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First-year retention: Community college students -- a gap analysis
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First-year retention: Community college students -- a gap analysis
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FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 1
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION: COMMUNITY COLLEGE STUDENTS
A GAP ANALYSIS
By
Kristen Freeman
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2018
Copyright 2018 Kristen Freeman
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 2
DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to my family. To my husband, who encouraged me to pursue my
dream since the day we met; you supported our family in every way with steadfast commitment
from the day we started this journey together. To my three children, who encouraged me to
demonstrate the “Freeman Fire” every step of the way; your kind words and patience did not go
unrecognized. To my sister for your intuitive insights and support. To my darling nephew, who
asked all the right questions at all the right times. To my mom who encouraged independence
and insisted I stand on my own two feet. Thank you all for your encouragement and support. I
love you beyond words. This is dedicated to you with gratitude.
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 3
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank God for planting the seed in my heart and for daring me to step out on in faith. I thank
God for each whisper, nudge, and shout that said, “Kristen, the time is now.” I thank God for
allowing me to be an instrument and to serve in the way that He has intended me to serve. God
has blessed me with ambition, persistence, ability, and purpose. I am eternally grateful.
I acknowledge and thank my family, who is the reason for it all. Your support and
encouragement sustained me through every chapter and every revision. To my husband, who
picked up the slack and held down the fort while I was up to my elbows in research. Thank you
from the bottom of my heart for clearing a space for me to get lost in the research and tell the
story. I could not have done it without your support. To my children: Thank you for your warm
embraces and silly moments that melted the stress away. You three little people bring so much
joy to my life. You are my motivation for all things . I love you all the “mostest.”
Last, but certainly not least, thank you to the esteemed USC Rossier faculty for providing the
opportunity to join an amazing community of educators. To my committee, comprised of Dr.
Mora-Flores, Dr. Stowe, and Dr. Castro, I thank you all for your time, feedback, and support
through this process. Thank you for being a resource and for encouraging me to dive deep into
the work. To Dr. Stowe, thank you for setting a high bar and expecting excellence from the
beginning. To Dr. Mora-Flores, thank you for your honest, timely, and clear feedback. Thank
you also Dr. Ferguson, for supporting me through the last chapter and providing me with late
night feedback and answers to all my questions in an instant. I appreciate the time we spent on
Google Docs! I have nothing but great appreciation for you all.
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 4
ABSTRACT
This qualitative study employed the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis to examine the
knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational elements that influence first-year student
retention at ABC College from the students’ perspective. Assumed knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences were generated from the existing literature on student retention and
learning and motivation theories. The analysis of the qualitative study validated the influence of
knowledge, motivation, and organizational barriers that affect student outcomes. Based on the
findings, the New World Kirkpatrick Model (2016) provides a framework for recommendations,
implementation, and plan of evaluation.
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION 2
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 3
ABSTRACT 4
LIST OF TABLES 8
LIST OF FIGURES 9
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 10
Introduction to the Problem 10
Organizational Context and Mission 11
Organizational Goal 12
Related Literature 13
Importance of the Evaluation 14
Description of Stakeholder Groups 15
Organizational Mission and Stakeholders’ Performance Goals 17
Stakeholders Groups for the Study 18
Purpose of the Project and Questions 18
Methodological Framework 19
Definitions 19
Organization of the Project 19
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 21
Retention First-Year Community College Students 21
Competing Agendas 22
Non-traditional Students 23
Academic Preparation and Performance 25
Academic Assessment 28
Remediation 30
Student Integration Influences the First-Year 32
First-Year Seminar 33
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences 35
Knowledge and Skills 35
Knowledge Types 37
Knowledge Influences 38
Motivation 41
Self-efficacy 42
Student Self-efficacy 43
Attribution Theory 43
Student Attribution Theory 44
Organizational Influences 45
Conclusion 48
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 6
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge 49
and Motivation and the Organizational Context
CHAPTER THREE: METHODS 52
Participating Stakeholders 52
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale 53
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale 55
Qualitative Data Collection and Instrumentation 57
Interviews 57
Documents and Artifacts 59
Data Analysis 60
Credibility and Trustworthiness 63
Validity and Reliability 64
Ethics 65
Limitations 66
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS 67
Participating Stakeholders 67
Findings 78
Increasing Student Retention 79
Knowledge 79
Motivation 83
Peer to Peer Relationships Create a Sense of Belonging 84
Motivation 84
Academic Strategies 87
Knowledge 88
Motivation 89
Organizational Influences Impacting Student Retention 91
Complex Transfer Process 91
Knowledge 91
Motivation 93
Organization 94
Summary 96
CHAPTER FIVE: IMPLEMENATION AND EVALUATION 99
Introduction 99
Discussion 99
Recommendation for Future Research 100
Recommendations 100
Knowledge Recommendation 101
Factual Knowledge 104
Procedural Knowledge 105
Motivation Recommendations 106
Introduction 106
Self-efficacy 107
Attribution Theory 109
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 7
Organizational Recommendations 110
Introduction 110
Cultural Models 111
Cultural Settings 113
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan 114
Implementation and Evaluation Framework 114
Organizational Purpose, Need, and Expectations 115
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators 115
Level 3: Behavior 117
Critical Behaviors 117
Required Drivers 118
Organizational Support 120
Level 2: Learning 121
Learning Goals 121
Program 121
Components of Learning 122
Level 1: Reaction 124
Evaluation Tools 125
Immediately Following the Program Implementation 125
Delayed For a Period After the Program Implementation 126
Data Analysis and Reporting 126
Summary 127
Conclusion 129
REFERENCES 131
APPENDIX A: Training Evaluation 147
APPENDIX B: Supervisor’s Checklist 148
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 8
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Organizational Mission, Organizational Performance Goal, and Stakeholder 17
Performance Goal
Table 2. Knowledge Influences, Knowledge Types, and Assessments for Gap Analysis 40
Table 3. Motivational Influences and Assessments for Motivation Gap Analysis 44
Table 4. Organizational Influences, Cultural Influences, and Cultural Setting for Gap 47
Analysis
Table 5. Demographics of Study Participants 68
Table 6. Educational Support Systems 78
Table 7. Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 102
Table 8. Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations 106
Table 9. Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations 110
Table 10. Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes 116
Table 11. Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for New Reviewers 117
Table 12. Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors 119
Table 13. Components of Learning for the Program 122
Table 14. Components to Measure Reactions to the Program 124
Table 15. Data Analysis Dashboard 127
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 9
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Conceptual Framework 50
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 10
Chapter One: Introduction
The low retention rate of first-year, first-time community college students is a significant
problem that extends beyond the campus. Successful transition from high school student to
college scholar is a transformational process that is not easy for most students (Hunter, 2006).
With an open-access enrollment policy, community colleges serve as the primary entry point into
higher education for a diverse student population (Community College Research Center, 2013).
Across the United States, approximately 50% of all first-year college students enroll in
community college annually (Community College Research Center, 2014). However, less than
40% of community college students will complete an associate’s degree, certification, or transfer
over a six-year period (CCRC, 2016; Shapiro, Dunbar, Wakhungu, Yuan, & Harrell, 2015).
Persistence and retention rates at two-year colleges are on the decline and have dropped 1.2
percentage points, equivalent to 3.1 million students since 2009 (National Student Clearinghouse
Research, 2014). Access alone does not guarantee persistence towards completion. Despite
stable enrollment patterns, the majority of community college students leave during the first year
(Community College Research Center, 2013; Juszkiewicz, 2015).
According to the National Student Clearinghouse Research Center (2014), nearly 50% of
community college students drop out during the first-year and never return to any college.
Retention research indicates that success during the first year of college has a substantial impact
on students’ decisions to persist to the following year and a positive correlation to completion
rates (Barefoot, 2007; Kuh, Cruce, Schoup, Kinzie, & Gonyea, 2008; Pascarella & Terrenzini,
2005). Over the last 30 years, educational researchers have studied student characteristics that
influence dropout rates, but little attention given to external variables such as the college
environment and classroom experiences (Barefoot, 2007). Colleges and universities continue to
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 11
struggle to retain incoming students. Though campuses’ invest significant resources developing
specific programs to improve student retention, retention rates remain unchanged (Barefoot,
2007). The impact of this is broad: Dropping out of college has deleterious long-term effects on
future employment opportunities and devastating impact on the global economy. Early dropouts
often leave without having earned enough credits, without acquiring enough skills to increase
future earnings, and having accrued a significant amount of debt (Community College Review,
2017).
Organizational Context and Mission
ABC College (pseudonym) is a regionally accredited mid-size public community college
situated in an urban setting in California that provides extensive educational and vocational
opportunities to the diverse communities it serves. Its core mission is offering academic
instruction, educational programs, and support resources to the students it serves. ABC College
offers transfer coursework pathways to four-year colleges and universities, classes leading to an
associate’s degree, and certificates of achievement to workforce preparation. Also, ABC College
offers a variety of degree and certificate programs and more than 25 areas of study. There are
over 500 instructional faculties at ABC College; the majority who work part-time. The student
population is primarily low-income, first-generation college, underrepresented minorities, and
enrolled part-time. More than 60% of first-year students at ABC College enrolled in
developmental math, and English coursework and 55% of students receive financial aid. The
ABC College mission serves as the foundation of strategic planning and support of its diverse
student body.
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 12
Organizational Goal
ABC College’s goal is to advance higher education practices, policies, and leadership to
improve retention rates significantly. The organizational performance goals are as follows:
1. By the spring of 2019, increase student retention by 20%.
2. By the spring of 2019, increase enrollment in the first-year seminar by 50%
To stay on track with the stated goal, the college President along with the Chief Business
Officer, Student Services Officer, Chief Instructional Officer, as well as the Student Equity Plan
Advisory Committee established goals to increase student success. The measures of achievement
of these targets are access, course completion, persistence, and degree/transfer completion.
The first-year seminar serves as an integral aspect of improving student outcomes by
offering instruction centered on the necessary skills and knowledge needed for college success.
The stated goals are tied together because increased enrollment in the first-year seminar provides
students the opportunity to learn academic skills and identify campus resources that support
student retention. While the first-year seminar is open to all ABC College students, the program
actively promotes the course to incoming students through high school activities, orientations,
and the Summer Bridge program. Although the first-year seminar is not a requirement, its
popularity has increased through active promotional efforts from Student Success faculty and
Student Outreach efforts.
Progress towards the performance goals is evaluated at the end of each school year. If ABC
College is not taking steps to improve student outcomes, it risks losing statewide funding, which
negatively influences students’ access to resources designed to support student achievement.
Funding ensures access to resources, support services, and academic programs that aid all ABC
College students; therefore significantly affects student success rates.
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 13
Related Literature
Low first-year retention rates continue to plague colleges across the nation. The high drop
out rate of first-year, first-time college students has puzzled educational leaders, policy makers,
and researchers for more than 30 years (Barefoot, 2007). Starting with the introduction of Tinto’s
(1975) Student Retention Model, which laid the groundwork for understanding students’
decisions to persist or leave college. According to Tinto (1975), the extent that students integrate
both socially and academically plays an integral role in departure decisions. Central to Tinto’s
(1975) concept of academic integration is the students’ perception of how well they identify with
the role of “student” and how they regard their academic achievement.
An extension of this model is the notion of social integration that addresses social aspects of
college, such as how many friends a student has, the student’s level of involvement in
clubs/activities, and the student’s interactions with faculty/staff (Barefoot, 2007; Fike & Fike,
2008; Harris & Wood, 2013; Strayhorn, 2012; Tinto, 1975; Tinto, 1987; Tinto; 1993). Nearly a
decade later, Astin’s (1984) developmental theory for higher education furthered the research in
student retention literature by emphasizing the importance of the quantity and quality of student
involvement on campus. Astin (1984) stated that authentic student engagement encompasses
physical and psychological involvement. When students actively participate in campus activities,
have meaningful interactions with faculty/staff, the greater the learning and more likely students
are to persist (Astin, 1984; Fong, Davis, Kim, Marriott, & Kim, 2016; Kuh & Hu, 2001; Kuh,
Kinzie, Buckley, Bridges, & Hayek, 2006; Zhao & Kuh, 2004).
Retention rates serve as a measure of students’ academic and social experience of the college,
which Tinto (1987) defined as the “health” of an organization. When students perceive the
campus environment as supportive, they are more likely to integrate academically and socially
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 14
(Loots, 2009). While there is not a one size fits all prescription for student retention, Kuh et al.
(2006) emphasized the necessity for institutions to have a deeper understanding of students’
needs so that they can develop specific approaches to learning in order to promote success for all
students during the first year of college and beyond. Furthermore, Fike and Fike (2008) stated
that the majority of community college students are non-traditional, indicating they face
significant barriers that influence how well they integrate academically and socially. Community
colleges face the challenge of identifying the diverse needs of non-traditional students then
develop effective support programs that foster academic and social integration (American
Association of Community Colleges, 2011; Center for Community College Student Engagement,
2016; Fike & Fike; 2008). An overall lack of connection to the organizational environment in
and out of the classroom plays a significant role in students’ decision to persist (Astin, 1993;
Barefoot, 2007; Kuh et al., 2008; Lopez-Wagner, Carollo, & Schindledecker, 2013; Pascarella &
Terrenzini, 2005; Tinto, 1997).
Importance of the Evaluation
It is important to evaluate ABC College’s performance in relation to the performance goal of
a 20% increased retention goal for a variety of reasons. The problem of low retention rates of
first-year community college students not only negatively impacts future economic opportunities
for the individual, but it also jeopardizes future funding of support resources for ABC College.
Dropping out of college also has a detrimental effect on tax-payers. In California alone, dropping
out of college costs taxpayers $480 million in Pell grants, Cal grants, and state appropriations
(Community College Review, 2017). On average, first-year community college dropout rates
exceed 50% which indicates a poor experience during a brief period (CCRC, 2013). Much of the
research centered around retention focuses on the outcomes of students that earn a degree, not
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 15
about students’ that leave within the first-year (CCRC, 2013). It is evidence that higher
educational attainment is associated with higher annual income. Therefore, low retention rates of
first-year community college students are a significant problem that impacts the economic
stability of the United States (U.S. Census Bureau, 2015). Roughly 80% of students enter
community college intending to earn a bachelor’s degree, but only 22% transfer in a six-year
period (CCRC, 2015). Students that earn an associate’s degree earn an average of 50% more than
high school graduates (U.S. Census Bureau, 2015) Bachelor degree holders earn approximately
2.4 million over a career span whereas those without a college degree can expect to make 1.3
million (U.S. Census Bureau, 2013). In 2015, the NCES reported that 72% of college graduates
ages 25-34 worked full-time earning a median annual wage of 50k, whereas associate level
graduates earned approximately 35k. In comparison, only 60% of high school graduates were
working full-time and earning half as much. Furthermore, college dropouts are twice as likely to
be unemployed or underemployed and three times more likely to live below the poverty line
(U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2015). Lack of a college degree not only impacts the
individual, but it also has profound effects on the U.S. economy. As a nation, the problem of
dropping out of college costs the U.S. 4.5 billion dollars in lost income and taxes annually
(Schneider &Yin, 2011). First-year college dropouts cost each state an estimated 1.3 billion
dollars and 300 million federal dollars (American Institute for Research, 2010). If the problem of
low retention rates of first-year students remains, their economic opportunity is reduced, and our
national economy suffers (Schneider & Yin, 2011).
Description of Stakeholder Groups
ABC College has many internal and external stakeholder groups. Each group directly
contributes to and benefits from the achievement of the performance goal. It is essential to
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 16
understand the dynamics between stakeholder groups and how they contribute individually and
collectively toward performance goals at ABC College. Existing complex dynamics between
ABC College administration, faculty, and student stakeholders influence academic achievement
and persistence rates. Effective educational leadership depends on the combined strength,
capacity, and motivations of instructors and administrators (Leithwood, Louis, Anderson, &
Wahlstrom, 2004) In educational settings, performance goals need to be aligned to address the
needs of a diverse student stakeholder population. Establishing clear goals, expectations,
strategic planning, coordination, and effective teaching practices within a supportive
environment is essential to improve student outcomes (Robinson, Lloyd, & Rowe, 2008).
Although there is not one direct roadmap to student success, Kuh et al. (2006) maintains that
effective institutions create conditions that foster a passion for learning and clear pathways to
student success.
Students are the main stakeholders at ABC College. Without the students and their tuition, the
college would not exist. Avci, Ring, and Mitchelli (2015) stated that the students’ success or lack
thereof reflects directly on the college, therefore they are one of the most significant
stakeholders. There is a direct correlation between student outcomes and institutional
performance. As such, institutional effectiveness identifies how well an organization meets the
performance goal (Skolitis & Gaybreal, 2007). Therefore, student outcomes serve as the
barometer of the practices and policies of the organization. Students are primary customers and
directly impacted by the policies, procedures, programs, and instruction at ABC College. If
students are not satisfied, they will leave the college and pursue other avenues. The result is a
loss of revenue for the college. Student’s benefit from the education provided at ABC College
that provides greater economic opportunity for them in the future.
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 17
Faculty/administration contribute directly to the achievement of the performance goal.
Combined, they are responsible for creating policies, programs, curriculum, services, resources,
and securing funding to meet the stated goals. They also provide training, development, and
resource allocation to various departments on campus. The administration at ABC College has
direct influence over the economic stability and performance goals of the college. Faculty also
has significant direct contact with students and provides a level of customer care in and outside
of the classroom. According to Avci et al. (2015), faculty is a key stakeholder group in higher
education because without them, students remain uneducated. Performance goal achievement is a
benefit to staff/faculty because it provides long-term job stability and salary increases.
Stakeholder Groups’ Performance Goals
Table 1
Organizational Mission and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Stakeholder Groups’ Performance Goals
Organizational Mission
ABC College’s core mission includes providing outstanding educational opportunity and
resources necessary to support the diverse communities it serves. By focusing on student
learning and academic success as the priority, ABC College aims to help students build their
abilities and competencies to support degree/certification completion.
Organizational Performance Goal
By fall of 2019, ABC College will increase student retention rates by 20%.
Stakeholder 1 Goal Stakeholder 2 Goal Stakeholder 3 Goal
Students Administration/faculty Offer additional
Learn skills/knowledge Integrate knowledge of courses to provide
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 18
for success students’ needs into first-year ongoing support
seminar to support
retention
___________________________________________
Stakeholder Group for the Study
Although each stakeholder group is essential to implementing the goal of increased retention
rates of students by 20% at ABC College by the end of the spring semester 2019, student
stakeholders have been selected as the primary focus of this study to determine if engaging in
purposeful academic activities and developing non-cognitive skills in a first-year seminar
promotes student success. Secondly, students are selected to determine the perceived educational
effectiveness and institutional conditions that support learning during the first-year seminar.
Finally, student stakeholders are the unit of measure to determine whether first-year seminar
practices support academic/social engagement and influence attitudes towards completion at
ABC College. While it would be useful to study faculty stakeholders to inform the instructional
practices that contribute to the performance goal, student participants’ provide a valuable
perspective about knowledge, motivational, and organizational factors that influence retention at
ABC College.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of the project is to evaluate the degree to which ABC College is meeting its
performance goal of a 20% increase in retention by the spring of 2019. The analysis will
examine the knowledge, motivation, and organizational components associated with degree
completions and its relation to achieving the organizational goals. While a complete gap analysis
would focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes the stakeholder of interest in this study
are student-stakeholders. The questions that guide this study are the following:
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 19
1. To what extent is ABC College meeting its goal of 20% increase in student
retention by 2019, based on the perceptions and needs of first-year college students?
2. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational elements related to achieving
the goal of 20% increase in student retention by 2019?
3. What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources?
Methodological Framework
This study employs qualitative research methods and analysis. Student performance in
relation to the organizational goals is assessed through interviews, document analysis, literature
review, and content analysis. Research-based solutions are recommended and evaluated
comprehensively.
Definitions
Dropout: Student who leaves college voluntarily or due to academic failure.
Persistence: Characterized by continuous enrollment for one semester to the next, leading to
degree/certificate completion.
Retention: Enrollment pattern of first-year, first-time certificate/degree seeking students from fall
to fall school year.
Attrition: Number of students who leave a program of study before finishing.
Organization of the Project
Five chapters are used to organize this study. Chapter One served as an introduction and
focused on the organization’s mission, goals, and stakeholders as well as the initial concepts of
gap analysis. This chapter provides the reader with the principle concepts and terminology
commonly found in a discussion about student retention at community colleges. Chapter Two
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 20
provides a review of the current literature surrounding the scope of the study. It also discusses
potential barriers to student retention. Chapter Three details the assumed interfering knowledge,
motivation, and organizational elements as well as methodology when it comes to choice of
participants, data collection, and analysis. In Chapter Four, data and results are assessed and
analyzed. Chapter Five provides solutions, based on data and literature, for closing the perceived
knowledge, motivation, and organizational gaps, as well as recommendations for an
implementation and evaluation plan for the solutions to meet the performance goal.
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 21
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
Chapter Two provides an overview of relevant literature that addresses the problem of low
retention rates of first-year community college students. Utilizing Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap
analysis, this chapter examines the assumed root causes of the knowledge, skills, and motivation
gaps that influence low retention rates of students at ABC College. This literature review
presents an in-depth discussion of key areas that affect decisions of first-year community college
students to persist. The first section provides a conceptual framework of student retention in
community colleges. The second section explores four evidence-based variables that influence
retention in community colleges: competing agendas, non-traditional students, academic factors
and social influences. Lastly, this section examines the impact of first-year seminars on students’
decisions to persist from the first-year to the second year.
Retention First-Year Community College students
The low retention rate of first-year community college students is a serious problem in the
United States (Community College Review, 2017; Juszkiewicz, 2015). With an open enrollment
policy, community colleges across the nation struggle to retain all students, especially those from
ethnically diverse, low socioeconomic, and underprepared academic backgrounds (Juszkiewicz,
2015). Non-traditional students represent the majority of community college enrollment. An
estimated 73% of enrolled community college students identify as non-traditional (Choy, 2002;
National Center for Education Statistics, 2012).
Reasons for early departures have been the topic of ongoing inquiry that researchers and
community college leaders have examined over the last several decades. Although no two
institutions are alike, the wide body of literature suggests a complex web of institutional
variables that influence students’ level of academic and social engagement, and decisions to
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 22
leave (Goldrick-Rab, 2010; Kuh et al., 2006). Community colleges and four-year universities
alike implement a host of student support services to retain students. However, there is not
standard practice to promote student success for all students at all colleges. Understanding the
demographics, needs, and goals of students and how those align with the institutional mission
allows community college leaders to think strategically in developing strategies to address first-
year retention (O’Gara et al., 2009).
Community colleges have developed an assortment of support services to increase student
engagement and retention efforts. Academic advising, student orientation programs, tutoring,
learning communities, and mentoring programs are just a few of the support program offerings at
colleges. Even with an array of student support services, colleges are unable to retain the
majority of students during the first year, therefore raises the question of under what conditions
are student support services effective? Traditional students attribute decisions to leave college
based on lack of academic progress, personal and emotional problems, or poor adjustment
whereas non-traditional students are more likely to cite feelings of alienation, low expectations
by professors, and few campus connections as reasons for leaving (Grant-Vallone, Reid, Umali,
& Pohlert, 2004). Grant-Vallone et al. (2004) stated that support programs are an essential aspect
of student retention efforts for historically underrepresented students.
Competing Agendas
Several variables influence retention in community colleges. With open access to millions of
Americans, community colleges attract a diverse student body with, considerable variation not
only in student demographics but also academic preparedness and completion goals (Community
College Research Center, 2013). Reasons for enrollment in community college range from the
desire to improve basic skills such as English as a second language (ESL); achieve a vocation;
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 23
earn an associate’s degree; or transfer to a university to complete a bachelor’s degree (American
Associate of Community Colleges, 2011). The Institute of Higher Education Leadership &
Policy (2011) stated that California community colleges vary in mission, goals, and student
success agendas with little to no guidance from the state to prioritize the needs of students.
Recognizing the need to transform the current community college structure, the American
Association of Community Colleges (AACC) launched the 21
st
-Century Initiative (2012) to
improve the lives of students across the nation by redesigning, reinventing, and resetting the
current structure. Despite these efforts, current pathways to certificate, graduation, and transfer
are unclear to many students (Bustillos, 2017)). Although community colleges offer an array of
programs, there is very little guidance, and students get lost in a maze and often do not complete
(Bustillos, 2017). The need to establish a shared vision of student success and implement
strategic plans between policy makers, administrators, and students is essential for student
retention.
Non-Traditional Students
Non-traditional students make-up the majority of community college enrollment across the
country. The definition of non-traditional students has been the topic of discussion in
postsecondary research over the last decade because the meaning has continued to evolve
(Pelletier, 2010). According to the NCES (2015), nontraditional students are associated with
background origins such as race or gender and meet one or more of the following characteristics;
part-time enrollment, full-time employment, over the age of 25, and low income. More recently,
the definition of non-traditional students has been expanded to include all factors that decrease
retention rates and are amenable to institutional interventions and campus support (Pelletier,
2010).
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 24
Kim, Sax, Lee, and Hagedorn (2010) proposed the notion that a broad definition of “non-
traditional” is ineffective because it captures the backgrounds of most community college
students. Non-traditional students are the new norm at community colleges. Because the
definition applies to most community college students, then, Kim et al. (2010) cautioned the use
of a generalized definition as it presents challenges to developing specific strategies to support
the success of each subgroup . Furthermore, Kim et al. (2010) concluded that most non-
traditional students dropout during the first semesters, which reinforces the need for community
colleges to devise specific support services to targeted populations during this critical first step
into postsecondary education.
Non-traditional community college students are less likely to persist to the second year of
college. Compared to four year universities, the majority is the first-time college and enrolled
full-time. In contrast, approximately 60% of community college students are enrolled part-time,
40% are first generation college, 20% Latino, 15% African American, 20% are single parents
and 45% low income (American Association of Community Colleges, 2016). Community
colleges enroll more low income, minority, and part-time students than four-year universities.
According to the AACC (2016), six-year data shows a mere 18% of part-time community
college students will complete a degree or transfer compared to approximately 43% of full-time
students (Juszkiewicz, 2015). There are also significant gaps in retention and completion rates of
African-Americans and Latinos compared to Caucasian students in community college
(Community College Review, 2017). According to the Community College Review (2017) only
26% of African American and 22% of Latino students complete or transfer to a four-year
university within six years compared to nearly 45% of Caucasian students. First-generation
students with parents that have little to no college experience are also more likely to leave before
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 25
completion (California Community Colleges, 2014). In fact, first-generation college students
have the lowest completion rates than any other underrepresented subgroup of students
(Department of Education, 2010). Retention rates of students that are first-generation and low-
income students are dismal. An estimated 89% of low income, first-generation students leave
college within six-years without earning a degree and are four times more likely to dropout (First
Generation Foundation, 2013). According to The College Board (2013), first generation college
students are more likely to be academically unprepared, need developmental coursework, and
low-income. Low-income status is a significant predictor of retention. National community
college data indicates that only 14% of students from low-income families, with annual income
less than $30,000 completed an associate’s degree within a six-year period (College Board,
Trends in Community Colleges, 2016).
Non-traditional students are at a higher risk of dropping out because they have significant
barriers to completion such as full-time work, dependent minors, delayed entry to college, and
inadequate academic preparation for college level coursework. As a result, community college
students face significant challenges to completion because they are not college ready and must
complete extended remediation sequences in math and English before earning college credits
(CCSSE, 2016). The top priority for community colleges is to develop strategies to support the
diverse student population to increase completion rates (CCSSE, 2016). Policy makers struggle
to build and rebuild student services to support college readiness and improve retention.
Academic Preparation and Performance
Pre-college preparation and academic performance during the first year of college is a
significant predictor of persistence. Academic preparation sets the foundation for the success of
community college students. In a national study, 4500 first-year community college students
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 26
were tracked across 21 institutions to determine which situations lead to successful outcomes
(Porchea, Allen, Robbins, & Phelps, 2010). Porchea et al. (2010) examined the relationship
between pre-college preparation and student outcomes to determine variables that influence
students’ decisions to persist. The academic preparation assessed through a combination of ACT,
SAT, and Computer-Adaptive Placement Assessment and Support System (COMPASS), SRI
scores, and GPA. The study concluded that the probability of completion, opposed to dropping
out increased with each incremental increase in high school GPA and standardized achievement
score (Porchea et al., 2010).
Students who complete rigorous high school coursework achieve higher college GPAs and
increased retention rates compared to students that complete basic level high school curriculum;
these tend to achieve lower GPAs and lower retention rates. Likewise, Woods and Williams
(2013) conducted a large-scale study of community college students to determine variables that
influence first-year retention. Survey data collected from the National Education Longitudinal
Study tracked more than 16,000 respondents from high school through college over a four-year
period. Findings indicated that high school GPA was the most significant predictor of first-year
college persistence. Specifically, the study determined that odds of persisting increased by 38%
with each level increase in GPA (Woods & Williams, 2013). Results also illustrated that high
school GPA has long-term effects on college persistence beyond the first year.
The effects of high school performance extend into college. In a longitudinal study Crisp and
Nora (2010), examined factors that influence persistence of over 23,000 students and determined
that achievement in high school math as a significant predictor of first-year persistence.
Additionally, results of the study indicated a correlation not only between first-year college GPA
and retention but also determined that there is an increased persistence rate to the third year of
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 27
college. According to the NCES (2012), students that complete algebra II and trigonometry
during the first year of college have an increased completion rate of 34% and 40% respectively,
compared to those that do not. Although students who enter into community college are less
likely to have enrolled in college preparatory math and English in high school, the knowledge
gap diminishes when students engage in academically purposeful behaviors during the first year
(Kuh, Cruce, Schoup, Kinzie, & Gonyea, 2008).
Numerous studies have examined the effects of first-year college academic performance on
retention rates. Researchers recognize GPA as the most reliable predictor of persistence in
college (Allen, Robbins, Casillas, & Oh, 2008; Astin, 1993; Crisp & Nora, 2009; Pascarella and
Terenzini, 2005; Stewart, Lim, & Kim, 2015; Wood & Ireland, 2014; Wood & Williams, 2013).
An increase in one GPA point increases first-year persistence fourfold (Kahn & Nauta, 2001;
Porchea et. al., 2010). Students with a higher GPA are more likely to persist from year one to
year two. Ishitanti and DesJardins (2002) found that students that earn a GPA between 2.00-2.99
during the first year of college have a 67% higher dropout rate than students than achieving a 3.0
or greater. Students that GPA falls below a 2.0 are 150% more likely to drop out after the first
year (Ishitani & DesJardins, 2002).
Initial academic achievement improves student persistence and outcomes. Stewart et al.
(2015) examined academic and non-academic factors of 3,213 first-year students that were
enrolled continuously between 2006 and 2008 to determine factors that influence persistence of
first-time college students. This study employed a mixed method approach to define differences
between students enrolled in at least one remedial course and students that were not. Study
findings determined that regardless of enrollment in college level or remediation coursework,
first-semester GPA had the most significant influence on persistence (Stewart et al., 2015).
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 28
Additionally, Gershenfeld, Hood, & Zhan, (2016) studied the effect of first-semester GPA on
persistence of 1,947 underrepresented students at a public university and determined that first
semester GPA significantly influenced students’ decisions to persist. Gershenfield et al. (2012)
identified students that achieved a GPA of 2.33 or less during the first semester as high risk of
not graduating and recommended early interventions to support academic achievement.
Academic Assessment
For the last decade, increased efforts were made to expand best practices in community
colleges to effectively enroll students in English, math, and ESL based on the student’s ability;
however, there are significant discrepancies in current assessment practices. Incoming
community college students are required to take math and English assessments to determine
placement into college level or developmental coursework. In 2016, the Public Policy Institute of
California (PPIC) survey of evaluation and placement in California community colleges
uncovered inconsistencies in assessment and placement practices. The purpose of the study was
to gain understanding of how assessment practices impact students’ placement into math,
English, and ESL. The PPIC Survey of Assessment and Placement in California Community
Colleges (2016) found that the majority of California Community Colleges use the Accuplacer as
the primary assessment tool for math placement; however, the cut-off score for placement into
transferable math varies by institution, not on actual performance on the Accuplacer (PPIC,
2016). This study also concluded that minority students of color are more likely to attend
colleges with higher cut scores, to be placed in remediation and have limited access to college
level, transferable math classes.
Colleges implement a variety of strategies to determine if the student is college ready. In most
colleges and universities, academic preparation is measured by a combination of factors
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 29
including standardized test scores, high school GPA, and intensity of high school coursework
(Porchea et al., 2010). The Public Policy Institute of California (2016) mandates community
colleges to use multiple measures to assess student preparedness. Although multiple measures of
assessment exist in California, there is a lack of consistency in the way community colleges use
assessment tests and high school achievement to determine placement in college (The Public
Policy Institute of California, 2016). Because of an absence of conformity to mandated practices,
students’ are left to advocate for themselves and contest their placement only when the student
recognizes a gap between placement and ability (California Public Policy Institute of California,
2016).
Multiple measures of assessment for placement into English, vary depending on the
institution. Although the majority of California community colleges reported using reading
comprehension, writing skills, sentence skills, and grammar skills along with Accuplacer for
placement, the study revealed that significant deviations in the minimum cut score needed for
transfer-level English. According to the PPIC (2016) survey, placement is more dependent on the
policies of the institution than student performance on the assessment. Assessment and
placement into remediation coursework extend the length of time to completion and is costly to
students. Most community college students dropout before completing the development course
pathway (The Public Policy Institute of California, 2016). According to the Center for American
Progress (2016), remedial courses cost students approximately $1.3 billion a year. Furthermore,
the study concluded that students that take developmental coursework are unlikely to graduate.
English as a second language (ESL) placement pathways are less clear than math and
English. There is a wide variation in placement practices for ESL students at community colleges
(PPIC Survey of Assessment and Placement in California Community Colleges, 2016). The
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 30
study determined that the highest level ESL cut score could lead to developmental coursework
pathway or placement into transfer level English depending on the college.
The disparity in placement practices between colleges is a confusing drawback for students
(California Community Colleges, 2012). In 2008, the California Community College Assess
initiative, an advisory committee of faculty, administrators, technology, and curriculum specialist
was formed to create standardized assessment practices. The most recent update on the
CCCAssess (2017) indicates a formal, comprehensive, and standardized practice of assessment
still does not exist within the California Community College District.
Remediation
To improve student outcomes, community colleges offer developmental coursework to
support academic achievement of underprepared students. The PPIC (2016) report estimates that
80% of first-year community college students enrolled in at least one developmental course in
math, English, or both. Enrollment in remediation coursework hinders persistence and
significantly extends coursework sequence to completion (PPIC, 2016). Some students are
placed in as many as five levels of remediation coursework to become college ready (CCRC,
2010). Nationally, there is a disproportionate number of African-American, Latino, and low-
income students enrolled in developmental coursework (CCRC, 2016). At its inception, remedial
coursework was regarded as a necessary pathway to prepare students for college level academics,
however, further examination revealed developmental pathways are flawed.
A remediation pathway is an obstacle for community college students persistence. The CCRC
(2010) research study of 250,000 community college students found that only 20% of students in
developmental math and 37% in developmental English completed the developmental sequence
to college-ready coursework. Moreover, the PPIC (2016) examined through statistical analysis,
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 31
the impact of development education on all 113 community college campuses in California. The
study determined five significant endpoints in regards to remediation coursework within the
California Community College District. The findings of this analysis are as follows; there is an
overrepresentation of African-American, and Latino students enrolled in remedial classes;
developmental sequences are long; credits cannot be applied to a degree; most students dropout
before completing the developmental pathway; most students do not go on to succeed in college;
and only 16% of developmental education students earn a certificate or degree within a six-year
period. Instead of assisting students to achieve academic goals, current remediation courses serve
as barriers to completion (CCRC, 2010).
Not only are remediation courses largely ineffective at improving outcomes of community
college students, the price of remediation is also costly to the individuals, their families, and
taxpayers. The U.S. Department of Education (2014) estimated that nationally students’ pay 920
million annually in out of pocket costs for developmental coursework in community colleges. An
estimated two out of five students borrow to pay for remediation (Department of Education,
2017). The majority of students in remediation coursework does not earn a degree or certificate
and additionally face the burden of loan repayment.
As a result of the PPIC (2016) findings about developmental education, current remediation
practices are under reform. Many community colleges in California have begun to reassess and
implement pilot programs to address the failing remediation pathways. Accelerated math
sequences, compression courses that combine two classes into one semester, and multiple
developmental pathways align with specific academic goals on a limited basis in an attempt to
increase student success.
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 32
Student Integration Influences the First-Year Retention
Over the past 40 years, researchers have studied how institutional and student variables
influence student retention. Each retention model to date focused on improving conditions that
promote student success (Astin,1984; Bean & Easton, 2002; Kuh et al., 2006; Kuh et. al, 2008;
Kuh et al., 2011; Tinto, 1975; Wood, 2013). Tinto’s (1975) seminal piece on student retention
provided the groundbreaking framework for understanding students’ decisions to persist in
college (Barefoot, 2007; Bean & Easton, 2002; Fike & Fike, 2008; Kuh et al., 2006; Pascarella &
Terenzini, 2005). Tinto’s (1975) model suggested a correlation between formal and informal
variables that influence students’ decisions to persist in college (Demetriou & Schmitz-Sciborski,
2011).
During 1980’s and 1990’s student retention theories evolved to include a more holistic
approach to understanding the intrinsic and extrinsic variables that impact the students’
experience in college thereby influence decisions to persist. Astin’s (1984) student involvement
theory, introduced the concept that a series physical and psychological variables impact the
students’ academic experience. Astin’s (1984) student involvement model highlighted the
distinction between involved and uninvolved college students. Highly involved college students
devote significant energy to studying, actively participate in campus activities, and engage with
faculty/peers (Astin, 1984). In comparison, uninvolved students are not closely tied to campus
activities, have few social connections with faculty/peers, and spend minimal effort studying,
and more likely to dropout (Astin, 1984). Essentially, the extent of student engagement in
college impacts the amount of student learning and personal development in college (Astin,
1984).
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 33
In the early nineties, Tinto revised his initial theoretical model of student retention. Tinto’s
(1993) revised student retention model emphasized the concept that academic and social
integration occurs through specific behaviors, interactions, and experiences (Milem & Berger,
1997). Tinto (1993) suggested students’ decisions to leave college develop over a series of
academic and social interactions. Furthermore, Tinto’s (1993) student retention model examined
the role that pre-entry attributes, personal goals, institutional experiences, and academic/social
integration play in dropout decisions. Although most institutions incorporate support services to
increase student retention efforts, Tinto (1999) contended that most first-year students remain
spectators in the learning environment, not true participants. To retain first year college students,
Tinto (1999) specified the need for colleges and universities to develop learning communities
and collaborative pedagogy as the foundation of the first-year college experience.
College students experience internal processes that shape their learning experience. Bean and
Eaton’s (2000) model indicated that students’ experience a series of psychology processes during
college and that these events influence decisions to persist or dropout. Furthermore, Bean and
Eaton’s (2000) psychological model of student retention examined the processes that lead to
academic and social integration in college. Integral to Bean and Eaton’s (2000) theory is the
notion that students’ characteristics and environmental interactions impact psychological process
and outcomes. In essence, students’ have a psychological response to their college environment.
As a result, environmental interactions shape students’ attitudes, behaviors, motivation, self-
efficacy, locus of control, and ultimately decisions to persist (Bean & Eaton, 2000).
First-Year Seminar
Colleges recognize the need to support students during the transition from high school to
college, and first-year seminar courses emerged out of the belief that participation has a positive
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 34
impact on student success. Also referred to as an orientation course, student success course, or
first-year experience; first-year seminars are based largely upon existing theories regarding the
role of student engagement in retention practices (Goodman & Pascarella, 2006; Jameleske,
2009; Kuh et al., 2006; Pascarella & Terensizi, 2005). The goals of first-year seminars are
twofold; first, increase academic achievement through social and academic engagement; and
second, to increase completion rates (Barefoot, 2007; Goodman & Pascarella, 2006). Pascarella
et al. (2006) described the first-year seminar as an opportunity to shape attitudes, behaviors, and
skills that promote student engagement. While curriculum, content, and delivery may vary across
campuses, the primary purpose of the first-year seminar is to engage students in educationally
purposeful activities, create awareness of campus resources and policies while establishing
significant relationships with faculty/peers (O’Gara, Karp, & Hughes, 2009). The CCSE (2012)
survey concluded that 84% of community colleges offer a student success course. Although
Goodman & Pascarella (2006) stated there is a positive correlation between first-year seminars
and persistence from first to second year at four-year universities, fewer studies have been
conducted at community colleges (Derby & Smith, 2004; Zeidenberg, Jenkins, & Calcagno,
2007).
There is an association between first-year seminars and persistence rates of community
college students. A study of Florida’s 28 community colleges was conducted to determine the
effectiveness of a first-year seminar on persistence (Zeidenberg et al., 2007). The study
compared outcomes of students that completed a first-year seminar course to those that did not.
The study did not control for student characteristics such as pre-college preparation, GPA, or
remediation. Not only did the study reveal that students that completed the course had increased
fall to fall persistence rates, but it also determined completers were more likely to earn a
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 35
credential and transfer to a four-year university. In order to gain deeper understanding of how
student characteristics influenced the outcomes data of the Florida study, the CCRC (2007) used
logistic regression over 17 terms to reexamine the data. The factors controlled for were race,
gender, ethnicity, citizenship status, English proficiency, and high school completion. The
findings of this study indicated that individuals that enrolled in the student success course were
eight times more likely than non-participants’ to earn a credential. Also, students enrolled in
remediation coursework were seven times likely to persist to degree completion. The other
control factors were not significant to the outcomes, which indicates that students of diverse
backgrounds benefit from the first-year seminar.
Building on the landmark Florida-based study, the Virginia Community College System
examined the association between a student success course, student and institutional
characteristics, and persistence from year one to year two (Cho & Karp, 2013). A sample size of
23,822 logit regression models were used to control for institutional and student characteristics.
The findings indicated that students enrolled in the first-year seminar, during the first semester
were 10% more likely to persist from the first year to the second (Cho & Karp, 2013).
Furthermore, the study determined that developmental math students enrolled in the first year
seminar were more likely to earn credits and persist to the second year than students who did not
enroll in the course. The findings suggested first-year seminars might also be helpful for
underprepared community college students.
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
Knowledge and Skills
The purpose of this section is to review relevant knowledge and motivation literature that is
pertinent to the achievement of the organization goal of increased retention rates of ABC College
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 36
students. This section is organized in three sections. The first section presents a discussion of
potential knowledge influences affecting the stakeholder goal. The second section provides a
description of assumed motivational influences affecting students’ decisions to persist. Lastly, an
analysis of potential organizational influences is presented.
Previous student retention research has focused primarily on four-year universities with little
attention given to unique institutional and student characteristics of community colleges (Roman,
2007). Existing literature suggests many factors contribute to low persistence and completion
rates of community college students. However, Tinto (1997) suggested that learning is the most
significant factor in students’ decision to persist. The more students are engaged in the learning
process, the less likely they are to leave college. Institutions that foster student involvement in
the classroom are more successful at retaining students (Tinto, 1997). Alexander, Shallert, and
Reynolds (2009) defined learning as an enduring and multidimensional process that results in
change as a consequence of the learner’s experience. It is important to study critical knowledge
influences that impact learning, because it serves as a framework of understanding retention rates
of community college students.
The literature reviewed in this section focuses on types of knowledge and skills that impact
goal attainment at ABC College. Specifically, it addresses potential gaps in knowledge of
community college students that may contribute to the organizational goal. Porter and Swing
(2006) suggested that increased academic skills and campus engagement improve student
outcomes. Also, Rueda (2011) indicated that much of the retention research has focused on
student deficits and not enough attention given to academic engagement. A gap analysis that
combines theory and practice is a necessary first step to clarify if individuals have the knowledge
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 37
to attain their goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). Furthermore, this literature review examines specific
knowledge and skills that influence the goal of improving retention rates at ABC College.
Knowledge types. Goal achievement requires a strong foundation of relevant knowledge and
skills. Krathwohl (2002) defined four different knowledge frameworks necessary for gap
analysis. These cognitive approaches are factual, conceptual, procedural and metacognitive.
Factual knowledge pertains to basic information an individual must know to solve problems,
procedural knowledge refers to knowing how to do something, conceptual knowledge means the
person knows how to develop associations between theories, and metacognitive is strategic
knowledge, thinking about thinking (Krathwohl, 2002). An example of factual knowledge is the
foundational information needed for students to perform basic math problems with little effort.
Conceptual knowledge means the person knows how to make associations between theories; an
example of conceptual knowledge would be understanding how principles of knowledge and
motivation are interrelated. Students knowing how to register for relevant coursework to
progress towards degree completion would be an example of procedural knowledge. Finally,
students’ ability to reflect on their own learning process in formal and informal situations is an
example of metacognition. Understanding cognitive processes are important because it informs
the foundation of the problem and allows for strategic planning (Rueda, 2011). The importance
of inquiry lies in understanding what community college students know and do not know. Rueda
(2011) stressed the importance of asking students and faculty what they need to know to improve
educational outcomes. Two primary knowledge influences that impact goal attainment at ABC
College are factual and procedural. Utilizing Krathwohl’s (2002) definition, ABC College
students need to know skills and behaviors to support academic engagement (factual), know how
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 38
to implement study habits (procedural) and how to access specialized academic resources on
campus to support learning (procedural).
Knowledge influences. ABC College students need to develop effective academic practices
to engage in self-directed learning. The first year of college is crucial for the development of
how to learn and sets the foundation for future academic success (Reason, Terenzini, &
Domingo, 2006). Reason et al. (2006) stated that significant knowledge and skill development
occurs within the first two years of college, but most students do not progress to the second year.
Therefore, the first year of college is critical for setting a foundation for subsequent academic
success (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005; Reason et al., 2006). Remediation significantly impacts
the education of community college students (Long & Boatman, 2003). Upon enrollment,
students face challenges of entering college unprepared. Theoretically, remediation coursework
is designed to help students fill in knowledge gaps so that they can progress to college level
coursework, but it actually hinders retention. Students enrolled in two or more developmental
courses are less likely to persist from the first year to the second (Bettinger & Long, 2005). Bean
& Metzner’s (1985) Student Attrition Model links retention rates to academic performance and
perception of academic achievement. If a student perceives a high level of academic
performance, they are more likely to persist and conversely more likely to leave if they did not
meet academic goals (Bean & Metzner, 1985; Tinto, 1993).
Academic engagement requires students to actively participate in their learning. Kuh et al.
(2006) stated study habits, interaction with faculty, time on task, and peer involvement determine
engagement levels. There is an intersection between academic behaviors and institutional
conditions that foster learning (Kuh et al., 2006). The onus is on the institution to create an
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 39
active learning environment, and the responsibility lies with the student to develop knowledge
and skills to support learning.
ABC College students need to know specific behaviors such as note taking, test preparation,
study skills, time management, and how to interact with academic resources. Robbins, Allen, and
Casillas (2004) stated that study skills are directly related to course GPA, and therefore directly
correlate with college outcomes. The students’ ability to self-regulate study behaviors influences
academic outcomes. Moreover, Crede and Kuncel (2008) indicated that student performance is
directly dependent on task relevant knowledge and skills.
Educational practices directly impact academic performance. Cerna and Pavliushchenko
(2015) made the distinction between the behaviors of high performing and low performing
students and concluded that high performing students attend class regularly, seek assistance from
peers and form connections with faculty members. ABC College students need to know
behaviors that support academic performance. Due to increased need to develop academic
competence from developmental to college-level coursework, community college students need
to have the knowledge and skills necessary to engage in an academic environment to improve
student outcomes. To engage in scholarship, students must know adequate study skills to
participate in their own learning. Barefoot (2007) maintains that academic support programs are
often essential for underprepared students to graduate from college.
A shared sense of responsibility is needed to address low retention rates of community
college students. Colleges need to connect students to resources properly and students need to
know how to seek available academic resources (procedural) proactively. Although community
colleges offer many services to support learning, resources are underutilized. The Center for
Community College Student Engagement (2013) stated that community colleges need to have a
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 40
systematic process to identify, refer, and follow up with at risk students. According to the
CCCSE (2013) study, less than 25% of students participate in academic support services, and
more than 75% of students responded that they have never participated in tutoring. In addition,
fewer than 40% of the students who reported academic difficulties said they had a referral to
academic resources by instructional faculty. Although nearly all community colleges offer some
variation of a “new student orientation” to assist students in identifying and locating academic
support services, often programs are poorly attended. ABC College students need to learn the
process and importance of engaging in academic resources to promote positive student
outcomes.
Table 2 provides the organizational mission, organizational global goal, knowledge
influences, knowledge types, and knowledge assessments. Table 2 indicates declarative and
procedural influences that will be analyzed to gain insight into knowledge influences impacting
faculty at ABC College.
Table 2
Knowledge Influences, Knowledge Types, and Assessments for Gap Analysis
Organizational Mission
ABC College’s core mission includes providing outstanding education, resources, and
support to students to help build abilities and competencies. The ABC College mission also
includes expanding educational opportunities for community residents to prepare them for
future career opportunities (ABC Mission, 2014).
Organizational Global Goal
The performance goal is to increase student retention 20% by 2019
Stakeholder Goal
Knowledge Influence Knowledge Type
(i.e., declarative
(factual or
conceptual),
procedural, or
Knowledge Influence
Assessment
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 41
metacognitive)
Students do not know academic
habits to be successful in college.
Declarative (factual) Students asked if their
previous academic habits
have been successful.
Students do not know how to
implement academic skills
Procedural Students asked if they have
identified a major or
potential career.
Students do not know how to access
academic resources on campus
Procedural Students asked if they are
aware of campus resources
how to access.
Motivation
Motivation is an internal desire that initiates, stimulates, and maintains goal directed behavior
(Mayer, 2011). Moreover, motivation is a theoretical construct used to explain what causes an
individual to act in a particular direction (Mayer, 2011). Clark and Estes (2008) stated that active
choice, persistence, and mental effort influence individuals’ decisions to persist towards a stated
goal. Motivated individuals actively choose to exert mental effort to accomplish tasks (Clark &
Estes, 2008). It is important to assess motivational influences of students at ABC College to gain
further insight into current beliefs and potential challenges to improve engagement in learning.
Knowledge of motivational influences informs college administrators about the factors that
deter or enhance academic engagement (Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2002). Understanding
motivational aspects of academic engagement provide leadership with critical information,
which in turn impacts policy making decisions, that supports the organizational goal, values, and
mission (Hardre, 2012). Collaboration between administration and instructors benefits the
students’ learning experience and the well-being of the organization (Wallin, 2003).
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 42
The success of community college students depends on their motivation to persist toward
academic goals. Academic planning is essential for students to develop short and long-term
objectives. Kuh, Cruce, Shoup, Kinzie, and Gonyea (2008) stated the importance of actively
engaging first-year college students so that they can have a focused approach toward completion.
Progress toward academic goals, requires motivation to participate in educationally purposeful
activities, to feel they are capable of college level work (self-efficacy) and to attribute their
success or failures to their efforts (attribution theory). Assumptions surrounding student
motivation include that motivation is contextual, varies by subject matter, and is regulated by the
individual’s ability to control their thinking and behaviors (Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2002). This
literature review focuses primarily on self-efficacy and attribution theory and provides a
foundation for understanding motivational influences that impact persistence in order to support
the organizational goal of increased retention rates of ABC College students.
Self-efficacy. Bandura’s social cognitive theory (1991) defined self-efficacy as beliefs or
perceptions that individuals possess about their ability to perform. Moreover, Bandura (1991)
maintained that self-efficacy determines how much effort, commitment, and course of action an
individual will take to achieve a goal. In essence, if a person does not think they are capable of
performing, they will possess little motivation to persist. In contrast, those confident in their
capabilities create expected outcomes.
Bandura (1997) also included the idea of collective agency forms through shared beliefs and
united power. When teachers and students share collective beliefs regarding students’ ability to
learn and instructors’ capabilities to teach, self-efficacy is high (Pajares, 2006). Therefore,
increased perceived collective efficacy in an educational environment promotes greater
motivation and empowerment (Pajares, 2006). Improving student achievement outcomes
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 43
requires faculty and students possess a strong sense of collective efficacy to instill a culture of
learning and academic success at ABC College.
Self-efficacy beliefs are shaped primarily by interpretation of experiences and social
observations. Mastery experiences, such as achievement of a performance goal, increase self-
efficacy, whereas failure decreases perceptions of necessary capabilities to complete a task
(Pajares, 2006). For example, if ABC College students receive higher assessment scores after
implementing new study habits, self-efficacy increases. Furthermore, individuals learn by
observing others whom they believe have similar abilities; in the process, they form perceptions
based on the success or failures and attribute meaning to their own self-efficacy beliefs (Pajares,
2006). As a result, self-efficacy beliefs influence effort levels, thought patterns, self-regulation,
and persistence toward a goal (Pajares, 2006).
Student self-efficacy. ABC College students need to believe they are capable of effective
learning and applying college level coursework to relevant settings. Hardre (2012) also
concluded that motivation varies depending on perceived value, relevance, and extent that the
learning aligns with the goals. Furthermore, individuals with higher self-efficacy have
confidence in their ability to learn and transfer skills (Grossman & Salas, 2011). Students need to
feel confident they are capable of learning new academic strategies that will improve academic
outcomes.
Attribution theory. According to attribution theory, individuals determine causes of
perceived success or failures. When students attribute success to internal factors such as study
habits, knowledge, and or abilities, these perceptions influence whether the student feels
academic outcomes are within their control (Weiner, 1986). Conversely, outcomes attributed to
unstable circumstances such as a “lucky break” may not present in future situations (Linnenbrink
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& Pintrich, 2002). Attribution theory also suggests that external explanations provide little room
for students to develop learning strategies because they perceive outcomes are out of their
control (Carr, Borkowski, & Maxwell, 1991).
Student attribution theory. In education, it is important for students to draw a correlation
between efforts and outcomes. When students perceive that academic outcomes are attributed to
their own academic skills and behaviors, a sense of competence emerges (Linnenbrink &
Pintrich, 2002). Attribution theory is useful in examining factors that influence student retention
because it is important to understand whether students believe success/failures are caused by
external or internal factors, allowing instructional faculty to respond with relevant feedback to
support the level of engagement in the classroom. When students attribute success to their own
efforts they are more likely to persist (Demetriou & Sciborski, 2011).
Table 3 below illustrates the organizational mission, global organizational goal, and two
motivational influences. Self-efficacy and attribution have been identified to gain deeper insight
into how motivation affects faculty engagement at ABC College.
Table 3
Motivational Influences and Assessments for Motivation Gap Analysis
Organizational Mission
ABC College’s core mission includes providing outstanding education, resources, and
support to students to help build abilities and competencies. The ABC College mission also
includes expanding educational opportunities to community residents to prepare them for
future career opportunities (ABC Mission, 2014).
Organizational Global Goal
The performance goal is to increase student retention 20% by 2019
Stakeholder Goal
The performance goal is for first-year students to learn academic behaviors needed in order to
increase persistence and promote academic achievement.
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Assumed Motivation Influences Motivational Influence Assessment
Attribution-Students should feel academic
outcomes are due to their own efforts
Interview question; How does the amount
effort I put into studying affect performance?
Self Efficacy-Students need to believe they
are capable of college coursework.
Interview question: How confident do you
feel to apply knowledge in classroom setting?
Organizational Influences
Organizational factors affect student achievement in higher education. Rueda (2011)
defined an organization as an interdependent set of practices, policies, and structures tied to each
other. Within an organization, there are two distinct dimensions, culture, and settings
contributing to the performance goal. According to Schein (2004), organizational culture is the
unstated forces within an organization such as values, norms, attitudes, and assumptions.
Although organizational culture is not visible it shapes the day-to-day patterns (Schein, 2004). In
contrast, cultural settings are the policies, practices, structures, and interactions within an
organization (Rueda, 2011). There is a reciprocal relationship between organizational culture and
settings where each has the potential to influence the other Rueda (2011).
Culture is the underpinning of the organization that influences the policies and practices.
Organizational culture is difficult to define because much of the knowledge is automated and
evolves over time (Rueda, 2011). Individuals act within certain assumptions, attitudes, norms,
and values in the absence of formally written structures. Organizational cultures formed by day-
to-day decision processes and continually evolve (Rueda, 2011). Abstract in nature, culture is the
essence of an organization that is learned by individuals to solve problems (Schein, 2004).
Student retention research studies suggest a high correlation between organizational culture
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and student outcomes (Harris & Bensimon, 2007; Kuh et al., 2008; Gonye et al., 2009; Tinto,
1999). Kuh et al. (2008) examined specific institutional activities such as learning conditions and
teaching practices that lead to increased student engagement. The study concluded that active
academic engagement, fostered by effective classroom practices is essential for positive student
outcomes. To promote a culture of learning, Tinto (2003) stated that institutions must stress the
importance of cooperative and collaborative based learning to enhance student engagement and
persistence.
Campus “climate” also described throughout the literature as “institutional fit” reflects the
attitudes, values, and norms of the organization and level of comfort student feels on campus,
and it influences students’ decisions to persist. A sense of belonging that at-risk and ethnic
minorities have to the culture is an essential factor in the student retention puzzle (Heisserer &
Parette, 2002). Minority students face the normal challenges of first-year students in addition to
social stresses, interracial dynamics, and discrimination. The act of affirmation and validation of
minority students’ experiences supports campus integration and student retention. Harris and
Bensimon (2007) stated that institutions have an obligation to support the success of all students
and are responsible for constructing an environment for equitable outcomes.
In contrast to organizational culture, institutional setting describes the visible, concrete
routines of daily processes. In the community college context, examples of settings involve
administrative offices, admission processes, financial aid, counseling services, and student
support. An organizational context comprised of many changing cultural aspects represents the
reflexive relationship between culture and settings (Rueda, 2011). Bensimon (2007) suggested
that often when students perform poorly, practitioners attribute to lack of academic success to
student behaviors. For example, if a student does not take advantage of support services, further
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 47
examination of the organizational processes is needed to determine what possible barriers
prevent students from accessing on campus support. Moreover, best practices for one group of
students should not be generalized to meet the needs of ethnic minorities (Bensimon, 2007). In
order to create equitable outcomes for all students, the offering of on-campus resources alone is
not enough. Practitioners need to reconsider current student engagement strategies within the
organizational setting to improve student outcomes.
An organizational climate that fosters learning stems from the attitudes, values, structures,
and policies. Understanding the impetus of the cultural norms and organizational structures
assists with planning and implementing more comprehensive educational practices (Rueda,
2011). Also, organizational problems are often at the root of performance problems that in turn
impacts motivation and learning (Rueda, 2011). For administrators and faculty to stay in touch
with the needs of today’s community college students, organizations need to rethink outdated
teaching strategies (Rendon, Garcia, & Person, 2004). Discarding outdated models of education
and replacing with cooperative and culturally relevant learning practices influences academic
achievement. It is imperative that colleges move beyond standard academic support programs
and initiate changes in attitudes, structures, and policies to create a learning environment
inclusive to all students (Tinto, 2003).
Table 4 below provides the organizational mission, global goal, stakeholder goal, and
assumed organizational influence.
Table 4
Organizational Influences, Cultural Influences, and Cultural Setting for Gap Analysis
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Organizational Mission
ABC College’s core mission includes providing outstanding education, resources, and support to
students to help build abilities and competencies. The ABC College mission also includes
expanding educational opportunities to community residents to prepare them for future career
opportunities (ABC Mission, 2014).
Organizational Global Goal
The performance goal is to increase student retention by 20% by 2019.
Stakeholder Goal
The performance goal is for first-year students to learn academic behaviors to increase
persistence and promote academic achievement.
Assumed Organizational Influences
Organization Influence Assessment
Cultural Model Influence 1: There is a general
resistance by students to reach out for assistance
to define academic goals
Interview questions to gauge the student’s
willingness to engage with faculty.
Cultural Model Influence 2: There is a culture of
mistrust between teaching faculty and
administration hindering the goal of curriculum
revision.
Interview questions to understand faculty
understanding of SLOs of course
Cultural Setting Influence 1: There is lack clarity
on how to access campus resources
Interview question to determine if and how
they access resources.
Conclusion
According to the literature, factors attributed to student retention are complex and not easily
defined. Chapter Two examined major influences that impact students’ decisions to persist to the
second year. Specifically, students’ need for academically engaged learning environment, active
involvement with campus culture, adequate support resources, and effective leadership that is
committed to student achievement. At the foundation, effective leadership practices may be the
root cause of knowledge/skills, and motivational gaps that attribute to organizational
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 49
performance goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). As a result, gaps in skills/knowledge could have
negative impact on student retention rates at community college (see Appendix A). Effective
institutional practices and policies are needed to address retention rates of first-year students
(Upcraft, Gardner, & Barefoot, 2004). Chapter Three outlines the research methods, study
design, data collection, and analyses of this study.
Conceptual Framework: The interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation and
the Organizational Context
A conceptual framework is the steward of a research study. The strength of the conceptual
model in a qualitative study is that it provides the scaffolding to direct the design, concepts,
theories, as well as guide data collection to inform the direction of the study (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). Essentially, a conceptual framework provides the groundwork for the study and allows
the researcher to construct meaning through models, definitions, and literature (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Existing theories provide only partial understanding of a problem of practice,
whereas the conceptual framework calls for further examination of ideas and concept to inform a
specific research study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
The conceptual model in this study examines knowledge, motivation, and organizational
forces that contribute to student retention. While student retention models are useful in
illustrating pitfalls associated with student retention, no one model addresses the complex
dynamic between institutional, cognitive, and motivational factors that influence students’
decisions to persist. To date, retention research indicates an interwoven combination of factors
that impact student retention in higher education (Tinto, 1993; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005).
Rueda (2011) stated that knowledge is what individuals need to know to achieve the stated goal.
While this definition appears simple, Rueda (2011) challenges educational leaders to examine
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 50
the complex knowledge base that students need to have in order to be successful in higher
education. Student retention research indicates that students need to know how to engage
academically and socially within a supportive institutional environment (Duggan & Williams,
2010; Kuh et al., 2008; Pascarella, Terenzini, & Wolfe, 1986).
Figure 1. Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
Figure1 illustrates the interactive influences of students’ knowledge and motivation and
organizational factors at ABC College. This diagram presents an integrated model of the
interdependence between organizational influences and stakeholder goal performance.
Knowledge influences center around what community college students need to know to be
Organization
Successful academic & social integration;
specialized connection to campus
community; inclusive climate; accessible
faculty; early intervention; collaboration
among students, faculty, and administration
Stakeholder
Knowledge of importance of study
skills, academic behaviors; engagement
in support resources; understanding
academic/career goals; self-efficacy in
academics; attribute success to effort
Stakeholder Goal
By Spring 2019, all first-year seminar
students will learn academic behaviors to
increase retention rates and promote
academic achievement
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successful during the first year. Skills such as study habits, critical thinking, test preparation, and
how to access campus resources are crucial for student success.
Motivation is what directly sustains students to their goals. In this representation,
organizational factors depicted in blue represent the dominant influences over stakeholder goals.
Organizational policies, processes, values, and attitudes largely affect stakeholder’s motivation
levels and willingness to learn. Stakeholder knowledge and motivational influences in yellow at
the center of the figure represents the nucleus of the organization and guides the activities
towards the performance goal.
While each of the influences depicts independence, the relationship between organization,
knowledge, and motivation is dynamic and should be examined as a whole (Rueda, 2011).
Within an organization, there are two distinct dimensions; culture and setting that contribute to
the performance goal. Schein (2004) defined organizational culture as the unstated forces within
an organization such as values, norms, attitudes, and assumptions. Organizational culture is
ubiquitous. As a result, has the capacity to shape perceptions and problem-solving behaviors
(Schein, 2004). In contrast, cultural settings are the policies, practices, structures, and
interactions within an organization (Rueda, 2011). Rueda (2011) suggests there is a reciprocal
relationship between organizational culture and settings where each has the potential to influence
the other.
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Chapter Three: Methods
This qualitative study design provides a deeper understanding of the students’ experience in a
first-year seminar course at a community college. Chapter Two presented an overview of the
prominent literature related to student retention. Chapter Three examines specific knowledge,
motivation, organizational influences, and explores potential barriers that impact student
retention at ABC College through qualitative interviews.
Chapter Three begins with a description of the participating stakeholder group. The following
sections outline sampling, recruitment, and data collection strategies and include rationale for
choosing the method of inquiry. Secondly, an analysis of the data provides a discussion
regarding trustworthiness, reliability, and validity. Finally, the last section presents an analysis of
ethical considerations influencing the study. In this chapter, the research design, methods of data
collection and final analysis are presented to address the following research questions:
1. To what extent is ABC College meeting its goal of 20% increase in student retention by
2019, based on the perceptions and needs of first-year college students?
2. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational elements related to achieving the
goal of 20% increase in student retention by 2019?
3. What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources?
Participating Stakeholders
Students are the unit of analysis of this research study. Student stakeholders were selected
based on accessibility, current enrollment in the first-year seminar course, ability to provide
insight into stated research questions, and ABC College protocols that mandate the inquiry
process. Utilizing Clark and Estes’s (2008) conceptual framework to guide the research, this
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study specifically examines knowledge and motivational influences that impact student success
within the first-year seminar course.
The first-year seminar course is designed to develop individual academic identities and skills
as active college scholars, while focusing on practical strategies such as study skills, time
management, learning, and engagement techniques. Enrollment in the first-year seminar is
voluntary, open to all ABC College students, and transferrable to in-state public universities.
Maximum enrollment for the seminar is 29 students. There are two eligible sections for study,
with approximately 45 students enrolled at the start of the semester. A minimum of 12 student
stakeholders was recruited for this study.
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale
The purpose of a qualitative study is to make in-depth meaning of phenomena within a
particular context. Qualitative studies require the researcher to implore rigorous sampling
strategies to enhance the quality of the research. Multiple truths exist among elements and
qualitative research provides a descriptive narrative for constructing meaning (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). As a result, the researcher creates the sampling design based on the nature of the
problem and defined research questions.
An essential sampling criterion in qualitative research is focused and purposeful. Purposeful
sampling allows the researcher to develop criteria, characteristics, and processes to create deeper
understanding (Johnson & Christensen, 2015). Qualitative research does not attempt to
generalize to larger populations; therefore, sampling strategies involve nonprobability methods
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In comparison to quantitative research, where probability sampling
allows broad understanding of phenomena, nonprobability research is desirable in a qualitative
study because it allows the researcher to discover what occurs in a specific context (Merriam &
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 54
Tisdell, 2016). Accomplishing this task requires the researcher to identify specific criteria before
selecting individuals to be studied.
Sampling criteria are used to establish potential study participants as well as individuals or
sites to be excluded (Johnson & Christensen, 2015). Directing sampling efforts, Fink (2013)
stated the researcher should thoroughly evaluate the availability of resources, time, familiarity
with sampling methods, and credibly before determining a course of sampling in a study. Also,
Creswell (2014) indicated three primary considerations for sampling procedures: (a) identify
purposefully selected site/individuals (b) number of sites/individuals involved in the study, and
(c) indicate types of data collected. Utilizing Creswell’s (2014) criteria, qualitative interviews
were selected for this study based on the limited number of individuals enrolled in the first-year
seminar, approved access to participants, specified time allotment for study. It was important to
examine the knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences that are integral to the
stakeholder goal.
Qualitative interviews guided the data collection of this study. Merriam and Tisdell (2016)
defined the qualitative interview as an intentional conversation designed to obtain particular
information from purposely-selected participants to inform the study. In qualitative interviews,
the researcher can interface with the participants and ask questions to gain extensive
understanding of the individual’s experience. While qualitative interviews can be conducted
individually or within a focus group of several participants, Krueger and Casey (2009) cautioned
the researcher to be aware of the potentiality of unbalanced group dynamics that influence data
collection.
Because of the diverse nature of ABC College student population, individual interviews were
conducted to create a private space for participants to express perceptions of the first-year
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experience. Johnson and Christensen (2015) maintained the importance of the interviewer
earning the trust of the interviewee, because without trust there is increased probability of biased
data. Qualitative interviews can be conducted face to face, over the phone, or in small focus
groups. Interview questions range from highly structured to informal, depending on the type of
information needed (Creswell, 2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Selection criteria influences the strength, validity, and likelihood of discovering an
association between knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences at ABC College.
Inclusion criteria was composed of two predefined characteristics of student participants. First,
only students currently enrolled were accepted as subjects. Enrolled students provided valuable
recent information about knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences. Secondly, only
students enrolled in one first-year seminar course within the district were included. It is common
for students to take classes at more than one community college. Dual enrollment in orientation
courses weakens the association of organizational influences at ABC College.
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
Purposeful recruitment strategies were used in this study to reflect typical characteristics of
participants in the first-year seminar course. A typical sample was selected because it reflects the
average person of interest in the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). It is important to understand
the experience of typical first-year seminar students at ABC College to examine specific
knowledge influences such as study skills, time management, academic behaviors, as well as
motivational, and organizational influences that impact student achievement.
Due to the parameters mentioned above, convenience sampling recruitment was employed to
gain an understanding of learning outcomes specific to ABC College students enrolled in the
first-year seminar. As it implies, convenience sampling was used based on the availability of
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resources and willingness of respondents (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Convenience sampling is
not objective therefore the researcher must implement strategies to increase credibility such as
inquiring about underlying motivation to participate in the study (Fink, 2013). Although there are
not an absolute number of participants required for purposeful sampling in a qualitative study,
sampling is finished when the researcher has reached the point of redundancy or saturation
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016.) Because it is impossible for the researcher to know before sampling
when saturation occurs, it is essential for data collection and analyses to occur concurrently
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Historically, student attrition has been a concern within the first-year seminar at ABC College
and may impact the number of sample participants. Due to fluctuation, this study aimed for 12
randomly selected interview participants from two sections of the first-year seminar and
concluded after 12 participants were interviewed. Appropriate permissions to access the first-
year seminar courses to conduct interviews were established. The next step of the recruitment
process was meeting with instructional faculty to discuss the focus of the study, data collection
process, and obtain a roster of enrolled students to schedule interviews. A small amount of funds
was allocated to provide snacks for scheduled participants during the interview. Fink (2013)
suggested improving participant response rates by explaining how data will be utilized and
providing incentives for participation. Collaboration between instructor and interviewer was
necessary to define the least disruptive time allotments to conduct interviews. Interviews were
conducted during the final weeks of the semester to allow students to engage in the classroom
experience fully.
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Qualitative Data Collection and Instrumentation
Qualitative data was collected through interviews and document analysis for this study to
provide insight into the perceptions, attitudes, skills, and processes of ABC College students.
The qualitative interview is an intentional conversation designed to obtain specific information
from purposely-selected participants to inform the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In
qualitative interviews, the researcher can interface with the participants and ask questions to gain
deeper understanding of the individual’s experience. Qualitative interviews are an essential data
collection method used to understand how participants interpret events and make meaning of the
world around them (Merriam &Tisdell, 2016). Understanding the needs and experience of
typical first-year seminar students at ABC College is crucial to examine specific knowledge
influences such as study skills, time management, academic behaviors, as well as motivational,
and organizational influences that impact student achievement.
Data collection derived from individual interviews and documentation provides more
in-depth understanding of the participants’ experience of the first-year seminar and yields more
complete data to inform the research questions than other qualitative research methods. Collected
data is then triangulated with the literature on assumed knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences. This two-step process increases validity and allows the researcher to
identify any inconsistencies in the findings (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Interviews
Historically, qualitative research studies conducted after the semester ends instead of during
the semester have low participation rates at ABC College. For that reason, face-to-face
interviews were conducted during the last three weeks of the semester and concluded at the end
of the year. Purposeful recruitment strategies were employed in this study to reflect typical
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characteristics of participants in the first-year seminar course. A typical sample was selected
because it reflected the average person of interest in the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This
study intended to recruit a total of 12 participants, six from each course section; each course had
a different instructor. Numerical variance was dependent on whether students attended interview
appointments at scheduled times. With the support of the instructional faculty, recruitment
strategies also included scheduling interview appointments outside of class time. For students
who elected to participate during school hours, refreshments were served. With the support of
administrative staff, email, text, and phone calls reminded student participants of interview
appointments. Because interviews were conducted at the end of the semester, appointments
occurred for a one time, 90-minute allotment. Students unavailable for face-to-face interviews
did their interviews over the phone.
Interviews were conducted in a private, closed-door office on campus. Weiss (1994) stated
that privacy is essential during qualitative interviews because the presence of others affects what
can be asked or reported. While researchers disagree about whether interviews should be
recorded, Weiss (1994) stated that audio recording interviews allows the researcher to become
fully immersed in the content, nuances, and complexities presented by the participant. Each
interview was recorded in this study, which allowed the flexibility of note taking.
The researcher is the primary instrument in a qualitative interview and maintains consistent
focus on learning about an issue or problem through the lens of the participant (Creswell, 2014).
The researcher decides whether the structure of the interview is highly structured, semi-
structured, or unstructured. In order to gain insight into the students’ perspective in relation to
the research questions, semi-structured interviews were the focus of this study. Each open-ended
question was designed to elicit feedback from participants regarding their experience, knowledge
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and motivational factors that influence students’ decisions to persist. Moreover, open-ended
questions provided the opportunity for students to express attitudes, explain perspectives, and
recall meaningful events that would not otherwise be captured by other data collection methods.
Following a semi-structured interview format lets the researcher gain insight into specific
information and areas to be explored (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). When necessary, questions
were followed up with relevant probes to encourage further exploration of the issue. Skillful
probes assisted the researcher with gathering substantial information regarding particular
phenomena (Merriam & Tisdale, 2016).
The quality of the study is directly related to the interviewer (Patton, 2002). As the primary
instrument in a qualitative interview, the researcher determines what types of questions yield
detailed responses. Patton (2002) categorized interviews questions into six types of questions:
behavior/experiences, opinion/values, feelings/emotions, knowledge, sensory, and background.
According to Patton (2002), defining which category the question belongs in helps the
interviewer gain clarity on what type of information is important to obtain. In relation to the
conceptual framework, questions were developed to gain insight into factual, procedural, and
knowledge influences along with perceptions of motivational influences related to self-efficacy
of ABC College students. Specifically, questions focused on what skills/habits students learned,
how students accessed academic support, students’ quality of interactions with peers/faculty, and
students’ perceived level of capability to successful engage in college academics.
Documents and Artifacts
Documents and artifacts are additional forms of data collection in a qualitative study.
Documents are defined as a wide range of written, visual, or physical images relevant to the
research study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Artifacts are described as physical items that exist
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before the start of the study, such as official records, letters, newspapers articles, and
promotional materials (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The use of documents and artifacts in
qualitative research helps contextualize the study and identify incongruences in emerging
themes.
In this study, marketing materials, the student success scorecard, and online web recourses
were utilized to provide relevant qualitative information of a classroom experience. Informed
consent was acquired from ABC College to access certain documentation. The researcher was
responsible for determining which documents and artifacts were relevant to the study. Locating
relevant materials through a systematic and rigorous process ensured that documents and
artifacts were indeed authentic, valuable, accurate, and relevant to the research questions
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Data Analysis
In a qualitative study, data collection and analysis occur simultaneously. According to
Merriam and Tisdell (2016), the investigator first identifies the problem, then selects a
purposeful sample for data collection while continually engaging in analysis. Data analysis in a
qualitative study is a systematic and rigorous process. Bogden and Biklen (2007) defined
qualitative data analysis as a thoughtful process of organizing, synthesizing, and breaking down
data into measurable units, to identify patterns. Ultimately, the goal of the researcher is to make
sense of the collected data and determine findings (Bogden & Bilken, 2007).
The analysis began by identifying emerging themes from the collected data; the data was then
coded according to categories. Corbin and Strauss (2008) defined open coding as the process of
interacting with the data, making comparisons, and developing concepts. In this initial stage,
notes, comments, and questions were included along the margins to denote initial perceptions.
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To further assist with this step, a qualitative software tool called NVIVO, was used to develop
categories. During the open coding process, a codebook was created in Excel to identify,
categorize, subcategorize, record, and develop reoccurring emerging themes relevant to the
research questions.
Continuous reflection on the data in reference to the conceptual framework assisted the
researcher in developing subcategories for analysis (Harding, 2013). According to Merriam and
Tisdell (2016), categories should address the research questions and be conceptually congruent.
Therefore, during this process, the investigator continually reflected on the research questions
and conceptual framework during the coding process. Corbin and Strauss (2008) suggested the
investigator utilize an array of analytic tools to assist with analysis. Incorporating Corbin and
Strauss’s (2008) recommended analytic tools, the researcher actively and frequently asked
questions of the data, made comparisons, took copious notes during data collection, reviewed the
data often, and continually reviewed categories through an inductive process. Each of these
processes allowed the investigator to probe the data, develop an awareness of potential biases,
and generate new knowledge based on the research.
Establishing trustworthiness and credibility in the analysis process involved several critical
implementation steps. As data was collected, analytic memos were created to record early
impressions, assumptions, uncertainties, and questions about the data. Corbin and Strauss (2008)
stated that analytic memos are living documents that allow the researcher to continually think
reflectively about the data. Ongoing reflective practice encourages self-awareness and uncovers
potential biases of the researcher that influence the interpretation of the findings (Creswell,
2013). According to Merriam & Tisdell (2016), reflexivity in a qualitative study promotes
awareness of the investigator’s role in the study and how it influences interpretations of the data.
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Furthermore, the use of analytic memos is a way for the researcher to keep track of the decisions
made during analysis (Harding, 2013). Therefore, the use of analytic memos was used
throughout the data collection and analysis process.
As initial impressions and questions emerged during analysis, the researcher checked with
participants to ensure that the information was consistent. Member checking is an analytic
strategy used to increase validity and reliability that involves taking tentative interpretations back
to the participants to confirm that the researcher is on the right track (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Follow up questioning with students occurred as needed throughout the analysis process as
interpretations and emerging themes developed. An additional step in the member check process
involved asking ABC College faculty about initial interpretations emerging from the data. This
two-step member check process helped determine accuracy in the findings. Lastly, triangulation
that Creswell (2014) defined as the use of multiple measures of data collection was used during
the study to further support the accuracy of the findings. This step was achieved by collecting
data from participants in two different first-year seminar classes during the same term. Each step
of this process promoted accuracy and consistency in the findings (Creswell, 2014).
As the researcher moved through the iterative analysis process, interpretations and findings
were determined. Reoccurring themes and patterns were counted to establish the accuracy of the
results. Determining frequencies helped discover the truth of the data by establishing
significance in how often phenomena occur (Miles, Huberman, & Saldana, 2014). Setting a
numerical value for typical responses also helped protect against researcher biases and develop
theories (Miles et al., 2014). The number of responses was recorded in the codebook and then
used to inform the findings.
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Credibility and Trustworthiness
It is critically important that the investigator maintain credibility and trustworthiness of the
study whether data collection occurs through interviews or document analysis. Through ethical,
rigorous, and systematic inquiry, the responsibility of the researcher is to preserve the integrity of
the study. Patton (2015) stated that ultimately credibility and trustworthiness of a qualitative
research study is directly tied to the integrity of the researcher.
To overcome threats to credibility in this study, the researcher employed strategies outlined
by Merriam and Tisdell (2016). Qualitative interview data was collected from two different class
sections instead of one classroom to establish emerging findings. Merriam and Tisdell (2016),
refer to this step as triangulation, which calls for the researcher to utilize multiple investigators or
sources of data to establish plausibility of the findings. As themes developed in the data, the
researcher brought emerging findings back to the participants to check for validation. These
important steps referred to as member checks or respondent validation, allowed the researcher to
double check original interpretations of the data and uncover potential discrepancies in the
findings (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
According to Merriam and Tisdell (2016), the researcher should intentionally seek variation
in the sample selection. Sampling two first-year seminars and tracking participants’
demographics to reflect the diversity of the ABC College student population achieved this step.
Furthermore, the researcher implemented a series of checks and balances by meeting with
relevant faculty at ABC College to discuss the process of the study and preliminary
interpretations of the data. Also, the researcher engaged the dissertation chair and advisory
committee as part of this peer review process to further examine the methods, procedures, and
findings to establish congruency of the research. Peer review is essential in all stages of
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qualitative research and necessary to establish sufficient evidence at each stage of the study
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Throughout the study, careful interview notes were taken to include rich detail that actively
reflected the data to address any biases and or assumptions in the qualitative research. This
reflective process was essential from the inception of the study to the final analysis. Because the
investigator is the primary instrument in qualitative research, the investigator must be focused on
the trustworthiness of the data. Credibility and trustworthiness of the study was increased
through rigorous and systematic thinking combined with an awareness of personal ethics and
openness to addressing potential biases.
Validity and Reliability
Validity and reliability influence the integrity of a qualitative research study. In a qualitative
study, validity is the extent that research findings are credible, and reliability is the degree of
generalizability and consistency in the findings (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Results from this
study address issues unique to ABC College by identifying consistencies in the data. If results of
the study apply to other situations, external validity has been reached (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
When study results align with reality, they are considered to have achieved internal validity.
To ensure validity and reliability in a qualitative study, data collection was diligent
throughout and was followed by rigorous analysis processes. Triangulation methods such as
double-checking interpretations with participants, consulting with peers, and clarifying
assumptions or biases assisted with determining that the findings were realistic (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Triangulation also occurs through multiple data-collection methods. This study
employed two methods of qualitative data collection methods as an additional measure to ensure
validity. During the data collection process, member checks were conducted with students and
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faculty to confirm or deny emerging themes. The investigator and advisory board to confirm
results of research, inconsistencies, and or biases analyzed next, qualitative findings.
Furthermore, ongoing peer review and self-reflective practices provided awareness of biases and
assumptions. Ultimately, awareness was developed through a series of internal processes,
including self-checks at each stage of the research process.
Ethics
Researching human subjects requires the investigator to act with a high level of care to
protect participants from potential harm. Professional ethics of the researcher influences the
reliability, validity, and trustworthiness of the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Often,
qualitative research guidelines are determined by pre-established policies; however, Merriam and
Tisdell (2016) state that ethics and values of the researcher influence the researcher-participant
relationship. While a formal code of ethics is essential for all aspects of a study, Merriam and
Tisdell (2016) maintain that in qualitative research, ethical dilemmas can emerge from the point
of initial data collection and final analyses.
The moral responsibility of the researcher is to set the expectations of the study with all
participants so that they thoroughly understand that participation is voluntary, the purpose of the
research, the privacy guidelines, and confidentiality. Rubin and Rubin (2012) state that
participants should not be worse off after the interview and, in fact, subjects should be better off
than when they started. It is the duty of the investigator to show respect, honor all promises, not
to exploit, and not to pressure participants (Rubin & Rubin, 2012).
Before the start of the study, federally funded agencies require investigators to submit a
research proposal to an institutional review board to ensure that the research meets
organizational and federal ethical requirements (Rubin & Rubin, 2012). The researcher protects
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the privacy and confidences of the participants (Glesne, 2011). Maintaining privacy requires that
interviews occur in a private office, store documents in a secure manner, and destroy data
appropriately.
Limitations
One of the limitations of this study was the limited selection of participants included in the
study. As previously indicated, the limited availability of resources and access to students’
resulted in 12 student participants. Another limitation of this study was that study participants
had connections with other student success programs prior to their first semester at ABC
College. Some had participated in Summer Bridge or a one-day orientation program prior to the
first-year seminar, and they were therefore introduced to campus resources on a limited basis at
that time. Based on these limitations, this study is not generalizable to the global community
college student population. The findings of this study contribute to the knowledge base of
student retention practices specific to ABC College.
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Chapter Four: Findings
The purpose of this study was to evaluate influences of a first-year seminar course that
contribute to the stakeholder goal of increased student retention at ABC College. Utilizing Clark
and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis, this study examined the knowledge, skills, motivation, and
organizational factors that influence student retention at ABC College. The first-year seminar
courses at ABC College focus on assisting incoming students to develop the necessary skills and
strategies to be successful in their college experience and beyond. In this course, students learn
about effective time management, study techniques, learning skills, and gain fundamental
awareness of campus resources and processes. Twelve student participants were randomly
selected and interviewed from two first-year seminar sections.
This chapter provides a summary of key findings of knowledge and motivational
influences. Findings from Research Question Three along with relevant recommendations will be
presented in Chapter Five. This study is intended to contribute to the existing knowledge on first-
year student retention and persistence in higher education with a focus on the student
perspective. Finally, this chapter is divided into three separate categories: participating
stakeholders, findings from each research question, and subdivided into knowledge, motivation,
and organizational influences.
Participating Stakeholders
Student participants were selected at random from two first-year seminar courses at ABC
College. Official email communications were distributed to each student outlining the purpose of
the project and voluntary participation was requested. Next, follow-up calls were made to four
students who were interested in the study, and interview appointments were scheduled
accordingly. Additional student participants were recruited through individual text messages and
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follow-up phone calls. Recruitment resulted in 12 scheduled interviews. Out of 16 students
verbally confirmed to participate, four did not show for scheduled appointments. As a result,
sample recruitment yielded 12 subjects that participated in 60-90 minute interviews regarding
their experience in the first-year seminar course at ABC College. All participants were a first-
time, first semester students at ABC College and had not earned college credits from other
institutions.
Sample recruitment resulted in a diverse participant population. Out of 12 participants, seven
were female and five male. Two students identified as African-American, three identified as
Caucasian, and seven were of Latin American descent. Furthermore, 11 out of 12 participants
also identified as first-generation college students. Participant demographics provide a balanced
representation of the general student population at ABC College. Table 5 represents study
participant demographics.
Table 5
Demographics of Study Participants
Demographic n
Gender
Male 5
Female 7
Ethnicity
African-American 2
Caucasian 3
Latino 7
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First-Generation College 11
Each participant expressed a desire to discuss his or her personal experiences in the first-year
seminar with the goal of providing students’ perspective on the class experience. Overall,
participants demonstrated a level of openness in discussing course content, processes, and
interactions related to the research questions. While variations exist in responses to the interview
questions, all 12 participants said they intend to transfer from ABC College and receive a
bachelor’s degree from a university, signifying that none of the participants are on an academic
pathway to earn a two-year vocation or certificate from ABC College. The significance of this
finding is that as an incoming student at ABC College, each participant expressed motivation to
persist to degree completion and subsequent transfer as their primary educational goal.
According to the Community College Research Center (2015), more than 80% of the first-year,
first-time community college students intend to earn a bachelor’s degree.
Recruitment efforts produced 12 participants from diverse cultural, educational, and
socioeconomic backgrounds. Despite the differences in background, each participant expressed a
shared commitment to their educational goals. All 12 participants provided descriptive details
about their college experience and expressed confidence in pursuing their educational goals at
ABC College. The following section provides an individual summary of the participants’
background and motivation for attending college. A brief synopsis of participants’ backgrounds
and experiences provide a means to contextualize the types of students participating in the
research study. The use of pseudonyms protects the identities of student participants. Starting
with Marissa, the following represents a snapshot of her pre-college experiences and family
background.
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Marissa. Marissa is an 18-year old female and California native. Her parents immigrated
to California from Mexico when she was nine years old. Currently, Marissa lives at home with
both parents and younger siblings in an urban, working-class area. Marissa described her family
as very close and supportive, and she attributes much of her success to her parents. In the
interview, she recalled many sacrifices her parents made for her and her siblings so they would
have a roof over their head. Because of her parent’s encouragement and demonstrated hard work,
Marissa believes that pursuing an education is one of the ways to “pay them back.” Despite what
Marissa described as a close-knit family, she described “difficulties” fitting into her new
surroundings, but then stated she always excelled in academics. Although Marissa earned over a
4.0 GPA from her local high school, she expressed doubt whether or not she would be able to
succeed in college. When she heard about the first-year seminar course, she expected to learn
skills for success in college.
Marissa’s first became aware of the first-year seminar through the Summer Bridge program at
ABC College. She recalled that during her senior year of high school she attended an ABC
College one-day event that provided an overview of the educational offerings and resources. She
had the opportunity to learn more about the first-year seminar class as well as speak with various
faculty members associated with Student Success programs. Marissa described the event as
positive because she was able to meet many new people before the first day of class, which
relieved some of her concerns about starting a new school.
Yvonne. Like many community college students, Yvonne balances school, work, and
family. Yvonne an 18-year old African-American female resides in the neighboring community
adjacent to ABC College. Working retail full-time and attending college part-time has been
challenging for Yvonne during her first semester. She lives with her mother, also a student at
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ABC College, and a single parent to her young sister. Yvonne and her mother share in the
household expenses, childcare, and study together at times. Yvonne described her home
environment as stable however she recalled a time when her family received public assistance.
At the beginning of the semester, Yvonne had been a full-time student, but she dropped one
course due to competing demands. Acknowledging that balancing school, work, and family
responsibilities is challenging, she expressed a desire to reduce her hours at work so that she can
take more units in the upcoming semester if it is financially feasible.
When registering for classes, Yvonne stumbled across the first-year seminar in the ABC
College online course catalog. After reading the description online and recognizing that it met
one of her transfer requirements, she immediately enrolled in the class. Although Yvonne
described herself as a good student in high school, she felt she could use “all the help she could
get” to get good grades in college so that she can transfer to a university. She stated that she has
always wanted to go to college to “be someone that people respect.” She recalls receiving
ongoing encouragement from her mother to pursue her goal of becoming a nurse.
Dante. Dante, an animated 18-year old student from the surrounding community,
described himself as a leader. Talkative, engaging, and expressive, Dante provided a detailed
account of his family background as well as his motivation to attend college. In the interview,
Dante revealed that his family is extremely proud of the fact that he is attending college.
Athletic, poised, self-assured, and well-spoken, Dante expressed a desire to pursue a degree in
kinesiology. His father, a bus driver, suffered an injury that prohibited him from driving and
placed him on long-term disability. Because of this experience, his father encouraged Dante to
pursue an education so that he would have more opportunities for work. This downward shift in
income caused tremendous financial stress on his family. As a family of four, they were forced to
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move several times in high school. Although Dante maintained a solid academic standing during
his high school years, he set a goal and achieved a GPA goal of 3.0 with the hopes of attending
Sacramento State in the fall. Upon acceptance, Dante and his family decided that living at home
and attending ABC College would be more cost-effective.
Dante’s initial exposure to the first-year seminar course was at a one-day ABC College event
geared toward incoming students. He was introduced to academic advisors, representatives from
various student clubs, instructional faculties, and student support services. Dante spoke with one
of the advisors about his goal to transfer and study kinesiology. Therefore, the academic advisor
recommended the first-year seminar as a class that teaches students about study and life skills to
prepare for transfer. While Dante had a general understanding of the course description, he had
little expectation about what specific skills he would learn during the class.
Marco. Marco is a 20-year old Latino male from Southern California. Soft-spoken and
deliberate with his words, Marco described his family of hardworking people. He emigrated
from Central America with his mother, father, and three siblings when he was in middle school.
The oldest of four children, he recalls going to school during the day, supervising his younger
siblings in the afternoon, and working small construction projects with his dad on the weekends
and summers when needed. Marco’s mom, a caregiver, works as an aid for a disabled person in
the evenings. In middle school, Marco was placed in a class for English Learners and became the
translator for his family. He revealed that he never felt as smart as his native English-speaking
classmates because of his accent.
Marco expressed great pride in how his family supports his education and how they depend
on him at home. He acknowledged their bravery and sacrifices to provide a better life for their
children. Marco stated he has always demonstrated his gratitude by staying out of trouble and
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getting good grades. Currently, Marco has not identified a course of study. However, he would
like to transfer to a Cal State University so he can continue to live at home while completing his
education. His ultimate goal is to earn an education so that he can “get a good job and buy his
parents a house so that they don’t have to work so hard.”
Marco enrolled in the first-year seminar after attending the Summer Bride program at ABC
College. His cousin, also an ABC College student recommended he take the first-year seminar
course because he had completed the class the previous semester and enjoyed it. Even though
Marco was assessed at college level English upon entry to ABC College, he remained
apprehensive about his ability to meet the English requirements for graduation. Due to his in
trepidations about his English skills, he decided to enroll in the first-year seminar to learn new
strategies to improve his academic skills.
Marina. Marina spoke candidly about her motivation to attend college. Marina described
her high school experience as “chaotic” because she was forced to attend three different high
schools due to her mother’s unstable work situation. Changing schools during the middle of the
year was disruptive to her academic performance. Although Marina stated she passed all of her
classes, she is currently enrolled in developmental math and English classes. In addition to
attending college full-time, Marina also works 20 to 30 hours per week in fast food, and cares for
her younger siblings.
Marina heard about the first-year seminar course through a friend. After finding out more
information from her academic counselor, Marina decided to enroll in the class. Marina admits to
feelings of insecurity about her own academic ability and expressed doubt about her ability to
successfully complete the degree requirements. Uncertain about her course of study, Marina
stated a strong desire to complete a degree so that she can gain steady employment in the future.
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She also stated that one of her primary motivations for attending college is demonstrating to her
younger siblings the importance of education.
Victor. Victor a 20-year old, Latino male described himself as “unfocused” in high
school. As the first in his family to attend college, Victor stated he never took high school
seriously. He also concluded that his grades were poor because he would skip classes to hang out
with his friends. Victor’s attitude changed when one of his childhood friends went to a regional
college and shared his experiences of living on campus. Inspired by his friends’ experiences,
Victor aspires to complete the coursework to transfer to a California State university.
Victor was introduced to the first-year seminar class during orientation. Even though Victor
was uncertain about the content of the class, he did state that the class is intended to teach him
how to be successful in college. He also acknowledged the fact that he did not learn good study
habits during high school. Victor stated he was most interested to learn the requirements to
transfer to a university.
Liz. Liz enrolled in the first-year seminar after attending a one-day event at her local high
school. Although Liz stated she achieved high marks in honors coursework and Advanced
Placement (AP) classes, she thought the first-year seminar would increase her study skills. She
explained that her mother, a registered nurse and graduate of community college emphasized the
importance of pursuing a college degree. Liz’s father, a technology specialist at a nearby retail
establishment also encourages Liz to pursue a degree. Both of her parents stress the importance
of education and maintaining a high GPA. Currently, Liz lives at home with her parents and
plans to work during the summer so that she can focus on her schoolwork. With the support of
her parents, Liz plans to study biology at community college and then transfer to a University of
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California school to continue studying pre-medicine. After spending time at work with her
mother, she decided that she wants to become a pediatrician.
Michelle. Michelle, also a student in the first-year seminar, decided to attend college to
become a social worker. At 11-years old she was placed in guardianship with her grandmother
because her mother was incarcerated. During this time, Michelle and her family received support
from a social worker, which she described as a “blessing.” Due the kind actions of the social
worker, Michelle decided she wanted a similar opportunity to support families in distress.
Michelle was introduced to the first-year seminar through her academic advisor. After
completing the required English and math assessments, Michelle met with her academic advisor
to select classes for the fall semester. Because Michelle was uncertain of her major at the
beginning of the semester, the counselor advised her to take the first-year seminar to explore the
types of academic pathways available at ABC College. Michelle also expected to learn strategies
for success in college along with the steps needed to transfer.
Trevor. Trevor, originally from Mexico immigrated to California with his family when he
was in elementary school. Initially, the family lived with a relative for the first couple of years
while they settled into the area. Trevor described the adjustment to his surroundings as
challenging because of the difficulties he had in the classroom. In Trevor’s junior year of high
school a teacher noticed his talent for drawing and recommended he take an art class. Trevor
stated that the encouragement from his teacher was a turning point in his attitude about school.
Trevor expressed with great certainty that he plans to pursue a degree in art and transfer to a
university. In the future, Trevor plans to create a documentary about his family’s journey from
Mexico to the United States to shed awareness on their experience.
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Trevor was encouraged by an ABC College faculty member to enroll in the first-year
seminar class. Trevor stated he felt an instant connection with the faculty member because they
shared a similar cultural backgrounds. Initially, Trevor felt anxious about starting college and
worried if he would be able to keep up with the coursework and manage his full-time job. The
first-year seminar was of interest to Trevor because he trusted the faculty’s recommendation,
wanted to learn college success strategies, and hoped to make new friends.
Jackie. Jackie an 18-year old first-year student, was born and raised in California. She
lives at home with her parents while she attends school full-time and works part-time. She started
college without a clear intention of her academic goals. Although Jackie stated a desire to
transfer to a university and earn a bachelor’s degree, she expressed doubt about her ability to stay
committed to school for another five years. Jackie also expressed that several of her friends from
high school attend ABC College, which she stated is a significant motivator for her to continue.
Jackie discovered the first-year seminar through her high school friends. Several of her
friends attended the one-day college event hosted by ABC College. At this event, students
learned how to complete enrollment applications, how to utilize campus resources, how to obtain
financial aid, and how to get necessary assessments. Jackie’s friends encouraged her to enroll in
the same class.
Lisa. Lisa learned of the first-year seminar through the online catalog. She initially wanted
to join one of the learning communities offered at ABC College, but she recognized that she
would not be able to make the time commitment in her first semester. Born and raised in the
adjacent community to ABC College, she stated that she new she would attend college in her
own neighborhood. Achieving a balance between work and school created challenges for Lisa
during the first semester. With a plan of transferring in two years, Lisa enrolled in four classes
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but ended up withdrawing from two because she was not meeting the requirements as a pre-
nursing major. She expressed concerned about how long it would take her to transfer to a
university if she enrolls in two classes per semester
Jose. Jose was born and raised in in the surrounding area of ABC College. He is the
second to youngest of four children. Jose’s mother works as a medical assistant at a nearby
hospital and his father works for a utility company. Upon enrollment, Jose planned to study
engineering with the goal of working for a petroleum company. Jose expressed doubts about his
academic pathway when he struggled in his math class. However, during his first semester, he
discovered an interest in sociology and now contemplates the possibility of becoming an
attorney. Although neither of his parents or older siblings graduated from college, he stated they
all work successfully within their trade. Jose strongly believes that graduating from college will
bring success to his entire family. He stated his ambition is to be successful in college so that in
the future he can help buy his parents a home so that they can retire.
As an active leader in high school government, Jose learned about the first-year seminar
through a leadership tour offered of ABC College offered through his high school. During this
tour, he was introduced to several students enrolled in the first-year seminar class. During this
interaction, the students expressed a positive impression of the class. Jose thought that the first-
year seminar would be an effective way to learn about college.
All 12 of the participants were willing to share in-depth and unique backgrounds during the
interviews. Several commonalities exist between all 12 of the participants. First, each participant
expressed a goal of completing a bachelor’s degree. Second, all subjects reside in low
socioeconomic, urban, working-class communities. Third, each student stated that one of the
driving motivations for graduating from college was to bring success to their families. In
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addition, students listed several common educational support systems. Table 6 represents
common educational support systems of student participants.
Table 6
Educational Support Systems
Common Educational Support Systems
• Family commitment
• Encouraging friends
• Cultural connections with faculty
• Information sessions
• Peer connections
• Summer Bridge
• Academic advisors
Findings
This section presents the findings of the study in relation to the research questions and the
conceptual framework. Each section details the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences in relation to the findings. The three research questions guided this study: (1) To what
extent is ABC College is meeting its goal of 20% increase in student retention by 2019, based on
the perceptions and needs of first-year college students? (2) What are the knowledge, motivation,
and organizational elements related to achieving the goal of 20% increase in student retention by
2019? and (3) What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of
knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources? Furthermore, the findings are divided into
key themes and within each theme, knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors are
presented that influence the theme. The most significant themes identified in this study are: (a)
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increasing student retention (b) peer to peer relationships (c) academic strategies (d)
organizational influences and (e) transfer processes.
Increasing Student Retention
The findings in this section provide an analysis of the knowledge and motivation elements
impacting the goal of increased student retention. The first section examines procedural
knowledge students need to know to promote student success. The next section provides an
analysis of motivational influences impacting student persistence. Consistent with Rueda (2011),
findings from this study suggest an intersection between learning and motivational influences.
Knowledge. One critical finding that emerged from the data was that all 12 respondents
found an introduction to campus resources and support services an important key to success. All
12 respondents stated that knowing what types of resources were available and where to go for
help were useful. Learning the types of academic resources available and how to access them
(procedural) was an integral part of the learning process in the first-year seminar class. Jose
stated that “just knowing where to go for help” made him feel more comfortable and less stressed
about challenging assignments. Similarly, Yvonne described challenges with her math class and
stated that she did not know about peer tutoring until she enrolled in the first-year seminar class.
She mentioned that her experience was “helpful” and that the tutor “explained things so she
could understand it.” Before the first-year seminar class, Lisa had little knowledge of the on-
campus support services. She indicated that she found visiting the resource centers on campus
with the class as the most “valuable” activity. During the visits, Lisa learned that each resource
center was “open late” a couple of evenings a week which coincided with her work schedule.
Participants also described several opportunities embedded in the curriculum to learn how to
gain access to academic support services and appropriate times to engage. As part of the class,
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students participated in-group activities and individualized assignments to learn specific
processes. For instance, Trevor described an assignment where students were divided into small
groups and asked to go on a scavenger hunt to all the support services on campus. Students were
then instructed to introduce themselves to the staff, find out specific information about the
services, and then share findings with the class. Trevor described the experience as “less
intimidating” since he participated in the activity with his classmates.
Marissa provided an example of an individual assignment where students were instructed to
write a research paper on their chosen career path and then take their paper for writing support
before turning it in for a final grade. Ensuring the probability of compliance, the instructor
required proof of attendance, and designated this step as 30% of the total grade. As a result,
participants reported more comfort utilizing academic support services to improve performance
in other classes during the semester, not just the first-year seminar.
Marco attended writing support for assistance in his history class. He indicated that he takes
most of his papers to a writing tutor before turning them in. Describing his experience with
support services, he stated that he feels “comfortable” asking for help in all of his classes
because he has made personal connections with specific tutors. Likewise, Liz specified that after
visiting the academic resource centers as a class, she dropped in to the science lab for help before
an anatomy test. She also indicated that her instructor played a significant role in establishing
help seeking behaviors through validating their challenges and encouraging success. According
to Larkin (2012), the educational goal for students is to become independent learners by
providing learners scaffolded instructional approaches where students are encouraged to learn
and apply knowledge to real-life problems. Consistent with Larkin (2012), one participant,
Marina described an assignment in the first-year seminar where she was asked to engage with
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academic support services at different intervals until the completion of the project. As a result,
Marina stated she learned from this assignment when and how to engage with academic support
services and stated she is likely to utilize the services in other classes to increase her
performance. In regards to her experience with academic support services, Marina stated that if
she feels stuck on an assignment or has trouble getting started she will seek out early support to
“brainstorm” and “organize” her ideas. Similarly, Lisa stated before enrolling in college, she did
not know where to go for help but admits that she now proactively sets up appointments to
coincide with assignment due dates, “just in case” she needs help.
Participants addressed student learning in various ways. Ten of 12 participants expressed
initial reluctance to reaching out for help because it was not something they were accustomed to
doing in high school. When asked about academic resources on campus, Victor, responded with,
“I’m kind of glad I had to go or else I may not have gone.” Michelle stated that she was
“relieved” after going to writing support because the tutor offered her good feedback and did not
criticize her. In addition, Jose said after an appointment with an academic advisor that he felt
“relief” when the counselor did not seem alarmed when he admitted he had not yet officially
declared his major.
By demonstrating the process of asking for help with academic skill development, students
learned valuable information on how to access student resources. Marissa described her
experience with academic support services as “helpful” and stated the experience actually
exceeded her expectations. She claimed that the feedback from the instructor helped her develop
writing strategies beyond basic grammar support. According to the Community College Survey
of Student Engagement (2012), 87% of community colleges offer supplemental academic
support. However, 82% of respondents reported not taking advantage of the resources.
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Victor’s encounter was also positive. Victor’s described his experience with a writing tutor as
follows:
It was my first college, professional college essay; I guess you’d say that. It was a four
or five-page essay, and I don’t really know how I did on it so I went to the support center
and they helped me. And they tweaked some things, and they improved it, and I really
enjoyed it. I did not want to go because I thought they would tell me my English was
terrible, but they did not.
Liz wondered if other classes required students to visit academic support services. She
described her experiences with several academic resources as informative and useful. Liz
recognized that the most significant way to learn the value of the academic support services was
through her personal experiences.
Marissa described increased confidence in her ability to perform due to support from a
writing tutor, counselor, and the first-year instructor. In Melissa’s first-year seminar class, the
instructor scheduled in class workshops from academic support services to read and provide
feedback on an assignment. In reference to the feedback Marissa received, she stated, “ I gained
more confidence by being pushed academically.” Marissa then stated she has developed an
awareness of where to go to for a particular skill development.
Academic resources support student success in college. A strategy for increasing retention at
ABC College is actively integrating student support services into the first-year seminar
curriculum. Students not only reported learning about academic support services as helpful, but
they also reported an increase in a variety of academic skills, particularly in writing structure and
essay development. According to Gardner, Barefoot, and Farakish (2015), students benefit from
learning strategies to successfully navigate the academic journey. While each participant’s
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encounter with on-campus support services was unique, students’ stated the experiences were
positive and informative. Furthermore, requiring students to interact with academic support
increased awareness of services offered, and when and how to access them in the future. When
coordinated, implemented, and targeted appropriately, student support services demonstrate
increased retention rates and student achievement (Cooper, 2010).
Motivation. Students engaged in college success courses experience increased levels of
academic self-efficacy when compared to students not engaged in such courses (Wernersbach,
Crowley, Bates, & Rosenthal, 2014). Not only did students agree on the usefulness of student
support services, but 11 out of 12 participants also reported more confidence in their ability to do
college-level work by the end of the term after engaging in one or more of the academic support
services.
Bandura (1997) defined self-efficacy as the confidence in one’s own ability to successfully
complete the given task. Self-efficacy increased when students perceived confidence in their
ability to successfully complete assignments. When participants noticed a definite shift in
performance, it had a positive impact on the level of effort. Similar to the other participants,
Marco, who was initially insecure about his English skills, made the connection that he is a
capable writer after incorporating the feedback from the writing tutor. He says, “My English is
actually pretty good.”
In the area of academic motivation, the higher the level of self-efficacy, the more increased
effort toward the task, which leads to more successful student outcomes (Husain, 2014).
Participants offered several accounts of the impact of academic support services on their
attitudes towards schoolwork. After meeting with the writing tutor, Liz incorporated the
feedback into her essay and received an A. Of her achievement she said, “Maybe I can actually
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do this stuff [school work] if I put my mind to it,” acknowledging the level of effort it takes to
earn an A. According Attribution theory (Anderman & Anderman, 2009), motivation and
learning increase when students attribute success to their effort.
Similarly, Marina described a group project that she worked on with two classmates in which
they enlisted the assistance of a librarian. With the librarian’s assistance, they were able to locate
the proper research materials and properly format the essay. Marina described the experience as
“hard” because they balanced assignments for other classes at the same time. Marina recalled
several study strategies that the group learned during the first-year seminar and employed during
this project such as organization, time management, and asking for help. In the end, participants
attributed the success of the project to working together effectively, and engaging support during
the process. In each instance, students attributed their success to internal forces. An individual
with a high internal locus of control believes his or her success or failure is directly attributed to
her efforts and not to chance (Bean & Eaton, 2002).
According to Astin (1984), student involvement occurs along a continuum of psychological
and physical investment. Engaging in academically purposeful activities, such as preparing for
an exam or writing a paper represents a physical investment. However, the psychological
investment refers to the satisfaction that students experience not only through academics but also
social involvement. Consistent with Astin’s (1984) student involvement theory, findings of this
study demonstrate the significance of peer relationships on students’ satisfaction and engagement
in the college.
Peer to Peer Relationships Create a Sense of Belonging
Motivation. Positive social interactions between classmates created a sense of belonging and
well-being among participants. Eight out of 12 respondents spoke about the positive
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relationships they established with each other over the course of the semester. Through in-class
activities and out of class group assignments, students had opportunities to forge meaningful
relationships with each other. Student participants detailed several in class activities where they
had opportunities to collaborate on group projects, presentations, and discussions throughout the
semester. These finding align with Tinto’s (1993) integration framework that stated students who
develop social connections and engage in academic activities are more likely to persist.
Students cited relationships with classmates as a primary source of satisfaction in college.
The number of friendships formed in the first-year seminar class pleasantly surprised Michelle.
She reported feeling nervous about the first day of class and had concerns about fitting in. She
described her friendships as important because she and her friends support each other in
completing assignments, arranging times to study together, and spending time together in class.
Michelle described the social connections that developed in the class as positive and unexpected.
According to Michelle, one of the benefits of friendships on campus is that it makes the
college experience more “fun” and also provides academic support. Social capital as described
by Moschetti and Hudley (2014) in the form of social support plays an integral role in the
success of first-generation community college students. In addition, Yvonne reported interactions
with peers during class, but also described ongoing connections in the library, lunch areas, and
common areas.
Jackie, was excited to discuss her relationships with her classmates. She laughed and
explained that friendships began with text messages about homework assignments but expanded
into discussions about other topics. Over the course of the semester, discussions about class
assignments grew into friendships outside of class. Jackie stated the following about her peer
relationships:
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I did get a little nervous because there are a lot of people in that class. I think only like two
kids came from my high school, so I really didn’t know everyone. But it was pretty easy to
make friends because once everyone gets into little groups to discuss class projects, it’s just
very easy to make friends with everyone because we are all just working together. And
eventually, we became good friends. When I saw them on campus, I stopped and to say hi
and now we hang out a lot.
Trevor also indicated a positive connection with his classmates in the first year seminar class.
He was concerned that attending college part-time and working full-time would make it difficult
for him to feel connected to the college. Once he shared with his classmates that he worked five
days a week, he learned that other students were juggling responsibilities outside of school and
struggled to connect with campus life. With this understanding, he exchanged phone numbers
with several students in an effort to stay linked into a social network. He then stated that he often
maintained communication with peers through text messages and social media. As a result of
social connections, Trevor reported an increase in satisfaction with college when he had “people
to hang out with.”
Two students described challenges to connecting with peers. Participants cited obligations
outside of school such as family and work as primary reasons for not making close friendships
with classmates. Dante stated that initially he was not “interested in making friends” because he
has to go work right after class, then comes back to ABC College in the evening. He later
recognized how even casual friendships in class improved his college experience. Similarly,
Yvonne stated childcare issues as a primary factor for not developing close friendships.
Social relationships serve as a means for students to develop information networks, to find
out about class offerings, get advice about assignments, and plan activities (Karp et. al., 2010)
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When students do not form stable social connections they often feel that the college does not care
about them. In each instance, those that had challenges developing peer relationships said they
had difficulty because of limited time to spend on campus. Consistent with Karp et al. (2010),
many community college students find it difficult to form a connection with peers and the overall
campus experiences because they come to class and leave afterward.
High quality peer relationships influence student retention. The findings indicated that
participants that formed connections with peers in the first-year seminar class or maintained
social connection outside of class experienced a greater sense of satisfaction during the first
semester at ABC College. Consistent with Tinto’s (1993) student integration model, findings
suggest that social interactions positively influence students perception of the college experience.
Furthermore, peer relationships had a positive effect on the amount of time participants spent on
out of class assignments. Student participants encouraged each other to meet at the library to
work on assignments, coordinate study schedules via texts messages, and asked for support on
homework.
Peer relationships have a positive effect on social integration because when students form
strong social connections they are likely to stay in school (Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991; Tinto,
1987) In addition, Kuh (2006) maintained that social connection might influence academic
choices and achievement. In contrast, socially disconnected students’ experiences higher
departure rates (Astin, 1993; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991).
Academic Strategies
One of the primary goals of the first-year seminar is developing academic strategies to
promote student success. Academically underprepared students represent the majority of the
student population in community colleges (CCCSE, 2016). In the most recent ABC College
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Course Catalog, the first-year seminar description includes a variety of knowledge-based
strategies students learn during the semester. Note taking, time-management, organizational
skills, and goal setting represent the foundation of academic behaviors. All students found
certain aspects of the content valuable to their success in college.
Knowledge. First-year seminar participants valued learning study skills and academic
strategies to support academic success. Knowing strategies and how to implement them is
essential for academic achievement. A study skill refers to the knowledge of appropriate
strategies to successfully complete academic tasks (Crede & Kuncel, 2008). Out of 12 first-year
participants, 11 stated that learning academic strategies is valuable for achievement in college.
Five respondents reported a first-time exposure to in-depth academic strategies whereas seven
participants described the material as a refresher from material learned in high school.
Krathwohl (2002) stated that factual knowledge is the essential elements individuals need to
problem solve a problem in a given context. In this instance, students must know effective study
habits to enhance academic performance. Victor stated he was never “taught how to take notes”
or the importance of developing a study routine during high school. Although Victor received
information on how to takes notes during the class, he also stated he wanted time to practice
more in class. Victor also recalled feeling unorganized and unprepared in high school, which
negatively impacted his GPA, a pattern he does not want to repeat. He explained that he now
recognizes the importance of having a study routine.
Similarly, Lisa experienced academic setbacks in high schooled that seeped into her first
semester in college. She confessed to not turning in assignments because she did not know how
to prepare. One of the strategies Lisa found most significant from the first-year seminar was
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learning the calendar function on her phone to remind her of upcoming assignments, which
helped her manage time more efficiently.
Procedural knowledge, which Krathwohl (2002) defined as knowing how to do something
such as study, is essential to a student’s ability to complete specific activities. While students
valued learning the fundamentals of effective study habits and skills, 5 out of 12 students wanted
more opportunities to apply what they learned in the first-year seminar class. According to
Krathwohl (2002), procedural knowledge involves specific techniques and methods to complete
a given task. Findings suggest that overall, students learned study skills, strategies, and habits to
support academic performance but would like more opportunities to apply skills. According to
Crede and Kuncel (2008), practical study skills and application are predictive of educational
outcomes.
In relation to learning time-management skills, Yvonne recalled an assignment where she was
asked to develop a timeline for completing an out of class assignment. First, the instructor asked
the class to write down the details of the assignment. Second, students were asked to develop a
specific day-by-day implementation plan on how they were going to finish the assignment.
Lastly, the instructor assessed the feasibility of the plan and provided feedback. Yvonne found
the activity “helpful” because she was able to practice a new skill.
Motivation. Learning and applying academic strategies lead to an increase in confidence in
academic abilities. When students learned and successfully applied specific study skills to
various assignments, confidence in academic ability increased. According to Pajares (2006),
when students feel cable of learning and performing tasks, self-efficacy increases. Jose described
the application of newly learned organization and time-management skills. He responded with a
detailed account of how he organized his notes two weeks in advance, reviewed the readings,
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and studied class notes. After reviewing, he wrote questions about the material and asked the
instructor for clarification. Jose’s successful implementation of learned academic strategies in the
first-year seminar increased self-efficacy.
Jose was pleased with his performance on the exam. He applied specific strategies to increase
learning of the material. He attributed his success to the level of effort he applied to preparing for
the test. Learning how to regulate his study habits by breaking down preparation into several
smaller steps allowed Jose to review and process the information effectively. According to
Pintrich (2003), when individuals believe performance is related to their own efforts, motivation
increases.
Marissa recalled a study strategy she learned in the first-year seminar where she enlisted the
help of a classmate. She excerpts:
We spent time in the library making flashcards to quiz each other for biology. We kept
going back and forth testing each other. It was hard for me to remember all the terminology. I
made a mnemonic; well it was more like a song to help me remember all the parts of the cell.
I got an A on that test.
Marissa believed her success was due to the amount of effort spent studying. Students’ beliefs
about their effort, capabilities, and control over a task play an important role in motivation
(Bandura, 1997; Pei-Hsuan & Schallert, 2008). An individual’s attribution for success or failure
is tied to the level of confidence one has in the task (Bandura, 1997). Confident students
(efficacious) are more likely to attribute success to their own effort whereas students who fail
attribute academic outcomes to lack of ability (Pei-Hsuan & Schallert, 2008). Findings suggest
that when students applied effective study strategies and received successful outcomes, they
attributed success to effort.
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Organizational Influences Impacting Student Retention
The purpose of the second research question was to determine what organizational factors
influence the stakeholder goal of increased retention of first-year community college students.
Findings represent the responses to face-to-face interviews about organizational procedures and
processes at ABC College from the student’s perspective. The findings are organized around the
primary theme centered on students’ understanding of complex transfer processes. Knowledge,
motivation, and organizational factors are then presented that influence the transfer to a four-year
university.
Institutional conditions influence students’ engagement (Astin, 1984, Kuh, et al., 2011;
Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005; Tinto,1993). Furthermore, educational policies, programs, and
processes contribute to students’ satisfaction, persistence, and educational outcomes (Astin,
1984, Kuh et al., 2006; Tinto, 1993). According to Kuh et al. (2006), not only do student-faculty
interactions have a positive effect on educational outcomes, they also positively influence
students’ satisfaction and sense of loyalty to the institution. Consistent with existing research in
student retention, the findings of this study demonstrate the significance of organizational
conditions on student engagement.
Complex Transfer Process
Knowledge. Despite expressing a goal to transfer to a four-year university, all participants
were unclear about the transfer process. Transfer processes and requirements are confusing and
complicated to students. According to the Community College Review (2017), the complex
nature of the community college transfer process is one of the primary obstacles to successfully
transferring to a four-year college. Some students have a basic understanding of the notion of
“GE” requirements needed to graduate, whereas others expressed confusion about how many
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units are required to complete an associate’s degree to transfer, differences in course
requirements to transfer to CSU or UC, and where to go to get the necessary information at ABC
College. As a result, students’ get frustrated, discouraged, and decide to leave before completion
(Monaghan & Atwell, 2014).
Seven students stated they received incomplete transfer information, while five expressed a
reluctance to ask clarifying questions about the process to faculty members. Even though Jackie,
stated that the first-year seminar instructor discussed the transfer process in class she admitted
she was confused about the process. She was reluctant to ask her instructor because she did not
want to “bother” her. Jackie added that the counselor summarized the process but did not go into
specific details regarding her course of study. Furthermore, Jackie was unclear if it is in her best
interest to complete the Intersegmental General Education Transfer Curriculum (IGET-C) or the
Cal State University requirements.
Marco expressed his concerns about navigating the transfer process. He worried he will end
up spending an additional semester at ABC College if he does not earn the required credits for
transfer. Out of concern, Marco asked the instructor, who is also an academic counselor during
class for help but received conflicting information. He then double-checked the information with
other advisors because he did not feel confident in the information he received.
ABC College provides several resources to assist students with the transfer process. Printed
IGET-C and CSU requirements fill kiosks at ABC College. Online resources offer several links
to gain understanding of the transfer process. Furthermore, academic counselors provide one-on-
one support with the transfer process by appointment. Despite the availability of several
resources, ABC College does not offer printed situation specific transfer information which is
confusing for students.
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For example, Liz, earned AP course credits in high school but did not understand how the
units transfer to a university. Lisa is interested in applying to colleges in California and out of
state, but did not feel confident in her ability to know all the requirements. Likewise, Yvonne
lacked an understanding on how the transfer processes differed from California state schools to
an out of state historically black colleges (HBCU). Yvonne recalled feeling more “confused”
when she learned she could transfer without an associate’s degree to an HBCU, which
contradicted her understanding of the transfer process.
All students needed comprehensive knowledge about requirements to transfer (factual) and an
understanding of the step-by-step process to apply for a transfer (procedural). According to the
Community College Review (2017), students need to have a deep understanding of the
differences between general education classes, lower-division electives, classes related to the
selected major, and articulation agreements between community colleges and four-year
institutions. Next, students need to understand where to obtain transfer information for specific
disciplines at four-year institutions, how to access transfer applications through an online portal,
and how and when to fill out accompanying financial aid documents. When students obtain the
correct information and a complete understanding of the transfer process students are more likely
to gain admission to a four-year university (Community College Review, 2017).
Motivation. Gore (2006) stated a correlation exists between self-efficacy and beliefs in
accomplishing academic tasks as a predictor of college success. The lack of understanding of the
transfer process from community college to a four-year university is frustrating for participants.
Organizational policies and procedures were proven less than effective at providing students with
a deep understanding of the transfer process. Eight students doubted their ability to successfully
navigate the transfer process at all. Students doubted their ability to complete each step of the
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process and understand all the requirements needed for transfer. Low self-efficacy negatively
impacts student motivation. Students with high self-efficacy are more likely to persist towards
their goals (Domenech-Betoret, Abellan-Rosello, Gomez-Artiga, 2017).
If students do not feel confident in their abilities to overcome difficulties, they give up or
avoid the given task (Margolis & McCabe, 2010). When asked about his understanding of the
transfer process, Marco stated, he had not looked into the process yet because it looked
“complicated.” To successfully transfer in the suggested two to three year period for community
college, students need a thorough understanding of the process to sustain motivation to complete
the degree requirements.
Organization
Organizational influences play a significant role in the satisfaction of ABC College students.
Participants reported that peer interactions, faculty-student interactions, and a general sense of
belonging influenced students’ perception of the ABC College culture. Participants’ who
expressed positive attitudes about the ABC College experience directly attributed it to the level
of engagement with peers and faculty members. Schein (1988) described organizational culture
as a set of complex levels comprised of artifacts, values, and underlying assumptions.
Numerous studies point to the salient effects of institutional culture, as it pertains to
student-faculty interactions (Astin, 1984; Kuh et al., 2011; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005)
Consistent with Tinto’s (1993) student integration theory, participants seek support when
students perceive faculty as welcoming. Specifically, participants’ responses indicated that
frequent and meaningful interactions in and out of the classroom created an inclusive climate
where students felt supported.
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Two primary organizational influences emerged from the study. One, students that felt
comfortable asking and receiving support from faculty reported more positive feelings about
their experience in the class as a whole. Second, students who perceived faculty as approachable
and friendly felt more connected to ABC College. Specifically, when students experienced
validation from faculty for their feelings of frustration with the transfer process they were more
inclined to seek out that person again for advice.
Marina described her relationship with her first-year seminar instructor as positive. She
described the instructor as helpful, compassionate, and encouraging. She also discussed several
times when she engaged with her instructor outside of class that were also meaningful. Marissa
claimed the connection between she and the instructor as a primary source of support during her
first semester. She described her relationship with the instructor and said, “She is more like my
aunt or tía.”
Similarly, Lisa shared an encounter with her instructor and explained how casual interactions
outside of class demonstrated student support. Initially, Lisa stated she felt intimidated by her
professor because she was one of the most educated people she had ever known. Through the
course of several interactions during the semester, Lisa became more comfortable asking
questions. She stated that her perception shifted when the instructor asked how she had
performed on a math test that she had mentioned the week before. In addition, Lisa stated that
the professor addressed her by name when she saw her on campus, which demonstrated to her
that she “mattered.” Lisa also stated that because of these casual interactions she felt comfortable
with the idea of approaching her in the future.
Positive student-faculty interactions positively influence students’ satisfaction with the
college experience. According to Kuh et al. (2006), supportive institutional environments foster
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an increased commitment from students. A large body of evidence supports the effects of high-
quality student-faculty interactions on retention, persistence, and academic achievement (Astin,
1984; Bean & Easton, 2000; Kuh et al., 2006, Kuh et al., 2008). Participants were more likely to
ask for help when students perceive faculty members as “supportive” and “helpful.” Moreover,
first-generation college students who have positive interactions with faculty are more likely to
experience academic success (Kuh et al., 2006; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005), suggesting
student-faculty relationships play a significant role in the success of community college students.
Summary
Research Question One asked, To what extent is ABC College meeting its goal of 20%
increase in student retention by 2019, based on the perceptions and needs of first-year college
students? Three findings are related to that question: knowing how to access academic support
services contributes to student success, peer to peer relationships increase student satisfaction,
and learning academic strategies increases students’ confidence in academic abilities. As such,
knowing the availability of the types of academic resources and how to access them contributed
to expectations of success for all 12 participants.
Relevant to the first finding, each participant reported a deeper understanding of the
importance of asking for help and how to access academic support. Despite initial reluctance to
ask for help with assignments, students described the experience as positive and informative.
Exposure to academic support services was facilitated through required assignments, guided
tours, and discipline-specific guest speakers. Furthermore, findings determined that utilizing
academic resources provided students with the motivation to accomplish assignments in all of
their courses, suggesting that academic strategies extended beyond the immediate first-year
seminar classroom experience.
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The second finding was that peer relationships established during the first-year seminar class
foster a sense of belonging to the college experience. Student interactions were fostered
primarily through small-group activities, out-of-class assignments, and informal interactions. In
effect, planned interactive activities in the classroom served as a catalyst for ongoing peer
interactions outside of class. Furthermore, positive peer relationships motivated students to
attend class and had a positive influence on the academic effort. The third finding indicated that
learning effective academic habits and behaviors increased self-efficacy. As a result of an
increase in academic abilities, students reported feeling more capable to meet a future challenge
based on their previous successes.
Research Question Two asked, What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
elements related to achieving the goal of 20% increase in student retention by 2019? The finding
revealed that students find the process of transferring from community college to a four-year
university confusing and frustrating. The policies and processes of determining specific
requirements for individual universities are disjointed. Even more confusing to students is
transferring to a university outside of California or to private school. Despite the availability of
transfer resources at ABC, students’ found the process of transferring daunting and demotivating.
Therefore, they expressed doubts about their ability to successfully navigate the transition from
community college to a four-year university.
Research Question Three asked, What are the recommendations for organizational practice in
the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources? Findings related to that
question highlighted two significant organizational practices influencing the stakeholder goal.
First, content delivery influences students’ learning and engagement in the classroom. When
provided opportunities to interact with the instructor, peers, and the material during class,
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students’ experienced a sense of connectedness to the learning experience. Secondly, findings
indicate that both formal and informal interactions between faculty and students motivated
students to participate in their learning because they felt a sense of encouragement and support
from the instructor.
The findings suggest that existing gaps can interfere with the organization meeting its goal of
a 20% increase in student retention. Although the first-year seminar is the foundational course
for many incoming students at ABC College, the findings of this study indicate a current gap in
knowledge, skills, and motivational influences impacting the goal of a 20% increase in student
retention by 2019. Furthermore, the findings indicate that significant organizational elements are
hampering student outcomes. Recommendations in Chapter Five are developed to support ABC
College in meeting its goal of a 20% increase in student retention by 2019.
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Chapter Five: Implementation and Evaluation
Introduction
Chapter Five begins with a discussion of the study’s key findings related to students’
experience in the first-year seminar, followed by implications for future practice based on the
findings. Furthermore, Chapter Five is divided into three categories of validated and not
validated influences that address knowledge, motivation, and organizational recommendations
based on the study’s findings. Finally, The New World Kirkpatrick Model (2016) provides a
framework to plan, implement, and evaluate the proposed interventions and recommendations.
Discussion
The findings of this study indicate significant knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences impacting student outcomes. Consistent with previous college student retention
research, the findings indicate that academic and social engagement influences persistence in
college (Astin, 1984; Bean & Eaton, 2000; Kuh, et al., 2006; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991, 2005;
Tinto, 1987, 1997). One of the most significant findings of this study points to the positive
correlation between learning and student motivation. According to Rueda (2011), individuals
with higher self-efficacy will be more motivated to engage in challenging academic tasks.
Specifically, the findings indicate that confidence increased when students’ learned how and
when to access academic support services and when to apply specific academic strategies. As
such, involvement in educationally purposeful activities increased student self-efficacy and
impacted students’ attributions for success.
Furthermore, the findings indicate that students benefit from frequent and meaningful faculty-
student interactions. Positive interactions with faculty increased connections to the learning
experience, willingness to ask for help, and motivation to complete coursework. Similarly, the
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findings also indicate that peer relationships positively impact students’ involvement in
academics and social activities.
Moreover, students’ benefited from opportunities to engage not only with faculty but to also
develop peer relationships in the classroom. Peer relationships also had a positive effect on
student learning, academic habits, and overall sense of satisfaction with the college experience.
Finally, the findings suggest that organizational factors influence students’ understanding and
confidence to successfully navigate the transfer process from community college to a four-year
university. The following section presents recommended strategies to develop organizational
conditions that support student learning, satisfaction, and positive student outcomes.
Recommendations for Future Research
Although the major themes were captured in this study, future research about the influence of
faculty-student interactions is needed to understand the long-term effects on student outcomes.
Measuring frequency of student-faculty interactions is the first step and a possible indicator of
the student’s level of comfort approaching the faculty member. Future research should include
observations and student surveys that could further examine the extent of faculty-student
interactions on student outcomes.
Recommendations
The next section provides context-specific knowledge, motivation, and organizational
recommendations, solutions, and plan of evaluation based on the findings. The purpose of the
intervention is to improve the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences impacting
student outcomes. This section introduces the New World Kirkpatrick Model (2016) and its four
levels of levels of training: results (Level 4), behavior (Level 3), learning (Level 2), and reaction
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(Level 1). The sections are subdivided to include a level-specific implementation plan and
evaluation framework beginning with Level 4 results.
Data collection is complete for the first-year seminar. Knowledge influences in Table 7
represent the complete, prioritized list of assumed knowledge influences impacting the
stakeholder goal. Knowledge influences in this study have been validated based on the most
frequently mentioned knowledge influences derived from formal interviews in relation to the
stakeholder goal and further supported by the literature review in Chapter Two. Tinto’s (1993)
integration framework, Astin’s (1984) student involvement theory, and Clark and Estes’s (2008)
gap analysis also provide a framework to understanding knowledge gaps contributing to
students’ decisions to leave college.
Students leave college for a variety of reasons. Tinto’s (1975) seminal piece on student
retention suggests that dropping out of college is a process, beginning with the student’s
experience in the classroom. Learning increases through students’ engagement with academics
(Tinto, 1993). Students who identify with the academic and social culture exhibit a greater sense
of connection to the college experience. When students actively engage in learning and campus
experiences, persistence rates increase (Astin, 1984; Tinto, 1993). Conversely, isolated students
feel peripheral to the social and academic experience. Therefore, they are more likely to drop
out. Essentially, students’ investment in the learning process influences decisions to persist.
Knowledge Recommendations
Effective educational practices influence academic engagement. When students actively
and consistently engage in scholarly activities, persistence is more likely. In effect, what students
learn and how they learn shapes the educational experience. Rueda (2011) defined learning as
changes in knowledge attributed to experience. Integral to the discussion on classroom learning
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is an understanding of the types of knowledge needed to complete specific tasks. Factual
knowledge is the necessary information needed to solve problems, and procedural knowledge
refers to knowing how to do something (Krathwohl, 2002). Both knowledge types were analyzed
in relation to student retention at ABC College.
Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis propose four research-based strategies to close
knowledge gaps: information, job aids, training, and education. Increased knowledge is required
when individuals do not know how to accomplish a task or when novel problem-solving is
introduced (Clark & Estes, 2008). Information offers the most basic support to close knowledge
gaps by providing individuals with simple facts needed to complete the task. A job aid is a
slightly higher level of information that provides individuals a summary of actions or decisions
to implement a new approach to accomplish the task. Training, a more comprehensive step is a
combination of information and guided practice, which is followed by feedback. Lastly, the most
complex method to closing knowledge gaps is education, which involves a multifaceted
approach incorporating conceptual, theoretical, and strategic knowledge to manage unforeseen
challenges or problems.
Table 7 introduces a list of recommendations to close the declarative and procedural gaps
of students at ABC College. Table 7 provides a prioritized summary of assumed knowledge
influences identified in the literature review and validated in data analysis. The table includes
assumed knowledge influences, guiding principles related to assumed knowledge influences, and
context-specific recommendations.
Table 7
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendation
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Assumed Knowledge
Influence
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Students do not know how to
access academic resources on
campus.
Procedural Knowledge
Model effective strategy use,
including “how” and “when”
to use particular strategies
(Schraw & McCrudden,
2006)
To develop mastery,
individuals must acquire
component skills, practice
integrating them, and know
when to apply what they
have learned (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).
Provide students concrete
information about support
services, promote instructor
guided tours of campus
resources, followed by
opportunities for students to
practice throughout the
semester.
Students do not know
academic habits to be
successful in college.
Declarative (factual)
Knowledge
Provide worked examples
during learning (Mayer,
2011)
Provide guidance,
modeling, coaching, and
other scaffolding during
performance (Mayer, 2011).
Introduce key study habits
during week 2, module 1,
through online resources,
videos, textbooks, worked
examples and allow more
application through module 4,
followed by instructor
feedback.
Students do not know how to
implement academic skills.
Procedural Knowledge
Present information in
Present information about
proven information through
worksheets, video, lecture, and
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Factual knowledge. Students need to know specific study skills and academic strategies to
be successful in college. Knowing key strategies reinforces the learning process. To be
successful in college, first-year students need to know factual knowledge, which Krathwohl
(2002) defined as the basic facts needed to solve problems. In this instance, students need to
know specific strategies such as necessary study skills, note taking, time-management, and test
preparation. Without a toolbox of academic strategies, students face significant challenges to
academic achievement (Cueso, 2010).
Implementing ongoing educational approaches throughout the first-year seminar will assist
students in the development of necessary skills supporting success. Currently, study skills are
introduced in the first module without ongoing opportunities to apply new strategies. It is
recommended that students have more application of study habits throughout the semester.
According to Clark and Estes (2008), education is an effective and comprehensive method to
close knowledge gaps by providing continuous information. Therefore, it is recommended that
students will learn, develop, and practice a host of academic tools to support academic success
throughout the semester.
Information processing systems theory states that individuals’ process information to
make meaning rather than merely responding to stimuli. Based on this assumption, active
engagement is necessary to acquire new knowledge. Mayer (2011) stated that the learning
manageable parts (Mayer,
2011). Provide concrete
examples (Mayer, 2011)
Provide tasks that promote
selecting, organizing, and
integrating (Mayer, 2011).
examples. Allow students
opportunities to select one or
two new skills in an in class
assignment.
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process is enhanced through a scaffolding approach combined with guidance, coaching, and
modeling. According to cognitive load theory, learning is enhanced when working memory is
not overtaxed (Kirshner, Kirshner, & Paas, 2006). Therefore, breaking down information into
manageable parts enhances learning and diminishes intrinsic load (Mayer, 2011). From a
theoretical perspective, it would appear that providing targeted information through study aids,
videos, lectures, and worked examples, followed by relevant feedback on progress allows
students the opportunity to learn the knowledge necessary for academic success.
Procedural knowledge. Students need to know how to access on-campus academic
support services. Krathwohl (2002) stated that procedural knowledge understands the processes
to accomplish specific tasks. Currently, students perceive the process of receiving academic
support as tedious and complicated. In these types of instances, Clark and Estes (2008)
recommend training individuals to acquire the “how to” knowledge. Therefore, ongoing training
is recommended to teach students about the types of assistance available, where to go for specific
help, how to make appointments, and identify steps to receive services from remote locations.
This kind of training empowers students to become self-advocates of the learning process.
According to Mayer (2011), practicing tasks solidifies the information and promotes the
transfer of knowledge. According to Schraw and McCrudden (2006), modeling effective
strategies on “how” and “when” to use new skills, enhances the learning process. Therefore,
learning how to access the array of academic support services and when to ask for help is a
critical influence in achieving academic success. Developing mastery over a process requires
individuals to acquire necessary skills, practice integrated them, and knows when to apply what
they have learned (Schraw & McCrudden, 2006). As such, it is recommended that students
receive a job aid consisting of a list of on-campus support services, along with instructor guided,
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step-by-step tours, followed by opportunities to practice implementing new processes.
Motivation Recommendations
Introduction. Data collection is complete for the first-year seminar. Table 8 represents the
complete list of assumed motivation influences based on the most frequently mentioned
motivation influences to achieving the stakeholders’ goal during informal interviews, supported
by the literature review, and a review of motivation theory. Clark and Estes (2008) states there
are three types of motivational indexes of motivation toward task performance: choice,
persistence, and mental effort. Choice refers to the active process of deciding to work towards a
goal. Persistence is continuing to work towards a goal despite distractions. Mental energy is a
measure of how much an individual is willing to invest to achieve a goal. According to Clark and
Estes (2008), a combination of active choice, persistence, and mental effort increase performance
towards goal achievement.
Table 8 illustrates motivational influences that have a high priority of achieving the
stakeholder’s goal. Lastly, Table 8 also provides recommendations for these influences based on
theoretical principles.
Table 8
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Motivation Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Attribution-Students should
feel academic outcomes are
due to their own efforts.
Feedback and modeling
increases self-efficacy
(Pajares, 2006).
Provide goal-directed practice
Provide in class writing
assignments where the
instructor reviews student
progress one on one and
delivers focused and frequent
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coupled with frequent,
accurate, credible, targeted
and private feedback on
progress in learning and
performance (Pajares, 2006).
High self-efficacy positively
influences motivation
(Pajares, 2006)
feedback in the classroom.
Self-efficacy-Students need to
believe they are capable of
college-level work.
Provide feedback that
stresses the nature of learning,
including importance of effort,
strategies, and potential
self-control of learning
(Anderman & Anderman,
2009; Pintrich, 2003).
Building supportive and
caring personal relationships
in the community of learners
(Pintrich, 2003).
Provide students with highly
scaffolded projects, and then
provide feedback at each step,
in a low stakes & supportive
environment.
Self-Efficacy. Students need to believe they are capable of learning the necessary academic
skills and strategies that support academic achievement. Bandura (1993) stated that students’
ability to master academic activities influences the level of motivation towards academic
performance goals. As such, higher levels of self-efficacy positively influence individuals’
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motivation towards task-specific goals (Pajares, 2006). As a result, self-efficacy increases when
individuals’ perceive strong gains towards performance goals (Bandura, 1993). Students need to
perceive increased confidence in self-efficacy to sustain the effort. According to Pajares (2006),
accurately assessing self-progress requires learners to be provided with opportunities to
incorporate specific goal-directed practice combined with frequent, credible, targeted and private
feedback. Therefore, it is recommended that instructional faculty provide in-class writing
assignments where students receive frequent, private, and focused feedback in the classroom.
According to Clark and Estes (2008), motivation increases when individuals perceive a high
level of personal confidence in their ability to achieve specific performance goals. An
individual’s belief in possessing the skills required to complete the task successfully is the most
significant predictor of mental effort and commitment toward goal attainment (Clark and Estes,
2008). In effect, when individuals do not perceive confidence in skills or abilities they are more
likely to avoid the task (Clark & Estes, 2008). Pajares (2006) stated the importance of informing
individuals that they are capable of learning what is taught. Accomplishing this step requires
instructional faculty to express his or her confidence in the learning process. Furthermore,
Pajares (2006) stated that learning and motivation increase when individuals have positive
expectancies for success. Fostering improvements in individuals’ self-efficacy requires the
development of concrete and challenging goals that allows the learner to experience success at
the task (Pajares, 2006). Therefore, it is recommended that instructional faculty set realistic goals
so that students can experience initial progress and gain confidence in their academic ability.
Once the initial educational goal is accomplished, faculty will then introduce more challenging
tasks.
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Attribution Theory. Students need to believe that academic outcomes are based on their own
efforts. According to Anderman and Anderman (2009), learning and motivation increase when
individuals attribute success or failures to effort rather than ability. Students’ beliefs that
academic achievement is determined only by ability, and is not influenced by effort perceive a
lack of control over their learning process. Graham (1991) stated that attribution theory addresses
such questions such as “Why did I fail this exam?” Individuals’ causal perceptions of success or
failures influences students’ willingness to initiate future achievement activities, work with
intensity, and persist in the face of difficulty (Graham, 1991). According to Anderman and
Anderman (2009), providing feedback that stresses the process of learning, including the
significance of effort, while emphasizing self-control, encourages students’ to consider the role
of effort in academic outcomes. It is recommended that faculty provide students with
opportunities to engage in activities that create awareness of the importance of self-regulation
and effort in academic performance.
According to Clark and Estes (2008), beliefs about one’s self influences our prospects for
being effective. When individuals only attribute outcomes to ability and not effort, they believe
they are not capable in the face of failure (Graham, 1991). The importance of causal attributions
is that when students believe things that can be controlled, such as effort can influence outcomes,
persistence is more likely (Rueda, 2011). Supportive learning environments foster a sense of
trust that allows individuals’ to exercise choice and control over their learning (Pintrich, 2003;
Rueda, 2011). In addition, Rueda (2011) stated the importance of providing feedback, and
emphasizing the relationship between, effort, self-regulation, and outcomes within supportive
learning environments. Based on the theoretical implications, it is recommended that
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instructional faculties learn to implement classroom practices that focus on delivering accurate
and relevant feedback in a low stakes, supportive environment.
Organizational Recommendations
Introduction. Data collection is complete for this study. The organizational influences in
Table 9 includes a complete list of assumed organizational influences and their probability of
being validated based on the most frequently mentioned organizational elements relevant to the
stakeholder goal during formal interviews, that are supported by the literature review, and a
review of organizational theory. Clark and Estes (2008) stated that ineffective and inefficient
organizational processes and a lack of material resources contribute to performance gaps.
According to Clark and Estes (2008), organizational effectiveness occurs when policies and
procedures align with the organizational mission and performance goals. Within an organization,
cultural models and cultural settings influence performance goals. Schein (2004) defined cultural
models as the basic set of assumptions about how individuals’ think, perceive, and feel within an
organization. Often unstated, organizational culture encompasses the underlying values and
attitudes of its members. In contrast, cultural settings refer to organizational structures, such as
policies, rules, and specific guidelines (Rueda, 2011). Rueda (2011) stated that understanding the
interdependent relationship between cultural models and cultural settings helps with
understanding how they improve or hinder performance goals. Therefore, cultural models and
settings must align to achieve the organizational goal. Table 9 provides a summary of validated
organizational influences that have a high priority of achieving the stakeholders’ goal. Table 9
also illustrates the recommendations for these influences based on theoretical principles.
Table 9
Summary of Organizational Influences and Recommendations
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Assumed Organization
Influence
Principle and Citation
Context-Specific Recommendation
Cultural Model:
There is a general
resistance by students to
reach out for assistance to
define academic goals
Organizational
effectiveness increases
when leaders encourage
open lines of
communication
(Clark & Estes, 2008).
Encourage all information to be
disclosed by acting calmly and
appreciatively when someone
brings/negative data forward. Create a
safe environment for all viewpoints to
be heard.
Cultural Model:
There is a culture of
mistrust between teaching
faculty and administration
hindering the goal of
curriculum revision
Not a priority.
Cultural Setting:
There is a lack of clarity
on how to access campus
resources
Effective change efforts
utilize feedback to
determine when/if
improvement is
happening
(Clark & Estes, 2008).
Incorporate specific student centered
activities throughout the semester
designed to engage students with
academic resources, and then require
students’ to reflect on learning and
share best practices.
Cultural Setting:
There is a disconnect in
learning for students on
how to make the transfer
process
Effective change efforts
are communicated
regularly and frequently
to all key stakeholders
(Clark & Estes, 2008).
Schedule in class workshops with
transfer academy and university
representatives to ensure that students
receive ongoing and current
information about transfer requirements
and processes.
Cultural models. This influence was selected because faculty will not be able to work
effectively with students to identify academic goals if students’ lack trusts in the faculty’s ability
to respond in a supportive manner. Students need a trusting environment to disclose educational
challenges and uncertainties without judgment. Clark and Estes (2008) maintain that fostering
trust requires an organizational commitment to developing clear and effective communication.
According to Rueda (2011), developing trust with students requires getting to know individuals
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 112
in their daily lives, which helps prevent inaccurate judgments based on group characteristics such
as race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. Similarly, Clark and Estes (2008) stated that
increasing organizational performance requires a level of trust amongst relevant stakeholder
groups. One strategy to increase trust within the organization lies in the individuals’ ability to
communicate effectively across various cultural domains (Schein, 2010). Furthermore, Schein
(2010) stated that effective cross-cultural communication promotes a sense of understanding
throughout the organization that in turn increases performance. As such, it is recommended that
faculties develop the necessary cross-cultural competencies to foster an environment of trust to
engage students in developing academic goals.
Organizational effectiveness increases when leaders encourage open lines of communication
(Clark & Estes, 2008). According to Schein (2010), effective communication flows freely in a
fully connected organizational network. Clear communication fosters trust on all levels of an
organization (Rueda, 2011). Equally important as developing trust between faculty and students
is developing trust between faculty and administration. Fostering open and effective
communication requires valuable input from faculty about their knowledge and motivation needs
to create buy-in to improve course outcomes.
Trust is not only generated by clear communication but also through cross-cultural
communication and understanding throughout the organization which is equally crucial (Schein,
2010). Schein (2010) stated that achieving optimal cross-cultural communication requires
strategic coordination and cultural understanding. Therefore, it is recommended that faculties’
increase cross-cultural competencies to support the diverse student population by creating an
inclusive environment where all individuals trust to share challenges along their academic
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pathway. According Kegan (1994), one of the driving forces in life is feeling included and
experiencing a greater sense of agency.
Cultural settings. Faculty needs to empower students to identify and utilize on-campus
academic resources that support achievement. Facilitating ongoing use of student success
resources requires faculty to have enough time with students to effectively explain the purpose of
academic support services, the types of services available, and how to establish the initial
connection. It is also necessary for faculty to incorporate time for feedback to determine how
effectively students utilized support services.
According to Clark and Estes (2008), effectively redesigning work processes results in
performance achievements. Without a strong commitment to students needs, organizational
performance falters (Rueda, 2011). Furthermore, Clark and Estes (2008) stated when
organizational policies do not adequately support processes the risk of failure is significant.
Therefore, it is recommended that a review of the current process be completed to redesign
ongoing work processes to allow faculties time and resources to support student needs.
Faculty will need additional time to work collaboratively with academic support supervisors
to develop new strategies to engage students in on-campus resources. Successful implementation
of organizational change processes requires an alignment between policies, structures, and
performance goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). Furthermore, there is a need for strong communication
about plans and progress throughout the change process (Clark & Estes, 2008). Determining the
success of change processes requires ongoing feedback from faculty, staff, and students.
In effect, open two-way communication becomes the central element of an organizational
transformation (Schein, 1993). According to Clark and Estes (2008), setting clear performance
goals and specific ways to measure success is essential to successful implementation of new
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processes. Therefore, it is recommended that the current academic referral process be redesigned
to include a monitoring system to track faculty referrals, scheduled appointments, and student
satisfaction.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
The New World Kirkpatrick Model (2016) informs the integrated implementation and
evaluation plan of this study (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Kirkpatrick’s New World Model
consists of four levels of training evaluation: Level 1 (Reaction), Level 2 (Learning), Level 3
(Behavior), and Level 4 (Results). Kirkpatrick (2016) recommends a reverse application of the
four training levels, which begins with Level 4, identifying desired outcomes. This model
suggests that evaluation plans start with the goals of the organization and work backward; by
doing so, the “leading indicators” that bridge recommended solutions to the organization’s goals
are both easier to identify and more closely aligned with organizational goals.
Each level provides information for establishing the value of the training to the organization.
Level 4 measures the extent to which specific outcomes occur as a result of the training. In
effect, Level 4 identifies the optimal training results aligned with the organizational purpose,
mission, and resources. Next, Level 3 is the degree that individuals apply what they learned as a
result of the training to the actual job. It demonstrates how critical behaviors, specific actions,
and effective processes performed impact desired results. Level 2 is the individual’s acquired
knowledge, skills, attitudes, and confidence as a result of the training. As such, Level 2 addresses
the knowledge and motivation influences associated with effective training. Finally, Level 1
measures the customer satisfaction aspect of training that is determined by how favorable or
relevant participants’ find training to their jobs. According to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick
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(2016), after program implementation, the evaluation process occurs in numerical order of
Levels 1-4. The importance of the integrated implementation and evaluation plan is that it
ensures that the training maximizes learning, expands on-the-job application, and demonstrates
organizational value (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Organizational Purpose, Need, and Expectations
The goal of ABC College is to increase student retention rates 20% by the fall of 2019.
Achievement of this step requires faculty to integrate the knowledge of students’ needs into the
first-year seminar to ensure that students learn the skills and knowledge for success. This study
examined the knowledge/skills, motivational, and organizational influences impacting student
retention at ABC College. Faculty plays a critical role in the retention of first-year students. Not
only do faculty engage with students in the classroom, but they also direct the actions of student
support resources. As such, an awareness of any existing barriers inhibiting student success is
needed. The recommended solution is to provide faculty with training and one-on-one support to
learn strategies that ensure student success. The proposed solutions for internal outcomes will
allow faculty to: 1) increase knowledge of students’ needs and academic abilities, 2) increase
understanding of how to create collaborative learning environments, 3) increase awareness of
instructional effectiveness, 4) increase awareness of students’ understanding of the transfer
process, 5) increase time for developing teaching strategies, 6) increase knowledge of cultural
competencies that value diversity, and 7) improve relationships with students. The proposed
solution for external outcomes is to increase retention of first-year students.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
According to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016), leading indicators measure the impact of
critical behaviors influencing Level 4, the desired result. Essentially, tracking leading indicators
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helps determine if critical behaviors positively impact organizational outcomes. Table 10
illustrates the proposed leading external and internal outcomes, metrics, and methods that
determine whether faculty is achieving the desired outcome. With training and one on one
organizational support, it is expected that internal outcomes will be achieved. It is projected that
external goals will be achieved as a result of accomplishing internal outcomes.
Table 10
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
Internal Outcomes
Increase awareness of
students’ needs and
academic abilities.
Student survey at the beginning of
semester to determine the number of
academic strengths and weaknesses.
Compare with mid-
course and final course
survey.
Increase opportunities for
students to apply
academic strategies
Weekly instruction and application of
academic tools.
Proficiency in classroom
assignments
Increase awareness of
students’ understanding of
campus resources
Frequency of student contact with
academic resources.
Solicit validated receipt
of attendance
Increase awareness of
students’ understanding of
transfer process.
Number of positive/negative responses
about level of understanding transfer
processes prior to transfer workshop.
Student survey after
workshop
Increase awareness of
cultural backgrounds of
students.
Semester assessment of cultural
competencies.
Self-assessment followed
by discussion between
faculty peers
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Improve relationships
with students.
Frequency of 1:1 conversations
between faculty and students.
Set aside regular time for
student-faculty
conversations.
External Outcomes
Increase retention of first-
year students
Collect annual persistence data from the
district
Compare annual college
data reports.
Level 3: Behavior
Critical behaviors. The stakeholders of focus are faculty instructors of the first-year seminar
class. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) define critical behaviors as specific and consistent on
the job actions that create the most significant impact on the desired results. As such, five critical
behaviors are impacting the goal of increased student retention. The first critical behavior is that
faculty will meet to assess students’ academic needs and abilities. Second, Faculty will solicit
ongoing feedback from students about their experiences with campus resources. Third, faculty
will discuss collaborative teaching strategies and determine best practices. Fourth, faculty will
demonstrate culturally responsive teaching to diverse student populations. Finally, faculty will
get to know students on an individual level and demonstrate a caring attitude toward students.
The specific metrics, methods, and timing of each outcome behavior appear in Table 11.
Table 11
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for New Reviewers
Critical Behaviors Metric(s) Method(s) Timing
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Faculty will meet to
assess students’
academic needs and
abilities.
The number of class
experiences students’
found most valuable to
improve academic abilities
Compare initial needs
assessment with mid-year
and end of the term survey
to determine if students
learned effective
academic strategies.
Meet three
times a
semester after
each survey at
weeks 2, 7, and
14.
Faculty will solicit
ongoing feedback
from students about
experiences with
campus resources
The number of student
contacts with support
services, types of resources
utilized, and if students’
needs were met.
Faculty will track
frequency of student
contact and experience
with support services.
Tracking
entered weekly
and faculty
will discuss
monthly.
Faculty will discuss
collaborative
teaching strategies
and determine best
practices.
The number of effective
and proven classroom
strategies
Faculty will share
feedback of classroom
implementation and
provide peer support.
Bi-weekly
during regular
staff meetings
Faculty will
demonstrate culturally
responsive teaching to
diverse student
population
The number of
positive/negative
responses regarding
cultural knowledge, skills,
awareness, and attitudes.
Compare survey results
with course design and
curriculum
Compare
annual reports
and plan to
redesign
Faculty will get to
know students on an
individual level and
demonstrate caring
attitude towards
students.
The number of student
centered activities that
facilitate dialogue, active
listening, positive
expectations, and
constructive feedback.
Faculty will share
classroom experiences,
feedback, and provide
peer support.
Bi-weekly
discussion
during regular
staff meetings
Required drivers. The application of critical behaviors hinges on supportive organizational
systems and processes. According to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016), organizational systems
that reinforce, monitor, encourage, and reward performance increase the likelihood of
successfully implementing critical behaviors on the job. Faculty does not currently know how to
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create collaborative and culturally inclusive learning environments. Therefore, faculty needs the
ongoing support of the administration to successfully apply and sustain the knowledge and skills
learned in training. The required drivers will provide the necessary support for faculty to apply
the knowledge and skills acquired in training to the classroom setting. Several required drivers
will be used to support instructional faculty; professional coaching, peer support, peer feedback,
and performance incentives. Progress toward desired goals will be monitored to establish
accountability.
Table 12
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing Critical Behaviors
Supported
Reinforcing
Provide training to faculty to develop culturally
responsive teaching
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Provide training to faculty on how to create collaborative
and supportive classrooms
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Encouraging
Peer support and feedback to create a professional
learning community
Bi-weekly 1, 2, 3
Feedback and coaching from training experts Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Rewarding
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Individual performance incentive for developing and
implementing innovative student centered activity
Semesterly
1, 2, 3
Public acknowledgement of positive student-faculty
interactions on final course evaluations
Semesterly 1, 2, 3
Monitoring
Supervisor can create opportunities at All-Hands
meetings to share success stories
Semesterly 1, 2, 3
Supervisor can ask participants to self-report their
confidence and self-efficacy in job-related tasks
Two months after
training
1, 2, 3
Organizational support. Success is contingent on organizational support. First, the
organization must establish an understanding of students’ needs for college success. Second, the
organization must provide comprehensive training to all first-year faculty to develop the
knowledge and skills needed to create a collaborative, inclusive, and culturally responsive
classroom. Finally, the organization must also provide time for ongoing faculty peer support and
feedback during regular staff meetings.
The time should be prioritized so that faculty will be able to develop a supportive,
professional learning community to share best practices and professional challenges on an
ongoing basis. Additional time is also needed for observation and feedback from professional
coaches. Furthermore, administrators will provide the results of student surveys, and share
classroom success stories to encourage faculty to engage in ongoing reflection regarding their
teaching strategies during bi-weekly staff meetings. The organization will also review annual
retention rates to determine the effectiveness of the first-year seminar class.
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Level 2: Learning
Learning goals. After completion of the recommended solutions, faculty must possess the
knowledge, skills, and attitudes to support the performance of critical behaviors. Once
implemented, faculty will be able to be to:
1. Evaluate students’ academic needs and abilities. (Conceptual)
2. Apply specific strategies to create student-centered and inclusive classrooms.
(Procedural)
3. Demonstrate proficiency in culturally responsive teaching practices. (Declarative)
4. Articulate confidence in faculty ability to meet students’ academic needs. (Self-efficacy)
5. Attribute individual effort to improved relationships with students (Attribution)
Program. Specific learning goals will be achieved through training and collaborative
activities, that will increase the knowledge, skills, and motivation of faculty to promote high
impact practices that support student retention. To promote faculty knowledge and skills, faculty
will be provided with professional training, expert coaching, information, and engage in peer
dialogue and feedback. Since faculties typically stay in their positions for several years, and
since adjunct faculty is hired annually, the program will be ongoing. Faculty will participate in
several types of training throughout the academic school year. Before training begins, student
surveys will be evaluated and their needs determined. To gain faculty buy-in at this phase,
feedback will also be solicited during staff meetings to gather ideas about their knowledge and
motivation to do the work.
An established training schedule occurs before the fall semester. However, there is no system
in place to measure the application of the trainings. The learning program will introduce the
necessary knowledge and skills along with a plan of evaluation. First, faculty will receive an in
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depth in-person two-day training before the start of the fall semester. This face-to-face training
will also provide opportunities for faculty to practice classroom strategies, evaluate knowledge,
and receive expert coaching followed by relevant feedback in a supportive environment. Also,
faculty will participate in topic-specific trainings related to social justice and student retention
throughout the academic school year where faculty will learn contextualized strategies to address
socioeconomic, race, culture, and gender barriers impacting student success. Next, faculty will
be provided ongoing opportunities during bi-weekly staff meetings to give and receive peer
feedback, discuss relevant scholarly articles, share best practices, and gain support.
Components of learning. Learning is established when individuals acquire, then apply
knowledge and skills to perform a task. According to the New World Kirkpatrick Model (2016),
there are five learning components: knowledge, skills, attitude, confidence, and commitment.
Similar to Clark and Estes’s Analysis framework (2008), the New World Kirkpatrick Model
(2016) also examines knowledge, skill, and motivational influences that impact performance.
Faculty needs to demonstrate factual and procedural knowledge to perform tasks while
maintaining the motivation toward the stated goals. Furthermore, faculty needs to attribute
increased student engagement to their efforts and self-efficacy in their ability to complete the
task. Table 13 illustrates the recommended evaluation method and time for each learning
component.
Table 13
Components of Learning for the Program
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
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Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”
Knowledge checks through discussions and other
individual/small group activities.
Throughout the training event.
Report out on table discussions Throughout the training event to ensure
that all attendees participate and report
out.
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”
Quality of the feedback from peers during group
sharing.
During the training event.
Apply instructional strategies to real life case studies
and receive peer feedback.
During bi-monthly staff meetings
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Pre and post test survey to determine if faculty believe
increased interactions will improve relationships with
students
Beginning and end of training
Discussions about the value of what they are being
asked to do in the classroom with student outcomes
During the workshop.
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”
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Survey items using Likert scaled items. After training event.
Discussions following practice and feedback.
During the workshop.
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”
Discussions following practice and feedback.
During the workshop.
Discussions with peers and feedback.
During bi-monthly staff meetings
Level 1: Reaction
Measuring faculty reactions is an essential step of the evaluation process. Reaction is the
degree that individuals find the training experience favorable and relevant to their work
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). According to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016), customer
satisfaction is vital because a correlation exists between a positive training experience and
learning. The trainer needs immediate and ongoing feedback about the learners’ experience to
evaluate customer satisfaction. Formative evaluation achieves this step through observation,
allowing real-time feedback so that the trainer can adjust the teaching approach to meet the
learner’s needs (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Table 14 represents the methods used to
determine reactions by the faculty and their level of engagement during training.
Table 14
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program
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Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
In-person observations During training event
Instructor pulse-check During training event
In-person training evaluation After training event
Relevance
Pulse check with faculty During training event
In-person training evaluation After training event
Customer Satisfaction
Pulse check with faculty During training event
In-person training evaluation After training event
Evaluation Tools
Immediately following the program implementation. Following the training, faculty
will complete a survey (see Appendix A). The survey will address participants’ attitudes,
commitment, satisfaction, relevance, and degree of confidence to apply the knowledge and skills
learned during the training. Also, a manager will act as a dedicated observer and fill out a
checklist during the training to record class dynamics and faculty engagement (see Appendix B).
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For Level 2, the instructor will conduct intermittent pulse-checks during the training. Pulse-
checks allow the instructor to receive immediate feedback for gauging the participants’
understanding of the material and level of engagement. Level 2 will also include knowledge
checks for understanding during discussions and small-group activities.
Delayed for a period after the program implementation. The program administrator
will survey faculty approximately four weeks after the implementation, and then again at eight
weeks. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) recommend a Blended Evaluation approach to
measure multiple training levels with one tool to maximize data and avoid exhausting
participants with several different surveys of the same event. The Blended Evaluation tool will
measure faculty satisfaction (Level 1), confidence to apply knowledge and skills resulting from
the training (Level 2), application of the training to classroom practices (Level 3), and the extent
to which they can incorporate instructional strategies in the classroom
Data Analysis and Reporting
According to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016), Level 4 (Results) is the degree to which
desired outcomes occur as a result of the training. The Level 4 goal for faculty is measured by
the faculty’s ability to implement strategies to build inclusive and collaborative classrooms that
support student retention. Faculty must have the knowledge, skills, and motivation to develop a
student-centered learning environment and apply critical teaching strategies to increase retention
rates of first-year students.
Each semester, the program administrator will collect data from student surveys then compare
the data with annual retention rates to determine if there has been an increase in first-year
retention. A dashboard will be created and updated each semester to monitor progress and
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 127
hold participants accountable. Similar dashboards will be created to monitor Levels, 1, 2, and 3.
Table 15 illustrates the type of dashboard that will be used.
Table 15
Data Analysis Dashboard
Dashboard Goal Fall 2018 Totals Spring 2019
Totals
2018-2019
Annual Totals
Faculty knows
how to create
student-
centered
classrooms.
100% XX XX XX
Faculty
implement
culturally
responsive
teaching
practices
100% XX XX XX
First-year
retention rates
100% XX XX XX
Summary
The New World Kirkpatrick Model (2016) informs the implementation and plan of evaluation
of this study. The four levels of training and evaluation measure the value of the training by
establishing whether targeted outcomes occur as a result of the learning event (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). Furthermore, the four levels of evaluation provide a logical framework to
evaluate reactions, learning, behavior, and results of the training event.
Essentially, the New World Kirkpatrick Model approach ensures that faculty gains the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational support to develop high-impact practices. In the
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 128
planning stages of a program, Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) recommend a reverse order,
beginning with Level 4 results. The first step is to identify desired outcomes that align with the
organizational mission and performance goals. Next, metrics and methods to measure targeted
outcomes are determined. Once established, the program pinpoints critical behaviors to
determine if participants apply what they learned in the training to the job. Also, learning goals
are established to gauge the extent that participants acquire the knowledge, skills, attitude,
confidence, and commitment as a result of the training. Lastly, participants’ reactions are
assessed through a variety of methods to determine training relevance, customer satisfaction, and
levels of engagement. One critical aspect of successful program implementation is incorporating
a system of ongoing data collection and evaluation of performance progress.
According to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016), formative evaluation methods provide
valuable information to the trainer so that the teaching approach or content can be adjusted to
meet the participant’s needs. For example, if faculty does not find the training relevant to the
scope of their job, the program would be changed accordingly to meet participants’
needs. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016), suggest incorporating pulse checks during the
training to receive feedback from participants to gauge relevance, engagement, and satisfaction.
Furthermore, participant engagement increases when participants’ feedback is addressed
immediately.
If the training does not meet the Level 3 (Behavior) expectations and the learners cannot
successfully apply what they have learned, it is important to communicate with participants to
uncover issues with required drivers and critical behaviors. According to Kirkpatrick and
Kirkpatrick (2016), success at Level 3, the application of new practices is the key to Level 4
results. The trainer can conduct interviews, focus groups, or surveys to determine what specific
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 129
behaviors would produce desired outcomes. When Level 3 behaviors meet expectations, it is
recommended to support improvement efforts with a system of monitoring, reinforcing,
encouraging, and rewarding (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Immediately following the training event, it is important to create a final report demonstrating
the value of the program. According to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016), a comprehensive
final report includes a recap of the purpose of the program and methodologies, along with Level
3 and Level 4 findings in a brief, graphical presentation. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) also
recommend presenting a balance of qualitative and quantitative data that address the relevance,
performance, and impact on targeted organizational results. The success of any training program
hinges on organizational support. To maximize results, Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) also
suggest initiating an on-the-job performance package to support organizational goals.
Conclusion
The first year is a period of significant transition for community college students. The
wide body of evidence suggests that the first-year of college is a critical time for students to
develop a strong academic identity and establish meaningful connections to the campus
environment ( Astin, 1984; Gardener et al., 2001; Kuh et al., 2006; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005;
Tinto, 1975, 1993, 1999). As such, this study sought to evaluate the extent that ABC College is
meeting its goal of increased retention based on the perceptions and needs of first-year
community college students. Many colleges address the goal of increased student retention by
offering first-year seminar courses to promote student success. A mainstay at most colleges
across the United States, first-year seminars provide strategies that promote academic and social
engagement with the ultimate goal of retaining students beyond the first year.
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 130
The most significant finding of this study is the influence of organizational conditions on
student success. The study revealed that organizational structures can either promote student
success or present barriers to student success. Classroom activities influenced students level of
engagement both academically and socially. Students benefited from engaging in educationally
purposeful activities that provided frequent opportunities to interact with faculty and peers. As a
result, positive interpersonal interactions had a profound effect on students’ sense of belonging to
the campus environment. Furthermore, the level of academic engagement had a positive
influence on learning, motivation, and overall student satisfaction. In contrast, less engaged
students expressed fewer positive feelings about college as a whole. The findings also indicated
that students were frustrated by the lack of understanding of how to navigate complex academic
pathways leading to transfer to a four-year university.
Understanding students’ needs is an essential step in planning and implementing effective
student success programs. Developing inclusive and engaging classrooms focused on the needs
of students is achieved through campus-wide collaboration. An organizational culture that
encourages and promotes deeper learning fosters students’ connections to the campus
environment and supports student retention efforts.
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 131
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FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 147
APPENDIX A: Training Evaluation
For each of the questions below, circle the response that best characterized how you feel
about each statement
Strongly
Disagree
Strongly
Agree
1. The training held my interest.
1111cv2 11 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2. During training we discussed how
to apply what was learned.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3. I will recommend this program to
other faculty.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
4. I believe it will be worthwhile for
me to build relationships with students
when I return to my job.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
5. The feedback has given me the
confidence to apply what I learned
when I return to my job.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6. I am committed to applying what I
learned during my discussions.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
7. I found the feedback during table
discussions useful.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8. I was satisfied with the training on
inclusive classrooms.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Please provide feedback for the following questions:
1. What part of the training did you find irrelevant for your training needs?
2. What were the major concepts you learned today?
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
FIRST-YEAR RETENTION 148
APPENDIX B: Supervisor’s Checklist
This is a checklist that supervisors and/or peers will use when observing faculty
during training sessions to rate the faculty’s skills and ability to apply classroom
strategies and connect with students.
Rating Scale
1 = Effective use of targeted behavior
2 = Moderately effective use of targeted behavior
3 = Ineffective use of targeted behavior
Feedback comments may include specific observations that will support the rating, as
well as feedback to help faculty be more effective when assessing students academic
needs, academic abilities, and apply classroom strategies
Target Behavior Rating Feedback Comments
Faculty connected with the student by
listening and validating the student’s
feelings.
Faculty asked open-ended questions
about students’ needs.
Faculty clarified with follow-up questions
about the students needs.
Faculty recommended the appropriate
resources based on the students’
responses.
Faculty worked collaboratively with the
student to resolve his/her academic
issues.
Faculty demonstrated cultural
competencies.
Abstract (if available)
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Characteristics that create a quality early learning center: An evaluation study
Asset Metadata
Creator
Freeman, Kristen
(author)
Core Title
First-year retention: Community college students -- a gap analysis
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)
Publication Date
07/29/2018
Defense Date
04/13/2018
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