead teacher to instructional leader, a subtle but substan-
tial shift. Instead of being responsible only for their own learning and that of their students, they
are uniquely positioned to lead other educators to be impactful in student achievement. At
the same time, principals have a multitude of responsibilities beyond the scope of teaching and
learning. They are political figures, advocates, and coaches. This chapter reviewed the history of
the principalship; strategies for the preparation, recruitment, and retention of principals, and a
theoretical framework to guide this study. By examining the factors related to the preparation,
recruitment, and retention of principals, it is the aim of the researcher to identify ways for
superintendents and school boards to have the most effective school leaders.
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 51
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The responsibilities of today’s principals are so diverse and widespread that effective
preparation, recruitment, and retention are crucial to supporting a strong educational experience
for students. Many factors explain why those who have obtained the administrative credential do
not continue to pursue a principal position: a wide range of responsibilities, intensified account-
ability for student performance, long hours, low salary, and stress (Stark-Price et al., 2006).
Other factors, such as time commitments, frustration with too little time to focus on instruction,
and pressures of testing accountability (Fuller et al., 2015; Gajda & Militello, 2008), influence
principals’ decisions to leave the field. The purpose of this qualitative study was to examine
preparation, recruitment, and retention strategies for southern California K–12 public school
principals.
The study was conducted by a team of 12 doctoral candidates from the USC Rossier
School of Education. The research questions, surveys, and interview protocols were developed
collectively but were analyzed individually by each researcher. This study examined various
preparation programs, recruitment strategies, and retention factors as perceived by the partici-
pants. The perceptions of principals were analyzed and compared to perceptions held by human
resources administrators, immediate supervisors, and superintendents regarding effective strate-
gies for preparation, recruitment, and retention. This chapter describes the study’s research
questions, research design and methods, sample and population, access and entry,
instrumentation, data collection, data analysis, and ethical considerations.
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 52
Research Questions Restated
The study was guided by the following research questions:
1. How have training programs and professional experiences prepared principals to
manage the complexities and challenges of the principalship?
2. What are the perceptions of principals, immediate supervisors of principals, human
resources administrators,, and superintendents regarding strategies to recruit successful principal
candidates?
3. What are the perceived strategies that support the retention of principals?
Research Design
This study utilized a qualitative methods approach in the form of structured interviews to
address the research questions. The goal of this research was to rely as much as possible on the
participants’ views of the situation being studied. Interview questions are designed with a con-
structivist worldview so that researchers can construct meaning, seek to understand the situation,
and make meaning of a problem (Creswell, 2014; Maxwell, 2013, Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). As
interview data are examined and patterns begin to emerge, hypotheses are formed and a theory is
generated (Creswell, 2014). Although this study was not a quantitative or mixed-methods study,
a survey instrument was used to support themes that emerged from the interviews. By integrating
quantitative data with qualitative themes, this study offers a broad perspective of the phenome-
non, analyzing discrepancies between survey results and interview data to aid in triangulation of
data (Creswell, 2014; Maxwell, 2013). The qualitative approach of this study was intended to
provide insight for stakeholders with information to influence the strategies that can be utilized
by stakeholders individuals in a school district.
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 53
In this study, the perceptions and experiences regarding principal preparation, recruit-
ment, and retention were examined from the points of view of principals, immediate supervisors,
human resources administrators, and superintendents. The use of interviews was based on the
assumption that the participants had a perspective that was meaningful and knowable that
provides researchers information that cannot be directly observed (Patton, 2002; Weiss, 1994).
Structured open-ended interview questions allow researchers to gather data with minimum vari-
ations, consider the interviewees’ time constraints by remaining highly focused, and facilitate
data analysis (Patton, 2002). Qualitative interviews also allow for developing details, integrating
multiple perspectives, incorporating holistic descriptions, understanding how events are inter-
preted, and identifying variables for framing hypotheses (Weiss, 1994). To conduct the inter-
views, protocols were developed and tailored for each group. Each group was invited to interpret
the questions through their individual lenses and experiences to provide insight into their per-
spectives.
In addition to the interview questions, surveys were administered to triangulate the data.
The survey questions employed Likert-type scale items to provide information regarding the
respondents’ thoughts, opinions, attitudes, and beliefs about the preparation, recruitment, and
retention of principals from various perspectives. The purpose of gathering survey data was to
ensure the study’s credibility and internal validity by confirming or contradicting interview data
(Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Credibility and internal validity are strengthened by
analyzing data from multiple stakeholders. The assumption in this process is that both sets of
data should provide similar information once the results are coded and analyzed (Creswell,
2014).
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 54
Population and Sample
This qualitative study utilized appropriate purposeful sampling because it allowed an in-
depth investigation of the problem (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Patton, 2002).
Purposeful sampling includes the researchers’ specific desired characteristics and recruits par-
ticipants who represent the population of interest (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Maxwell (2013) identified goals of purposeful sampling: obtaining typical representation of the
individuals, capturing heterogeneity of the selected representation, selecting individuals who will
allow for testing of theories that arise from the data, providing comparisons for greater general-
ization, and allowing for participants with whom the researchers can establish productive rela-
tionships to answer the research questions. The population for this study consisted of current
southern California public school principals, human resources administrators, immediate super-
visors, and superintendents. These participants were assumed to reflect ethnic and gender diver-
sity.
The research team, under the supervision of Dr. Michael Escalante, contacted superinten-
dents to identify potential study participants. During spring and summer 2019, the research team
made local contacts to increase the likelihood of gathering pertinent data. Research team
members did not interview participants in their own school districts. Pseudonyms were assigned
to participants, schools, and school districts in the interest of confidentiality.
Access and Entry
Prior to conducting this study, the research team received approval from the USC Internal
Review Board (IRB; #APP-19-00787). A core requirement of the IRB is informed consent to
ensure that participants have sufficient knowledge to understand the nature of the research; that
they are not forced, either covertly or overtly, to participate; that they are aware that any risks the
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 55
study poses are outweighed by the benefits; and that they are able to withdraw from the study at
any time (Glesne, 2011; Rubin & Rubin, 2012).
In order to gain access for this study, the researchers asked permission for access to the
participants. The gatekeepers to the participants were the superintendents and the participants
themselves. The researchers met with potential participants, invited them to participate in the
study, and asked permission through the informed consent process. With the permission of the
participants, an audio recording device was used to capture data (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007).
Instrumentation
The researchers were the primary instruments in the qualitative interviews, as the role of
the researcher is to know what kind of information to gather for the study (Agee, 2009; Weiss,
1994). Building a good interviewing partnership to conduct the interview can yield rich data on
the preparation, recruitment, and retention of principals (Creswell, 2014; Weiss, 1994). An
online survey was also used to triangulate the interview data.
Quantitative Instrumentation
The researchers created an 4-point Likert-type survey that was distributed to public
school principals, human resources administrators, immediate supervisors, and superintendents
throughout southern California. These people received a letter describing the study and inviting
them to participate (Appendix A); they signed a consent form (Appendix B). The surveys were
developed and analyzed using Qualtrics
TM
, a web-based survey tool available to all doctoral can-
didates at USC. The surveys were composed of 36 questions and took approximately 20 minutes
to complete. A demographic questionnaire (Appendix C) was included with the principal survey.
The survey was available online and provided numeric options, as well as a “not appli-
cable” option, for the principals (Appendix C), human resources administrators (Appendix D),
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 56
immediate supervisors (Appendix E), and superintendents (Appendix F). The purpose of the
survey was to triangulate data with interview data. Some survey items gathered demographic
data that was used for quantifying the participants during data analysis (Weiss, 1994).
Qualitative Instrumentation
The primary instrument for this qualitative study was the structured interview based on
protocols created by the research team. Interviews were conducted by the research team
members to gain the participants’ perspectives on the topic interest (Merriam & Tisdall, 2016).
Interview guides were developed for principals (Appendix G), human resources administrators
(Appendix H), immediate supervisors (Appendix I), and superintendents (Appendix J) to under-
stand their perceptions of the preparation, recruitment, and retention of principals. In the struc-
tured interviews, questions were standardized and the order in which they were asked was
predetermined by the research team. The researchers were allowed to ask follow-up probing
questions to gain greater clarity of responses. The structure of the interview guide was connected
to the key concepts identified in the review of the literature. The collected data were coded and
analyzed by the research team.
Data Collection
The research team collected data during spring and summer 2019. In conjunction with the
surveys, the research team conducted individual interviews with public school principals, human
resources administrators, immediate supervisors, and superintendents of public school districts in
southern California. The locations of interviews were selected to make the experience convenient
and comfortable for participants. Each participant was personally contacted and invited to par-
ticipate in a personal interview and to complete an online survey, following participant agree-
ment with the research invitation (Appendix A) and informed consent (Appendix B). Interviews
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 57
were conducted face to face and recorded on a voice memo application with the participants’
permission. Participants were reminded of the purpose and significance of the study and that they
could stop the interview at any time. Interviews took approximately 45 minutes to complete; the
voice recording was transcribed following the interview. The researchers also took notes
throughout the interview to record reactions and nonverbal cues that could not be captured on the
recording. The researchers sought to build rapport to increase the likelihood of rich interview
data (Patton, 2002).
Surveys were emailed and given in person to each participant to ensure the likelihood of
completion. Surveys were collected immediately following completion. All data were maintained
securely to protect the identities of participants, their schools, and their school districts
(Creswell, 2014). The research team confirmed the accuracy of data with participants and
avoided use of biased language in the report of the study (Creswell, 2014).
Data Analysis
The interview data were analyzed using a constant comparison approach to determine
findings and to develop a theory of the phenomenon under study (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). The
researchers analyzed the data and each incident was compared with other incidents for simi-
larities and differences to develop common themes (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). In the first step of
data analysis, the researchers read through the raw data to identify initial categories and began to
create and develop open codes (Corbin & Strauss, 2008; Harding, 2013). These open codes,
along with a priori codes, were identified until the data reached saturation (Bogdan & Biklen,
2007; Harding, 2013). The use of both open coding and a priori coding allowed the researchers
to examine the data from multiple lenses in order to understand the phenomenon fully and accu-
rately.
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 58
The next step of analysis was to gather the codes and categorize them into common larger
categorizations (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007; Harding, 2013). The researchers continued to review
the data using the ATLAS.ti
TM
software to classify the data into axial codes along the themes of
principal preparation, recruitment, and retention. In this second step, the researchers sought to
summarize the data, select the important aspects of the data based on commonality, and interpret
the data accurately to understand the phenomenon (Harding, 2013).
The final step of data analysis was to review the list of codes and revise the categories to
identify main themes (Corbin & Strauss, 2008; Harding, 2013). This step involved meaning
making to address the research questions and understand concepts from the conceptual frame-
work on the preparation, recruitment, and retention of principals from the perspectives of princi-
pals, human resources administrators, immediate supervisors, and superintendents.
The data from the online surveys were analyzed through Qualtrics and displayed in a
table that included the numbers and percentages of responses. A Questions Alignment Matrix
(Appendix K) was used to analyze data from participant interviews and survey responses.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Credibility and trustworthiness are generally acknowledged to be key issues in research
design. They consist of the researchers’ conceptualization of the validity threats and the strate-
gies used to address them (Maxwell, 2013). In qualitative research, the thoroughness of the
process to gather and understand rich, descriptive data allows researchers to have confidence that
the theories are reflective of the participants’ experiences. This degree of rigor is how Merriam
and Tisdell (2016) described the trustworthiness of a study. Credibility of a study is achieved
when threats to validity are addressed; possible threats to validity include selection of data to fit
the researcher’s existing theory, goals, or preconceptions, selection of outlier data, researcher
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 59
bias, assumptions, or the influence of the researcher in the setting (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016).
The researchers attempted to address the credibility and trustworthiness of this study by
utilizing triangulation, member checks, reflexivity, and peer review. Triangulation uses various
methods to check that, even with the limitations of the method, the data support similar findings
(Maxwell, 2013). Triangulation reduces the risk that conclusions will reflect only the biases of a
specific method and allows researchers to gain a secure understanding of the issues under inves-
tigation (Maxwell, 2013). Triangulation was achieved in this study by including both survey data
and interview data to verify participants’ experiences.
Furthermore, the interview data from various stakeholders were examined to validate the
data. Member checks were conducted by allowing the researchers to ask questions to rule out the
possibility of misunderstanding or misrepresenting participants’ perspectives (Creswell, 2014,
Maxwell, 2013). Reflexivity was addressed by the researchers examining their own culture,
experiences, and background to see how they shaped their worldviews in a way that could bias
the study (Creswell, 2014). Being aware of this bias allows researchers to reflect on the data and
align the findings to the theoretical frameworks and research questions. Peer review was initially
established when the 12 researchers began this study under the supervision of the dissertation
chair, Dr. Michael Escalante. Consultation on the research design, methodology, and instrumen-
tation was in conjunction with team members and professors. The final work was reviewed by a
panel of three doctoral professors in the field of education.
Ethical Considerations
Ethical considerations in research design are essential in every step of the study
(Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). At the beginning of the study, the 12 members of the
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 60
research team were required to pass six modules of the Collaborative Institutional Training Initi-
ative (CITI) through USC’s IRB process. These modules ensured that the researchers were aware
of ethical considerations involved in a research study. Upon successful completion of the
modules, the research team submitted a research study proposal to the IRB for approval before
gathering data. The structured interview guide and interview protocols were designed to mitigate
potential problems or issues. During the interview process, the researchers provided participants
with an informed consent form and ensured that the participants understood that their involve-
ment was completely voluntary and that they could stop at any time. Ethical considerations. such
as explaining the purpose of the inquiry and the methods of the study, confidentiality, data access
and ownership, reciprocity, and risk assessment (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Patton, 2002) were
considered throughout the study.
All participants were reminded that survey and interview data would be kept secure and
anonymous. Participants could choose not to answer any survey or interview question that might
cause discomfort. In order to conduct this study with ethical considerations, the researchers took
steps to ensure credibility and trustworthiness.
Chapter Summary
This study used a qualitative approach to understand principal preparation, recruitment,
and retention. Ethical considerations were integrated throughout the research design process and
were utilized throughout data collection, data analysis, and presentation of finding. Findings
from the qualitative interview data were triangulated with quantitative survey data and included
the perspectives of multiple stakeholders from multiple school districts. Data were analyzed
through the lens of the theoretical framework and the research questions.
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 61
CHAPTER 4: PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS
This study was designed to examine strategies related to the preparation, recruitment, and
retention of K–12 Southern California public school principals. This chapter presents the
findings of qualitative data supported by survey data to address the research questions. The
researcher presents common themes from the 13 interview participants. Triangulating the survey
data from the team of 12 doctoral candidates improved the reliability of the themes (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). The data from multiple sources were collected, analyzed, and coded to determine
emergent themes. Key concepts from the literature review, the theoretical framework, and the
research questions informed a priori codes (Blair, 2015). This study was designed to address the
following research questions:
1. How have training programs and professional experiences prepared principals to
manage the complexities and challenges of the principalship?
2. What are the perceptions of principals, immediate supervisors of principals, human
resources administrators, and superintendents regarding strategies to recruit successful principal
candidates?
3. What are the perceived strategies that support the retention of principals?
This research study was conducted across public school districts in southern California.
The researcher utilized a qualitative approach, conducting interviews and collecting quantitative
survey data to corroborate found themes (Creswell, 2014). These emergent themes were uncov-
ered using the constant comparative method of open and axial coding (Corbin & Strauss, 2008).
Quantitative data were similarly analyzed for common trends across survey questions and par-
ticipant categories (Kurpius & Stafford, 2005). Quantitative data and qualitative data were
compared using the Question Alignment Matrix (Appendix K). While the methodology of the
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 62
study was quantitative, qualitative survey data were used when they supported the themes of the
study.
Participant Selection
The team of 12 doctoral candidates interviewed a select group of superintendents, human
resources administrators, immediate supervisors of principals, and principals in 37 school
districts across southern California. Surveys were sent to all of the interview candidates, as well
as to other principals who were not interviewed. The data were collected and analyzed as a
whole and compared with the individual researcher’s findings. For this researcher, interview data
were gathered from four superintendents, three human resources administrators, one immediate
supervisor of principals, and five principals, for a total of 13 interviews across four school
districts in southern California, represented as A, B, C, and D. None of these four districts had
both human resources administrators and immediate supervisors of principals. Survey data were
gathered from 21 superintendents, 22 human resources administrators, 28 immediate supervisors
of principals, and 115 principals in a total of 186 surveys.
Surveys
The collective group survey had a total response rate of 22% (n = 186). The superinten-
dents had a 56% response rate (n = 21), human resources administrators had a 53% response rate
(n = 22), immediate supervisors of principals had a 41% response rate (n = 28), and principals
had a 16% response rate (n = 115; Table 1). Of the 115 principal participants, 7% (n = 8) self-
identified as African American, 3% (n = 3) as Asian-American, 18% (n = 21) as Hispanic or
Latino, and 58% (n = 67) identified as White. Of the principal participants, 58% (n = 67) were
female and 42% (n = 48) were male.
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 63
Table 1

Survey Participants and Response Rates

Human Immediate
Resources Supervisors of
Superintendents Administrators Principals Principals

Total 37 41 68 708
Responded 21 22 28 115
Response Rate 56% 53% 41% 16%

Interviews
District A was an urban elementary school district with 17,900 students in 25 schools.
The student population consisted of 57% English Language Learners (ELLs), with 86% of the
students eligible for free or reduced-price meals. Superintendent A had been in the district for 1
year and spoke of his desire for administrators to be community minded. He stated that the path
to student success lay in the strength of the home-school relationship. Having previously served
in one of the nation’s largest school districts as an Administrator of Parent and Community
Services and Coordinator of Specially Funded Programs, Superintendent A had a passion for
serving a diverse community of Title I and ELLs.
District B was a suburban high-achieving K–12 school district with 6,600 students in
seven elementary, middle, and high schools. The student population included 1.3% ELLs and
4.5% of the students eligible for free or reduced-price meals. Superintendent B had been in the
district for 9 years and emphasized the need for administrators to be able to manage the high-
pressures that come with serving an affluent, highly educated, actively involved community.
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 64
Principal B led the only high school in the district, so he and Superintendent B shared that their
positions were tightly entwined in the successes and struggles of the school district.
District C was a small suburban K–12 school district with 4,700 students in nine ele-
mentary, middle, and high schools. However, District C was distinctly different from District B
in that it included 31.3% ELLs and 75.3% of the students eligible for free or reduced-price
meals. Superintendent C reported the challenges of her first year when she and her team reor-
ganized the schools from primary and upper elementary schools into more traditional K–5
schools. Superintendent C stressed the importance of building relationships with staff, students,
and families in order to build a strong and successful school district.
District D was a large urban school district serving more than 100,000 students in 148
elementary, middle, and high schools. The diverse student population included 23% ELLs and
81% of the students eligible for free or reduced-price meals. District D was a subdistrict of a
much larger district but was managed by its own superintendent and district department heads.
Superintendent D emphasized the need for building content capacity in the administrators in
order to build strong instructional leaders. He stated that the most effective way to ensure success
across such a large district was to differentiate the support that was provided to the administra-
tors.
Results Relating to Research Question 1
Research Question 1 focused on the preparation of principals. Specifically, it asked,
“How have training programs and professional experiences prepared principals to manage the
complexities and challenges of the principalship?” The review of literature emphasized the
increasing demands on today’s principals. They are expected not only to be curriculum leaders,
(Brubaker & Simon, 1986) but to also serve as change agents in school improvement (Brown,
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 65
2005). There is little research on the effectiveness of various principal preparation programs
(Murphy & Vriesenga, 2006), even though the role of the principal is critical in students’ aca-
demic success (Gentilucci & Muto, 2007; Hernandez & Roberts, 2012; Waters, Marzano, &
McNulty, 2003). This research question was designed to identify the ways in which principal
preparation programs prepare future leaders to manage the myriad responsibilities and demands
that are placed on principals in the 21st century. Several themes emerged from the interviews:
1. Learning opportunities while in the teaching position were more valuable than tradi-
tional principal preparation programs
2. On-the-job preparation was more valuable than traditional preparation programs.
3. Principal mentors and networking opportunities were highly valued and perceived as
critical in principal preparation.
Learning Opportunities
University programs and prior work experiences were perceived to provide strong prepa-
ration from all participants. Eighty percent (n = 92) of the principals agreed that university
programs provided training and experience that were important in preparing them for their
position as principal. However, 77% (n = 87) of the principals stated that their prior work experi-
ences were more important than their university preparation program. All of the superintendents
(n = 21) agreed that the potential principals’ prior experiences were more valuable than their
university preparation programs. These findings are consistent with the literature review, in
which Cray and Weiler (2011) found that superintendents’ perceptions of new principals
included their lack of experiences to meet the demands of the position. In particular, superinten-
dents stated that new principals were limited in their understanding of the demands placed on
principals, understanding best teaching practices, and experiences with effective communication
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 66
skills necessary to engage all stakeholders (Cray & Weiler, 2011). While there were some valu-
able aspects of principals’ preparation programs, they were predominantly related to the manage-
rial aspects of the position. Principal B described how his preparation program had been helpful:
It taught me about Ed Code and taught me about special education, and it taught me
about doing discipline. And it taught the fundamentals of management in the job, like all
of the things I would need to know, facilities and curriculum and instruction and coun-
seling and special ed and athletics and activities. (interview, July 11, 2019)
These findings support Clayton and Myran’s (2013) finding that most of the activities
that administrative interns experienced were in the category of safety and organizational man-
agement and that the least-mentioned activities related to instructional leadership, communica-
tion, and community relations. The principal interviewees also explained the perceived
importance of preparation programs as compared to other learning opportunities. Some princi-
pals shared that the value gained in their classes came from the experiences of their instructors.
Their insights supported findings by Hess and Kelly (2007) that emphasized the importance and
value of aligning principal preparation programs to the demands of the job.
In District D, several of the principals had earned administrative credentials through a
local university cohort program in partnership with the school district.
It was great because they had folks that worked at the district office doing some of the
classes so the administrator of operations did the operations class. And [name removed
for confidentiality], who had lots of different roles and has been a friend and mentor,
taught the instructional class. (Principal D1, interview, June 10, 2019)
Principal D3 stated, “It was helpful because I had teachers, instructors who were in
current positions or former positions with the district I was intending to work with. So they had
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 67
district-specific information and supports and practices in place” (interview, June 10, 2019). By
taking classes through a university program affiliated and supported by a specific district, poten-
tial principals were particularly prepared for the district in which they were to work and were
able to align their learning opportunities to the jobs that they were seeking.
One of the more valuable experiences identified in the preparation of principals prior to
attaining their position was the learning opportunities that they had experienced as teacher
leaders. Several districts offered programs such as leadership academies in which aspiring
teacher leaders experienced learning opportunities relevant to the principal position. Principal D2
shared, “Since it was on-the-job training, I was working, and then when problems were coming
up or things were arising, I was going to a training and finding out about it at the same time”
(interview, June 10, 2019). Superintendent D spoke more about his district’s program for poten-
tial principals:
District D has an Aspiring Assistant Principal Program. It’s a year-long program, and we
also have an Aspiring Principal Program, so you have to successfully complete the
Aspiring Assistant Principal Program to become an AP. To become a principal, you have
to successfully complete the Aspiring Principal Program. (interview, June 10, 2019)
As the literature points to a need for strong preparation programs, it appears that several
districts are implementing opportunities for aspiring administrators. Davis and Darling-
Hammond (2012) found that innovative and exemplary programs integrated coursework and
work at the school sites. With school districts such as District D entering into partnerships with
university programs, potential administrators gain valuable learning opportunities prior to enter-
ing the field.
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 68
Job-Related Preparation
Thessin and Clayton (2013) found that school leaders regarded their hands-on experi-
ences in an internship as essential to their preparation for the principal position. Research par-
ticipants in this study similarly stated that no training fully prepares one for the principal
position. Principal B stated, “My first answer to that is there is no training that prepares you for
the job” (interview, July 11, 2019), which was reiterated by Superintendent C: “What could pos-
sibly prepare you for a principalship?” (interview, July 24, 2019). All participants mentioned that
the best training and preparation for a principal position was an Assistant Principal position,
although most school districts were limited in the number of these available experiences. District
A had just added Assistant Principals at every school site, but the other districts had them only at
the middle schools, high schools, and larger elementary schools. Principal A summarized the
value of the Assistant Principal position: “I think that’s the professional experience that really
grounds you into what’s going to be happening as a principal and learning right there and seeing
how the leader at that site, the principal, handles things” (interview, June 27, 2019).
Several other experiences supported and prepared individuals for the instructional
demands of the principalship. Without Assistant Principal positions, potential principals gained
leadership experiences through teacher leader positions such as Teacher on Special Assignment
(TOSA) or instructional coach. As most middle and high schools have Assistant Principal posi-
tions, these TOSA positions were critical for elementary teachers to gain experiences to prepare
them for the principalship. Through these leadership positions, potential principals were able to
prepare for the role more effectively than in classroom experiences alone.
So then I got to do essentially eighteen months of teacher training across the whole
district and I did so much training. I did full-day trainings back to back for months. It was
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 69
exhausting but really powerful. I met so many people and that was in-person training.
Then I did videos and I did a blog as well for the district and learned so much about the
structure of administrators and the business side of education, or of our school district
anyway. Then I got hired as an instructional assistant principal and I served in that
capacity for two full months. But I learned a ton. The principal there was great. He really
tried to keep me focused only on instruction but I was really curious, you know. (Princi-
pal D, interview, June 10, 2019)
Superintendent C had a small district and valued the other ways in which teachers gained
experiences that prepared them for a leadership position:
Teacher leaders in the classroom. Stepping into TOSA roles, coach roles, assistant prin-
cipal roles. The teacher that’s out there running the carnival or the jog-a-thon or the fund-
raiser or the ASB. Just that quality of a person that really wants to excel and have a
bigger impact, to have a wider lens. (interview, July 24, 2019)
Superintendent B outlined a typical path to leadership in his district: “So leadership,
being a leader as a teacher, being a district leader as a curriculum person, becoming a vice prin-
cipal, demonstrating solid leadership that way and then moving on up” (interview, July 11,
2019). These teacher leader positions and district leader positions were critical in the perceived
success of principals across districts. The survey data supported the perspectives of the inter-
viewees, in that 97% (n = 111) of the principals and 96% (n = 68) of the immediate supervisors
of principals, human resources administrators, and superintendents agreed or strongly agreed
that principals’ experiences as teacher leaders were crucial for preparing them for their current
positions.
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 70
Mentors and Networking
Along with meaningful experiences as teacher leaders, Barnet (2004) found that students
in universities that entered into partnerships with active administrators were provided valuable
mentoring opportunities. Mentorship was mentioned throughout the interviews in all sections
related to preparation, recruitment, and retention. As related to preparation, principals pointed to
mentors whom they had had in their educational careers as significant to them gaining experi-
ences prior to attaining their first principal position. Principal B stated, “Be very deliberate on
the principals for whom you work because I think they are very influential. I learned style and
approach and focus and priorities” (interview July 11, 2019). Principal A added:
You really need to connect with them to know that they’re on your side. They’re there to
help you. They’re there to learn from and it was easy for me to be able to do that. But for
the capacity of the professional piece of helping me with my job as principal or as an
assistant principal, I connected well with other principals, connected well with other
assistant principals at the time. (interview, June 27, 2019)
Even mentors who were not viewed as positive role models were viewed as influential.
As an assistant principal, the supervising principal becomes a type of mentor, whether good or
bad. Principal B shared his experience with one particular mentor:
It’s all good because I learned all the things I didn’t want to do. And so I was apprecia-
tive of that experience and, not in those exact words, but I told her so, that I appreciated
her mentorship. I didn’t say because she sucked, and I didn’t want to be like you. I left
that part out. But I even told her, that I appreciated my time with her. (interview July 11,
2019)
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 71
Principal B continued that he had learned what not to do as a principal based on the negative
experiences with this person:
Another way that mentors supported principals while still teachers was by encouraging
them to pursue opportunities that would lead them to their first administrative position. Principal
D3 joked:
Two of my mentors were principal bullies! . . . No, they were mentors. They bugged and
needled me until I entered the program. They bugged and needled me until I stepped
away from my classroom for the first position, and then the second, and then the third.
(interview June 10, 2019)
In the survey, 97% (n = 112) of the principals agreed with the statement “Having mentors
was instrumental in preparing me for my position as a principal.” Furthermore, 94% agreed with
the statement “Informal networks of support (such as professional colleagues) were important in
preparing me for my position as a principal.” Fullan (2014) emphasized the need for principals to
connect with each other to build external networks and partnerships as a component of being a
district and system player. These principal networks not only supported individuals in preparing
for the principal position; the support continued once the principals were in the position.
My vice-principal, I’ll hear from her about certain things and she’ll say, “Oh yeah, I just
chatted with three other vice principals, and we talked about this project or whatever.
They did it this way.” So they’re networking all the time, which is great because they’re
all doing the same type of work, and they all have ideas for how to do it, and they’ve
done it. And so you borrow from each other’s ideas. Even for principals, we can call on
another principal. I get phone calls from others sometimes, and I call others like, “Did
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 72
you get this? Well, what’s going on here?” You create your own little group network of
people. (Principal A, interview, June 27)
Summary of Results for Research Question 1
The principal position is challenging and the common start in the field is as a teacher.
However, the experiences that are necessary for a principal to be successful are not inherent in
the teaching position. Demands such as instructional leadership, management, staff training,
evaluation, and building community partnerships were not experiences that these principals had
had as teachers. Instead, aspiring administrators needed to seek learning opportunities and job-
related preparation opportunities in order to gain experience. Support by mentors and the use of
networking relationships helped them as teacher leaders when they began to seek a career in
school administration.
Results Relating to Research Question 2
Research Question 2 focused on the recruitment of principals. Specifically, it asked,
“What are the perceptions of principals, immediate supervisors of principals, human resources
administrators, and superintendents regarding strategies to recruit successful principal candi-
dates?” Browne-Ferrigno and Muth (2008) examined the desired characteristics of future princi-
pals and found that these individuals should already be high-quality teachers. Stark-Price et al.
(2006) similarly found that teacher leaders were the second most likely group to achieve success,
aside from principals, and should be actively recruited. This research question was expected to
identify ways in which principal recruitment programs seek future leaders to manage the myriad
responsibilities and demands that are placed on principals in the 21st century. All of the candi-
dates had had some teacher leadership roles before becoming principals. In some instances, they
were assistant principals first, but in the small districts where there were not many assistant
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 73
principal positions, superintendents and district personnel observed the leadership potential in
teacher leaders through other experiences. Several themes emerged from the interviews:
1. Having a mentor and taking advantage of networking opportunities were important
factors in recruitment for the principal position.
2. Tapping and leadership development from those in administrative positions encour-
aged teacher leaders to pursue a principal position.
3. Desired characteristics, including but not limited to having instructional leadership
experience, were important factors in being recruited to the principal position.
Mentors and Networking
A strong mentor relationship and the opportunities provided through networking were
mentioned in all areas of principal preparation, recruitment, and preparation. Survey results
showed that 99% (n = 112) of the principals stated that having a mentor was an important factor
in being recruited to their current position as a principal. In addition, 94% (n = 67) of immediate
supervisors of principals, human resources administrators, and superintendents stated that having
a mentor helped candidates to be recruited to principal positions in their districts. Interviews
clarified that professional relationships with principals or district personnel were important in
recruitment for the first principal position, although the participants emphasized that they had not
intentionally used these relationships to get their first position. Instead, they shared that they took
advantage of their experiences and that other opportunities grew from there. Principal A stated,
“It was just like a growth, opportunities that took place and I learned from them and I kept
having more opportunities” (interview, June 27, 2019). Superintendent D had a unique take on
the question of networking:
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 74
That implies networking, like the more people I know, the more people that know my
work, and therefore I have more likelihood to become a principal. I would say this. When
up-and-coming potential administrators are open to learning, they pose questions. “Can I
visit? Can you come and help me?” They’re really opening to grow. (interview, June 10,
2019)
Building effective relationships with the staff, the community, and a district is also
important in a principal position but often not a skill that teachers develop in the classroom.
Principal D2 shared how the advice that she had received from her mentor had helped when she
was being recruited for a principal position:
They need to trust and believe that you’re there for them. And so I think that quality is
really having a little bit of knowledge about everything, but I think the biggest quality I
had is being willing to just do it, being willing to be open. And it goes back to when I was
an assistant principal when I was first hired. My director said, “You know what? This is
going to be a new experience for you. The one thing I’m going to tell you is to be out
there, be visible, walk around, talk to teachers because you can’t just stay in your office
and expect to be able to make decisions. You need to have those connections to hear dif-
ferent perspectives of what people are thinking.” (interview June 10, 2019)
Another way that mentoring supported the recruitment process was by helping to develop
qualities that school districts seek. While Schlueter and Walker (2008) argued that a lack of
clearly defined criteria was reported to be one of the primary reasons that school districts do not
hire the best candidates for positions, all superintendents who were interviewed in this study had
a clear idea of what they sought in potential principals. The characteristics included those identi-
fied by Browne-Ferrigno and Muth (2008): high-quality teachers who work with high-quality
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 75
principals to establish high academic, environmental, and leadership goals. Superintendent D
emphasized how mentoring and networking supports these desired qualities:
It’s because I found out about you as being an exemplary teacher. For the principals I
hire, if I haven’t seen you teach, I’m going to talk to everybody and their brother about
you being an exemplary teacher; otherwise, I won’t even talk to you. That’s relationship.
Once I’ve established that you are really good, then I’m looking for some type of lead
teacher, literacy coach, math coach, Title 3 coach, something where you have practiced
building the capacity of teachers. It’s not because I’ve seen somebody multiple times,
because they’ve helped us at this event or at board meetings or they belong to this organi-
zation so much for me. That’s fine, but that’s not why I’m going to hire you. You have to
show some semblance of some coaching, and I’m not looking for operational expertise.
There’s a lot of folks with that. It’s only because our principals have a number one
responsibility and that’s building the capacity of their teachers. (interview, June 10, 2019)
Mentoring and networking also served to help individuals with the practical aspects of
getting a principal position. Superintendent A stated, “I think many of our principals use their
professional relationships such as mentors to help prepare them for an interview process, to give
them, again, a better understanding of what the role of principal entails” (interview, June 27,
2019). Principal B had a unique experience in which a mentor had helped to prepare him for a
principal position:
So the superintendent at the time said, “I’m going to put together a prep panel for you
like you’re interviewing for a superintendency.” And so he reached out to some friends,
retired superintendents and there were three of them, and I met with them 4 days a week,
for 2 hours for 3 weeks. So I met with them 12 times, a total of 24 hours of prep. They
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 76
had a whole thing they did, like it was interviews, questions, it was dress and appearance,
it was interview strategies. It was things like how to manage a writing prompt, what to do
if they ask you to do a speech, and other things. They would say, tomorrow when you
come in we want you to do a 30-minute presentation on the school’s WASC as though
you’re going to lead us through the WASC process. (interview, July 11, 2019)
Principal B added that this networking opportunity provided by a mentor secured the
position for which he was being recruited. Principals shared diverse ways in which relationships
with mentors and others in the district had supported their recruitment into the principal position
by giving advice, providing opportunities, and preparing them for the demands of the position.
Tapping and Leadership Development
One of the most effective ways school districts recruit aspiring principals is by having
current administrators actively seek, or “tap,” strong potential candidates (Farley-Ripple et al.,
2012; Myung et al., 2011). These candidates can be given opportunities to gain experiences that
will help them to become successful principals. This strategy of tapping was evident as the inter-
viewees pointed to endorsement by others in identifying them as future leaders. Often, the prin-
cipals did not seek their position but were encouraged by others.
You may not be wanting to be a principal, but you can assume a leadership role in the
district. So, I think the preparation, too, is just that desire and intent to want to better
yourself, and strong leaders have that intent. But sometimes you have to tap a few of
them on the shoulder and say something. And I think that it’s just like with kids. When
you tell the kid he’s got a talent in something or he’s good at something, and maybe he
should try this because of this talent that he or she has, they perk up. (Superintendent C,
interview, July 24, 2019)
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 77
Superintendent D emphasized his role in tapping:
I said nobody goes from District D without me actually seeing the person and vouching
for the person. We actually spent time. I also said, “Let’s tap more people on the shoul-
der,” but that’s me in District D and it’s informal. That’s not a systematic way. How does
the other district recruit? They basically email everybody and say, “Anybody who wants
to be an assistant principal” and now with the principals, “Anybody who wants to be a
principal, throw your hat in the ring.” (interview, June 10, 2019)
In the same district, Principal D3 jokingly shared how others influenced her path to
becoming a principal:
I literally was pushed from one job to the other, from my classroom to coaching, from
coaching to being an AP, dragging and screaming because to this day I love being in the
classroom, and when I came to interview for this position, I was told or it was strongly
suggested, hey, should you want to do this, you need to go and interview here. I don’t
know what more to say about that. I was ready to do it. People were pushing me into the
deep end of the swimming pool, more than me being ambitious. (interview, June 10,
2019)
While tapping is often used by superintendents, the principals gave many reasons for
their being tapped for their positions:
I think a big piece is emotional intelligence. I think that’s really it. You need to have that.
You really do. And it’s a natural thing for me. It’s just something that’s developed in me.
I think that’s helped tremendously with the building of relationships, having empathy for
people, and how I treat people with how they like to be treated and such. I think that’s
gotten me quite far as a VP which helped initiate that whole process of, “You’d make a
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 78
really good principal in charge of more people and in charge of a school, and be able to
develop a culture of leadership within the school in that way.” So I really think that was a
huge piece for me of knowing that a desirable candidate is someone who really shows
those aspects, those characteristics. (Principal A, interview, June 27, 2019)
Principal D2 said that it was her breadth of knowledge and experience being at a year-
round school that had helped her recruitment. Principal D3 shared that her unique experience and
collaboration with a local aquarium had helped her recruitment as the principal of a marine
science magnet school. Principal D1 stated that it was her content expertise in both mathematics
and English Language Arts that had secured her first principal position. While the desired char-
acteristics vary by school and district, tapping was a strong factor in many principals’ first posi-
tions.
Desired Characteristics
Although the survey data showed that 96% (n = 110) of the principals and 97% (n = 69)
of the immediate supervisors of principals, human resources administrators, and superintendents
agreed that having instructional leadership experience was an important factor in being recruited,
only a few interviewees mentioned instructional leadership as a reason for recruitment. A fre-
quently mentioned characteristic of future administrators was that they were strong teachers first,
which would imply that they have a strong instructional background. This assumption could
explain why it was not mentioned often in the interviews.
Human Resources Administrator A shared that
sometimes they’re curriculum specialists, things like that where they have lots of experi-
ence with presenting a deep understanding of instructional practices. They have an under-
standing of the dynamics of working with adults versus just working with children. Those
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 79
pieces are things that when we’re looking at recruitment are definitely things we look at.
(interview, June 27, 2019)
Principal D3 shared:
I’m a reading specialist. I have a very strong math background, in coaching in both.
Instructionally usually you get one or the other. Very seldom do you have both. I also had
the special education knowledge, working with that population, facilitating Individual-
ized Education Plans, Student Study Teams, but also doing the intervention work prior to
that. (interview, June 10, 2019)
Other principals identified factors such as honesty, special education background, and
strong parent communication as critical to their being recruited and ultimately hired for their first
principal position. Principal B shared a story that detailed his answer about a previous experience
that had secured his position:
They said to me, “Don’t sugar coat it, don’t lie to him. If you get asked prior to that, give
the standard, I enjoyed my time there, a lot of great people there, I learned a lot, growth
opportunities, blah blah, like the standard line.” So when the Superintendent asked me, he
led out with it, “Yeah sit down, tell me about [name removed for confidentiality], we’ll
talk [name removed for confidentiality].” And I had very cautiously and very respectfully
but very detailed told him what happened. It was political with the board. We talked for
about an hour and at the end of the interview, he offered me the job. About a year later,
we were reflecting back together on that interview, and he told me, “The [name removed
for confidentiality] answer - You totally laid it out for me which I appreciated.” He said,
“I already knew the answer, and I had decided if he tells me the truth I’m going to hire
him, if he doesn’t, I’m not going to hire him.” (interview, July 11, 2019)
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 80
Another desired characteristic that emerged from the data was the candidates’ under-
standing of district initiatives and goals. Fullan (2014) emphasized the importance of principals
being district and system players. While not as significant as having instructional leadership
opportunities, 84% (n = 96) of the principals stated that their level of understanding of district
initiatives and goals was an important factor in being recruited in their current position as princi-
pal. This alignment of district needs was most evident in the superintendent interviews.
Superintendent A shared:
They don’t necessarily lack, but there have been some principals that don’t have a very
strong background in working with parents as partners. I think that’s an area that as the
principal you interact with parents in different ways than you do in any other position.
You’re the leader of the school, the expectations are given to you. In our district, we have
strong PTA. We also have something called a parent leadership institute where parents
provide trainings to other parents. So you have to be experienced in entrusting parents
and working with them as partners. They need to have a history of effective collaboration
with stakeholders—a vision to provide high-quality instruction and then really a focus on
access and equity for all students. (interview, June 27, 2019)
Similarly, Human Resources A said:
Dedication. It’s very telling when you see, or it can be telling, when you see that people
move very frequently. So that question of the dedication to the district or the role, passion
for community. We are in a district that has a heavy need for our families. So really
seeing or hearing them talk about how they are not going to just enhance the educational
piece, but for the community as a whole, because we need every team player to be part of
it. So hearing that part of it is important. (interview, June 27, 2019)
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 81
Superintendent B shared:
I’d say it’s, how are they relating to people in the interview process? I would say it’s, in
terms of what our board goals are at this time, what experiences can you demonstrate
with that? A person interviewing for us in a secondary position right now, if they aren’t
knowledgeable of social-emotional learning and of student stress and the issues we face
in high-performing schools, they don’t have a shot. Did they do their homework? Do they
come in here ready to share about themselves with us? Or do they know about us to give
some opinions about that? Did they take risks in the interview? So you have to look for
clues in their background, in their answers and their recommendations, as to whether
that’s going to be a hole they’re going to fall into or just not even look at it, because it’s a
hard job. (interview, July 11, 2019)
Summary of Results for Research Question 2
Research points to the shortage of qualified candidates for the principal position (Winter
et al., 2004). Factors such as the retirement of the “Baby Boom” generation, increased responsi-
bilities, stress, low salary, and work environment negatively influence the number of teachers
who pursue a principal position (Stark-Price, Munoz, Winter, & Petrosko, 2006; Winter et al.,
2004). However, the purposeful use of mentors and networking, tapping and providing leader-
ship opportunities for teacher leaders, and seeking a variety of desired characteristics specific to
the needs of the school and school district, along with a foundation of instructional leadership,
are all ways to increase recruitment for the principal position.
Results Relating to Research Question 3
Research Question 3 focused on the retention of principals. Specifically, it asked, “What
are the perceived strategies that support the retention of principals?” Viadero (2009) found that,
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 82
once in the position, nearly half of all principals did not stay in the field beyond 5 years. Of the
principal survey participants in this study, 50% (n = 58) had been in the principal position less
than 5 years, 40% (n = 46) from 6 to 15 years, and 10% (n = 11) more than 16 years. Bloom et
al. (2003) found that both new and experienced administrators benefitted from mentoring and
coaching to provide support and professional development. Coleman and Others (1996) also
found that both new and experienced principals found a mentoring relationship to be beneficial
as it created opportunities for personal and professional reflection. Bloom et al. (2005) reported
that supported principals had an increased probability of remaining in leadership positions and
becoming strong principals. This research question was designed to identify how principal reten-
tion strategies support principals to remain in the field. Several themes emerged from the inter-
views:
1. Relationships and networking within the district were critical in job satisfaction.
2. Having a mentor supports principals with processes and strategies to help them to be
successful.
3. Principals stay in the position when they find that the work is meaningful.
Relationships and Networking Within the District
There are several relationships inherent in a school district. For the principals in this
study, these relationships were critical to their retention. Not only did they rely on each other, but
they depended on relationships with district personnel to meet the demands of the job. Most of
these relationships were informal, with principals calling or sending text messages to each other
to ask questions. Some districts provided time for principals to meet monthly. District personnel
in both the large and small districts appeared to value the time spent in learning together and
agreed that they were readily available for principals.
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 83
In a small district, Superintendent C shared, “I think the retention comes when you give
principals time to lament, and vent, and strategize on how to solve problems” (interview, July 24,
2019). Human Resources C expanded on these relationships:
Like I said before, we go out and coach. So I do it either formally or we just go out and
coach. So we’ll walk schools, we’ll ask questions, we’ll support them and coach princi-
pals. I know as far as my principals, I know the ones that work early, the ones that work
late, the ones that are sending me texts at 10:30 at night or the ones that are emailing me
at 5:30 in the morning. So you know that if I see their number, we’re on the phone to
provide support. (interview, July 24, 2019)
Similarly, Superintendent B shared that he had a close relationship with his principals
because having only seven schools in his district allowed him to talk to most of them on a daily
basis:
I think having relationships with the district office is very important. I think all of our
principals feel that way. When I hear a principal being frustrated that she’s not getting
answers from us, that’s a gigantic alarm bell in my head. Because the principals, I think,
are the most important job in public education, and our job, in many ways, is to enable
them to really thrive in their jobs. So when we’re not communicating with them, that’s a
major issue for me. So that kind of support is really necessary. But the less you can be an
island and have those relationships, the better support network you will have, and it will
give you strength in a very hard job. (interview, July 11, 2019)
Human Resources B from the same small district emphasized the following:
Networks are hugely important. I think so much about our newer principals getting
together with more veteran principals. The hanging out thing, what are you doing about
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 84
this call? I mean, those sorts of connections are huge. I think it’s an interesting thing that
we’re talking. I’m not so sure that as a district, we have purposely nurtured those rela-
tionships. They’ve developed on their own, which we’re thrilled with. So maybe that’s
just a way, maybe that just happens naturally, the way we were set up. (interview, July
11, 2019)
For the larger districts, relationships were more dependent on the other principals and
their immediate supervisors than on district office personnel. Principals leaned on each other for
support and help with specific situations.
So even though I only see my co-principals maybe once a month, they’re a phone call
away. We’re all part of the same system. We text each other, we ask each other questions,
we find out what’s going on, we can talk about best strategies. What are you doing at
your school? How are you approaching this problem? (Principal D2, interview, June 10,
2019)
Principal A described the relationships with colleagues as “lots of informal, connecting
with other principals about situations or problems, or this is good, this isn’t—those types of
things” (interview, June 27, 2019).
While support is often viewed as positive and seeking answers to problems, there are
times when support comes in the form of being honest with principals about their strengths and
weaknesses. Superintendent C shared insight into these types of conversations with her princi-
pals:
It’s having those courageous conversations with them. And even the principals who get
frustrated and think about leaving and if it’s a good choice for them, encouraging that.
But if it’s only because they’re frustrated with something that’s going on within the
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 85
system, then it’s the superintendent’s job or the assistant superintendent or whoever
you’re working with to go in and have a really good conversation, and ask a lot of
questions, and listen and listen and listen and try to figure it out. Is it the system that’s
getting in the way? Is it your colleagues that’s getting in the way? Is it one or two teach-
ers at your staff that’s pushing you out? Because that happens. (interview, July 24, 2019)
These informal networks and relationships across the district were the most prevalent
reasons for retention as stated by all participants. The survey data confirmed these findings, with
95% (n = 109) of principals and 99% (n = 70) of immediate supervisors of principals, human
resources administrators, and superintendents indicating that the relationships that principals
have with directors, assistant superintendents, and the superintendent support their success in
retaining their positions. Superintendent A emphasized the importance of these relationships
when she summarized, “I think ongoing retention is a result of ongoing support” (interview, June
27, 2019).
Mentors
Bloom et al. (2003) found that both new and experienced administrators benefitted from
mentoring and coaching to provide support and professional development. Coleman and Others
(1996) also found that both new and experienced principals found a mentoring relationship to be
beneficial as it created opportunities for personal and professional reflection. It is interesting that,
while 97% (n = 69) of immediate supervisors of principals, human resources administrators, and
superintendents agreed that mentoring supported principals with processes and strategies that
supported their success in retaining their positions, only 90% (n = 104) of principals agreed with
this position. Only one of the districts had a formal mentoring program but several principals
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 86
shared that they had a mentor-like relationship with another individual who was instrumental in
their retention, especially in their beginning years as a principal.
There are strategic people who have supported my development as a principal. My
director’s been one of them. She’s been amazing. She’s been a quiet, strong, fair, con-
sistent support. When I’ve had strength and wins she’s been there to celebrate and she’s
supported some scary stuff that I wanted to do. When I’ve had traumatic stuff go down,
she’s been there to help me know who to contact to help me or she’s been the one to
come help me. She’s had my back. (Principal D, interview, June 10, 2019)
Principal B, from a small district, stated that
it’s all the sup[erintendent]. That superintendent relationship has to be strong, and I
would venture to say that our relationship is maybe one of the strongest ones you’ll find
out there. We were hired at the same time and so we’ve been conjoined twins the whole
time here which is good and bad because when I have a good day, he has a good day but
at the same time, when either one of us has a bad day, it’s a bad day for the other one.
(interview, July 11, 2019)
Meaningful Work and Making a Difference
Given the challenges of the principal position today, it can be surprising that principals
stay in the position. Today’s “superprincipals” (Copland, 2001) are expected to be a change
agent for a school while being held accountable for student success. When asked what factors
influenced the decision to stay in the position, all of the principals pointed to the students whom
they serve. Principal D1 responded, “I stay because I feel like I’m still doing good work and as
long as I can do good work, I’ll stick around” (interview, June 10, 2019). Principal D3 agreed,
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 87
“The factor that causes me to stay each day is wanting to make sure all of my boys and girls
leave reading, thinking, writing, calculating at deeper levels” (interview, June 10, 2019).
The superintendents shared that their responsibility is to minimize distractions that inter-
fere with the principal’s work at the school site. Superintendent B stated that a factor in principal
retention is “keeping the external noise as low as possible. When unions strike, principals are
caught in the middle, and that’s very hard on them. So the more we can avoid that, the more
they’re able to actually do their job” (interview, July 11, 2019). Knowing how complex and dif-
ficult the principal position is, it is clear that individuals pursue the field in order to make a dif-
ference. Principal B explained:
I will leave when I run out of ideas, I will leave when people stop listening and I will
leave if there’s a district somewhere that thinks I could go in and be helpful as their
superintendent and they go, “We think you can really help our district.” I’ll never be
principal someplace else. This is my one principal job. (interview, July 11, 2019)
None of the other principals expressed a specific plan or interest in leaving the profes-
sion. As their career paths had led them to principal positions through a series of experiences,
opportunities, and relationships, they continued to value the work that they were doing. Principal
A summarized his interview on his last day of work: “And I think at the principal level, you can
then call it a career at the end of that” (interview, June 27, 2019).
Summary of Results for Research Question 3
Retention in the principal position was mainly due to supportive relationships that princi-
pals have with colleagues, mentors, and district office personnel. Whether formal or informal, a
source of support and collaboration was critical to job retention. The networking that occurred
regularly helped principals to solve problems related to the daily demands of the job.
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 88
Furthermore, by focusing on the meaningful work of students, principals withstand the chal-
lenges, knowing that they are making right decisions for students and making a difference.
Chapter Summary
This chapter explored the themes that emerged in the study’s examination of principal
preparation, recruitment, and retention The emergent themes were identified from the data col-
lected in interviews with four superintendents, three human resources administrators, one imme-
diate supervisor of principals, and five principals, for a total of 13 interviews across four school
districts in southern California. The themes were confirmed by survey data from 21 superinten-
dents, 22 human resources administrators, 28 immediate supervisors of principals, and 115 prin-
cipals, for a total of 186 surveys. In addition, the themes were supported by the literature review
presented in Chapter 2. These multiple sources of data strengthened the validity and reliability of
this study (Creswell, 2014; Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Several emergent themes were identified related to principal preparation: (a) Learning
opportunities while in the teaching position were more valuable than traditional principal prepa-
ration programs, (b) on-the-job preparation was more valuable than traditional preparation
programs, and (c) principal mentors and networking opportunities were highly valued and
perceived as critical in principal preparation.
Several emergent themes were identified related to principal recruitment: (a) Having a
mentor and taking advantage of networking opportunities were important factors in recruitment
for the principal position, (b) tapping and leadership development from those in administrative
positions encouraged teacher leaders to pursue a principal position, and (c) a variety of desired
characteristics, including but not limited to having instructional leadership experience, were
important factors in being recruited into the principal position.
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 89
Several emergent themes were identified related to principal recruitment: (a) Relation-
ships and networking within the district were critical in job satisfaction, (b) having a mentor
supports principals with processes and strategies to help them be successful, and (c) principals
stay in the position when they find the work is meaningful.
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 90
Chapter 5: DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The role of K–12 principals continues to evolve and become more complex and chal-
lenging, with greater demands and accountability. From the beginning of formal education when
a principal was a “head teacher” to the instructional change agent of today (Brown, 2005; Bru-
baker & Simon, 1986), principals must now have a broad skill set that prepares them for the
demands of the job. Once in the position, supports such as networking and mentoring contribute
to their ongoing success in the position (Matthews & Crow, 2003; Service et al., 2016). The data
from this study clearly pointed to the importance of the relationships that principals establish,
both formal and informal, to help in their preparation, recruitment, and retention in the field.
The results of the study based on data from the interviews, surveys, and literature review
point to the complex and challenging demands of principal preparation, recruitment, and reten-
tion. Aspiring principals must navigate their learning experiences, relationships, and leadership
opportunities thoughtfully as they prepare for the principal position. There is little support in the
effectiveness of traditional preparation programs for the principalship. Instead, programs that
were designed in collaboration with a school district were considered valuable in providing rele-
vant training and practical application to the position. These findings are consistent with the
research, as more preparation programs have made change efforts to train aspiring principals to
be successful in the position (Davis & Darling-Hammond, 2012; Hess & Kelly, 2007; Jackson &
Kelly, 2002). Participants in this study agreed that prior learning experiences and leadership
opportunities had prepared them for the demands of the job more effectively than their traditional
preparation program.
The review of literature indicated disparities in the recruitment and retention of female
principals and principals of color (Hill, Ottem, & DeRoche, 2016; Hoff, Menard, & Tuell, 2006)
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 91
although members of educational leadership are becoming more balanced across gender lines,
with women holding about 50% of the positions (Hill et al., 2016). The team of 12 doctoral can-
didates found that 58% of the principal participants were female. With women holding 75.9% of
the teaching positions (Glass, 2000; Grogan & Shakeshaft, 2010; Sanchez & Thornton, 2010),
the higher percentage of women in principal positions could be a trend toward women holding
educational leadership roles in numbers comparable to those in the teaching field. However, dis-
parity among principals of color continues to exist, with White administrators representing
nearly 60% of the positions in this study. In addition, the higher ranks of leadership continue to
show disparate proportions of White males, who have long dominated the educational field
(Coleman, 2005; Sanchez & Thornton, 2010), with 71% currently in the superintendent position.
Similarly, only 31% of the superintendents were members of a minority group. Race and gender
were not mentioned as factors in any of the interview or survey data related to preparation,
recruitment, or preparation of principals; increasing the diversity of the administrative team does
not appear to be a factor in the recruitment of potential administrators. Instead, leadership expe-
rience and instructional knowledge were named as the most significant factors in recruiting
future leaders.
Purpose of the Study Restated
The purpose of this qualitative study was to examine the preparation, recruitment, and
retention of K–12 public school principals in southern California. Three leadership models
served as theoretical frameworks to guide this study: (a) Bolman and Deal’s (2013) organiza-
tional frames, (b) Marzano et al.’s (2005) school leadership that works, and (c) Fullan’s (2014)
three keys to maximizing impact.
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 92
The researcher of this study worked in collaboration with a team of 12 researchers from
the University of Southern California Rossier School of Education to design the research ques-
tions, the qualitative methodology, the qualitative instrumentation, and the quantitative survey
instruments. The researcher worked independently to gather qualitative interview data from four
superintendents, three human resources administrators, one immediate supervisor of principals,
and five principals, for a total of 13 interviews across four school districts in southern California.
The team collaboratively collected survey data from four groups to triangulate the findings: (a)
115 principals, (b) 28 immediate supervisors of principals, (c) 22 human resources administra-
tors, and (d) 21 superintendents, for a total of 186 survey participants. Qualitative interviews and
quantitative survey instruments were designed to align with the following research questions of
the study:
1. How have training programs and professional experiences prepared principals to
manage the complexities and challenges of the principalship?
2. What are the perceptions of principals, immediate supervisors of principals, human
resources administrators, and superintendents regarding strategies to recruit successful Principal
candidates?
3. What are the perceived strategies that support the retention of principals?
The researcher analyzed her own interview data and identified three emergent themes
related to each research question, for a total of nine themes in this study.
Summary of Findings
Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked, “How have training programs and professional experiences
prepared principals to manage the complexities and challenges of the principalship?” Most
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 93
principals identified that they had received their Tier 1 Credential through a traditional university
program. A small number had not participated in a university program but had passed an admin-
istrative examination such as the CPACE to receive their credentials. It became clear in the
interviews that there was little perceived value in the preparation programs. Participants
mentioned that they had gained some background information on management skills such as
budget and discipline but that these were not the types of skills that were necessary to prepare
them for the position. Instead, experiences gained while in a teacher or teacher leader position
were viewed as more valuable.
Learning opportunities while in the teaching position were more valuable than traditional
principal preparation programs. The positive comments about preparation programs were related
to the programs that were closely tied to the school districts. These individuals spoke of the value
of having administrators in the field as their professors. In these programs, the professors taught
from a practical perspective that interviewees considered to be relevant and applicable. Similarly,
those who had participated in district leadership training programs for teacher leaders reported
that they had been well prepared for the job because of the on-the-job experiences that the
programs provided.
On-the-job preparation was more valuable than traditional preparation programs. All
interview participants agreed that an assistant principal position was the best preparation for the
principal position. However, with only a few elementary school assistant principal positions
available in many districts, aspiring principals had gained their experience through teacher lead-
ership positions, such as TOSA or curriculum leader.
Principal mentors and networking opportunities were highly valued and perceived as
critical in principal preparation. There exists a two-way relationship between aspiring
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 94
administrators and their principals. Aspiring principals not only need to seek opportunities to
lead; they must communicate with those in leadership positions so they can gain leadership expe-
riences. Principals can then delegate responsibilities to these aspiring leaders to assist in their
preparation for the job. As district office personnel see these teachers in leadership opportunities,
they may be more likely to be recruited for future positions. All interview participants stressed
the importance of relationships in gaining experience and leadership opportunities.
Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, “What are the perceptions of principals, immediate supervi-
sors of principals, human resources administrators, and superintendents regarding strategies to
recruit successful principal candidates?” District-level interview participants briefly shared that
they post open principal positions and typically have a large number of candidates interested in
their district. However, specific questions guided the interviews to determine how districts seek
internal candidates.
Having a mentor and taking advantage of networking opportunities were important
factors in recruitment for the principal position. Similar to the networking and mentoring that
was crucial to the preparation of principals, these types of relationships are equally important to
the recruitment process. Mentors in the district guide teacher leaders and give them opportunities
to develop leadership skills. When there are district openings, these mentors can speak for aspir-
ing candidates and provide informal recommendations for positions.
Tapping and leadership development by those in administrative positions encouraged
teacher leaders to pursue a principal position. As administrators see leadership potential in teach-
ers, they actively seek them for more leadership opportunities. This strategy has been identified
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 95
as one of the most effective for identifying and recruiting future leaders and was evident across
all interviews in this study (Farley-Ripple, Raffel, & Christine Welch, 2012; Myung et al., 2011).
A variety of desired characteristics, including but not limited to having instructional lead-
ership experience, were important factors in being recruited into the principal position. Instruc-
tional leadership appeared to be an assumed characteristic of future leaders. Assuming that
aspiring principals were strong teachers first implies that candidates have a strong instructional
background. In the interviews, participants identified a wide variety of desired characteristics,
including strong internal fortitude, honesty, courage, sense of humor, confidence, strong parent-
community relationships, special education background, and flexibility. It was clear that each
school and each district valued different skills, so it is important for aspiring principals to have a
clear understanding of the needs that are unique to each site.
Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, “What are the perceived strategies that support the retention
of principals?” The role of today’s principal is complex and challenging and ever evolving.
There are many reasons principals leave the position, including stress, low salary, time require-
ments, frustration with too little time to focus on instruction, and pressures of testing account-
ability (Fuller et al., 2015; Gajda & Militello, 2008). Nearly half of the principals leave the
position within 5 years (Viadero, 2009). With these dire findings, it is critical to determine ways
to keep effective principals in the position to make a meaningful impact on students. Fortunately,
research also points to the effectiveness of mentoring to support principals and increase the like-
lihood that they will stay in the position as strong principals (Bloom et al., 2003; Bloom et al.,
2005).
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 96
Relationships and networking within the district were critical in job satisfaction. Having a
strong relationship with those in the district office, as well as with colleagues, was perceived by
the principals as helping them with the day-to-day demands of the job. District personnel indi-
cated that they are always available for principals and often check in with them to see how they
are doing. Principals knew that, when they needed help, they could call someone at the district
for answers. In addition, they relied on informal get-togethers to share ideas and best practices or
to vent.
Having a mentor supports principals with processes and strategies to be successful.
Mentors were found to be helpful in retaining both new and experienced principals (Bloom et al.,
2003; Coleman & Others, 1996). While the principals mentioned in their interviews the value of
having a mentor, the survey data showed that district personnel gave mentoring an even higher
rating. It is clear that having strong relationships with others is crucial in the retention of princi-
pals; however, formal mentor relationships may not be as helpful and valuable as those that are
created informally.
Principals stay in the position when they find that the work is meaningful. With so many
challenges in the job, it is not surprising that many leave the position within 5 years (Viadero,
2009). However, many principals enter the profession because they want to make a difference in
the lives of students. Interview participants planned to stay in education but were open to moving
to other district positions in the future. One participant who was interviewed on his last day
before retirement shared that he had never felt that he needed to move up; he was confident that
he could retire as a principal and call it a good career.
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 97
Limitations
The study design included interviews and surveys gathered concurrently over a 4-month
period. The qualitative and quantitative instrumentation was a limitation. Furthermore, the study
was limited to those who voluntarily completed the survey. Emergent themes were not explicitly
identified in the survey data and may not have been identified in all interviews. Similarly, emer-
gent themes may not have been consistent among participants due to the design of the particular
semistructured interview protocols for the groups. The study examined public school districts
across southern California, which limits the breadth of the study and affects the generalizability
of the results.
Implications
This study contributes to the body of literature on principal preparation, recruitment, and
retention by identifying perceived effective strategies by principals, immediate supervisors of
principals, human resources administrators, and superintendents. Universities would benefit from
the insight of principals and district personnel in the value and practical application of the
coursework offered in traditional preparation programs. Aspiring principals can use the identified
themes to gain leadership experiences and build networking relationships in order to be well
prepared for the principal position. Current principals and district leaders can seek potential
leaders and tap them for leadership opportunities in order to increase their experiences prior to
becoming a principal. Establishing opportunities for current principals to be both mentors and
mentees would strengthen the knowledge base of the district leadership team and increase prin-
cipal retention. Finally, district leadership could create a strong and consistent pipeline for
administrative positions by focusing on relationship-building from teachers to principals to the
district office personnel.
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 98
Recommendations for Future Study
Based on the emergent themes of this study, the researcher makes the following recom-
mendations for future study.
Future research could examine how district leadership programs can be embedded effec-
tively into traditional preparation programs. Qualitative studies could determine the effectiveness
of having traditional preparation programs invite existing professionals in the education field to
be instructors. Qualitative studies could examine how effectively coursework is aligned to on-
the-job experiences. Case studies could provide comparisons of how effectively district programs
help to prepare future principals.
Future research could focus on how to develop specific desired characteristics in the
recruitment of potential principals. Qualitative studies could identify what strategies are effective
in recruiting for desired characteristics, such as community building, courageous conversations,
or managing high-pressure environments. Qualitative studies could determine effective strategies
for recruiting potential principals for the high-stress demands of the job. Case studies could
outline how opportunities can provide future principals with experiences that develop desired
characteristics.
Future research could focus on how districts actively support principals once they are in
the position. Qualitative studies could identify strategies that are used to build effective relation-
ships that support principal retention. Quantitative studies could glean insight into how the fre-
quency and types of interactions support principal retention.
Conclusion
Today’s principal position is challenging, complex, demanding, and rewarding. The
preparation, recruitment, and retention of principals are equally complex and require a multitude
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 99
of strategies and processes to keep strong principals leading schools. While the literature
suggests that job demands be reduced or the job made more attractive to retain principals (Doyle
& Locke, 2014; Stark-Price et al., 2006; Winter et al., 2004), this study found that mentor rela-
tionships and networking relationships are critical to the success of principals and aspiring prin-
cipals.
This study focused on the preparation, recruitment, and retention of principals. Emergent
themes were identified from the qualitative interview data and supported by the quantitative
survey data and review of the literature. The researcher and research team took measures to
ensure the anonymity of participants, gather and collect data ethically, and report the themes
accurately. This study has informed the body of literature on successful strategies for the prepa-
ration, recruitment, and retention of principals.
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 100
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PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 111
APPENDIX A
RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS’ INVITATION E-MAIL

Dear _______________ [stakeholder group role],

I am a doctoral candidate in the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern Cali-
fornia and a _______________ [role] in the _______________ Unified School District. I invite
you to participate in a research study that will investigate the preparation, recruitment, and reten-
tion of public school principals.

You are asked to participate only if you are currently employed as a [role] in a public school
district. If you agree to participate, you will be asked to complete a survey; estimated time for
completion is approximately 20 minutes. The University of Southern California’s Institutional
Review Board has approved this research study (IRB #APP-19-00787).

Your participation is completely voluntary. If you decide to participate after reading this email,
you can access the survey via the following link: _______________

I value your input and hope that you will consider participating in this study. Please email me at
_______________ if you have any questions. Thank you in advance for your time.

Sincerely,
USC Doctoral Candidate Researcher
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 112
APPENDIX B
INFORMED CONSENT

Date: _______________

Dear _______________,

My name is _______________ and I am a doctoral student at the USC Rossier School of Education. I am
conducting a research study under the guidance and direction of Dr. Michael F. Escalante. The purpose
of my mixed-methods study is to examine the preparation, recruitment, and retention of public school
principals in southern California. I will interview and survey superintendents, human resources direc-
tors/assistant superintendents, immediate supervisors of principals, and principals.

You have been invited to participate in a graduate research study that will shed light on the preparation,
recruitment, and retention of public school principals in southern California. The results of this study will
inform multiple stakeholders, including aspiring principals, superintendents, and school boards. It is my
hope that this study will serve as a valuable resource.

Your participation is voluntary, and you have the right to withdraw at any time. The information col-
lected will be kept confidential and anonymous by the researcher and members of the dissertation com-
mittee. Data will be presented in a manner that will ensure that no individual or district can be identified.

If you have any questions or concerns regarding your participation in this study, you may contact me at
_______________ or Dr. Michael F. Escalante at the University of Southern California.

Thank you, in advance, for your time and assistance.

Sincerely,

_______________, Researcher [_______________@usc.edu]
(xxx) xxx-xxxx

Dr. Michael F. Escalante, Dissertation Chair mescalante@usc.edu
(818) 802-4769

( ) I have read this form and have been given the opportunity to ask questions. I consent to my participa-
tion in the research described above.

Participant’s Signature: __________________________________________________________

Participant’s Printed Name: _______________________________________________________

Date: _________________________________________________________________________
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 113
APPENDIX C
PRINCIPAL SURVEY
The purpose of this qualitative study is to examine the preparation, recruitment, and retention of
California K-12 public school principals. While the most significant direct influence on student
achievement is the teacher, the second most critical influence is the principal (Fullan, 2014). It is
important to identify the preparation and supports that principals must have in order to meet the
challenges and complexities of the principalship, as well as the recruitment strategies and reten-
tion efforts that public school districts must use to find and retain quality personnel in the
principalship. The goal of this brief, 15-minute survey is to quantify your perceptions on princi-
pal preparation, recruitment, and retention. Your participation in this survey is anonymous.
Thank you for your participation.

Personal Background

1. Gender
❏ Male
❏ Female

2. Ethnicity (check all that apply)
❏ Asian
❏ Black
❏ Latina/o
❏ Native American
❏ Pacific Islander
❏ White
❏ Multiple
❏ Other
❏ Decline to state

3. Age range:
❏ < 30
❏ 30-40
❏ 41-50
❏ 51-60
❏ 61+

4. Highest university degree earned:
❏ Ed.D.
❏ Ph.D.
❏ Master’s
❏ Bachelor’s
❏ Other (please specify) ___________________________________________

PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 114

5. What university do you identify with professionally?

________________________________________________________________________

6. How many years in the education profession?
❏ 1-10
❏ 11-20
❏ 21-30
❏ 30 or more

7. How many years as a principal?
❏ 2 years or less
❏ 3-5
❏ 6-10
❏ 11-15
❏ 16 or more

8. Did you come from within your current district or outside your current district?
❏ Within
❏ Outside

9. What type of administrative preparation program did you participate in?
❏ University
❏ Nonuniversity, please specify: ____________________________________

10. Past experiences (check all that apply):
School site positions:
❏ Elementary school teacher
❏ Middle school teacher
❏ High school teacher
❏ Counselor (any level)
❏ College/university instructor
❏ Teacher on Special Assignment (TOSA)
❏ Other ______________________

School site administrator positions:
❏ Elementary School Assistant Principal
❏ Middle School Assistant Principal
❏ High School Assistant Principal
❏ Elementary Principal
❏ Middle School Principal
❏ High School Principal
❏ Dean of Students
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 115
District-level positions:
❏ Coordinator
❏ Specialist
❏ Director of Curriculum and Instruction
❏ Director of Research and Planning
❏ Director of Human Resources
❏ Director of Student Support Services
❏ Director: Other _____________________________________________________

Experiences other than education:
❏ Please specify: _____________________________________________________

11. Salary Range (approximate):
❏ Less than $100,000
❏ $100,001 - 110,000
❏ $110,001 - 120,000
❏ $120,001 - 130,000
❏ $130,001- 140,000
❏ $140,001- 150,000
❏ $150,001- 160,000
❏ $160,001- 170,000
❏ More than $170,001

School District Information

12. Type of school district:
❏ Urban
❏ Urban/suburban
❏ Suburban
❏ Rural

13. District student enrollment:
❏ Less than 5,000
❏ 5,001 - 10,000
❏ 10,001 - 20,000
❏ 20,001 - 30,000
❏ 30,001 - 40,000
❏ 40,001 - 50,000
❏ 50,001 - 60,000
❏ 60,001 - 70,000
❏ More than 70,000
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 116

Based on your perception of the preparation of principals,
rate the following statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.

For the next statements, please use the following definition for principal preparation:
Preparation is defined as the strategies and steps you took prior to
taking on your first principal position.
PREPARATION
Statement
Strongly
Agree
(4)
Agree
(3)
Disagree
(2)
Strongly
Disagree
(1)
Don’t
Know
or
Not
Applicable
(NA)
1. University programs provided training and
experience that were important in preparing
me for my position as a principal.

2. My prior work experience was more import-
ant than my university training experience in
preparing me for my position as a principal.

3. Holding an advanced degree (e.g. Ed.D. or
Ph.D.) was important in preparing me for my
position as a principal.

4. Nonuniversity training programs (such as the
ACSA Principal Academy) were important in
preparing me for my position as a principal.

5. Holding certification and/or licensure from
organizations (such as USC or ACSA) was
important in preparing me for my position as
a principal.

6. Having mentors was instrumental in prepar-
ing me for my position as a principal.

7. A professional network of support (such as
CALSA, NASSP, NAESP, ACSA, or
through a university) was important in pre-
paring me for my position as a principal.

8. Informal networks of support (such as profes-
sional colleagues) were important in prepar-
ing me for my position as a principal.

9. Networks with university professors were
important in preparing me for my position as
a principal.

PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 117

10. Planning my career was important in prepar-
ing me for my position as a principal.

11. My university training program provided
intentional supports or resources to prepare
me for my position as a principal.

12. Having experience as a teacher leader was a
crucial element in preparing me for my posi-
tion as a principal.

13. Having experience as an assistant principal
was a crucial element in preparing me for my
position as a principal.

Based on your perception of the recruitment of principals,
rate the following statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.

For the next statements, please use the following definition for principal recruitment:
Recruitment is defined as the strategies and steps you took
prior to taking on your first principal position.
RECRUITMENT
Statement
Strongly
Agree
(4)
Agree
(3)
Disagree
(2)
Strongly
Disagree
(1)
Don’t
Know
or
Not
Applicable
(NA)
14. As an aspiring principal, district resources
and programs were important in being
recruited into my current position as a princi-
pal.

15. My university principal preparation program
was an important factor in being recruited
into my current position as a principal.

16. My nonuniversity principal preparation
program was an important factor in being
recruited into my current position as a
principal.

17. The nonmonetary incentives offered by my
district were important factors in applying for
the principal position in my district.

18. The salary and benefits offered by my district
were important factors in applying for the
principal position in my district.

PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 118
19. My previous experience in education was an
important factor in being recruited into my
current position as a principal.

20. My previous experience outside of educa-
tion was an important factor in being re-
cruited into my current position as a
principal.

21. The reputation of my school district was an
important factor in applying for the princi-
pal position in my district.

22. My level of understanding of district initia-
tives and goals was an important factor in
being recruited into my current position as a
principal.

23. As an in-district candidate, networking with
district personnel was an important factor in
being recruited into my current position as a
principal.

24. As an out-of-district candidate, networking
with district personnel was an important
factor in being recruited in my current posi-
tion as a principal.

25. Having a mentor was an important factor in
being recruited in my current position as a
principal.

26. Being an employee of my school district
was an important factor in being recruited
into my current position as a principal.

27. My participation in professional organiza-
tions was an important factor in being
recruited into my current position as a prin-
cipal.

28. Holding an advanced degree (e.g., Ed.D. or
Ph.D.) was an important factor in being
recruited into my current position as a prin-
cipal.

29. Having instructional leadership experience
was an important factor in being recruited
into my position as a principal.

PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 119
Based on your perception of the retention of principals,
rate the following statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.

For the next statements, please use the following definition for principal retention:
Retention is the process/strategy you used to maintain your current principal position.
RETENTION
Statement
Strongly
Agree
(4)
Agree
(3)
Disagree
(2)
Strongly
Disagree
(1)
Don’t
Know
or
Not
Applicable
(NA)
30. My university training program provided me
with processes/strategies that currently
support my success in retaining my position
as a principal.

31. Professional networks (e.g., NAESP, NASSP,
ACSA, university networks) provided me
with processes/strategies that currently
support my success in retaining my position
as a principal.

32. Having a mentor(s) provided me with
processes/strategies that currently support my
success in retaining my position as a princi-
pal.

33. My relationship with directors, assistant
superintendents, and my superintendent
supports my success in retaining my position
as a principal.

34. My compensation determines my desire to
retain my position as a principal.

35. Having a formal, written strategic plan
supports my success in retaining my position
as a principal.

36. Pressures from accountability measures affect
my desire to retain my position as a principal.

PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 120
APPENDIX D
HUMAN RESOURCES ADMINISTRATOR SURVEY
Based on your perception of the preparation of principals,
rate the following statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.

For the next statements, please use the following definition for principal preparation:
Preparation is defined as the strategies and steps that principals took
prior to taking on their first principal position.
PREPARATION
Statement
Strongly
Agree
(4)
Agree
(3)
Disagree
(2)
Strongly
Disagree
(1)
Don’t
Know
or
Not
Applicable
(NA)
1. University programs provided training and
experience that are important in preparing
principals for their positions.

2. Prior work experience was more important
than university training experience in pre-
paring principals for their current posi-
tions.

3. Holding an advanced degree (e.g., Ed.D.
or Ph.D.) was important in preparing prin-
cipals for their current positions.

4. Nonuniversity training programs (e.g., the
ACSA Principal Academy) were important
in preparing principals for their current
positions.

5. Holding certification and/or licensure from
organizations (such as USC or ACSA) was
important in preparing principals for their
current positions.

6. Having a mentor was important in prepar-
ing my principals for their current posi-
tions.

7. A professional network of support (e.g.
NASSP, ACSA, or through a university)
was important in preparing my principals
for their current positions.

PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 121

8. Informal networks (e.g., professional col-
leagues) were important in preparing prin-
cipals for their current positions.

9. Having experience as a teacher leader was
crucial for preparing principals for their
current positions.

10. Having experience as an assistant principal
was crucial for preparing principals for
their current positions.

Based on your perception of the recruitment of principals,
rate the following statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.

For the next statements, please use the following definition for principal recruitment:
Recruitment is defined as the strategies and steps that principals took
prior to taking on their first principal position.
RECRUITMENT
Statement
Strongly
Agree
(4)
Agree
(3)
Disagree
(2)
Strongly
Disagree
(1)
Don’t Know
or
Not
Applicable
(NA)
11. District resources and recruitment strategies help
candidates to get recruited into principal positions
in my district.

12. University principal preparation programs help
candidates to get recruited into principal positions
in my district.

13. Nontraditional principal preparation programs help
candidates to get recruited into principal positions
in my district.

14. The nonmonetary incentives offered by my district
are important factors in candidates applying for
principal positions in my district.

15. The salary and benefits offered are important
factors in candidates applying for principal
positions in my district.

16. Candidates’ previous experience in education is an
important factor in recruiting for principal posi-
tions in my district.

PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 122
17. Candidates’ previous experience outside of educa-
tion is an important factor in recruiting for princi-
pal positions in my district.

18. The reputation of my school district is an
important factor in candidates applying for princi-
pal positions in my district.

19. Candidates’ level of level of understanding of
district initiatives and goals was an important
factor in being recruited into principal positions in
my district.

20. Networking with district personnel helps candi-
dates to get recruited into principal positions in my
district.

21. Having a mentor helps candidates to get recruited
into principal positions in my district.

22. Being an employee of my school district helps
candidates to get recruited into principal positions
in my district.

23. Candidates’ participation in professional organiza-
tions helps candidates to get recruited into princi-
pal positions in my district.

24. Holding an advanced degree (e.g., Ed.D. or Ph.D.)
helps candidates to get recruited into principal
positions in my district.

25. Having instructional leadership experience is an
important factor in recruiting for principal posi-
tions in my district.

26. My district is experiencing a shortage of quality
candidates for the principal position.

PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 123

Based on your perception of the retention of principals,
rate the following statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.

For the next statements, please use the following definition for principal retention:
Retention is the process/strategy used by principals to maintain
their current principal position.
RETENTION

Statement

Strongly
Agree
(4)

Agree
(3)

Disagree
(2)

Strongly
Disagree
(1)
Don’t Know
or
Not
Applicable
(NA)
27. University training programs provide principals
with skills/strategies that support their success in
retaining their current positions.

28. Professional networks (such as NAESP, NASSP,
ACSA, university networks) provide principals
with processes/strategies that support their
success in retaining their current positions.

29. Having mentor(s) provides principals with
processes/ strategies that support their success in
retaining their current positions.

30. The relationships that principals have with direc-
tors, assistant superintendents, and the superin-
tendent support their success in retaining their
current positions.

31. Principals’ compensation determines their desire
to continue in their current positions.

32. Having a formal, written strategic plan supports
principals’ success in retaining their current
positions.

33. Pressures from accountability measures affect
principals’ desires to retain their current position.

PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 124
APPENDIX E
IMMEDIATE SUPERVISOR OF PRINCIPAL SURVEY
Based on your perception of the preparation of principals,
rate the following statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.

For the next statements, please use the following definition for principal preparation:
Preparation is defined as the strategies and steps that principals took
prior to taking on their first principal position.
PREPARATION

Statement

Strongly
Agree
(4)

Agree
(3)

Disagree
(2)

Strongly
Disagree
(1)
Don’t Know
or
Not
Applicable
(NA)
1. University programs provided training and
experience that are important in preparing princi-
pals for their positions.

2. Prior work experience was more important than
university training experience in preparing prin-
cipals for their current positions.

3. Holding an advanced degree (e.g., Ed.D. or
Ph.D.) was important in preparing principals for
their current positions.

4. Nonuniversity training programs (e.g., the ACSA
Principal Academy) were important in preparing
principals for their current positions.

5. Holding certification and/or licensure from
organizations (such as USC or ACSA) was
important in preparing principals for their current
positions.

6. Having a mentor was important in preparing my
principals for their current positions.

7. A professional network of support (e.g., NASSP,
ACSA, or through a university) was important in
preparing my principals for their current posi-
tions.

8. Informal networks (e.g., professional colleagues)
were important in preparing principals for their
current positions.

PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 125
9. Having experience as a teacher leader was crucial
for preparing principals for their current posi-
tions.

10. Having experience as an assistant principal was
crucial for preparing principals for their current
positions.

Based on your perception of the recruitment of principals,
rate the following statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.

For the next statements, please use the following definition for principal recruitment:
Recruitment is defined as the strategies and steps that principals
took prior to taking on their first principal position.
RECRUITMENT

Statement

Strongly
Agree
(4)

Agree
(3)

Disagree
(2)

Strongly
Disagree
(1)
Don’t Know
or
Not
Applicable
(NA)
11. District resources and recruitment strategies help
candidates to get recruited into principal posi-
tions in my district.

12. University principal preparation programs help
candidates to get recruited into principal posi-
tions in my district.

13. Nontraditional principal preparation programs
help candidates to get recruited into principal
positions in my district.

14. The nonmonetary incentives offered by my
district are important factors in candidates
applying for principal positions in my district.

15. The salary and benefits offered are important
factors in candidates applying for principal posi-
tions in my district.

16. Candidates’ previous experience in education is
an important factor in recruiting for principal
positions in my district.

17. Candidates’ previous experience outside of
education is an important factor in recruiting for
principal positions in my district.

PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 126

18. The reputation of my school district is an
important factor for candidates applying for prin-
cipal positions in my district.

19. Candidates’ level of understanding of district
initiatives and goals was an important factor in
being recruited into principal positions in my
district.

20. Networking with district personnel helps candi-
dates to get recruited into principal positions in
my district.

21. Having a mentor helps candidates to get
recruited into principal positions in my district.

22. Being an employee of my school district helps
candidates to get recruited into principal posi-
tions in my district.

23. Candidates’ participation in professional
organizations helps candidates get to recruited
into principal positions in my district.

24. Holding an advanced degree (e.g., Ed.D., or
Ph.D.) helps candidates to get recruited into
principal positions in my district.

25. Having instructional leadership experience is an
important factor in recruiting for principal posi-
tions in my district.

26. My district is experiencing a shortage of quality
candidates for the principal position.

PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 127

Based on your perception of the retention of principals,
rate the following statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.

For the next statements, please use the following definition for principal retention:
Retention is the process/strategy used by principals
to maintain their current principal position.
RETENTION

Statement

Strongly
Agree
(4)

Agree
(3)

Disagree
(2)

Strongly
Disagree
(1)
Don’t Know
or
Not
Applicable
(NA)
27. University training programs provide princi-
pals with skills/strategies that support their
success in retaining their current positions.

28. Professional networks (such as NAESP,
NASSP, ACSA, university networks) provide
principals with processes/strategies that
support their success in retaining their current
positions.

29. Having mentor(s) provides principals with
processes/ strategies that support their success
in retaining their current positions.

30. The relationships that principals have with
directors, assistant superintendents, and the
superintendent support their success in retain-
ing their current positions.

31. Principals’ compensation determines their
desire to continue in their current positions.

32. Having a formal, written strategic plan
supports principals’ success in retaining their
current positions.

33. Pressures from accountability measures affect
principals’ desires to retain their current posi-
tion.

PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 128
APPENDIX F
SUPERINTENDENT SURVEY
Based on your perception of the preparation of principals,
rate the following statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.

For the next statements, please use the following definition for principal preparation:
Preparation is defined as the strategies and steps that principals took
prior to taking on their first principal position.
PREPARATION

Statement

Strongly
Agree
(4)

Agree
(3)

Disagree
(2)

Strongly
Disagree
(1)
Don’t Know
or
Not
Applicable
(NA)
1. University programs provided training and
experience that are important in preparing
principals for their positions.

2. Prior work experience was more important
than university training experience in prepar-
ing principals for their current positions.

3. Holding an advanced degree (e.g., Ed.D. or
Ph.D.) was important in preparing principals
for their current positions.

4. Nonuniversity training programs (e.g., the
ACSA Principal Academy) were important in
preparing principals for their current positions.

5. Holding certification and/or licensure from
organizations (such as USC or ACSA) was
important in preparing principals for their
current positions.

6. Having a mentor was important in preparing
my principals for their current positions.

7. A professional network of support (e.g.,
NASSP, ACSA, or through a university) was
important in preparing my principals for their
current positions.

8. Informal networks (e.g., professional col-
leagues) were important in preparing princi-
pals for their current positions.

PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 129
9. Having experience as a teacher leader was
crucial in preparing principals for their current
positions.

10. Having experience as an assistant principal
was crucial in preparing principals for their
current positions.

Based on your perception of the recruitment of principals,
rate the following statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.

For the next statements, please use the following definition for principal recruitment:
Recruitment is defined as the strategies and steps that principals took
prior to taking on their first principal position.
RECRUITMENT

Statement

Strongly
Agree
(4)

Agree
(3)

Disagree
(2)

Strongly
Disagree
(1)
Don’t Know
or
Not
Applicable
(NA)
11. District resources and recruitment strategies
help candidates to get recruited into principal
positions in my district.

12. University principal preparation programs help
candidates to get recruited into principal posi-
tions in my district.

13. Nontraditional principal preparation programs
help candidates to get recruited into principal
positions in my district.

14. The nonmonetary incentives offered by my
district are important factors for candidates
applying for principal positions in my district.

15. The salary and benefits offered are important
factors for candidates applying for principal
positions in my district.

16. Candidates’ previous experience in education
is an important factor in recruiting for principal
positions in my district.

17. Candidates’ previous experience outside of
education is an important factor in recruiting
for principal positions in my district.

PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 130

18. The reputation of my school district is an
important factor in candidates applying for
principal positions in my district.

19. Candidates’ level of understanding of district
initiatives and goals was an important factor in
being recruited into principal positions in my
district.

20. Networking with district personnel helps
candidates to get recruited into principal posi-
tions in my district.

21. Having a mentor helps candidates to get re-
cruited into principal positions in my district.

22. Being an employee of my school district helps
candidates to get recruited into principal posi-
tions in my district.

23. Candidates’ participation in professional
organizations helps candidates to get recruited
into principal positions in my district.

24. Holding an advanced degree (e.g., Ed.D. or
Ph.D.) helps candidates to get recruited into
principal positions in my district.

25. Having instructional leadership experience is
an important factor in recruiting for principal
positions in my district.

26. My district is experiencing a shortage of qual-
ity candidates for the principal position.

PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 131

Based on your perception of the retention of principals,
rate the following statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.

For the next statements, please use the following definition for principal retention:
Retention is the process/strategy used by principals
to maintain their current principal position.
RETENTION

Statement

Strongly
Agree
(4)

Agree
(3)

Disagree
(2)

Strongly
Disagree
(1)
Don’t Know
or
Not
Applicable
(NA)
27. University training programs provide princi-
pals with skills/strategies that support their
success in retaining their current positions.

28. Professional networks (such as NAESP,
NASSP, ACSA, university networks) provide
principals with processes/strategies that
support their success in retaining their current
positions.

29. Having mentor(s) provides principals with
processes/ strategies that support their success
in retaining their current positions.

30. The relationships that principals have with
directors, assistant superintendents, and the
superintendent support their success in
retaining their current positions.

31. Principals’ compensation determines their
desire to continue in their current positions.

32. Having a formal, written strategic plan
supports principals’ success in retaining their
current positions.

33. Pressures from accountability measures affect
principals’ desires to retain their current posi-
tion.

PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 132
APPENDIX G
PRINCIPAL INTERVIEW GUIDE
Interviewer: Date:
Interviewee: Location:
Job Title: Contact Info:
Length of Time in Your Position:
Start Time: End Time:
Introduction

Thank you for taking the time to meet with me today. The purpose of this study is to understand
the preparation, recruitment, and retention of K-12 principals in California public schools.

Your participation in this study is voluntary. The information that you provide today will be kept
confidential, but the data collected will be used for our study. Any identifiable information will
be removed from our study to maintain your confidentiality. You can stop at any time or choose
not to answer a question that you are not comfortable with. Our interview should take about 45
minutes of your time. I would like to record our conversation, in addition to taking notes, so that
I can ensure that I accurately represent your responses. This audio recording will not be shared
with anyone. Are you comfortable with me recording our conversation today?

Your reflection and experiences will be used to help understand how K-12 principals in Califor-
nia public schools are prepared, recruited and retained. Let’s get started.

Preparation

1. What type of training program (e.g. principal’s academy, university program, etc.) did you
attend that prepared you for the principalship?
1a. Which training was most effective? Why?

2. Describe your career path to the principalship.
2a. Which professional experiences leading up to becoming a principal were the most
beneficial? Why?

3. Which professional relationships helped you prepare for the principal position?
3a. Why were they important in your preparation?

4. When did you know that you wanted to be a principal?
4a. What proactive steps did you take to get a position?
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 133
Recruitment

5. How did your training program prepare you for the principal recruitment process?

6. What prior experiences did you have that made you the most desirable candidate for princi-
pal?
6a. Is there an experience that you lacked that might have helped you while being
recruited?

7. What qualities or characteristics made you a qualified principal candidate?

8. Did you strategically use professional relationships, such as mentoring or networking, to
attain your position? If so, how?

9. What attracted you to the principalship in your district?

Retention

10. What skills/strategies does a principal need to be successful?
10a. What does your district do to support the development of those skills/strategies?
10b. How does ongoing training support your retention?

11. What professional relationships support your retention?
11a. Is the relationship formal or informal?
11b. Is it assigned or self-selected?
11c. What strategies do you use with your supervisors to support your retention as a
principal?

12. What factors impact your decision to stay in the principalship?
12a. What factors, if any, would influence you leaving the position?

PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 134
APPENDIX H
HUMAN RESOURCES ADMINISTRATOR INTERVIEW GUIDE
Interviewer: Date:
Interviewee: Location:
Job Title: Contact Info:
Length of Time in Your Position:
Start Time: End Time:
Introduction

Thank you for taking the time to meet with me today. The purpose of this study is to understand
the preparation, recruitment, and retention of K-12 principals in California public schools.

Your participation in this study is voluntary. The information you provide today will be kept
confidential, but the data collected will be used for our study. Any identifiable information will
be removed from our study to maintain your confidentiality. You can stop at any time or chose
not to answer a question that you are not comfortable with. Our interview should take about 45
minutes of your time. I would like to record our conversation, in addition to taking notes, so that
I can ensure that I accurately represent your responses. This audio recording will not be shared
with anyone. Are you comfortable with me recording our conversation today?

Your reflection and experiences will be used to help understand how K-12 principals in Califor-
nia public schools are prepared, recruited and retained. Let’s get started.

Preparation

1. What type of training program did your principals attend to prepare them for the
principalship?
1a. Where did they receive the most effective training? Why?

2. Describe your principals’ career paths to the principalship.
2a. Which professional experiences leading up to the principalship were the most
beneficial to your principals? Why?

3. Which professional relationships helped your principals to prepare for their position?
3a. Why were they important?

4. What proactive steps did your principals take to get their positions?

PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 135
Recruitment

5. How did principal training programs prepare your principals for the recruitment process?

6. What prior experiences did your principals have that made them the most desirable candidate
to be hired?
6a. Are there any experiences they lacked that would have helped them be recruited?

7. What qualities or characteristics do you seek in a principal candidate?

8. How have your principals used professional relationships, such as mentoring or networking,
to attain their positions?

9. What strategies do you use to attract principal candidates to your district?

Retention

10. What skills/strategies does a principal need to be successful?
10a. What does your district do to support the development of those skills/strategies?

11. What professional relationships support the retention of principals?
11a. Are these relationships formal or informal?
11b. Are they assigned or self-selected?

12. What factors have impacted the ongoing retention of your principals?
12a. What factors, if any, influence principals leaving the position?
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 136
APPENDIX I
IMMEDIATE SUPERVISOR INTERVIEW GUIDE
Interviewer: Date:
Interviewee: Location:
Job Title: Contact Info:
Length of Time in Your Position:
Start Time: End Time:
Introduction

Thank you for taking the time to meet with me today. The purpose of this study is to understand
the preparation, recruitment, and retention of K-12 principals in California public schools.

Your participation in this study is voluntary. The information you provide today will be kept
confidential, but the data collected will be used for our study. Any identifiable information will
be removed from our study to maintain your confidentiality. You can stop at any time or chose
not to answer a question that you are not comfortable with. Our interview should take about 45
minutes of your time. I would like to record our conversation, in addition to taking notes, so that
I can ensure that I accurately represent your responses. This audio recording will not be shared
with anyone. Are you comfortable with me recording our conversation today?

Your reflection and experiences will be used to help understand how K-12 principals in Califor-
nia public schools are prepared, recruited and retained. Let’s get started.

Preparation

1. What type of training program did your principals attend to prepare them for the
principalship?
1a. Where did they receive the most effective training? Why?

2. Describe your principals’ career paths to the principalship.
2a. Which professional experiences leading up to the principalship were the most
beneficial to your principals? Why?

3. Which professional relationships helped your principals to prepare for their position?
3a. Why were they important?

4. What proactive steps did your principals take to get their positions?

PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 137
Recruitment

5. How did principal training programs prepare your principals for the recruitment process?

6. What prior experiences did your principals have that made them the most desirable candi-
dates to be hired?
6a. Are there any experiences they lacked that would have helped them be recruited?

7. What qualities or characteristics do you seek in a principal candidate?

8. How have your principals used professional relationships, such as mentoring or networking,
to attain their positions?

9. What strategies do you use to attract principal candidates to your district?

Retention

10. What skills/strategies does a principal need to be successful?
10a. What does your district do to support the development of those skills/strategies?

11. What professional relationships support the retention of principals?
11a. Are these relationships formal or informal?
11b. Are they assigned or self-selected?

12. What factors have impacted the ongoing retention of your principals?
12a. What factors, if any, influence principals leaving the position?
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 138
APPENDIX J
SUPERINTENDENT INTERVIEW GUIDE
Interviewer: Date:
Interviewee: Location:
Job Title: Contact Info:
Length of Time in Your Position:
Start Time: End Time:
Introduction

Thank you for taking the time to meet with me today. The purpose of this study is to understand
the preparation, recruitment, and retention of K-12 principals in California public schools.

Your participation in this study is voluntary. The information you provide today will be kept
confidential, but the data collected will be used for our study. Any identifiable information will
be removed from our study to maintain your confidentiality. You can stop at any time or chose
not to answer a question that you are not comfortable with. Our interview should take about 45
minutes of your time. I would like to record our conversation, in addition to taking notes, so that
I can ensure that I accurately represent your responses. This audio recording will not be shared
with anyone. Are you comfortable with me recording our conversation today?

Your reflection and experiences will be used to help understand how K-12 principals in Califor-
nia public schools are prepared, recruited and retained. Let’s get started.

Preparation

1. What type of training program did your principals attend to prepare them for the
principalship?
1a. Where did they receive the most effective training? Why?

2. Describe your principals’ career paths to the principalship.
2a. Which professional experiences leading up to the principalship were the most
beneficial to your principals? Why?

3. Which professional relationships help your principals prepare for their position?
3a. Why were they important?

4. What proactive steps did your principals take to get their positions?

PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 139
Recruitment

5. How did principal training programs prepare your principals for the recruitment process?

6. What prior experiences did your principals have that made them the most desirable candi-
dates to be hired?
6a. Are there any experiences they lacked that would have helped them be recruited?

7. What qualities or characteristics do you seek in a principal candidate?

8. How have your principals used professional relationships, such as mentoring or networking,
to attain their positions?

9. What strategies do you use to attract principal candidates to your district?

Retention

10. What skills/strategies does a principal need to be successful?
10a. What does your district do to support the development of those skills/strategies?

11. What professional relationships support the retention of principals?
11a. Are these relationships formal or informal?
11b. Are they assigned or self-selected?

12. What factors have impacted the ongoing retention of your principals?
12a. What factors, if any, influence principals leaving the position?
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 140
APPENDIX K
QUESTION ALIGNMENT MATRIX

Instrument
RQ1
How have training
programs and profes-
sional experiences
prepared principals to
manage the complex-
ities and challenges of
the principalship?
RQ2
What are the percep-
tions of principals,
immediate super-
visors of principals,
human resources
administrators, and
superintendents
regarding strategies to
recruit successful
principal candidates?
RQ3
What are the per-
ceived strategies that
support the retention
of principals?
Principal Survey 1-13 14-29 30-36
Principal Interview
Guide
1-4 5-9 10-12
Human Resources
Administrator Survey
1-10 11-26 27-33
Human Resources
Administrator Inter-
view Guide
1-4 5-9 10-12
Immediate Supervisor
Survey
1-10 11-26 27-33
Immediate Supervisor
Interview Guide
1-4 5-9 10-12
Superintendent
Survey
1-10 11-26 27-33
Superintendent Inter-
view Guide
1-4 5-9 10-12

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The K–12 public school principalship is a complex position that continues to evolve and become increasingly challenging. Today’s principals are responsible not only for the academic and social-emotional needs of the students but also for development and training of staff, creating and sustaining strong relationships with families, and collaborating with the community. Administrative preparation programs often do not support aspiring principals adequately in the areas that lead to their success in the position, instead focusing on the managerial aspects of the job. This qualitative study examined the preparation, recruitment, and retention of public school principals in southern California. Perspectives from principals, immediate supervisors of principals, human resources administrators, and superintendents were considered to identify common themes in response to the research questions. Learning opportunities, on-the-job preparation experiences, and networking relationships were found to be valuable in the preparation of principals. Taking advantage of networking opportunities, having current administrators tap potential candidates, and demonstrating characteristics unique to the district were all viewed as valuable for principal recruitment. Relationships with others in the district, having a mentor, and finding the work meaningful were important in the retention of principals. The themes in this study have implications for traditional university preparation programs, district personnel, and aspiring principals. Future research can examine how districts can implement these findings to develop a strong pipeline of future administrators.

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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Asset Metadata

Creator Fairchild, Rena Kono (author)

Core Title The preparation, recruitment, and retention of principals in southern California

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 05/14/2020

Defense Date 01/16/2020

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Coaching,learning opportunities,mentoring,networking,OAI-PMH Harvest,on-the-job experiences,pipeline,principal preparation,principal recruitment,principal retention,tapping

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Escalante, Michael (committee chair), Cash, David (committee member), Crosby, Owen (committee member), Doll, Michele (committee member)

Creator Email renakfairchild@aol.com,rfairchi@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-307610

Unique identifier UC11663605

Identifier etd-FairchildR-8514.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-307610 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-FairchildR-8514.pdf

Dmrecord 307610

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Fairchild, Rena Kono

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA