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Bystander intervention training & the culture of sexual assault on college campuses

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Bystander intervention training & the culture of sexual assault on college campuses

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Content Running head: BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 1
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION TRAINING & THE CULTURE OF SEXUAL ASSAULT
ON COLLEGE CAMPUSES
by
Sally Behpoornia
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2020
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First, I could not have gotten where I am today without my family. To my mom and dad,
thank you for the countless sacrifices you have made in your lives to allow me the opportunity to
pursue my education. Thank you for all of your love, support, and advice throughout the years.
Thank you for understanding my inability to visit home as much during the last three years, and
for coming to visit me instead, always dropping off delicious home-cooked food. To my brother,
thank you for always checking in, encouraging me to keep going, and coming to visit whenever
you could. To my extended family, thank you for all your words of encouragement and your
understanding of my lack of attendance at family events the last few years. I look forward to
spending much more time with you all!
To my partner Pablo, we started our relationship when I was not in school, and we both
knew I was going to pursue another degree, but we did not know exactly what that meant for my
time and availability. Thank you for your patience, support, and love throughout my doctoral
journey. I know our evenings and weekends were filled with me either writing or working or
sleeping, so I look forward to going on many more vacations, adventures, and date nights with
you again.
To my friends, thank you for being my writing buddies and cheerleaders! Ally, you have
been a support system and accountability buddy from the application process, and I thank you for
everything. Andrea, thank you for always checking in to hear about my progress and for
motivating me to keep going when I needed it. Corey, thanks for always being there to support
me, and for hanging out when I was in the mood to procrastinate or needed to take my mind off
of my work and schoolwork. Queena & Vanessa, thanks for all the weekend writing gatherings
especially during year 2, and for always checking in and providing support. Jenn & Ally, thank
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 3
you for our writing weekends in Annenberg especially during year 3 even when we had to move
it to Zoom writing weekends.
To my USC Residential Education department, I appreciate everyone’s support and
encouragement! You all were constantly checking in on my progress, providing encouraging
words, and celebrating milestones and accomplishments. I am so thankful for everything you all
have done to support me throughout the years.
To my dissertation committee, I am incredibly lucky to have had your guidance and
support throughout this journey. Dr. Tambascia, thank you for all of your support throughout
PASA and EdD program! I am so extremely thankful to have had you as my dissertation chair.
Thank you for your patience, keeping me accountable, encouraging me, and providing your
insight and feedback. Thank you for believing in me and for motivating me throughout every
step of this process. Dr. Hirabayashi, thank you for your time, feedback, and guidance especially
around my theoretical framework. I appreciate you taking the time to be on my committee. Dr.
Kumar, thank you for accepting to be on my committee especially with your extremely busy
schedule. I am so glad to have met you when you were working at USC. I appreciate the insight
and thought you provided, and for challenging me throughout the dissertation journey.
Lastly, to my Thursday night higher ed cohort, we did it! I could not have gotten through
this without you all. From navigating our assignments and deadlines, to grabbing dinner between
our back to back classes, to all of our group papers and presentations, we always had each
other’s backs. Thank you for challenging me, keeping me accountable, and making classes
entertaining!

BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 4
Table of Contents

Acknowledgements 2

List of Tables 6

List of Figures 7

Abstract 8

Chapter 1: Overview of the Study 9
Statement of the Problem 13
Purpose of the Study 13
Significance of the Study 14
Limitations and Delimitations 15
Assumptions 16
Definitions 16
Conclusion 17

Chapter 2: Literature Review 18
Sexual Violence 18
Sexual Assault on College Campuses 19
Sexual Assault Prevention Programs 22
Bystander Intervention 25
Instructional Design Theory 34
Organizational Change 38
Conclusion 39

Chapter 3: Methodology 40
Research Questions 41
Methodology 41
Population and Sample 44
Instrumentation 46
Data Collection 47
Data Analysis 50
Validity & Credibility 51
Role of the Researcher 52
Conclusion 53

Chapter 4: Presentation of Data and Findings 54
Overview of Study Participants 54
Emerging Themes 60
Theme 1 60
Theme 2 63
Theme 3 67
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Theme 4 70
Conclusion 74

Chapter 5: Discussion and Implications 76
Discussion of Findings 76
Finding 1 77
Finding 2 78
Theoretical Framework & Bystander Intervention 79
Recommendations 82
Implications 84
Future Research 85
Conclusion 86

References 88
Appendix A: Recruitment Email 94
Appendix B: Survey Protocol 95
Appendix C: Interview Invitation Email 97
Appendix D: Information Sheet 98
Appendix E: Interview Protocol 100

BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 6
LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Factors Influencing Students’ Decision to Intervene

Table 2: Interview Participant Survey Responses

Table 3: Interview Participant Bystander Intervention Initiatives

BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 7
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Interview participant’s institution type

Figure 2: Interview participants’ institution setting

Figure 3: Interview participant’s institution size

Figure 4: Interview participants’ bystander intervention program requirement

BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 8
ABSTRACT

Sexual violence is occurring at alarmingly high rates at institutions of higher education.
In response to these high numbers of sexual assault on campuses and the appeal of a community-
level approach to prevention, there has been an increased interest in bystander intervention
trainings designed to decrease the incidence of sexual assault. This qualitative study examined
the role of bystander intervention trainings in changing the culture around sexual assault on
college campuses across the United States. Using instructional design theory and organizational
change theory as a theoretical framework, this study included a survey and interviews to gather
insight from campus administrators who were directly involved with the planning,
implementation, or facilitation of their institution’s bystander intervention program. The study
found that participants believed bystander intervention trainings have a critical role in changing
the culture around sexual assault on college campuses, but there are several issues, including
institutional support, that determine the success of bystander intervention trainings ability to play
that critical role. This study also found that bystander intervention trainings change attitudes and
behaviors within students. Participant’s responses illustrated that bystander intervention trainings
support a positive change in the culture around sexual assault by bringing more attention,
awareness, and education around the topic. This study offers recommendations to higher
education administrators involved with the creation and implementation of bystander
intervention programs and senior level administrators who currently have or are looking to adopt
a bystander intervention program.

BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 9
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY

Sexual assault is a serious problem at institutions of higher education in the United States
(Banyard, Moynihan, & Crossman, 2009; Fisher, Cullen, & Turner, 2000; McMahon, 2008). In
what is considered by many researchers as one of the touchstone studies on sexual violence,
Koss, Gidycz, and Wisniewski (1987) surveyed over 6,000 students enrolled at 32 institutions of
higher education across the United States to determine the prevalence of sexual violence. Their
findings revealed that more than 50% of the women surveyed reported having experienced a
form of sexual violence since age 14, and about 27% surveyed had been raped (Koss et al.,
1987). The prevalence of sexual assault documented over 30 years ago remains mostly
unchanged despite various legislative acts, policy changes, and prevention programs (McMahon,
2008).
One in five college women experience rape or attempted rape during their college years
according to the National College Women Sexual Victimization study (Fisher et al., 2000).
Additionally, Karjane, Fisher, and Cullen (2005) found that college women are at a higher risk
for sexual assault than women who are not in college. College men also report unwanted sexual
experiences, but at a lower rate than college women (Banyard et al., 2009). College campuses
create unique situations that complicate the issue around sexual victimization. The survivor may
continue to live in fear after the assault as the perpetrator may attend the same college or
university, be enrolled in the same classes, or live in the same residence hall (McMahon, 2008).
Revictimization can occur if the perpetrator discovers that the survivor is filing a report or
pursuing legal action through the college or local police (McMahon, 2008). Colleges and
universities have a responsibility to support both the survivor and the perpetrator during these
investigations. Colleges and universities also have a responsibility to educate all their students
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 10
about the policies around sexual assault, how to report a sexual assault, and how to prevent
incidents of sexual assault.
University Role to Educate
In response to the continuing prominence of the issue of sexual assault at institutions of
higher education, Congress passed several acts throughout the 1990s, including the Student
Right-to-Know and Campus Security Act of 1990, renamed in 1998 as the Jeanne Clery
Disclosure of Campus Security Policy and Campus Crime Statistics Act, now commonly known
as the Clery Act (Coker et al., 2011). The Clery Act requires institutions that receive Title IV
funding to publicly disclose their policy on sexual assault, the educational programs provided by
the institution to attempt prevention of rape and other sexual violence acts, and their annual
crime statistics, including sex offenses (Coker et al., 2011). Before 1988, less than 4% of
colleges and universities in the United States publicly reported crime that occurred on their
campuses; however, after Congress passed the Clery Act, that percentage significantly increased
(McMahon, 2008). In 1999, Congress responded to the public’s concern over the continued
prevalence of sexual assault on college campuses by directing the National Institute of Justice
(NIJ) to assess institution of higher education compliance with the Clery Act (McMahon, 2008).
The NIJ ensured that each institution was making their on-campus crime statistics public,
publicizing their prevention efforts and how they respond to crime, instituting crime logs, and
preserving the rights of survivors of sexual assault. Additionally, through the Office of Violence
Against Women, Congress set aside funding for grants supporting the development of programs
that address sexual assault, dating violence, stalking, and other sexual violence acts on college
and university campuses (Coker et al., 2011).
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Despite the efforts of Congress and institutions of higher education around sexual assault
at institutions of higher education, sexual assault persists on campuses. This indicates a need for
careful reflection and attention by colleges and universities regarding policies and programs
related to the prevention of sexual violence on campuses. Examining institutional policies,
programs, and protocols designed to protect college students from sexual violence crime may
lead to improved effectiveness in addressing sexual violence on campuses (McMahon, 2008).
Sexual Assault Prevention Programs
In response to legislation and the increasing numbers of sexual assault on campuses,
administrators responded by implementing awareness and prevention programs designed to
decrease the incidence of sexual assault (Coker et al., 2011). The NIJ recommended that colleges
and universities provide training to students that details what actions to take if someone were to
disclose a sexual assault to them (McMahon, 2008). Research shows that survivors of sexual
assault initially inform a friend before reporting the sexual assault to anyone else; therefore, the
NIJ suggests that accessing assistance and support for the survivor will be more likely if students
are familiar with the importance of helping survivors understand they experienced a crime, need
to obtain medical care, and have the option of reporting to proper resources (McMahon, 2008).
The format and information included in sexual assault prevention programs at college and
university campuses differs (McMahon, Postmus, & Koenick, 2011). Some programs focus on
providing information such as statistics, some focus on empathy and support for sexual assault
survivors, while others focus on risk reduction, such as strategies students can take to avoid
sexual violence. Additionally, the audience of these sexual assault prevention programs differs.
These audiences may include a mixed gender audience, single gender audience, a “high risk”
group such as fraternities and athletes, or students from a residence hall (McMahon, Postmus, &
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 12
Koenick, 2011). The Clery Act requires institutions of higher education that receive Title IV
funding to offer educational programs to promote awareness of sexual violence, but does not
specify how these programs should be conducted. Since there are no specifications about how
the educational programs should be conducted, there have been several different formats of
sexual assault prevention programs produced by colleges and universities.
Bystander Intervention Programs
The bystander intervention approach to the prevention of sexual violence was introduced
in the mid-1990s (Coker et al., 2011). The idea of bystander behavior is well established in the
field of social psychology, and more recent research has extended these findings to factors that
promote helpful bystander behaviors that prevent sexual violence (Banyard et al., 2009;
McMahon et al., 2011). The idea behind applying the bystander approach to sexual violence is
that training individuals to effectively intervene in situations of sexual violence is integral for
prevention (McMahon et al., 2011). The factors that promote helpful bystander behaviors include
the need for bystanders to recognize the problem, to have role models demonstrate interventions,
and to practice and develop skills for engaging in bystander behavior without endangering
themselves (Banyard et al., 2009). The incorporation of bystander intervention is increasing in
sexual assault prevention programs at colleges and universities. The goal is to educate students
on how to recognize situations that promote sexual violence and how to intervene in a safe and
effective manner (Coker et al., 2011). Early studies on bystander intervention programs provide
evidence of changing students’ attitudes and increasing their bystander behavior; however, the
impact on assault perpetration and prevalence of sexual violence on colleges campuses has not
been researched as extensively (Coker et al., 2011). Researchers believe that bystander
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 13
intervention can be used to create a culture on college and university campuses that does not
tolerate sexual violence (McMahon et al., 2011).
Statement of the Problem

Sexual violence is occurring at alarmingly high rates at institutions of higher education.
There are 20-25% female undergraduates who experience an attempted or completed sexual
violence act (Gross, Winslett, Roberts, & Gohm, 2006; Vladutiu, Martin, & Macy, 2011).
Colleges and universities are responsible for educating their students around sexual assault
prevention; therefore, to address the increasing number of sexual assaults on college campuses,
many institutions have a goal to implement a prevention education program on their campuses
(DeMaria et al., 2018). However, there has been little research conducted on the role these
programs have in changing the culture around sexual assault on college campuses. Bystander
intervention training is one example of prevention programs attempting to shift cultural and
social norms around sexual assault at colleges and universities.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to understand the role of bystander intervention trainings in
changing the culture around sexual assault on college campuses. This study specifically gathered
insight from campus administrators who are directly involved with the planning, implementation,
or facilitation of their institution’s bystander intervention program. Instructional design theory
and organizational change theory served as the guiding theoretical frameworks of this study.
Instructional design theory offers guidance on how to help people learn and develop (Reigeluth,
2013). Organizational change theory contends a successful cultural shift can only occur when all
members of the campus community develop and implement the new understandings of campus
structures and processes (Kezar, 2013). Within these frameworks, this study sought to
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 14
understand how bystander intervention programs assist in discerning what social factors affect a
bystander’s willingness of whether or not to intervene and how campus community support
impacts the culture around sexual assault on campus. The following research question guided
this study: What is the role of bystander intervention trainings in changing the culture around
sexual assault on college campuses?
This study was conducted with campus administrators at four-year, degree granting
institutions in the United States. The study used a survey and interviews to collect data.
Significance of the Study
Research regarding campus administrator perception and understanding of the role of
bystander intervention trainings is missing from current literature, and this study provided
valuable information to several communities. First, this study benefited senior level
administrators at four-year, degree granting institutions by providing insight on the impact of
bystander intervention programs and include the campus administrator perspective which will be
valuable research for senior level administrators to take into consideration when deciding
whether or not to implement a bystander intervention program at their institution. Second, this
study aided creators of bystander intervention programs by providing feedback from the
implementation of these programs at different institutions. Ongoing sexual assault on college and
university campuses indicates a need for institutions of higher education to evaluate and reflect
on their prevention of sexual violence on campuses. Third, this study benefited students because
it increased their safety and awareness of sexual assault on campus. Presently, research on
bystander intervention programs focuses on student’s abilities to regurgitate information from
the training. This study researched the role bystander intervention programs have on the culture
around sexual assault on campus; therefore, this study resulted in creating more safe spaces and
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 15
proactive education because it provided feedback to those responsible for creating the sexual
assault prevention education programs on their campuses.
Limitations
There were two limitations to this study. First, only campus administrators were surveyed
and interviewed. Although there are other stakeholders, such as students and parents, who could
be interviewed to gauge their understanding of the role of bystander intervention trainings in
changing the culture around sexual assault on college campuses, this study only focused on the
campus administrator perspective. Second, the participants of this study could have been
reluctant to share honest answers about their experience with their campus bystander intervention
program, fearing that the information may have been connected to them and their institution.
Given that the study centered on the perceived role of bystander intervention trainings, a
willingness to share honestly was essential.
Delimitations
There were three delimitations in this study. This study only focused on four-year, degree
granting institutions and not community colleges. The decision to focus on these institutions was
based on the research that shows these institutions are more likely than community colleges to
have specifically designed bystander intervention programs that are available for all students to
attend. Second, the study only focused on campus administrators who are involved in planning,
implementation, or facilitation of their institution’s bystander intervention program, and no other
campus administrators. Although other campus administrators not directly involved with the
bystander intervention program can provide insight on their understanding of the role of
bystander intervention training, the reason for this distinction was that those directly involved in
the implementation of bystander intervention programs on their campuses could provide the
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 16
richest and most informed responses. Lastly, this study used a survey to determine a purposeful
sample of participants to interview individually, but did not use focus groups to gather data. The
intention of the interview method was to obtain data from personal experience in an individual
setting as oppose to what might be collected from a group setting that could have been
influenced by the reactions and responses of others.
Assumptions
In this study, it was assumed that bystander intervention programs have a role in
changing the culture around sexual assault on college campuses. The study sought to understand
how campus administrators perceive how bystander intervention programs may change the
culture at their institution. It was also assumed that qualitative research was the best
methodological approach for this research study. Another assumption was that campus
administrator interviews would be sufficient in capturing data to answer the research question.
Definitions
There were a few terms used in this study that need to be defined to promote clarity.
1. Bystander- Individuals who witness a crisis event or emergency situation (Latane &
Darley, 1970).
2. Bystander Effect- Barriers and processes that occur to impact an individual’s decision to
intervene in an emergency situation (Latane & Darley, 1970).
3. Bystander Intervention- Shifts the focus of prevention efforts to peers and community
members, suggesting that these members can intervene in helpful or prosocial ways as
“engaged bystanders” when faced with situations involving sexual violence (McMahon &
Banyard, 2012).
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 17
4. Culture- Shared assumptions of individuals participating in the organization (Tierney,
1988).
5. Sexual Assault- Any type of sexual contact or behavior occurring without the explicit
consent of the recipient (Reynolds-Tylus, Lukacena, & Quick, 2018).
6. Sexual Violence- Physical sexual acts perpetrated against a person’s will or where a
person is incapable of giving consent (Lhamon, 2014).
Conclusion
This chapter detailed the persistent problem of sexual violence occurring at high rates at
institutions of higher education and the bystander intervention prevention efforts institutions
have implemented. The purpose of the study was presented along with the contribution this
research offered the existing literature. Key terms were defined to avoid ambiguity and to
provide an operational understanding of commonly used terms throughout the study.
This dissertation will be organized in five chapters. Chapter Two will explore relevant
literature and share existing research to provide a foundational understanding of related topics
and conceptual framework for this study. The literature review will outline sexual violence on
college campuses, sexual assault prevention education programs, and bystander intervention
programs.
Chapter Three will outline the methods used to conduct this study. Chapter Four presents
the data collected and results of the study. Chapter Five discusses the results, using the literature
as a lens for understanding the data collected, presents conclusions, and describes implications of
the study.

BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 18
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

Sexual assault is a serious problem at institutions of higher education in the United States
(Banyard et al., 2009; Fisher et al., 2000; McMahon, 2008). Colleges and universities are
responsible for educating their students around sexual assault prevention. Bystander intervention
trainings are one example of prevention programs attempting to shift cultural and social norms
around sexual assault at colleges and universities.
This chapter will provide an overview of sexual assault on college campuses including a
definition, legislation, reporting barriers, and long-term impacts. This chapter will review
bystander intervention programs as a community based solution, review the program structure,
and discuss the predictors and barriers of intervention. Lastly, this chapter will discuss the
conceptual framework of instructional design theory and organizational change theory.
Sexual Violence
Sexual violence “refers to physical sexual acts perpetrated against a person’s will or where
a person is incapable of giving consent” (Lhamon, 2014, p. 1). Sexual violence includes different
acts, including sexual assault, sexual abuse, sexual coercion, and rape (Lhamon, 2014). There are
20-25% female undergraduates who experience an attempted or completed sexual violence act
(Gross et al., 2006; Vladutiu et al., 2011). Undergraduate males also experience sexual violence
acts during college, but it occurs at a lower percentage than females (Vladutiu et al., 2011).
Students who experience sexual violence acts during their time in college face potential
traumatization at a very important time in their development (Karjane et al., 2002).
To address the increasing number of sexual assaults on college campuses, many
institutions have a goal to implement a prevention education program on their campus, but there
has been little research conducted on the results of these programs (DeMaria et al., 2018).
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 19
DeMaria et al.’s (2018) research highlights that institutions should implement strategic plans to
not only create a sexual assault prevention education program, but also to develop a process of
assessment and evaluation of the effectiveness of their program in actually decreasing the
numbers of sexual assaults on their campuses. The problem of increasing numbers of sexual
violence acts against students of all genders across institutions of higher education is important
to address because there are federally mandated expectations that universities which receive
federal funding need to comply with. Title IX protects all students at institutions that receive
federal funding from sex discrimination, including sexual violence (Lhamon, 2014). When a
school knows or reasonably should know of possible sexual violence occurring on their campus
or occurring to one of their students, it must take immediate action to determine what took place
(Lhamon, 2014). It is important that these federal guidelines are in place because as McMahon
(2008) found, the incidence of sexual assault on college campuses is not declining. This
researcher also wrote that the ongoing prevalence of sexual assault on college campuses
indicates a need for institutions of higher education to evaluate and reflect on their policies
related to the prevention of sexual violence on campuses. Gross, et al. (2006), McMahon (2008),
and Vladutiu (2011) state that the prevalence of sexual assault on college campuses suggests the
importance of continuing to identify correlates of sexual assault among college students.
Identifying relationships between various forms of sexual violence and their risk factors would
help prevention programs target direct variables relevant to the college student population (Gross
et al., 2006).
Sexual Assault on College Campuses

Koss, Gidycz, and Wisniewski (1987) surveyed over 6,000 students enrolled at 32
institutions of higher education across the United States to determine the prevalence of sexual
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 20
violence. Their findings revealed that more than 50% of the women surveyed reported having
experienced a form of sexual violence since age 14, and about 27% surveyed had been raped
(Koss et al., 1987). Despite years of documentation and research, program development, and
program implementation, sexual assault remains a problem on college campuses (McMahon,
2008). The risk of sexual assault, through attempted rape, verbal coercion, and forcible rape is
higher for a person during the college years (DeMaria et al., 2018). Women are at the highest
risk when they first enter college, and most sexual assaults are carried out by serial offenders
(Alegria-Flores, Raker, Pleasants, Weaver, & Weinberger, 2017).
Definition
Sexual assault as defined by the United States Department of Justice is “any type of
sexual contact or behavior occurring without the explicit consent of the recipient” (Reynolds-
Tylus et al., 2018, p. 1). This definition includes any coercive sexual contact or behavior
including sexual intercourse, incest, fondling, and attempted rape. An important concept that is
central to this definition is consent, which is an agreement between two or more individuals to
engage in sexual activity. In order to provide consent, an individual needs to be able to be aware
of the situation, know what they desire to do, and have the capability to communicate this desire
(Reynolds-Tylus et al., 2018). Situations in which an individual would not be capable of giving
consent include the following: if the individual is threatened, coerced, forced, or manipulated
into a sexual act against their will, if the individual is incapacitated due to drugs or alcohol, if the
individual does not have the mental capacity to give consent due to disability or illness, and if the
individual is a legal minor.
Legislation
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In response to the continued importance of this issue of sexual assault on college
campuses, Congress passed several acts throughout the 1990s directed at addressing the issue of
sexual assault on campuses. One of these acts was the Student Right-to-Know and Campus
Security Act of 1990, renamed the Jeanne Clery Disclosure of Campus Security Policy and
Campus Crime Statistics Act, now commonly known as the Clery Act (Coker et al., 2011). The
Clery Act requires colleges and universities that receive federal funding to regularly report
publicly their annual crime statistics, which includes sex offenses, and also to state their policies
on sexual assault and describe the educational programs provided by the college to promote
education and awareness of rape and other sexual violence offenses (Coker et al., 2011). The
Clery Act also requires colleges and universities to make information available to students about
how to report crimes of this manner. Congress has also set aside funds for the Office of Violence
Against Women to fund grants that encourage the development of programs that address dating
violence, stalking, and sexual assault on college campuses (Coker et al., 2011).
Reporting Barriers
Despite legal reform and educational efforts, sexual assault remains an underreported crime
in the United States, and there are many barriers college women face in reporting sexual assault.
A common finding among sexual assault victims who did not report was that “shame, guilt, and
embarrassment,” “confidentiality concerns,” and “fear of not being believed” are the leading
barriers to reporting the sexual assault (Sable, Danis, Mauzy, & Gallagher, 2006, p. 159). The
researchers found that the shame, guilt, and embarrassment, which include not wanting friends
and family to know, has a gendered contextual meaning. Society’s stereotypes about seductive
women may continue to be a barrier with college women’s reporting of sexual assaults.
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 22
Another common finding was that college women sexual assault victims may have a “race
script” that defines expectations for the events that take place in a rape scenario (Zinzow &
Thompson, 2011, p. 713). This “race script” is determined by what college women often hear
about reported sexual assaults—i.e., that they involve a White woman who is attacked by a
stranger assailant and assaulted by force with a weapon. The study found that consistent with this
“race script” theory, sexual assaults with acquaintances as assailants and assaults involving lower
levels of force are less likely to be acknowledged as rapes, and therefore, reported less.
Fisher, Daigle, Cullen, and Turner (2003) also noted that although college women are
unlikely to report a sexual assault to campus officials, the women do often tell others in their
social circles about a sexual assault they experienced. Of the 1,318 incidents of sexual
victimization experienced by 691 respondents in this study, fewer than 5% of sexual assaults
were reported to campus authorities and about 70% of sexual assaults were disclosed to friends,
family members, or current partners. One way college campuses have attempted to educate
students on sexual assault prevention and resources is through sexual assault prevention
education programs.
Sexual Assault Prevention Programs
There is a lack of empirical evaluation on sexual assault prevention education programs
implemented across institutions of higher education in the United States. With the few empirical
studies that have been conducted, some characteristics increase effectiveness of the sexual
assault prevention education programs. A common finding was that programs with a longer
duration, defined as the number of sessions and the session length, are effective at decreasing
incidence of sexual assault (Vladutiu et al., 2011). Another finding was that in order to modify
behavior, the number of sessions should be spread out at various times throughout the student’s
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 23
time at the institution. Another common finding was that educating students about topics such as
rape myths, social norms, risk-reduction behaviors, and the definition of consent during the
prevention education programs were associated with a decrease in the incidence of sexual assault
(Rothman & Silverman, 2007). The researchers determined that individual’s intentions are a
function of perceptions of social norms; therefore, sexual assault prevention education programs
that discuss and debunk social norms around sexual assault on college campuses can decrease the
incidence of sexual assault. Anderson and Whiston (2005) also noted that the facilitator of the
prevention education program influences changes in rape-related attitudes and behaviors.
Professional presenters were more successful than graduate student or peer presenters because
they possess characteristics such as trustworthiness, expertise, and status, which positively
influenced the student’s engagement with the content.
Until recently, sexual assault prevention education programs at institutions of higher
education focused on one-time workshops that were presented to single-gender groups, and
usually by an administrator as the presenter. Through research we have learned that these types
of prevention programs have shown to be effective in changing individuals’ attitudes toward rape
myth acceptance and rape (Alegria-Flores et al., 2017; Vladutiu et al., 2011). However, research
has yet to prove that changing individuals’ attitudes changes their behavior and or prevents
violence.
Long-Term Impact
Sexual violence victims experience more short and long term physical and mental health
consequences when compared with women who have not been victimized. These short and long
term consequences include chronic pain, sexually transmitted infections, migraines and
headaches, disability, depressive symptoms, post-traumatic stress disorder, and suicidal thoughts
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 24
(Alegria-Flores et al., 2017). Although most of the research around sexual assault on college
campuses focuses on women, men and transgender individuals also experience sexual violence.
Due to its prevalence, alarming rates, and long-term effects, sexual violence prevention is a
public health priority on college and university campuses (Alegria-Flores et al., 2017).
Since college students are at a heightened risk for sexual victimization, it is critical to
identify strategies for reducing rates of sexual assault on college campuses considering the
unwarranted physical and mental health consequences arising from incidents of sexual assault.
Rooted in theories of community responsibility and prosocial bystander behavior, bystander
intervention teaches prevention to individuals as potential bystanders rather than other
prevention programs that focus solely on educating potential perpetrators or preparing potential
victims (Banyard, Moynihan, & Plante, 2007).
As a strategy for reducing the rates of sexual assault on college and university campuses,
many institutions are implementing bystander intervention programs. Federal law requires that
all educational institutions that receive Title IX funding must educate students, staff, and faculty
on sexual violence, sexual assault, and rape prevention strategies (Reynolds-Tylus et al., 2018).
These bystander intervention programs aim to reduce rates of sexual assault by creating a sense
of shared responsibility within the campus community for the prevention of sexual assault and
sexual violence. These programs also seek to change social norms that help to perpetuate sexual
violence. A core component and takeaway from bystander intervention programs is the idea that
everyone has the potential to be an active bystander to ensure all community members are safe.
Bystander intervention programs also stress the importance of speaking out or taking action
when one witnesses a potentially harmful situation. Although many may associate sexual assault
taking place in private settings, research shows that nearly one-third of sexual violence occurs
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 25
within the presence of potential bystanders (Reynolds-Tylus et al., 2018). The appeal of a
community-level approach in combination with recent attention to the issue of sexual assault on
college campuses has prompted an increased interest in bystander intervention education
programs across the United States (McMahon et al., 2015).
Bystander Intervention
Before bystander intervention programs, institutions of higher education had programs
that emphasized rape classifications, improving and sustaining healthy relationships, and
exploring consequences, but research has shown that these types of programs have not yielded
significant results (DeMaria et al., 2018). Bystanders of all genders who are present during acts
of or attempts at sexual assault are potential tools in the primary prevention of sexual violence
(Burn, 2009; DeMaria et al., 2018). Research has shown that programs focusing on community
involvement and change in culture have proven to be successful in sexual assault prevention
education (Banyard, 2011; DeMaria et al., 2018). Additionally, research has shown that
bystander intervention focused educational programs and campaigns on college campuses have
raised awareness of sexual harassment and assault and have increased bystander participation
(DeMaria et al., 2018).
Bystander intervention training is one way in which researchers and campus administrators
are shifting cultural and social norms. A common finding was that successful bystander
intervention requires college campuses to train students to intervene in order to reduce sexual
violence in a way that is safe and effective (Coker et al., 2011). The researchers also determined
that by shifting the focus away from only helping the victim to also identifying high-risk
potential perpetrator behaviors, bystander training can help bystanders respond to a potential
sexual violence situation early in its development. Another finding was that there are many steps
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 26
in successful bystander intervention which include: noticing the event, identifying it as an event
which needs intervention, taking responsibility for an intervention, deciding how to help, and
acting to intervene (Burns, 2009). Research has also shown that at any step of successful
bystander intervention, there may be barriers such as the following: distraction, ignorance,
failure to take responsibility, ambiguity, and skills deficit.
McMahon and Banyard (2012) also noted that bystander intervention is important at three
levels of prevention which includes primary intervention (prior to sexual violence occurring),
secondary intervention (during the sexual violence act), and tertiary intervention (after the sexual
violence occurs). These researchers determined that there are a range of perpetrator behaviors
that support sexual violence; therefore, there are many moments along the continuum of sexual
violence where bystanders can intervene and it is important for bystanders to be aware and
observant.
Community-Based Solutions
A promising community-based approach to reducing sexual assault is addressing the
bystander effect. This effect occurs “when individuals witness a high-risk or emergency
situation, but fail to help victims or potential victims because the presence of other bystanders
diffuses responsibility” (Alegria-Flores et al., 2017, p. 1105). Empowering bystanders to
intervene is a concept that developed from social psychology research and has been applied to
sexual violence since the 1990s when educators began teaching intervention skills on college
campuses (Alegria-Flores et al., 2017; Coker et al., 2011). Bystander intervention education
programs on college campuses attempt to teach community members, who are potential
bystanders, effective and safe strategies for intervening in a positive way either before, during, or
after a sexual violence situation.
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 27
The study of bystander behavior is often traced back to the field of social psychology and
the murder of Kitty Genovese in New York in 1964 (McMahon & Banyard, 2012). The assault
occurred in a public area and there were many witnesses, but none of the witnesses intervened,
and that spurred the work of social psychologists Latane and Darley (1970) who studied how
bystanders react to these types of emergency situations and why they chose not to intervene
(McMahon & Banyard, 2012). “Bystanders” in this context are defined as individual who
witness an emergency situation or a crisis event. Latane and Darley studied the “bystander
effect” and did research on what barriers and processes take place to impact an individual’s
decisions to intervene in a crisis event or emergency situation. Latane and Darley developed a
five-step model to explain the process individuals take to become a bystander who intervenes in
a crisis. This model and the five steps will be discussed in more detail later in this chapter.
The bystander intervention education approach offers college campuses and universities
practical strategies to help address and change social norms. These social norms often create
gender inequality and violence, and the community-based emphasis on bystander intervention
programs attempts to remove the need to treat women as potential victims and men as potential
perpetrators, and includes students who identify outside of the gender binary (Alegria-Flores et
al., 2017). Additionally, the bystander intervention approach has the potential to encourage both
attitudinal and behavioral change in individuals, challenge violence-supportive social norms, and
encourage a community-based responsibility to intervene in potential sexual assault situations
(Alegria-Flores et al., 2017).
Some common goals in bystander intervention programs include increasing bystander
efficacy, intentions, and behaviors (McMahon et al., 2015). These constructs are also supported
by the Theory of Planned Behavior, which claims that an individual’s behavior is predicted by
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 28
their intention to perform the behavior (McMahon et al., 2015). The theory continues to claim
that “intentions reflect a person’s readiness to perform a behavior” and are shaped by the
following three determinants: “the person’s attitude toward the behavior, the subjective norms
around performing the behavior, and the person’s perception of control over performing the
behavior” (McMahon et al., 2015, p. 47). Theory of Planned Behavior indicates that self-efficacy
and behavioral intent directly predict behavior, and so according to this theory, focusing on the
goals and constructs of bystander efficacy, intentions, and behavior should be a strong
foundation for bystander intervention program curriculum.
Self-efficacy and bystander intentions influence behavior at different times, and also act
as mediators for influencing behavior. With this finding in mind, changing student behavior to
prevent sexual violence on college campuses requires more than just teaching students how to
intervene (McMahon et al., 2015). Although providing suggestions about what students can do to
intervene in various example situations is important, these bystander intervention programs
should also address how to increase student’s intentions and willingness to act as bystanders and
their confidence and self-efficacy to act as bystanders to best prepare them to actually intervene
as a bystander if the situation should arise.
Other researchers who have utilized theory to help shape prevention efforts include
Schwartz, DeKeserdy, Tait, & Alvi (2001), who applied feminist routine activities theory to
explain the prevalence and alarming rates of sexual assault on college campuses. In this model,
sexual assaults occur in the presence of three key factors: a potential victim, a motivated
perpetrator, and the absence of “capable guardians” who are witnesses and can step in to
intervene or prevent the assault (Schwartz et al., 2001). With these three key factors in mind,
prevention can then focus on addressing any one of those factors. This theory provides another
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 29
testimony why prevention programs should begin to focus more on bystanders as opposed to
focusing on reducing risk among potential victims or perpetrators (Burn, 2009; McMahon &
Banyard, 2012). Bystanders have the ability to do nothing, to make the situation worse by
supporting or ignoring the behavior, or to make the situation better by intervening and addressing
the behavior.
Program Structure
Bystander intervention programs share a common principle that all members of the
community have a role in shifting social norms to prevent sexual violence. They draw from
literature on why and how bystanders intervene as well as best practices in prevention. The
specific application of the bystander intervention program as varied. Differences can include the
length of time of the training, the format in which the training occurs, the participants being
either mixed-gender or single-gender groups. Some programs have targeted specifically men, or
student athletes, fraternity and sorority members, or well-known, respected peer leaders (Coker
et al., 2011).
Although some components and audiences of bystander intervention programs vary, they
share common methods and goals. In terms of methods used by bystander intervention programs,
participants are addressed as potential allies or helpers which may reduce the defensiveness of
some participants who are usually addressed as perpetrators (Katz & Moore, 2013). In terms of
goals of bystander intervention programs, they seek to promote prosocial behaviors and attitudes
related to helping others in potential situations of sexual assault (Katz & Moore, 2013).
Participants are provided information and made aware about prevalence rates, indicators of high
risk situations, and how they can promote safety as bystanders. Bystander intervention programs
are aimed to engage community members by confronting the acceptability of social norms
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 30
around sexual assault, helping participants notice high risk situations, and responding
constructively. These programs may empower participants as being capable of helping others
and contributing to a safe community. In addition to promoting awareness and empowerment,
the bystander intervention programs also teach participants to intervene in situations that pose
either an actual or potential risk to prevent a sexual assault. Also, if participants are made aware
of a sexual assault after it has occurred, participants are encouraged to express support and
resources for victims. Bystander intervention program goals of providing awareness,
empowerment, and intervention skills to potential bystanders helps promote norms for
community safety (Katz & Moore, 2013).
Predictors of Intervention
Bystander intervention programs also share a literature that provides guidance on which
factors increase the probability that a bystander would intervene to prevent sexual violence.
According to the bystander intervention models beginning with Latane and Darnley’s 1970
situational model, there are a number of predictors of bystander behavior, and the following is a
list of those factors that are addressed in bystander intervention programs. The first predictor is
diffusion of responsibility which is a concept that when there are more people present in a crisis
situation, individuals are less likely to respond to the crisis because each individual assumes that
someone else will address it (Coker et al., 2011). A second factor is evaluation apprehension
which is a concept in which individuals are afraid they will look unprepared responding to a
high-risk situation so they become reluctant to respond (Coker et al., 2011; Latane & Darley,
1970). The third predictor is pluralistic ignorance which is a concept that individuals will defer to
the cues given by those around them when deciding whether or not to respond to a high-risk
situation (Coker et al., 2011; Latane & Darley, 1970). The fourth predictor is confidence in one’s
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 31
ability to intervene effectively in a high-risk situation (Coker et al., 2011; Latane & Darley,
1970). The fifth predictor is modeling which is a concept that individuals are more likely to
intervene in a high-risk situation when they have seen someone else role model bystander
intervention behaviors first (Coker et al., 2011). These predictors are factors that research has
shown prevent potential bystanders from intervening. Prevention programs that use a bystander
framework addressing these factors will help potential bystanders overcome obstacles to
becoming active bystanders.
Impact of Time of Bystander Training

There have been few studies conducted around the effectiveness of a sexual violence
prevention program. A study conducted by Banyard et al. (2007) aimed to evaluate the
effectiveness of a sexual violence prevention program based on preventing sexual violence by
increasing bystander behavior. Three hundred and eighty-nine undergraduates between the ages
of 18 and 23 participated in the study. The program was conducted in single-sex groups, and the
participants were placed in either a control group receiving no prevention program, one session
prevention program group receiving one 90-minute prevention program, or three-session
program prevention group receiving three 90-minute prevention programs. The sessions were led
by one male and one female peer leader who were students at the university trained in the
prevention program. The results from this study found that an advantage to using a bystander
approach in sexual violence prevention programs. The participants in both the one-session and
three-session prevention programs showed an improvement across outcome measures of
attitudes, knowledge, and behaviors from pretest to posttest when compared to the control group
participants. Although both one-session and three-session prevention programs showed an
improvement, more significant change was seen with the longer prevention program. These
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 32
results support the application of longer prevention programs for maximum effect. Longer
prevention programs would include 60-90 minutes sessions with a total of at least 2-3 sessions.
However, these results also support that when time, staffing, or other constraints prevent longer
programs, a shorter bystander program can create important changes in the participants attitudes,
knowledge, and behavior.
Barriers to Intervention

Exner & Cummings (2011) assessed undergraduate students’ bystander efficacy,
readiness to change, and barriers to intervention. They distributed an exploratory, cross-sectional
survey to students at a northeastern university using a convenience sample. Professors of 4
different undergraduate classes distributed the survey during the regularly scheduled class
period, and the researchers received 188 completed surveys. The results show that although most
students reported that violence could be prevented, the students also indicated several barriers to
their personal intervention. Findings also support the development of gender-targeted programs
as males were more likely to be in precontemplation stages of readiness to change, and females
were more likely to be in contemplation. Additionally, males were more likely than females to
report that they cannot prevent sexual assault presenting a need for prevention programs to focus
on men’s understanding of their positive role within the community, rather than traditional
prevention programs that address male participants as potential perpetrators.
In Labhardt, Holdsworth, Brown, & Howat’s meta-analysis (2017), the researchers aimed
to define the factors utilized in examining the likelihood of bystander intervention, and to
examine the different measures used to determine the obstacles and facilitators that influence
bystander intervention. The researchers did a search of Academic Search Complete, MEDLINE,
PsycArticles, and PsychINFO to locate peer-reviewed empirical articles that focused on factors
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 33
that influence sexual assault bystander intervention on college campuses. Studies were included
if they used a university sample and measured the likelihood of a bystander intervening in a
sexual assault. The total number of studies that met the criteria for the review was 28. The meta-
analysis of these articles revealed a direct relationship between confidence and bystander
behavior, intent influencing attitudes and confidence, and bystander behavior predicting future
behavior. Additionally, the researchers found in order to accurately predict bystander behavior,
one must have low rape myth attitudes, high self-efficacy, positive peer support, and a high score
on bystander intent.
Influences of Bystander Intervention

Alegria-Flores et al. (2017) conducted a study to evaluate the effects of one bystander
education program, One Act, on date rape behaviors and attitudes, bystanders’ confidence,
willingness to help, and behavior, and to compare the effects on bystander skills between One
Act and another program, Helping Advocates for Violence Ending Now (HAVEN), which does
not directly target bystander intervention. Both these programs were developed at a large
university in the Southeastern United States. Data was collected from 594 One Act and 336
HAVEN participants through surveys completed before and after trainings during the 2011-2013
academic years. The findings suggest that One Act training significantly improved bystanders’
date rape behaviors and attitudes and their confidence and willingness to intervene as bystanders
in high risk interpersonal violence situations. This study’s findings suggest that training students
with bystander skills for high risk interpersonal violence situations increases awareness that may
prevent interpersonal violence among college students.
A study conducted by DeMaria et al. (2018) explored how college men and women
understand sexual assault and bystander intervention. Eight, two-hour long, single-gender focus
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 34
groups were conducted with 69 college men and women to assess their attitudes, knowledge, and
behavior related to sexual harassment, sexual assault, stalking, intimate partner violence, and
bystander intervention. The moderators had graduate-level research methodology training. The
participants were enrolled in a midsized, urban, public liberal arts and sciences university in the
southeast region of the United States. The results of these focus groups found several factors that
influenced students’ decisions to intervene:
Table 1
Factors Influencing Students’ Decision to Intervene

Factors That Influenced Students’
Decision to Intervene
Description
Female participants’ experience with
misogyny and sexism
Female participants believed sexual assault
was a problem on campus. Male participants
did not believe sexual assault was a problem
on campus. Female participants indicated
male students felt entitled to sex.
Myth that rape is falsely reported Male and female participants shared the
perception that women lie about being raped.
Complex understanding of consent When male and female participants were
asked about sexual assault, they described
“stranger rape.” Participants admitted unclear
definitions of rape and consent.
Hesitancy to stop someone from having a
“good time”
Perceptions of hook-up culture negatively
biased participants against intervening.
Role alcohol has in sexual misconduct and
bystander intervention
Participants suggested alcohol was closely
associated with sexual assault and believed it
impacted their ability to avoid sexual assault,
to identify sexual assault, and to intervene
effectively.
Preference for direct and impactful messaging Participants described preferred
communication channels related to sexual
assault and bystander intervention as being
social media and text messages.
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 35
Instructional Design Theory
Instructional design theory is “a theory that offers explicit guidance on how to better help
people learn and develop” (Reigeluth, 2013, p. 5). The types of learning and development can
include social, emotional, cognitive, physical, and spiritual. According to Reigeluth (2013), there
are major characteristics that all instructional design theories have in common, including (1)
being design-oriented rather than description-oriented meaning it these theories focus on means
to attain given the set goals for learning or development rather than focusing on the results of
given events; (2) identifying which methods should and should not be used; (3) understanding
when to separate detailed component methods; and (4) taking a probabilistic rather than
deterministic approach, increasing the chances of attaining goals rather than guaranteeing
attainment of the goals (Reigeluth, 2013).
Design-Oriented
Descriptive theories can be used for prediction, for example, given a causal event, the
descriptive theory will predict what effect it will have, or given one event in a chain of events,
the descriptive theory can predict what will probably occur next (Reigeluth & Carr-Chellman,
2009). Descriptive theories can also be used for explanation, for example, given an event that has
occurred, the descriptive theory can explain what must have caused or preceded it (Reigeluth &
Carr-Chellman, 2009). But design theories are prescriptive which means they offer guidelines as
to what methods to use to most likely attain a given goal (Reigeluth, 2013).
Methods and Situations
Instructional design theory requires two components: methods of instruction that facilitate
learning and development, and situations which are indications as to when and when not to use
certain methods of instruction (Reigeluth, 2013; Sweller, 1994). There are also two aspects of
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 36
instructional situations to consider. First, the conditions in which the instruction will take place,
including the nature of what is to be learned, of the learning environment, and instructional
development constraints (Reigeluth, 2013). The intended instructional outcomes is also
important, including the level of effectiveness, efficiency, and appeal needed from the instruction
(Reigeluth, 2013).
Component Methods
The way in which a method is performed depends on the situation. Depending on how the
problem is presented, or the type of characteristics involved in the scenario, sometimes one type
of method is better for a given set of conditions and desired outcomes than another method
(Reigeluth, 2013).
Probabilistic Method
A probabilistic method does not guarantee the desired instructional and learning outcomes,
but rather increases the probability that the desired result will occur (Reigeluth, 2013; Reigeluth
& Carr-Chellman, 2009). There are many factors that influence how well an instructional method
works since the method selected depends heavily on the situation, so it is impossible to develop
an instructional method that will work better than another method at all times. The goal of an
instructional design theory is to achieve the highest possible probability of the desired
instructional and learning outcomes occurring (Sweller, 1994; Wiley, 2000).
Cognitive Load & Instructional Design
Cognitive load theory is one instructional design theory that focuses on the instructional
implications of the interaction between information structures and cognitive architecture (Paas,
Renki, & Sweller, 2003). Cognitive load theory also focuses on element interactivity, the manner
in which information is presented to learners, and the activities required of learners since these
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 37
can dictate a cognitive load (Paas et al., 2003). When the load is unnecessary, therefore
interfering with schema acquisition, it is referred to as extraneous cognitive load.
Extraneous cognitive load is important when intrinsic cognitive load, the effort associated
with a specific topic, is high because the two forms of cognitive load are additive (Paas et al.,
2003). If intrinsic cognitive load is low, the level of extraneous cognitive load is less important
because total cognitive load will not exceed working memory capacity (Paas et al., 2003). As a
result, instructional designs intended to reduce cognitive load are most effective when element
interactivity is high (Sweller, 1994).
Like extraneous cognitive load and unlike intrinsic cognitive load, germane cognitive load
is influenced by the instructional designer (Paas et al., 2003). Germane cognitive load refers to
the work put into creating a permanent store of knowledge or schema (Sweller, 1994). The
manner in which information is presented to the learners and the learning activities the learners
participate in are factors pertinent to levels of germane cognitive load (Paas et al., 2003).
Extraneous cognitive load interferes with learning, but germane cognitive load enhances learning
(Paas et al., 2003).
Instructional Design and Bystander Intervention
When developing a bystander intervention training, cognitive load theory is a valuable
guide when making decisions and considering the design and learning outcomes intended from
the bystander intervention training. Instructional design theory discusses methods to use to attain
goals, considers conditions in which instruction takes place, and offers guidelines as to what
methods to use to most likely attain a given goal. These factors are applicable to the
considerations administrators on college campuses are making when structuring their bystander
intervention trainings. Some other considerations include how often trainings take place, the
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 38
methods in which material is presented, and how to present information in a way that students
will retain.
Organizational Change Theory
Organizational change within institutions of higher education is not simple or immediate.
Higher education researchers who study institutional change do not agree on a “best” approach to
creating change, but they do agree that change on college and university campuses is possible,
necessary, and should be accomplished strategically (Rankin & Reason, 2008; Simsek & Louis,
1994). Kezar and Eckel (2002a; 2002b) emphasized the importance of campus culture as an
important part of transformational change process. The authors found that disregarding or
violating campus cultural norms is the demise to most change initiatives. Kezar and Eckle
(2002a) found that transformational change requires support from a vision for change, support
from senior administrators, collaborative leadership, staff development, and a series of evident
actions. A successful cultural shift can only occur when all members of the campus community
develop and implement the new understandings of campus structures and processes (Kezar,
2013). Before change to an organization can be made successfully, there should be a
commitment to a single common goal (Kezar, 2013). In the example of implementing a
bystander intervention program on a campus that did not have a prevention program, a
commitment to addressing the problem of increased sexual assaults on college campuses has to
be made. If senior administrators cannot commit to the goal, some groundwork, research, and
proposals should be presented before attempting to make a change of this significance (Kezar &
Eckle, 2002b).
Universities and colleges play a significant role in shaping regional, social, and economic
development (Massey, Field, & Chan, 2014). Higher education not only provides students with
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 39
tangible skills for future careers, but also presents students with the opportunity to connect issues
occurring within the larger society to their fields, producing critical thinkers and lifelong
learners. By studying these larger societal issues, such as sexual assault on college campuses,
students, faculty, and staff are working collaboratively towards finding solutions in mitigating
these issues on their campuses. College and university staff, students, and faculty must be willing
to dedicate substantial time and effort if they are interested in cultural change as the process
tends to be long term and slow (Kezar, 2013).
Conclusion

This review of the literature provided an introduction to sexual violence and an overview
of sexual assault on college campuses. It also provided background information on sexual assault
prevention programs, and specifically described bystander intervention programs. This chapter
described the study’s theoretical framework of instructional design theory and organizational
change theory. The following chapter will detail the methodology that was used for this study.

BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 40
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

Despite years of legal reform, documentation and research, program development, and
program implementation, sexual assault remains a problem on college campuses. The incidence
of sexual assault, through attempted rape, verbal coercion, and forcible rape, increases during the
college years (DeMaria et al., 2018). Since college students are at a heightened risk for sexual
victimization, it is critical to identify strategies for reducing rates of sexual assault on college
campuses considering the unwarranted physical and mental health consequences arising from
incidents of sexual assault. Until recently, sexual assault prevention education programs at
institutions of higher education focused on one-time workshops that were presented to single-
gender groups, and usually by an administrator as the presenter. Through research we have
learned that these types of prevention programs have shown to be effective in changing
individuals’ attitudes toward rape myth acceptance and rape (Alegria-Flores et al., 2017;
Vladutiu et al., 2011). However, research has yet to prove that changing individuals’ attitudes
changes their behavior and or prevents violence.
Rooted in theories of community responsibility and prosocial bystander behavior,
bystander intervention teaches prevention to individuals as potential bystanders rather than other
prevention programs that focus solely on educating potential perpetrators or preparing potential
victims (Banyard et al., 2007). As a strategy for reducing the rates of sexual assault on college
and university campuses, many institutions are implementing bystander intervention programs.
To address and intervene in campus sexual violence, a shift in cultural and social norms needs to
occur, and this shift requires the response of the campus community through bystander
intervention. Little is known about how universities that have implemented bystander
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 41
intervention programs have changed and what those who put these programs together would say
it has changed.
The purpose of this study was to understand the role of bystander intervention trainings in
changing the culture around sexual assault on college campuses by conducting interviews with
administrators on college campuses who are involved in the implementation of their institution’s
bystander intervention program.
Research Questions
The main research question to guide this study was: What is the role of bystander
intervention trainings in changing the culture around sexual assault on college campuses? This
study utilized both surveys and interviews with administrators on college campuses who oversee
bystander intervention programs to explore their understanding of their institution’s bystander
intervention program’s role in changing the culture around sexual assault on their campus.
Methodology
A qualitative method was used in this study. The choice of this research design was due to
five main characteristics in qualitative research. First, qualitative researchers are “interested in
understanding the meaning people have constructed, that is, how people make sense of their
world and the experiences they have in the world” (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015, p. 13). This design
allows the researcher to understand the experience from the participant’s perspectives and
worldview. Second, qualitative research is inductive, which means the researcher reads literature
and gathers data to build concepts or theories rather than testing an already established
hypothesis deductively (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). The data provided from the survey and
interviews with administrators was coded and analyzed for themes. Third, the primary instrument
for data collection and analysis is the researcher (Merriman & Tisdell, 2015). In this study, the
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 42
researcher was the primary instrument for data collection through the surveys collected and
interviews conducted. Fourth, qualitative research design provides rich, deep, and descriptive
narratives that help the researcher understand the experience of the participants (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2015). In this study, rich data was captured from the administrators involved in their
institution’s bystander intervention programs through surveys and interviews. Lastly, qualitative
research design is emergent, which will allow the researcher the flexibility to be responsive to
the changing conditions of the study in progress (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). Due to these reasons
above, qualitative methods were the most appropriate approach for this research question.
Overview of Methodology
The research design used two methods to collect data to assist in answering the research
question. A qualitative survey of 19 questions was emailed out to college administrators who
have oversight or involvement with their campus bystander intervention program from four-year,
degree granting universities in the United States. This survey assisted the researcher in data
collection and in identifying which administrators to reach out to for interview invitations. The
survey included questions about institution specifics (type, setting, size), the institution’s
bystander intervention program, and the institution’s efforts around the prevention of sexual
assault on college campuses. Surveys can help researchers determine some important general
information, and can assist the researcher in identifying a certain subset of survey respondents to
interview based on purposeful criteria (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015).
The second method of data collection was semi-structured interviews conducted with select
administrators who completed the survey. Interviews are a chosen method of data collection to
obtain specific and unique information from participants (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). Interviews
seek to identify and understand participant’s character traits, feelings, and interpretations of their
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 43
past and present experiences that cannot be observed (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). Since this study
sought to understand the role of bystander intervention training on the culture of sexual assault
on college campuses from the administrator’s perspective, interviews were an appropriate data
collection tool.
The interview questions were semi-structured, open-ended, and presented in a
conversational format to create comfort and trust within the interviewer and participant (Merriam
& Tisdell, 2015). The semi-structured interviews consider that each participant will have their
own unique worldview and experience (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). This was important in
capturing the perceptions of each administrator interviewed as they had different backgrounds,
experiences, and perceptions. The open-ended questions allowed the researcher to actively listen
to what the participant shared and enabled the researcher to follow paths of dialogue that led to
rich conversation. The interviews had a set of pre-determined question to help answer the
research question, but the interview was flexible in nature and the questions were asked in no
specific order. This allowed for emergent themes to surface, allowed the researcher to respond to
specific concerns, statements, or views that the participant had, and allowed the researcher to ask
probing questions, if necessary (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). The interviews were conducted on
the interview participant’s respective campus if the location was within one hour driving distance
of the researcher. These interviews were held in an office location of the participant’s choice for
approximately one hour. Allowing the interview participants to select their own interview
locations provided a level of comfort during the interview process (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). If
the interview participant’s campus location was over one hour driving distance of the researcher,
the interviews were conducted by phone for approximately one hour.
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 44
The survey data and interview data were triangulated. The use of multiple methods of
inquiry was critical for internal validation (Maxwell, 2012). More information about the survey
questions, how the survey assisted in selecting participants, and details of the interview protocol
are provided in the instrumentation section.
Population and Sample
The population for the study was university administrators from four-year, degree granting
institutions in the United States. The administrators eligible for the interview were involved with
the facilitation or implementation of their institution’s bystander intervention program. This was
important because their involvement with the bystander intervention program allowed for more
rich data directly answering the research question. Depending on the institution, there was either
a department, a single administrator, or a task force in charge of overseeing the bystander
intervention program. Administrators were eligible to be interviewed if they had any role in the
bystander intervention program. Studying this population allowed for in-depth exploration and
insight of administrators across different four-year, degree granting institutions in the United
States, and how the role of bystander intervention trainings may be changing the culture around
sexual assault on college campuses.
The process for selecting which university administrators to interview was purposeful.
Merriam & Tisdell (2015) described purposeful sampling as a non-randomized process of
selecting participants who meet the specific criteria for the study. A purposeful sample also
provided insight and understanding from an average or typical person of interest (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2015). Maxwell (2012) discussed goals of purposeful sampling, and one goal is to select
participants with whom you can establish productive relationships with and ones that will give
you the ability to answer your research questions. Maxwell (2012) also advised that selection
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 45
decisions for interview participants should take into account the feasibility of access to the
individuals and data collection.
The researcher is a part of a regional association of college and university housing
officers, and contacted members of this association to inquire if their institution has a bystander
intervention program, and if so, to offer the name and email address of any and all administrators
on their campus involved with their institution’s bystander intervention program. Not all four-
year, degree granting institutions in the United States are a part of this association. The
researcher also looked at Pac 12 and AAU institution websites to determine if they had a
bystander intervention program, and reached out to those respective institution’s bystander
intervention program administrators to inquire about their eligibility and interest for the study.
Pac 12 and AAU campuses were examined because this helped the researcher narrow down
eligible campuses that have similar demographics such as size, accreditation, and association
membership. All those eligible for the study received an email from the researcher explaining the
nature of the study along with a robust survey with 19 questions (Appendix A). The survey asked
about institution type, setting, and size, the institution’s bystander intervention program, the
institution’s efforts around the prevention of sexual assault on college campuses, and other
questions that assisted the researcher in making decisions about who to interview (Appendix B).
The criteria for the selection of the administrators was concentrated on those who work
directly on the bystander intervention programs at their institutions, have been employed at their
institution for a minimum of six months, and were willing to participate in an audio-recorded
interview. The administrator’s direct relationship with their institution’s bystander intervention
program was critical in understanding the role the program has in in changing the culture around
sexual assault on college campuses. The minimum of six months of employment at their
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 46
institution was important for the administrator to gain a sense of the culture around sexual assault
on their campus. Age, race, ethnicity, and gender of the administrators were not considered
because these factors did not have a direct relationship to the research question.
Semi-structured interviews were conducted with ten administrators. None of these
administrators were from the same institution, so the data and findings are representative of
different institution’s experiences with bystander intervention’s role in changing the culture
around sexual assault.
Instrumentation
The primary tool for data collection was semi-structured interviews with administrators on
college campuses who had direct involvement with their institution’s bystander intervention
program. The semi-structured interviews were audio-taped and transcribed. There were 16
questions with a mix of structured and unstructured questions and an interview guide prepared in
advance. The guide assisted the researcher to stay on track with questions and ensured that the
researcher received consistent content from each participant. Patton (1990) described an
interview guide as a list of questions or issues that are to be explored throughout the course of an
interview. Patton (1990) also stated that an interview guide is prepared by the researcher to
ensure that the same lines of questioning are pursued with each participant interviewed. The
interview guide also made sure the researcher had carefully decided in advance how best to use
the limited time available in an interview, and this process made interviewing a number of
different people more understandable and systematic (Patton, 1990). The length of time for the
interviews varied depending on the participant, but will lasted approximately one hour.
If there were any clarifications on any interview responses or data collected, the researcher
collected that additional information via phone call or email. The questions were crafted to assist
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 47
in answering the research question and formulated through the theoretical lenses of instructional
design theory and organizational change theory. Although there were questions prepared, the
interview was flexible to allow the participant to respond, and the researcher to jump to different
questions as themes emerged from the interviews.
The steps in the interview guide were to (1) provide an overview of the study, (2) provide
an information sheet, (3) explain that the interview was confidential, (4) inform the participant
that they could ask questions or request to end the interview at any time, (5) remind the
participant that the interview was audio-taped, and (6) ask if they have any questions before
beginning the interview (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015).
Data Collection
The method of data collection not only depends on the research question, but also on the
context of the research situation in order to effectively collect the type of data that is needed
(Maxwell, 2012). Two methods of data collection were used in this research study including
survey and interviews.
Survey
Once the study was approved by USC IRB, the researcher emailed members of a regional
association of college and university housing inquiring if their institution has a bystander
intervention program, and if so, to provide the name and email addresses of any and all
administrators on their campus involved with their institution’s bystander intervention program.
The researcher is a member of this association, but the members in this association did not cover
all four-year, degree granting institutions in the United States that have bystander intervention
programs. Other institutions and administrators that were eligible for this study were found on
Pac 12 and AAU institution websites. All those eligible for the study received an email from the
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 48
researcher explaining the nature of the study along with a link to a 19-question survey (Appendix
B). In total, the researcher personally emailed over 100 administrators with the survey. Some
administrators who received the email forwarded the email onto other administrators they knew
who worked with bystander intervention programs on other campuses, so the total number of
administrators who received the survey is unknown.
This survey assisted the researcher in identifying which administrators to reach out to for
interview invitations. The researcher reviewed all responses to the surveys, read through and
coded the open-ended question responses, and made selections on ten administrators to invite to
an interview. There were ten different institutions represented, so the data and findings were
representative of different institution’s experiences with bystander intervention’s role in
changing the culture around sexual assault.
Interview
The second method of data collection was semi-structured interviews conducted with select
administrators who completed the survey. Interview participants were selected based on certain
criteria including those who worked directly on the bystander intervention programs at their
institutions and their willingness to participate in an audio-recorded interview. Selected
participants were contacted via email and were asked to indicate their availability for a one-on-
one interview (Appendix C). The interviews were conducted on the participant’s campus if the
location was within one hour driving distance of the researcher. These interviews were held in an
office location of the participant’s choice for approximately one hour. Although the participant
selected the office, the researcher asked the participant to select a location that would maximize
privacy and limit interruptions. If the participant’s location was over one hour driving distance of
the researcher, the interview was conducted over a phone call for approximately one hour. After
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 49
the date, time, and location were confirmed, the researcher sent the participants a reminder email
twenty-four hours before the date and time of their interview.
Upon greeting the participant, the researcher engaged in unscripted questions such as,
“how are you?” or “how is your day going so far?”. These questions were followed by a brief
introduction from the researcher. Bogdan and Biklen (2007) wrote that successful interviews
begin with casual conversation to create a level of comfort between the researcher and
participant. Once settled into the office location for the interview, for the in-person interviews, or
once the unscripted questions ended on a phone call, the researcher led the participant through
the information sheet and encouraged them to ask any questions (Appendix D). The researcher
reminded the participant that they have an opportunity to ask questions or to withdraw from the
interview at any time. The researcher also shared that the data for this study would be compiled
into a report, and the report will contain some of what the participant said as direct quotes, but
none of the data would be directly tied back to the participant. The researcher reminded the
participant that the interview would be audio-recorded. The researcher shared that all transcribed
notes and audio-tape would be stored on a password protected laptop, and that only the
researcher had access to this personal laptop. Although the interview was audio-recorded, the
researcher still took some hand-written notes, but they served more as quick observation notes to
document non-verbal responses that may have helped support the narratives being shared by the
participant (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015).
After welcoming the participant and introducing the interview, the researcher followed the
interview guide and began their semi-structured interview of 16 questions with a mix of
structured and unstructured questions (Appendix E). The guide assisted the researcher to stay on
track with questions and ensured that the researcher received consistent content from each
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 50
participant. At the conclusion of the interview questions, the researcher thanked the participant
and asked if they can be contacted again via email or phone call for clarification purposes once
the transcriptions were complete. As the interview participants were higher education
administrators, no incentives were provided to participants for being a part of the study. The
audio recordings from the interviews were transcribed by a professional service, and the
researcher followed up to check for accuracy of the transcription. Participant’s identities were
protected through pseudonyms. All files are expected to be deleted from the researcher’s
personal laptop three years after this study.
Data Analysis
As Merriam & Tisdell (2015) describe, data analysis is one of the few facets of
qualitative research in which there is a preferred way to conduct. The preferred way is to analyze
data simultaneously with data collection. To begin a qualitative study, the researcher knows what
the problem is and has selected a, usually, purposeful sample to collect data to address the
problem; however, the researcher does not know what will be discovered through data collection,
what or whom to concentrate on, or what the final results and assertions will look like. The final
product is shaped by the data collected and the analysis that follows data collection. Without
ongoing analysis of the data, the data can be unfocused and overwhelming due to the amount of
material that needs to be processed.
For the surveys and interviews, as Merriam & Tisdell (2015) recommend, the researcher
needed to create a system for organizing and managing the data early on in the study, which
involved coding. Coding is assigning some shorthand designation or categories to the data so that
the researcher can easily retrieve specific pieces or quotes when needed (Merriam & Tisdell,
2015). Phrases and letters were used as designations for this study. Some other steps of analysis
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 51
that were taken into consideration as described by Merriam & Tisdell (2015) include category
construction, sorting categories and data, naming the categories, and deciding how many
categories to have. The researcher used a data-driven coding approach where the researcher
looked for ideas and concepts in the transcribed interviews without a preceding conceptualization
and let the surveys and interviews speak for themselves. The researcher conducted initial
qualitative analysis of the data at the conclusion of each interview by listening to the audio
recording and reviewing researcher notes and comments (Maxwell, 2012; Merriam & Tisdell,
2015). Review of the initial interviews helped construct a coding scheme based on major
categories that emerged. Intensive analysis of the data was conducted once the researcher
completed all collection of raw data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015).
Between the interviews for this study, as Bogdan & Biklen (2007) recommend, the
researcher regularly reviewed their field notes, looked back at the research question, and asked
themselves “What is it that I do not know yet?” and this helped the researcher plan specific leads
in the next data-collection session. To answer this question, the researcher had to think about
what they already knew based off the data collected thus far, and what shape the study was
taking. Although there was no way the researcher could control what the participants would say
in the interviews, this plan was helpful in focusing and re-aligning the researcher’s data
collection to the research question.
Validity & Credibility
To ensure validity and credibility of the study’s findings, the researcher used the
strategies suggested by Miles, Huberman, and Saldana (2014). It is important to consider
questions such as “Do my findings make sense?” and “Are they credible to the readers?” Some
suggestions that Miles, Huberman, and Saldana (2014) provide to ensure credibility and
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 52
trustworthiness include providing descriptions that are context-rich and meaningful, presenting
data that is well linked to the categories of prior or emerging theory, seeking out negative
evidence, and clearly describing procedures for assertions and conclusions. For this study, the
researcher was able to link the data presented to the categories of prior and emerging theory.
This was done through data collection, analysis, and coding. Additionally, the researcher also
made sure to seek out negative evidence.
Maxwell (2012) also discussed two broad threats to validity often raised to question
credibility and trustworthiness in qualitative studies: researcher bias and reactivity. Researcher
bias can occur when data selection matches existing assumptions held by the researcher
(Maxwell, 2012). It was important for the researcher to reflect on what existing assumptions they
had and how those assumptions could affect their data collection and analysis. Reactivity is the
influence of the researcher on the setting or individuals studied (Maxwell, 2012). It was
important for the researcher to understand how they were influencing what the participants said
or shared in the interview, and how this affected the validity of the inferences the researcher
drew from the interviews.
Role of Researcher
In qualitative research, the primary data collection instrument is the researcher. The
researcher’s experience and understanding of the research topic can serve as an asset to the
study, but it can also pose as a potential bias. The researcher must be mindful of these biases and
monitor them (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). The researcher understood that their personal views
cannot be imposed on the participants and they will need to maintain objectivity. Merriam &
Tisdell (2015) share that part of ensuring the trustworthiness of a study is that the researcher
themselves are trustworthy in carrying out the study in as ethical a manner as possible. There
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 53
were several steps taken to ensure this study was conducted ethically including the protection of
subjects from harm, the right to privacy, and the participants having informed consent. In
interview introductions, the researcher shared with participants their right to privacy and
confidentiality, and the researcher requested the participant’s verbal consent to record the
interview. Disseminating findings can raise further ethical problems. For this study, the
researcher ensured to conduct the study ethically by sharing with participants that pseudonyms
would be used, that the information learned would be compiled into a report, and that the report
would contain some of what they share with in direct quotes, but none of the data would be
directly tied back to them.
Conclusion
In conclusion, this chapter provided the details and explanation of the chosen
methodology approach for this study. This chapter also provided the purpose of the study,
overview of the methodology, population and sample, instrumentation and source of evidence,
data collection, data analysis, and validity and credibility. Additionally, the role of the researcher
and biases related to the study were discussed. Chapter four will present the data that will be
collected and discuss research findings.

BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 54
CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION OF DATA AND FINDINGS

This chapter presents the data collected through the survey and individual interviews
with administrators who work with bystander intervention programs on their campuses. This
chapter starts with a review of the study’s purpose and research question, and an overview of the
survey and interview participants. Study findings are presented in this chapter through the four
themes that emerged from the data: bystander intervention trainings address cultural needs,
program structure supports cultural change, student participation in cultural change, and campus
wide culture of support.
The purpose of this study was to understand the role of bystander intervention training in
changing the culture around sexual assault on college campuses. This study specifically gathered
insight from campus administrators directly involved with the planning, implementation, or
facilitation of their institution’s bystander intervention program to answer the research question:
What is the role of bystander intervention trainings in changing the culture around sexual assault
on college campuses?
Overview of Study Participants

The research design used two methods to collect data to assist in answering the research
question. A qualitative survey of 19 questions and a semi-structured interview was conducted
with select administrators. Twenty-eight participants responded to the survey, and 10 participants
were interviewed. Although both men and women were emailed to participate in the study, all 28
survey participants identified as women; therefore, all interview participants were women. To
maintain confidentiality, all participants were provided a pseudonym. To participate in the study,
administrators had to work directly on the bystander intervention program at their institutions
and had to have been employed at their institution for a minimum of six months.
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 55
After participants completed the survey, purposeful sampling was used to determine who
would be contacted to schedule a 45-minute to one-hour audio-recorded interview. Interview
participants were chosen based on response to survey questions on institution type, setting, and
size, the institution’s bystander intervention program, and the institution’s efforts around the
prevention of sexual assault on college campuses. The interview participant sample reflected
administrators from 10 institutions. Table 2, 3, and the graphs below illustrate demographic
information about the interview participants.
Table 2

Interview Participant Survey Responses

Name

Length of
time at
institution

Institution
Type

Institution
Setting

Institution
Size
Bystander
Intervention
program
required of
all incoming
students
Length of
time
Bystander
Intervention
program
been in
place at
institution
Sarah 1.5 years Public Highly
residential
Large
four-year
Yes 15 years
Hannah 8 years Public Primarily
nonresidential
Large
four-year
No Unknown
Emma 14 years Private Highly
residential
Medium
four-year
Yes 6 years
Hailey 2.5 years Public Primarily
residential
Medium
four-year
No New
Rachel 6 months Public Primarily
residential
Large
four-year
Yes Unknown
Emily 7 months Public Primarily
residential
Large
four-year
Yes 9 years
Isabelle 4 years Private Highly
residential
Large
four-year
No 3 years
Allison 10 years Public Primarily
nonresidential
Large
four-year
No 8 years
Elaine 4.5 years Public Primarily
nonresidential
Large
four-year
No 6 years
Erin 8 years Public Primarily
nonresidential
Large
four-year
No 4 years
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 56
Table 3

Interview Participant Bystander Intervention Initiatives

Name Bystander
Intervention
Training
Awareness
Months
Workshops Other
Sarah X X X
Hannah X
Emma X X X Tabling,
Campus-wide
survey
Hailey X
Rachel X X Campus-wide
survey, Focus
groups
Emily X X Tabling
Isabelle X
Allison X X Everfi Sexual
Assault Training
Elaine X X Peer educator
program,
Advocacy series
Erin X X

Figure 1. Interview participant’s institution type.
20%
80%
Institution Type
Private Public
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 57

Figure 2. Interview participants’ institution setting.

Figure 3. Interview participant’s institution size.

40%
30%
30%
Institution Setting
Primarily nonresidential (NR)—fewer than 25 percent of degree-seeking undergraduates or fewer than
50 percent enrolled full-time live on campus.
Primarily residential (R): (a)—at least 25 percent of degree-seeking undergraduates live on campus and
(b) at least 50 percent but fewer than 80
Highly residential (HR)—at least half of degree-seeking undergraduates live on campus and at least 80
percent attend full-time.
20%
80%
Institution Size
Medium four-year (M4)—at least 3000 but fewer than 10000 FTEs attend this four-year institution.
Large four-year (L4)—more than 10000 FTEs attend this four-year institution.
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 58

Figure 4. Interview participants’ Bystander Intervention program requirement.

Participant Profiles

Sarah worked in the Well Being & Health promotion office at her institution for 1.5
years. In this role, her responsibilities around the bystander intervention program included
facilitating the bystander intervention presentation and program. The factors that drew her to
work with sexual assault prevention programs include the need for more education around the
topic, not only on our college campuses but in the world. She saw it as an opportunity to educate
young folks who will then take those lessons out to their future careers and places of work.
Hannah worked at her institution for 8 years, but in the Center for Support &
Intervention office for only 5 months. In this role, she worked with the violence prevention
coordinator on the team that coordinates the bystander intervention program. The factors that
drew her to work in student affairs and in sexual assault prevention was an opportunity to leave a
more meaningful impact in the lives of young adults and help make their experience on campus
better.
40%
60%
Bystander Intervention Program
Requirement
Required of all incoming students Not required of all incoming students
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 59
Emma worked at her institution for 14 years, worked in the Campus Awareness
Resource Education Services office for only 7 years. Her responsibilities around the bystander
intervention program include that she oversaw it, designed it, and facilitates the program. The
factors that drew her to work in student affairs and with sexual assault prevention programs
include a transition from working in university housing to this role when the opportunity arose
for prevention and awareness education around consent and bystander intervention. This was a
new role it was an opportunity to create something for the campus.
Hailey was working in the Office of General Counsel and Compliance at her institution
for 2.5 years. In this role, she has purchased the Bystander Intervention program, trained staff to
present the material, and tailored the materials. The factors that drew her to work with sexual
assault prevention programs was a transition from Title IX work to equity work and a greater
challenge. This role also had oversight over the online college so there were more students that
she could support.
Rachel had worked in the Campus Health & Wellbeing office for 6 months. She assisted
with the advertising and facilitation of the Bystander Intervention program. The factors that drew
her to work in sexual assault prevention included an internship in peer sexual assault prevention
program as an undergraduate student, which led to her volunteering at a local nonprofit as a
crisis advocate. After working with survivors, Rachel became interested in preventing sexual
assault, so she sought out work in prevention.
Emily was working in the Health Promotion office for 7 months. In this role, she was the
program coordinator for the Bystander Intervention programs, so she helped oversee the content
material and facilitation of the program. The factors that drew her to work in student affairs and
with sexual assault prevention included the opportunity to be working on reducing gender based
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 60
violence in some capacity. She was excited to step into this role and have some say in how the
university is moving forward with education for students.
Isabelle had worked in the Sexual Assault and Relationship Abuse, Education, and
Response office for 4 years. In this role, she designed, facilitated, and evaluated the Bystander
Intervention program. The factors that drew her to work with sexual assault prevention programs
was the impact these courses and lessons had on her undergraduate experience. She saw an
opportunity to expand these programs and help shift culture on campus.
Allison was working in the Sexual and Relationship Violence Prevention Program for 10
years. She oversaw all content creation, made decisions about purchasing curriculum, and
decided program facilitation strategies. The factors that drew her to work in sexual assault
prevention were a chance to advocate for and support all students, and to debunk myths and
share facts about student experiences and beliefs.
Elaine had worked in the Women’s Center for 4.5 years. In this role, she helped develop,
implement, and facilitate the bystander intervention program. She became interested in sexual
assault prevention work after she took courses as an undergraduate about things that really
resonated with her, which included gender based violence and interpersonal violence. These
classes got her thinking about why this was all happening in the first place. She interned at a rape
prevention education program, and then sought full time opportunities to continue learning and
engaging in this work.
Erin was working at her institution for 8 years, but has worked in the Center for Student
Wellness for 2 years. Her office served as the primary educational office for the institution’s
bystander intervention program. The factors that drew her to work in with sexual assault
prevention programs were the opportunity to make an impact on a large number of students on
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 61
campus and to act as a voice for those who many not have one or did not have a platform to
share their input and their needs.
Emerging Themes

Data obtained through surveys and individual interviews were analyzed to address the
research question. Four themes emerged from participant’s responses: bystander intervention
trainings address cultural needs, program structure supports cultural change, student participation
in cultural change, and campus wide culture of support.
Theme 1: Bystander Intervention Trainings Address Cultural Needs

When facilitating and assessing bystander intervention trainings, participants shared that
the trainings helped them learn about the things that contribute to sexual assault at their specific
institutions. Fifty-four percent of survey participants indicated that they learned lack of education
and awareness was contributing to more incidents of sexual assault. Some interview participants
provided examples of what this lack of education and awareness looks like on their campus.
Sarah shared,
As we’ve learned through conducting this training, we don't talk about topics like
bystander intervention and consent at an early enough age. I think we should be starting
those conversations very early on. I think clearly a conversation around consent looks
different with a five-year-old then it does with a twenty-year-old, but those basics are still
there. Maybe in recent years they've started, but for the most part what I'm hearing from
my students is that I get a lot of thank you messages from incoming students because they
say wow, there should be more of this type of education.
Emma also agreed and shared,
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 62
I don't think we do a good job of normalizing conversations around healthy relationships
and healthy sexual relationships particularly, and our students have supported that in the
conversations we have during trainings. So, young people are getting most of their
messaging around these topics from media. And so, the education that we do, we do a lot
of talking about how, particularly when we're talking about consent, this isn't what it
looks like in the movies. You never see James Bond asking for consent, you know? And
that's a problem.
Hannah spoke about not only providing more education, but also the need to empower young
people to be a part of the solution. Hannah said,
I think that the men need to feel empowered to be part of the solution and not just
lectured at to tell them the things that they've already heard about why they're the
problem. And so, we need to empower our young people that they all can be part of the
solution. And invite them into spaces where they can have challenging conversations
with each other about the topics that traditionally in society we've been most afraid to talk
about.
Forty-six percent of survey participants indicated that they learned campus culture was
contributing to more incidents of sexual assault. Emily provided some details around how the
bystander intervention training at her institution brought this to her attention and said,
Culture is the main one discussed in the training and through assessments. I think that can
mean a lot of different things. I think they're probably pretty similar in a lot of
universities. But here specifically, we do have Greek life, and so that leads to a partying
culture that is definitely synonymous with sexual assault. Just the increased risk of
combining alcohol and risky sexual decision making. I think something else is the close
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 63
living quarters on college campuses. It's very easy to know someone's schedule, know
where they live, work, and play. It's all very close together.
Hailey added,
At my previous two institutions, alcohol was definitely the number one factor. Alcohol or
drugs. At this institution, alcohol is not as big of a factor. I think the biggest factor is
ignorance around consent and ignorance about reading body language and understanding
what the other person is trying to convey to you.
Seventy-one percent of survey participants expressed that they learned power and control was
contributing to more incidents of sexual assault. Both Rachel and Elaine spoke to this in their
interviews. Rachel said,
Following the roots of violence, I think it's really apparent on my university campus that
it's about power and control and elitism and entitlement. Our institution has a high
percentage of white students and high socioeconomic status, and so the students that
come onto campus a lot of the time have never worked a job in their life until they
graduate. And it's just, the culture is very entitled. And I think other students that come
from marginalized groups are vulnerable in that culture and are being sort of victimized
by this broader culture. And so, I think yeah, it has a lot to do with that structure and
hierarchy of access and we hear that a lot in our trainings.
Elaine also shared,
To me it always comes down to power and control. I think that that is the root cause of all
of these incidents. Now, it doesn't always look the same in every survivor's experience,
but it really comes down to how a perpetrator utilizes power and control, or utilizes those
things to take advantage of a person in a situation. So, it really varies, but power and
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 64
control, in my experience has looked like using alcohol as a tool to coerce someone or to
force them into activity that they didn't want to do. I've heard students share in trainings
about utilizing social pressure and community to pressure people to do things that they
didn't want to do.
This data illustrates that through facilitation and assessment of bystander intervention
trainings, the survey and interview participants learned about a variety of different things that
contribute to sexual assault on their specific institutions. These were dependent on the institution
and its culture.
Theme 2: Program Structure Supports Cultural Change

The survey and interview participants discussed the various ways their institution’s
bystander intervention program is structured and how that structure supports cultural change. All
participants described a bystander intervention program with many different components that
build on top of each other and provide tangible takeaways for students. Emma, Allison, and
Isabelle shared that their program begins by sharing statistics around sexual assault on college
campuses. Isabelle said,
We start by sharing some statistics around sexual assault on college campuses. We do
that so we can kind of create that base level of awareness so that they understand when
they hear phrases like the culture of sexual assault on the college campus, what does that
actually mean? What are we talking about? Then, and we also then go through the
definitions from our student conduct code of how we define sexual misconduct and
interpersonal misconduct which includes of course sexual assault and sexual harassment
and sexual exploitation.
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After discussing the statistics around sexual assault, Emma said that her institution’s bystander
intervention program moves into discussion around consent,
Then we move into consent. We have them talk through a consent scenario that is
something that we adapted from a previous conduct case. Then we define consent for
them. We define consent using four words: clear, coherent, ongoing and willing.
Emma, Erin, and Elaine discussed in their interviews the different acronyms and steps that they
use in their bystander intervention programs to help students remember the information shared.
Emma said,
So, we talk about what is the bystander effect? What are the five factors of the impact of
bystander intervention? Then we talk about what are the steps to bystander intervention?
And that's three factors for active intervention. First is to be aware, that's why we give
them those statistics, we help them understand the culture so that when they're in social
situations when they're looking around they will be more likely to identify a situation that
might be problematic. Then they need to take responsibility, they need to understand that
we are all members of a community. And then lastly, they need to step in. So then we talk
about four factors of stepping in and ways you can actually intervene. Then we close out
by talking about the support resources and the reporting process on our campus.
Erin also added,
After sharing the aspects of culture change, statistics of gender based violence within
college campuses and the nation, we know that it’s a lot of information to remember, so
we try to share the rest of the information with them in steps so that it is easier to recall
when the information is needed. So for example, when we discuss the barriers to
intervening, we talk about the Three D’s which are direct, delegate, and distract.
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Elaine also spoke to the Three D’s and provided another example of using a repetition of letters
to recall information,
So we try to break our bystander intervention program down to what I think of as like the
four R's. So there's educating students about how to Recognize what these crimes look
like, so like characteristics about how to recognize what this crime looks like and how it
happens. Then we go into Respond, so if we were to see the red flags or warning signs
around issues, how could we respond in the situation? And then we also talk about Rape
Culture. And so, I kind of frame it as changing the culture and thinking about how
bystander intervention can be utilized not just in situations where something happens in
front of us, but also in addressing our culture. And then finally we always talk about
Resources.
Seventy-nine percent of survey participants indicated that their bystander intervention program
utilized a video as a facilitation strategy. Emily and Elaine shared how the videos are utilized in
their respective programs. Emily reported,
Then one part I really like about our program is at the end we do an interactive activity
where we show four different scenarios, that are representative of scenarios students
might experience within the college environment. We break the students up into teams,
and for each scenario, they have to think of a different way they would intervene. The
first time they might think of a direct way they intervene. The second time, they might
think of a way to delegate. The third time, they might think of a way to distract.
Elaine also said,
We use a video to kind of help facilitate our conversation. We break the video up into
two pieces. The first part is the portion of the leading up to an assault. And so, we watch
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that video and we have them identify the red flags. That’s the characteristics piece where
we talk a lot about like what is alcohol pushing and what is isolation? Was there consent?
Then we talk about bystander intervention and rewind to the portion where they show
people intervening. And so, we have the students identify what the individuals in the
video were doing. Like did they distract? Did they delegate? Were they direct? We are
making sure that they define those things correctly.
Rachel said that her institution’s bystander intervention program tried to take a primary
prevention approach to all gender and power-based violence. She shared they are trying to take a
look at their bystander intervention curriculum and make sure that everyone feels included.
Rachel said,
We really talk about the roots of violence and where this all comes from, and call people
into the equation, whether or not they're a part of the victim perpetrator binary. And so, if
we're taking a primary prevention approach, we need to look at the underlying issues and
talk about those types of intervention.
Rachel also said that the bystander intervention program focused on the culture on the campus,
and tried to shift it to a culture of care for everyone in the community. Rachel said,
We try to stress that you don't have to be within that perpetrator or victim binary to care
about this topic, and that it's about community care and peer accountability. And so
everyone has a stake in it. We talk a lot about culture. We talk a lot about privilege and
oppression and identity, sort of broadly, and then hone it down by the end of the
presentation into how this manifests in our sexual behaviors and experiences. And how
are we seeing power and control being enacted on that micro level. And sort of using sex
and dating as an example of that exertion of power and control.
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This data indicated that 8 out of 10 institutions build their bystander intervention program
curriculum based on issues known to contribute to incidents of sexual assault on their campuses.
The data also illustrates that each bystander intervention program utilizes a variety of facilitation
strategies to assist with the retention of information provided in the program. The institutions
select these program structures to support cultural change on their campuses.
Theme 3: Bystander Intervention Encourages Student Participation in Cultural Change

Ninety-three percent of survey participants indicated that an outcome of the bystander
intervention program was the ability for their students to recognize a potentially harmful
situation and choosing to respond or intervene in a way that could positively influence the
outcome. Although all but two survey participants indicated this as a desired outcome, the
interview participants reported differences in students’ comfort level in talking to and
approaching peers about concerns around sexual assault and harassment on campus. Emma was
very confident that the students on her campus had learned a lot from their institution’s bystander
intervention program and that they felt comfortable supporting and advocating for cultural
change. Emma shared,
I think at this point, they feel very comfortable. I feel confident in saying that. Because,
we started this program in 2014, we're now in 2020, and we probably get a 99.5%
completion rate. I'm not saying we don't have any issues around sexual misconduct, but I
do think our students are much more articulate about these topics because we've done so
much education.
Emma also discussed the recent results of a campus climate survey, and she stated,
What we've really seen is that our students do certainly have a higher awareness now of
both our conduct process and our reporting processes. They feel more empowered to step
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up and step in then they did in previous climate surveys, and they feel more comfortable
knowing that the university supports them in this.
Not all interview participants felt as confident as Emma did about their student’s comfort levels.
Hailey and Hannah expressed that they did not believe their students were comfortable with
approaching their peers about concerns. Hailey shared,
On this campus, most of them aren't comfortable. Our students aren't very political or
controversial at all, and that extends to topics like this. I can't seem to get a rise out of
them even when we talk about a controversial topic. So, I think a lot of them are
uncomfortable with these conversations, and try to avoid them.
Hannah also said,
What our students know and what they actually do in practice are two completely
different things. Students will express, "Oh, I should have blank." But in the moment,
they don't actually do it because they are not comfortable approaching their peers yet.
Allison spoke to reasons why she thought students were hesitant to approach their peers about
concerns. She stated,
As we're having the conversations with students and they're saying all the reasons why
intervening is challenging, inevitably it comes up, like I don't want my friends to be mad
at me or I don't know that person, they'll get mad at me. I try to share narratives with
them from their own peers about when they have said they were happy and grateful
someone intervened.
Emily, Sarah, and Rachel spoke about the Me Too movement and how that has affected the peer
to peer conversations on their campuses. Sarah stated,
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I'd say that it's likely that a lot of students are able to approach peers with their concerns.
I think that especially in our recent culture, the issue of gender based violence has been
talked about a lot more. Especially for our incoming students who have just gone through
high school the past four years during the Me Too movement and all the court cases and
everything that's been going on.
Rachel also shared,
I think it's getting better, but I wouldn't say holistically that they feel comfortable. It's
definitely changed quite a bit since the Me Too movement, I can say that for sure. I was a
student on campus prior to that, and there was a lot of silence about this topic. And then
post Me Too era, students started bringing this up as a source of activism, which is really
powerful.
Emily, Rachel, and Isabelle offered perspectives on obstacles and challenges that decrease
student’s comfort levels in talking to and approaching peers about concerns around sexual
assault and harassment on campus. Emily shared,
I think that a lot of people are conditioned to intervene in really high-risk situations, but I
think there's a lot of lower risk situations where people can intervene and do something. I
also think a lot of the barriers people have is they might know how to intervene but not
feel safe or comfortable doing so because they're in a new environment or because of the
identities they hold.
Rachel and Isabelle talked about the fraternity & sorority students on their campuses. Rachel
stated,
There are members within fraternity and sorority life who themselves wouldn't buy into
this type of behavior, but they don't feel like they have the agency to speak up and say
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something, because of the social ramifications if they did. We have representatives from
fraternity and sorority life in our advocacy organization. But they have said themselves
that they don't feel comfortable talking about it with their peers. They only feel
comfortable talking about it with us in our office.
This data indicates that although the primary goal of bystander intervention programs is
for students to recognize a potentially harmful situation and intervene, not all interview
participants believed that their students are comfortable talking to their peers about concerns
around sexual assault and that there are still some obstacles and barriers to students approaching
their peers. The institutions that had implemented bystander intervention programs for a longer
length of time and had a requirement for students to take the training saw results that the training
encourages student participation in cultural change.
Theme 4: Campus Wide Culture of Support
The interview participants discussed the importance of having a campus wide culture of
support for bystander intervention efforts to be successful. There were various responses around
what this culture of support could entail, such as additional funding, additional staff, assistance
with better communication and marketing, or more acknowledgement by upper administration.
Emma said that she received a lot of support from upper administration that has helped make
their bystander intervention efforts successful. She shared,
It receives a lot of support. When we first started off, I was given the support of being
able to work with an outside communications firm to help us with marketing and
branding. Our senior vice president of student affairs is incredible and our vice president
for student affairs is constantly supportive. I mean it was them who pushed for this office
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to be created. I’m often humbled during the president’s convocation every year, our
office and our code often gets referred to.
Emma acknowledged that it takes a lot of resources to support the continued success of the
bystander intervention program on her campus, and that having upper administration support is
instrumental to continuing the resources. She said,
We have yet to find another institution that does the amount of education that we do
particularly in small groups, face to face, required, all incoming students. It is not an easy
task, and it takes a lot of books, human resources, fiscal resources, it takes agreements
from the academic side of the house and the registrar’s office. We are lucky to have our
upper admin supporting this program so heavily.
Emily mentioned that upper administration’s main priority is that the program remains
mandatory, so that is how they receive the most support. Emily added,
I know that the university loves that our program is mandatory. I'm not sure if that's
because it looks good on paper or because it meets criteria or what exactly that support is
coming from. We receive a decent amount of funds to make sure it remains mandatory.
Other than that, upper admin hasn't been involved in much.
Emily noted how important stakeholders are across campus to ensure the campus wide support of
the bystander intervention program. She shared,
Something that we need is more engagement school wide, system wide, campus-wide
because we need people from all different departments encouraging their students to
attend our trainings or to be mindful or to step in and just be able to recognize the
problem. Upper administration can set that standard that this is something that we care
about and something that we are encouraging each department to support.
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Hailey, Allison, and Rachel also spoke about the importance of stakeholders. Allison stated,
I think if we could get maybe faculty to integrate some of these concepts into their class
so that students are just starting to hear it everywhere, and not just hearing it from
Student Affairs or from the Title IX person, then there would really be campus wide
support.
Rachel also said,
In terms of our campus partners, we have a really strong relationship with the directors of
Greek Life, Study Abroad programs, and International Center, and so they've been really
wonderful at helping us bridge that gap. We pretty continuously struggle with athletics.
There are certain coaches that are really supportive out of us, but as a whole, athletics has
been difficult to connect with.
Hailey and Erin indicated needing more institutional support in communication and marketing of
their bystander intervention programs. Hailey said,
Financially, I do not think support is an issue. General Counsel is willing to front money
for our programs and different things like that. I think our only issue as far as
administrative support is our marketing and communication side.
Erin discussed the parameters around social media and having an online presence. She stated,
Because we're such a large college, we have a large online presence and reputation, so
there is tight control over anything that has to do with social media and marketing. So, we
haven't gotten as much support as we would like to get as far as creating social media
pages to support our outreach efforts. So, I think that would be the area where we're
lacking.
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Rachel, Hannah, and Elaine discussed how more funding from their institutions would be
beneficial to their bystander intervention programs. Rachel shared,
Funding has been an issue for us pretty consistently in terms of prevention programming.
We recently have gotten an uptick in funding in regards to our advocacy, which is really
exciting. But we do know that's tertiary prevention. And a lot of administrators feel more
comfortable with tertiary prevention than they do primary.
Rachel and Hannah discussed their interest in peer-to-peer training and their hopes for
administration and campus support of more funding to hire student trainers. Hannah shared,
I think that students really hear from each other more than they would from professional
staff. At the moment, we can really only afford to have four paid student assistants and
we have a student body of over 20,000. And so, it's just difficult to do that mass reach
when we only have limited people involved.
Elaine discussed the addition funding support her bystander intervention program would benefit
from and stated,
I don't think that there's been as much effort to make going through our program an
institutional wide expectation. On the other hand, and this is also an institutional thing,
even if we had the support to make it mandatory or expectation for all the incoming
students to do an in-person bystander program, we only have one person who would
carry that out. We need more people that do the work, which means more money for
salaries and benefits. And that's hard to come by. And space. Where would all these
people work? Because space is also very hard to come by.
This data illustrates that in seeking campus wide culture of support for their bystander
intervention programs, administrators have identified certain factors such as stronger
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relationships with stakeholders and additional funding which would assist with bystander
intervention programs changing the culture around sexual assault on college campuses. Most
interview participants were able to identify ways in which their bystander intervention programs
and offices could receive more support from upper administration and other campus partners.
Conclusion

Since college students are at a heightened risk for sexual victimization, it is critical to
identify strategies for reducing rates of sexual assault on college campuses considering the
unwarranted physical and mental health consequences arising from incidents of sexual assault.
As a strategy for reducing the rates of sexual assault on college and university campuses, many
institutions are implementing bystander intervention programs. Research regarding campus
administrator perception and understanding of the role of bystander intervention trainings is
missing from current literature.
This study utilized both surveys and interviews to gather insight from campus administrators
who are directly involved with the planning, implementation, or facilitation of their institution’s
bystander intervention program to help address the gap in the literature. Four themes emerged
from the survey and interview data: bystander intervention trainings addressing cultural needs,
program structure supports cultural change, student participation in cultural change, and campus
wide culture of support. The evidence presented in the study address the role bystander
intervention programs have in changing the culture around sexual assault on college campuses.
The next chapter will address the research question in relation to the data, discuss the
intersections between the data and the conceptual framework, present recommendations for
practice, and share implications for practice.

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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS
This study sought to understand the role of bystander intervention trainings in changing
the culture around sexual assault on college campuses. The experiences and perspectives of the
participants in the study were important in understanding the purpose, structure, and needs of
bystander intervention programs.
This study is significant because sexual violence is occurring at alarmingly high rates at
institutions of higher education. In response to legislation and the increasing numbers of sexual
assault on campuses, administrators have implemented awareness and prevention programs
designed to decrease sexual assault (Coker et al., 2011). Bystander intervention training is one
example of prevention programs attempting to shift cultural and social norms around sexual
assault at colleges and universities. However, there has been little research conducted on the role
these programs have in changing the culture around sexual assault on college campuses.
The purpose of this chapter is to discuss findings and respond to the research question
using instructional design theory and organizational change theory as a framework to examine
the data. This chapter will also discuss recommendations, implications for practice, and ideas for
future research.
Discussion of Findings
This section responds to the research question that guided this study: What is the role of
bystander intervention trainings in changing the culture around sexual assault on college
campuses? The study found that the participants believed bystander intervention trainings have a
critical role in changing the culture around sexual assault on college campuses, but there are
several issues, including institutional support, that determine the success of bystander
intervention trainings playing that role.
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Participants in this study shared a variety of topics that contribute to incidents of sexual
assault on college campuses. Participants indicated that some topics were dependent on the
institution and the culture created at that institution. Participants also indicated that many of their
institutions build their bystander intervention program curriculum specifically addressing these
topics contributing to incidents of sexual assault on their campuses. The study also found that
each bystander intervention program utilizes a variety of facilitation strategies to assist with the
retention of information provided in their program. Participants shared that in seeking campus
wide culture of support for their bystander intervention programs, stronger relationships with
stakeholders and additional funding which would assist with bystander intervention programs
changing the culture around sexual assault on college campuses.
Bystander Intervention Program Design to Meet Institution’s Culture and Needs
Results from this study support the research of McMahon et al. (2015), which found that
there are some common goals in bystander intervention programs including increasing bystander
efficacy, intentions, and behaviors, and that the programs share a common principle that all
members of the community have a role in shifting social norms to prevent sexual violence.
Participant’s responses illustrated that participants believed bystander intervention trainings
support a positive change in the culture around sexual assault on college campuses by bringing
more attention, awareness, and education around the topic.
However, participants also said that it was important to build their bystander intervention
training curriculum based on the topics contributing to incidents of sexual assault on their
particular campus such as a lack of education and awareness, campus culture, and power and
control. For example, some participants described how their institution utilize standardized
workshops for their bystander intervention trainings, such as Green Dot and Bringing in the
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 78
Bystander, but that they adapted and edited the curriculum to reflect statistics and situations that
provided institution-specific facts and examples. When asked about whether students on their
campuses feel comfortable talking with peers about concerns around sexual assault and
harassment on campus, participants indicated different reasons that influence student decisions to
talk to peers or to intervene. This supports DeMaria et al.’s (2018) study that explored how
college students understand sexual assault and bystander intervention. Study participants noted
that students were hesitant to stop their peers from having a “good time” and were unclear about
what is consensual or unwanted in an interaction that they are observing. Study participants
discussed how they adapted their bystander intervention programs to address these factors,
specifically while still focusing their program around the main goals of providing awareness,
empowerment, and intervention skills to potential bystanders to promote norms for community
safety.
Participants reflected on the importance of focusing their bystander intervention program
on their specific campus culture and try to shift the conversation to a culture of care for everyone
in the community. This requires frequent assessment and updates to the bystander intervention
program.
Bystander Intervention Trainings Change Attitudes and Behaviors
This study also found that participants believed bystander intervention trainings change
attitudes and behaviors within participants, which supports the research of Alegria-Flores et al.
(2017). Study participants indicated that the bystander intervention trainings encourage a
community-based responsibility to intervene in potential sexual assault situations. Seven out of
ten interview participants shared specific stories when students have come into their offices, or
written an article in the school newspaper, or sent their office an email, about how they
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intervened as a bystander or how someone intervened for them in a situation. These stories
remind them as creators and implementers of these bystander intervention trainings of the
importance of their work.
Nine out of ten interview participants described a lack of assessment on their bystander
intervention trainings, and stated how a more comprehensive assessment was something they
were looking to implement soon. All participants discussed and reflected on the importance of
having a campus wide culture of support for bystander intervention efforts to be successful. To
advocate for increased resources such as additional funding, additional staff, assistance with
increased marketing and communication, and more acknowledgement by upper administration, it
is critical to have detailed assessment from the students participating the in bystander
intervention programs.
Theoretical Framework & Bystander Intervention Trainings
This section examines the data through the framework of instructional design theory and
organizational change theory. Within these frameworks, this study seeks to understand how
bystander intervention programs assist in discerning what social factors affect a bystander’s
willingness of whether or not to intervene, and how campus community support impacts the
culture around sexual assault on campus.
Instructional Design Theory
Instructional design theory offers guidance on how to help people learn and develop
(Reigeluth, 2013). When developing a bystander intervention training, instructional design
theory and cognitive load are valuable guides when making decisions and considering the
learning outcomes intended from the bystander intervention training. The study participants
discussed the various ways their institution’s bystander intervention programs are structured. All
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the participants described a bystander intervention program with different components that build
on top of each other and provide tangible takeaways for students. Some of these components
include: sharing statistics around sexual assault on college campuses, a discussion around
consent, acronyms and steps used to help students remember the information shared, example
videos of bystander intervention situations, and a focus on the campus culture.
Instructional design theory discusses methods to use to attain goals, considers conditions
in which instruction takes place, and offers guidelines as to what methods to use to most likely
attain a given goal. These factors are applicable to the considerations administrators on college
campuses are making when structuring their bystander intervention trainings, and there was
evidence of instructional design theory in bystander intervention trainings. One of the important
characteristics of instructional design theory is identifying which methods should be used, and
this is a characteristic study participants reflected on when making decisions around methods of
instruction that facilitate learning and development in their bystander intervention programs. For
example, participants discussed acronyms and repetition of letters to assist students in recalling
information such as the Three D’s when discussing the barriers to intervening and the Four R’s
when breaking down the bystander intervention approach.
Another important characteristic of instructional design theory is understanding when to
separate detailed component methods. Sometimes, one type of method is better for a given set of
conditions and desired outcomes than another method. Many participants identified a video as
the best method for modeling appropriate bystander intervention behavior. Keeping instructional
design theory in mind when creating bystander intervention trainings assists with a reduction of
cognitive load and retention of learning outcomes for the students participating in the bystander
trainings.
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Organizational Change Theory
Organizational change theory contends a successful cultural shift can only occur when all
members of the campus community develop and implement the new understandings of campus
structures and processes (Kezar, 2013). In accordance with this theory, many study participants
discussed the importance of having a campus wide culture of support in order for bystander
intervention efforts to be successful.
Six out of ten interview participants discussed how their bystander intervention programs
are still working to raise their profile to all students, faculty, and staff across campus and that
they could use institutional support with the communication and advertisement of the program.
Other participants explained how their bystander intervention programs are already well
established on campus, but how it takes a lot of resources to support the continued success of the
bystander intervention trainings on their campuses, and that having upper administration support
is instrumental to having continued access resources.
Participants also spoke about how important stakeholders are across campus to ensure the
campus wide support and implementation of the bystander intervention program. Specifically,
many participants discussed the importance of their relationships with Housing, Greek Life, and
Athletics departments. As more institutions make their bystander intervention trainings
mandatory for all incoming students, more funding from their upper administration would be
needed for resources such as more staff, advertisement, and space reservations. Eight out of ten
interview participants said that support for bystander intervention trainings needs to come from
more than just the Student Affairs division on campuses. College and university staff, students,
and faculty must be willing to dedicate substantial time and effort if they are interested in
cultural change as the process tends to be long term and slow (Kezar, 2013).
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Recommendations
This section offers recommendations for higher education administrators involved with
the creation and implementation of bystander intervention programs and senior level
administrators who currently have or are looking to adopt a bystander intervention program.
These recommendations will help to better implement and understand the role of bystander
intervention trainings in changing the culture around sexual assault on college campuses.
Educate Students, Staff, & Faculty
The first recommendation is that there should be more education to students, staff, and
faculty around the bystander intervention program that is implemented on the campus. For
students, there should be clear marketing and communication in a variety of formats about when
the training takes place, where the training takes place, how it is a campus effort and supported
by all staff, faculty, and peers for students to engage in this training. Additionally, the marketing
and communication should continue beyond just encouraging students to participate in the
program. If there are slogans or phrases that the bystander intervention training teaches, there
should be an effort to utilize those as campaigns to bring more awareness year-round. One
participant shared how there is an acronym they use to define consent in their bystander
intervention program, and that the acronym is used in their marketing and advertisement, and it
has become something students utilize in their vocabulary when discussing their concerns or
thoughts with each other.
For staff and faculty, there should be notice and education about what the program entails
and how they can refer their students to resources to learn more. Participants shared that support
for bystander intervention trainings needs to come from more than just the Student Affairs
division. Additionally, there are many other ways for staff and faculty to support the program
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such as collaborations with the office that runs the trainings, participating as a facilitator of the
training, and holding students accountable to attending the training. If the students on campus are
hearing about the importance and about the support of this program from their staff, faculty, and
peers, then it assists with the culture around sexual assault on college campuses.
Design Training to Meet Institution’s Culture and Needs
The second recommendation is that creators of the bystander intervention trainings
should design the training to meet the institution’s culture and needs. Some participants said that
their bystander intervention training curriculum was entirely developed by campus
administrators and other participants noted that the curriculum was a standardized workshop
from Green Dot or Bringing in the Bystander. Regardless, it is important for the training to
include institution specifics, such as statistics around sexual assault and harassment specifically
on their campus, results from campus climate surveys at their campus, and videos used for
bystander intervention modeling that use specific scenarios that would be unique to their campus
events and traditions. Designing the program to meet the institution’s culture and needs will
assist with more engagement and applicability of the information by student participants.
Increase Resource Allocation
The third recommendation is that campus upper administration should increase resource
allocation to the offices that create and implement the bystander intervention trainings. Findings
from this study suggest that it takes a lot of resources to support the success of the bystander
intervention trainings such as staff, marketing and advertisement, program facilitators, and space
reservation. Some participants discussed how they would like to make their bystander
intervention training mandatory for all incoming students and that their upper administration
have also requested that they seek to make it a mandatory program; however, these participants
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reported that their institutions made the online training mandatory, and the in-person training
optional, due to the fact that there was not enough staff and resources to support in-person
training for all incoming students. In order to bring positive change to the culture around sexual
assault on college campuses, the bystander intervention programs need an increased budget and
resource allocation from the university.
Implement Systematic Assessment
The fourth recommendation is that the creators and implementers of the bystander
training programs should implement thorough and detailed pre and post assessments on the
program. Findings from this study suggest that increased resource allocation may improve the
quality of experience for students attending these bystander intervention programs, but
assessment will be necessary to advocate for these increased resources. Many participants
described minimal assessment on their programs for a variety of reasons, including a lack of time
and a lack of student response. Assessment of the program would also be beneficial in
understanding the student’s experience in the training in order to make continuous updates to the
bystander intervention program. Assessment would also be beneficial in identifying the culture
and needs of the student population which would assist in focusing and narrowing their training
design.
Implications
Ongoing sexual assault on college and university campuses indicates a need for
institutions of higher education to evaluate and reflect on their prevention of sexual violence on
campuses. Research regarding campus administrator perception and understanding of the role of
bystander intervention trainings is missing from current literature, and this study provides
valuable information to university communities. Findings from this study may be used to inform
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the practices of those who create and implement bystander intervention programs and senior
level administrators on college campuses to better serve their students. This study benefits senior
level administrators by providing insight on the impact of bystander intervention programs and
include the campus administrator perspective which is valuable research for senior level
administrators to take into consideration when deciding whether or not to implement a bystander
intervention program at their institution. This study aids creators and implementers of bystander
intervention programs by providing insight from the implementation of these programs at
different institutions. Information obtained in this study can be used to structure bystander
intervention programs from their creation, implementation, and assessment.
Future Research
Limited research on the role of bystander intervention trainings in changing the culture
around sexual assault on college campuses speaks to the need for more extensive research
regarding this topic. This study gathered the experiences and perspectives from campus
administrators who were directly involved with the planning, implementation, or facilitation of
their institution’s bystander intervention program; however, there are other study participants
that can provide insight on this topic. Future research can include other stakeholders as
participants, such as upper level administration or other university staff and faculty, who can be
interviewed to gauge their understanding of the role of bystander intervention trainings in
changing the culture around sexual assault on college campuses. Future research should also
include students who have and have not participated in the bystander intervention training at a
specific campus research site. As the target audience for the bystander intervention trainings and
the individuals who are navigating campus and experiencing situations that require bystander
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 86
intervention, students would offer a unique perspective on the culture of sexual assault on
college campuses.
Additionally, this study only focuses on four-year, degree granting public or private
institutions. Future research should include other types of institutions such as community
colleges. Future research could also include solely public or solely private institutions and
identify if there are any unique differences and perspectives between the two institution types.
This study utilized a survey and interview as the two methods to collect data. Future research
could utilize a focus group or observation as other methods to collect data in different settings.
Lastly, this study only had survey and interview participants that identified as women, but future
research should also provide the insight of participants with different gender identities.
Conclusion
Sexual assault continues to be a serious problem at institutions of higher education in the
United States (Banyard, Moynihan, & Crossman, 2009; Fisher, Cullen, & Turner, 2000;
McMahon, 2008). Colleges and universities are responsible for educating their students around
sexual assault prevention; therefore, to address the increasing number of sexual assaults on
college campuses, many institutions have implemented prevention education programs,
specifically bystander intervention trainings. This study found that administrators involved in the
creation, implementation, and facilitation of bystander intervention trainings believe these
trainings have a critical role in changing the culture around sexual assault on college campuses.
This study also found that bystander intervention trainings should be designed to meet the
institution’s culture and needs and that the trainings change student’s attitudes and behaviors,
encouraging a community-based responsibility to intervene in potential sexual assault situations.
It is important for administrators working with bystander intervention trainings to create
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 87
assessments of their programs in order to better advocate for additional resources and funding to
support their program. It is also important for upper level administration at institutions with
bystander intervention programs to encourage the support of this program from all staff and
faculty, regardless of their direct work with the program. An institution’s success with the
implementation of bystander intervention trainings and decrease in incidents of sexual assault
depends on the support of the entire university community.

BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 88
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BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 94
APPENDIX A
Recruitment Email

Hello,

My name is Sally Behpoornia and I am a graduate student in USC Rossier School of Education’s
Doctorate of Education program. My research focuses on the effect of bystander intervention on
the culture around sexual assault on college campuses. I am reaching out to you as someone
involved with your institution’s bystander intervention program. Your insight and experience
would be very helpful and beneficial to my study, and to future research on bystander
intervention programs.

Please consider taking the following short survey answering a few questions about your
institution’s bystander intervention program and your willingness to participate in an interview.

Survey link: https://tinyurl.com/BystanderInterventionStudy

Please let me know if you have any questions. Have a great day!

Thank You,
Sally Behpoornia

BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 95
APPENDIX B
Survey Protocol

General Information
1. Name
2. Preferred Email
3. Phone Number

Institutional Information
4. What is the name of your institution?
5. How long have you worked at your institution?
6. What is your institution type?
a. Public
b. Private
7. What is your institution setting?
a. Primarily nonresidential (NR)—fewer than 25 percent of degree-seeking
undergraduates or fewer than 50 percent enrolled full-time live on campus.
b. Primarily residential (R): (a)—at least 25 percent of degree-seeking
undergraduates live on campus and (b) at least 50 percent but fewer than 80
percent attend full-time.
c. Highly residential (HR)—at least half of degree-seeking undergraduates live on
campus and at least 80 percent attend full-time.
8. What is your institution size?
a. Very small four-year (VS4)—fewer than 1000 FTEs attend this four-year
institution.
b. Small four-year (S4)—at least 1000 but fewer than 3000 FTEs attend this four-
year institution.
c. Medium four-year (M4)—at least 3000 but fewer than 10000 FTEs attend this
four-year institution.
d. Large four-year (L4)—more than 10000 FTEs attend this four-year institution.
9. What is the name of your department?
10. What is your position title?
11. How long have you worked at your institution in the department you currently work in?
12. Does your institution have a bystander intervention program?
a. Yes
b. No
13. Is your institution’s bystander intervention program required for all incoming
undergraduate students?
a. Yes
b. No
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 96
c. Additional Comment Box:
14. How long has your institution’s bystander intervention program been in place?
15. What is your involvement with your institution’s bystander intervention program?

Other Questions
16. Besides bystander intervention programs, please tell me about any policies, programs, or
procedures that your institution has implemented to help address the issue of sexual
assault on college campuses.
17. How might you encourage other staff, faculty, and administrators on your campus create
initiatives that address the issue of sexual assault on college campuses?
a. Is there a culture of collaboration on your campus within departments?
b. Is there support from senior administration for changes made on campus?
c. When change is made, how are the changes communicated to stakeholders on
campus?
18. Would you be willing to participate in a 1 hour audio-recorded interview? Note: These
interviews will take place over the phone or in-person, depending on your location.
19. Please identify your availability for the interview:
a. Morning
b. Afternoon
c. Evening

BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 97
APPENDIX C
Interview Invitation Email

Hello,

Thank you for completing the survey for my dissertation study, and for your willingness to
participate in an interview! You indicated that [insert time period response in survey question
19] was the best time for an interview. If your institution is within 1 hour driving distance of Los
Angeles, I would like to conduct an in-person interview; otherwise, I would like to schedule a
phone interview. Below is my availability.

[List available dates/times]

Additionally, please email me back with your phone number and address. Once we finalize an
interview date and time, I will email you back with further details about the interview.

Please let me know if you have any questions!

Thank You,
Sally Behpoornia

BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 98
APPENDIX D
Information Sheet

University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089-4033

You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Sally Behpoornia, under the
supervision of Dr. Tracy Tambascia, at the University of Southern California. Research studies
include only people who voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about
this study. Please read through this form and ask any questions that may arise.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This research study aims to understand the effect of bystander intervention programs on the culture
of sexual assault on college campuses. This study seeks to capture the university administrator
insight on their experiences with the bystander intervention programs on their campuses to gain
understanding on what effects this prevention program may or may not have on the student
population and overall campus experience. Obtaining this information may help to identify issues
or successes around bystander intervention programs which will assist implementation of future
bystander intervention programs.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in a 45-60 minute audio-
recorded in-person interview. After the interview, you will have the opportunity to request a copy
of the transcript of the interview and follow up with any changes that need to be made. You are
free to stop the interview at any time or decide not to answer any question you do not feel
comfortable answering.

CONFIDENTIALITY
Any identifiable information obtained in connection with this study will remain confidential.
Participant responses will be coded with a false name (pseudonym) and maintained separately in
a password protected computer. The audio recordings will be destroyed once they have been
transcribed and the interview transcriptions will be shredded once the study is completed.

The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies
to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects. When the results of the research are
published, or discussed in conferences, no identifiable information will be used.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact the following
Sally Behpoornia via email behpoorn@usc.edu or phone at (818) 300-3663 or Faculty Advisor Dr.
Tracy Tambascia at tpoon@rossier.usc.edu or (213) 740-9747.
INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 99

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu.

BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 100
APPENDIX E
Interview Protocol

Hello! My name is Sally Behpoornia and I will be your interviewer today. Thank you so much
for agreeing to participate in my study. The interview today should take about 45-60 minutes. If
you need to step out, please let me know.

Before we begin, I would like to provide you with an overview of my study and help answer any
questions you might have about this interview. I am a graduate student at University of Southern
California in the Rossier School of Education. I am conducting a study on the effect of bystander
intervention on the culture around sexual assault on college campuses. I am very interested in
what information incoming students receive around the topic of sexual assault prevention and
education, student perceptions and experience with the bystander program, and how
administrators support continuous education around the topic. I am interviewing administrators
who support and are involved with bystander intervention programs on their campuses to gain
further information.

I want to let you know that I am conducting this interview in the perspective of a researcher
today. This means that the nature of my questions and observations are not evaluative. I also will
not be making any judgments on your perceptions and knowledge of the institution’s policies.
This interview is confidential. This means that your name will not be shared with anyone outside
of my research team.

The data for this study will be compiled into a report, and this report will contain some of what
you say as direct quotes, but none of this data will be directly tied back to you. I will use a
pseudonym to protect your confidentiality and will try my best to de-identify any of the data I
gather from you. As stated in the Information Sheet I shared with you, I will keep the data in a
password protected computer, the audio recordings will be destroyed once they have been
transcribed, and the interview transcriptions will be shredded once the study is complete. If you
are interested, I am definitely able and willing to share a final copy of my paper.

I also have a recorder with me today so that I can accurately capture what you share with me.
The recording is solely for my purposes and will not be shared with anyone else. May I have
your permission to record our conversation?

Do you have any questions before we get started?

I would like to start by asking you some background questions about you.

1. Tell me about the factors that drew you to apply to work in student affairs.
2. Tell me about the factors that drew you to this position, specifically.
3. In your role as ______, what have you observed to be factors contributing to incidents of
sexual assault on college campuses?

Now I would like to ask you some questions about the bystander intervention program at your
institution.
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION 101

4. Tell me about your institution’s bystander intervention program.
a. When did it first start?
b. Who is required to take bystander intervention?
c. When does the it take place?
d. How long is the program?
e. What does the program consist of?
5. Tell me about the information you provide in bystander training about your institution’s
policies around sexual assault and harassment, if any.
6. Does your institution collect data or assessment of your bystander intervention program?
If so, what does the data or assessment look like?
7. Some students say that bystander training is not necessary, and that students already
know what to do if they are concerned about a friend or peer. What would you tell them?
8. How comfortable do you think students feel talking with peers about concerns around
sexual assault and harassment on campus, if at all?
a. Tell me about an experience a student shared with you when they had to talk to
peers about these concerns, if any.
9. How does your bystander intervention program model appropriate ways to intervene in
potential sexual assault or harassment situations, if at all?
10. What do you perceive are the essential takeaways students should have after going
through bystander intervention?
11. What about the bystander intervention could be improved, if anything, to address these
takeaways more clearly?

Now I would like to ask you some questions about institutional support of the bystander
intervention program at your institution.

12. What support does the bystander intervention program receive from senior
administrators, if any?
13. Who or what do you think helps and supports student’s prevention and awareness of
sexual assault at college?
14. What sort of institutional support would you need in order to create cultural change
around sexual assault on your campus?
15. As a bystander intervention program administrator, how might you encourage other
individuals working on campus to create initiatives that address the issue of sexual
assault on college campuses?
16. In closing, what other insights would you like to share about our conversation, if any?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Sexual violence is occurring at alarmingly high rates at institutions of higher education. In response to these high numbers of sexual assault on campuses and the appeal of a community-level approach to prevention, there has been an increased interest in bystander intervention trainings designed to decrease the incidence of sexual assault. This qualitative study examined the role of bystander intervention trainings in changing the culture around sexual assault on college campuses across the United States. Using instructional design theory and organizational change theory as a theoretical framework, this study included a survey and interviews to gather insight from campus administrators who were directly involved with the planning, implementation, or facilitation of their institution’s bystander intervention program. The study found that participants believed bystander intervention trainings have a critical role in changing the culture around sexual assault on college campuses, but there are several issues, including institutional support, that determine the success of bystander intervention trainings ability to play that critical role. This study also found that bystander intervention trainings change attitudes and behaviors within students. Participant’s responses illustrated that bystander intervention trainings support a positive change in the culture around sexual assault by bringing more attention, awareness, and education around the topic. This study offers recommendations to higher education administrators involved with the creation and implementation of bystander intervention programs and senior level administrators who currently have or are looking to adopt a bystander intervention program.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Behpoornia, Sally (author)

Core Title Bystander intervention training & the culture of sexual assault on college campuses

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 07/29/2020

Defense Date 06/04/2020

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag bystander,bystander intervention,OAI-PMH Harvest,Prevention,Sexual assault

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Tambascia, Tracy (committee chair), Hirabayashi, Kimberly (committee member), Kumar, Ekta (committee member)

Creator Email behpoorn@usc.edu,sallybehpoornia@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-349470

Unique identifier UC11664048

Identifier etd-Behpoornia-8813.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-349470 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Behpoornia-8813.pdf

Dmrecord 349470

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Behpoornia, Sally

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA