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Factors contributing to outperformance in nontraditional urban schools: a case study of a public elementary school with a dual immersion program

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Factors contributing to outperformance in nontraditional urban schools: a case study of a public elementary school with a dual immersion program

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Content FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO OUTPERFORMANCE IN NONTRADITIONAL URBAN
SCHOOLS: A CASE STUDY OF A PUBLIC ELEMENTARY SCHOOL WITH A DUAL
IMMERSION PROGRAM

by

Natalie Berberian-Kontogiannis

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2018

Copyright 2018 Natalie Berberian-Kontogiannis

2
Dedication

This dissertation is dedicated to two very important people in my life without whom this
accomplishment would not be possible. First and foremost, I dedicate this to my mother. Mom,
you have instilled in me a love for education and teaching. You were my very first teacher and
someone I continue to learn from each and every day. The type of teacher I am to my own
students is modeled after what I have learned from you. Your guidance and constant belief in me
are what have gotten me through each challenging moment. I am the person I am today because
of your constant devotion and unconditional love. For that, I am forever grateful.
I also dedicate this dissertation to my husband, Nicholas. Nick, we have been by each
other’s side since we were teenagers. We have had the opportunity to watch each other grow up,
earn degrees, and choose our career paths. We have shared so many of life’s milestones together
and I know that there are so many more to come. Thank you for your constant support, patience,
humor, and love during this entire program and dissertation process. You are my strength and I
am so thankful for the person that you are.
Mom and Nicholas, you two mean the entire world to me.
I love you both from the bottom of my heart.
3
Acknowledgments
There are a number of people that I must acknowledge and thank for being a constant
source of support, guidance, and encouragement throughout my doctoral program at USC. First,
I would like to extend my deepest and sincerest gratitude to my dissertation chairs, Dr. Stuart
Gothold and Dr. Maria Ott. Being a part of this thematic dissertation group has been one of my
best experiences in this program and I thank you both for your constant support and leadership.
Dr. Gothold, I thank you for always setting clear expectations and sharing your personal
knowledge and experiences with us. Dr. Ott, you always encouraged me, while keeping me calm
and on track. Your kindness, patience, and constructive feedback helped me get to the finish line.
I also wish to thank Dr. Dennis Hocevar for sharing your time and expertise as a member of my
committee.
This journey would not have been the same without my Trojan family- Lucy Salazar,
Dan Kim, Dave Rynkiewicz, Victoria Reyes, Brenna McCarthy, and Sehvan Sherikian. Our
Wednesday night classes helped create a bond between us and I am thankful for your
camaraderie and support throughout the entire program. Congratulations to you all!
I especially must thank the members of my dissertation team, Sehvan and Brenna. Sehvan, I am
so glad I sat next to you on the first day of class. You have been a true friend and a partner
throughout these three years. Brenna, your sense of humor and support have been so helpful
throughout this entire process. I am proud to say that the education world is gaining two strong
female leaders!
It was the encouragement and care of my family and friends that helped me throughout
my most challenging moments. Thank you to my family for instilling in me the meaning of
4
perseverance and teaching me through their own actions what it means to work hard for
something you believe in.
To my closest friends who are more like sisters- Aleen, Areen, Datevig, and Cynthia. I
thank you from the bottom of my heart for listening to me, encouraging me, and believing in me
every step of the way. You helped me keep going when I thought I couldn’t do anymore.
Finally, I want to thank Takoush Khodabakshian for being my mentor in the field of
education. You have given me professional and personal advice on a daily basis and have
believed in me more than I often believed in myself. Thank you for your constant support and
guidance.

5
Table of Contents
List of Tables .......................................................................................................................7
List of Figures ......................................................................................................................8
Abstract ................................................................................................................................9
Chapter One: Overview of the Study .................................................................................10
Statement of the Problem .......................................................................................12
Purpose of the Study ..............................................................................................12
Significance of the Study .......................................................................................13
Methodology ..........................................................................................................14
Assumptions ...........................................................................................................15
Limitations .............................................................................................................16
Delimitations ..........................................................................................................16
Definition of Terms ................................................................................................16
Organization of the Study ......................................................................................21
Chapter Two: Literature Review .......................................................................................23
Background ............................................................................................................23
Historical Context ..................................................................................................34
The Rise of Nontraditional Schools .......................................................................45
Promising Practices ................................................................................................56
Critique of the Literature .......................................................................................77
Chapter Three: Research Methodology .............................................................................80
Research Design .....................................................................................................80
Research Development ..........................................................................................81
Conceptual Framework ..........................................................................................84
Population ..............................................................................................................85
Sample ....................................................................................................................88
Instrumentation ......................................................................................................89
Data Collection ......................................................................................................92
Data Analysis .........................................................................................................94
Validity and Credibility .........................................................................................95
Conclusion .............................................................................................................96
Chapter Four: Results ........................................................................................................97
Initial Impressions of Gold Elementary .................................................................97
Overview of Gold Elementary ...............................................................................99
Methodology ........................................................................................................102
Research Questions ..............................................................................................105
Data and Findings by Research Question ............................................................105
Emergent Themes ................................................................................................143
Summary ..............................................................................................................150
Chapter Five: Summary, Conclusions, and Implications .................................................151
Purpose, Significance, and Methodology ............................................................151
Discussion of Findings .........................................................................................152
Implications for Practice ......................................................................................160
Recommendations for Research ..........................................................................162
Conclusion ...........................................................................................................164
6
References ........................................................................................................................166
Appendix A: Survey Protocol ..........................................................................................178
Appendix B: Interview Protocol ......................................................................................183
Appendix C: Observation Protocol ..................................................................................187
Appendix D: Document Review Protocol .......................................................................190

7
List of Tables
Table 1: Educator Experience and Background ...............................................................101
Table 2: Survey Results for Collaboration .......................................................................115
Table 3: Types of Instructional Practices Used by Staff ..................................................119
Table 4: Survey Results for Learning Environment ........................................................119

8
List of Figures
Figure 1: Outperforming Nontraditional Urban School
Conceptual Framework .....................................................................................85
Figure 2: Gold Elementary California Dashboard ............................................................87

9
Abstract
Although there have been significant changes in educational practices and policies, many urban
schools still struggle to provide students with a high-quality education. However, there are some
nontraditional urban schools that are outperforming other urban schools with similar
demographics and low-socioeconomic characteristics. The purpose of this study was to identify
the factors that contribute to outperformance in a nontraditional urban school. Specifically, a
qualitative case study was conducted on an urban elementary school with a dual immersion
program. The research questions included: (1) What practices and programs are implemented in
an urban outperforming nontraditional school? (2) What are the leadership practices in an urban
outperforming nontraditional school? (3) What are the cultural norms in an urban outperforming
nontraditional school? Four data collection methods were used to uncover detailed information
about the promising practices, including a survey, interviews, observations, and document
analysis. The study identified five practices or programs aiding in the school’s outperformance.
This included a dual immersion program, a Professional Learning Community, the practice of
maximizing student achievement, setting clear student expectations, and the school’s dismissal
practice. The study also found three impactful leadership practices, which included building
relationships with all stakeholders, enhancing the teaching staff, and providing supportive
leadership. Lastly, the study identified three promising cultural norms, which included a warm
and welcoming school environment, a sense of belonging and school spirit, and a sense of
community. The three emergent themes, which were identified in the findings for each research
question were (a) putting relationships first (b) collaboration at all levels and (c) a sense of
community.

10
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Public schools across the United States are facing a crisis. Far too often, schools in urban
areas are unable to provide students with a high-quality education, which significantly influences
their academic growth and success (Barr & Parrett, 2007). Urban schools, which are typically
located in cities plagued by poverty, continue to serve a high number of low-income and
minority children (Jacob, 2007). Schools located in urban areas often lack funding and
resources, with high teacher turnover rates and conditions inadequate for both teaching and
learning (Mirra & Rogers, 2016). Additionally, in comparison to schools in suburban areas with
more socioeconomically advantaged students, schools located in urban areas have been found to
have lower achievement scores and higher dropout rates (Jacob, 2007). Research continues to
prove that the scope of poverty is far-reaching and can affect all aspects of a child's life,
especially the schools they attend and the education they receive (Parrett & Budge, 2012). Is this
nation content with providing only some students with a high-quality education, while limiting
the opportunities of others?
A high-quality education is an essential civil right that helps students, regardless of social
class, race, or gender, access economic prosperity and become contributing members of society
(Barr & Parrett, 2007). Although it is considered a guaranteed civil right today, public education
in the United States has had a long and turbulent history, wrought with struggles for both
equality and equity. Beginning in the 1960s, critics of the public education system began to
explore alternative options for educating students, since many were unhappy with the state of
public schools (Kim & Taylor, 2008). Some believed that public schools promoted inequality
and racism, while others felt that the structure of the education system had a one-size-fits-all
approach, not taking into consideration the different needs of students (Lange & Sletten, 2002;
11
Zeehandelaar & Northern, 2013). While various types of alternative schools began to appear in
the 1960s and 1970s, it was school choice programs in the 1990s that caused alternative
education to gain momentum (Kim & Taylor, 2008). Today, most school districts continue to
provide communities with K-12 schools that cater to general preferences and values rather than
programs that are more individualized and innovative (Zeehandelaar & Northern, 2013).
However, there are some schools that have begun to take a nontraditional approach to learning
by catering to the needs of different learners (Zeehandelaar & Northern, 2013). These alternative
programs have evolved to include a number of nontraditional schools in the public system, such
as magnets, charters, virtual schools, and dual immersion schools.
Although policymakers and educators have taken significant measures to ensure that all
students have access to a high-quality education, students in urban schools continue to face
adversity as little progress is made on rectifying the achievement gap. Without a high-quality
education, students will continue to face inequalities and may be unable to break the cycle of
poverty that impacts their access to resources. With the changing economic market placing a
greater focus on higher education and skills, it is clear that a quality education is related to a
more stable economic life (Barr & Parrett, 2007). While the data on high-poverty urban schools
can be disheartening, research in education has shown that schools and teachers both have the
ability to make a positive difference in the lives of students. High-performing schools can help
overcome the effects of poverty, while quality teachers can help significantly raise student
achievement levels (Barr & Parrett, 2007). Growing evidence shows that minority students and
those from low socioeconomic backgrounds learn effectively when research-based practices are
used in their schools and classrooms (Barr & Parrett, 2007). Many of these promising practices
have been identified through research and are being used to better understand the factors related
12
to a school’s outperformance. Many schools recognize the critical role they play in providing
students with an equitable and high-quality education, regardless of a student's background or
socioeconomic status. Through this recognition and effort, several schools have begun to
counter the effects of poverty and have become a model of academic success.
Statement of the Problem
Although there have been significant changes in education policies and practices
throughout the last several decades, many urban schools still struggle to provide their students
with high-quality educational experiences. Historically, students in high-poverty urban schools
have not performed well academically in comparison to students in affluent communities.
However, there are nontraditional urban schools with similar low-socioeconomic and
demographic characteristics that are outperforming traditional public schools. More needs to be
known about how these nontraditional outperforming schools are achieving excellence.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to identify the factors present in a nontraditional
outperforming urban K-12 school. Through a qualitative case study design, research questions
were created that helped uncover detailed and descriptive information about the promising
practices in nontraditional outperforming urban schools. Specifically, the research questions
focused on the practices and programs, leadership, and cultural norms present in one
nontraditional outperforming dual immersion school. The three variables of this study, practices
and programs, leadership, and cultural norms, were identified through the literature base and
have been the focus of the study. The questions were as followed:
1. What practices and programs are implemented in an urban outperforming nontraditional
school?
13
2. What are the leadership practices in an urban outperforming nontraditional school?
3. What are the cultural norms in an urban outperforming nontraditional school?
Significance of the Study
The United States has a moral responsibility to ensure that all students are receiving a
high-quality education, regardless of their race, ethnicity, gender, or socioeconomic status.
However, many high-poverty public schools have poor teaching and learning conditions, which
disproportionately impact students of color and those from low-socioeconomic backgrounds
(Parrett & Budge, 2012). Children who live in poverty may be the most dependent on enriching
school experiences and environments that foster learning, as they can help provide them with the
opportunities they need to succeed. There are many urban, outperforming nontraditional schools
that have been able to create learning environments that have led to student success. However,
the body of literature that focuses on outperforming nontraditional schools is limited, as most
research has focused solely on outperforming high-poverty schools.
This study is significant for two reasons. First, it examined an outperforming school
with a minority and low socioeconomic student population. The findings from this study may be
more beneficial and noteworthy than solely studying the practices of outperforming schools with
an affluent student population. Compared to students living in poverty, those from higher
socioeconomic backgrounds have greater access to support and academic resources to help them
succeed. Therefore, a higher socioeconomic status may serve as a confounding variable, making
it unclear whether the students are succeeding due to the practices of the school or due to the
benefits of their social class.
Second, this study focused on a school with a dual immersion program, which makes this
school nontraditional. Research continues to reveal the benefits of being both bilingual and
14
biliterate on a child’s cognitive development. This study was able to observe a successful dual
immersion school serving low-income children by thoroughly examining the programs and
practices, leadership practices, and cultural norms that have led to its outperformance.
Examining a school that is classified as urban and outperforming with a nontraditional
component can lead to rich data that provides insight into the formula for success.
The study’s findings are significant to school leaders, educators, policymakers, and
researchers. It is of particular importance to those interested in urban school performance and
dual immersion programs. Primarily, it is important for school leaders, as it helps them
understand what specific programs and leadership practices they may be able to implement in
their schools to help create positive results. It may also provide insight on how to start a
successful dual immersion program that is catered to the needs of the community. In addition to
school leaders, this study is significant for educators, as it provides promising classroom
practices that may be implemented in their settings. The findings are relevant to both
policymakers and researchers in the field of education, as well. Policymakers may value learning
more about the practices that lead to outperformance in urban schools, as well as the benefits of
starting more dual immersion programs in urban districts. Researchers can use the findings from
this study to continue to explore different avenues in relation to nontraditional urban schools.
Methodology
This study’s research design was a qualitative, descriptive case study of one
nontraditional urban school. Gold Elementary, which is a pseudonym, is a Title I school located
in Southern California and has been recognized as a Gold Ribbon school by the California
Department of Education. More information about the school and the selection criteria can be
found in the third chapter.
15
In order to collect data, the researcher conducted document analysis, interviews with
administrators and teachers, classroom observations, and staff surveys. The various forms of
data collection enabled the researcher to triangulate findings and provide rich descriptions of the
school environment. This study was one of eleven developed by a thematic dissertation
group. The group worked collectively to create one problem statement, a purpose of study,
research questions, and instrumentation tools. Although these items were created together, each
member of the group conducted their study individually at a different school site and wrote their
dissertation independently. The findings from this case study alone are not generalizable.
However, since this study is one of eleven in a thematic dissertation group, the findings from
each of these studies can be examined collectively to better understand the practices that help
students in urban nontraditional schools succeed. More information about the thematic group
approach can be found in the third chapter.
Assumptions
For this case study, the following assumptions were made:
• All participants had sufficient knowledge regarding the program and students at the
school site.
• The participants that were surveyed and interviewed gave open and honest responses.
• Data was accurately collected, recorded, analyzed, and represented.
• The data collection instruments were valid and credible indicators of the constructs that
were examined.
• The results of this study, as well as the other ten studies, can be applied or transferred to
other schools in the state of California.

16
Limitations
There were several limitations to this study, due to factors beyond the control of the
researcher:
• The study is not generalizable as it was a case study of one specific school.
• The study was limited to a specific number of willing participants who were interviewed,
observed, and surveyed.
• The study took place over a short period of time limiting the amount of information that
could be collected.
• The observations and interviews were limited to the perspective of one researcher.
• It is important to disclose that the researcher shared a similar ethnic background to many
of the students and staff, but exercised care to prevent potential bias.
Delimitations
The following were identified as the delimitations to this study:
• The study was confined to one urban outperforming school which was not selected at
random.
• The study’s participants were limited to adults and did not include students.
• The thematic dissertation group determined the criteria for school selection.
• The researcher selected the dates for school site visits and observations.
• The data collection instruments focused on the research questions.
Definition of Terms
The following terms were operationally defined for the purpose of this study.
• Achievement gap: A consistent difference in scores on student achievement tests between
certain groups of children. There is a strong association between poverty and a lack of
17
academic success. Although the reasons behind the achievement gap are multifaceted and
are believed to be partly due to the factors that children bring with them to school, the gap is
mostly contributed to students’ school experiences (Achievement gap, n.d.).
• Alternative School: In the broadest sense, alternative schools can be defined as education
that falls outside the traditional K-12 programs (Aron, 2006). It can also be defined as an
educational setting designed to accommodate the behavioral, educational, and/or medical
needs of children that cannot be accommodated in a traditional school (Alternative school,
n.d.).
• Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Perspective: A theory of child development developed by
Urie Bronfenbrenner which helps explain how things in a child’s environment affect growth
and development. It is based on a series of nesting structures known as the microsystem,
mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem. The four levels range from direct interactions to
general cultural beliefs, all of which have an impact on development (Miller, 2011).
• Charter School: Public schools that accept state and local funds, but are free from the
bureaucratic regulations of traditional public schools. Charter schools operate within the
public school system under contracts or charters, but are legally and fiscally autonomous
entities (Poetter & Knight-Abowitz, 2001).
• Clear and Shared Focus: Developed from common beliefs and values and is used to create
a consistent direction for all that are involved (Shannon & Bylsma, 2007).
• Collaborative Learning: An umbrella term for a variety of educational approaches in which
students and/or teachers join intellectual efforts. In collaborative learning environments, the
student is the focus of instruction and interaction is of primary importance (Barkley, Cross, &
Major, 2014).
18
• Cross-Cultural Competency: The knowledge and skills that help individuals adapt in
different environments (Brooke-Garza, 2013).
• Culturally Relevant Pedagogy: A pedagogy that empowers students intellectually, socially,
and emotionally using cultural referents to impart skills and knowledge (Ladson-Billings,
2009).
• Curriculum: The subject matter through which students are expected to gain skills and
knowledge. It includes principles, concepts, theories, and organizational frameworks that
can be taught using textbooks or other instructional materials (Shannon & Bylsma, 2007).
• Differentiated Instruction: Instruction strategies used to meet the needs of all students by
differentiated content, process, and product for different learners in the classroom (Levy,
2008).
• Distributed Leadership: A theory of leadership that emphasizes the need to share or
distribute leadership functions amongst individuals (Masumoto & Brown-Welty, 2009).
• Dual Immersion School: Schools in which students are taught literacy and academic content
in English and a partner language. Students are expected to develop high levels of language
proficiency and literacy in both languages, to demonstrate high levels of academic
achievement, and to develop an appreciation for and an understanding of diverse cultures
(Two-way immersion, n.d.).
o Partial Immersion: A program in which 50% of subjects are taught in the foreign
language.
o Total Immersion Program: A program in which all or almost all of the subjects are
taught in the foreign language.
19
o Two-way Immersion: A program that gives equal emphasis to both English and the
foreign language.
• Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1965): A landmark policy originally signed
into law by President Lyndon Johnson in 1965 that aimed to create equal access and
treatment for minority and poor students through a variety of compensatory programs, such
as Title I (Barr & Parrett, 2007).
• Every Student Succeeds Act (2015): A law passed in 2015 by President Barack Obama
which reauthorized the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965. ESSA replaced
and made many improvements to NCLB and focused on preparing all students for success in
college and careers (US Department of Education, 2015).
• High-Expectations: Any efforts to set equivalent high educational standards for all students
in a classroom, school, or education system and are based on the pedagogical belief that
failing to hold all students to the same high expectations denies them access to a high-quality
education (High expectations, 2013).
• Instructional Framework: A shared set of instructional principles that provides a focus to
ensure that teachers collectively understand not only the curriculum, but also powerful
instructional practices that impact achievement (Shannon & Bylsma, 2007).
• Instructional Leadership: A theory of leadership that focuses on the leader's influence on
student achievement (Masumoto & Brown-Welty, 2009). This type of leadership focuses
less on management and more on teaching practices, curriculum, and student performance
(Steagall, 2012; Masumoto & Brown-Welty, 2009).
• Magnet School: Schools that differ in their educational approaches and focus on particular
academic subjects to attract students (Poetter & Knight-Abowitz, 2001). They can
20
concentrate on visual and performing arts, mathematics, language, science, technology, or
music. They may also have unique types of instructional methods, such as the Montessori
approach or an international baccalaureate approach (Vopat, 2011).
• Multidimensional Instructional Practices: Instructional practices that involve multiple
teaching modalities and frequently incorporate collaborative learning opportunities (Weekes,
2016).
• No Child Left Behind (2001): A federal program enacted by President George W. Bush in
2001 that reauthorized ESEA and was meant to improve all of the nation's elementary and
secondary schools while ensuring students were not being trapped in failing schools. The
program provided funds for educationally disadvantaged students and increased
accountability measures for states, school districts, and schools (No Child Left Behind, n.d.)
• Nontraditional Schools: Schools that provide alternative options for students. For the
purpose of this study and as specific selection criteria, nontraditional schools were defined to
include charter schools, magnet schools, specific high schools, alternative schools, online
education schools, independent schools, and dual immersion schools.
• Poverty: Defined by the federal government as a certain level of income relative to family
size (Parrett & Budge, 2012).
• School Choice: Term used to describe the right parents have to send their children to the
school of their choice (School choice, n.d.). Although considered to be highly controversial,
the goal of school choice has been to provide disadvantaged students the opportunity to
attend higher-performing schools, as well as to pressure poorly-rated schools to improve
through the threat of losing their student population (Hastings, Kane, & Staiger, 2009).
21
• School-Within-a-School: Schools that create school cultures and identities outside the larger
school community in which they exist (Poetter & Knight-Abowitz, 2001). Schools-within-
schools are smaller learning communities within existing large buildings, which often focus
on specific career topics (Eccles & Roeser, 2011).
• Traditional Schools: Public schools with general education practices that focus on mastery
of core subjects, such as reading, writing, math, and science. Traditional schools are most
often governed by school districts and divided by grade level (Huson, n.d.).
• Urban School: Urban schools are high-poverty schools serving low-income, minority
children. By definition, urban schools are located in large central cities with communities
often characterized by high rates of poverty (Jacob, 2007). For the purpose of this study and
as specific selection criteria, urban schools could be defined by the low socioeconomic status
of students, having ethnic diversity, and a limited number of resources.
• Virtual School: An educational environment that offers K-12 courses, as well as other
learning activities mostly or entirely through distance technologies (Roblyer, 2008).
• Vision (also known as school mission): A vivid and detailed description of how an
organization would appear if it accomplished its purpose (Shannon & Blysma, 2007).
Organization of the Study
This study is divided into five chapters. The first chapter has provided an overview of
the study by introducing the background of the problem, as well as what the study aimed to
uncover. It reviewed the purpose and significance of the study, the research questions,
methodology, assumptions, limitations, delimitations, and a definition of terms used throughout
the study. The second chapter presents a review of pertinent literature. It begins by introducing
the reader to the impact poverty plays in urban schools and presents a historical review of public
22
education by examining relevant education laws, policies, and court cases that have occurred in
America's legislative history. It then examines the rise of nontraditional schools and defines the
most common types, such as charters, magnets, and dual immersion schools. Finally, it
examines some promising practices in outperforming high-poverty and nontraditional schools by
focusing on impactful school-wide practices, as well as the individual practices of both teachers
and leaders. The third chapter describes the methodology used in this qualitative case study,
including the thematic group structure, research questions, instrumentation, sample, and
population. Additionally, it presents the data collection and analysis methods, as well as the
possible threats to the study’s validity and credibility. The fourth chapter presents the findings of
the study and offers a rich description of the school site. Finally, chapter five concludes with the
analysis of the findings, as well as the significance and implications for practice.

23
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
The purpose of the following chapter is twofold. First, it will examine the current
educational crisis that students in high-poverty urban schools face. Second, it will review past
literature to identify promising practices found in nontraditional urban schools. Historically,
students in high-poverty urban schools have not performed well academically in comparison to
students in affluent communities. However, there are nontraditional urban schools with similar
low socioeconomic and demographic characteristics that are outperforming traditional public
schools. More needs to be known about how these nontraditional outperforming schools are
achieving excellence. This study aimed to identify the factors present in a nontraditional
outperforming urban K-12 school.
The chapter will begin by defining the terms urban school and poverty individually and
will then present data that identifies the impact of poverty in urban schools, especially on low-
income and minority populations. It will be utilizing an ecological perspective to provide a
thorough description of the impact poverty plays in children's lives. Then, in order to provide a
picture of the American education system, the chapter will present a historical overview of
traditional public schools and the tumultuous milestone events that have occurred over time
impacting minority populations. Finally, it will identify various types of nontraditional schools
that were created over the last several decades and present an overview of promising practices
being implemented by outperforming nontraditional schools.
Background
The Nature of the Problem
There is an educational crisis being encountered in hundreds of urban K-12 schools in
this nation. Schools serving inner-city youth are struggling with low achievement rates, high
24
dropout rates, transiency among both students and teachers, inexperienced staff, and a lack of
positive school culture (Parrett & Budge, 2012). Is this country content with the alarming
statistics that prove the nation's youth are not receiving the high-quality education they deserve?
Before evaluating the nature of the problem facing many underperforming K-12 urban schools, it
is important to understand the critical factors that help define urban schools and how poverty
plays a role.
Urban schools. Urban schools are high-poverty schools serving low-income, minority
children. According to Jacob (2007), by definition, urban schools are located in large central
cities with communities often characterized by high rates of poverty. Almost 20% of American
children, which is about nine million students, attend urban schools. Schools with the poorest
students in America are characterized by having high rates of poverty, greater minority
populations, low academic performance, and variation in resources (Berliner, 2013). The impact
of poverty is seen in urban schools and it cannot be ignored.
Poverty. The scope of poverty is far-reaching and affects all aspects of a child's life,
including but not limited to housing, healthcare, employment, community support, and
education. One cannot examine urban schools without acknowledging the far-reaching effects
poverty plays. When discussing urban schools, it is important to include the larger social and
political context, since socioeconomic forces have the ability to shape the communities in which
these students live and the schools they attend (Mirra & Rogers, 2016).
Poverty is defined by the federal government as a certain level of income relative to
family size (Parrett & Budge, 2012). According to the current population report by the U.S.
Census Bureau, if a family’s total money income is less than the applicable threshold, then every
person in that family is considered to be living in poverty (Proctor, Semega, & Kollar, 2016).
25
The official poverty line is updated annually to reflect inflation using the Consumer Price Index.
For example, the 2015 federal poverty threshold (FPT) was $18,871 for a family of three people
and $24,257 for a family of four (Proctor, Semega, & Kollar, 2016). However, Cauthen and Fass
(2008) state that families would need an income of at least twice the federal poverty threshold to
meet basic needs. Additionally, in high-cost cities, such as New York City and Los Angeles, it
may take an income that is three-times the FTP to make ends meet (Cauthen & Fass, 2008).
Childhood poverty rates are higher in the United States than in any other industrialized
country (Parrett & Budge, 2012). According to the National Center for Children in Poverty
(2013), children under 18 represent 23% of the population in the U.S. but comprise 32% of all
people living in poverty (as cited in Jiang, Ekono, & Skinner, 2013). Many more children live in
families that have incomes just above the poverty threshold. Among all children under 18 years
old, 44%, or 31.4 million, live in low-income households. Additionally, approximately one in
every five children, which is 21% or 15.4 million, live in low-income families (Jiang, Ekono, &
Skinner, 2013). These statistics help distinguish low-income and poor children from their more
advantaged counterparts.
Statistics also help determine poverty level by race and parents' nativity. Research
indicates that Black, Native American, and Hispanic children are disproportionately considered
low-income and poor (Jiang, Ekono, & Skinner, 2013). According to these statistics, 65% of
black children and both 62% of Native American and Hispanic children live in low-income
families. Additionally, 54% of immigrant parents live in low-income households, while only
40% of children with native-born parents live in low-income households (Jiang, Ekono, &
Skinner, 2013). These data reveal that a disproportionate number of children are forced to deal
with the implications of both a minority and low socioeconomic status.
26
Ecological perspective. To thoroughly understand the gravity and importance of the
problem discussed above, an ecological perspective can be utilized to theoretically frame the
impact of poverty on student learning and success. According to Bronfenbrenner's ecological
systems theory, an individual's context can be viewed as a set of nesting structures. The four
levels, microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem, range from direct interactions to
general cultural beliefs, all of which interact to impact development (as cited in Miller, 2011).
For example, a child's relationships and interactions at school, in their home, and in their
neighborhood reside in the context of their microsystem. Poverty and the inequalities that
accompany a low-socioeconomic status may be stemming from the overarching macrosystem.
However, the effects of poverty have the power to trickle down to a child's closest setting,
impacting almost all their relationships and the quality of their schools, home life, and
community in which they reside (Mirra & Rogers, 2016). Poverty can shape one's view of their
self and others and can affect many of the basic necessities that people from middle and upper-
class families take for granted (Parrett & Budge, 2012). It is beneficial to utilize the ecological
systems theory when addressing the gap between underperforming and outperforming urban
schools. Leaders in education must be able to understand the multiple variables that coalesce
and play a role in a child's ecological system. It is only then that they will truly understand the
context in which these urban schools and students thrive and be better able to implement the
practices that lead to success.
Poverty and urban schools. Now that both urban schools and poverty have been
defined individually and described through an ecological systems lens, this section will present
data on poverty in urban schools and the characteristics that may help distinguish urban schools
from others. Schools may use different terms or labels to identify students living in poverty,
27
such as low-income, free or reduced-price lunch eligible, Title I eligible, economically
disadvantaged, or low socioeconomic status. However, many define a school's poverty level by
the percentage of students that qualify for the free and reduced-price meal program (Parrett &
Budge, 2012). According to Kena et al. (2016), high-poverty schools, in which 75% of students
or more qualify for free or reduced-price lunch, accounted for 25% of all public schools in 2013-
2014. Additionally, data indicate that 56% of students in central cities participate in free lunch
programs (Jacob, 2007).
In 2014, Kena et al. (2016) found that 24% of traditional public schools were considered
high-poverty. While all schools are different, research has indicated many common
characteristics that distinguish urban schools from their suburban counterparts. These features
include, but are not limited to: (a) similar student populations consisting of a majority of low-
income and minority students, (b) low achievement quantified by low graduation rates, (c) higher
dropout rates, (d) differences in funding, (e) varying teacher quality with high teacher turnover,
and (f) insufficient conditions for teaching and learning.
First, the demographic makeup of urban schools differs from other schools. Urban
districts have large shares of poor and minority students and educate many of the nation's
immigrant children (Jacob, 2007). In 2012-2013, a higher percentage of Black, Hispanic, and
Native American/Alaska Native students attended high-poverty schools compared to students
who identified themselves as Pacific Islander, Asian, White, or two or more races (Kena et al.,
2016). Low-income students and students of color tend to be overrepresented in America's
lowest-performing schools. The U.S. cannot be a nation of equal opportunity when so many
schools under-serve such a large number of minority students (Cardichon & Lovell, 2015).
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In addition to a higher minority and low-income student population, many urban schools
can also be characterized as having lower achievement. Research indicates that urban students
score lower on standardized achievement exams than their counterparts (Jacob, 2007). They also
tend to be impacted by low graduation rates and higher dropout rates. Overall, the nation has
crossed the 80% high school graduation rate threshold (Cardichon & Lovell, 2015). However,
the data reveal that many large cities with high concentrations of low-income students have
graduation rates in the 50s and 60s (Cardichon & Lovell, 2015). More than 1,200 high-schools,
serving more than 1.1 million students, still fail to graduate one-third or more of their students
each year. These low-graduation-rate high-schools primarily educate low-income students and
students of color (Cardichon & Lovell, 2015).
There are 1,235 high schools with a 4-year adjusted cohort graduation rate (ACGR) at or
below 67% (Cardichon & Lovell, 2015). These high schools predominantly and
disproportionately enroll traditionally underserved students, where 40% are African American,
and 70% are from low-income families. These data are concerning since African Americans
only make up 15.7 % of the overall K-12 public school student population, while low-income
families make up 50% (Cardichon & Lovell, 2015). However, according to Balfanz et al.
(2014), there has been a 15% increase in graduation rates for Hispanic students and a 9%
increase for African Americans since 2006. Although there are significant improvements in
graduation rates for the first time in history, these minority populations have the farthest to go
compared to white students. While there is a 76% graduation rate for Hispanics and a 68%
graduation rate for African Americans, the graduation rate for whites is still 85% (Balfanz et al.,
2014).
29
Urban and suburban schools also differ from each other regarding the financial resources
available to students and teachers (Jacob, 2007). These schools are funded differently than the
schools attended by students with wealthier parents. According to Jacob (2007), 48% of high-
poverty schools receive less money in their local school districts than do low poverty schools. A
study done for the Department of Education by Heuer and Stullich (2011) examined the extent to
which state and local expenditures were equitably distributed across schools within districts.
After controlling for grade level, they found that 42-46% of Title I schools had per-pupil
personnel expenditure levels that were below their district's average for non-Title I schools in the
same grade level. Additionally, they found that 19-24% were more than 10% below the non-
Title I school average. Patterns were also found when comparing higher-poverty and lower-
poverty schools within districts. At the elementary level, 42% of higher-poverty schools had
per-pupil personnel expenditure levels that were below their district's average for lower-poverty
elementary schools.
Another factor present in urban schools is the challenge of staffing highly qualified
teachers and their frequent turnover rates. Although some mobility and turnover are expected,
high turnover rates create grave problems for schools, such as a discontinuity in professional
development, loss of teacher leadership, and shortages in the major subjects (Allensworth,
Ponisciak, & Mazzeo, 2009). Research over the years has shown that turnover is a problematic
phenomenon that persists especially in poorer, lower performing schools and that many teachers
choose to leave in order to work in wealthier, higher-performing schools (Ingersoll, 2004;
Alliance for Excellent Education, 2008). Kena et al. (2016) reported that 70% of teachers who
moved did so voluntarily and that the most common reason they noted for their move was both
personal life and school factors. Additionally, Ingersoll (2004) pointed out that moving to other
30
schools was found to be not only due to lower salaries, but also dissatisfaction with inadequate
support from school administration, discipline problems, and limited faculty input.
The high rates of turnover in high-poverty schools make them more likely to end up with
a greater number of underqualified teachers who are often found to be less experienced and less
effective than teachers in suburban schools (Ingersoll, 2004). Students not only lose the value of
being taught by experienced and effective teachers, but the districts and schools are faced with
the costly task of recruiting and training new teachers (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2008).
According to the Alliance for Excellent Education (2008), the National Commission on Teaching
and America's Future (NCTAF) found that urban schools spend a considerable amount more than
non-urban schools to hire, recruit, and train replacement teachers. Data from 2008 showed that
urban schools spent $70,000 a year on costs related to teacher transfers compared to the $33,000
spent in non-urban schools. Additionally, the district office was estimated to spend about $8,750
on every teacher that left the district, while non-urban districts spent only $6,250.
While costly for the districts and schools, the students are the ones most impacted by the
instability in staffing. Research has suggested that low-income students may be most in need of
teacher support and stability. Since urban school districts have a harder time with staffing, this
may mean that students are being taught by teachers with less educational background,
experience, and certification than their suburban counterparts (Jacob, 2007; Downey, Von
Hippel, & Hughes, 2008). For example, in Chicago public schools, those that serve
predominantly low-income African American students have lower stability rates than those
schools serving other races and ethnicities. Schools with chronically low teacher stability have
shown very low levels of student achievement (Allensworth, Ponisciak, & Mazzeo, 2009). Low-
31
performance rates for minority students in high-poverty schools may suggest that the students in
most need are those being most negatively affected.
Finally, high-poverty schools must not only deal with staffing instability but are also
subjected to insufficient conditions for teaching and learning. Inequality impacts teacher time
and student learning in urban schools. Mirra and Rogers (2016) found that teachers in high-
poverty schools must deal with many difficult circumstances related to student stressors,
teaching and learning conditions, and accountability pressures. These conditions faced by
teachers working in high-poverty schools reduce the amount of instructional time they have
available to them. Mirra and Rogers (2016) also conducted a survey of teachers working in both
urban and non-urban schools and found that economic and social stressors caused by living in
poverty make it difficult for their students to focus in class. Many students were likely to miss
class due to these demands or stressors.
In addition to economic and social stressors, Mirra and Rogers (2016) found that teachers
in high-poverty schools were more likely to report inadequate infrastructures as having an
adverse effect on learning. Inadequate infrastructures included dirty and noisy classrooms,
insufficient access to the school library or computers, and a lack of qualified substitutes.
Teachers in high-poverty schools also reported twice as many days on average with instruction
devoted wholly to mandated tests. Although large class sizes are not restricted to high-poverty
schools, it is another condition that continues to reduce the amount and quality of instructional
time (Mirra & Rogers, 2016).
Importance of the Problem
To review, students living in poverty or low-income families are left to deal with many
stressors that stem from social and economic inequalities (Mirra & Rogers, 2016). The
32
neighborhoods they reside in and the schools they attend often lack sufficient conditions to
support them in receiving a quality and equitable education. These students may be forced to
attend institutions that lack financial or material resources, are faced with staffing instability,
have less experienced teachers that are not professionally prepared to help them achieve, and
have overall low school achievement rates. These factors all coalesce to create gaps in not only
their education but in their ability to become successful citizens.
This gap must be addressed because all students deserve a quality education regardless of
their socioeconomic background or minority status. Since such a high percentage of public
schools are considered to be high-poverty and have been shown to have insufficient teaching and
learning conditions, action must be taken to ensure the success of these students (Parrett &
Budge, 2012). Most importantly, school leaders must keep in mind the impact poverty has on
learning and how if left unaddressed, can lead to the continuation of a cycle of poverty.
Research shows that poverty continues to be related to lower levels of student learning
(Petrilli & Wright, 2016). Additionally, children from low-income families tend to have less
financial resources that help parents afford access to tutors, educational games, summer camps,
afterschool activities, and other educational experiences that middle-and upper-class students
have access to. Schools and leaders must not only understand the impact poverty has on
learning, but must acknowledge that they have the power to make a difference in the lives and
academic outcomes of their students living in poverty (McGee, 2004).
Children who live in poverty are just as worthy to not only attend good schools, but to
receive a quality education (Parrett & Budge, 2012). However, if left unaddressed, schools can
aid in the continuance of a cycle of poverty, which can have detrimental effects on students’
economic outcomes and the state of the nation. Statistical data indicates that people who do not
33
complete school are more likely to continue the cycle of poverty. According to Kena et al.
(2016), in 2015, there was a higher percentage of young adults from low-income families
between the ages of 18 to19 that were neither enrolled in school or working. This same pattern
was seen for adults aged 20 to 24. Young adults who are neither working nor enrolled in school
face limited prospects and are detached from the core activities of schooling and work, which
play a major role in one's transition from adolescence to adulthood (Kena et al., 2016). If lasting
a couple of years, this hinders their ability to build a work history that contributes to higher
wages and employability (Kena et al., 2016).
These data reveal the importance of receiving a strong educational foundation to be able
to pursue higher education or professional careers that can help low-income students break their
cycle of poverty. Parrett and Budge (2012) state that without such an education, many are
excluded from what is foundational to a democratic society- the opportunity to become
responsible citizens, to contribute to one’s economic well-being for one’s family and community,
and to enjoy productive and satisfying lives. Indeed, a high-quality education has become so
vital that it is viewed by many as a civil rights issue of this generation.
Break the Mold Schools
There are a number of urban schools across the United States that have recognized their
responsibility in providing students with an equitable and high-quality education regardless of
students' background or socioeconomic status. High-poverty, yet high-achieving schools have
begun to counter the effects of poverty and reverse long-standing traditions of low achievement
and high dropout rates. They have started to "break the mold" and outperform traditional public
schools with similar low socioeconomic and demographic characteristics. More must be known
about the practices that have helped these nontraditional schools outperform traditional urban
34
schools. To do so, educational leaders must not only understand the factors and characteristics
of urban schools, but must be prepared to critically inquire what factors or practices these
outperforming schools are employing that are leading to success. Andres Alonso, former CEO
of Baltimore City Public Schools, has said, "The work of improving schools is about thinking
...and asking questions" (pg. 1; as cited in Parrett & Budge, 2012).
Before examining the practices of nontraditional outperforming schools, the following
section will review the history of education in America with a focus on the often turbulent events
impacting minorities. A review of the history will help create a more encompassing view of the
education system and the factors leading to the rise of nontraditional schools.
Historical Context
In order to have a better understanding of the current state of the nation in regards to their
values and goals for public education, it is critical to examine milestone events that clearly depict
the changing face of education. This section will review events starting from the 17th century to
the present day and will highlight a few relevant education laws, policies, and court cases that
have occurred in America's legislative history. A closer look at these events reflects not only
what was taking place in the socio-political context at the time, but also reveals the Supreme
Court's involvement in public education over the years. When discussing history, Itzkoff (1962)
once said, "History, then, is a continuing and unending dialogue between the present and the
past…" (p.132). It is therefore beneficial to review history as it provides an all-encompassing
view of the nation's changing views on education.
17th-18th Century
Starting in the 17th century, education served quite a different purpose than it does in the
present day. In the colonial era, the primary purpose of education was to promote religiosity
35
(Singer, 2015). Since formal schooling was not widely available, most education was received
in the home and included learning how to read and write (American Public Education, 2013).
When early American colonists began to recognize that homeschooling would not be enough,
they began to establish a few public schools in the early 1600s. The year 1635 marked the
establishment of the first known public school, the Boston Latin School (American Public
Education, 2013). In 1647, Massachusetts passed the Law of 1647, also known as the Deluder
Satan Act, which required that towns of fifty families hire a schoolmaster to teach their children
to read and write. Once the number of people in the town surpassed 100, they were required to
establish a grammar school to educate all the town’s children (The Old Deluder Act (1647),
n.d.). This law shifted the responsibility of teaching children from the parents to the local
community. The education method used at the time was known as the "Lancasterian" model,
which was a system in which all children, regardless of age, were taught in a single room by one
teacher or master. It was then the responsibility of the older students to pass down the lessons to
the younger students (American Public Education, 2013).
19th Century
The 1800s brought many reforms to public education. Horace Mann, who was an
educational reformer and politician, became Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education
in 1837 and was responsible for the many changes that occurred at the time (Barr & Parrett,
2007). The most notable changes included the standardization of school curriculum in 1837 to
ensure that all children received a high-quality education from any school they
attended. Additionally, instead of the Lancasterian model, Mann introduced the idea of
separating and instructing students by age level in 1848 (American Public Education, 2013).
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Beginning in the mid-1800s, states began to enact a number of policies that would
provide "universal" elementary public education for all children. This began in the state of
Massachusetts and slowly scattered to the other states over time (Barr & Parrett, 2007). As
schools began to improve, reformers wanted to ensure that all eligible children were enrolled.
Starting in 1852, compulsory attendance laws were passed, and by 1918, each of the then 48
states had adopted this law to ensure compulsory attendance through elementary school
(American Public Education, 2013). Although these policies were meant to establish access to
education, most children were unable to participate (Barr & Parrett, 2007).
The subset of the population most disparately impacted by this were the African
Americans. Although the Civil War had ended in 1865 and abolished slavery, Jim Crow laws in
the southern states continued to enforce segregation and restricted African Americans from
living in a fully integrated society (Barr & Parrett, 2007). Because of these laws, African
Americans were denied open housing, were forced to live in segregated and poor communities,
and were given restricted access to public areas and services. Most notably, the children were
unable to receive a quality education in an integrated school system (Barr & Parrett, 2007).
The 1896 landmark Supreme Court case, Plessy v. Ferguson, upheld state racial
segregation laws under the doctrine “separate but equal” (Kauper, 1954). The state of Louisiana
had enacted a law six years prior that allowed for separate railway carriages for whites and
African Americans. This prior decision of the Court upheld Louisiana’s right to make
classifications based on race and provide separate things for African Americans, such as waiting
rooms, railways, buses, and public water fountains (Groves, 1951). Most importantly, it allowed
for dual systems in education as long as they were considered to be "equal." Groves (1951) said,
37
while the school buildings for Negroes need not match brick for brick those maintained
for white children, the per capita expenditures for the education of children of the two
races must not be so disproportionate as to offend the sense of the just and fair-of the
‘reasonable’ (p.68).
Laws such as this continued to promote segregation and the many injustices that denied all
children the right to an equal education.
20th Century
At the end of the 19th century and into the 20th, the nation saw the rise of the Progressive
Era. This movement aimed to address a number of social injustices and inequalities through
education reform (American Public Education, 2013). The 20th century is also known for a
number of Supreme Court cases and policies that significantly impacted education in the United
States. The following section will be divided into subsections to differentiate the milestone
events and cases in several decades of the 20th century.
The 1950s. In 1954, the Supreme Court ruled that segregated schools were “inherently
unequal” in the landmark Brown v. Board of Education case (Reber, 2005). This case ruled
against Plessy v. Ferguson and found that racial segregation maintained by the states deprived
minority groups of equal educational opportunities, denying them protection under the
Fourteenth Amendment (Kauper,1954). The ruling emphasized the importance of equal
educational opportunities for all students (Ryan, 2000). As a result, schools around the country
were ordered to desegregate, although little progress was made for over a decade (Reber,
2005). The first generation of desegregation plans in the late 1950s and early 1960s minimally
reduced segregation, as the changes were superficial. It was typical to just move a handful of
38
African American students to white schools or allow for “voluntary transfers” to different
schools (Reber, 2005).
Although the ruling in Brown v. Board of Education declared school segregation to be
unconstitutional, many districts across the nation were not quick to accept the change. In 1957, a
group of nine African American students were allowed to enroll in an all-white high school in
Little Rock, Arkansas. Although the federal courts ordered for integration, the governor sent the
National Guard to physically prevent the students from enrolling. Federal troops were called to
protect the students as they were met with a large opposition by the community and subjected to
verbal and physical harassment (Barr & Parrett, 2007).
The 1960s. Major strides in education continued to be made in the 1960s during Lyndon
Johnson's presidency. Soon after becoming President, he launched his War on Poverty and
passed the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) (Barr & Parrett, 2007). ESEA was
a landmark policy that aimed to create equal access and treatment for minority and poor students
through a variety of compensatory programs, such as Title I (Barr & Parrett, 2007). Through
programs like Title I, more funding and resources were allocated to schools with higher
percentages of low-income students (Barr & Parrett, 2007). This monumental policy helped
push equity and educational opportunities to the forefront of the nation's political agenda.
The 1970s. Following the legislation of ESEA, two more policies were enacted in the
1970s that promoted equal educational opportunities. The first was Title IX, which was added to
ESEA in 1972, and ensured equal treatment of female students in public education (Barr &
Parrett, 2007). It prohibited discrimination based on gender and called for the realignment of
education programs and funding to help support young women (Barr & Parrett, 2007). The
second policy contributed to the creation of equal opportunities for students with disabilities. In
39
1974, Congress passed the Education for All Handicapped Children Act, which intended to end
the segregation of students with disabilities and provide them with equal access (Barr & Parrett,
2007).
In 1971, the California Supreme Court addressed the issue of discrepancies in the public
funding of education in different districts. Serrano v. Priest examined the state’s financing,
which relied on local property taxes to provide revenue for schools (Lipson, 1976). The issue
was whether it was constitutional for more affluent districts to raise large revenues per student at
low tax rates, while more economically disadvantaged districts were forced to pay higher taxes
to meet revenue goals. The Court held that such a system was unconstitutional and needed to be
reformed since the tax-base system resulted in inequalities (Lipson, 1976).
While some legislation helped the nation take positive strides forward, certain events
continued to weaken the progress being made. One such event was the 1973 Supreme Court
case San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez. The ruling held that education was
not a fundamental right and that the financing system used by the San Antonio school district
was not an unconstitutional violation of the Fourteenth Amendment’s equal protection clause
(Ryan, 2000). Since the financing system was based on local property taxes, some schools were
funded vastly better than others. The Court stressed that Texas was providing a basic education
to all students and that the case might be different if instead, students were being excluded from
schools (Ryan, 2000). Due to this ruling, school districts in primarily wealthier, white
neighborhoods continued to receive more funding and resources per student compared to the
schools in socioeconomically disadvantaged areas. This ruling was in stark contrast to that of the
California Supreme Court in Serrano v. Priest, although the issues at hand were similar.
40
Milliken v. Bradley is another Supreme Court case of 1974 that dealt with desegregation
and the integration of schools in the city of Detroit. It is important to note that at the time, two
major migrations were creating an extreme degree of racial segregation in metropolitan areas
(Taylor, 1974). The first of the migrations included African Americans moving from the rural
South to the urban North. By 1970, more than half of all African American citizens were
residing in the central cities. The second migration is that of whites from the cities to the
suburbs. Since the majority of African American families were living in cities rather than
suburban areas, the urban schools were populated with mostly African American students
(Taylor, 1974). Although schools were not being officially segregated, unequal housing and
zoning laws led to the separation of races and therefore, the segregation in Detroit schools
(Taylor, 1974). The Supreme Court found that the school districts were not obligated to
desegregate their schools unless it could be proven that the district lines were drawn with racist
intentions (Taylor, 1974). The migration of white families from urban cities into the suburbs,
also known as "white flight," continued to increase segregation in urban cities across the nation.
This phenomenon persisted to counteract the rulings of cases, such as Brown v. Board of
Education (Barr & Parrett, 2007).
The 1980s. The final notable Court case for the 20th century is Plyler v. Doe. It is
significant because it concerns the discrimination against undocumented immigrants and their
ability to receive an equal education. In 1982, this case was brought to the Supreme Court and
raised the question of whether Texas could deny a free public education to children of parents
who had entered the country illegally (Ryan, 2000). It was the first case in which the Courts
claimed that the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment pertained to everyone,
regardless of immigration status (Hull, 1983). Initial charges were made against a school district
41
in Texas by the parents of undocumented children. The issue at hand was the constitutionality of
the Texas Education Code, which allowed school districts to either prohibit such children from
enrolling or charge them an outrageous tuition cost most could not afford (Hull, 1983). The
ruling held that by denying undocumented children a basic education, Texas was penalizing and
depriving children based on their parents’ immigration status. Since parents’ immigration status
was something children could not have control over, the Court ruled that Texas was not able to
deny undocumented children the right to receive a free public education (Hull, 1983).
This decade also marked the release of A Nation at Risk, which was a report prepared for
President Ronald Reagan by the National Commission on Excellence in Education in 1983
(Guthrie & Springer, 2004). The release of this report was a watershed event, as the report
helped spur more controversy and change than any other public statement since the Brown v.
Board ruling in 1954 (Guthrie & Springer, 2004). During this time, which had been coined the
"Information Age," the U.S. economy was experiencing drastic changes due to modern
technology. These changes had significant implications on the education system, as more
importance was being placed on receiving higher levels of education to secure a prosperous
future (Guthrie & Springer, 2004).
The report concluded that the school system was failing both America's students and
society and that significant changes were needed to help the U.S. compete with other successful
countries (Guthrie & Springer, 2004). The Commission made five broad recommendations that
were in regards to curricular content, higher standards and expectations, how to use time more
effectively, requirements for new teachers, and leadership (Goldberg & Harvey, 1983). This
report was successful in that it helped the nation focus on student achievement rather than
funding alone. This indirectly resulted in more focus being placed on the achievement gap and
42
those most socially and economically disadvantaged since low test scores helped reveal which
students were performing most poorly (Guthrie & Springer, 2004). Additionally, the report
helped prompt changes in the states, as 46 states began working on comprehensive action plans
just fifteen months after the release of the report (Guthrie & Springer, 2004).
Although the Nation at Risk brought education reform to the forefront of all political and
social debates, it did have many negative consequences. It painted a very dismal picture of the
American education system by using flawed analysis and invalid projections of student test
scores (Guthrie & Springer, 2004). It sparked the federalization of education policy and created
an impetus to define achievement solely by standardized test scores (Guthrie & Springer,
2004). Overall, this widely disseminated report and its findings caused citizens to lose
confidence in the nation’s public school system. Gallup conducted a poll in 1977 and found that
more than 50% of respondents had high levels of confidence in public schools. However, just
five months after the release of the report, this score had plummeted to less than 40% (Guthrie &
Springer, 2004). Losing the nation's trust was something that would be quite difficult to gain
back unless significant changes were made to the education system.
As the 20th century came to a close, it was clear that the tumultuous events helped pave
the way for educational reforms. It started with desegregation laws that took decades to
implement and was followed by the enactment of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act,
which made educational opportunities a top priority. The legislation and policies that were a
product of this century aimed to establish opportunities and protect minority groups, such as
females, immigrants, low-income students, and those with special needs. Although substantial
changes were being made, most of it was met with resistance. Poor and minority children
43
continued to be isolated in low-income communities and were forced to attend segregated and
high-poverty schools with inadequate facilities and resources (Barr & Parrett, 2007).
21st Century
At the start of the 21st century, the struggle to provide all students equal access to
education helped transform policies of equal opportunity into new expectations of academic
proficiency (Barr & Parrett, 2007). This section will evaluate two prominent policies of the
current century.
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. The proceeding information is from a document
from the U.S. Department of Education website unless otherwise cited (NCLB/Overview
executive summary, 2002). The enactment of No Child Left Behind (NCLB) by President
George W. Bush emphasized his belief in public school education and his great concern for the
neediest children being left behind. NCLB reauthorized ESEA and was meant to improve all of
the nation's elementary and secondary schools while ensuring students were not being trapped in
failing schools. This act increased accountability measures for states, school districts, and
schools. Statewide accountability systems needed to include challenging standards in math and
reading, annual testing for all students in grades 3rd-8th, as well as 10th, and annual statewide
progress objectives. Assessment results needed to be disaggregated by race, ethnicity, poverty
level, disability, and limited English proficiency to ensure that no group was left behind.
Schools that were unable to make adequate yearly progress (AYP) were subject to improvement,
corrective action, and reconstructing measures.
In addition to increased accountability, NCLB intended to increase the choices available
to parents whose children attended Title I schools that were failing or not making progress.
Local Educational Agencies (LEAs) were obligated to give students in low-performing schools
44
the opportunity to attend better local public or charter schools and provide transportation. They
also needed to provide Title I funds to help students obtain supplemental educational services.
These actions aimed to ensure every child received a quality education and also served as an
incentive for low-performing schools to improve as to not lose their students and funding.
Although the NCLB act focused greater attention on low-achieving students and intended
to improve low-performing schools, the results and implications have been extremely
controversial (Dee & Jacob, 2010). In a study done by Dee & Jacob (2010), it was reported that
NCLB had a positive effect on elementary student math scores, with particularly large effects on
Hispanic students. However, the evidence indicated that teachers were allocating their
instructional time away from subjects that were not being tested. Jennings and Rentner (2006)
also confirm that schools reported spending more time on reading and math instruction, usually
at the expense of other non-tested subjects like science and social studies. Due to NCLB, there
was a greater focus and allocation of time on student testing (Jennings & Rentner, 2006). High-
stakes accountability was believed to have the power to close the achievement gap, not only
between the poor and middle-to-upper-class students, but also between whites and all minority
groups (Berliner, 2013). However, after five years of high-stakes testing in all states, about one-
third of schools failed to meet their targeted goals under NCLB (Berliner, 2013).
NCLB’s rigid accountability system penalized schools that were mostly populated by
low-income and minority students, as well those with special learning needs (Sternberg,
2004). Since so much was dependent on test scores, NCLB inadvertently encouraged leaving
students who could not perform behind. Overall, this policy created a more top-down, test-
based, narrow, and punitive system that no longer supported the nation’s struggling schools
(Mathis & Trujillo, 2016).
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Every Student Succeeds Act of 2015. NCLB's rigid requirements became unworkable,
and most were bothered by what they believed to be a federal overreach. In December of 2015,
President Obama signed the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), which reauthorized ESEA and
focused on preparing all students for success in college and careers (Every Student Succeeds
Act, n.d.). ESSA replaced and made many improvements to NCLB. One of the notable changes
is how it grants more power to states rather than the federal government (Mathis & Trujillo,
2016). Student performance targets and school ratings are now state-driven and based on
multiple measures rather than tests alone (Every Student Succeeds Act, n.d.). Schools are now
able to incorporate one or more non-academic indicators in their school ratings to highlight
broader educational facets (Mathis & Trujillo, 2016). Also, the new legislation includes an
emphasis on college and career ready standards, early education, and school-community
partnerships (Every Student Succeeds Act, n.d.; Mathis & Trujillo, 2016).
In addition to these new provisions, ESEA also claims to support effective public school
choice programs by focusing on three models of public school choice (U.S. Department of
Education, 2010). First, the legislation will support effective charter schools by providing
competitive grants to states, charter school authorizers, and charter management organizations to
start or expand high-performing charter or autonomous public schools (U.S. Department of
Education, 2010). Next, it plans to highly promote public school choice by ensuring students
and families are aware of their schooling options, especially for those in low-performing schools
(U.S. Department of Education, 2010). The funds can be used to expand or create theme-based
schools, high-quality online learning programs, and inter- and intra- district choice programs.
Finally, it will continue to provide competitive grants to magnet school programs that are under
46
desegregation plans to help improve diversity and options for students (U.S. Department of
Education, 2010).
Although many positive changes have been made, such as shifting the accountability
mechanisms to the states, ESSA continues to be a primarily test-based accountability system
with punishment for underperforming schools (Mathis & Trujillo, 2016). Through monitoring
performance outputs rather than investing in under-resourced schools, both NCLB and ESSA
have helped shift the nation further away from the original goal of ESEA; to protect underserved
students by making sure all children receive a high-quality public education (Mathis & Trujillo,
2016).
The Rise of Nontraditional Schools
It is impossible to review the history of the American education system without including
the rise of nontraditional schools. Since its inception, nontraditional schools have played a
significant role in education by providing students and families a variety of alternative schooling
options to respond to diverse student needs. Alternative schools in the broadest sense can be
defined as education that falls outside the traditional K-12 programs, such as charter schools,
special programs for gifted children, magnet schools, and programs for vulnerable youth (Aron,
2006). The following section will briefly review the history and emergence of alternative
schools starting in the 1960s and will then provide a description of today’s most common types
of alternative or nontraditional schools.
Historical Background
The rise of alternative schools was perhaps one of the most significant changes to occur
in education during the 1960s (Deal & Nolan, 1978). The unrest of the 1960s began to spark a
number of social and educational movements in the United States (Deal & Nolan, 1978). At this
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time, American public schools were targets of significant criticism and options were needed for
those who wanted to or needed to be educated outside of the traditional public school system
(Deal & Nolan, 1978; Sagor, 1999). Critics believed that the mainstream public education
system not only promoted racism, but was designed exclusively for the success of a few at the
expense of equity (Lange & Sletten, 2002). Although some alternatives to state schools had
existed before this time, they were mostly limited in access, as they were either private or
parochial schools (Deal & Nolan, 1978).
Educators within the public school systems began to create alternatives to traditional
education, starting with open schools (Lange & Sletten, 2002). Open schools were characterized
as having a child-centered approach and as providing choices for students, teachers, and parents
(Lange & Sletten, 2002). Additionally, they were autonomous in learning and pace, while
providing a non-competitive evaluation. Open schools greatly influenced the establishment of
other nontraditional types of public schools that followed, such as schools without walls,
schools-within-schools, multicultural schools, continuation schools, fundamental schools, and
magnet schools (Lange & Sletten, 2002). Although these schools were individually unique, they
all aimed to demonstrate how increased learning could occur in environments that rectified the
many failings of traditional public schools (Deal & Nolan, 1978). Additionally, they claimed to
provide more of an improved and appropriate method of schooling through their unique
programs or structures as compared to traditional public schools.
The historical roots of alternative schools were rather diverse and included a number of
themes from the Progressive Education Movement (Deal & Nolan, 1978). Specifically, many of
these alternative or nontraditional schools believed in personalizing education to meet the
individual needs and experiences of students (Deal & Nolan, 1978). Also, many schools were
48
organized as social communities, giving students, teachers, and families more power to make
decisions in their educational setting. Furthermore, many had novel approaches to curriculum
and instruction, and placed a value on active rather than passive learning (Deal & Nolan, 1978).
These ideological and educational reforms, as well as the changes made to traditional
bureaucratic patterns, were vastly different from what public schools were offering students.
According to Deal and Nolan (1978), alternative schools provided a variety of options for
thousands of students and even sparked an impetus for reform in traditional public schools.
Although Deal and Nolan’s review is from 1978, it helps provide a glimpse of the impact and
contributions alternative schools were believed to be making to the field of education in the early
years. For example, the authors stated that alternative schools were experiencing less vandalism,
fewer dropouts, and less absenteeism than traditional public schools, all while fostering more
positive attitudes among the students.
The alternative school movement continued to gain support across the nation, as changes
were even seen in state legislation and educational policy (Deal & Nolan, 1978). In California,
for example, a law was passed that required school districts to inform parents of their right to
request the establishment of alternative schools (Deal & Nolan, 1978). California Assembly Bill
10525 of 1974 defined alternative schools to be educational establishments that addressed the
many needs of students, emphasized student interests, and provided opportunities for students,
teachers, and families to determine the course of the school. Additionally, the bill defined
alternative schools to be those that continuously reassessed their programs to ensure that it was
responding to the needs of the changing world (Deal & Nolan, 1978).

49
The Rise and Fall of Alternative Schools
The infiltration of the alternative school movement into state policies suggests that
individuals were beginning to understand the benefits of nontraditional schooling on student
success. In 1978, there were 1,250 known alternative schools in the nation, which included
continuation schools, schools-within-schools, open schools, and multicultural schools (Deal &
Nolan, 1978). Unfortunately, many of the alternative schools that were established in the 1960s
and 1970s did not last long, as they were fiscally and structurally mismanaged (Kim & Taylor,
2008). However, those programs that did survive were found to have common factors that led to
their success. Case (1981) stated that successful alternative schools had five elements in
common. These factors included: continuing to be attractive to students and families, a clear goal
or focus, recognition of their legitimacy by prominent members of the education community,
reliable sources of funding, and positive school climates that fostered continued commitment to
both staff and students.
School Choice
The need and desire for alternative education regained its momentum in the 1990s in the
form of school choice programs (Kim & Taylor, 2008). School choice programs were a way in
which parents were afforded the right to choose which school their child attended, whether it be
private or public (Editorial Projects in Education Research Center, 2004). Although considered
to be highly controversial, the goal of school choice has been to provide disadvantaged students
the opportunity to attend higher-performing schools, as well as to pressure poorly-rated schools
to improve through the threat of losing their student population (Hastings, Kane, & Staiger,
2009).
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For most of history, school choice consisted of making the decision between a public or
private school. This decision mostly rested in the hands of those who could either afford to pay
private school tuitions or those who exercised their choice to relocate to neighborhoods based on
the perceived quality of the local schools (Poetter & Knight-Abowitz, 2001). Cookson (1995)
describes five types of school choice, which include intradistrict/interdistrict choice, controlled
choice, magnets, charters, and voucher plans. Intradistrict choice allows parents to choose
schools in their home district, while interdistrict allows them to choose schools across district
lines. Controlled choice allows parents to choose schools within a community, although
enrollment may be dependent upon keeping a racial, gender, and socioeconomic balance.
Magnet schools offer specialized programs and are often designed to attract students to
unpopular areas or schools, while charters are publicly sponsored schools that are free of direct
control from the government. Finally, voucher plans use federal funds to enable public school
students to attend public or private schools of their choice (Cookson, 1995).
The school choice movement has had both critics and supporters. Supporters believe that
school choice has helped create new spaces for students who have been historically underserved
by traditional public schools (Poetter & Knight-Abowitz, 2001). However, critics have agreed
that school choice has aided in the resegregation of students and communities based on
socioeconomic class and race, further exacerbating the issues of equity and equality (Poetter &
Knight-Abowitz, 2001).
Alternative Education Today
As described above, alternative education has evolved considerably over the last few
decades to include a variety of nontraditional schools. However, an entirely inclusive definition
of alternative schools is elusive and hard to find, as schools and programs vary among states and
51
local communities (Lange & Sletten, 2002). Although diverse, they have several characteristics
in common and are usually described as maintaining a small size, having an emphasis on one-on-
one interactions between students and teachers, being flexible in structure, and having a
supportive environment (Lange & Sletten, 2002). In 2013-2014, it was reported that there were
an estimated 6,470 charter schools and 3,250 magnet schools in the nation (Kena et al., 2016).
Prior to evaluating essential elements or promising practices of nontraditional schools, it
is important to identify and briefly describe some of the most common types of alternative
schools to date. These include magnet schools, charter schools, schools-within-schools, small
schools, virtual schools, alternative schools for vulnerable youth, and dual immersion schools.
Magnet schools. Magnet schools make up the largest system of choice and aim to attract
a racially diverse group of students (Siegel-Hawley & Frankenberg, 2012; Vopat, 2011). These
schools differ in their educational approaches and focus on particular academic subjects to attract
students (Poetter & Knight-Abowitz, 2001). They can concentrate on visual and performing arts,
mathematics, language, science, technology, or music (Vopat, 2011). Additionally, they may also
have unique types of instructional methods, such as the Montessori approach or an international
baccalaureate approach (Vopat, 2011). To qualify for admission, students might need to display
proficiency in the particular area of focus, such as music, art, math, or science. However, some
magnet schools accept students through a lottery system, as well (Poetter & Knight-Abowitz,
2001). Magnet school proponents argue that these schools help offer viable choices to families,
especially those in urban areas, whose interests, academic, and cultural needs might not be met in
traditional public schools (Poetter & Knight-Abowitz, 2001).
Charter schools. Charter schools are public schools that accept state and local funds, but
are free from the bureaucratic regulations of traditional public schools (Poetter & Knight-
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Abowitz, 2001). Charter schools operate within the public school system under contracts or
charters, but are legally and fiscally autonomous entities (Poetter & Knight-Abowitz, 2001).
Charter schools were first proposed in the 1970s when New England educator, Ray Buddle,
recommended that school boards give charters or contracts to a small group of teachers to
explore new approaches to education (Citizens Research Council of Michigan, 2010). By 1991,
Minnesota had passed the first charter school law, which was followed by California in 1992.
Charter schools were designed with the intention of increasing opportunities for learning
and giving access to quality education for all students. They are structured to in a way in which
to create choices for families outside the traditional public schools, encourage innovative
teaching practices, create new professional opportunities for teachers, and encourage parent and
community involvement (Citizens Research Council of Michigan, 2010). Charter school
advocates believe that these schools can provide more opportunities for students and can help
foster creativity to improve student achievement. Critics, however, feel that charters siphon
resources from traditional K-12 schools and increase racial and social stratification (Citizens
Research Council of Michigan, 2010).
Small schools. The small school movement, which became popular in the 1990s, had
begun in the 1970s in many different cities (Lehman & Berghoff, 2013). These schools were
initially created in reaction to the limitations of large high schools, especially for disadvantaged
student groups. The vision of these schools was to recreate the learning experiences high school
students had in smaller elementary schools and to empower the historically disempowered
groups (Lehman & Berghoff, 2013). Small schools aim to increase student engagement, build
more collegial relationships, and strengthen connections with the school community (Lehman &
Berghoff, 2013). In 2000, the small school movement was financially supported by The Bill and
53
Melinda Gates Foundation and intended to transform high schools so that all students could
receive a high-quality education in a more personalized learning environment (Lehman &
Berghoff, 2013).
Schools-within-schools. Schools-within-schools are those that create school cultures and
identities outside the larger school community in which they exist (Poetter & Knight-Abowitz,
2001). This approach grew out of two concerns: to reduce class sizes without having to build
new schools and providing students with greater choices (Eccles & Roeser, 2011). The goal of
these schools is to make school experiences more real and academically challenging for all
students. They aim to offer unique academic programs to students inside and often outside
district lines (Poetter & Knight-Abowitz, 2001). Schools-within-schools are smaller learning
communities within existing large buildings, which often focus on specific career topics (Eccles
& Roeser, 2011).
Virtual schools. A virtual school can be defined as an educational environment that
offers K-12 courses, as well as other learning activities mostly or entirely through distance
technologies (Roblyer, 2008). Although new to the field of education, virtual schooling, or
“cyber school”, has proven to be one of the fastest trends in education (Roblyer, 2008). The first
virtual schools were created to be a more affordable and equitable option for students who lacked
such opportunities, such as those who were underserved and considered to be at-risk populations
(Roblyer, 2008). Over time, it has become a more preferred form of education for a growing
number of students, as it offers a range of schooling options; from scheduled classes to the
allowing students to work at their pace.
Alternative schools for vulnerable youth. Alternative schools are public schools
attempting to create learning environments that address the specific needs of students. Unlike
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magnet and charter schools that use special programs to attract students, alternative schools are
mostly for students who are failing academically, may have learning disabilities, or behavioral
problems. Alternative schools help offer choice to public school parents and students by
providing them a type of schooling that differs from the academic and emotional rigors of
traditional public schools (Poetter & Knight-Abowitz, 2001).
Dual immersion schools. According to the Center for Applied Linguistics (n.d.), dual
language programs offer literacy and academic content in both English and a target language.
The goals of dual language programs are to help students develop proficiency in both languages,
as well as an appreciation for diverse cultures. The Center for Applied Linguistics (n.d.) states
that these programs may be total immersion, in which all or almost all of the subjects are taught
in the foreign language. Partial immersion is defined as programs in which 50% of subjects are
taught in the foreign language. Finally, two-way immersion programs give equal emphasis in
both English and the foreign language (Center for Applied Linguistics, n.d.).
The first known dual-language program was in Canada in the mid-1960s, where students
received bilingual instruction in both English and French (Fernandez, 2015). In the late 1960s, a
very few number of dual-language immersion programs appeared throughout the United States
and were modeled after these earlier programs. Although there has been a rise in the number of
dual immersion programs to date, the United States is still far behind other countries in offering
second language programs, especially at the elementary level (Soderman, 2010). According to
Met (2001), students in public elementary schools have limited opportunities to enroll in dual
language programs, especially those attending urban public schools.
Although the number of dual immersion schools has slightly increased over the last
several years, there is limited information on how much foreign language is actually offered in
55
schools. According to The National K-12 Foreign Language Enrollment Survey, which was a
first-of-its-kind, only one in five students were enrolled in a foreign language course in 2014-
2015 (Mitchell, 2017). Additionally, the report indicated that only roughly twenty percent of
public school students study a language other than English, most often Spanish. The survey was
only able to collect data from 44% of the nation’s high schools and 38% of K-8 schools
(Mitchell, 2017). This survey demonstrates that there is a lack of comprehensive data on foreign
language teaching and learning in the United States.
Although data on dual immersion programs are limited, there has been a substantial
amount of research documenting the benefits of bilingualism and dual language programs on the
cognitive and linguistic development of children. Students who have early exposure to second
languages have higher levels of cognitive flexibility, are more aware of meta-linguistic structures
of language, and are more likely to develop second languages without non-native accents that
occur with learning languages at a later age (Soderman, 2010). Moreover, students studying a
foreign language in elementary school have shown higher standardized test scores, including
students from high-poverty backgrounds (Met, 2001). In addition to the cognitive and linguistic
benefits, there are social benefits to being bilingual. Exposing students to different languages
through dual immersion programs help encourage respect and tolerance of others’ differences
(Soderman, 2010). Most importantly, it prepares students to interact and thrive in a global
economy where people are expected to know other languages and be open-minded to diversity in
order to successfully engage in international relations.
Promising Practices
Although it is the responsibility of public schools to provide all students with a high-
quality education, history and research have shown that this has not always been the case.
56
Unfortunately, the adverse effects of a low-quality education are heightened for those who attend
high-poverty urban schools. The demand for nontraditional schools arose when educators and
families recognized that the traditional public school system was not meeting the needs of all
students. While the face of education has changed drastically over the last century with the
addition of various nontraditional schools, many students have had the opportunity to escape
low-performing schools and receive a high-quality education. However, not all nontraditional
schools have proven to be outperforming or more successful than traditional public schools.
To have a better understanding of what has led to outperformance, research has been
conducted over the years to identify common characteristics and promising practices in various
types of schools. Specifically, many researchers have studied the elements of successful high-
poverty schools, as well as different types of nontraditional schools, while others have attempted
to inject these proven elements of success into traditional public schools. Whether it be a high-
poverty school or a nontraditional school, it is through the combination of positive characteristics
and practices that schools are more likely to achieve their desired outcome, which is high-
performance.
The following section will be reviewing the practices and features, also known as the
‘promising practices,' that have been identified in past research. Since a school system is
multifaceted and complex, there is no single avenue to explore when trying to understand the
factors leading to outperformance. High- performing schools know that certain elements must
work together to result in success and that the practices of schools, teachers, and leaders all play
a critical role (Steagall, 2012). For that reason, the following section will be divided into three
parts; it will individually examine the promising practices of schools, teachers, and leaders in
both high-poverty and nontraditional schools.
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Promising Practices of Schools
Schools can have systems and practices in place which may either lead to high-
performance or low-performance. High-performing schools recognize that to be successful, they
must implement a number of actionable school-wide practices and policies to help them become
outperforming. Research has shown that certain characteristics are found more often in high-
performing schools (Steagall, 2012). Two specific promising practices that have been identified
in a multitude of research studies are: (a) having a culture of high expectations and (b) a clear
and shared focus.
A culture of high expectations. High expectations can be defined as any efforts to set
high educational standards for all students in a classroom, school, or education system and are
based on the pedagogical belief that failing to hold all students to the same high expectations
denies them access to a high-quality education (High expectations, 2013). Student achievement
has been shown to be affected by the expectations placed on them, which is commonly referred
to as the Pygmalion effect (High expectations, 2013). The impact of expectations put on
students is a topic that has been researched extensively over the years. It has been found that
students who are expected to perform better usually do so, while those who have lower
expectations placed on them often achieve less (High expectations, 2013). This is not only an
educational issue but has become a critical social-justice issue, as well (High expectations,
2013). Shannon and Bylsma (2007) found that teachers continued to have lower expectations of
students of color and those from low socioeconomic backgrounds, as compared to white and
more affluent students. These findings are alarming since student behavior has been shown to be
impacted by the beliefs and perceptions of others, which in turn may become self-fulfilling
prophecies (Shannon & Bylsma, 2007).
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Shannon and Bylsma (2007) define high expectations as having confidence students will
meet both the content and performance standards that have been set for them. Marzano (2005)
defines high expectations as a system in which challenging goals are set with ongoing feedback.
In Marzano's (2005) meta-analysis, he found that students performed 18 to 41 points higher
when high expectations were set and goals were clearly articulated. Schools that hold high
expectations for their students have been found to have two common themes: (a) they believe in
their students' abilities and (b) they communicate expectations.
Belief in students. One of the fundamental tenets of having a culture of high
expectations is believing in all students' abilities, regardless of their background or circumstances
(Kobes, 2013). In a study conducted on eight high-performing, high-poverty elementary schools
in Kentucky, Kannapel and Clements (2005) found that each of the schools believed that all
students had the ability to succeed and upheld the notion that their school could make a
difference. Similarly, in a review of twenty studies of high-performing elementary schools,
Shannon and Bylsma (2007) found that each school believed that all students had the ability to
do challenging academic work, even if they were behind academically. Additionally, the schools
valued the concept of efforts-based ability and aimed to help students develop or strengthen their
skills.
More than just believing that all students had the capacity to succeed, many studies found
that high-performing schools implemented policies or actions that showed they believed in their
students. For example, in a multi-case study conducted on three high-performing charter schools
in California, Weekes (2016) found that the schools not only told their students they believed in
them, but had strategies in place to push their students to higher achievement levels. For
example, courses were created that were meant to help students achieve up to three years of
59
academic growth in just one school year. Courses like literacy and leadership were added to the
existing curriculum to support and challenge traditionally underperforming students. Although
limited in scope and generalizability, Vu (2008) found similar results when conducting a case-
study on one high- performing high school in California. In order to stress high academic
expectations and their belief in all the students, this high school removed all remedial courses
and expected all students to take vigorous advanced placement classes to give them the
opportunity to attend college. Vu (2008) found that high-level classes and higher expectations
led to high academic achievement. The school's objective was to always fall on the side of being
more challenging and ensure that students knew that their school community believed in them.
A culture of high expectations is not only an important practice that has been proven to
lead to outperformance, but is also one of the five pillars of the Knowledge is Power Programs
(KIPP). KIPP is a rapidly growing network of charter schools, which serve predominantly
disadvantaged minority youth and have gained the reputation of having the potential to close the
achievement gap (Gleason, Tuttle, Gill, Nichols-Barrer, & Teh, 2014). This pillar of high
performance clearly defines expectations for student achievement and behavior and holds all
students to the same high expectations, regardless of their background or circumstances (Kobes,
2013). Gleason et al. (2014) studied the achievement impacts of 41 KIPP middle schools across
the country using propensity-score matching to identify students with similar characteristics in
traditional public schools. The results revealed that there was a consistently positive and
significant impact on student achievement, especially in math scores, for students who attended
KIPP schools. KIPP's educational model, which stresses high student expectations, helps
increase student achievement scores. Successful results have also been seen in schools that have
properly implemented the KIPP educational model. Kobes (2013) examined a school-within-a-
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school that had successfully implemented the KIPP program with modifications in a failing
inner-city high school. Although there are limitations with case studies, such as small sample
size and limited generalizability, this study found that after five years, the school had
demonstrated success and legitimacy. The findings of these studies, whether a singular case or
multiple schools across the nation, show that creating a culture of high expectations and
believing in students’ abilities has positive results on student and school performance.
Communication of expectations. To build and implement a culture of high expectations,
the messages should be communicated both directly and indirectly to students and families
(Cooke, 2008). Multiple studies have shown the importance of directly and concretely
communicating high expectations to students (Kannapel & Clements, 2005; Weekes, 2016).
Directly communicating expectations can be done verbally by school leaders and teachers, as
well as intentionally through the school environment. It can also be done indirectly through the
way administrators and teachers interact with students. In a case study done on an
outperforming, high-poverty elementary school, Cooke (2008) found that teachers
communicated expectations by the nature of assignments they assigned to their students. By
assigning activities or planning lessons that were more challenging, teachers indirectly made it
clear that students could expect to engage in more rigorous learning experiences. Additionally,
teachers indirectly communicated high expectations by expecting students to participate in class,
attend school daily, and produce high-quality work.
Other messages of high expectations are made more clear through the direct actions and
messages of school leaders, teachers, and the environment. Although high expectation indicators
are difficult to quantify when conducting a study, both the school and classroom environment
can suggest a school's culture. Woodworth, David, Guha, Wang, and Lopez-Torkos (2008)
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examined a number of KIPP schools and found that high expectations were expressed through
consistent and clear messages, especially about the importance of attending college. In this
study, the researchers observed a constant repetition of chants, slogans, and rituals that focused
on the students attending college. Additionally, students began each day in their homeroom class
which was named after a well-known university. Students in this study acknowledged being
aware of the expectations placed on them and found the relationships with their teachers and
peers to be positive and caring. Fryer (2014) also observed direct messages that helped instill
high expectations through signs plastered in classrooms and hallways that said things like, "No
excuses" or "No shortcuts."
In addition to slogans and posters, direct and consistent communication with students and
families can help enforce high expectations. Fryer (2014) conducted a study in which he
examined the impact on student achievement after implementing a bundle of best practices from
high-performing charter schools in low-performing traditional public schools in Texas using
quasi-experimental comparisons. To instill a culture of high expectations, the school began by
providing rubrics for the classroom and environment, as well as parent and student contracts to
enforce performance goals and expectations. Additionally, teachers signed contracts to adhere to
professional dress codes. These documents helped set the overall culture of expectations for not
only the students, but also for the parents and teachers at the school. Masumoto and Brown-
Welty (2009) also found evidence to suggest that high expectations through direct
communication help contribute to a school's success. This multiple case study, conducted in
three high-performing, high-poverty rural high schools in California, found that high
expectations resulted in a highly-intense focus on student progress and timely communication
between students, parents, teachers, and administrators. One parent reported:
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There is no leeway for students to fall behind and slip between the cracks. Parents are
called when their kids have a C-. We get progress reports, and also get deficiency
notes. The principal brings them in and asks what’s going on with the student. He can
tell if it’s laziness or if the student is struggling; they have study periods and after-school
tutoring to help them catch up. (p.14)
Whether direct or indirect, creating a culture of high expectations requires communicating to
both students and families in concrete ways. It is pertinent that schools not only set high
expectations, but also ensure that all students understand the expectations placed on them
through proper communication.
Clear and shared focus. A key element of any successful organization or business is
having a clear focus and an established set of goals in which all members are working towards
(Steagall, 2012). Schools are complex environments, but with a clear and shared focus, they are
better able to identify their core purpose and work collectively towards their shared goals
(Steagall, 2012). The literature on school improvement has emphasized the benefits of a shared
focus and numerous studies on outperforming schools have found that a clear and shared focus is
a promising practice leading to their success (Steagall, 2012). According to Shannon and
Bylsma (2007), with a clear and shared focus,
Everybody knows where they are going and why. The focus is on achieving a shared
vision, and all understand their role in achieving the vision. The focus and vision are
developed from common beliefs and values, creating a consistent direction for all
involved. (p. 27)
An important component of a clear and shared focus would include vision, which is a vivid and
detailed description of how a school would appear if it accomplished its purpose (Shannon &
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Blysma, 2007). By creating a shared vision, members of a community can come together and
become connected as they collaborate to reach their established goals. Whether referred to as a
focus, vision, or mission, it is pertinent that it is both clear and shared amongst all stakeholders
for it to be successful.
Clear focus. When the focus is clear and transparent, administrators can be assured that
all members of the community understand what they are working towards. Administrators play a
significant role in the delivery of and transparency of a school's focus. Williams et al. (2007)
examined 257 low, middle, and high performing schools with a large English Learners (EL)
population. The researchers conducted comprehensive surveys of all the elementary school
principals and over 80% of the K-5 teachers from the schools. The results indicated that the
schools that were high achieving had principals who communicated a clear vision for the school,
made expectations clear for teachers, and set high standards for student learning. Although the
results were based on self-reports by principals and educators, this study enabled researchers to
examine the school practices that differentiated the low from high-performing schools. These
findings revealed that a school's performance is related to a teacher's perception of the clarity of
the focus and expectations placed on them. When teachers and administrators have a clear
understanding of what they are working towards, they may be better able to focus on student
learning and achievement.
In order for it to be clear, it is helpful when the focus is measurable, as well as visually
posted in the environment. In Vu's (2008) case study of one high-performing high school, the
results indicated that having goals that are concentrated, measurable, and omnipresent are factors
leading to outperformance. The district in which the school was located had two district-wide
goals used to measure academic performance. These goals were posted in the front office, in
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each classroom, and could be found on each student's academic calendar. Its presence all around
the school ensured that all stakeholders were aware of the district-wide goals. In addition to the
district-wide goals, the school had established Expected Schoolwide Learning Results (ESLRs)
that were agreed upon by teachers, parents, students, and the administration. The ESLRs were
discussed at the start of all staff meetings to ensure that the faculty found them to be clear and
that they stayed focused on student achievement. This high-performing school not only made
the focus clear by reviewing it at all times with stakeholders, but made it visually present in the
school environment as a constant reminder of what they were working towards.
Shared focus. When a focus is shared amongst stakeholders, it is more likely to have
support and commitment by all those invested. Steagall (2012) states that high-performing
schools begin by naming a set of goals and then seek support from stakeholders, such as staff,
parents, students, and community members. Often, such as in the Vu (2008) study, stakeholders
work together to create a shared set of goals. Even if goals are not created with teachers,
students, or parents, it is critical to ensure that all stakeholders are invested and involved in the
process in some way (Shannon & Blysma, 2007). The commitment or buy-in of stakeholders is
also a critical component of success.
Woodworth et al. (2008) found that in the high-performing KIPP schools they examined,
leaders and teachers were more likely to be attracted to the school because they shared a
commitment to KIPP's mission. The hiring criteria, as well as the pool of teachers who tended to
apply to the KIPP schools, produced a group of staff members that shared a belief system
focused and committed to the success of all their students. Schools that do not have a group of
committed staff members, as well as a clear sense of purpose may begin to lose motivation,
which can have an adverse impact on student achievement levels (Steagall, 2012). Through their
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comparison of eight high-poverty, high-performing schools to low-performing schools in
Kentucky, Kannapel and Clements (2005) found that low-performing schools tended to get side-
tracked into programs that did not work. Additionally, their lack of focus led to uncoordinated
decisions, which significantly impacted staff and students. On the contrary, the efficient and
high-performing schools had a shared understanding of their goals, which mostly focused on
student learning, sustaining improvement, and problem-solving.
Promising Practices of Teachers
Teachers today are faced with enormous challenges, as they are expected to motivate,
challenge, and inspire students from all walks of life to become competent and educated
members of society with 21st-century skills. There are many expectations placed on teachers,
such as high-stakes testing and accountability policies that make their jobs more demanding and
stressful. Unfortunately, not all teachers are equipped with the adequate training and tools to
educate children, especially those in high-poverty urban schools. Research has found that
teachers in high-poverty urban schools with more experience and higher salaries are those that
tend to improve student performance (Tajalli & Opheim, 2005). However, high-poverty schools
are more often than not faced with high-turnover rates, inadequate resources and materials, as
well as a greater number of less experienced and less effective teachers (Ingersoll, 2003; Jacob,
2007; Mirra & Rogers, 2016). Ineffective teachers have been shown to have a particularly
harmful effect on low-performing students living in poverty (Parrett & Budge, 2012). This may
be due to the fact that they are more dependent on the quality of their educational experiences
compared to their more affluent peers (Parrett & Budge, 2012). Moreover, numerous studies
have shown that students assigned to ineffective teachers for two or more consecutive years will
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develop dramatic gaps in achievement compared to students with more effective teachers (Parrett
& Budge, 2012).
Although the school environment plays a vital role in a student's overall educational
experience, the majority of their time is spent in the classroom with teachers who have the power
to actively shape their learning. For this reason, students' educational experiences and
achievement levels are highly dependent on their teachers' experiences, characteristics, and
instructional practices. Numerous studies have stressed the importance of effective teaching and
have identified ‘high-quality teachers' as a factor leading to outperformance (Kobes, 2008;
Ventura, 2008; Gates Foundation, 2013; Pak, 2015). Effective teaching can be defined as
teaching that enables learning (Gates Foundation, 2013). However, it may not be as easy to
concretely define ‘high-quality teachers' since the factors and practices that constitute ‘high-
quality' can differ (Kobes, 2008). Although definitions may vary on what high-quality teaching
entails, research has identified a number of promising teacher characteristics and practices that
have proven to be successful for all students. The following section will review two critical
promising practices of teachers that have been shown to foster academic achievement and
success for students regardless of their race, gender, or socioeconomic background. First,
effective, high-quality teachers understand the importance of creating supportive learning
environments through meaningful relationships and respect for student differences. Second, the
curriculum and instruction implemented by high-quality teachers are both culturally relevant and
multidimensional.
Supportive environments. High-quality teachers create supportive learning
environments and a classroom culture that encourages students to take risks in their learning
process (Steagall, 2012). Although important for all students, supportive environments may be
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especially beneficial for students living in poverty and attending urban schools. Students living
in poverty have limited opportunities to develop human, social, and cultural capital (Parrett &
Budge, 2012). Supportive environments can serve as protective factors, especially for at-risk
students, encouraging them to build meaningful relationships and actively engage in their
learning (Parrett & Budge, 2012). Fostering relationships with students, while being especially
mindful of their differences, encourages supportive learning environments.
Fostering relationships. Steagall (2012) states that caring and supportive relationships
between teachers and students can help build resiliency in students, which helps promote
academic success. To develop meaningful relationships, students must feel that their teachers
are invested in their learning and their futures. This may be difficult to do, especially since
students can easily become lost in schools with large populations and impersonal settings (Parrett
& Budge, 2012). In a study conducted by Parrett and Budge (2012), the researchers evaluated
seven high-performing, high-poverty schools that had shown significant gains in student success.
Their study revealed that each school provided protective factors that were paramount to their
success and aided in building a bond between the students and the school. One of the protective
factors was the caring relationships teachers developed with their students and the constant
support they provided to help them meet the high expectations placed on them.
Many schools use specific strategies to help foster student and teacher relationships, such
as advisory groups, small learning environments, student clubs, and constant access to teachers
(Parrett & Budge, 2012). In a study of three high-performing charter schools, Weekes (2016)
found that each school used a four-year cohort advisory model which helped students and
teachers develop meaningful interpersonal relationships. During the first two years of this
advisory group, students would meet once a day for thirty minutes with a teacher to receive
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social-emotional training and academic support. Often, the lessons were focused on things that
pertained to students' home culture or covered relevant topics, such as assimilating to school
culture. Additionally, the advising teacher would review their grades once a week to provide
immediate academic support and guidance if needed. The final two years of the advisory group
focused on selecting and applying to colleges. It was in these groups that students and teachers
were able to engage in meaningful discussions about things that mattered to them. The
conversations and interpersonal relationships helped provide the foundation for teachers'
curricula and instructional practices. Most importantly, it allowed students to feel supported and
helped them develop trusting relationships with teachers.
In addition to advisory groups, homeroom periods are another way for students to
develop meaningful relationships with teachers. In the case study of a school-within-a-school
implementing KIPP, Kobes (2008) found that the primary strategy identified by teachers as most
attributable to their success was the relationships they built with their students. Students were
able to develop more relationships with teachers because they were given homeroom periods and
assigned to advisors. Teachers worked closely with students to help them reach their goals and
were always checking in on them to ensure they did not fall behind. In addition to fostering
relationships with students, teachers worked closely with other teachers to discuss student
progress, problems, and solutions. The teachers at these KIPP schools were committed to
educating the whole child and worked many hours to help students succeed. They even provided
their phone numbers to students so that there would be no excuse to not completing homework
assignments. Teachers were just a phone call away, and students knew that their teachers were
committed to their success.
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When teachers establish daily contact and show concern for each student, a comfort zone
for communication is created between teacher and student, helping foster caring relationships
(Parrett & Budge, 2012). Conversely, Calabrese, Goodvin, and Niles (2005) identified teacher
attitudes and traits that were found to be non-supportive. They include being inflexible and
unwilling to change teaching strategies, being unable to work with multicultural students, and
having the belief that students are co-dependent. Additionally, and possibly most detrimental, is
when teachers have the attitude that students are unable to learn or succeed due to their
circumstances or background. It is when students know that they are cared for by their teachers
that they are more inclined to trust and become actively engaged in the learning process (Parrett
& Budge, 2012).
Respecting differences. The other critical component to creating supportive
environments is respecting student differences, which includes their racial, ethnic, and
socioeconomic backgrounds. To be effective, teachers must be able to embrace the cultural
differences of their students and develop a multicultural competence to be able to relate to
students and their families (Calabrese, Goodvin, & Niles, 2005). Steagall (2012) states that
cultural responsiveness and cultural competence are both critical in high-poverty schools because
it helps build a bridge between a student's home and school experiences. Teachers who are
culturally responsive can create supportive learning environments that encourage all students to
learn about and respect one another's cultures. Additionally, teachers may be able to model
tolerance and acceptance of others through their behaviors and instructional methods.
For supportive learning environments to thrive, students must feel respected and safe to
share their opinions and thoughts. Brooke-Garza (2013) discusses the importance of cross-
cultural competency and how teachers must be culturally competent to improve both
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relationships with students and learning (Brooke-Garza, 2013). To develop a culture of mutual
respect in the classroom, teachers must actively utilize responsive teaching practices and
organizational routines to foster cross-cultural competency. Brooke-Garza (2013) conducted a
participatory action research study in which eight two-way bilingual immersion teachers
examined and developed practices to promote cross-cultural competency in their two-way
bilingual immersion programs (TWBI). TWBI's provide academic content and instruction in two
languages and are founded on the central tenants of integrating students to develop bilingualism,
biliteracy, and cross-cultural competency (Brooke-Garza, 2013).
The teachers involved in this study were aware of the equity issues arising from power
imbalances in the classroom. The study had multiple findings. First, it revealed that teachers
must purposefully create equitable learning environments and not leave them to chance.
Teachers need to take deliberate steps to guide students on cultural competency and ensure that
"microassaults" are handled correctly. They must also help promote and validate native-Spanish
speakers in their classrooms and encourage others to learn about one another's background.
Next, teachers must purposefully manage participation and grouping by creating cooperative
learning table groups and partner sharing opportunities. Finally, to ensure cross-cultural
competency, teachers must find ways in which to regularly involve families and students beyond
the school day. Understanding different cultures and including families through activities and
programs can help all students feel accepted and supported in both the classroom and school
environment. Although the study is limited in that it only collected the perspective of eight
teachers in dual-language programs, it is beneficial in that it provides insight on the effective
practices in this type of nontraditional program. Additionally, it highlights the importance of
mutual respect to create supportive learning environments.
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Curriculum and instruction. The curriculum can be defined as the subject matter
through which students are expected to gain skills and knowledge (Shannon & Bylsma, 2007).
It includes principles, concepts, theories, and organizational frameworks that can be taught using
textbooks or other instructional materials (Shannon & Bylsma, 2007). Classroom instruction can
be described as "where the rubber meets the road" (Shannon & Bylsma, 2007). According to
Shannon and Bylsma (2007), instruction itself has been seen to have the greatest influence on
achievement. However, a considerable amount of instruction has been proven to be ineffective,
despite the best intentions of teachers and administrators. Although it is the responsibility of
schools to provide a high-quality curriculum that is rigorous and aligned with standards, it is left
in the hands of teachers to implement instruction in ways that are both culturally responsive and
engaging (Shannon & Bylsma, 2007).
Too often, schools lack this instructional framework and continue to rely solely on
textbooks to guide curriculum and instruction (Shannon & Bylsma, 2007). An instructional
framework provides a focus to ensure that teachers collectively understand not only the
curriculum, but also powerful instructional practices that impact achievement. Parrett and Budge
(2012) found that each of the seven high-poverty, high-performing schools credited much of
their success to the coherence of their instructional program. In these schools, leaders worked
collectively to design or adopt an instructional framework that ensured that the curriculum and
instruction were supporting all students. Although instructional frameworks may differ, research
has proven that curriculum and instructional practices are most effective when they are culturally
relevant and multidimensional.
Culturally relevant. According to Ladson-Billings (2009), culturally relevant pedagogy
can be defined as one "that empowers students intellectually, socially, emotionally, and
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politically using cultural referents to impart knowledge, skills, and attitudes" (pp.16-17).
Ladson-Billings (1995) has also created a framework for culturally relevant pedagogy that entails
three components. First, educators who engage in culturally relevant pedagogy think in terms of
the long-run instead of focusing merely on end-of-the-year tests (Ladson-Billings, 1995;
Weekes, 2016). Second, it focuses on cultural competence, which helps students not only value
their culture, but also begin to acquire knowledge about other cultures. Teachers understand that
it is their role to equip students with the social-emotional skills and knowledge they need to help
bridge the gap between home and school in order to be successful (Ladson-Billings, 1995;
Weekes, 2016). Finally, culturally relevant pedagogies seek to develop socio-political
consciousness in students, which requires teachers to find a way to help students understand and
critique inequities (Ladson-Billings, 1995; Weekes, 2016).
Calabrese, Goodvin, and Niles (2005) state that high-quality teachers seek to make
connections between the subject matter and their students. When teachers make the material
culturally relevant and incorporate students’ cultural and social experiences into the instruction,
learning becomes more significant (Steagall, 2012). Moreover, relevant and focused instruction
has been shown to improve student engagement and learning (Parrett & Budge, 2012). A
pedagogy that recognizes and celebrates students’ cultures helps provide full and equitable
access to education for all students (Steagall, 2012).
Weekes (2016) found that teachers in the high-performing charter schools were using
internally developed, culturally relevant curricula that had built-in scaffolds and supports for
students. In the daily advisory group meetings, teachers and students engaged in meaningful
conversations that allowed teachers to learn more about their students' prior knowledge,
backgrounds, and cultural beliefs. This helped increase teachers' cultural competence and
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enabled them to craft their pedagogy to be more culturally relevant and engaging. In the seven
high-performing, high-poverty schools used in Parret and Budge's (2012) study, the researchers
found improvements in student learning and behavior. When teachers made the instruction more
relevant and culturally responsive, students became more focused and engaged. Classroom
disruptions by students were seen to diminish when all student were willingly engaged in active
learning experiences.
When teachers incorporate aspects of student culture and social experiences into the
curriculum, students begin to become engaged in learning. In addition to being more relevant
and appealing to students, it can help in creating relationships with teachers and other students.
The supportive learning environment that welcomes student differences can help foster
acceptance, respect, and tolerance of others. These qualities are necessary for a classroom if it is
going to encourage learning in a safe and supportive environment.
Multidimensional instruction. To improve student learning and increase engagement
levels, high-quality teachers frequently incorporate collaborative learning opportunities and
utilize multidimensional instructional practices that involve multiple teaching modalities
(Weekes, 2016). They use a "powerful pedagogy," which can be defined as powerful instruction
that results in deeper learning (Parrett & Budge, 2012). This is in contrast to a "pedagogy of
poverty," which is characterized as the overuse of teacher-controlled discussions, minimal
student voice, decontextualized practice, and drilling with worksheets (Parrett & Budge, 2012).
Weekes (2016) found that high-performing charter schools utilized technology in the classroom,
created cooperative learning opportunities, and even allowed for self-directed learning. These
teachers used a "powerful pedagogy" that tapped into students' prior knowledge and experiences
while being engaging and thought-provoking.
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Differentiating instruction and creating collaborative learning opportunities are
considered to be associated with greater academic achievement and higher engagement levels
(Steagall, 2012; Johnson, 2008). Teachers who differentiate instruction understand that students
have differing abilities and skills. Through differentiation, they are better able to shape their
learning environment to meet the learning styles, interests, and abilities of their students
(Steagall, 2012; Parrett & Budge, 2012). Collaborative learning is another innovative
instructional practice that allows students to work together to make decisions and develop a
thorough understanding of the content (Johnson, 2009). Johnson (2009) found that students
reported more enjoyment and interest when they attended nontraditional schools that employed
more group decision making, had non-compulsory attendance policies, and greater proportions
of collaborative learning. This was compared to students who attended traditional public
schools.
High-quality teachers not only create supportive learning environments through the
relationships they foster with their students, but also through the type of instruction they use in
their classrooms. When the instruction is culturally relevant, students can begin to connect to the
content they are learning. Moreover, multidimensional instructional strategies, such as
scaffolding, using technology, brainstorming, differentiating instruction, and project-based
learning, invite students to become actively engaged in learning experiences (Parrett & Budge,
2012). Engagement contributes to students' social and cognitive development, as well as their
overall academic achievement (Johnson, 2008).
Promising Practices of Leaders
Leaders are vital to all types of organizations to provide guidance and motivate them to
excel. Effective school leaders have excellent leadership skills and act as catalysts to ensure
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improvement will occur (Shannon & Bylsma, 2007). Effective leadership heavily depends upon
the relationships and shared values between leaders and followers, and it is their behaviors and
actions that help foster or diminish feelings of trust and support in the school environment
(Shannon & Bylsma, 2007). Leadership can be displayed in many different ways. The
following section will review the attributes and practices of effective leaders, as well as the
various leadership styles they employ.
Attributes and practices of effective leaders. Numerous studies have identified the
universal characteristics of effective leaders. They include: having a vision and ability to set
goals, having strong communication skills, a strong sense of self, the ability to empathize with
others, as well as the capacity to influence and motivate followers (Masumoto & Brown-Welty,
2009). Additionally, leaders must be able to lead by example, focus on students and their
learning, support and empower those around them, and create safe learning environments in
which students and teachers can feel comfortable to take learning risks in (Shannon & Bylsma,
2007). Williams, Rosin, and Kirst (2011) found that higher-performing middle schools had
principals that regularly communicated the importance of high expectations, held teachers
accountable for focusing on student achievement, ensured a clean, disciplined, and safe learning
environment, and regularly met with teachers to review data and provide support. As evident by
the findings from these various studies, many similarities have been identified on the qualities
and practices that constitute effective leadership (Kobes, 2008; Parrett & Budge, 2012; Kannapel
& Clements, 2005).
Marzano, Waters, and McNulty (2005) identified 21 leadership attributes and behaviors
of effective leaders. Shannon and Bylsma (2007) found seven of these attributes to be linked to
second-order change, or those most likely to affect student learning. These attributes include:
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having knowledge of curriculum and instruction, intellectually stimulating faculty to ensure that
they are kept up-to-date on new practices and theories, constantly monitoring and evaluating,
being a change agent, communicating strong ideas about schooling, being flexible to different
situations, and leading new and challenging innovations. Leaders that can promote second-order
change may be able to foster a school culture that encourages learning and success.
Leadership styles. The research has revealed that the most common leadership styles
employed by effective leaders are distributed and instructional leadership. Studies that
examined outperforming schools found that these two leadership styles were most commonly
used, often times together.
Distributed leadership is a theory that emphasizes the need to share or distribute
leadership functions amongst individuals (Masumoto & Brown-Welty, 2009). This type of
leadership style promotes leadership throughout the organization, as school principals are aware
that they are unable to accomplish everything alone (Parrett & Budge, 2012). Additionally, they
recognize the benefits of providing leadership opportunities for others in the organization, as
they may have different vantage points, skills, and interests (Shannon & Bylsma, 2007). For this
type of leadership style to be successful, principals must be able to relinquish their control and
trust that others can help make decisions (Shannon & Bylsma, 2007). In Kobes' (2008) study on
the high-performing school-within-a-school, she found that distributed leadership was used by
the principal to help solve problems and share responsibilities amongst the staff. Giving staff
members a voice and the ability to make decisions may assist them to feel more invested in the
school and students. Similar to these results, Steagall (2012) states that collaboration and shared
leadership in high-poverty, high-performing schools help lead to their success.
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In contrast to a distributed leadership style, instructional leadership focuses on the
leader's influence on student achievement (Masumoto & Brown-Welty, 2009). This type of
leadership focuses less on management and more on teaching practices, curriculum, and student
performance (Steagall, 2012; Masumoto & Brown-Welty, 2009). Effective instructional leaders
guide teachers to help increase their self-efficacy (Masumoto & Brown-Welty, 2009).
Additionally, they have the ability to foster a positive organizational culture that is invested in
their shared vision and in meeting expectations. High-performing schools with effective leaders
more often than not have instructional leaders that are involved in curriculum improvement,
teacher development, and data-driven decision making (Masumoto & Brown-Welty, 2009).
They also encourage teacher engagement and shared decision making to promote a culture of
high expectations and achievement (Parrett & Budge, 2012).
Effective leadership begins with having the appropriate qualities to lead a school to
success. Although outperformance is dependent on the practices of both teachers and leaders, as
well as the overall school environment, leaders have the power to inspire and motivate
stakeholders to work together towards a shared goal. When principals place high expectations
on their students and teachers and believe in their abilities, they can help create an environment
that takes risks and strives for success.
Critique of the Literature
To have a clearer understanding of what makes an urban, nontraditional school
outperforming, an extensive review of past literature was conducted to identify common themes
and promising practices that have proven to be successful. Since a school system is multi-
faceted and complex, it was helpful to delineate the various elements in a school and separate
promising practices into three categories. The practices of schools, teachers, and leaders were
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examined in a multitude of high-poverty and nontraditional schools to better understand the
elements that have led to their success. This review found that the most promising practices of
schools include having a culture of high expectations, as well as a clear and shared focus. Since
outperforming schools identified high-quality teachers as being a key to their success, this review
aimed to uncover what those practices might entail. The promising practices identified for high-
quality teachers was their ability to create supportive learning environments through meaningful
relationships that respect student differences. Additionally, it found that high-quality teachers
who implement a culturally relevant curriculum with multidimensional instructional strategies
are found to be most effective. Finally, it identified the qualities and practices of effective school
leaders and highlighted the benefits of both distributed and instructional leadership styles.
Although there is a decent amount of literature on the impact of students living in
poverty, as well as the practices of high-performing schools, there are still many gaps that can be
addressed. For one, current literature is sparse on the practices of outperforming nontraditional
schools. Most of the studies examine the benefits and practices of charters and magnets.
However, the field of education can significantly benefit from having a better understanding of
other outperforming schools, such as same-sex schools, independent schools, international
baccalaureates, and dual immersion schools. Additionally, there are disparities in the opinions of
researchers on what constitutes an effective teacher. High-quality teaching is seen to be a factor
in a school's success, but research does not provide a precise definition or list of specific teaching
pedagogies that are most effective. Since nontraditional schools are unique in makeup and
structure, it would be especially valuable to define the specific instructional practices that prove
to be promising in their particular setting. That would allow educators to understand the specific
strategies that must be implemented to emulate a particular program.
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This study contributes to the literature by adding valuable information about the specific
promising practices in an outperforming, urban dual immersion school. Although there are
studies that have examined dual immersion schools, they are limited and are not specifically
focused on the programs, practices, and cultural norms that aid in their outperformance. Instead,
much of the research is concentrated on the benefits of dual-language programs on students’
cognitive, social, and emotional development. Moreover, since dual immersion programs are
currently a growing academic niche, districts, leaders, and educators will be able to utilize this
data when making decisions about starting their own dual immersion schools.

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CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The purpose of this chapter is to review the research methodology of this study.
Historically, students in high-poverty urban schools have not performed well academically in
comparison to students in more affluent communities. However, there are nontraditional urban
schools with similar low socioeconomic and demographic characteristics that are outperforming
traditional public schools. Since research is limited on how these nontraditional outperforming
schools are achieving excellence, more information was needed on what practices were
contributing to their success. The purpose of this study was to identify the factors present in one
nontraditional outperforming urban K-12 school. Specifically, it examined the practices and
programs implemented in an urban outperforming dual immersion school, the practices of the
school's leaders, as well as the cultural norms. The following chapter describes the research
design and development, the conceptual framework, population and sample, instrumentation,
data collection, and data analysis mechanisms. It will also review the issues of validity and
reliability.
Research Design
A qualitative, descriptive case study methodology was used as the research design for this
study. Qualitative research focuses on the intensive study of specific cases or phenomenon
(Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2003). This qualitative research design was found to be most appropriate
when attempting to understand the practices implemented in a nontraditional outperforming
urban school. According to Gall, Gall, and Borg (2003), there are four characteristics of case
study research. First, case studies help shed light on a phenomenon by focusing on specific
cases. Second, due to the substantial amount of data collected, it provides an in-depth study of
the case. Third, the phenomenon is studied in its natural context, which allows for a better
81
understanding of the participants and the environment. Lastly, case studies represent both the
perspectives of the participants and the researcher, which is known as the emic and etic
perspectives. By using the case study design, the researcher was better able to collect detailed
and thick descriptions of participants in their natural environment to create meaning and attempt
to understand the practices of one nontraditional outperforming urban school.
Research Development
Thematic Group Structure
This case study is one of eleven developed by a thematic dissertation group at the
University of Southern California (USC). The doctoral program at USC is structured in a way to
provide students with the unique opportunity to engage in the dissertation process with a cohort.
Although students in the group are examining a common theme in education, each dissertation is
written individually. However, students work collectively to create one problem statement, a
purpose of study, and research questions. Additionally, the instrumentation tools were created
together.
There are many benefits to working in a thematic dissertation group. Since one case
study is not generalizable, eleven studies with an identical design and research questions can be
examined collectively to generate common themes or findings. Generalizability can be defined
as the extent to which the research can be applied to other situations or settings (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Thick and detailed descriptions about a study's setting, participants, instruments
used, and findings are used to make the results of a case study more transferable or generalizable
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Each of the members of this cohort has provided rich and thick
descriptions of their individual studies to not only enable generalizability, but to also create
uniformity across studies.
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Another benefit to being in a thematic group is the support and guidance students can
receive from one another. Studies have shown that a common challenge that prevents doctoral
students from completing their program is the solitary dissertation process (Pena, Jimenez y
West, Gokalp, Fischer, & Gupton, 2010). Since students in a cohort are examining a common
theme, they can help guide one another, as well as provide emotional support. Finally, the
thematic group adds eleven new perspectives from varying nontraditional schools to the
literature base and can spark the interest of other researchers to further examine the phenomenon
of nontraditional outperforming urban schools.
This dissertation group began to meet in August of 2016 to discuss the topic of
nontraditional urban schools and review the literature base. Through further investigation, the
cohort members recognized that although there were data on outperforming traditional schools,
the research was limited on what led to outperformance in different nontraditional urban schools.
Rich discussions around this topic led to collectively creating the problem statement, purpose of
the study, and the research questions. Once these were determined, the group began identifying
the data needs based on the research questions. The eleven group members were divided into
smaller groups of three to five students to focus on creating a survey (Appendix A), interview
protocol (Appendix B), observation protocol (Appendix C), and a list of document needs
(Appendix D). Finally, the group created a criteria list for school selection. The problem
statement, purpose of study, research questions, and school selection criteria are described
below.
Problem Statement
The thematic group jointly created the following problem statement: "Historically,
students in high-poverty urban schools have not performed well academically in comparison to
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students in affluent communities. However, there are nontraditional urban schools with similar
low socioeconomic and demographic characteristics that are outperforming traditional public
schools. More needs to be known about how these nontraditional outperforming schools are
achieving excellence."
Purpose of the Study
The following purpose of study was used by each group member: “The purpose of this
study is to identify the factors present in a nontraditional outperforming urban K-12 school.”
Research Questions
Research questions identify the areas of inquiry for what topics to ask in interviews and
what important factors to observe while doing observations (Merriam & Tisdale, 2016). The
following research questions were developed together by the dissertation group and aimed to
uncover descriptive and detailed information about the promising practices in nontraditional
outperforming urban schools:
1. What practices and programs are implemented in an urban outperforming nontraditional
school?
2. What are the leadership practices in an urban outperforming nontraditional school?
3. What are the cultural norms in an urban outperforming nontraditional school?
School Selection Criteria
The dissertation group began by identifying types of nontraditional schools. The list
included: (a) charter schools (b) magnet schools (c) specific high schools (d) alternative schools
(e) online education schools (f) independent schools (g) dual immersion schools and (h) same-
sex schools. A list was also created to identify outperforming urban school criteria. The criteria
included: (a) being a K-12 institution (b) urban (which could be defined by low socioeconomic
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status of students, ethnic diversity, and limited resources) (c) low dropout rates (e) Gold Ribbon
School or equivalent achievement recognition and (f) high Smarter Balanced Assessment
Consortium (SBAC) scores. This criteria list ensured that group members had a common
understanding of the characteristics used to define both ‘nontraditional' and ‘urban' schools.
Conceptual Framework
A thorough review of the literature base was conducted on the topic of outperformance in
high-poverty schools. Through the literature on outperforming schools, the thematic group
members were able to identify three common variables that were then used to guide the research
study. The variables included: practices and programs, cultural norms, and leadership practices.
Three members of the dissertation group then worked together to create a conceptual framework
using the common variables. These members used the conceptual framework in their
dissertations, which they wrote individually. Figure 1 visually depicts the framework through
the use of gears. It explains that in order for a nontraditional urban school to achieve
outperforming academic success, it must implement promising practices and programs, cultural
norms, and leadership practices. Similar to mechanical gears, the three variables are independent
yet function more properly and effectively when working together. The result, which is
outperforming academic success, will be more likely when there are promising practices and
programs, positive cultural norms, and effective leadership practices.
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Figure 1. Outperforming Nontraditional Urban School Conceptual Framework

Population
Overview of Gold Elementary School
This case study focused on an outperforming urban elementary school with a dual
immersion program. Gold Elementary, which is a pseudonym, is a Title I school located in
Southern California and has a population of 930 students from Kindergarten through the fifth
grade. Demographic data indicates that 76.8% of the students at Gold Elementary are White,
14.3% are Hispanic or Latino, 4.5% are Filipino, 2.5% are Asian, and 1.1% are African
American. According to the principal, approximately 70% of those identified as White are
Armenian. Since Armenians are racially classified as White, the school must approximate the
demographic data regarding the percentage of Armenian students (Samkian, 2007).
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Data from the School Accountability Report Card shows that 64% of the student
population is socioeconomically disadvantaged and 42.5% are considered to be English
Learners. Over 450 students are eligible for free lunch and over 100 are reduced-price lunch
eligible. Funding and support for this urban school come from both the state and school district.
This district serves both a high and low socioeconomic community, with higher socioeconomic
families living on the North side and more socioeconomically disadvantaged families living in
the South. Gold Elementary is a neighborhood school located on the South side of the district.
Although a majority of the students are socioeconomically disadvantaged, Gold
Elementary has continued to excel and has made student achievement a priority. In 2003, the
school became a National Blue Ribbon School and has received the Title I Academic
Achievement Award in 2004, 2011, and 2016. It has been named a California Distinguished
School in the years 1987, 2002, and 2008 and was most recently named a California Gold
Ribbon School in 2016. Academic progress results from the 2014-2015 school year indicate that
50% of students between the third and fifth grades met or exceeded the standards in English
Language Arts, while 44% met or exceeded the state standards in mathematics. The state’s new
evaluation system for accountability and improvement, the California School Dashboard, uses a
color-coding system to indicate performance levels. As seen in Figure 2, Gold Elementary has
received blue and green ratings on all indicators, which are the highest performance levels. Gold
Elementary has outperformed its elementary counterparts on the South side of the district and is
receiving similar ratings to the schools located in the more affluent North side of the district.
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Figure 2. California Dashboard for Gold Elementary

The district in which Gold Elementary resides established a foreign language program in
2006. Currently, the district offers various dual immersion programs throughout the district in
languages such as Armenian, French, German, Italian, Japanese, Korean, and Spanish. The
various language programs not only help create diversity in the district, but meet the needs of
multicultural families living in the community. Due to community interest, Gold Elementary
created the Armenian Dual Immersion Language Program in 2010, which focuses on full
bilingualism and biliteracy in English and Armenian. The program is offered from kindergarten
through the fifth grade and follows the 50/50 dual immersion (two-way) model, where 50% of
the instructional day is taught in Armenian, and the other half is taught in English. Students
enrolled in the dual immersion program are placed in a cohort and remain with the same group of
students from kindergarten through the fifth grade. Gold Elementary has 38 teachers with a full
credential and has reported that 100% of classes in core academic subjects are taught by highly
qualified teachers. Dual immersion classes are taught by fully credentialed bilingual teachers
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who have expertise in both English and the target language. The administration team consists of
one principal, one assistant principal, and two teacher specialists.
Sample
Gold Elementary School was selected using purposeful sampling. Purposeful sampling is
most commonly used in qualitative research because it allows a researcher to discover and gain
insight from the sample that can be most learned from (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Patton (2015)
states that purposeful sampling leads to information-rich cases, where one can gain a great deal
of knowledge about the issue of importance (as cited in Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Gold
Elementary was purposefully selected because it met each factor of the criteria established by the
thematic dissertation group. There were three specific site selection criteria. First, the site
chosen for each study needed to be an urban school based on the minority and low-income
student population. Gold Elementary meets this criterion because of both the high Armenian
student population and the high proportion of students that are socioeconomically disadvantaged.
Although over 70% of the student population is of Armenian descent, Armenians are still
considered a minority group as they are a small proportion of the U.S. population (Phinney,
Romero, Nava, & Huang, 2001). Additionally, 64% of the students qualify for free-or-reduced
price lunch, making Gold Elementary a Title I school. The second criterion for the study was to
be a nontraditional K-12 school. Gold Elementary is nontraditional because it offers a dual-
language Armenian program for kindergarten through fifth grade in conjunction with the regular
K-5
th
academic program. Due to the high demand, families that are interested in having their
children be in the dual-language program must apply and are chosen through a lottery system.
The final criterion was to be an outperforming school based on high achievement scores. Gold
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Elementary is not only a Gold Ribbon school, but has also outperformed their elementary
counterparts in their district based on the ratings from the California School Dashboard.
The participants of this study included Gold Elementary teachers and administrators. The
entire staff of teachers and administrators were invited to participate in the survey and there was
a total of 27 participants. Since it was not feasible to interview and observe all teachers, those
who were interviewed and observed were selected through network sampling and
recommendations from the administrators. There were a total of five thorough interviews with
both administrators and teachers, as well as 12 various classroom and campus observations
starting at the end of the 2016-2017 school year and the first couple of months of the 2017-2018
school year.
Instrumentation
Conducting research using a case study design allows for thick and rich descriptions
through multiple sources of data collection (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2003). Using multiple sources
of data allows for triangulation, which can be defined as the cross-checking of data to increase
the internal validity and credibility of a study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Due to the qualitative
nature of this study, four types of data collection methods were used: surveys, interviews,
observations, and document analysis. As described above, the eleven dissertation group
members were divided into subgroups of three to five to design one of the data collection
instruments. Once each group completed them, they were reviewed collectively by the eleven
members and the dissertation chairs. Feedback was given and revisions were made until all the
group members collectively agreed on the quality of the instruments. Each instrument was
thoughtfully constructed to correlate with one or more of the research questions. A description
of each data collection instrument is described below and is also located in the appendices.
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Survey
According to Merriam and Tisdell (2016), surveys are used to systematically describe the
facts and characteristics of a phenomenon. For this study, one survey was created to be
administered to both teachers and administrators (see Appendix A). The survey questions were
modeled and adapted from a larger study conducted by Shannon and Bylsma (2007). It began by
collecting general background information from the participant. The following sections were
clearly divided into nine parts that addressed questions on the following topics: Vision and
Mission, Leadership, Learning Environment, School Environment, Standards/Expectations of
Nontraditional Schools, Monitoring of Teaching and Learning, Collaboration and
Communication, Family and Community Involvement, and Professional Development. The 56
survey questions were mostly close-ended and allowed participants to respond to a Likert scale
with the numbers one (Strongly Disagree) through four (Strongly Agree). It also included a Not
Applicable response. All survey questions corresponded to one or more of the research
questions. The questions were inputted into an online data collection software called Qualtrics
and a special link was generated which allowed participants to access the survey. Qualtrics data
software was utilized since the results would remain secure and confidential. Additionally, the
researcher believed it would be more efficient and encourage completion.
Interview Protocol
An interview protocol was created with open-ended questions and a semi-structured
format (see Appendix B). Patton (2002) states that an interview guide is advantageous in that it
helps ensure the interviewer uses limited time wisely, as well as helps make the interview
process more systematic and focused. Since the questions and probes were carefully and fully
worded prior to the interview, this is known as a standardized open-ended interview (Patton,
2002). After reviewing the purpose of the study and asking a few general questions to help build
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a rapport with the participants, the protocol followed with twelve questions specifically tied to
the research questions.
Observation Protocol
The observation protocol form was created in order to help guide the researcher on items
to focus on while conducting the study. The form was created to correlate with the three
research variables in mind; cultural norms, programs and practices, and leadership (see Appendix
C). The form could be used to document observations in either a classroom, staff meeting, or
other school event with staff and students. It includes questions to consider, as well as items to
look for when conducting the observations. The form is organized into various sections and
clearly indicates the details of each observation, such as the time and location, the physical
space, and the participants. Additionally, it includes a section that allows for detailed notes on
the event taking place.
Document Analysis
Various documents pertaining to the school needed to be reviewed to have a better
understanding of the factors leading to its outperformance. The documents were accessed
through state websites, as well as through the district and school website. An extensive list of
documents to choose from was identified by the thematic group and was divided to include
specific documents for each of the three research questions (see Appendix D).
Data Collection
The researcher first identified a school of interest through online research of schools that
met the study’s criteria. Students were advised to make initial contact with schools to inform
them about the purpose of the study and indicate if they would be interested in participating.
Once Gold Elementary was identified as a possible option, the researcher contacted the principal
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by phone to express interest in conducting a case study. The researcher spent approximately
twenty minutes on the phone with the principal explaining the purpose of the study and what it
entailed. The principal then agreed to the study. However, prior to actually conducting the case
study, an application was created and submitted by the dissertation group to the Institutional
Review Board (IRB). Once the IRB application was approved in April of 2017, each student
was able to begin the individual research process at their school site. The researcher then visited
the school site in May of 2017 to meet the principal in person, create a rough timeline of
visitation dates, and present a confidentiality agreement.
Documents were the first sources of data collected since they were the easiest to obtain
from online sources, such as the school and district website, as well as the California Department
of Education website. Documents collected from the websites and school principal included the
school calendar, master schedule, staff meeting agendas, information on the dual immersion
program, the student/parent handbook, and the school mission statement. The researcher was
also invited to attend the end of the year staff meeting in May of 2017. This gave the researcher
a glimpse into the culmination of the 2016-2017 school year, while allowing her to observe the
dynamics and structure of a staff meeting. A brief description of the study was presented during
the meeting by the principal, which allowed the researcher to build a rapport with the staff.
The researcher returned to the school site in September at the start of the 2017-2018
school year to conduct the survey and begin observations. The link to the online survey was
distributed to the staff at their first meeting and specific time was allocated to complete the
survey at that time in order to ensure high response rates. Once the survey was completed, the
researcher began observations in both dual-language and regular education classrooms. She was
also able to gain valuable insight by observing the events such as a fire drill procedure and the
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dismissal process. Approximately 12 observations were conducted over a span of five days for
30 to 45 minutes at a time. Observations are conducted to triangulate emergent findings and are
the best technique to use when a situation can be observed firsthand (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Through observations, the researcher was able to record the event as it was happening and see
the reactions and behaviors of participants (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The observation protocol
forms were used to guide the elements that were observed, such as the physical setting, the
participants, the activities and interactions, conversations, and subtle factors present in both the
classrooms and school environment (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Since being a researcher was
the primary role, observations were conducted in the back of classrooms and staff meetings to
avoid distracting participants.
Interviews were conducted after observations in order to have the opportunity to ask
questions if needed about specific things that were observed. This technique is known as
"anchored interviewing" (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Interviews were conducted between the
months of October and November with the principal, the assistant principal, the teacher specialist
for the dual immersion program, and three teachers. Additionally, due to the limited availability
of one teacher, an informal interview was conducted after classroom observations. Once the
participants had given consent, the researcher asked the participants to choose a date and time
that would be most convenient for them to partake in the interview. The confidentiality
procedures were reviewed and all questions or concerns were answered prior to starting the
interview. The interviews were audio-recorded with the participant's consent as the researcher
simultaneously took notes.

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Data Analysis
The purpose of data analysis is to make meaning out of the data (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). Since the amount of data collected was vast, it was important to the researcher to begin
slowly analyzing data simultaneously during data collection. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) state
that ongoing analysis helps prevent the data from becoming overwhelming, unfocused, and
repetitious. The researcher made sure to transcribe observations and interviews no more than 24
hours after conducting them and added thoughtful memos and interpretations in the margins to
begin the analyzation process. The researcher conducted data analysis using Creswell’s (2003)
six-step process. The detailed process is described below.
Step 1: Organize the Data and Prepare for Data Analysis
The purpose of step one was to organize the data and prepare it for analysis. The
interview and observation data were transcribed into Google Docs. The results of the survey
were analyzed and extracted from the Qualtrics data software.
Step 2: Read Through All the Data
The purpose of step two was to have an understanding of the data collected. Once all the
information was transcribed into Google Docs, the researcher read through the data, reflected
upon it, and added reflective memos at the end of the document.
Step 3: Begin Detailed Analysis with A Coding Process
In this step, the researcher began the process of coding. To begin, the researcher did
open coding using the highlighting tool in Google Docs. During this process, the researcher kept
the research questions and variables in mind while identifying general themes. After completing
this process with all the data, the researcher went through the open codes and began grouping
similar comments and notes together to create more concise categories. Merriam and Tisdell
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(2016) describe this process as axial or analytical coding, which is coding that requires more
interpretation and reflection on meaning. The highlighting tool in Google Docs was utilized
again to group together similar themes.
Step 4: Use the Coding Process to Generate a Description of the Setting or People, as Well
as Themes
This step involved generating a description and determined the themes for analysis. The
color-coded categories were used to find the themes that were most present.
Step 5: Use Narrative Passages to Convey Findings of Analysis and Themes
The purpose of this step was to identify how the descriptions would be conveyed in
narrative format. The themes were used to create narrative descriptions that were thick, rich, and
incorporated various participant perspectives.
Step 6: Make an Interpretation or Meaning of the Data
The purpose of this final step was to interpret the findings or themes generated in the
prior steps. The researcher used her personal interpretations, in addition to findings from past
literature to make thoughtful meaning of the data.
Validity and Credibility
The researcher took deliberate action to ensure validity and credibility of this study. It is
important to guarantee that research findings are credible and congruent with reality (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). First, the researcher triangulated multiple sources of data by comparing and
cross-checking the information collected through the interviews, surveys, observations, and
document analysis (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In addition to triangulation, the researcher
conducted member checks, which entailed taking the tentative interpretations back to the
principal and teachers to ask if they seemed plausible (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Also, the
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researcher spent an adequate amount of time collecting data and provided enough rich, thick
descriptions as to contextualize the study. Finally, the researcher engaged in peer review with a
few dissertation group members to discuss the process of the study, as well as the congruency of
the findings with the raw data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Although the main disadvantage to
conducting case studies is limited generalizability, these aforementioned steps, as well as the
thematic group approach and purposeful sampling technique help minimize this limitation and
present a strong case study with significant findings.
Conclusion
The purpose of this chapter was to describe the research methodology of this study and
provide the rationale to why a qualitative case study was the most appropriate research method.
It described the group dissertation process and how the cohort collectively designed the research
questions, problem statement, and instrumentation tools. After providing a detailed description
of the population and sample, it reviewed the data collection and analysis methods. The
following chapter will outline the findings from this study.

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CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
This chapter examines the programs and practices, leadership practices, and cultural
norms of Gold Elementary, which is an outperforming urban school with a dual immersion
program. Historically, students in high-poverty urban schools have not performed well
academically in comparison to students in more affluent communities. However, there are
nontraditional urban schools with similar low socioeconomic and demographic characteristics
that are outperforming traditional public schools. The purpose of this study was to identify the
factors present in one nontraditional outperforming urban K-12 school.
In the previous three chapters of this dissertation, the problem and significance of the
study were discussed and a thorough review of the literature was provided. Additionally, it
described the research design, development, and data collection processes. This chapter will
begin with the researcher’s initial impressions of Gold Elementary and an overview of the school
site. It will then focus on the data collected and the findings that emerged in relation to the three
research questions.
Initial Impressions of Gold Elementary
It is 9:30 a.m. on a warm Wednesday morning in September. As I stand on the sidewalk
admiring this historic building known as Gold Elementary, I can hear the distant sound of
children playing on the playground to my right. I make my way down the grassy front lawn past
the flagpoles and head up the steps to the large double door entrance. My eye catches the large
purple banner above the door that states, “Carpe Diem! Seize the Day!” Instantly, I am reminded
of the staff meeting I attended at the end of the last school year, during which the principal
shared this new motto with her staff. I am surprised to see how much this motto has grown from
an idea to something being implemented throughout the school in just a few short months. I
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even encountered the motto before my visit, as it was mentioned in the principal’s welcome letter
on the school website. There she explained that she would be sharing the motto with the students
throughout the year and would be encouraging them to try and make everyday extraordinary by
placing their focus on seizing each day.
When I walk through the doors, I am quickly greeted by a very pleasant receptionist
behind a glass window. As I wait for her to let the principal know that I have arrived, I take a
close look at the things displayed on the walls in the waiting area. This small room is the first
thing that visitors and families see when they enter the school. Although the area is small, it has
just enough displayed to give any visitor a glimpse of the school. As I look around, I notice
framed awards indicating that the school has received both the Gold Ribbon title and the Title I
Academic Achievement Award. There are multiple flyers for families that provide an overview
of the district’s plans and priorities, in addition to the school’s blueprint for the new playground
that is going to be built. Colorful posters display information about the Parent Teacher
Association (PTA), as well as ways for families to connect with the principal online. Many of
these displayed documents are written in both English and Armenian for families to read.
Forms and posters such as these can be found in any school’s main office. However,
there are two very striking things that catch my attention and make me feel as though I am
visiting a small community. First, one of the walls has a display of over 60 senior portraits of
former students who have attended Gold Elementary. Underneath the photo is the tagline,
“Preparing Our Students For The Future.” It is impressive that this elementary school still has a
connection with past students that are now graduating from high school. Second, the door
leading to the main hallway and classrooms is surrounded by encouraging and uplifting quotes.
It says things such as, “If you believe in yourself anything is possible”, “Show them how great
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you are”, and “You have three choices in life: Give up, give in, or give it all you’ve got.” These
simple words seem strategically placed to project the message that the students behind those
doors are capable of achieving anything. The walls, which are adorned with photos, awards, and
inspiring messages, are similar to the walls of a grandparent’s home proudly displaying photos of
their beloved grandchildren and their accomplishments. As a visitor, I quickly feel that I have
entered a warm and welcoming environment.
Overview of Gold Elementary
Gold Elementary is a kindergarten through 5
th
-grade institution located in Southern
California. It is on a quiet inside street of a busy urban town, surrounded by apartment buildings,
shopping centers, and local businesses. Although it is surrounded by the congestion of the
bustling community, it is hard to miss. This 102-year-old establishment exudes a type of charm
that is both majestic and inviting. There is a warmth to the building as it is covered in windows
and allows natural light to shine through, while providing glimpses of student artwork to the
outside community. The school is surrounded by trees and a large grassy front lawn where
families gather daily to pick up their children and bond with other members of the school
community. Behind this historic building is a newly constructed two-story building with 18
classrooms and a new technology lab designed to also be a collaborative makerspace. The
classrooms and the furniture arrangements in this new building are designed in such a way to
encourage students to collaborate in an open learning space. Tables and brightly colored chairs
of varying heights are arranged in such a way to encourage more intimate learning with small
group activities. Classrooms in the older building are no different. Although not as modern,
these classrooms are lined with student work and exude a cozier feel. Separating both the older
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building and the newly constructed building is an open quad area where students gather to eat
lunch. They also have a large playground space to move around, run, and play.
Gold Elementary is a neighborhood school with a population of 930 students. As the
students, staff, and families gather on the front lawn for dismissal each day, it is clear that the
school community reflects diversity. Data on school demographics indicate that 76.8% of the
students are White, 14.3% are Hispanic or Latino, 4.5% are Filipino, 2.5% are Asian, and 1.1%
are African American. However, out of the 76.8% that identify as White, approximately 70%
are of Armenian descent. Although it is clear that Armenians are a minority group in the larger
community, one might wonder how a school with such a high proportion of Armenian students is
considered diverse. It is important to note that Armenians come from different countries of
origin and make up multiple “subethnicities” (Samkian, 2007). Their countries of origin have a
great influence on their Armenian dialect, the other languages they may speak, and their overall
lifestyles, although they all share similar cultural values and heritage. Armenians immigrate to
the U.S. from countries such as Armenia, Russia, Lebanon, and Iran (Samkian, 2007). For this
reason, there is a great amount of diversity that can be found even in this student population.
According to the teacher specialist, Gold Elementary is a multicultural environment with
multilingual students, staff, and families.
Of the 930 students, 64% are considered to be socioeconomically disadvantaged, making
Gold Elementary a Title I school. Over 40% of the students are considered to be English
learners (ELs). The principal and teacher specialist revealed that they have had a few students
join them each year from countries like Armenia, Iran, Syria, and Iraq knowing little to no
English. They describe that the program is tailored in such a way to ensure the academic success
of all students, including those who have newly immigrated to the United States.
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The school has a total of 75 staff members, 33 of whom are credentialed teaching staff.
There are two teacher specialists, one for the regular education program and the other for the
Armenian dual immersion program. There is also one assistant principal and school principal.
The table below represents the teaching background of the survey participants. According to the
data, about 33% of the participants have worked in their current role for four to seven years.
Additionally, close to 26% have been employed at Gold Elementary for eight to fifteen years,
while 22% have been there for 16 or more years.

Table 1
Educator Experience and Background
Years in Current
Role

No. of Teachers
Years at Gold
Elementary

No. of Teachers
0-3 years

4-7 years

8-15 years

16 or more years
7

9

1

10
0-3 years

4-7 years

8-15 years

16 or more years
5

9

7

6

Gold Elementary’s outperformance is demonstrated through the high ratings on the state
website, as well as a number of recognitions. The school was named a National Blue Ribbon
School and received the Title I Academic Achievement Award in 2004, 2011, and 2016. In
1987, 2002, and 2008, the school was named a California Distinguished School. Most recently,
in 2016, it became a California Gold Ribbon School. Ratings on the California School
Dashboard show both blue and green ratings on all indicators, including suspension rates,
English Learner Progress, English Language Arts, and Mathematics (see Figure 2).
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To meet the growing needs of the multicultural community, Gold Elementary began a
dual immersion Armenian program in 2010. This school is one of many schools in the district
that offer dual language instruction. Out of the 930 students, 350 are enrolled in the Armenian
program. Each year, the school receives over 200 applications to be a part of the program and
parents are encouraged to tour the school to learn more about what this rigorous program entails.
Due to the high demand, students are chosen based on a lottery system. These students are
placed in a cohort from kindergarten through the 5th grade and receive instruction of all subjects
in both Armenian and English each day.
Testimonies on the school website reveal parents’ support and appreciation for the dual
language program. One parent that was interviewed said, “It is a great opportunity to have this
as a free public service in education.” Others believe that it is a great way to help their child
keep their cultural identity, while gaining the developmental benefits of learning a second
language. Students need not be Armenian to apply and be in the program, yet most are. This
program has been so successful that Gold Elementary has been approached by the surrounding
district to help them start an Armenian dual language program.
Methodology
Data Collection Methods
Four different instruments were used to collect data for this qualitative case study,
including document reviews, staff surveys, classroom and campus observations, and staff
interviews. The data were collected over a span of five days starting at the end of the 2016-2017
school year and into the start of the 2017-2018 school year. The case study design resulted in the
collection of rich and thick data, while the multiple sources allowed for triangulation (Gall, Gall,
& Borg, 2003).
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School records and documents were reviewed to have a better understanding of the
various factors leading to Gold Elementary’s outperformance. The document review included
the following: California School Dashboard website, the School Accountability Report Card
(SARC), the district website, the school’s official website, the Student/Parent Handbook, the
school calendar, online information about the dual immersion program, letters to parents, site
created assessments, and other publications about the school. The documents were acquired
through the school website, as well as through the principal, assistant principal, and teacher
specialist.
The survey was distributed at a staff meeting at the start of the school year. The principal
allocated time during the meeting for staff to take the survey in order to ensure higher response
rates. There were a total of 27 respondents out of 33, which accounts for 82% of the teaching
staff at Gold Elementary. As discussed in Chapter Three, the survey questions were created by a
subgroup of the thematic dissertation group members and were then reviewed by all eleven
members to ensure alignment with the research questions. The questions focused on uncovering
detailed information about programs and practices, leadership, and cultural norms at this
outperforming nontraditional school.
In addition to the surveys, observational data were collected over the span of five school
visits from May to November 2017. Twelve different observations were conducted and included
observations of the general school grounds, instruction in dual language and regular classrooms,
the end of the year staff meeting, a fire drill, and the school’s dismissal practice. Through each
of these observations, the researcher was able to witness the interactions between
teachers/students, students/students, administrators/students, and administrators/teachers to gain
better insight on the relationships between the various stakeholders at Gold Elementary.
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In an effort to better understand the perspectives and roles of the various administrators,
formal interviews were conducted with the principal, assistant principal, and the teacher
specialist for the dual immersion program. Following the recommendations of the
administrators, formal interviews were conducted with a dual language kindergarten teacher and
1
st
-grade teacher. Additionally, the researcher was able to conduct an informal interview with a
4
th
-grade teacher, which still proved to be insightful. An interview protocol helped guide each of
the interviews to ensure that the questions were focused and that limited time was used wisely.
Additional questions were generated as a result of the rich discussions with the participants.
Data Analysis
It was critical to analyze the data in a way to help deduce the findings into emergent
themes so that better insight could be gained about the programs and practices, leadership, and
cultural norms at Gold Elementary. The data collection and analysis process began concurrently
to prevent the data from becoming overwhelming and unfocused. During site visits, the
researcher would add thoughtful memos and questions in the margins of her notes while
conducting observations and interviews. As soon as visits were complete, the hand-written notes
were transcribed into Google Docs and further interpretations were added. Creswell’s (2003)
six-step process was used to conduct data analysis. Once all the data had been collected and
thoroughly read through, the researcher began the process of open coding and further arranging
the data into categories. Relevant data from each of the instrumentation methods were used to
validate the findings and emergent themes.
The study’s findings and themes are conveyed in narrative format, as Creswell’s fifth step
requires. In order to create a thick and rich descriptive narrative, specific examples, quotations,
and multiple perspectives are provided from the document review, surveys, interviews, and
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observations (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2003). The findings for each research question are described
in detail below, followed by the emergent themes. Finally, as Creswell’s sixth step states, the
findings and themes are interpreted to help make meaning of the data and possibly inform further
studies.
Research Questions
The research questions were created by the thematic dissertation group and aimed to
uncover detailed information about the promising practices in nontraditional outperforming
urban schools. The questions served as a parameter for the collection of data and in the analysis
of findings to help determine emergent themes.
The following research questions were addressed:
1. What practices and programs are implemented in an urban outperforming non-traditional
school?
2. What are the leadership practices in an urban outperforming non-traditional school?
3. What are the cultural norms in an urban outperforming non-traditional school?
Data and Findings by Research Question
Research Question One
What practices and programs are implemented in an urban outperforming non-
traditional school? The first research question aimed to determine the various types of programs
and practices implemented at Gold Elementary that are contributing to its outperformance. Data
gathered from the interviews, surveys, observations, and documents were used to answer this
question. From the data gathered, five important programs and practices were identified: (a) the
Armenian dual immersion program, (b) a Professional Learning Community, (c) practices to
maximize student achievement, (d) setting clear student expectations, and (e) the dismissal
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practice. Each program or practice will be discussed in detail below using support from the staff
interviews and surveys, observational data, and document review.
Dual immersion program. Gold Elementary started its Armenian dual immersion
program in 2010 after interest from the surrounding community. Due to the high demand of the
program, students are chosen based on a lottery system and others are placed on a waiting list.
The majority of the dual immersion students are from Armenian families, yet some enter the
program not speaking the language. As previously mentioned, Gold Elementary is one of many
schools in the district with a dual immersion program. The document review revealed that the
school district has three concrete goals for students in the dual immersion programs. These
include: developing a high level of language proficiency and literacy in both languages,
developing an appreciation for diverse cultures, and exhibiting high levels of academic
achievement.
The observations and interviews reveal that the administration and staff are focused on
meeting the district’s prescribed goals. During the interview with the principal, she described the
structure of this rigorous program. All students start their day at 8:10 a.m. and students from
kindergarten through the third grade have both an Armenian and English teacher, while fourth
and fifth grade students have only one teacher. Starting the school day in either English or
Armenian alternates each month. This program is structured in such a way to ensure that the
students are meeting their grade level objectives and standards in both Armenian and English
throughout each day. Due to a limit in time, kindergarten through third grade teachers work
together to determine which teacher will address certain standards. If one teacher decides to
teach a specific standard, the other teacher will focus on enhancing the lesson in the other
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language. Although teachers and students in this program have to work with a limited amount of
time, the expectations are still high. The kindergarten teacher explained:
It is expecting a lot of our students, but we feel as though whenever they do get the
homework or the amount of things they do in this classroom, it really helps them in the
long run because they become more responsible. They're more educated. They're pretty
much ready for the next grade level. We actually see it in our students’ test scores...the
scores come up and we see a difference.
The rigor and constraint on time was also a focus in other conversations, as well. The first grade
teacher emphasized:
It really makes the kids work. Whenever I see parents here, they're like, "Oh my gosh,
you do so much in such a short period of time. How do you do this with the short amount
of time you have and with so many kids? How do you get this accomplished?"
The dual immersion program has a total of ten highly qualified teachers, as well as one
teacher specialist. Per the information gathered from the district documents, all dual immersion
teachers must be fully credentialed bilingual teachers and have additional training and expertise
in their target language. The teacher specialist explained that all the dual immersion teachers at
Gold have not only a multiple subject teaching credential, but also a Bilingual Crosscultural,
Language and Academic Development (BCLAD) credential and have taken the California
Teacher of English Learners (CTEL) exam. The surplus of preparation and testing these dual
immersion teachers must undergo helps them in becoming well prepared to provide their
students with high quality instruction in both languages. However, due to the uniqueness and
recentness of this Armenian program, it is difficult for dual immersion teachers to attend
specialized outside trainings. For that reason, it is the responsibility of the Armenian teacher
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specialist to plan professional development days and create opportunities for the teachers to
collaborate, plan lessons, make assessments, and rubrics. She explains,
As a dual immersion teacher, we don't get any specialized training or anything, but we
have our release days to collaborate, to do things together, to create things together, to
modify, to share our best practices, and then based on that, find the cracks, and modify
our lessons, units, and practice.
The teacher specialist’s role includes much more than just providing teachers with
training and collaboration time. It is her responsibility to provide the teachers with the
curriculum and materials they need in Armenian and ensure it is aligned with both Common
Core State Standards (CCSS) and The Republic of Armenia’s rigorous standards. She states:
My job is to provide them with all the curriculum or materials that are aligned with
common core standards... trying to find things that will go with common core standards,
and then to find those materials, to order them, to have them, to distribute to all the
teachers, and to make sure that they will work. Not the whole book can be taught in the
American schools. There are things that are culturally not very appropriate, so you have
to read all of them, take those lessons out or put more emphasis on this or that lesson... I
also create assessments because we don't have enough. I'm helping teachers to assess
students. I was doing that because our teachers don't have that time to come out of the
classroom to do that. Previously, we didn't have that. Now, I've decided to do that
because I'm coming from a teacher's point of view... I know how our time is limited and
we cannot do things that we are expected to do as teachers. I'm trying to help the teachers
to ease whatever they are doing.
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The researcher’s observations confirm the findings from the teacher specialist’s
interview. While walking through the hallways with the principal, the researcher observed the
teacher specialist sitting outside the kindergarten classroom with one student conducting a
baseline assessment. Additionally, the student work displayed in all the dual immersion
classrooms had the description of the CCSS next to the Armenian assignments, clearly indicating
which standard the assignment met.
Employing and training highly qualified teachers, as well as using a curriculum that is
aligned with rigorous standards, may be enough to make a program successful. However,
interviews and observations reveal that Gold Elementary has added additional factors to the
program that helps students build relationships and collaborate with members of the school
community. First, with the program’s cohort structure and focus on student support, students are
part of a smaller, more intimate learning community within a larger school community. Second,
it builds a bridge between both the dual and non-dual immersion community, leading to more
collaboration and a respect for cultural diversity.
In an elementary school with over 900 students, it is not uncommon for students to feel
lost or out of place, especially if they have recently moved to the United States. With an
estimated 4.5 million English learners (EL) in U.S. public schools, many immigrant children or
students of immigrant parents with limited English-speaking abilities, are left feeling confused
and lost in school environments that tend to cater to the mainstream American culture (National
Center of Education Statistics, 2016; Webb & Barrera IV, 2016). According to Webb and
Barrera IV (2016), minority groups and English learners face serious academic barriers, as there
is little support of their linguistic needs and minimal acknowledgment of their cultural identities.
However, the 350 students enrolled in the dual immersion program at Gold Elementary are part
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of a smaller community within the school, which helps foster a greater sense of belonging. This
group is further separated into even smaller communities of students by their specific grade their
level. The cohort structure keeps dual immersion students together from kindergarten through
the fifth grade. This is an uncommon practice in public schools as students are usually placed
with different classmates each year. Many studies have shown the advantages of educational
settings with a cohort model (Drago-Severson et al., 2001). However, most studies focus on the
benefits of cohort models in higher education, as it is uncommon in the elementary level. A past
study revealed that cohort groups in education help make a critical difference in academic
learning, emotional well-being, as well students’ abilities to broaden their perspectives (Drago-
Severson et al., 2001). Overall, research shows that cohorts are student-centered and can aid in
the development of strong bonds and relationships. The teacher specialist shares her perspective
on one of the reasons why parents enroll their children in the dual immersion program:
to grow up in a secure and safe environment with the friends who are not being changed
every day and every year, but they are with you until the end, just like private school. I've
heard from many parents that they send their children to private schools and pay $800
monthly for the friendship, because that friendship lasts, and you want that for your child.
But in public schools, that's not the case, because every year you change your class.
Especially when you go to middle school, you are not sure that you will be with the same
group of friends. But here they are still together, so they keep growing up together, and
that's very important.
This program not only helps students forge strong bonds, but also introduces them to
friendships that would otherwise be unlikely. The student population is very diverse, with many
children having recently immigrated from countries like Armenia, Syria, and Iran. During one
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observation, the researcher witnessed two young girls walking back to class arm in arm after a
fire drill. The teacher specialist pointed both students out and mentioned that one had recently
transferred from a local private school, while the other had just moved from Armenia. She
commented on their friendship by saying, “This is really something beautiful. Where else would
you see this?” On a separate occasion, the researcher was introduced to two fifth grade students
in the dual immersion program. She was told that one of the students had immigrated from
Armenia just two years ago knowing little to no English. The student from Armenia explained
how he never felt uncomfortable because his classmates were always there to help him. He
spoke to the researcher fluently and confidently in English while sharing his experiences. The
female student said that there are currently a few students in their class that do not know English
and that they all support and help one another learn.
These small yet significant interactions and observations with and of students illustrate
the support within this community. The cohort model and the relationships that develop
thereafter help maximize the achievement of all students, especially English learners. Immigrant
students who would otherwise feel disconnected or unable to communicate with others have a
safe, supportive environment in which they can succeed. Both the teacher specialist and first
grade teacher revealed that students who do not speak English have support from their peers
when trying to communicate in class. In turn, they are helpful to native English speaking
students learning Armenian. Feeling as though they can communicate with others in their native
tongue, being helpful to their peers, and feeling actively involved in their learning helps them
develop the confidence they need to excel academically and socially.
This program helps students collaborate with and support their cohort members, while
also forming relationships with students outside their dual immersion community. Certain
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collaborative practices led by the teachers have helped form a bridge between the dual and non-
dual immersion communities, allowing the students to interact with one another and develop a
respect for cultural diversity. The teacher specialist stated that the program is “...very important
because it brings awareness of other cultures, other dialects, people with other ethnicities than us.
It brings awareness and it values that.” In order to bring students from both programs together,
teachers have planned combined lessons to provide students with enriching cross-cultural
activities and experiences. The teacher specialist shared a few examples of past lessons that
were planned and successfully executed over the last year. One example was combined physical
education for third grade students where different teachers would take the lead each class. She
explains:
When I would take the lead, both Armenian and non-Armenian speaking students were
directed by me in Armenian. And everyone was doing it happily. And I remember one
Indian student doing it and he was one of the best. He was translating whatever I was
saying and doing without knowing Armenian to his friends saying, “Ok, do this!” All the
kids were chanting in Armenian. It was very beautiful to see. Just imagine if we could
have this. We wouldn’t have borders with barbed wires between our countries. We would
solve that.
In addition to combined PE classes, teachers would plan occasional lab writing days for
their students. In this one particular example, she explained that the students would visit all six
third grade teachers in one day and work on a writing assignment. Then, all the student work
was combined into a book called “My Third Grade Collaboration Day” and sent home. She says,
“. . . the kids loved it. They were so proud. They are friends. They play together at lunch and
recess. Why not do classes together?” Lab days are now occurring in other grade levels.
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The most impressive lesson was when one of the veteran teachers asked to be a part of
the student assembly held in commemoration of the Armenian Genocide. The teachers
collaborated to plan a unit of study that would allow students to learn about both the Holocaust
and the Armenian Genocide. The students were taught about the powers involved, World War I
in comparison to World War II, and about the different groups of people that were deeply
impacted. Since it is a sensitive topic, they taught the lessons through the showing of The Sound
of Music. Through watching ten minute snippets of the movie each day, all the students were
introduced to history, as well as art and music. She explained:
After teaching it, we taught them three songs from the movie and we even danced. One of
the songs I translated into Armenian and even the other teacher’s students learned it in
Armenian! We sang in Armenian and English. I even had the chance to teach sewing in
three lessons like the movie. So I taught them how to sew skirts and shirts with buttons.
We bought the fabric like the movie and we went with a parent and bought them hats like
in the movie. Even teachers wore clothes like them. We had a ceremony and it was
awesome. They all learned about the past and the outcome was that the past should not be
repeated. This is something they will take with them for the rest of their lives. The effect
that you have on their lives and young minds, that’s what is important.
These lessons illustrate the value of collaborating to create enriching and memorable learning
experiences for all the students, while also fostering an appreciation for other languages and
cultures.
Professional learning community. Gold Elementary has recently begun the process of
becoming a Professional Learning Community (PLC). With the support from the superintendent,
the district introduced the concept of PLCs to the administrators of the various schools. They
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provided training for the administrators, but gave them the autonomy to decide how quickly or
slowly to move forward with it in their own schools. During the interview with the principal, she
discussed how she truly enjoyed learning about PLCs and how she brought it back to her
Instructional Leadership Team (ILT). The ILT and group of administrators learned more about
how to successfully implement a PLC and then introduced it to the staff during their meetings.
She explained that by taking it to the ILT first, they were able to make a decision together rather
than her imposing it on her staff. It is apparent that the administrators and staff have adopted the
PLC as not just a concept, but a way of operating. The principal explained:
It's not a program or just something for us to do. It's the just the way things are. It's not
something that's going to come and go. There's been so many acronyms and things that
come and go in education that sometimes teachers might be cynical for that. But this is
just the way we do things and the focus is that teachers work interdependently and focus
on providing supports to all students. So interdependently meaning, it is my classroom, I
get to decide what I teach and how I teach it. But together as a grade level, we determine
which standards we're teaching at which point. So we're all kind of on the same page, but
we do it our own way, and then we provide students with interim assessments to see how
they are performing. Like if we all agree to do the next two or three standards, and your
kids nailed all those standards and really understood it, but mine did not, what did you do
differently? What can I learn from my colleagues so that I can make sure that my students
do not struggle?
Collaboration is one of the major tenets of a PLC. Per the principal, the staff in both the
dual immersion and regular education programs work together to develop and agree upon
essential standards in the content areas, provide students with assessments, and later score and
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norm those assessments to see how students are performing. The first grade teacher explained
that they have many collaboration days with both their own grade level and across grade levels to
come up with essential standards, observe other teachers, and share strategies. The survey data
also demonstrate high levels of collaboration and feedback amongst the staff. According to the
survey, about 60% agree and 26% strongly agree that teachers provide feedback to each other to
help improve instructional practices. Additionally, 67% agree and 19% strongly agree that staff
work in teams across grade levels to help increase student learning. All staff members surveyed
either agreed or strongly agreed that they routinely work together on what will be taught. Table
2 below represents these and additional relevant findings from the survey.

Table 2
Survey Results for Collaboration

Survey Question
Strongly
Disagree

Disagree

Agree
Strongly
Agree
Not
Applicable
Q18.3-Teacher provide
feedback to each other to
help improve instructional
practices.
0 4 16 7 0
Q20.3- The school supports
and appreciates the sharing
of new ideas by staff
members.
1 2 15 9 0
Q20.4-Teachers regularly
discuss teaching issues.
0 0 15 12 0

Table 2 (Cont’d.)

Survey Question
Strongly
Disagree

Disagree

Agree
Strongly
Agree
Not
Applicable
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Q20.5-The staff works in
teams across grade levels to
help increase student
learning.
0 4 18 5 0
Q20.6-Staff routinely work
together to plan what will
be taught.
0 0 23 4 0

It is clear that the collaboration amongst the staff is not just physical, but also a mindset.
Multiple conversations revealed that a major part of having a PLC is collectively being
responsible for the outcome of each student. The teacher specialist expressed the following:
As the PLC says, we are a community, and there is a beautiful saying that says it takes a
village to raise a child, not just one teacher. So the sense of belonging to the school, the
spirit is truly there. You can feel it...if you have a child who fails, it's not your fault. It's a
collective effort that should be put down to help that child, so you are not being judged
for a student's failure. They won't say your student didn't do good or bad. It's the whole
entire school, the previous teacher, the next year's teacher. All of us should be involved.
The principal expressed a similar sentiment when saying:

It's the belief that it's not just my classroom, all the teachers are not islands by
themselves, but collectively they work together, and they're mutually responsible for the
success of students, because no one teacher can meet the needs of all of our students.
Together we can meet the needs of all the students.
The researcher had the opportunity to witness an activity during the end of the year staff
meeting which clearly illustrated the PLC in action. The teachers were asked to work together
with their grade level to create two large posters: (a) what students are expected to know entering
their grade level and (b) what they should know by the end of their grade level. The principal
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asked the teachers to work together to identify and write down what they believed to be the most
important standards. After completing their posters and placing them on the walls, the principal
asked the teachers to do a “gallery walk” around the room and then share the things they learned
with the entire group. When the researcher returned to Gold Elementary in the new school year,
she saw PLC posters visible in every classroom, hallway, and main office. One of those posters,
which was located in every classroom, stated the “Four Essential Questions” of their learning
community: “What do we expect our students to learn? How will we know they are learning?
How will we respond when they don't learn? How will we respond if they already know it?”
It is important to note that although Gold Elementary has a PLC, it is currently in its first
year and will take a considerable amount of time to fully implement. The principal revealed that
at its inception, there were a number of teachers who were not interested or unhappy with
starting a PLC. However, over time and after several trainings, she believes that there is much
more teacher buy-in. It is her goal to shift teachers’ mindsets from teaching to learning and to
help teachers use their collaboration time to discuss student learning rather than day-to-day
classroom operations. She discussed that this is something that will take time, but that the
administrators and majority of teachers are invested in becoming a PLC.
Maximize student achievement. As a result of being a professional learning
community, Gold Elementary focuses on maximizing student achievement. The data collection
process uncovered four specific practices that help students succeed. They are: (a) using
multiple assessment measures to determine student needs, (b) utilizing a variety of teaching
methods, (c) placing a value on instruction time, and (e) goal setting.
During the interview, the principal stated, “...our staff as a whole, both the dual
immersion teachers and the other classroom teachers, really focus on their instruction and how
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they can best support students.” She revealed that teachers use multiple assessment measures to
determine student needs. One of these measures is a computer based system called i-Ready that
provides assessments three times a year. Based on their performance, students receive
personalized interactive lessons in both English Language Arts (ELA) and Math to complete at
school or at home. Teachers utilize the results of these assessments to better understand how to
modify their lessons and provide interventions for students who may be struggling. One way to
help struggling students is to utilize buddy teaching. Teachers can send their students to a buddy
teacher to help reinforce a lesson that was taught in their classroom. Another route for students
not meeting grade level standards is to provide support outside of the classroom through an
intervention program called Response to Intervention (RTI). The principal explained that the
RTI program has three teachers who assess struggling students every six weeks. Then, students
are pulled out of class 30 minutes a day four to five times a week to provide them with the
intervention they need. The RTI program is currently only for ELA, but the administration is
working on making it available for Math and Armenian, as well.
In addition to various assessments and an intervention program, teachers utilize various
instructional methods in their classrooms to best support student needs. When asked what
instructional practices teachers use in their classrooms, the survey responses revealed that 25
teachers utilize both collaborative learning and differentiated instruction, while 17 utilize project-
based learning (see Table 3). Moreover, 56% of teachers strongly agree that they use a variety of
approaches and activities to help students learn. The survey questions and results that pertain to
the learning environment can be found in Tables 3 and 4.
Table 3
Types of Instructional Practices Used by Staff
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Type of Instructional Practice Teachers
Scaffolding 24
Collaborative Learning 25
Direct Instruction 26
Hands-on Learning 22
Differentiated Instruction 25
Project-Based Learning 17
Technology 24

Table 4
Survey Results for Learning Environment

Survey Question
Strongly
Disagree

Disagree

Agree
Strongly
Agree
Not
Applicable
Q8.2-Teachers use effective
strategies to help different
subgroups of students meet high
academic standards.
0 1 12 14 0
Q8.3- Teachers use a variety of
approaches and activities to help
students learn.
0 1 11 15 0
Q8.4-Student work is meaningful
to students.
0 1 17 9 0

Table 4 (Cont’d.)
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Classroom observations support the findings from the survey results. The researcher
found that all teachers were utilizing small group learning, which allowed students to collaborate
and interact closely with their teacher and peers. The researcher observed students in the dual
immersion kindergarten classroom working either independently or collaboratively with their
peers on activities in centers, while their teacher reinforced a math lesson to a smaller group. In
addition to small group learning, she witnessed teachers in the primary grades providing students
with hands-on manipulatives and incorporating technology to make lessons more interactive.
During an observation in the first grade classroom, students worked in small groups with math
manipulatives, transitioned to watching an interactive phonics video, and ended the class with a
game that required them to stand up and move around the room. When asked about her various
teaching methods, the first grade teacher explained that she needs to keep the students moving
since they cannot sit for long periods of time. She said, “...I think the more they get up, their
blood just circulating and just walking here to there, I think it helps them perform better.
Because it’s better than just giving them worksheets at their desk…”
Student-led centers and collaborative learning was also witnessed in a fourth grade
classroom. During the observation, students were rotating between six different activities. The
teacher explained that the first group was doing reciprocal teaching, where students read a text
and were asking one another questions. The second group worked together in their practice

Survey Question
Strongly
Disagree

Disagree

Agree
Strongly
Agree
Not
Applicable
Q8.5-Instruction is adjusted to
meet individual needs.
0 0 16 11 0
Q8.6-Classroom activities are
intellectually stimulating and
engaging.
0 0 16 10 0
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books on a grammar lesson they had just learned. The teacher explained that the third group was
practicing logic games together to help “wake up the neurons in the brain.” The fourth group
worked on a writing assignment, while the fifth group read a book silently to prepare for the
assessment they would be taking on the classroom Chromebooks. The teacher explained that
each student had chosen their reading book from the school library based on their reading level
determined by the i-Ready assessment. The sixth group sat with headphones at the Chromebook
station to complete their assessments. The observations, interviews, and survey results helped
the researcher determine that teachers are all using multiple instructional practices to help meet
the various needs of their students.
The third practice that supports student learning is the value placed on instruction time.
During each observation, the researcher noticed how swiftly and efficiently students moved and
transitioned to different activities and classes. The researcher observed one dual immersion
second grade classroom during their transition between classrooms. Students packed their
belongings quickly, lined up, and followed their teacher to the Armenian classroom. In less than
five minutes, the next group of students came in prepared to start the independent math activity
placed on the board for them. School documents also reveal the value Gold Elementary places
on student learning time. Among the documents reviewed was a letter to parents on the school
website regarding important information for the new school year. One of the sections of the
letter addressed classroom disruptions and how instructional time would not be interrupted in
order to call students to the front office to pick up items forgotten at home. Another online
document reviewed the importance of student attendance and timeliness by discussing the
valuable learning time lost when students miss class.
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In order to increase student attendance and reduce the number of tardies, the principal
and assistant principal decided to start a campaign to encourage students to come to school and
be on time. The campaign was modeled after Yoda, the Star Wars character. Posters all around
the school had images of Yoda that said, “Yoda says: Be on school on time to learn!” Each week,
the numbers are tallied to determine which classroom has the highest attendance and least
amount of tardies. The winner is announced and a two-foot-tall Yoda doll is placed in the
winning classroom. The researcher had the opportunity to witness the principal and assistant
principal deliver the Yoda doll to the winning classroom. Based on the excitement of the
students and the attendance data, it appears that the contest contributes to the achievement of the
attendance goal.
Goal setting is the final identified practice that helps maximize student achievement.
Each student planner provided by the school has a page dedicated to setting goals and plans for
each trimester. Students work with their teachers to write goals and how they plan to achieve
them. Additionally, it has a section for students to identify their strength which says, “I will
celebrate…” The fourth grade teacher described this practice of writing student goals as being
very beneficial since setting goals may be something more difficult for young students to
comprehend.
The use of multiple assessment measures, utilizing various teaching methods, placing
importance on instruction time, and helping students set goals each trimester, are all practices
that help maximize student achievement.
Clear student expectations. The fourth practice that aids in Gold Elementary’s
outperformance is the clearly identified student expectations. As the literature review stated, a
promising practice identified in many high performing schools is clearly and concretely
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communicating student expectations. Gold has developed three overarching expectations that
are meant to guide all student actions. The expectations are: “Be respectful, Be Responsible, Be
Safe.” Expectation posters can be found in all classrooms and around the school campus and list
three to six ways students are expected to follow each rule. For example, under the “Be
Responsible” umbrella it states, “When the bell rings, freeze and touch your knees” and “Pick up
trash, don't pass it up.” School-wide student expectations are reinforced through the principal’s
weekly student bulletins, assemblies, and school-wide challenges. The principal explained:
We have two assemblies a year. At the beginning of the year, we have our ‘Expectations
for Success’ assembly where we talk about all expectations. We also have a mid-year
check around February because kids seem to forget them. We have reminders every week
in the bulletin. We have safety reminders, then we also have school challenges where
everyone is going to keep this school extra clean today or everyone's going to throw their
own trash out or we're going to pick up trash around school. Our teachers also spend time
focusing on their own classroom expectations, as well as the school-wide ones, too.
In order to ensure that expectations stay consistent, all staff members are required to have
students reflect on whether their actions or behaviors met school expectations. The assistant
principal revealed, “Anytime a student is doing something questionable, I'll ask them: Were you
being safe? Were you being respectful? Were you being responsible? Once they answer that, it
determines if they are living up to our school wide expectations or not.” Students who do not
follow school expectations receive a yellow slip that says, “Today, I was not:” and staff members
can check off ‘Responsible’, ‘Respectful’, or ‘Safe’. Parents are required to sign the slip and
return it back to school. The assistant principal adds, “That gives them a chance to reflect on
what they've done. I think we wanted a more positive spin to things. Something that would guide
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them.” The expectations and discipline strategies focus on positive reinforcement and praise.
The assistant principal, who is in charge of school discipline, explained that the expectations are
intentionally called rules rather than expectations and are phrased in a positive way. She also has
monthly meetings with noon-duty assistants to ensure that they are all following the same
protocol when speaking to the students. She says, “I don't want them blowing their whistles all
the time or yelling and screaming or saying no, no, don't do this. It’s more of ‘thank you for
walking’, ‘I like the way you did that’, to encourage the behavior.” Students appear to know
what is expected of them as it is clear, concrete, and highly visible.
Dismissal practice. Each staff member discussed the school’s dismissal practice during
their interviews stating that it is something not done in other schools. This practice was
identified as being impactful because it helps promote a sense of community and provides an
efficient way for families and staff members to communicate on a daily basis. At the end of each
school day, teachers walk their students to designated areas on the school’s large front lawn.
Teachers stand with their students until a parent is seen. This is a great opportunity for parents
and teachers to communicate quickly, address any small concerns, or set up a future time to
meet. The school principal, assistant principal, and two teacher specialists are outside each day
during dismissal to help supervise and speak to parents. Although it takes a great amount of
time, the assistant principal said that both she and the principal love being outside each day to get
to know families and address any concerns they may have. This practice is an efficient way to
solve any issues and prevent them from becoming larger. The teacher specialist explained:
If a parent comes and approaches and has a question, we are ready and eager to answer.
We solve a lot of problems right there. If they go home without seeing us, without
addressing the issue, the issue becomes bigger and bigger, but we get to solve a lot of
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problems right there. It takes a lot of our time because they enjoy our front yard. They
think it's a park. They talk to each other and everything. That's a very good policy that we
have here. In other schools, you don't see the teachers or administration when you come
to pick up your child. You just drive by, show your child's name, and you take them from
the gate, from aides or helpers. Here, you do not have to wait for a parent-teacher
conference.
The researcher had an opportunity to observe the dismissal practice on one afternoon.
Before students were dismissed, families stood on the grass speaking to one another. Siblings
and other young children ran around laughing and playing tag. As soon as students arrived at the
lawn, parents approached their child’s teacher to hear any important updates. The researcher
noticed one teacher giving her student a high five and telling his mother what a great job he had
done on that day. Another teacher was giving each parent updates about the day and paying
children compliments on their hard work. During these exchanges, the researcher saw the school
leaders walking through the crowd, smiling and greeting families. They seemed to be more
reserved and quietly floating through the sea of people, ready to speak when addressed. In
addition to fostering open communication with families, this dismissal practice promotes a sense
of community. The gathering at dismissal each day encourages students, parents, and teachers to
interact with one another. The principal said that the dismissal practice looks like a large picnic
and parents enjoy standing around to talk to one another. From the observations, the researcher
believed that the staff enjoys the interactions during the dismissal process just as much as the
families do.

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Summary of Findings for Research Question One
The findings suggest that Gold Elementary has strategically implemented five practices
and programs that are aiding in its outperformance. The first is a successful dual immersion
program with highly qualified teachers and a unique curriculum aligned with both CCSS and
Armenian standards. More importantly, it has infused relationship building elements in its
structure that help foster a sense of community and support for all students. Teaching practices
within the dual immersion program also encourage collaboration between both the dual and non-
dual immersion students, helping foster a respect for cultural diversity. The second program or
practice is the school’s adherence to a PLC. Rather than being another program, it has been
adopted as a mindset and encourages collaboration amongst staff in the best interest of all
students. In line with one of the main focuses of a PLC is the school’s third practice, which is
helping maximize student achievement. This is done by using multiple assessment measures,
utilizing a variety of instructional practices in the classrooms, valuing instruction time as crucial
to learning, and helping students set goals based on assessment scores. The fourth critical
practice implemented at Gold Elementary is setting clear student expectations and ensuring that
they are communicated through positive reinforcement and praise. Finally, the school’s
dismissal practice helps promote a sense of community that fosters relationship building and
daily open communication.
Research Question Two
What are the leadership practices in an urban outperforming non-traditional school? In an
effort to determine the various leadership practices at Gold Elementary, the researcher examined
the various sources of data including the interviews, surveys, observations, and documents. The
findings revealed three impactful leadership practices: (a) focusing on building relationships with
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all stakeholders, (b) enhancing teachers, and (c) being a supportive leader. Each leadership
practice will be discussed in detail below.
Relationship building. The school leaders at Gold Elementary focus on building
relationships with all stakeholders. Making students, families, and teachers feel valued and
significant help foster a supportive community where learning can take place. Based on the
interviews and observations, it is evident that the principal understands her crucial role in helping
mold the culture and climate of the school. She believes that it begins by developing
relationships. In her interview, she stated:
I need to make sure that I am working on developing relationships with all of my
stakeholders, and making them feel really great, especially the teachers, because if I make
them feel great then they're going to make our kids feel great, which will then make our
parents and our families feel great too.
Many administrators are so bogged down with the operational burdens of running a school that
they may begin to lose touch with their students. However, both the principal and assistant
principal make it a priority to interact with the students daily. The principal even tries to learn
the students’ names in order to build a better connection with them. She explained the value of
knowing someone’s name, as she believes it is the first step in building a relationship with them.
She said:
From the 930 students, I don't how many I know. But, I always try to make a point to go
and learn someone's name every single day and see however many I can remember. I
actually do know a lot of their names and I do little rhymes in my head to kind of
remember who they are what they're little quirks are. But what's really nice about
elementary is that they’re here from kinder to 5th grade and I get to see them ... the kids
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that are in 5th grade now that are leaving, were in 1st grade when I first started. So I got
to know them and see them grow. But it makes such a difference when I do know their
name and it makes me feel connected.
As the researcher toured the campus with the principal on multiple occasions, she witnessed
many students stop to hug her as she greeted them by name. She also made a few personal
remarks to the students leading the researcher to believe that the principal knew more about her
students than just their names.
In addition to making an effort to learn all the students’ names, the principal shared that
she also makes it a personal goal to stop into classrooms as frequently as she can. Shorter visits
allow her to quickly see what is happening in the classrooms, which is helpful if parents ever
have any concerns. She also tries to arrange longer visits where she can read books to the
students and interact with them for a longer period of time. She even shared that she likes to join
the students on the playground if she does not have a full day of meetings, which the students
love. She said, “I'll go outside at recess or lunch and if I'm in my sneakers, I'll try to play
handball or just pretend that I'm going to play with the kids. They just have a ball laughing about
that.” The assistant principal also makes it a priority to spend quality time with the students on
the playground. She highlights the importance of understanding the whole-child, including
personal life circumstances, rather than just focusing on academics:
I purposely try to go out to the yard and see how these kids are playing and get to know
them a little bit more. Then I find out a little bit more about their background, or their
family, their siblings, things that are going on that might affect their learning…A wide
variety of things that our students are going through, whether it's a family separation or a
death. We most recently had a death of a father of one of our students. The parent wanted
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to talk to us so that we're aware and can be sensitive to his needs and his emotions.
Things like that. Common things, but just a lot of it. I think once you start understanding
what the child is going through, you can better help them.
School leaders also focus on building relationships with students’ families, which was
made evident in both the observations and interviews. Both the principal and the assistant
principal make it a priority to be visible and actively involved during morning drop-off and
dismissal time. The assistant principal explained that they even go into the traffic lanes in the
morning to help open car doors, greet families, and wish them a great day. They also make it a
priority to make all families feel welcome from the moment they step onto the school grounds.
The assistant principal explained:
Anytime we're out in the hallway, even if we have preschool kids who are getting
serviced for speech needs and their parents are outside the speech room, we're always
talking to those parents because eventually those parents are going to be our parents, our
family. So we're there to say hello and greet them and ask them who their kids are,
getting to know our incoming families, even.
Being able to communicate clearly with others is critical in order to build relationships.
The school population is diverse and for many families, English is not the first language spoken.
The principal discussed how her own Armenian background and understanding of the language
and culture is beneficial when trying to connect with Armenian families at the school. She said,
“I use my Armenian on a daily basis to connect with our kids and parents and our families
regardless if they are in the dual immersion program or not.” Her weekly school messages are
done in both English and Armenian to make sure all families are kept aware of school events and
policies.
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One of the most important relationships the leaders focus on developing is with the
teachers. The assistant principal stated, “When the teacher is happy, the students are happy.
When the students are happy, the parents are happy. When the students and the parents are
happy, we're happy.” Teachers at Gold Elementary are valued, trusted, and respected by their
administrators. This was determined through the interviews with the administrators, as well as
the observations. For instance, the assistant principal recognized their teachers as being a reason
for their outperformance. She said:
We have great teachers. We truly have wonderful teachers. Caring, dedicated teachers.
They do care about every single kid. Just earlier this week at our staff meeting, we've
been talking about norms and one of the norms for particular grade levels might be to
start on time and end on time. And one of the teachers actually questioned that saying
‘What if we're not finished with our work, and sometimes we go over that time?’ So you
can tell that they're hard working. Sometimes when I leave at 4:30, I see which teachers
are here after 4:30. Their cars are here in the parking lot consistently. They're not just
waiting for the bell. They're not just waiting for their contract time to leave. They're here
because they're busy planning and they care about their kids.
Interestingly, the principal reiterated the same sentiment. She said, “I think overall we're a great
school that really cares about its kids, that has really amazing teachers and staff members who all
care about their kids.”
The principal continues to build positive relationships with her staff by not only valuing
them, but also recognizing and celebrating them. Whether the principal is acknowledging and
celebrating teachers, or allowing teachers to recognize each other, she has placed an importance
on teacher recognition. During the staff meeting, the principal played a song called, “Hall of
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Fame” by The Scripts and told all the teachers that they hold the power to help students reach
their goals and make it to the hall of fame. She then acknowledged one of their teachers who had
recently been inducted into the Hall of Fame. When later asked about the teacher she had
recognized during the meeting, she said:
It’s important for you as a principal and as a leader to know who you really need to work
extra hard to develop relationships with. I thought that was something important for us as
a whole to recognize, just like we would recognize if someone had a baby. Or if someone
was getting married. Those are things to celebrate.
Teachers do feel valued and appreciated by their administrators, which helps build
positive relationships between them. During the interview with the first grade teacher, she
discussed how important and valued the principal makes her feel through her constant support.
Shortly after this interview, the first grade teacher received a surprise visit after school hours by
the principal and assistant principal. The administrators were delivering the Yoda doll with the
news that her class had won the attendance contest for the week. They sang and acted silly as
they entered her classroom, while the teacher laughed and cheered. She turned to the researcher
and said, “See? This is exactly what I meant when I said they make you feel good.”
Enhancing teachers. In addition to building relationships, the leaders at Gold
Elementary focus on the enhancement of their teachers. First, they continuously invest in teacher
quality. This is done by providing them with ample time for collaboration and professional
development opportunities. The teacher specialist confirmed this finding when she called the
staff “lifelong learners.” She explained that as long as the school has the budget, they do not
miss the opportunity to go to various trainings and learn new things. The many chances teachers
have to grow professionally was also repeated in the other teacher interviews. The first grade
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teacher explained that the great leadership is what puts their school in a position to outperform.
She said:
The principal is very supportive of the program itself. She gives us a lot of opportunities
to work with each other, collaborate with each other, go to PDs if we need to. We get
grade level release days where we can work with our partner in planning. So, I think,
behind every great school is a great leader.
Teachers are encouraged to collaborate and are often times given the opportunity to do so during
school hours. When possible, the principal hires substitutes so teachers can step out of their
classrooms to work on report cards, assessments, or attend trainings.
The program structure also supports teacher development and enhancement. The
principal explained that teachers in their district are allowed to “bank their time.” By spending a
few extra minutes in the classroom each day, students can be released from school early one day
each week. Four days out the month are spent working professionally in staff meetings,
trainings, and in collaboration time with colleagues. The principal values this time and ensures
that it is strictly spent working professionally. During the interview, she discussed that she plans
her staff meetings to focus on collaboration and learning. She said, “Any staff meeting agenda, I
always try to have things that will help enhance teachers- not the housekeeping stuff that can be
in a weekly bulletin or in an email.” Survey results support the findings that the teachers are
provided with ample opportunities to grow professionally. The survey showed that 59% agree
and 30% strongly agree that professional development activities are consistent with school goals
and that teachers are provided with opportunities to grow professionally.
Promoting teacher leadership is yet another way that the school leaders help enhance
their teachers. The assistant principal discussed some of the committees teachers could join that
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would allow them to take on leadership roles. She explained, “We have various committees that
teachers can participate in and demonstrate their leadership qualities. They can be a part of PTA,
the safety committee, the social committee, and the instructional leadership team.” During the
staff meeting, the researcher noted that the principal acted as more of a moderator rather than
someone who led all the conversations. One teacher from the ILT stood up and updated the staff
on the school’s mission statement they had recently drafted. Later, another teacher from the
social committee took the floor to discuss the upcoming end of the year staff party they would be
having. The findings reveal that the staff is encouraged to express their ideas with one another
and have many opportunities to act as leaders.
The Instructional Leadership Team (ILT) provides an avenue for teachers interested in
leadership and growth opportunities. Teachers must either apply or be elected to be a part of the
ILT, as it can be very time consuming. There is one teacher representative from each grade level
and they are required to serve a two-year term. The principal takes information regarding
instruction to this team and allows them to help her make decisions. The assistant principal
discussed the ILT and how decisions are made at their school. She said:
We're not always the ones making decisions. We have our instructional leadership team,
which is comprised of a teacher leader from every grade level. And oftentimes, the
principal will tell them go back to their grade level and ask them what they want to do.
Have that discussion with their grade level teams. So, teachers are making a lot of the
decisions because of that.
During the interview, the first grade teacher shared how excited she was to be a member of the
ILT. She went on to explain how her last school offered almost no growth opportunities and
how much she appreciated the principal’s encouragement and support for her own professional
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growth. The survey results confirm these findings that the school leaders offer many
opportunities for growth. According to the results, 44% of teachers agree and 44% strongly
agree that the school provides clear pathways for leadership. Additionally, 56% agree and 30%
strongly agree that the school offers many leadership opportunities.
While not all teachers take on extra leadership roles, they are all considered to be the
leaders of their classrooms. The principal supports each teacher by giving them the autonomy to
make decisions in their classrooms. She explained how teachers have a great deal of autonomy,
not only in their lessons, but in addressing matters with students and parents. However, she is
available to step in if the issue requires more support. The kindergarten teacher highlighted the
level of autonomy teachers have by saying:
She knows that we can handle our students, and she trusts us, so there's a lot of times that
we don't go to her, because she knows that if it's handled, then we can take care of it. Our
principal is very supportive, and she knows that we're with our students every day, and
we know what's best for them.
The survey supported these findings when reporting that 48% of teachers agree and 48% strongly
agree that the school gives teachers substantial freedom to carry out lessons and activities.
Supportive leadership. Just as students depend on their teachers for guidance and
support, teachers rely on school leaders to have their best interests in mind and be available to
support them on both a physical and emotional level. Each interview revealed that staff
members feel a great amount of support from the school principal. They discussed her being
both physically present to step in and provide support, as well as times she has provided
emotional support.
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As mentioned in the section above, Gold Elementary has a unique dismissal process. At
the end of each school day, teachers walk their students to meet their families on the school’s
large front lawn. During this time, parents and teachers can discuss any updates, or minor
concerns and issues. All administrators are also present daily during the dismissal time to speak
to parents, supervise, and assist teachers. The first grade teacher explained how much she
appreciates the principal and assistant principal’s support when speaking to parents. She said:
We have full support from them. If there's parents talking to us, they're always out and
about to see what's going on, and how the parents are talking to us outside. Is there a
confrontation? They'll come by, but in a very nice way. You know, they will kind of play,
"What's going on?" I think there's a lot of that, a lot of support, a lot of back-up. If we
need anything, we go to them and definitely, if they can do it they make it happen.
Additionally, staff members value the principal’s support during the learning process, which may
include some mistakes. When asked about the leadership, the assistant principal revealed:
In comparison to other schools that I've been to, I like the support that I have from the
principal. The guidance that she gives. We're not always perfect. We make mistakes
along the way and she's really supportive of that and understanding. Making sure that if I
make a mistake, that I'm learning from it.
Supportive acts such as these help all members of the school community feel that the
principal is present, actively involved, and looking out for their best interests. The principal’s
overall demeanor and caring nature help demonstrate her support. The principal makes it a
priority to make the teachers’ feel cared about as individuals and not just teachers. One way she
does this is by taking an active interest and asking them questions about their families. During
one of the classroom visits, the principal picked up a framed photo of the teacher’s child and
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began to ask questions about her son. This small gesture by the principal revealed that she
genuinely cares about her staff and their families. Another example of this was revealed during
the principal’s interview. She explained that although she is a principal, she remembers being a
teacher. She shared a story about a staff member who was hesitant to go visit her ill parent. The
principal had told her that family comes first and that she needed to go. She continued to say:
We all have our lives and our personal lives and our family lives, and I know that
everyone's going through something, so I always keep that in mind and I consider myself
very reasonable. I have very high expectations for my teachers, but I also understand that
sometimes life kind of gets crazy.
The findings from the observations and interviews help demonstrate that the principal
believes in building caring and supportive relationships with all her staff members. Rather than
placing demands on them, she gets actively involved in what is happening at the school and leads
by example. More importantly, she makes it clear that she is not the most important person at
the school. Rather, everyone is equally important and cared for. The following excerpt depicts
the importance she places on every single staff member, helping them feel valued and supported.
We're all equally important. Whether it's me, the secretary or the health clerk, the
custodian, the cafeteria lady, the teachers, we all affect and impact our kids in some way.
Last year when we got our scores and we had done really well on our California
dashboard, I was so excited. I went up to our custodian and was like, ‘This is what we
got! These are our scores!’ He was really excited about it, but I said, ‘You are a part of
this. You are the reason why we got these scores. Because of the way you interact with
our kids. The fact that you keep our school so clean and beautiful. The fact that you're
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always smiling and saying hi to the kids.’ He impacts them just like the classroom teacher
impacts them.
Summary of Findings for Research Question Two
According to the data, there are three impactful leadership practices at Gold Elementary.
The first practice focuses on building relationships with all members of the school community.
The second practice focuses on enhancing the teaching staff. This is done by investing in their
education and allowing ample time for collaboration. Additionally, it includes promoting teacher
leadership and growth opportunities. The third practice focuses on providing teachers with
continuous professional and personal support. Each of these leadership practices places an
emphasis on the individuals, helping foster relationships and a sense of community. It was
evident that the principal is a driving force in making all stakeholders feel valued and significant.
Research Question Three
What are the cultural norms in an urban outperforming non-traditional school? The interview,
surveys, documents, and observations provided rich data in terms of the cultural norms at Gold
Elementary. The principal described school culture as being different from school climate. She
said, “The climate is how you feel today. The culture is that overarching feeling, like when you
walk through the hallways. We all play a role in that and me as the leader plays a huge part.”
Three distinct cultural norms were identified: (a) a warm and welcoming environment, (b) sense
of belonging and school spirit, and (c) sense of community.
Within the initial visits to the school site, the researcher felt a sense of warmth and a
positive environment for students, staff, and families. The researcher was greeted with a warm
welcome and smile by office staff, teachers, and passing students. Hallways and classrooms
were adorned with student work and inspirational messages. The main hallway was adorned
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with an array of photos of graduating classes from the past three decades, revealing a glimpse
into the school’s rich history. The attention placed on student work in the hallways and
classrooms highlights that this is a place of learning and growth. More importantly, the positive
quotes emphasizing student abilities and strengths help send the message that students are
capable and believed in.
This warm, welcoming, and positive environment are no different in the classrooms. The
teachers welcomed the researcher in their classrooms, ready to show off their intimate little
learning communities. Interactions amongst the teachers and students, as well as amongst the
students themselves, exuded a sense of warmth and respect. Little classroom practices helped
reveal the emphasis placed on making the classroom a warm and positive learning environment.
For example, instead of calling the groups of students something like “Tables 1, 2, 3”, the first
grade teacher strategically named the groups of students “Family 1, 2, 3.” When asked about
this practice, she said, “I think a family makes it more home for them. It's like their family
members. They have to work together. That's what we're trying to really promote... how to be a
good citizen, how to work together, sharing, not fighting.” Similarly, the second grade teacher
chose table names that would encourage students to focus on their futures in higher education,
even if it is many years down the line. Her tables were named after universities in California,
such as USC, UCLA, and UCSD. Question 13 of the survey examines various factors of the
school environment (see Appendix A). The results of the survey support the finding that the
school is a welcoming and positive learning environment that promotes support and respect. It
found that 44% of staff members agree, while 56% strongly agree that teachers show they care
about their students. Additionally, 74% agree and 11% strongly agree that student interactions
are polite and supportive of one another.
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One question in the interview asked staff members what they believed others thought
about their school. Interestingly, everyone responded by using the words “warm”, “welcoming”,
and “inviting”. The first grade teacher said:
There's never been a day where I'm like, "I don't want be here, honestly." The day I came
here, I was like, "Wow, this is such a welcoming place." Even the office staff create a
welcoming environment and everybody gets to know you. When you walk in the halls, I
think there's so much depth of student work posted on the walls. The teachers ... just
walking by classrooms, and activities that you see going on ... I feel like it's very
welcoming. With the administration too; They're very positive and always ask if there is
anything we need.
The assistant principal shared a story about a recent interview with a new teacher, which helped
highlight the welcoming culture at the school. Towards the last few minutes of the interview, the
administrators had asked the interviewee if she had any questions or comments. The woman
revealed how her husband was a local police officer and how he had visited the school with a
fellow officer for a school event a year prior. She shared how impressed the officers were with
the school and how welcome they felt when visiting. This positive experience had made the
teacher extremely excited to interview at Gold Elementary without having had her own
experiences with the school.
In addition to a warm and welcoming culture, there is a sense of belonging and school
pride. The researcher found that every person she spoke to felt a love for Gold Elementary and
was grateful to be working there. Each staff member revealed they were placed at this school by
the district, unaware of how satisfied they would immediately be. The assistant principal
described her feelings about her placement:
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I didn't choose to come to this school, I was placed at this school. Which I'm very happy
about. I would have chosen it had I known how great of a school it is. I'm super happy to
be here, and I love being here. Super duper happy. I remember when I first got the
position and people would ask me so how's it going and I would say I love it. Those were
the words that came out of my mouth. And I was like, wow, I can't believe I'm actually
saying the word love, and not just saying, yeah, I like it, it's cool. No, I love it. I really
love being here.
This culture is further exemplified in the teacher specialist’s reflection:
It was not my choice to come to this school, because when there is an opening and you
apply, you don't know where they will send you. But if I had a choice to pick what school
I want to be in, I would pick Gold. I thought that every school is like this, every school
has perfect meetings, but now that I'm going to different schools and I'm participating in
various meetings, I see that our school is really, truly a family.
Having school pride and a sense of belonging is also felt by the students. Although the
researcher had limited direct interactions with students, she was introduced to two fifth graders.
When asked how they felt about attending Gold Elementary, they immediately responded with
“happy” and “proud.” Student school spirit is a major component of this school culture. On one
of the school visits, the researcher noticed that almost all the students were wearing purple,
which is the school color, or had some sort of apparel with the school mascot. The assistant
principal explained that each Friday is “Spirit Friday” and that students wearing school attire
receive raffle tickets. At the end of the day, a name is pulled to receive a prize. She said, “It is
something small, yet that’s a part of their school spirit and the culture from the students’
perspective.” When the students were gathered on the front lawn at dismissal time, “the sea of
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purple” as the assistant principal described it, was an amazing display of school spirit. Whether
an outward display, or a feeling of love and sense of belonging, it is evident that this is a place
people want to be.
The most powerful and apparent cultural norm is a sense of community. This sense of
community is being fostered by the relationships between the staff, students, and families. The
driving force behind this cultural norm is the school principal. The focus and attention she
places on developing relationships with her staff and students serve as an exemplary model for
her constituents to follow. The school principal’s leadership practices support teachers and
students to help them feel valuable and significant. The teacher specialist describes the principal
as leading by example with kind words, which encourages people to follow her and try their best.
The principal highlights the importance of relationship building through all her words and
actions. With trusting and supportive relationships amongst all school members, a sense of
community is developed. The principal said, “We're a small little community, and we want to
make sure our kids feel connected and that they are learning. But, also having fun at the same
time and enjoying their time here at Gold Elementary.”
This connection between the administration, teachers, students, and families was apparent
during almost every observation. Student interactions with their teachers and peers in the
classrooms seemed to be respectful and caring, like members of a family. Additionally, when
families gathered on the front lawn for dismissal, the researcher felt she was observing a
community gathering or family picnic. When students passed the principal or teacher specialist
in the halls, they would run over and greet them with a hug. The researcher felt the connections
between them almost instantly and knew that this is not a common practice in all schools. This
school culture is developed by the relationships the school leaders focus on creating, which
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trickles down into every interaction in the school. This feeling of community, which can
resemble a family, was best described by the teacher specialist:
When I come to school every morning, I hug about 100 kids. They come give me hug. I
ask them about their families, their dog, their sister, their brother. What happened to their
competition in football? Things like that, so we are like a big family, and that community
is there. They can go back to their teachers in kindergarten and ask for help. Our parents
come back to us. They are not my students anymore, but they come back to us to help us
or to take advice. Our teachers also serve as family counselors. Almost every single
parent conference ends with parents crying, us hugging them, and us comforting them.
It's so interesting. Then they invite you to their weddings, birthdays, everything. It is a
family. You know how many times I've been called aunty or granny? Because they feel
that way. They feel that you are family. They feel you are their best advocate.
Summary of Findings for Research Question Three
According to the data gathered, it is evident that Gold Elementary has a school culture
centered on making people feel welcomed and part of a community. Starting with the school
environment and the friendly demeanor of staff and students, visitors automatically feel
welcomed and a sense of warmth. The staff is proud to belong to a place they truly love. The
pride these leaders and educators feel for their school is evident in their supportive interactions
with their students and families. Relationships based on trust and support cultivate a greater
sense of community within the walls of this school. The members of this school are not just
classmates and coworkers, but something much more. Instead, they are a part of a network of
constant support and respect, which helps create a strong school foundation. It is with this
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foundation based on relationships and community that helps put Gold Elementary in a position to
outperform.
Emergent Themes
The following section identifies the emergent themes that arose during the analysis of the
findings. This section is categorized into three key themes, which were identified as a result of
the interviews, observations, survey data, and document review. The three emergent themes are
prominent in all the findings and are believed to be enhancing the programs and practices,
leadership, and cultural norms at Gold Elementary, helping it become an outperforming school.
The three emergent themes are:
1. Putting relationships first
2. Collaboration at all levels
3. A sense of community
Putting Relationships First
Relationships were highlighted in various sections of each research question. In the first
research question, which examined the programs and practices, relationships were most
prominent amongst the students and teachers in the dual immersion program, as well as between
members of the school community during dismissal each day. The second research question,
which examined leadership practices, found that fostering relationships were the cornerstone of
the school leaders’ practices. Finally, in the third research question, it was evident that
relationships played a major role in all aspects of the school culture. The following section will
discuss this emergent theme in more detail.
Developing relationships are often seen as secondary for school leaders, as they are
tasked with many responsibilities, issues, and demands that may seem more pressing. School
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leaders are responsible for creating environments that produce high performance and test scores.
While test scores can easily measure school performance, attention must also be placed on the
impact relationships can have on school success. Developing positive relationships with
constituents is a critical component of a school’s foundation and can help in achieving
sustainable success. The school leaders at Gold Elementary understand the importance of
cultivating relationships and value the interactions they have with students, teachers, and families
each day. From the moment someone walks through the doors of the school, they are greeted
with a smile and are made to feel like an important part of the school community. When passing
through the halls, students are recognized by name by the school principal and often stop to share
a hug before returning to class. On the playground, students can be certain to see the assistant
principal, who is there to not only supervise, but to also get to know each student on a more
personal level. The principal shared that it is through these daily interactions that they are better
able to build relationships with their students and understand their individual needs, which may
happen to be some extra T.L.C. Back in the classrooms, the teachers build relationships with
their students that focus on support, guidance, and trust. Their verbal and nonverbal interactions
ensure that students develop their skills and constantly meet set standards. Outside the school
building during daily drop-off and dismissal, school leaders and teachers have the opportunity to
develop relationships with students and their parents as they open car doors, exchange updates
on student progress, and help solve any concerns.
It is clear that these caring and supportive relationships begin with the school principal,
who models relationship building to her constituents each day. She stated in the interview that
she understands she is not the most important person, but that her interactions do have the power
to shape the image of the school. She said:
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I believe that every interaction that I have with either the parents or visitors, or whoever it
is, is an opportunity for me to sell my school essentially, and they'll go and share that
with six other people. So if they have a negative experience, they're going to share
something negative with six, seven, or ten other people, who will then share it with
others. If I can give them a positive experience for them to really see how awesome and
amazing this place is, then I've been successful.
Positive interactions and opportunities to make her teachers feel valued are some of her main
priorities. She explained that it is her responsibility to make sure teachers feel good so that they
carry that feeling into the classrooms and help students excel. Her attempt to foster relationships
with her teachers was best observed during the staff meeting, where she took the time to
recognize their accomplishments in the classrooms, as well as their personal accomplishments,
such as a teacher’s Hall of Fame induction and another teacher’s purchase of a new house.
Bolman and Deal’s (2003) framework helps describe the principal’s leadership. From the four
distinct frames, which are structural, human resource, political, and symbolic, the human
resource frame is most apparent. The human resource frame views organizations as communities
of people who need one another, similar to a family. Leaders focus on building trust,
communicating openly, and making people feel cared about. The focus is on finding ways for
people to get their job done, while making them feel good (Bolman & Deal, 2003). The
principal treats teachers as individuals who are very important to the organization. She makes it
a priority to recognize them, celebrate their personal accomplishments, and support them both on
a physical and emotional level.
The observations, interviews, and survey results support the finding that leaders at Gold
Elementary place a high priority on developing relationships with the members of the school
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community. Whether outside or inside the school building, relationships thrive amongst the
staff, students, and families. Developing and cultivating relationships ia a prerequisite when
approaching education from a whole child perspective. These relationships ensure that students
are engaged, safe, supported, and challenged, which helps make achievement possible.
Collaboration at All Levels
Collaboration is evident in many of the school’s practices and was addressed in the
findings of each research question. In the first research question, which examined programs and
practices, collaboration was evident at all levels amongst the staff and students. Collaboration is
a major component of a successful PLC, which has become more of a mindset at Gold
Elementary. The second research question, which examined leadership practices, found that
school leaders promote collaboration as a way to help teachers enhance and improve their
practices. With the amount of value placed on collaborative practices at the school, it is evident
that it is becoming more of a cultural norm rather than just a practice. The following section will
discuss this emergent theme in more detail.
To begin, collaboration is encouraged in Professional Learning Communities (PLC),
which has been newly adopted at Gold. However, instead of being viewed as another program to
try, the PLC has been adopted as more of a mindset that focuses on working together for the
betterment of the school. The principal and teacher specialist both emphasized the premise of
PLCs and how it focuses on creating a sense of shared responsibility to help the students
succeed. Teachers are not viewed as lone islands, but rather a collaborative team sharing best
practices and strategies to improve. Time for collaboration is implemented into the school’s
schedule, which clearly indicates how valuable the leadership believes it to be. Students are
released early each week due to “banking hours,” giving teachers ample time to work together
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and share best practices. The leadership also collaborates with teachers to make important
decisions that impact both the staff and students. The Instructional Leadership Team (ILT),
which is comprised of one teacher leader from each grade level, work together with the
administration to make important decisions about instruction and plan professional development.
Bolman and Deal’s (2003) human resource principle focuses on empowering and investing in
people. The leadership takes great strides to invest in their teachers by providing them with both
growth and leadership opportunities. Just as the human resource frame suggests, the principal
encourages the autonomy of teachers to allow them to make decisions in their classrooms and
grow as educators.
Collaborative practices are also evident in the classrooms and can be observed amongst
the students. Each classroom reflected opportunities for students to work together and
communicate, resulting in lessons that were both challenging and enriching. Even the design of
the classrooms, with student desks set up in small groups, encourage collaborative work. Most
impressive where the collaborative lessons that combined both the dual and non-dual immersion
students. Teachers from both departments came together to plan activities to help bridge the gap
between these departments. Through these collaborative projects, such as learning about the
Armenian Genocide and the Holocaust through The Sound of Music, students are not only fully
engaged, but are developing a respect for different cultures and people.
Sense of Community
A sense of community was addressed to some extent in each research question. For the
first research question, a sense of community was evident in not only the dual immersion
program, but also greatly prominent during the dismissal practice each day. In the second
research question, it is clear that the leaders’ practices of relationship building and providing
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support helps build a greater sense of community. Finally, this feeling of community was
definitely the most prominent cultural norm at Gold Elementary. The following section will
discuss this emergent theme in more detail.
The first two themes, building relationships and collaboration at all levels, go hand in
hand in helping foster the third emergent theme, which is a sense of community. This sense of
community can be characterized by feelings of warmth, welcome, support, and belonging.
Members of a community are not individuals in isolation solely focused on their own selves.
Rather, they are a collective group of individuals with shared attitudes, goals, and interests.
Although there is a great amount of diversity in the school population, the researcher felt that
there was an even greater feeling of fellowship and belonging amongst the constituents.
There are both physical and psychological factors that can help describe this sense of
community at Gold Elementary. This sense of community, which begins with the physical
environment, is a captivating feeling that is automatically felt when stepping foot onto the school
campus. This grand building, with its large inviting lawn and dozens of windows, has a
presence, not only to its surrounding neighbors, but also the community at large. The school has
developed a very positive reputation in the community over the years, with its one hundred years
of experience and various academic accolades. Once through the school doors, visitors and
students are surrounded by a variety of student work, photos of past and present students, as well
motivating quotes, such as “Show them how great you are” and “If you believe in yourself,
anything is possible.” The physical environment is not only warm and inviting, but also provides
a glimpse into this community’s beliefs and values.
In addition to these physical factors, there are a number of psychological factors at Gold
Elementary that foster this sense of community. As mentioned above, high-quality collaboration
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is a practice greatly valued at this school. Whether in the classroom or amongst teachers and
administrators, collaboration helps bring people together, share best practices, and better help
students achieve. Most importantly, it helps build a stronger community with a focus on the
growth of its members. Similarly, relationship building also leads to a stronger community,
which values supporting and caring for one another. The staff repeatedly emphasized the sense
of belonging they felt at this school. Each person explained that they had not chosen to work
here, but felt extremely lucky that they did. They also emphasized how inviting and warm the
environment was and how much the staff cared about their students.
Although students were not including in the study, observed interactions between the
students indicated that children also feel a sense of belonging to their school. Most notable was
the cohort structure of the dual immersion program, which has helped create a smaller
community within an already supportive community. This is most beneficial to the many
English learners at Gold Elementary. Being a part of a smaller community with shared goals and
objectives helps all students feel more engaged in their learning and a part of a supportive
environment. Finally, the word “family” was repeatedly mentioned as a way of describing the
school and the relationships amongst the staff, students, and families. To suggest that 930
students and over 70 staff members are a family helps imply that they feel a strong sense of
community.

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Summary
This chapter examined the programs and practices, leadership practices, and cultural
norms of Gold Elementary, which is an outperforming school with an Armenian dual immersion
program. The following research questions were addressed:
1. What practices and programs are implemented in an urban outperforming non-traditional
school?
2. What are the leadership practices in an urban outperforming non-traditional school?
3. What are the cultural norms in an urban outperforming non-traditional school?
Upon analysis and triangulation of the data collected from interviews, observations,
surveys, and document reviews, it is evident that Gold Elementary’s outperformance is not due
to a fancy program or new teaching practice. Rather, this school’s success can be deduced to one
important factor: the value of people. Gold Elementary is an outperforming school because it:
(a) focuses on developing strong relationships with its members, (b) encourages not only
collaborative practices but a collaborative mindset, and (c) fosters an overall sense of
community.

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CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS

Chapter One of this study examined the overview of the problem, the purpose and
significance of the study, as well as the assumptions, limitations, and delimitations. Chapter
Two provided a historical background on the education system, while thoroughly reviewing the
literature base on nontraditional schools and identifying promising practices of high poverty,
high performing schools. In Chapter Three, the researcher described the research design and
development and provided details on the data collection and analysis processes. Chapter Four
identified the findings in relation to the three research questions and introduced the emergent
themes. In this final chapter, a discussion of findings, as well as the implications for practice and
recommendations for future research will be presented.
Purpose, Significance, and Methodology
Historically, students in high-poverty urban schools have not performed well
academically in comparison to students in affluent communities. However, there are
nontraditional urban schools with similar low-socioeconomic and demographic characteristics
that are outperforming traditional public schools. The purpose of this study was to identify the
factors present in one nontraditional outperforming urban K-12 school. Gold Elementary was
chosen because it met the various criteria set by the thematic dissertation group that deemed it to
be both nontraditional and urban.
A qualitative case study design was used in order to collect detailed and thick
descriptions to help better understand the factors leading to Gold Elementary’s outperformance.
A thorough examination of the literature base helped identify three variables which were used to
craft the research questions: programs and practices, leadership, and cultural norms. The
following research questions helped guide the data collection process:
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1. What practices and programs are implemented in an urban outperforming non-traditional
school?
2. What are the leadership practices in an urban outperforming non-traditional school?
3. What are the cultural norms in an urban outperforming non-traditional school?
The case study design resulted in the collection of rich data through observations, interviews, a
staff survey, and document reviews. The multiple sources allowed for the triangulation of data,
which helped increase the validity and credibility of the study.
The findings from this case study will add to the research base by helping practitioners
understand the specific programs and practices that can be implemented in schools to help them
succeed, especially in a school with a dual immersion program. Additionally, it will identify
specific leadership practices, as well as cultural norms that aid in a school’s outperformance.
This study emphasizes the importance of school leaders building relationships with their
constituents, as it can help serve as a supportive foundation for learning and growth. It will also
give administrators and teachers insight into the value of utilizing collaborative practices and
will discuss the benefits of fostering a sense of community within the school.
Discussion of Findings
The findings for the three research questions were discussed in length in Chapter Four
and were determined through the data collection process. The data from the staff interviews and
surveys, school site observations, and document reviews were organized, coded, and interpreted
to help answer the research questions. Each of the findings were triangulated across the multiple
data sources to increase the validity and credibility of the results. After addressing the research
questions, three emergent themes were identified across all the findings: (a) Putting relationships
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first, (b) collaboration at all levels, and (c) establishing a sense of community. The following
section will discuss the findings of each research question.
Research Question One
The first research question aimed at identifying the programs and practices implemented
at Gold Elementary. The findings identified five different programs and practices that were
considered to be either noteworthy or unique, playing a significant role in the school’s
outperformance: (a) dual immersion program, (b) Professional Learning Community,
(c) maximizing student achievement, (d) clear student expectations, and (e) dismissal practice.
Dual immersion program. The school’s Armenian dual immersion program was started
in 2010 after community interest and support from the district. This rigorous two-way dual-
immersion program instructs both native speakers of English and Armenian. Research has
continued to show the benefits of bilingualism and being enrolled in a dual immersion program.
Students with second language exposure have shown higher levels of cognitive flexibility, higher
test scores, as well as tolerance and respect for diversity (Soderman, 2010; Met, 2001). Dual
immersion programs have become more popular over the last several years, yet no up-to-date
information is available on the number of schools with these programs in the United States.
Moreover, research on the practices of high-quality dual immersion programs is still limited.
It is beneficial for practitioners to examine Gold Elementary’s dual immersion program
as it has a number of unique factors that make it successful. First, it has highly qualified teachers
who engage in collaborative practices. In addition to the Multiple Subject Teaching Credential,
teachers have their BCLAD credential and have taken the CTEL exam. They also attend
trainings that focus on dual immersion instruction and collaborate frequently to share best
teaching practices. Second, the program has a coherent instructional program that is designed to
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support all students. The Armenian dual immersion curriculum is crafted by the teacher
specialist and is aligned to both the Common Core State Standards and the Republic of
Armenia’s teaching standards. Since material in Armenian is not as readily available as would
be in English or Spanish, the staff collaborates frequently to review standards, create
assessments, and share best practices. This helps ensure the material is challenging and
multidimensional, while being relevant and engaging for students. During observations, the
researcher noted that students in the dual immersion programs were actively engaged and that the
teachers were using various instructional strategies to support learning. These findings are in
line with the literature that has found that high-poverty outperforming schools utilize
instructional practices and curriculum that are multidimensional, relevant, and engaging (Parett
& Budge, 2012).
In addition to the teaching and curriculum, the structure of the dual immersion program
helps foster supportive relationships. The program has a cohort structure in which students stay
with the same peers from kindergarten through the fifth grade. Keeping students with the same
peers allows them to develop more meaningful relationships over a longer period of time.
Additionally, the program itself is a small, supportive learning community within the larger
school community. This helps students feel a sense of belonging amongst a population of 930
students. It is especially beneficial for English learners who feel supported by their peers and
teachers in a smaller learning environment. They are able to communicate in Armenian to their
peers and teachers while learning English, as well as help native-English speaking students in
Armenian. As the research confirms, caring and supportive relationships in classrooms help
students build resiliency and promote academic success (Steagall, 2012).
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Finally, the dual immersion program values collaboration with the non-dual immersion
students and staff. Collaborative lessons and activities are planned that are not only meaningful
and engaging, but also help promote a respect for cultural diversity. Examples include the lab
writing day, the joint physical education classes, and the Armenian Genocide/Holocaust lesson.
Bringing students from both departments together helps close the gap between the two
communities, while encouraging the development of relationships and the importance of
collaboration.
Professional learning community. Gold Elementary has recently become a
Professional Learning Community (PLC). The findings suggest that the administrators and staff
have adopted the PLC as not just a program, but as a mindset. It encourages collaboration
amongst the staff to help improve teaching practices and student learning. With the adoption of
this new mindset, the principal explained that teachers are not seen as lone islands responsible
only for their own students. Rather, everyone is encouraged to work together to help all students
reach their full academic potential. The teachers and school leaders who were interviewed each
emphasized the value and impact of their collaboration. The staff works together on a regular
basis to identify essential standards, create assessments, and grade. Additionally, they are
encouraged to observe one another, attend trainings, and share their best practices. PLC flyers
and posters could be found in all the classrooms and main office to remind staff what they were
working towards. Since this is the first year Gold Elementary has started the PLC, the staff need
continued training to help improve their implementation and practices.
Maximizing student achievement. Another powerful practice at Gold Elementary is
their focus on maximizing student achievement. Interviews with the school leaders and teachers
identified four different ways in which they help students succeed. Observations and survey
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results supported their reports. First, the staff uses multiple measures to determine student needs.
A computer-based assessment is administered each trimester to identify student scores in both
ELA and Math. Teachers have multiple resources to help support struggling students. They may
provide the student with extra support in the classroom by working with them in a small-group
setting. They may also utilize buddy teaching by sending their students to partner teachers to
help reinforce certain lessons. If these strategies do not help the student improve, the Response
to Intervention (RTI) program helps support students by pulling them out of class four to five
times a week. These findings suggest that the school values assessment results and actively uses
them to improve or tailor teaching to meet student needs. Struggling students are not ignored or
left to fall through the cracks of the education system because systems are in place to provide
various forms of support and intervention. Furthermore, teachers are encouraged to help one
another by sharing what worked in their own classrooms.
In addition to supporting student needs, the findings revealed that teachers utilize a
variety of instructional methods. This supports the research which states that student learning
and engagement levels increase when teachers utilize multidimensional instructional practices
and collaborative learning opportunities (Weekes, 2016). Additionally, document reviews,
interviews, and observations revealed that the school values instruction time. Classroom
distractions are limited in order to make the most of learning time. Finally, to maximize student
achievement, students work with their teachers each trimester to set personal goals and create an
action plan based on their assessment scores. The act of goal setting helps students take an
active role in their learning and also helps instill a culture of high expectations.
Clear student expectations. The fourth prominent practice at Gold Elementary is the
established set of clear student expectations. The expectations are: “Be respectful, Be
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Responsible, Be Safe.” Posters with the school expectations can be found all over the campus in
classrooms and hallways. Under each expectation is a list of guidelines that remind students how
to behave. They are intentionally called ‘expectations’ rather than ‘rules’ and are phrased in a
positive manner. They are reminded to adhere to these clear standards through weekly bulletins,
assemblies, and school-wide challenges. The literature supports having both clear and shared
focuses or goals. Vu (2008) found that having concentrated and omnipresent goals are factors
that lead to outperformance. These student expectations are goals that all students strive to meet
each day.
Dismissal practice. The final identified practice at Gold Elementary is the daily
dismissal practice. As mentioned by many of the staff members in their interviews, this
dismissal practice is unique to this school. Each day, families gather on the large front lawn of
the school to pick up their child from the teacher. The four administrators are also outside at
each dismissal time to help supervise, as well as speak to parents. This practice is impactful for
two reasons. First, it helps build a sense of community. Hundreds of families gather on the lawn
and spend time talking to one another on a daily basis. Second, it helps support an open channel
of communication, which helps build positive relationships amongst the stakeholders. Teachers
can communicate daily with parents about their child’s progress and parents are able to address
concerns with both teachers and administrators on a daily basis. This prevents issues from
becoming bigger or not getting solved in a timely fashion. Overall, open communication helps
build more supportive and trusting relationships in the community.
Research Question Two
The second research question aimed to explore the leadership practices at Gold
Elementary. The findings revealed three distinct practices by the school leaders that play a
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significant role in the school’s success. The school leaders focus on: (a) relationship building,
(b) teacher enhancement, and (c) providing supportive leadership. The literature states that some
of the characteristics of effective leaders include having the ability to empathize with others,
supporting and empowering others, leading by example, and creating safe learning environments
in which teachers and students feel comfortable taking learning risks (Masumoto & Brown-
Welty, 2009; Shannon & Bylsma, 2007). The school leaders are able to lead, empower, and
support effectively because of the focus they place on developing quality relationships with their
constituents. The principal and assistant principal make an active effort to learn the students’
names and interact with them on the playground and in their classrooms. They strive to build
relationships with them in order to be better able to meet their needs. They are also available to
support parents on a daily basis and can be easily accessed each day at dismissal time.
In addition to actively building relationships with students and parents, the principal
places a great amount of focus on her teachers. She is able to be an effective school leader
because she works alongside her staff and makes it clear that she is not the most important
person in the organization. She treats her staff as individuals and makes them feel like valuable
members of the community. She tries to get to know her staff on a personal level by asking
questions and showing support when things arise in their personal lives. The teachers and other
administrators emphasized their appreciation for the principal’s support and guidance during the
researcher’s interviews. They also appreciated the amount of leadership and growth
opportunities provided by the principal to help enhance their practices. She encourages their
collaboration and growth and gives teachers ample time to work together.
It is clear that the principal is the heart of the school, with her unique ability to make each
person feel valuable and significant. Through her supportive relationships with the students and
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staff, she is able to instill a feeling of importance in each of them, which catapults into something
much more. She models genuine care, respect, and humility and through her actions, teachers
feel empowered to make a difference in their classrooms. Classrooms are exciting environments
that support learning, which makes students feel engaged. And, as the research shows, active
student engagement and a supportive learning environment lead to student success (Parrett &
Budge, 2012). Therefore, a large part of this school’s outperformance can be traced back to the
principal’s simple practice of developing genuine supportive relationships with members of her
school community.
Research Question Three
The third research question aimed to identify the cultural norms at Gold Elementary. As
the principal explained during her interview, a school’s culture is an “overarching feeling” on a
school campus. The site observations of both classrooms and the campus, as well as the insight
gathered from the interviews, surveys, and documents, helped identify three cultural norms: (a) a
warm and welcoming environment, (b) a sense of belonging and school pride, and (c) a sense of
community.
The school culture is centered on making people feel warm and welcome. These words
were repeatedly used during the staff interviews as a way to describe the overall feeling of the
school. The school environment is set up in such a way that exudes feelings of warmth and
makes any visitor feel welcomed into what feels like a little community. Classrooms and
hallways are lined with motivational quotes, photos of students, as well as an array of student
work. The assistant principal said that she and the principal make an effort to greet all visitors as
they are likely to become part of the school family one day. Staff and students smile and have
respectful interactions with one another. A simple example that helps highlight the warm school
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environment was noticed during the researcher’s campus tour with the principal. As they walked
through the halls, a student standing at a distance stood to hold the door open until the principal
and researcher walked through. The principal thanked the young boy for waiting and they
hugged before he ran back to class.
Besides being warm and inviting, there is a sense of belonging and school pride. These
feelings help staff and students feel a connection to their school and see it as something more
than just a building. Each staff member revealed how happy they were to be placed at this
school, which is quite impressive in a field that has such high dissatisfaction and burnout rates.
A sense of belonging and school pride can also tie into the third cultural norm, which is a sense
of community. The teacher specialist described this community as more like a family, with
members that support and care for one another even after elementary school. In a school
environment with such a large student population, it is not uncommon to see disconnected
groups of people. However, at Gold Elementary, the staff, teachers, and families come together
as a supportive community, which helps make achievement possible.
Implications for Practice
The discussion of findings above reviewed the impactful programs and practices,
leadership practices, and cultural norms at Gold Elementary. After careful review, three
emergent themes were identified across all the findings:(a) putting relationships first,
(b) collaboration at all levels, and (c) a sense of community. This study illuminates three
implications for practice.
The first implication for practice is that Gold Elementary’s staff must continue to invest
their time in fostering relationships with members of the school community. Supportive
relationships amongst the constituents were found to help establish strong bonds and create a
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safe learning environment for both students and teachers. The school administrators must
continue to spend quality time with students in the classrooms and on the playground, while
teachers continue to promote positive relationships in the classrooms. The tailored student
support and classroom practices, such as calling tables ‘families”, helps create a safe
environment that supports learning. Additionally, as multiple staff members highlighted, the
support of the principal is highly valued. She establishes bonds with her staff by celebrating
their personal and professional accomplishments, being understanding of personal life events,
and giving them ample opportunities to grow professionally. It is important that she continues to
foster relationships with her teachers, as she is greatly responsible for the sense of belonging the
staff feel and the overall performance of the school.
The second implication for practice is that the staff and students must continue to engage
in collaborative practices in order to help strengthen a culture of collaboration and improve
instruction. Gold Elementary fosters collaboration through Professional Learning Communities
and has quickly adopted the PLC as a mindset rather than a program. Collaboration occurs at all
levels, which was confirmed by the findings of the study. The researcher found opportunities for
collaboration in the classrooms, between teachers, and amongst the administration and staff.
Teachers and school leaders must continue to collaborate on best teaching practices, as well as
curriculum and assessment, especially in the Armenian dual immersion program. Students must
continue to work together in their classrooms and across programs to keep them actively
involved in their learning.
The third and final implication for practice is the importance of continuing to strengthen
the sense of community at the school. The staff emphasized the feeling of family and support at
Gold Elementary, which has a profound impact on the sense of belonging constituents feel. This
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sense of community is fostered by the supportive relationships and open channels of
communication between leaders, teachers, students, and families. Continuous effort must be
made to keep open channels of communication with all members, especially new students and
their families who join the school.
Recommendations for Research
In order to help improve and extend the research, the following section will recommend
five future studies. The first recommendation is to conduct a meta-analysis of the studies that
examine the programs and practices, leadership, and cultural norms in urban nontraditional
schools. The second recommendation is to conduct a study that examines the most current types
of nontraditional schools and their promising practices. The third recommendation is to examine
dual immersion schools. The fourth recommendation is to conduct a longitudinal study on the
impact of two-way dual immersion programs on student achievement. The final
recommendation is to replicate the current study to include the perspectives of both students and
parents.
Recommendation One: Conduct a Meta-Analysis
This study is one of eleven studies in the thematic dissertation group that examined the
factors contributing to the outperformance of an urban nontraditional school. While the studies
shared the same research questions and methodology, each member of the dissertation group
examined a different nontraditional school in California. Conducting a meta-analysis of the
eleven studies can help provide greater insight into the programs and practices, leadership, and
cultural norms of outperforming nontraditional schools. Additionally, when the findings are
combined, they are more generalizable and can be more readily applied to different school
settings.
163
Recommendation Two: Conduct a Study of Nontraditional Schools
When preparing the literature review for this study, the researcher encountered a limited
number of studies that examined current nontraditional schools. Most studies examined charters
or magnet schools, although there are a number of other types of nontraditional schools.
Furthermore, even less information was available when attempting to identify the promising
factors in urban nontraditional school settings. Most of the research presented data on high-
poverty, high-performing schools without the nontraditional component. The database of
research would greatly benefit from a current study that examines all types of nontraditional
schools and factors that help make them outperforming.
Recommendation Three: Conduct a Mixed Methods Study of Dual Immersion Schools
Over the last decade, there has been an increase in the prevalence of dual immersion
programs in public schools. However, information is still limited on the factors that make a dual
immersion program outperforming. It would be beneficial to conduct a mixed methods study of
successful dual immersion programs in order to provide rich data and practical strategies to
practitioners interested in improving or starting dual immersion programs.
Recommendation Four: Conduct a Dual Immersion Longitudinal Study
The fourth recommendation would be to conduct a longitudinal study on the impact dual
immersion programs have on student achievement. Most research examines the impact of dual
immersion programs on English learners. However, the research base would greatly benefit
from more data on the achievement of both ELs and native-English speakers. More information
grounded in research is needed to help support the benefits of dual immersion programs.

164
Recommendation Five: Replicate Current Study with Student/Parent Perspective
The fifth and final recommendation is to replicate a case study on an urban outperforming
nontraditional school to include the perspectives of students and parents. Due to a limited
amount of time and resources, this case study focused solely on the perspective of the staff
members through their survey results and interviews. A future study would benefit from
including students and parents in order to help validate the findings and provide a richer
perspective.
Conclusion
Many high-poverty urban schools across the United States continue to provide students
with an education that is subpar, leading to low performance and achievement rates. While
many of the circumstances and obstacles that urban schools face are difficult to counter or
overcome, they are still deeply impacting the students in their care. As parts of the public
education system continue to disappoint, school leaders must make a conscious effort to take
more than just a passive role in their students’ education. The research has identified model
‘break the mold’ schools, such as Gold Elementary, that have found a way to defy the odds and
become an outperforming educational institution.
This study and others like it will help identify specific impactful programs and practices
in nontraditional urban schools. Practitioners can easily extrapolate this data to serve the needs
of their specific school site. While many schools attempt to improve performance and increase
test scores with the help of fancy new programs or curriculums, Gold Elementary has established
a foundation of success through a simple avenue: building relationships. These multi-level
supportive relationships, spearheaded by the school principal, are the driving force behind the
sense of community at Gold Elementary. It is this sense of community which establishes
165
feelings of belonging amongst all members of the school community. School leaders, teachers,
and students perform at exceptional levels when they are in a safe environment that supports all
their needs and makes them feel like they are a part of something much more than just a regular
elementary school. They are more like a family who not only supports one another, but
continues to collaborate as a team. With a focus on relationships, collaboration, and fostering a
sense community, outperformance will always be possible. In the words of the assistant
principal, “Good things are happening here…” and are bound to continue with the practices
demonstrated at Gold Elementary.

166
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Appendix A: Survey Protocol

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180

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182

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Appendix B: Interview Protocol
I. Introduction
Thank you for agreeing to participate in my study. I appreciate the time that you have set aside to
answer my questions. The interview should take about an hour.
Before we get started, I want to provide you with an overview of my study and answer any
questions you might have about participating. I am currently a doctoral student at USC and I will
be conducting interviews, surveys, and observations for my research. I have structured my line of
inquiry around organizational practices that narrow the achievement gap in outperforming non-
traditional urban schools.
Thank you for volunteering to participate in this study. I want to assure you that I am strictly
wearing the hat of researcher. This means is that the nature of my questions and observations are
not evaluative. I will not be making any judgments on how you are performing as an educator.
None of the data I collect will be shared with other teachers, administrators, or the district.
I am happy to provide you with a copy of the findings if you are interested. Do you have any
questions about the study before we get started? If you don’t have any further questions, I would
like to have your permission to begin the interview.

II. Setting the Stage
1. I am hoping we could start with you telling me a little bit about this year’s students that
you are serving here at the school.

2. Tell me about any specialized training you received to work with the students that you
serve.

3. What are some of the challenges and concerns the students bring to you?

4. How often do you meet with parents/guardians to speak on behalf of students’ academic
growth?

5. What are some of the instructional challenges that students encounter in the school?

184
III. Heart of the Interview
Interview Questions
Questions RQ#1
What programs
and practices are
implemented in an
urban
outperforming
nontraditional
school?
RQ#2
What are the
leadership
practices present
in an urban
outperforming
nontraditional
school?
RQ#3
What are the
cultural norms in
an urban
outperforming
nontraditional
school?
1. Why did you choose to come
to this school, and what are
your experiences here in
comparison to where you were
before?
X
2. When others visit your
school, what do you believe
their first impressions are?
X
3. Why do you believe parents
should send their children to
this school as opposed to the
traditional neighborhood
school?
X
4. What do you believe puts
your school in a position to
outperform traditional schools?
X
5. How significant of a role do
you feel the
principal/students/teachers play
in the molding of the school
culture/climate?
• What other factors do
you feel have an impact
on school climate?
X
6. How does the school resolve
discipline issues when they
arise?
• How are stakeholders
involved?
X
7. How empowered is the staff
to make decisions in the best
interest of the students without
X
185
waiting on the leadership? Can
you give an example?
8. What specific leadership
practices do you believe are
most significant factors that
sustain and improve student
achievement?
X
9. How are decisions made to
implement researched
instructional practices at your
school?
X
10. How are resources and
programs used to increase
student academic
achievement?
X
11. What school-wide
programs or rules does your
school implement in order to
promote student success?
• What was the process
in coming up with
these school-wide
implementations?
• How are they
implemented?
(Action-Resolution?)
• How are they
measured for
effectiveness?
(Specific benchmarks?
Numbers?)
X
12. How would you describe
the implementation of
professional programs,
training, and professional
opportunities to grow?
X

IV. Closing Question
I am wondering if there is anything that you would add to our conversation today that I might not
have covered?

V. Closing
Thank you so much for sharing your thoughts with me today! I really appreciate your time and
willingness to share. Everything that you have shared is really helpful for my study. If I find
186
myself with a follow-up question, I am wondering if I might be able to contact you, and if so, if
email is ok? Again, thank you for participating in my study.

187
Appendix C: Observation Protocol

Name of Observer Date Time

Location Study

Brief Summary of Observation

Physical Space
Define the physical space.
· Geographical
· Temporal
· Physical
· Political

Utility: What is the purpose of
event/setting?

Participant reactions to physical
setting

Other

People/Participants
Who are the participants
taking place in
observation/event?
How many participated?

Demographical
information:
· Racial
· Ethnic
· Gender
· Class

What are the roles of those
being observed? How do
you know?

188
What was each of the
specific participants
doing?
· Group interaction
· Individual actions
· Passive participants
· Active participants

Purpose of Events/Observation
Why is the event taking
place? Are there any
political contexts to be
discussed?

Who was invited to
event? Who was not?

Was there any discussion
of educational policy?
Why? How so?

What are the positions of
the various participants
involved?
· Power dynamics
· Roles

What is being discussed?

Sequence of Events
Beginning
Middle
End

189
Observer Role
What am I doing? What is
my role throughout the
observation?

Describe some of my
interactions with other
participants throughout the
observation.

How did my
interaction/presence affect
the observation
participants?

Other

Pictures

190
Appendix D: Document Review Protocol
1. What practices and programs are implemented in urban outperforming non-traditional
schools?
● Master calendar
● Daily schedule
● Mission statement
● School plan
● SARC (school accountability report card)-state mandated
● Curriculum guide
● Parent handbook
● Student handbook
● Staff handbook
● LEA plan (Local education agency plan)
● School site council minutes
● School website
● WASC (Western association of school and colleges) accreditation
● Departmental meeting notes/agenda
● Student work/portfolio
● LCAP
● Attendance rates
● Dropout rates
● Graduation rates
● Discipline records
● Clubs and organizations
● Volunteer/parent volunteer records
● Field trips
● List of faculty
● Fundraiser forms
● Fundraisers
● Grants
● Achievement test scores
● Recruitment information
● Organization chart

191
2. What are the leadership practices in an urban outperforming nontraditional school?
● School plan
● District budget/fiscal year
● SARC
● LCAP
● Leadership Team Meeting Notes
● Departmental meeting notes/agenda

3. What are the cultural norms in an urban outperforming non-traditional school?
● Master calendar
● Daily schedule
● Mission statement
● School plan
● Display of student work
● Curriculum guide
● Parent handbook
● Student handbook
● Staff handbook
● School site council minutes
● Departmental meeting notes/agenda
● Student work/portfolio
● Departmental meeting notes/agenda
● Leadership team meeting notes
● Team meeting notes
● California Department of Education
● Attendance records
● Demographics
● Retention rates
● School Programs available
● Recruitment information

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Although there have been significant changes in educational practices and policies, many urban schools still struggle to provide students with a high-quality education. However, there are some nontraditional urban schools that are outperforming other urban schools with similar demographics and low-socioeconomic characteristics. The purpose of this study was to identify the factors that contribute to outperformance in a nontraditional urban school. Specifically, a qualitative case study was conducted on an urban elementary school with a dual immersion program. The research questions included: (1) What practices and programs are implemented in an urban outperforming nontraditional school? (2) What are the leadership practices in an urban outperforming nontraditional school? (3) What are the cultural norms in an urban outperforming nontraditional school? Four data collection methods were used to uncover detailed information about the promising practices, including a survey, interviews, observations, and document analysis. The study identified five practices or programs aiding in the school’s outperformance. This included a dual immersion program, a Professional Learning Community, the practice of maximizing student achievement, setting clear student expectations, and the school’s dismissal practice. The study also found three impactful leadership practices, which included building relationships with all stakeholders, enhancing the teaching staff, and providing supportive leadership. Lastly, the study identified three promising cultural norms, which included a warm and welcoming school environment, a sense of belonging and school spirit, and a sense of community. The three emergent themes, which were identified in the findings for each research question were (a) putting relationships first (b) collaboration at all levels and (c) a sense of community.

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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Asset Metadata

Creator Berberian-Kontogiannis, Natalie (author)

Core Title Factors contributing to outperformance in nontraditional urban schools: a case study of a public elementary school with a dual immersion program

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/11/2018

Defense Date 03/09/2018

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag collaboration,community building,cultural norms,dual immersion,dual immersion program,elementary school,leadership,nontraditional school,nontraditional schooling,nontraditional urban school,OAI-PMH Harvest,outperforming school,Relationships,school practices,school programs,urban school

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Gothold, Stuart (committee chair), Ott, Maria (committee chair)

Creator Email natalie.berberian@gmail.com,ncberber@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-7837

Unique identifier UC11671925

Identifier etd-BerberianK-6205.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-7837 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-BerberianK-6205.pdf

Dmrecord 7837

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Berberian-Kontogiannis, Natalie

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA