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Closing the “college aspirations - enrollment gap” in America’s urban public high schools: an innovation study
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Closing the “college aspirations - enrollment gap” in America’s urban public high schools: an innovation study
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Content
Running head: Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap”
CLOSING THE “COLLEGE ASPIRATIONS - ENROLLMENT GAP” IN
AMERICA’S URBAN PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOLS: AN INNOVATION STUDY
by
Aaron W. Smith
A Dissertation Proposal Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2018
Copyright 2018 Aaron W. Smith
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank God for providing me with the strength, resilience, support from
family and friends, and guidance from my dissertation committee members: Dr. Larry Picus, Dr.
Rob Filback, and Dr. Cathy Krop. I am grateful to the doctoral program staff for all of your
support and to all of my professors for providing me with a high quality education and making
me feel academically and personally supported. I would like to extend my sincere appreciation to
my family and friends for your unconditional love, for your calls and visits to check in on me
and provide encouragement. I would also like to give special thanks to Marchelle Broussard, a
close friend, colleague, and professional educator. She volunteered as a reader of this
dissertation. I am indebted to her for her very valuable comments on this dissertation.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements 2
List of Tables 7
List of Figures 8
Abstract 9
Chapter One: Introduction 11
Introduction of the Problem of Practice 11
Organizational Context and Mission 12
Organizational Performance Status 13
Related Literature 14
Importance of the Problem 15
Organizational Performance Goal 16
Stakeholders and Stakeholders’ Performance Goals 17
Stakeholder for the Study and Stakeholder Performance Gap 18
Purpose of the Project and Questions 18
Methodological Framework 19
Definitions 19
Organization of the Study 20
Chapter Two: Review of Literature 21
Characteristics of First-Generation College Students 21
Factors that Affect Enrollment into Some Form of Postsecondary Education 22
Academic Preparation 22
Financial Assistance 23
Role of High School Counselors 24
The Achievement Gap 24
History of School Counseling in America 26
Current State of School Counseling in America’s Urban Public High Schools 28
Effective Practices to Close the Gaps in College Advising, Preparation and Enrollment in
Urban Public High Schools 30
Effective Practice #1: Students School-Wide Will Have Access to College Counseling
Services to Help Them Prepare to Complete Some Form of Postsecondary Education or
Training 30
Effective Practice #2: Building a Strong College-Going Culture to Improve College
Enrollment in Urban Public High Schools 31
Effective Practice #3: Provide Better Access to College Advising and Preparation
Counseling Services for All Student’s School-Wide by Improving the Student-to-
Counselor Ratio 33
Effective Practice #4: School Counselors Prioritize College Advising and Preparation
Services As Their Number One Goal, to Ensure All Students School-wide Enroll in Some
Form of Postsecondary Education or Training Program Within 1 Year After High School
Graduation 34
Effective Practice #5: Continually Provide Professional Development Opportunities in the
Area of College Counseling for All School Counselors to Stay Current and Up to Date
With College Admissions and Financial Aid Knowledge 35
Assumed Needs from Learning and Motivation Theory 36
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 4
Knowledge 36
Motivation 38
Organization 39
Assumed Needs from Preliminary Scanning Data 41
Preliminary Scanning Data 41
Knowledge 41
Motivation 42
Organization 43
Summary 44
Summary and Conclusion 47
Chapter Three: Methodology 49
Purpose of the Project and Guiding Questions 49
Framework for the Study 49
Participating Stakeholders 50
Data Collection Methodology 51
Interviews 51
Validation of Assumed Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Issues 53
Trustworthiness of Data 53
Role of Investigator 53
Limitations and Delimitations 54
Chapter Four: Results and Findings 56
Results and Findings for Knowledge Needs 57
Validated Factual and Procedural Knowledge Needs 57
Validated Factual Knowledge Needs. 58
Counselors Need Knowledge of The Nine Critical Principles of a College-Going Culture 58
Counselors Need to Increase Their Knowledge of the U.S. Department of Education Federal
Financial Aid System 60
Counselors Need to Increase Their Knowledge of the California State Financial Aid System
62
Counselors Need Knowledge of the Current College Admissions and Enrollment Process
for Two-Year and Four-Year Degree-Granting Institutions in the U.S. 64
Counselors Need Knowledge of Action Planning to Develop and Implement a School-wide
College Access Action Plan 67
Validated Procedural Knowledge Need. 68
Counselors Need Knowledge on How to Use the Nine Critical Principles of a College-
Going Culture 68
Summary of Results and Findings for Knowledge Needs 68
Results and Findings for Motivation Needs 69
Self - Efficacy Need 70
Counselors Need Confidence in Their Ability to Effectively Perform the Role of a College
Counselor 70
Task Value Need 72
Counselors Need to Value the Idea of Building a Strong College-going Culture at American
High School 72
Expectancy Value – Outcome Need 73
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 5
Counselors Need to Set Higher Expectations and Believe That Every Student in Their
Caseload Will Enroll in Some Form of Postsecondary Education 73
Summary of Results and Findings for Motivation Needs 75
Results and Findings for Organizational Assumed Needs 76
Validated Organizational Needs 77
American High School Counselors Need to Ensure That All Students in Their Assigned
Caseload Are Prepared to Complete the Critical Steps to Enroll in Some Form of
Postsecondary Education or Career/Technical Training Program Immediately After
Graduation. 77
Prior to the Start of Each School Year, New and Returning School Counselors Need to
Complete a Formal College Counseling Training Program to Ensure That They Are
Proficient and Have Up-to-date Knowledge of the College Enrollment Process Including
Admissions and Financial Aid Policies and Procedures 79
Counselors Need to Allocate More Time to Meet With Each Student in Their Caseload to
Help Them Find Their Best-fit Post-secondary Options. Counselors Spend Less Than 60
Minutes on College Advising With Each Student in Their Caseload Over the Entire
School Year 80
Future Counselors Need to Receive Formal Training on College Admission and Financial
Aid Counseling in the School Counseling University-Based Preparation Program That
Awards a Master’s Degree in School Counseling and Recommends a Pupil Personnel
Service Credential to the California Commission on Teacher Credentialing 82
Despite School Budget Constraints and/or Work Demands, Counselors Need the Time
and/or Financial Resources to Participate in Professional Development Workshops and/or
Conferences for School Counselors 84
Counselors Need to Spend More Time on School Counseling Duties. Counselors Spend a
Significant Amount of Time on Non-counseling Duties Such As Administering
Standardized Tests and Clerical Duties 85
Summary of Results and Findings for Organizational Needs 85
Summary of Validated Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Needs 86
Validated Knowledge Needs 86
Validated Motivation Needs 87
Validated Organizational Needs 87
Chapter Five: Solutions, Implementation and Evaluation 89
Validated Needs Selection and Rationale 89
Solutions for Validated Knowledge Needs 93
Validated Knowledge Needs and Solutions 94
Solution 1: Provide Comprehensive and Continuous College and Career Counseling
Professional Development Program for Counselors That Provides Counselors With Pre-
service and/or In-serve Training and Coaching to Address Knowledge Needs 95
Solutions for Validated Motivation Needs 97
Validated Motivational Need and Solutions 97
Solution 2: Provide Comprehensive and Continuous College and Career Counseling
Professional Development Program for Counselors That Includes Pre-service and/or In-
service Training, and Coaching to Build Counselors’ Confidence to Consistently and
Effectively Provide College Admission and Financial Aid Counseling to Students and
Families 97
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 6
Solutions for Validated Organization Needs 99
Validated Organizational Needs and Solutions 99
Solution 3: Provide Low Cost, Comprehensive and Continuous College and Career
Counseling Professional Development Program for Counselors That Includes Pre-service
and/or In-service Training, and Coaching to Address the Organizational Needs Necessary
to Build a Strong College-going Culture and Improve College Enrollment Rates at
American High School 101
Summary of Validated Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Needs and Solutions 103
Implementation Plan 104
The Proposed Solution: College- and Career-Ready Counseling Professional Development
Training and Certificate Program for School Counselors 104
Implementation Action Steps 106
Timeframe 107
Evaluation Plan 108
Kirkpatrick’s Four-Level Training Evaluation Model 108
Expected Results 113
Limitations 114
Future Research 115
Conclusion 115
References 118
Appendix A: KMO Needs and Solutions 129
Appendix B: Survey Protocol 132
Appendix C: Interview Protocol 135
Appendix D: “Principles of a College Going School Culture” 139
Appendix E: K-12 Public School Student-to-Counselor Ratios, by State: 2010-2011 141
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 7
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Organizational Mission, Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals 17
Table 2: Summary of Assumed Needs for Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Needs 45
Table 3: Data Collection Schedule 51
Table 4: Validated Assumed Factual and Procedural Knowledge Needs 57
Table 5: Validated Assumed Motivational Needs 70
Table 6: Validated Organizational Needs and New Need 76
Table 7: Ranking Criteria 90
Table 8: Validated KMO Gaps Ranked According to Selection Criteria 91
Table 9: Validated Knowledge Needs and Solutions 96
Table 10: Validated Motivational Need and Solutions 98
Table 11: Validated Organizational Needs and Solutions 102
Table 12: Implementation Process Timeline 108
Table 13: Evaluation Instruments and Framework 112
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 8
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Emphasis counseling program places on preparing students for postsecondary
schooling, by four-year college-going rate. 35
Figure 2: The gap analysis process (Clark & Estes, 2008). 50
Figure 3: Responses to survey item: Learning the critical steps to build, strengthen and sustain a
strong college-going culture at American high school is valuable/useful to my work as a school
counselor. 60
Figure 4: Responses to survey item: As a school counselor it is important for me to increase my
knowledge of the federal financial aid system to effectively help students and their parents better
understand how to pay for college and navigate the financial aid system. 62
Figure 5: Responses to survey item: As a school counselor it is important for me to increase my
knowledge of the California state financial aid system to effectively help students and their
parents better understand how to pay for college and navigate the financial aid system. 64
Figure 6: Responses to survey item: As a school counselor it is important for me to increase my
knowledge of the college admissions and enrollment process to help my students complete the
critical steps to enroll in some form of postsecondary education. 66
Figure 7: Responses to survey item: I need to strengthen my knowledge to conduct college
admission and financial aid workshops and presentations to small and large groups of students
and parents for a full range of postsecondary options. 67
Figure 8: Responses to survey items: I believe that one of the priorities at American high school
is to ensure that all graduating seniors are prepared to enroll and complete some form of
postsecondary education. 75
Figure 9: Prior to joining American high school I received formal college counseling
training/instruction. 80
Figure 10: Responses to survey item: I have a sufficient amount of time to provide college
counseling services to each student in my assigned caseload. 82
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 9
ABSTRACT
Applying a Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis framework, this case study examined the
knowledge, motivational, and organizational naeeds necessary to help school counselors at
American high school increase their current postsecondary enrollment rate of approximately
20% to 100% by June of 2021 (California Department of Education, 2015; Trust-West, 2014).
Assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs were generated from related
literature, learning and motivation theories, and personal knowledge. The analysis of the data
collected from this case study validated 14 needs that led to three recommended solutions. The
proposed solutions in Chapter Five provide concrete strategies and an implementation plan to
close the performance gap at American high school. The study concludes with an evaluation plan
to monitor the effectiveness of the proposed solutions.
Significant Findings from the Case Study
• Schools and districts can support school counselors by offering a comprehensive college and
career counseling professional development program that new and returning high school
counselors should attend prior to the start of each school year to ensure that they are
proficient and have up-to-date knowledge to perform the role of a college and career
counselor.
• School counselors need specialized training and certification in school-wide action planning,
building a strong college-going culture, and college and career counseling and planning.
• School counselors’ job descriptions need to be revised to ensure that counselors are spending
more time on college- and career-ready counseling and planning.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 10
• University-based school counselor preparation programs need to strengthen their program
curriculum to ensure that future school counselors have the knowledge and field work
experience to perform the role of an effective college and career counselor.
• School counselor state credential requirements need to be revised to ensure that all school counselors
receive specialized training and field work experience in college- and career-ready counseling and
planning.
• Adequate funding is needed for schools and districts to hire more high school counselors to
improve the overwhelming counselor to student ratio, which is as high as one counselor to
950 students in California public high school settings.
• Schools and districts can support school counselors by recruiting and training highly
influential high school students and/or college students as a volunteer certified peer college
advisor (CPCA) to provide assistance to school counselors to help ensure that all students get
the college advising and support needed to complete the necessary steps to enroll in a
postsecondary education career training or degree program within one year of high school
graduation.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 11
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Introduction of the Problem of Practice
Over the past 50 years, a number of local, state, and federal initiatives have focused on
closing the gaps in college enrollment and completion for low-income, first-generation students
who attended public high schools in under-resourced communities across America. These
students remain unquestionably underrepresented on America’s two- and four-year
college/university campuses (Cahalan et al, 2018; Clinedist et al., 2015; Clinedinst, Hurley &
Hawkins, 2013; Haveman & Smeeding, 2003; Hill & Winston, 2006; Hurwitz & Howell, 2013;
Mortenson, 2018; Perna, 2015; Perna & Jones, 2013; Ruppert, 2003). According to the Pell
Institute for the Study of Opportunity in Higher Education (2018), only 46% of high school
graduates from low-income families enroll in some form of postsecondary education or training
as compared to 78% of their peers who grew up in high-income families (Cahalan et al, 2018;
Mortenson, 2018). In fact, only 11% of low-income students are on track to earn a bachelor’s
degree by the age of 24 compared to roughly 80% of their more affluent peers (Cahalan et al,
2018; Mortenson, 2018). Yet the “gap in college enrollment and college completion rates is not
likely to be closed unless the gaps in college readiness counseling and preparation is closed first”
in urban public high schools across the United States (NAPCA, 2015; NCAC, 2015; Perna,
2015).
Within urban public high schools, there is no other stakeholder more important to work
toward closing the college counseling and preparation gap than school counselors. School
counselors are best equipped to help their students understand how to apply for college and
navigate through the college enrollment process to increase the number of students that are
prepared to enroll in and complete some form of postsecondary education (Choy, 2001;
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 12
McDonough, 2005, 2007). Research shows that school counselors, when provided with
necessary time and resources on a consistent basis to provide college counseling services to
students and their families, can positively impact students’ postsecondary aspirations,
preparation, decision making, and enrollment into their best-fit college (McDonough, 1997, 2004
and 2005; Plank & Jordan, 2001). Unfortunately, research indicates that if public high schools
and districts across America do not examine their current and desired performance level within
their organization, as it relates to closing the gaps in college advising, preparation and college
enrollment school and district-wide, they will continue to graduate more low-income, first-
generation students unprepared to pursue a variety of postsecondary options (Conley 2010;
McDonald & Dorr, 2006; McDonough, 2005, 2007; Perna & Jones, 2013; Roderick, Nagaoka &
Coca, 2009; Tierney & Duncheon, 2015).
Organizational Context and Mission
American high school is an urban public high school located in the county of Los
Angeles, California. The mission of American high school is to:
Empower teachers to facilitate their student’s learning and to create an environment
where students can attain their highest potential in personal and academic excellence. It
is American high’s vision that all students graduate having undergone personalized and
challenging academic and career-focused programs that empower them to be successful
and productive citizens in society (American High School, 2015).
Prospective students are between the ages of 13 and 18. Currently, the student population
is 81% Hispanic and 18% African American with 46% being female and 54% male for a total
enrollment of nearly 2,400 students (Great Schools, 2015). Additionally, 22% of American high
school students are English learners and 91% of students participate in a free or reduced-price
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 13
lunch program. American high school currently employs approximately 100 teachers, four
administrators, six school counselors, and 10 office staff.
Organizational Performance Status
The organizational performance problem at the root of this study is American high
school’s low number of students completing the critical steps (taking rigorous college prep
coursework - at least 15 a-g subject requirements, completing the college application process,
applying for financial aid and scholarships, etc.) for admission and enrollment into some form of
postsecondary education career training or college degree program. Of the 2,400 students
enrolled at American high school, nearly 500 students are high school seniors (American High
School, 2015). Out of the 500 seniors on campus, only 20% enrolled in a two or four year
degree-granting institution within one year following high school graduation during the 2013 -
2014 school year (California Department of Education, 2015; American High School, 2015;
Trust-West, 2014). These low rates stem from less than 20% of the senior class completing a
“minimum of 15 college-preparatory courses (a-g courses) with a letter grade of C or better, with
at least 11 a-g courses finished prior to the beginning of their senior year of high school”
(California Department of Education, 2015; Trust-West, 2014).
In order to fulfill American high school’s mission that all students are prepared for a
variety of postsecondary options after graduation, it is imperative that American high work to
increase the number of students who are prepared to complete the critical steps to enroll in some
form of postsecondary education – whether it is a one or 2-year workforce relevant training
program that leads to a certificate or license in a trade or technical career or a regionally
accredited two or four year college degree program. Failure to do so will lead to more students
graduating from American high under-prepared to take ownership of their postsecondary
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 14
education and career goals (Chapman & De Masi, 1984, Cimera & Cowan, 2009; Cole, 1991;
Corwin, Venegas, Oliverez, & Colyar, 2004; McDonough, 2005, 2007).
Related Literature
The student-to-counselor ratio at most public high schools varies from state to state, but
can be as high 1,016 students per counselor and even higher at some schools in California which
far exceeds the national average of approximately 450 students per counselor at public high
schools in 2010-11 (Clinedist, Hurley, & Hawkins, 2013). At most urban public high schools
across America, and especially at high schools serving large numbers of low- income and first-
generation students, school counselors are not available to help every student in their assigned
case load navigate through the critical steps to enroll in some form of postsecondary education
and obtain the financial resources necessary to attend (Bettinger, Long, Oreopoulos, &
Sanbonmatsu, 2009; Chapman & De Masi, 1984, Cimera & Cowan, 2009; Cole, 1991; Corwin,
Venegas, Oliverez, & Colyar, 2004; McDonough, 2005, 2007; Perna, 2010; Tierney et al., 2009).
Yet, research shows that school counselors, when provided with the time and resources on a
consistent basis, can positively impact students’ postsecondary aspirations, college admissions
and financial aid knowledge, and postsecondary enrollment (McDonough, 1997, 2004 and 2005;
Tierney & Duncheon, 2015). On average, school counselors report that based on the size of their
caseload, they are not able to provide postsecondary admission counseling to every student in
their assigned caseload due to time constraints. “Counselors report spending only a third of their
time on postsecondary admission counseling (30% of time), as they also are responsible for such
tasks as high school course scheduling (21% of time, on average), personal needs/mental health
counseling (19.5% of time), academic testing (13% of time), occupational counseling and job
placement (6% of time), substitute teaching (5.5% of time), and other non-counseling activities
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 15
(5% of time)” (Clinedist et al., 2015, p. 26; Perna, 2015). According to the National Association
of College Admission Counselors, they estimate that students in urban public schools will likely
receive less than an hour of postsecondary education counseling during the entire academic year
(McDonough, 2005).
From a comprehensive review and synthesis of relevant rigorous research, urban public
high school students are not aware of the critical steps and lack the guidance and support to gain
admission and enrollment into a postsecondary educational institution (Tierney, Bailey,
Constantine, Finkelstein, & Hurd, 2009; McDonough, 2005; Perna, 2009; Perna & Finney, 2014;
Perna & Jones, 2013; Perna et al, 2015). A study by Corwin and Tierney (2007) identified five
elements to help increase postsecondary enrollment rates: “academic momentum, an
understanding of how college plans develop, a clear mission statement, comprehensive college
services; and coordinated and systemic college support.” As demonstrated in Chapter Two, the
two recommendations with the strongest support from research are: “engage and assist students
in completing critical steps for college entry” and “increase families’ financial awareness, and
help students apply for financial aid” (p. 6).
Importance of the Problem
The problem of low postsecondary education enrollment among American high school
graduates is important to solve for a variety of reasons. The academic instruction and college and
career readiness counseling support structures provided by American high school play a key role
in helping more low-income, first-generation, and students of color graduate college- and career-
ready so that they are prepared to complete some form of postsecondary education, enter the
workforce and contribute to the vitality of the United States economy. As it relates to the
strength of the American economy, a well-educated workforce is critical for maintaining the
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 16
economic competiveness of the United States. In today’s U.S. labor market, according to the
Georgetown University Public Policy Institute, they project that by 2020, nearly 7 out of every
10 jobs in the economy will require some form of postsecondary education and training after
high school graduation, up from 28% in 1973 (Carnevale, Smith, & Strohl, 2013). At the current
rate of college attainment in the United States, the demand for workers with at least a 2-year
college degree (associate’s degree) will exceed the supply by 5 million by 2020 (Carnevale et al.,
2013). As a result, the decision to enroll and complete some form of postsecondary education
(whether it is one to 2-year workforce relevant certificate/credential or 2- or 4-year college
degree) can have a profound impact on students at American high school, the lives of their future
children, and for the U.S. economy. Without these supports in place, young adults without a
postsecondary education credential or degree will continue to face limited internship and
employment opportunities and reliance on social welfare programs (Baum et al., 2013; Carnevale
et al., 2013).
Organizational Performance Goal
American high school’s goal is to increase their current postsecondary enrollment rate of
approximately 20% to 100% by June of 2021, where 100% of American high school seniors will
complete the critical steps for admission and enrollment into some form of postsecondary
education that leads to a certificate or license in a trade or technical career, or a regionally
accredited 2- or 4-year college degree program. The achievement of this goal will be measured
by the results of American high’s annual college enrollment survey reports through June 2021.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 17
Table 1
Organizational Mission, Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Organizational Mission
The mission of American high school is “to empower teachers to facilitate their student’s learning and
to create an environment where students can attain their highest potential in personal and academic
excellence. It is American high’s vision that all students graduate having undergone personalized and
challenging academic and career-focused programs that empower them to be successful and productive
citizens in society” (American HS, 2015).
Organizational Performance Goal
By June 2021, 100% of American high school graduates will be prepared to complete the critical steps
for admission and enrollment into some form of postsecondary education that leads to a certificate or
license in a trade or technical career or a regionally accredited two or 4-year college degree program.
School Counselors
By August 2019, 100%
of school counselors
with support from
administration and
other stakeholders will
develop an action plan
that will address the
low college enrollment
problem.
Teachers
By December 2019,
100% of teaching staff
will support the action
plan developed by
school counselors by
adhering to specific
policies and procedures
in their daily activities.
Students
By June 2020, 100% of
the current 9-12
th
grade
students (school-wide)
will complete a College
and Career Readiness
Action Plan with their
school counselor based
on their education and
career goals. The aim of
the plan is to help
students prepare to
complete the critical
steps to enroll in some
form of postsecondary
education institution.
Administration
By October 2019, 100%
of school administrators
will support the action
plan developed by
school counselors by
ensuring that all
teachers and support
staff support the action
plan. Additionally,
school administrators
will conduct an
evaluation of the
school’s college-going
culture to determine
progress toward
performance goals.
Stakeholders and Stakeholders ’ Performance Goals
At American high school, there is a low postsecondary enrollment rate of approximately
20% among a class of nearly 500 high school seniors, leaving the majority of students out of the
college picture (California Department of Education, 2015; Trust-West, 2014). Based on
American high school’s commitment to ensure all students are prepared for a variety of
postsecondary options, the following organizational goals will guide this study: By June 2021,
100% of American high school seniors will enroll into some form of postsecondary education.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 18
See Table 1 to review American high school’s mission, goals, and stakeholder performance
goals.
Stakeholder for the Study and Stakeholder Performance Gap
While the joint efforts of all stakeholders will contribute to the achievement of the overall
organizational goal, it is important to understand that the primary stakeholder group at American
high school who are best prepared to take ownership of the low college enrollment problem is a
group of six school counselors. The stakeholders’ goal, supported by school administrators, is
that by August 2019, all school counselors with the support from administration will develop an
action plan that will address the low college enrollment problem. Scanning interviews reveal that
currently, approximately 20% of high school seniors are enrolling in some form of postsecondary
education. The organizational goal is that 100% of high school seniors will complete the critical
steps to gain admission and enrollment into some form of postsecondary education institution.
The gap in performance, therefore, is 80%.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project is to conduct a needs’ analysis in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational needs necessary to reach the organizational performance goal.
The analysis will begin by generating a list of possible needs and then move to examining these
systematically to focus on actual or validated needs. While a complete needs’ analysis would
focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes the stakeholder to be focused on in this analysis
is all American high school counselors. As such, the questions that guide this study are the
following:
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 19
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs to help school counselors
at American high school increase their current postsecondary enrollment rate of
approximately 20% to100% by June of 2021?
2. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions to those needs?
Methodological Framework
In order to develop the right performance solutions, Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis,
a systematic, analytical method that helps develop and clarify organizational and stakeholder(s)
goals and identify the gap between the actual performance level and the desired performance
level within an organization, will be adapted for this study. The gap analysis framework serves
as a roadmap to select the right performance solutions for knowledge, motivation, and
organizational (KMO) problems. The gap analysis process uses personal knowledge and review
of the literature to develop a hypothetical list of presumed needs for inquiry. The perceived root
needs are then validated or invalidated through surveys, interviews, and literature review.
Finally, research based solutions are recommended and evaluated in a comprehensive manner to
address the root needs and mitigate the performance gaps identified in the inquiry analysis.
Definitions
“A – G ” Subject Requirements: Consists of 15 year-long high school courses necessary in order
to be considered for admission to the University of California (UC). UC faculty consider the
subject requirement to indicate effective preparation, attainment of a general body of knowledge,
critical thinking and study stills to provide support for students as they advance in their studies at
the University (University of California, 2007).
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 20
College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap: The distance between a students stated college
aspirations and the realization of such planned goals to enroll in some form of postsecondary
education within one year after high school graduation.
College-Going Culture: “Where all students are prepared for a full range of postsecondary
options through structural, motivational, and experiential college preparatory opportunities”
(McDonald & Dorr, 2006; McClafferty, McDonough, & Nunez, 2002).
School Counselor: According to the American School Counselor Association, “Professional
school counselors are certified/licensed educators with the minimum of a master’s degree in
school counseling and are uniquely qualified to address the developmental needs of all students
through a comprehensive school counseling program addressing the academic, career and
personal/social development of all students” (American School Counselor Association, 2004).
School Culture: The belief, attitudes, norms, and deposition in your school-wide community
(Deal & Peterson, 1999).
Organization of the Study
Five chapters are used to organize this study. This chapter provides the reader with the
key concepts and terminology commonly found in a discussion about closing the college
enrollment gap at American high school. The organization’s mission, goals and stakeholders as
well as the initial concepts of gap analysis were introduced. Chapter Two provides a review of
current literature surrounding the scope of the study. Chapter Three details the assumed needs for
this study as well as methodology when it comes to choice of participants, data collection and
analysis. In Chapter Four, the data and results are assessed and analyzed. Chapter Five provides
solutions, based on data and literature, for closing the perceived gaps as well as
recommendations for an implementation and evaluation plan for the solutions.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 21
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE
First-generation high school students, most of whom come from low-income
backgrounds and urban schools with limited resources, face a number of barriers, such as poor
academic preparation for college, lack of college counseling support and encouragement, and
misperceptions about the college admissions process and cost to attend college. These barriers
make it more difficult for first-generation students to not only to enroll in college but to persist
through college as well. This review of recent research focuses on the characteristics of first-
generation students and the factors that affect their access to college. This is followed by an
overview of the history and current state of school counseling in America and the effective
practices that can help close the “college aspirations - enrollment gap” in urban public high
schools across the United States. Finally, the review concludes with a summary of the assumed
knowledge, motivation, and organization needs that stem from the learning and motivation
theory and preliminary scanning data.
Characteristics of First-Generation College Students
First-generation students, students whose parents did not participate in college and/or
have not completed a college degree, are less likely to enroll in some form of postsecondary
education than their peers whose parents earned a college degree (Balemian & Feng, 2013;
Choy, 2001; McDonough, 2007). According to the U.S. Department of Education’s National
Education Longitudinal Study (NELS: 88/94), “Nearly 50 percent of students whose parents did
not earn a college degree enrolled in a postsecondary institution the year after graduating from
high school compared to nearly 90 percent of students whose parents had college degrees”
(Choy, 2001). Students who did enroll in some form of postsecondary education institution,
“nearly 60 percent of first-generation students attended a two-year college or less, compared to
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 22
23% of students whose parents had college degrees” (Berkner & Chavez, 1997). First-generation
students are more likely to enroll and complete a 2-year college degree or less due, in part, to
their demographic and enrollment characteristics. African American or Hispanic students are
more likely to be called first-generation college students and come from lower-income families
than students whose parents have college degrees (Choy, 2001; McDonough, 2007). First-
generation college students are more likely to “postpone their enrollment into some form of
postsecondary education after high school graduation, enroll at two-year colleges, commute to
college instead of living on campus, take remedial classes in their first year of college, enroll as a
part-time student while working full-time, and to not consistently remain enrolled in college
every semester” (Choy, 2001).
Factors that Affect Enrollment into Some Form of Postsecondary Education
The decision to prepare to apply and enroll in college can be a very stressful and
overwhelming experience, especially for a student who is the first in their family to attend
college (Roderick, 2008; Mc Donough, 2007; Tierney et al, 2009; Tierney & Duncheon, 2015).
Understanding the factors that influence college enrollment can help more students, particularly
first-generation college students, enroll in a postsecondary institution (Tierney & Duncheon,
2015). There is a vast amount of research on the factors that are known to influence college
enrollment. However, this review of the literature for this study focused on the following key
factors: academic preparation, financial assistance, and role of high school counselors.
Academic Preparation
As Jennifer Engle and Vincent Tinto identify in their report, Moving Beyond Access,
“low-income and first-generation students typically have lower levels of academic preparation
(Engle & Tinto, 2008; Seed Foundation, 2010; Tierney & Duncheon, 2015).” “The intensity and
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 23
quality of the high school college preparatory curriculum is the largest predictor of
postsecondary enrollment and success” (Adelman, 2006; Roderick, 2008; Tierney & Duncheon,
2015; U.S. Department of Education, 2017). According to the Institute for Higher Education
Policy, “a student’s high school grade point average and achievement test scores are also an
indicator for college enrollment (Adelman, 2006).” In addition, the Consortium on Chicago
Schools Research found that “one of the strongest predictors of college access is the high school
grade point average (GPA) (Roderick, 2008).” Roderick also found that a student’s high school
GPA was more important than students’ course of study completed. There are many other studies
that have examined the relationship between high school curriculum and student outcomes where
they have found that both a rigorous college preparatory curriculum and student achievement in
those courses are critical to preparing students for college. Furthermore, research confirms that it
very important that high schools offer a rigorous college preparatory curriculum with the
“appropriate mix of content areas and deep development of writing and critical thinking skills so
that students are prepared for college-level coursework (Seed Foundation, 2010).”
Financial Assistance
Research consistently indicate that money is a central barrier for students who are
academically qualified but do not enroll in college given the positive correlation between family
income and enrollment even after controlling for differences in academic achievement (Mc
Donough, 2007; Tierney & Duncheon, 2015; U.S. Department of Education, 2017). Existing
state and federal financial aid resources are inadequate to completely help students, particularly
first-generation college students, pay for their college expenses (Tierney & Duncheon, 2015;
U.S. Department of Education, 2017). Even though data supports this argument, federal and state
lawmakers are being pushed to increase their investment in state and federal student aid
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 24
programs to help ensure more students enter and complete college (Mc Donough, 2007;
Roderick, 2008; Tierney & Duncheon, 2015; U.S. Department of Education, 2017).
Role of High School Counselors
Many first-generation college students encounter various challenges in the college
application and enrollment process (McDonough, 2007; Roderick, 2008; Tierney & Duncheon,
2015; U.S. Department of Education, 2017). Some of these barriers include lower levels of
academic preparation for college, students receiving less encouragement and support to complete
the steps necessary to gain admission and enroll in some form of postsecondary education, and
misperceptions about the college admissions and financial aid application process, particularly
from parents (Tierney & Duncheon, 2015). While there are parents that want to help their child
navigate through the college application process, first-generation students cannot always rely on
parental guidance for assistance throughout the process. As a result, first-generation students will
seek support from their high school counselor (Woods & Domina, 2014). However, first-
generation students that attend schools where school counselors have a large caseload of students
to advise are less likely to talk with their school counselor about college (McDonough 2007;
Woods & Domina, 2014). For those students that do speak with their school counselor, they are
likely to receive no more than 60 minutes of college counseling over the entire school year
(McDonough, 2005, 2007). Research indicates that “smaller school counselor caseloads may
increase students’ access to key college preparation resources and raise 4-year college enrollment
rates” (McDonough 2007; Woods & Domina, 2014).
The Achievement Gap
The achievement gap refers to persistent disparities of educational measures in academic
achievement, educational persistence, and college attainment that we observe between different
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 25
racial and ethnic groups and/or socio-economic groups (Bailey & Dynarski, 2011; Putnam,
Frederick, & Snellman, 2012; Reardon, 2011). The gap in achievement between low-income and
high-income students has been a key topic of discussion, research and controversy for the last 40
years. While the gap narrowed considerably through the late 1980’s, particularly between Black
and White students, progress since then has been marginal (Bailey & Dynarski, 2011; Putnam,
Frederick, & Snellman, 2012).
According the U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics
(2017), “the 6-year graduation rate in 2014 was 60 percent for first-time, full-time undergraduate
students who began their pursuit of a bachelor’s degree at a 4-year degree-granting institution in
fall 2008. The 6-year graduation rate was highest for Asian students (71 percent) and lowest for
Black and American Indian/Alaska Native students (41 percent each).” Additionally, “the
number of bachelor’s degrees awarded to Hispanic students more than doubled between 2003–04
and 2013–14. During the same period, the number of degrees awarded also increased for students
who were Black (by 46 percent), Asian/Pacific Islander (by 43 percent), and White (by 19
percent).”
High school graduates from lower-income families are unlikely to enroll in some form of
postsecondary education than students from high-income families (Engle & Tinto, 2008;
McDonough, 2005, 2007; Roderick, Nagaoka & Coca, 2009; Reardon, 2011). Often, when they
do matriculate into college, many students do not persist to college graduation (McDonough,
2007). Nearly 2 out of 10 students who enter 4-year colleges and 5 out of 10 students who enter
2-year colleges do not complete their second year (McDonough, 2007). While many students can
meet the admission requirements to enroll in college after high school, the quality and rigor of
their high school curriculum often determines whether they are ready for college-level course
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 26
work (Conley, 2010; McDonough, 2007; Perna & Thomas, 2006). Research indicates that one
major reason students do not succeed in college is the gap between a student’s high school
experiences and college expectations (Conley, 2010; Perna & Thomas, 2006). A strong college-
going environment within a school’s culture must be established where completion of some form
of postsecondary education and training is a reasonable expectation for all students (McClafferty,
McDonough, & Nunez, 2002). In an environment where college is the “norm” the end result is
that the students who are expected to enroll in college, do so and are prepared academically to
take ownership of completing their postsecondary education goals (McDonough, 2007).
History of School Counseling in America
In 1889, Jesse Davis, a school principal, created and implemented the first school
counseling program through English classes in Detroit, Michigan (Bauman et al., 2003).
During the industrial revolution, there was a strong need to place vocational or career
counselors in schools because students needed guidance to enter a rapidly changing
workforce in the United States. Teachers also performed the role of a vocational counselor.
According to Gysbers and Henderson (2001), emerging research revealed that “individual
differences have an impact on a student’s educational and career goals.” As a result, by the
1940’s, clinical counseling with a focus on student testing became a major component of the
school counseling and guidance program in schools (Herr, 2002; Gysbers & Henderson,
2001). To legitimize and support school counseling as a recognized profession, the American
School Counselor Association (ASCA) was formed in 1952 (Bauman et al., 2003). In 1957,
counselors were placed in schools in large numbers of schools in communities across the
nation after the launch of “Sputnik” by Russia. The achievement of Sputnik influenced the
United States Congress to acknowledge the need for more trained scientists and engineers in
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 27
our nation. In 1958, the National Defense Education Act (NDEA) secured the necessary
support for mathematics and science education in schools across the United States. The
NDEA act also provided the funds needed to hire, train and place additional counselors in
schools across the United States (Herr, 2002). Moreover, the NDEA redefined the role of the
school counselor as a gatekeeper, which denotes that school counselors were able to identify
students who were prepared academically to enroll in and complete the postsecondary
training needed for vocational careers. Additionally, the school counselor identified highly
talented and gifted students and placed these students on a path to become academically
prepared to enter and complete a 4-year college or university degree program (Herr, 2002).
By the 1960s and 1970s, schools transitioned from teachers serving as school
counselors to individuals being hired and trained to serve as full-time school counselors. In
addition, the idea of a developmental school counseling and guidance program was
established. Vocational and developmental guidance was at the core of the program (Gysbers
& Henderson, 2001). As such, this program was unorthodox when compared to previous
school counseling roles. This new national counseling and guidance model required school
counseling services to be developmentally appropriate and equity focused to ensure all
students reach their fullest potential including aspiring all students to attend college after high
school. Throughout the 1980’s, the development and implementation of comprehensive
counseling programs continued. Furthermore, in the 1990s, the ASCA National Standards for
Students was developed. According to Bowers & Hatch (2002), “The development of the
ASCA National Standards for Students derived from an examination of theory, research, and
practice that ensures that all domains of school counseling were taken into account. The
National Standards for Students are presented in three domains: Academic, Career, and
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 28
Personal/Social Development.”
The ASCA National Standards for Students influenced the development of the ASCA
National Model, which provides schools with a framework for implementing a
comprehensive school counseling program. The ASCA National Model has four interrelated
components: “foundation, delivery system, management systems and accountability.
Integrated throughout the comprehensive school counseling program are the qualities of
leadership, advocacy and collaboration, which lead to systemic change” (Bowers & Hatch,
2002). According to the National Model, “high school counselors should develop programs
and interventions that address the developmental needs of their students and are aligned with
the National Standards” (Bowers & Hatch, 2002). The programs could also include but are
not limited to conducting classroom guidance presentations on navigating the college
admissions process and securing the financial resources to pay for college for their student’s
school-wide.
Current State of School Counseling in America ’s Urban Public High Schools
High school counselors report that helping students navigate the college admissions and
financial aid process is a top priority (Clinedist et al., 2015; Hurwitz & Howell, 2013). However,
at most urban public high schools across America, and especially at high schools serving large
numbers of low- income and first-generation students, school counselors are not available to
equitably help every student in their assigned case load navigate through the critical steps (i.e.,
preparing to register and take college entrance exams, applying to colleges and for financial aid
and scholarships) to enroll in some form of postsecondary education and obtain the financial
resources necessary to attend (Bettinger, Long, Oreopoulos, & Sanbonmatsu, 2009; Perna, 2015;
Chapman & De Masi, 1984, Cimera & Cowan, 2009; Cole, 1991; Corwin, Venegas, Oliverez, &
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 29
Colyar, 2004; McDonough, 2005, 2007; Tierney et al., 2009; Hurwitz & Howell, 2013). Yet,
research vividly shows that school counselors, when provided with the adequate resources and
time to provide college counseling services to students and families, can positively impact
students’ postsecondary aspirations, college admissions and financial aid knowledge, and
postsecondary enrollment (McDonough, 2007). On average, school counselors report spending
less than 30% of their time on advising students about the college admissions and financial aid
process, in addition to being responsible for such tasks as “high school course scheduling (21%
of time, on average), personal needs/mental health counseling (19.5% of time), academic testing
(13% of time), occupational counseling and job placement (6% of time), substitute teaching
(5.5% of time), and other non-counseling activities (5% of time)” (Clinedist et al., 2015, p. 26;
Perna, 2015) According to the National Association of College Admission Counselors, they
estimate that “under current ratios and current time on task allotments, students in public schools
can expect less than an hour of postsecondary education counseling during the entire school
year” (McDonough, 2005).
The number of students per counselor in urban public high schools has stayed almost the
same over the past decade (Clinedist et al., 2015). The student-to-counselor ratio at urban public
high schools can be as high 1,016 students per counselor and even higher at some schools in
California which far exceeds the national average of nearly 450 students per counselor at public
high schools nationwide in 2010-11 (Clinedist et al., 2015). With respect to budget shortfalls,
some high schools in urban school districts have no counselors at all or are required to operate
with very few counselors which leads to a large student-to-counselor ratio (Hurwitz & Howell,
2013; McDonough, 2005, 2007).
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 30
Effective Practices to Close the Gaps in College Advising, Preparation and Enrollment in
Urban Public High Schools
The research based effective practices shown below can help school counseling programs
in urban public schools across America improve their postsecondary enrollment rates.
Effective Practice #1: Students School-Wide Will Have Access to College Counseling
Services to Help Them Prepare to Complete Some Form of Postsecondary Education or
Training
Counseling in urban public high schools is often tied to whether a student is a on a
college preparatory track. Students who are not on a college preparatory track or in lower
academic tracks, most likely will not receive the college advising and preparation necessary
to become a competitive applicant for admission their top choice colleges (Corwin &
Tierney, 2007; McDonough, 2005, 2007).
Economically disadvantaged students and their families often lack information and
experience about the college admissions and financial aid process. Schools are often the only
resource available to them (McClafferty, McDonough, & Nunez, 2002; McDonough, 2004).
Students who are unfamiliar with college admissions and financial aid requirements often miss
registering for college entrance exams such as the SAT or ACT, struggle with completing the
process to receive financial aid and scholarships, are unaware of test preparation options, and do
not take advantage of fee waivers or other college preparation assistance.
There are several key components that can have a tremendous impact on increasing
postsecondary enrollment in urban public high schools: a strong college-going culture; teachers
and counseling staff that are dedicated to helping students take ownership of their college and
career goals; a college preparatory curriculum; and resources and time to help students prepare to
enroll in some form of postsecondary education and training (Corwin & Tierney, 2007).
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 31
Effective Practice #2: Building a Strong College-Going Culture to Improve College
Enrollment in Urban Public High Schools
Extensive empirical evidence verifies that the culture and climate in urban public schools
exerts a powerful influence on students’ postsecondary education aspirations, preparation, and
enrollment. McClafferty, McDonough and Nunez (2002) explain that in order to achieve the goal
of preparing all students school-wide to enroll in some form of postsecondary education or
training after high school graduation, school leadership must commit to building a college
culture, all school staff must encourage students to go to college, all school counselors must
provide college counseling services equitably to students school-wide, and counselors, teachers
and parents must work collectively to help students prepare to enroll in postsecondary institution
within one year after high school graduation (McClafferty, McDonough, & Nunez, 2002;
McDonough, 2007).
A study by Corwin and Tierney identified five elements necessary for building a
college-going culture: “academic momentum, an understanding of how college plans
develop, a clear mission statement, comprehensive college services; and coordinated and
systemic college support” (Corwin & Tierney, 2007, p. 4). Corwin and Tierney define culture
as “the intersection of beliefs and practices” and the organization’s norms and values where
schools cultivate aspirations and promote access and success in college (Corwin & Tierney,
2007).
In a study by McClafferty, McDonough and Nunez (2002), a college-going culture is
defined as a “school culture that encourages all students to consider college as an option after
high school and prepares all students to make informed decisions about available
postsecondary options” (McClafferty, McDonough, & Nunez, 2002, p. 6). They define a
college culture as consisting of the following nine principles: “college talk, clear expectations,
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 32
information and resources, comprehensive counseling model, testing and curriculum, faculty
involvement, family involvement, college partnerships, and articulation” (McClafferty,
McDonough, & Nunez, 2002, p. 9). See Appendix D to review descriptions of McDonough’s
nine principles of a college-going culture.
Despite the great need for counseling, many high school counselors today spend the
majority of their time scheduling, preventing dropouts, pregnancy and suicides as well as
personal crisis counseling (McDonough, 2005). After all these duties are met, counselors may
only have a very limited time for college advising (McClafferty, McDonough, & Nunez,
2002; McDonough, 2007) and only for select students.
The position of a counselor who has the specific duty of college counseling is vital in a
high school to provide college information to all students. Few high schools have resources
dedicated to helping students navigate the admissions and financial aid process. High schools
must take ownership of the responsibility to offer access to the necessary information and
resources to help low-income, first-generation college students gain the knowledge and skills
they need to make the transition from high school to college (Conley, 2005).
McDonough has written at length about the importance of looking at college access
from an organizational culture lens in order to identify the role schools play in reproducing
social inequalities and discontinue practices that grant access to some students but not all
(McClafferty, McDonough, & Nunez, 2002; McDonough, 1997, 2005). McClafferty et al.
(2002) emphasize, when schools can successfully establish a strong college-going culture
where all students see college as a viable option, receive the college counseling support,
develop the college knowledge necessary to navigate through the college choice process, and
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 33
make informed decisions about their postsecondary options, then schools are really helping to
set students on a path to success (McClafferty et al., 2002).
One benefit of establishing a school college culture is the ability to emphasize key
values that represent the entire school community. The culture of each school community
must give a clear message to students about the benefits of completing a postsecondary
education and that their educational and career goals are realistic and attainable (George &
Aronson, 2003; McClafferty et al., 2002; McDonough, 2005; NACAC, 2007).
Effective Practice #3: Provide Better Access to College Advising and Preparation
Counseling Services for All Student ’s School-Wide by Improving the Student-to-Counselor
Ratio
When students meet on consistent basis with a school counselor they are more likely to
enroll in college (Plank & Jordan, 2001; McDonough, 2005). Currently, counselors will have an
average caseload of nearly 500 students each academic year (McDonough, 2005; NACAC,
2014). According to the ASCA, each public school counselor is recommended to serve an
average of 250 students (Bridgeland & Bruce, 2011; Hawkins & Clinedinst, 2007; McDonough,
2005). Student-to-counselor ratios vary from state to state (see Appendix E), however, California
has maintained “exceedingly high” student-to-counselor ratios at 966:1 compared to the
recommended average as well as in comparison to other states (McDonough, 2005).
In many urban public high schools, college advising and preparation discussions are
not likely to occur until as late as a student’s junior or senior year (Hawkins & Clinedinst,
2007; Tierney, 2005). Research shows that high school seniors who consistently spent time
with a high school counselor regarding their postsecondary plans were more likely to plan to
attend college (Cabrera & La Nasa, 2000; Kirst & Venezia, 2004; Hawkins & Clinedinst,
2007; McDonough, 2005; Tierney, 2009). Many urban public high schools do not have a
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 34
counselor who specializes in the high school to college transition or college counseling
(McDonough, 2007). Additionally, even in schools where a college counselor is on-site daily,
there are other duties that they perform that impede their efforts to provide the postsecondary
advising and planning that students desperately need in order to access higher education
(Cabrera & La Nasa, 2000; Hugo, 2004). In particular, schools where there are large
populations of socioeconomic disadvantaged students have counseling needs that are not met
adequately (McDonough, 2005). As a result, research suggests that schools and districts
provide better access to college counseling services for all students school-wide (McDonough,
2005; Plank & Jordan, 2001).
Effective Practice #4: School Counselors Prioritize College Advising and Preparation
Services As Their Number One Goal, to Ensure All Students School-wide Enroll in Some
Form of Postsecondary Education or Training Program Within 1 Year After High School
Graduation
In 2009, a High School Longitudinal Study was organized and implemented to develop
an understanding of the path to college and careers. According to the U.S. Department of
Education Center for Education Statistics (NCES), 5 out of 10 counselors that participated in the
study emphasized that postsecondary advising and preparation services was their school
counseling program’s number one goal. The study also showed that schools with highest rates of
college enrollment and school counselors that allocated a larger proportion of their time to
college advising were more likely to indicate that preparing students to complete the critical
steps to college entry was their primary goal. Additionally, “7 out of 10 counselors in schools
with strong college enrollment rates placed this as their highest priority, as compared to 52
percent and 32 percent of school counselors in schools with middle and low college enrollment
rates, respectively” (See Figure 1).
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 35
Figure 1. Emphasis counseling program places on preparing students for postsecondary
schooling, by four-year college-going rate
Effective Practice #5: Continually Provide Professional Development Opportunities in the
Area of College Counseling for All School Counselors to Stay Current and Up to Date With
College Admissions and Financial Aid Knowledge
For the last few decades, most school counseling preparation programs offered at U.S.
colleges and universities have not trained students in college counseling (McDonough, 2005). It
is imperative that school counselors receive professional development training in the area of
college counseling on a consistent basis each academic year to stay current and up to date with
college admissions and financial aid knowledge which changes quite often. Counselors must
have the knowledge and self-efficacy to help their students prepare to apply to and enroll in some
form of postsecondary education and training program which includes applying for financial aid
and scholarships. Research has shown that nearly 90% of public high schools depend on school
counselors to provide the information, resources and tools to help student’s access college.
Additionally, counselors reported that they need professional development in the area of college
admissions and financial aid counseling in order to provide effective and up-to-date information
to students and their families (McDonough, 2005).
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 36
Assumed Needs from Learning and Motivation Theory
It is important to understand the possible knowledge, motivational, and organizational
needs that will help American high school achieve its desired performance goal(s). Each of the
assumed needs outlined in the study have been identified through the learning and motivational
theory as well as a review of the literature. The assumed needs that were validated from
surveys and interviews were used to recommend solutions to help the stakeholder reach their
desired performance goal. Clark and Estes’ (2008) framework provides an overview of the
major learning and motivation theories. The theories are examined from three perspectives of
knowledge, motivation and organizational gaps.
Knowledge
Anderson and Krathwohl’s (2001) taxonomy identifies the different knowledge types
(factual, conceptual, procedural, metacognitive) and cognitive process. To identify the potential
needs of this gap analysis case study, it is important to investigate all knowledge types.
Factual knowledge. Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) define factual knowledge as the
“basic elements the learner must know in order to be familiar with the topic or solve problems
within the discipline.” From a factual knowledge perspective, school counselors need to know
the key principles and components to develop and implement a strong college-going culture
within American high or develop the right school-wide college access strategic plan to achieve
the goal of 100% of students at American high school will enroll in some form of postsecondary
education. Additionally, school counselors need the knowledge and skills to perform the role as a
highly effective college counselor (McDonough, 2005). Examining the prior knowledge of the
stakeholder group at American high school allowed for the development of solutions that ensure
a bridge between what the stakeholders already know and what they need to know to perform the
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 37
tasks related to achieving their performance goals. Mayer (2011) proposes several methods that
could be used to assess prior learning. In this case study, surveys and interviews were used to
determine whether school counselors can demonstrate their factual knowledge about building a
strong college-going culture at American high school.
Conceptual knowledge. Conceptual knowledge is defined by Anderson and Krathwohl
(2001) as “essential facts, terminology, details or elements students must know or be familiar
with in order to understand a discipline or solve a problem in it” (p.51). From a conceptual
knowledge perspective, school counselors may not know their role and the necessary
interrelationships that are important within the school culture to help build and sustain a strong
college-going culture at American high school. As with factual knowledge, conceptual
knowledge was “validated by surveying and interviewing school counselors to assess their ability
to “analyze concepts in a larger context and think within as well as outside of the structures”
(Anderson & Krathwohl, p. 52). For instance, school counselors were assessed on their level of
understanding about the overall impact of the current college-going culture on its student
population.
Procedural knowledge. Procedural knowledge refers to the “learner’s ability to use
subject-specific skills, techniques and methods to perform a task” (Anderson & Krathwohl,
2001, p. 56). School counselors are not aware of the critical steps to build and sustain a strong
college-going culture at American High. One way to assess the level of procedural knowledge,
such as knowing how to effectively implement the delivery of a strong college-going culture at
American high school, was to ask the participants in this case study to provide solutions to a case
scenario.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 38
Metacognitive knowledge. Metacognitive knowledge is the “awareness and knowledge
of one’s own cognition, including the ability to apply strategic knowledge that is acquired
through experience and with age” (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001, p. 61). From a metacognitive
knowledge perspective, school counselors may not know how to plan and monitor their efforts to
build and strengthen their school’s college-going culture at American high school. Metacognitive
knowledge is important in terms of “how it is used by learners to facilitate their own learning and
were assessed through informal conversations or interviews” (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001, p.
65).
Motivation
Clark and Estes (2008) stated that the three motivational “indexes” or types of
motivational processes are active choice, persistence, and mental effort. Mayer (2011) describes
motivation as an “internal state that initiates and maintains goal directed behavior” (p. 39) and
lists key variables that influence the amount of energy and motivated performance one is willing
to exert on an activity. They are interest, beliefs, attributions and goals. Clark and Estes (2008)
provide three motivational factors that when effectively combined with knowledge and skills and
organizational processes will result in performance goal achievement. The three factors are
choice/action: active choice to pursue a goal, persistence: persistency in maintaining engagement
with the work goal, and mental effort: the level of mental effort invested in key work goals
(Clark & Estes, 2008). Based on personal knowledge, the school administration at American
high school has actively made a choice to improve their school performance as it relates to
increasing the number of students who receive an offer of admission and enroll in some form of
postsecondary education, whether that is a workforce relevant certificate or credential program, a
regionally accredited 2-year college, or 4-year college or university. However, it appears that the
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 39
stakeholders at American high school are not exercising the mental effort and persistence with
improving their low rates of college admission and enrollment among their senior class, as the
rate has not been improved for more than 5 years. In addition, the school appears to use outdated,
ineffective strategies to help strengthen their college-going culture and improve their low rates of
college admission and enrollment.
According to the expectancy-value theory, individuals can be motivated to achieve
performance goals if they believe that there is a positive correlation between efforts and
performance and/or the expected outcome will offer rewards that energizes an individual’s inner
drive to put in the effort to achieve performance goals (Eccles, 2004; Eccles & Wigfield, 1995;
Wigfield, 1994). While informal interviews and personal observations showed that school
counselors may lack the self-efficacy or confidence in their ability to advise students on how to
successfully navigate the college admission and financial aid process, there also needs to be
further investigation into their perception of expectancy outcome, in other words whether school
counselors believe their efforts will lead to a positive outcome.
Organization
Several factors within an organizational structure may contribute to the performance gaps
at the organizational level at American high school. Clark and Estes (2008) suggest two primary
reasons affecting performance: “lack of efficient and effective organizational work processes and
material resources” (p. 103). Based on personal knowledge, the school has experienced growth
and turnover in the last few years with the addition of new counselors and school administrators.
Major changes were made within the school culture as well as changes in operational and
support staff. For instance, school counselors performed other duties in addition to their list of
school counseling responsibilities, such as administering standardized test, supervising
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 40
classrooms, and supervising students during lunch in common areas, which constrained the
school counselors’ efforts to provide college advising to all students school-wide. This was
perceived as a roadblock to efficient and effective work processes as it relates to improving the
college advising services at American high school school-wide.
As for material resources, school counselors and administrators expressed concerns about
the cuts in the school budget for expanding new initiatives and adding essential support
personnel. School counselors and administrators emphasized that they are doing what they can
with the limited resources available. Organizations are comprised of individuals; therefore
organizational problems lie not only with processes and resources but also extend to culture.
Beliefs held by school counselors as a team are part of the organizational culture and permeate
every aspect of the daily activities and operation of the organization (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Bandura (1997) defined “collective efficacy as a shared belief in its conjoint capabilities to
organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given level of attainments” (p.
477). School counselors’ belief in their ability as a team to achieve their performance goals will
result in increased persistency and initiative.
The cultural setting at American high school, as with many organizations, is often
unpredictable due to the student population served. From a cultural setting perspective, three
factors explained the current performance gap at American high school: (a) school culture does
not reflect a strong college-going culture, (b) school policies and procedures serve as a road
block to build, strengthen and sustain a strong college-going culture within the school culture,
and (c) high employee turnover impedes the schools effort to achieve its performance goals as
the time to train and support new staff may serve as a setback to building and sustaining a strong
college-going culture. From a cultural model perspective, a culture of lack of accountability also
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 41
contributed to the performance gap at American high school. Cultural models help mold
organizational structure, practices, and policies (Clark & Estes, 2008). To that end, the lack of
accountability is a valid organizational issue that explain performance gaps.
Assumed Needs from Preliminary Scanning Data
One of the biggest challenges in organizations today is how the needs of performance
gaps are often assumed, but not validated by the leadership of the organization. Without
appropriately validating the assumed needs of performance issues within an organization, it may
lead to inappropriate performance solutions. As such, a thorough investigation into the needs of
performance gaps at American high school included three components: (a) preliminary scanning
(informal) interviews with stakeholders; (b) learning, motivation, and organization/culture
theories; and (c) a review of related literature to better understand the needs of the performance
gap. What follows is a discussion of the knowledge, motivation, and organizational assumed
needs to the low numbers of students at American high school who enroll in some form of
postsecondary education.
Preliminary Scanning Data
To gain a better understanding of the performance problem at American high school,
assumed needs related to knowledge, motivation and organization are briefly discussed. They are
based on personal knowledge and informal conversations conducted.
Knowledge
From informal conversations and personal knowledge, the stakeholder group (school
administrators, counseling staff, and teachers) at American high school need to know the key
principles, components, and critical steps to develop, implement, and monitor their efforts to
build, strengthen and sustain a strong college-going culture coupled with effective college access
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 42
strategy school-wide to increase the low rates of college admission and enrollment (Martin,
2002; McDonough 2005).
Another assumed need related to knowledge is that most school counselors need formal
training or experience to help their students complete the critical steps to enroll in some form of
postsecondary education (Martin, 2002; McDonough, 2005). Based on personal knowledge, most
licensed and credentialed school counselors graduate from school counselor preparation
programs at highly selective and non-selective university campuses across the United States.
underprepared to perform the role of a college counselor. Those school counselors that do
possess the knowledge to serve as college counselor most likely have completed professional
development training in the areas of college admission and financial aid counseling either during
their school counselor training program or while on the job as a professional school counselor.
Additionally, based on experience, attending professional development trainings can be a
challenge for most counselors working in urban schools such as American high due to time
constraints and the workload (McDonough, 2005). As a result, given the time constraints, heavy
workload, and lack of professional training in the area of college counseling, one can assume that
school counselors at American high school need the knowledge, skills and confidence to
successfully navigate students and their families through the college admissions and financial aid
process.
Motivation
Based on personal knowledge, American high school has actively made a choice to
improve their school performance as it relates to increasing the number of students who enroll in
some form of postsecondary education. School counselors, teachers and administrators recognize
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 43
the urgency to institute school-wide reform to build a strong college-going culture and empower
their students to take ownership of their college and career paths.
Organization
From personal knowledge, it is clear that many students at American high school have
aspirations to complete some form of postsecondary education or 4-year college degree.
However, there seems to be a lack of student support and counseling structures within the school
culture to help students school-wide develop academic and career goals and an individual
education plan to help them take ownership of their postsecondary aspirations (Corwin &
Tierney, 2007; McDonough, 2005).
Students’ lack of concrete college goals and postsecondary plans from the very start of 9
th
grade has resulted in a lot of stress on 12
th
grade students as they determine that their aspirations
to attend a 4-year college may not be a reality. In addition to the stress placed on senior students,
the college counselor is also overwhelmed trying to help every student who is applying to
college within the span of 1-4 months (Mid-August – Mid-December) at the beginning of senior
year. During these 1-4 months, college advising services appear to be focused only on those
students who have met the UC/CSU A-G subject requirements and have a GPA of at least 3.0 or
higher and have been enrolled in upper-level, honors or advanced placement courses throughout
most of their high school career (Corwin & Tierney, 2007).
Another matter that seems to be a significant need is school counselors spending more
time with students in their caseload on college advising and planning. Based on personal
knowledge, school counselors spend on average 30-60 minutes during the academic year talking
to students about the college admission and financial aid process, with many students never
talking to their counselor about their postsecondary plans (McDonough, 2005).
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 44
Moreover, it appears that school administrators and counseling staff at American high
school currently lack in-depth knowledge about the hidden barriers and cultural models (values,
beliefs, and attitudes that are generally invisible and automated) within the school’s culture and
climate (visible, concrete manifestations of cultural models that appear within cultural settings),
and school policies and procedures. Furthermore, the school has less than 6% of their senior
class enrolling in a 4-year college (California Department of Education, 2015; Trust-West,
2014). These low rates stem from less than 20% of nearly 500 seniors meeting California’s A-G
subject requirements with a C grade or better (California Department of Education, 2015; Trust-
West, 2014). Completing the A-G requirements denotes that an individual has taken the
academic coursework required for admission to a 4-year college or university.
Summary
A summary of the sources of assumed needs categorized as Knowledge, Motivation, and
Organization is found in Table 2.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 45
Table 2
Summary of Assumed Needs for Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Needs
Assumed Needs
Sources Knowledge
(F)factual (C)conceptual
(P)procedural (M)metacognitive
Motivation
Self-efficacy
Task value
Expectancy Outcome
Attributions
Goal Orientation
Organizational
Cultural models
Cultural settings
(including Motivation
killers, goals, etc.)
Scanning
interviews,
personal
knowledge
(Informal
knowledge
about the
organization)
School counselors need
knowledge of the “nine critical
principles of a college going
culture.” (F)
School counselors need
knowledge of current federal
financial aid programs, policies
and resources available in order
to effectively help students and
their parents better understand
how to pay for college and
navigate the financial aid system.
(F)
School counselors need
knowledge of California state
financial aid programs, policies,
and resources for U.S. citizens,
undocumented students, and
AB540 students to effectively
help students and their parents
better understand how to
successfully navigate the
financial aid process. (F)
School counselors need
knowledge of current college
admissions policies, procedures,
and resources available in order
to effectively help students and
their parents better understand
how to successfully navigate the
college admission process. (F)
School counselors need
more confidence in their
ability to effectively
perform the role of a college
counselor such as advising
or leading a workshop for
students and their parents on
how to successfully
navigate the college
admission process and/or
financial aid process.
School counselors need to
value the idea of building a
strong college-going culture
at American high school.
School counselors need to
spend more than 1 hour on
college counseling with
each student in their
assigned caseload during the
school year.
School counselors need to
ensure that all students are
prepared to complete the
critical steps to enroll in
some form of postsecondary
education immediately after
graduation.
School counselors need to
complete a formal college
counseling training program
prior to the start of each
school year to ensure that
they are proficient and have
up-to-date knowledge of the
college enrollment process
including admissions and
financial aid policies and
procedures.
School counselors need to
receive formal training on
college admission and
financial aid counseling in
the school counseling
university-based preparation
program that awards a
master’s degree in school
counseling and recommends
pupil personnel service
credential.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 46
Table 2, continued
Assumed Needs
Sources Knowledge
(F)factual (C)conceptual
(P)procedural (M)metacognitive
Motivation
Self-efficacy
Task value
Expectancy Outcome
Attributions
Goal Orientation
Organizational
Cultural models
Cultural settings
(including Motivation
killers, goals, etc.)
Learning
and
motivation
theory
Factual
School counselors need
knowledge to develop and
implement of a school-wide
college access action plan at
American high school to help
establish a strong college-going
culture and increase college
enrollment rates. (F)
School counselors need
knowledge on how to use the nine
critical principles of a college-
going culture to create a solid
school-wide action plan that
when delivered will result in a
strong college-going culture. (P)
Choice/Action
School counselors need to
set higher expectations and
believe that every student in
their caseload will enroll in
some form of postsecondary
education within one year of
high school graduation,
when provided with the
necessary counseling
support and encouragement.
Persistence
School counselors need to
actively seek to improve
their low rate of students not
enrolling in some form of
postsecondary education
within one year after high
school graduation.
Effort
School counselors need to
use evidence-based
strategies to help increase
the number of students who
are prepared to enroll in
some form of postsecondary
education within one year
after high school graduation.
Cultural Models
Are there any hidden rules
that lead to stakeholder
dysfunctional motivation-
related beliefs or selection
of goals?
Are their conflicting
cultures within the
stakeholder organization?
Cultural Settings
Are there any policies and
procedures that may serve
as a road block to building
and strengthening a college-
going culture?
School counselors need to
allocate more time to meet
with each student in their
caseload to help them find
their best-fit post-secondary
options. Counselors spend
less than 60 minutes on
college advising with each
student in their caseload
over the entire school year.
School counselors need the
time and/or financial
resources to participate in
professional development
workshops and/or
conferences for school
counselors, despite school
budget constraints and/or
work demands.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 47
Table 2, continued
Summary and Conclusion
The research presented in this literature review reveals that urban public high school
counselors have the potential to make a contribution to two key education policy challenges
facing our nation: the high school and postsecondary completion crisis and the gap between
student preparedness and 21st century labor-market needs. A recent research study by
Georgetown University Center on Education and the Workforce projects that by 2020, three out
of four jobs in the American economy will require completion of some form of postsecondary
education and training after high school graduation, up from 28% in 1973 (Carnevale et al.,
2013, 2015). At the current rate of college attainment in the United States, the demand for
workers with at least a 2-year college degree (associate’s degree) will exceed the supply by 5
million by 2020 (Carnevale et al., 2013). As a result, a student’s decision to enroll and complete
Assumed Needs
Sources Knowledge
(F)factual (C)conceptual
(P)procedural (M)metacognitive
Motivation
Self-efficacy
Task value
Expectancy Outcome
Attributions
Goal Orientation
Organizational
Cultural models
Cultural settings
(including Motivation
killers, goals, etc.)
Background
and Review
of the
Literature
Cognitive Load Theory contends
that learners can better process
information more effectively by
actively utilizing their working
memory and controlling their input
of extraneous cognitive load
(Chandler & Sweller, 1991;
Sweller, 1988, Sweller et al.,
1998).
Social Cognitive Theory
demonstrates that individuals
should network with reputable
peer models with respect to the
knowledge, skills, and behaviors
they are expected to learn
(Bandura, 2001).
According to the
expectancy-value theory,
“behavior is a function of
the expectancies an
individual holds and the
value of the goal toward
which one is working”
(Eccles, 2004; Eccles &
Wigfield, 1995; Wigfield,
1994;).
Change may influence the
organizational culture and
can be a stressful process for
the organization (Clark &
Estes, 2008).
High-performing schools
must change and adapt to
new conditions to continue
to be effective over time
(Dyer & Dyer, 2013;
Salazar, 2013).
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 48
some form of postsecondary education, whether it is one to 2-year workforce relevant
certificate/credential or two or 4-year college degree, can have a profound impact on the lives of
their future children, and for the U.S. economy. Without these supports in place, young adults
without a postsecondary education credential or degree will continue to face limited employment
opportunities (Baum et al., 2013; Carnevale et al., 2013). The comprehensive student support
services that school counselors provide could potentially address both of these policy issues.
Furthermore, a performance gap analysis model was used to identify the knowledge,
motivational, and organizational needs to improving postsecondary enrollment in urban public
high schools. Chapter 3 describes the methodology for validating or not validating the assumed
needs as presented in Chapter Two and presents the Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis process
in detail to address the root needs and mitigate the performance gaps identified in the inquiry
analysis.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 49
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Purpose of the Project and Guiding Questions
The purpose of this project was to conduct a needs’ analysis in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational needs to help the school counselors at American high school
increase their current postsecondary student enrollment rate of approximately 20% to 100% by
June of 2021 (California Department of Education, 2015; Trust-West, 2014). The analysis
commenced by generating a list of possible needs and then moved to examining these
systematically to focus on actual or validated needs. While a complete needs’ analysis would
focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes, the stakeholder focused on in this analysis were
four school counselors at American high school. The questions that guided this project were the
following:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs to help school counselors
at American high school increase their current postsecondary student enrollment rate of
approximately 20% to 100% by June of 2021?
2. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions to those needs?
Framework for the Study
In order to develop the right performance solutions, Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis,
a systematic, analytical method that helps develop and clarify organizational and stakeholder(s)
goals and identify the gap between the actual performance level and the desired performance
level within an organization, was adapted for this study. The gap analysis framework served as a
roadmap to select the right performance solutions for knowledge, motivation, and organizational
problems. The gap analysis process commenced with developing a hypothetical list of presumed
needs for inquiry, which was generated from personal knowledge and review of the literature.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 50
The perceived root needs were then validated through surveys, interviews, and literature review.
Finally, research based solutions were recommended and evaluated in a comprehensive manner
to address the root needs and mitigate the performance gaps identified in the inquiry analysis.
The gap analysis process is visually shown in Figure 2.
Figure 1. The gap analysis process (Clark & Estes, 2008)
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholder group for this case study, representing the sample and population size,
are six school counselors at American high school. According to the ASCA (2004),
professional school counselors are certified/licensed educators with the minimum of a
master’s degree in school counseling and are uniquely qualified to address the
developmental needs of all students through a comprehensive school counseling program
addressing the academic, career and personal/social development of all students. (p. 1)
All six counselors were asked to participate in surveys and interviews, however, only
four counselors agreed to do so and successfully completed an interview and survey for the
study. School counselors were chosen to participate in the study because they are primary
stakeholders at American high school who are most likely lead the effort to build and strengthen
Assumed
Needs
Root
Needs
Gaps
(100%)
Current
Achievement
(0%)
Goals
Implement Evaluate Solutions
Knowledge Motivation Organization
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 51
a college-going culture and help increase the number of students that will complete the critical
steps to enroll in some form of postsecondary education within one year after high school
graduation.
Data Collection Methodology
The dissertation fieldwork took place from June 1 to June 9, 2016 at American high
school in Southern California. Table 3 shows the data collection schedule.
Table 2
Data Collection Schedule
Date Activity
6/1, 6/2, 6/3, 6/9 Data collection at American high school
The researcher visited American high school on June 1, June 2, June 3, and June 9 to
complete the data collection activities. The researcher met with each counselor for about 45
minutes to interview him or her individually in a private office. Then the researcher left the
survey with each counselor at the end of the interview, allowed them to complete the survey
in private, and later collected the survey from the four counselors.
Interviews
Four school counselors at American high school were interviewed individually in person.
All school counselors that participated in the interviews are over the age of 18. Each interview
commenced with a standard interview protocol that includes obtaining permission to record the
interview for later transcription and coding. Interviews consisted of 22 questions and lasted
approximately 45 minutes to one hour. Interviews were conducted in English at American high
school in a private space. The interview protocol can be found in Appendix C. To maintain
confidentiality and security, transcripts and notes taken during interviews were retained in a
locked file cabinet and password-secured computer.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 52
Surveys
Once approval from the University of Southern California (USC) Institutional Review
Board was received, surveys were distributed in June 2016. The survey was administered in
English and distributed to four American high school counselors. The survey consisted of 18
questions. Survey items assessing motivation, specifically, were based on existing valid and
reliable motivation instruments. Knowledge and organization items were designed for the
project.
Responses collected from the four school counselors were tabulated through software,
and a copy made for back up purposes has been stored on an external hard drive and maintained
in a locked drawer. No identifiable demographic information was collected during the project
and all results were maintained on a password-protected laptop. Upon completion of the data
analysis, all copies of data and all recordings were destroyed within 24 months of completion of
this dissertation. The survey instrument can be found in Appendix B.
Data analysis. The researcher recorded raw notes from interviews in a Microsoft Word
document following the sequence of questions and KMO coding. An Excel data entry template
was developed for capturing and calculating the frequency of survey and interview responses.
All data were entered and crosschecked for consistency. Missing responses were highlighted.
The results were then compared with the assumed knowledge, motivation and organizational
needs to ascertain which of the assumed needs have been validated, have not been validated, and
any new needs identified from surveys and interviews. Furthermore, the researcher determined
that an assumed need was validated if the findings were consistent across more than one source.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 53
Validation of Assumed Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Issues
In order to develop the right performance solutions, the case study gap analysis process
investigated the assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs to help school
counselors at American high school increase their current postsecondary student enrollment rate
of approximately 20% to 100% by June of 2021. Instrumentation in the form of surveys and
interviews were used to validate the assumed needs. Furthermore, given the small sample and
population size, the most effective way to collect information was through semi-structured
personal interviews with all four school counselors at American high school. During the semi-
structured interviews, open-ended questions were asked to provide an opportunity for
respondents to state a position using their own words (Merriam, 2009). A summary of the
sources of assumed needs categorized as Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization can be found
in Appendix A.
Trustworthiness of Data
To maintain trustworthiness of data, the following four strategies were used: 1)
triangulation of data between surveys and interviews 2) survey items were based on existing
valid and reliable instruments, 3) assurance of anonymity (survey) and confidentiality
(interviews), and 4) member checks.
Role of Investigator
As the principal investigator, my role was to conduct a problem-solving investigation in
order to help American high school increase their low rate of student’s enrolling in some form of
postsecondary education immediately after high school graduation. To reduce the risk of
participants feeling coerced or pressured to participate in the case study, there were several
measures that were taken to mitigate this risk. Steps were in place to preserve the anonymity of
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 54
all participants. Additionally, the voluntary nature of participation and the right to not participate
in the case study was clearly understood.
As part of the interview and survey protocols, participants were informed that the primary
purpose of the project was to gather information for the purposes of improving American high
school’s college enrollment rate and that any information obtained during this process will be
anonymous and utilized for that purpose only. Participants were informed that no identifiers will
be collected to ensure the highest level of confidentiality. Participants were also reassured that
participation is voluntary and that there will be no consequences for electing not to participate.
Additionally, participants were made aware that I am conducting this project as a doctoral
candidate at the University of Southern California and that the findings from the case study will
be presented to the school principal and counselors at American high school. Furthermore, all
participants were informed that the American high school principal will have the authority to
decide what to do with the findings of this case study.
Limitations and Delimitations
The design of the case study presented some limitations. The first limitation was that
participants in the study may provide answers they believe to be socially desirable and not a true
presentation of their experience at American high school. Second, the case study was limited
because it assumes that all participants understood and interpreted the interview questions and
survey items in the manner intended. Participants could also have another individual complete
the survey since it was administered online. Third, any statistical analysis were based on a
correlational, not a causational relationship.
The focus of this project was to conduct a needs’ analysis in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational needs to help American high school counselors increase their
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 55
current postsecondary student enrollment rate of approximately 20% to 100% by June of 2021.
The primary delimitation of the case study was that it is context specific to American high school
and addresses their mission and organizational goal and cannot be generalized. However, there
are other institutions across the world that can perhaps benefit from the application of this case
study’s use of Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis process to help improve their organization’s
performance.
The project was also delimited to examining one key stakeholder group’s experience that
may or may not be representative of that of other stakeholder groups. While other stakeholder
groups’ experiences and contributions are important to the organization, an in-depth
investigation of those lies outside the scope of the current project.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 56
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS
The purpose of this chapter is to report the results and findings of data collection.
Quantitative and qualitative data were collected through surveys and interviews. The data were
analyzed and triangulated to understand the knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs
necessary for counselors to develop and implement a school-wide college access action plan that
will help achieve the goal of 100% of American high school seniors completing the critical steps
for admission and enrollment into some form of postsecondary education (i.e., workforce
relevant training program that leads to a certificate or license in a trade or technical career,
and/or a regionally accredited 2-year or 4-year college degree program). The results were then
compared with the assumed knowledge, motivation and organizational (KMO) needs described
in Chapter Three to determine which of the assumed needs have been validated (i.e., school
counselors do not have the knowledge, motivation, or organizational resources), have not been
validated (i.e., school counselors do have the knowledge, motivation, or organizational
resources), and any new needs identified from surveys and interviews.
This chapter is organized according to the KMO framework and consists of the following
sections:
• Results and findings for knowledge needs;
• Results and findings for motivational needs; and,
• Results and findings for organizational needs.
The chapter concludes with a summary of the validated needs that guided the development of
solutions in Chapter Five.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 57
Results and Findings for Knowledge Needs
There are four dimensions of knowledge: factual, conceptual, procedural, and
metacognitive (Anderson et al., 2001). Following the KMO framework, the findings and results
of this gap analysis have been grouped into two knowledge categories: factual and procedural.
Factual and procedural knowledge provided the basis for identifying the assumed needs that
contribute to American high schools’ performance gap.
Validated Factual and Procedural Knowledge Needs
There were six assumed knowledge needs. Table 4 shows a summary of five assumed
factual knowledge needs and one assumed procedural knowledge need that were validated.
Table 3
Validated Assumed Factual and Procedural Knowledge Needs
Category Assumed Needs Validated Instrument Validated
Knowledge
Factual School Counselors need knowledge of the “nine
critical principles of a college going culture.”
Survey and
Interview
X
Factual School Counselors need to increase their knowledge
of current federal financial aid programs, policies
and resources available in order to effectively help
students and their parents better understand how to
pay for college and navigate the financial aid
system.
Survey and
Interview
X
Factual School Counselors need to increase their knowledge
of California state financial aid programs, policies,
and resources for U.S. citizens, undocumented
students, and AB540 students to effectively help
students and their parents better understand how to
successfully navigate the financial aid process.
Survey and
Interview
X
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 58
Table 4, continued
Factual School Counselors need to increase their knowledge
of current college admissions policies, procedures,
and resources available in order to effectively help
my students and their parents better understand how
to successfully navigate the college admission
process.
Survey and
Interview
X
Factual School Counselors need to increase their knowledge
to develop and implement a school-wide college
access action plan at American high school to help
establish a strong college-going culture and increase
college enrollment rates.
Interview X
Procedural School Counselors need knowledge on how to use
the nine critical principles of a college-going culture
to create a solid school-wide action plan that when
implemented will result in a comprehensive college-
going culture.
Interview
X
Validated Factual Knowledge Needs.
Counselors Need Knowledge of The Nine Critical Principles of a College-Going Culture
The first assumed factual knowledge need is that school counselors need knowledge of
the nine critical principles of a college-going culture. This assumed need was verified through
surveys and interviews. To validate this assumed need, four school counselors were asked to
respond to the following survey items, “Learning the critical steps to build, strengthen and
sustain a strong college going culture at American high school is valuable/useful to my work as a
school counselor” and “What do you think are the key principles and components to build or
strengthen a strong college going culture at American high school?” As presented in Figure 2,
the results of the first survey statement showed that all four school counselors agreed that it is
valuable and useful to their work as a school counselor to know the critical steps to build,
strengthen and sustain a strong college-going culture at American high school. Additionally, all
four school counselors responded to the second survey item with I do not know the nine critical
principles of a college-going culture. The combined results of the two survey items showed that
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 59
the participants need knowledge of the nine critical principles of a college-going culture. This
assumed need was therefore validated by the survey responses.
In addition, to validate this assumed need, the participants were asked the following
interview questions, “Do you agree that you need knowledge of the nine critical principles of a
college going culture to effectively build and sustain a strong college - going culture at American
high school?” and “Can you provide some examples regarding the steps you would take to use
the nine critical principles of a college going culture to develop an action plan to implement them
appropriately at American high school?” Three counselors responded with I am not familiar with
nine critical principles of a college-going culture or the steps necessary to implement them. One
counselor said, “I do not know. I am not familiar with that.” Furthermore, all four counselors
agreed that they need knowledge of the nine critical principles of a college-going culture. The
responses to the survey and interview questions confirms that counselors need knowledge of the
nine critical principles of a college-going culture to effectively develop a strong college - going
culture at American high school. Thus, this assumption is validated.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 60
Figure 2. Responses to survey item: Learning the critical steps to build, strengthen and sustain a
strong college-going culture at American high school is valuable/useful to my work as a school
counselor.
Counselors Need to Increase Their Knowledge of the U.S. Department of Education
Federal Financial Aid System
The second assumed factual knowledge need is that counselors need to increase their
knowledge of current U.S. Department of Education federal financial aid programs, policies and
resources available in order to effectively help students and their parents better understand how
to pay for college and navigate the financial aid system. This assumption was verified through
surveys and interviews. To validate this assumed need, four school counselors were asked to
respond to the following survey item, “As a school counselor, it is important for me to increase
my knowledge of the federal financial aid system to effectively help students and their parents
better understand how to pay for college and navigate the financial aid system.” As shown in
Figure 3, survey results revealed that three counselors agreed and one counselor strongly agreed
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
Learning the critical steps to build, strengthen and sustain a strong college
going culture at American high school is valuable/useful to my work as a
school counselor.
N=4
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 61
that they need to increase their knowledge of the federal financial aid system. This assumed need
was therefore validated by the survey responses.
In addition, to validate this assumed need, the participants were asked the following
interview questions, “Do you agree that you need training on the federal financial aid system in
America? If no, how did you get the knowledge to provide financial aid advising to your
students? If yes, how often would you like to receive training to ensure you are informed about
new financial aid policies and procedures?” and “Are there any specific topics you would like to
receive training on to best advise your students?” During the interviews, all four counselors
responded with I have not been formally trained on the U.S. Department of Education federal
financial aid system. Two counselors stated I have not been formally trained to advise students
and their parents on the federal financial aid system. One counselor said, “I do not know all of
the federal financial aid programs available for students. When my students ask me questions
about federal student aid I do not feel confident in responding to their questions, so I tell my
students to contact the financial aid office at a college or university to answer any questions they
may have about securing the financial resources necessary to pay for college.” Additionally, one
of the interview participants stated, “I have never been formally trained, but I would like to
receive training to ensure that I know the current federal financial aid stuff available to our
students and their parents. I think this will help me ensure that I am providing the correct
information to students and their parents.” Furthermore, the responses to the interview questions
confirm that all participants need to increase their knowledge of the federal financial aid system
to effectively help students and their parents better understand how to pay for college and
navigate the financial aid system. Thus, this assumption is validated.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 62
Figure 3. Responses to survey item: As a school counselor, it is important for me to increase my
knowledge of the federal financial aid system to effectively help students and their parents better
understand how to pay for college and navigate the financial aid system.
Counselors Need to Increase Their Knowledge of the California State Financial Aid System
The third assumed factual knowledge need is counselors need knowledge of California
state financial aid programs, policies, and resources for U.S. citizens, undocumented students,
and AB540 students to effectively help students and their parents better understand how to
successfully navigate the California state financial aid process. This assumption was confirmed
through surveys and interviews. To validate this assumed need, four school counselors were
asked to respond to the following survey item, “As a school counselor it is important for me to
increase my knowledge of the California state financial aid system to effectively help students
and their parents better understand how to pay for college and navigate the financial aid system.”
As presented in Figure 4, survey results revealed that three counselors agreed and one strongly
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
As a school counselor it is important for me to increase my knowledge
of the federal financial aid system to effectively help students and
their parents better understand how to pay for college and navigate the
financial aid system.
N=4
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 63
agreed that they need to increase their knowledge of the California state financial aid system to
effectively help students and their parents better understand how to pay for college and navigate
the financial aid system.
In addition, to validate this assumed need, four school counselors were asked to respond
to the following interview questions, “Do you agree that you need training on the California state
financial aid system? If no, how did you get the knowledge to provide financial aid advising to
your students? If yes, how often would you like to receive training to ensure you are informed
about new financial aid policies and procedures? Are there any specific topics you would like to
receive training on to best advise your students?” During the interviews, all four counselors were
very straightforward about their need to strengthen their knowledge of the California State
Financial Aid system, specifically student aid programs for undocumented students. All four
counselors responded with, Yes, I agree that I need training on the California state financial aid
system to ensure that I provide adequate financial aid advising to my students. Additionally, all
four counselors stated, I have not received formal training on the California state financial aid
system. Moreover, all four counselors emphasized the need to be trained on how to best advise
undocumented students and their families concerning the federal Deferred Action for Childhood
Arrivals program and the California Dream Act financial aid application, particularly because
25% - 50% of the students at American high school are considered undocumented. Furthermore,
the responses to the interview questions showed that all participants need to increase their
knowledge of the California State financial aid system to effectively help students and their
parents better understand how to pay for college and navigate the California state financial aid
system. Thus, this assumption is validated.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 64
Figure 4. Responses to survey item: As a school counselor, it is important for me to increase my
knowledge of the California state financial aid system to effectively help students and their
parents better understand how to pay for college and navigate the financial aid system.
Counselors Need Knowledge of the Current College Admissions and Enrollment Process
for Two-Year and Four-Year Degree-Granting Institutions in the U.S.
The fourth assumed factual knowledge need is counselors need knowledge of current
college admissions policies, procedures, and resources available in order to effectively help
students and their parents better understand how to successfully navigate the college admission
process. This assumption was confirmed through surveys and interviews.
To validate this assumed need, four school counselors were asked to respond to the
following survey items, “As a school counselor, it is important for me to increase my knowledge
of the college admissions and enrollment process to help my students complete the critical steps
to enroll in some form of postsecondary education” and “I need to strengthen my knowledge to
conduct college admission and financial aid workshops and presentations to small and large
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
As a school counselor it is important for me to increase my knowledge of the
California state financial aid system to effectively help students and their
parents better understand how to pay for college and navigate the financial
aid system.
N=4
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 65
groups of students and parents for a full range of postsecondary options.” As illustrated in Figure
5, the results of the survey revealed that all four school counselors agreed that they need to
increase their knowledge of the college admissions and enrollment process to help students
complete the critical steps to enroll in some form of postsecondary education. Additionally, as
presented in Figure 6, the results of the second survey item revealed that three counselors agreed
and one counselor strongly agreed. The responses to both survey items showed that the
participants need to strengthen their knowledge of the current college admissions and enrollment
process for 2-year and 4-year degree-granting institutions in the United States. This assumed
need was therefore validated by the survey responses.
In addition, to validate this assumed need, the participants were asked the following
interview questions, “Do you agree that you need training in the area of college admissions and
enrollment policies and procedures as it relates to two and four year colleges and universities? If
no, how did you get the knowledge to provide financial aid advising to your students? If yes,
how often would you like to receive training to ensure you are informed about new college
admissions policies and procedures? Are there any specific topics you would like to receive
training on to best advise your students?” During the interviews, all four counselors agreed that
they need training on the current college admissions and enrollment process for 2-year and 4-
year degree-granting institutions in the United States. One counselor stated, “I honestly have
never received formal training on college admissions and enrollment process for two and four –
year colleges. With the demands of my job, it is hard to find the time to stay abreast of the
current college admissions and enrollment policies and procedures for the University of
California, California State University, California Community Colleges, private colleges, as well
as out of state colleges.” Three counselors stated, I have not received formal training in the area
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 66
of college admissions and enrollment policies and procedures as it relates to 2- and 4-year
colleges and universities. Furthermore, the responses to the interview questions confirmed that
all four counselors need knowledge of the current college admissions and enrollment process for
2-year and 4-year degree-granting institutions to effectively help students and their parents better
understand how to navigate the college application process, select a “best-fit” college, and
complete the critical steps to successfully enroll in a postsecondary education institution. Thus,
this assumption is validated.
Figure 5. Responses to survey item: As a school counselor, it is important for me to increase my
knowledge of the college admissions and enrollment process to help my students complete the
critical steps to enroll in some form of postsecondary education.
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
As a school counselor it is important for me to increase my knowledge
of the college admissions and enrollment process to help my students
complete the critical steps to enroll in some form of postsecondary
education.
N=4
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 67
Figure 6. Responses to survey item: I need to strengthen my knowledge to conduct college
admission and financial aid workshops and presentations to small and large groups of students
and parents for a full range of postsecondary options.
Counselors Need Knowledge of Action Planning to Develop and Implement a School-wide
College Access Action Plan
The fifth assumed factual knowledge need is counselors need knowledge to develop
and implement a school-wide college access action plan at American high school to help
establish a strong college-going culture and increase college enrollment rates. This assumption
was measured through an interview question. To validate this assumed need, four school
counselors were asked to respond to the following interview questions, “Do you agree that you
need training to develop and implement of an effective school-wide college access action plan
at American high school to help establish a strong college going culture and increase college
enrollment rates? If no, how did you get the knowledge to perform effective school-wide
action planning?” During the interviews, three out of four counselors revealed that they have
not received formal training on developing and implementing a school-wide action plan.” One
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
I need to strengthen my knowledge to conduct college admission and
financial aid workshops and presentations to small and large groups of
students and parents for a full range of postsecondary options.
N=4
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 68
counselor stated, “I am familiar with action planning but I do not know it well enough to
develop and implement a school -wide college access action plan. I have never done that
before.” Furthermore, interview results confirmed that all four counselors agreed that they
need knowledge of action planning to develop and implement a school-wide college access
action plan. Thus, this assumption is validated.
Validated Procedural Knowledge Need.
Counselors Need Knowledge on How to Use the Nine Critical Principles of a College-Going
Culture
The assumed procedural knowledge need is that counselors need knowledge on how to
use the nine critical principles of a college-going culture to create a solid school-wide action plan
that when implemented will result in a comprehensive college-going culture. This assumption
was measured through an interview question. To validate this assumed need, four school
counselors were asked to respond to the following interview question, “Can you provide some
examples regarding the steps you would take to use the nine critical principles of a college going
culture to develop an action plan to implement them appropriately at American high school?” All
four counselors responded with I am not familiar with the nine critical principles of a college-
going culture. One counselor responded with “I do not know what the nine critical principles of a
college-going culture are. I don’t know the specific steps necessary to apply the principles to
develop an action plan.” Furthermore, interview results confirmed that all four counselors need
knowledge on how to use the nine critical principles of a college-going culture. Hence, the
assumption is validated.
Summary of Results and Findings for Knowledge Needs
The results and findings from the various sources of data showed that all six assumed
needs were validated. The validated needs are illustrated in Table 4. Triangulation of survey
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 69
results and interview findings revealed that counselors need factual and procedural
knowledge to develop and implement a school-wide college access action plan at American
high school to help establish a strong college-going culture and increase college enrollment
rates. Counselors need to know how to use the nine critical principles of a college-going
culture to create a solid school-wide action plan that when implemented will result in a
comprehensive college-going culture. The results further indicate that counselors need
knowledge of current state and federal financial aid programs, policies and resources
available for U.S. citizens and undocumented students in order to effectively help students
and their parents better understand how to pay for college and navigate the financial aid
system. Additionally, counselors need to strengthen their knowledge of the college
enrollment process in order to effectively help students and their parents better understand
how to successfully navigate the college admissions process.
Results and Findings for Motivation Needs
Assumed needs for motivational needs in this study were identified and assessed through
surveys and interviews. There were three assumed motivational needs. One motivational need
was found to be validated and two were found not validated. Table 5 shows a summary of
assumed motivational needs that are validated and not validated. The findings and results were
presented according to three motivational categories: task value, expectancy-value outcome, and
self-efficacy.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 70
Table 4
Validated Assumed Motivational Needs
Category Assumed Needs Validated Instrument Validated Not
Validated
Motivation
Self -
Efficacy
Counselors need more confidence in
their ability to effectively perform the
role of a college counselor such as
advising or leading a workshop for
students and their parents on how to
successfully navigate the college
admission process and/or financial aid
process.
Interview X
Task -
Value
Counselors need to value the idea of
building a strong college-going culture at
American high school.
Interview
X
Expectancy
Value -
Outcome
Counselors need to set higher
expectations and believe that every
student in their caseload will enroll in
some form of postsecondary education
within one year of high school
graduation, when provided with the
necessary counseling support and
encouragement.
Survey and
Interview
X
Self - Efficacy Need
Counselors Need Confidence in Their Ability to Effectively Perform the Role of a College
Counselor
The assumed self-efficacy need is counselors need more confidence in their ability to
effectively perform the role of a college counselor such as advising or leading workshops for
students and their parents on how to navigate the college application process, select a “best-fit”
college, and complete the critical steps to successfully enroll in a postsecondary education
institution. The assumed self-efficacy need was validated through interviews. To validate this
assumed need, interview participants were asked, “Do you agree that you have the confidence to
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 71
effectively perform the role of a college counselor such as advising or leading workshops for
students and their parents on how to navigate the college application process?” Interview results
revealed three out of four counselors need confidence in their ability to effectively perform the
role of a college counselor and one counselor disagreed that they need confidence in their ability
to perform the role of a college counselor. During the interviews, three out of four counselors
revealed that their knowledge is very limited with regard to college admission and financial aid
advising, helping students select a college and academic major that is aligned with their career
goals, helping students find and win scholarships for college, and preparing students to register
and take college entrance exams such as the SAT or ACT. Additionally, three out four
counselors stressed the need for formal training in the area of college admissions and financial
aid advising. They all shared how they were not formally trained to perform the role of a college
counselor during their school counseling university-based training program, where they earned a
master’s degree in school counseling and California state credential as a licensed school
counselor.
In addition, there was one counselor that completed the survey and disagreed that they
need confidence in their ability to effectively perform the role of a college counselor. During an
interview, the counselor revealed “I would have agreed if I would have taken the survey a year
ago, but this past year I decided to take advantage of the resources available to school counselors
outside of the school and district. I paid out of my own pocket to attend a few college counseling
training workshops to help strengthen my knowledge and confidence to perform the role of a
college counselor.” Moreover, the counselor stated, “Even though I was not trained to perform
the role of a college counselor during my master’s degree program in school counseling, other
school counselors should take the time to attend professional development workshops or training
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 72
in the area of college admissions and financial aid advising.” However, the counselor did
acknowledge that many school counselors might not have the time to attend college counseling
workshops due to their heavy workload or perhaps they may lack the funding to pay the cost to
attend professional development workshops or training. Additionally, the counselor said, “I think
the school and district should offer free training in the area of college counseling to all high
school counselors to ensure that all counselors hired have the knowledge and confidence to
successfully perform the role of a high school college counselor. I know I would benefit from
that type of support.” Furthermore, interview results confirm that three out of four counselors
need more confidence in their ability to effectively perform the role of a college counselor.
Hence, the assumption is validated.
Task Value Need
Counselors Need to Value the Idea of Building a Strong College-going Culture at American
High School
The assumed self -efficacy need is counselors need to value the idea of building a strong
college-going culture at American high school. The assumed self-efficacy need was not validated
through interviews. To validate this assumed need, interview participants were asked, “Do you
agree that you need to value the idea of building a strong college-going culture at American high
school?” Three counselors responded with, “Yes. I strongly agree with the idea of building a strong
college-going culture.” One counselor responded with, “Yes I do agree with the idea of building a
strong college-going culture at our school. We definitely need that, but I do not know how to build
a strong college - going culture.” Furthermore, interview results confirm that all four counselors
value the idea of building a strong college-going culture at American high school. Thus, this
assumption is not validated.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 73
Expectancy Value – Outcome Need
Counselors Need to Set Higher Expectations and Believe That Every Student in Their
Caseload Will Enroll in Some Form of Postsecondary Education
The assumed expectancy value need is that counselors need to set higher expectations
and believe that every student in their caseload will enroll in some form of postsecondary
education within one year of high school graduation, when provided with the necessary
counseling support and encouragement. This assumption was measured through a survey and
interview question. To validate this assumed need, all four counselors were asked to respond to
the following survey item, “I believe that one of the priorities at American high school is to
ensure that all graduating seniors are prepared to enroll and complete some form of
postsecondary education.” Survey results showed that three counselors agreed and one counselor
strongly agreed that they need to set higher expectations and believe that every student in their
caseload will enroll in some form of postsecondary education within one year of high school
graduation. This assumed need was therefore not validated. The responses to the survey
statement are in Figure 7.
In addition, to validate this assumed need, all four counselors were asked to respond to
the following interview question, “Do you agree that you need to set higher expectations and
believe that every student in your caseload will enroll in some form of postsecondary education
within one year of high school graduation?” All four counselors responded with, I agree that I
need to set higher expectations and believe that every student in my caseload will enroll in some
form of postsecondary education. One counselor stated, “I am committed to my student’s
success. I am willing to do more to ensure that they each student in my caseload will be prepared
to enroll in college.” Additionally, all counselors shared that while they would like for all of their
students in their caseload to enroll in either a 2- or 4-year college, they did not feel that 100% of
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 74
the students in their school counseling caseload will enroll in a two or four - year college or
technical career training program after high school graduation. Counselors reported feeling this
way because applying to and enrolling in college is an overwhelming process that most students
only complete with the necessary counseling support and encouragement. For instance, one
counselor said, “My students need assistance with completing college admission applications,
financial aid and scholarship applications, and registering for and taking college entrance exams
(SAT or ACT). Also, my students need assistance with writing admissions essays or personal
statements, researching and selecting schools that are a good fit and aligned with their career
goal(s), and other tasks needed for students to apply to and enroll in a two or 4-year college or
university.” Moreover, one of the counselors said, “With few exceptions, I feel that most high
school seniors at American high school do not possess the skills to independently meet college
admission and enrollment deadlines, complete tasks without reminders and lack the knowledge
and confidence to complete every step to apply to and enroll in college without some guidance
from a college counselor.” In addition, all four counselors reported that with a 500-600 student
caseload, they alone cannot provide each student in their caseload with one-on-one college
advising support due to time restraints. Furthermore, the responses to the interview questions
confirms that all fours counselors agree that they need to set higher expectations and believe that
every student in their caseload will enroll in some form of postsecondary education. Hence, the
assumption is not validated.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 75
Figure 7. Responses to survey items: I believe that one of the priorities at American high school
is to ensure that all graduating seniors are prepared to enroll and complete some form of
postsecondary education.
Summary of Results and Findings for Motivation Needs
There were three assumed motivational needs. The results and findings indicated that
two motivation needs were found to be not validated and one was validated. Table 5 shows a
summary of the motivational assumed needs that were validated and not validated. Analysis
of the results from the surveys and interviews verify that counselors’ motivation is affected by
two factors: their confidence in their ability to effectively perform the role of a college
counselor and their belief that every student in their caseload will enroll in some form of
postsecondary education within one year of high school graduation.
The areas where counselors need motivation overlap with the knowledge gaps and
indicate a need for knowledge and confidence in college admission and financial aid counseling
and using the nine critical principles of a college-going culture to build a strong college-going
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
I believe that one of the priorities at American high school is to ensure that
all graduating seniors are prepared to enroll and complete some form of
postsecondary education.
N=4
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 76
culture. The more confident counselors feel in college readiness counseling, the more likely they
will be to improve college enrollment rates at American high school.
Results and Findings for Organizational Assumed Needs
There were six assumed organizational needs in total that included a new need identified
during interviews. Five assumed needs were validated and one assumed need was not validated.
These results are displayed in Table 6. The assumed needs have been organized into two
categories: professional development and support structures.
Table 5
Validated Organizational Needs and New Need
Category Assumed Needs Validated Instrument Validated Not
Validated
New
Validated
Need
Organization
Support
Structure
American high school
counselors need to ensure that
all students in their assigned
caseload are prepared to
complete the critical steps to
enroll in some form of
postsecondary education
immediately after graduation.
Interview X
Professional
Development
Prior to the start of each
school year, new and
returning school counselors
need to complete a formal
college counseling training
program to ensure that they
are proficient and have up-to-
date knowledge of the college
enrollment process including
admissions and financial aid
policies and procedures.
Survey
and
Interview
X
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 77
Table 6, continued
Validated Organizational Needs
American High School Counselors Need to Ensure That All Students in Their Assigned
Caseload Are Prepared to Complete the Critical Steps to Enroll in Some Form of
Support
Structure
School counselors need to
allocate more time to meet
with each student in their
caseload to help them find
their best-fit post-secondary
options. Counselors spend
less than 60 minutes on
college advising with each
student in their caseload over
the entire school year.
Survey
and
Interview
X
Professional
Development
New Need
Identified
during
interviews
Future school counselors need
to receive formal training on
college admission and
financial aid counseling in the
school counseling university-
based preparation program
that awards master’s degree in
school counseling and
recommends pupil personnel
service credential.
Interview X
X
Professional
Development
Despite school budget
constraints and/or work
demands, school counselors
need the time and/or financial
resources to participate in
professional development
workshops and/or conferences
for school counselors.
Interview X
Support
Structure
School counselors need to
spend more time on
counseling duties. Counselors
spend a significant amount of
time on non-counseling duties
such as administering
standardized tests and clerical
duties.
Interview X
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 78
Postsecondary Education or Career/Technical Training Program Immediately After
Graduation.
The first assumed organizational need is that counselors need to ensure that all students in
their assigned caseload are prepared to complete the critical steps to enroll in some form of
postsecondary education or career/technical training program immediately after graduation. This
assumption was measured and validated through interviews with all four counselors. To validate
this assume need, four counselors were asked to respond to the following interview question,
“Do you agree that you need to ensure that all students in your assigned caseload are prepared to
complete the critical steps to enroll in some form of postsecondary education immediately after
graduation?” During the interviews, all four counselors agreed that they need to make sure all
students in their assigned caseload complete the critical steps to enroll in some form of
postsecondary education or technical training program (such as complete at least 15 UC/CSU A-
G subject matter courses with a C grade or higher, complete the college application process, and
apply for financial aid and scholarships).
However, all four counselors revealed that they do not have the time to meet with each
student in their assigned caseload individually. All four counselors revealed that they will need
additional manpower such as hiring additional school counselors or training student leaders as a
peer college advisor to help ensure all students complete the critical steps to enroll in some form
of postsecondary education immediately after high school graduation. In addition, one counselor
said, “I think some of our college-bound student leaders in high school or perhaps college
students who graduated from American high school could volunteer their time to be trained and
placed as a peer college advisor to work with each school counselor to help ensure that all
students in their assigned caseload are prepared to complete the critical steps to enroll in some
form of postsecondary education or career/technical training program.” Furthermore, interview
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 79
results confirmed that all four counselors agreed with the assumed need. Therefore, the
assumption is validated.
Prior to the Start of Each School Year, New and Returning School Counselors Need to
Complete a Formal College Counseling Training Program to Ensure That They Are
Proficient and Have Up-to-date Knowledge of the College Enrollment Process Including
Admissions and Financial Aid Policies and Procedures
The second assumed organizational need is that new and returning school counselors
need to complete a formal college counseling training program to ensure that they are proficient
and have up-to-date knowledge of the college enrollment process including admissions and
financial aid policies and procedures. This assumption was measured through a survey and
interview question. To validate this assumed need, four school counselors were asked to respond
to the following interview question, “Prior to the start of each school year, do you value the idea
of attending a formal college counseling training program to ensure that you and other school
counselors are proficient and have up to date knowledge to perform the role of a college
counselor?” Interviews with all four counselors revealed that counselors have very limited
knowledge of current college admission and financial aid policies due to their lack of receiving
formal training in college counseling. All four counselors responded with, I did not receive
formal college counseling training in my school counseling preparation program. All four
counselors agreed that formal college counseling training will help ensure that they provide
correct information to students and their parents about the college admissions and financial
process. In addition, to validate this assumed need, four school counselors were asked to respond
to the following survey item, “Prior to joining American high school as a school counselor, I
received formal college and career counseling training/instruction.” Survey results revealed that
all four counselors disagreed that they received formal college and career counseling prior to
joining American high school. Furthermore, survey and interview results confirmed that all four
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 80
counselors value the idea of completing a formal college counseling training program, prior to
start of each school year, to ensure that they are proficient and have up-to-date knowledge to
perform the role of a college counselor. Therefore, the assumption is validated.
Figure 8. Prior to joining American high school I received formal college counseling
training/instruction.
Counselors Need to Allocate More Time to Meet With Each Student in Their Caseload to
Help Them Find Their Best-fit Post-secondary Options. Counselors Spend Less Than 60
Minutes on College Advising With Each Student in Their Caseload Over the Entire School
Year
The third assumed organizational need is counselors need to allocate more time to meet
with each student in their assigned caseload to help them find their best-fit post-secondary
options. This assumption was confirmed through surveys and interviews. To validate this
assumed need, four school counselors were asked to respond to the following survey item, “I
have a sufficient amount of time to provide college counseling services to each student in my
assigned caseload.” As presented in Figure 9, survey results revealed that all four counselors
strongly disagreed that they have a sufficient amount of time to provide college counseling
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
Prior to joining American high school I received formal college counseling
training/instruction.
N=4
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 81
services to each student in their assigned caseload. In addition, to validate this assumed need,
four school counselors were asked to respond to the following interview questions: “How much
time do you think you spend on college advising with each student in your caseload over the
entire school year compared to other counseling activities?”, “Do you think you need to spend
more time on college advising?”, and “Do you agree that you need to allocate more time to meet
with each student in their caseload to help them find their best-fit post-secondary options?”
Interviews with counselors revealed that all four counselors agreed that they need to
allocate more time with each student in their caseload. Additionally, all four counselors agreed
that they need to spend more time on college advising, however, they all stressed that there are
not enough hours in the day to do so. One counselor responded with “There are not enough
hours during the school year to meet one-on-one with each student in my caseload. For instance,
there are only 180 working days during the school year with 7 hours in a school day. I will not be
able to meet with each student in my caseload (about 600 students) because my students have
classes for the entire day excluding 30 minutes for lunch. Therefore, the 30-minute lunch break
or time after school is the best time to meet with students to talk about college. I could perhaps
pull students out of class to do one-on-one college advising, but it will mostly likely not be well
received by academic teachers because students will end up missing class. I could also offer
college advising services after school but many students would not attend because they are
involved in after-school activities. As you can see, with 600 student average caseload, I will most
likely have approximately 1.5 hours (30 minutes during student lunch and 1 hour after school)
per day to spend on college advising since students are in classes for most of the day.”
Three out of four counselors revealed that they were not sure how much time they spent
on college advising with each student in their caseload. The numbers shown above represent
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 82
school counselors being available an estimated time of 180 - 360 hours per school year (which is
1-2 hours per day over 180 work days in a school year) for college advising sessions with an
average caseload of 500-600 students. As a result, one can estimate that counselors at American
high school spend an average of 30 – 60 minutes with each student in their caseload of 600
students over the entire school year. Thus, this assumption is validated since interviews with all
four counselors confirm that they need to allocate more time to meet with each student in their
caseload to help them find their best-fit post-secondary options.
Figure 9. Responses to survey item: I have a sufficient amount of time to provide college
counseling services to each student in my assigned caseload.
Future Counselors Need to Receive Formal Training on College Admission and Financial
Aid Counseling in the School Counseling University-Based Preparation Program That
Awards a Master ’s Degree in School Counseling and Recommends a Pupil Personnel
Service Credential to the California Commission on Teacher Credentialing
The fourth assumed organizational need is future counselors need to receive formal
training on college admission and financial aid counseling in the school counseling university-
based preparation program that awards a master’s degree in school counseling. This need was
identified during interviews with all four counselors. To validate this assumed need, this need
was added to the interview instrument. During the interviews, all four counselors were asked the
0
1
2
3
4
5
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
I have a sufficient amount of time to provide college counseling services to
each student in my assigned caseload.
N=4
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 83
following interview question, “Do you agree that future counselors need to receive training on
college admission and financial aid counseling in their school counseling university based
preparation program that awards Master degree in School Counseling and recommends Pupil
Personnel Service Credential?” Interview results revealed that all four counselors did not receive
formal training on college admission and financial aid counseling in their school counseling
university-based preparation program. All four counselors reported that they had to learn how to
be a college counselor on their own. One counselor responded with “I would agree that future
counselors should receive training in college counseling during the school counselor preparation
program. I did not take any classes on college counseling during my school counseling training.”
Additionally, another counselor responded with “I was not prepared to do college counseling
when I finished my school counseling program.” Moreover, another counselor replied with,
“After completing my school counseling preparation program, I was not adequately prepared to
provide college counseling to my students as a new school counselor.” In addition, one of the
four counselors stated, “I strongly agree that future school counselors need formal training in
college admission and financial aid counseling during their school counseling prep program.
After completing my school counseling program, I did not feel prepared or confident to advise
students about the college application process specifically on securing scholarships and advising
students about how to secure state and federal financial aid. Therefore, I would refer my students
to speak with a college admissions or financial aid counselor at a local college or university.”
Furthermore, interviews with counselors confirmed that all four counselors agreed that future
school counselors need to receive formal training on college admissions and financial aid
counseling in the school counseling university-based preparation program. Hence, the new
assumed organizational need is validated.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 84
Despite School Budget Constraints and/or Work Demands, Counselors Need the Time
and/or Financial Resources to Participate in Professional Development Workshops and/or
Conferences for School Counselors
The fifth assumed organizational need is counselors need the time and/or financial
resources to participate in professional development workshops and/or conferences for school
counselors. To validate this assumed need, all four school counselors were asked the following
interview question, “Despite school budget constraints and/or counselor work demands, do you
agree that counselors need more time and/or financial resources to participate in professional
development workshops and/or conferences?” One counselor responded with, “I wear many hats
and have a hard time trying to balance my counseling workload. I definitely agree that I need
additional time and the financial resources to help me attend professional development
conferences and trainings for school counselors. With my current workload, it is a definitely a
challenge to find the time to attend professional development workshops or trainings for school
counselors.” Another counselor stated, “Yes. I agree that I need more time and financial
resources to participate in professional development trainings offered for school counselors. The
school does not currently have the budget for me to participate in professional development
workshops and conferences. This is a hardship for me because if I do find the time to attend, I
will have to cover my own expense to register and participate in the professional development
workshops and conferences. I will also have to sacrifice my personal and family time to attend. It
will be very hard to leave the school during the day given my current workload.” Furthermore,
interview results confirm that all four counselors agreed that that they need more time and/or
financial resources to participate in professional development workshops and/or conferences
Therefore, this assumption is validated.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 85
Counselors Need to Spend More Time on School Counseling Duties. Counselors Spend a
Significant Amount of Time on Non-counseling Duties Such As Administering
Standardized Tests and Clerical Duties
The final assumed organizational need is that counselors need to spend more time on
school counseling duties. Counselors spend a significant amount of time on non-counseling
duties such as administering standardized tests and clerical duties. This assumption was
measured through an interview. During the interviews, all four counselors were asked the
following interview question, “Counselors spend a significant amount of time on non-counseling
duties such as administering standardized tests and clerical duties. Do you agree that you need to
spend more time on school counseling duties?” One counselor stated, “I disagree that I need to
spend more time on counseling duties. I spend a lot of my time on school counseling duties such
as scheduling courses, student behavior, personal and family issues, academic advising, et
cetera). However, when it comes to how much time I spend on college advising, I would
definitely agree that I need to spend more time on college counseling with my students.” Another
counselor responded with “I would disagree that I spend a significant amount of time on non-
counseling duties such as administering standardized tests and clerical duties. I do help with state
testing but that is only for a few weeks out of the entire school year. I do spend most of my time
on school counseling duties.” All four counselors reported that they do spend their time on
school counseling duties, however, when it comes to how much time spent on college advising,
all four counselors revealed that they need to spend more time with each student in their caseload
on college advising. Furthermore, interview results showed that all four counselors did not agree
with the assumed need. Thus, the assumption is not validated.
Summary of Results and Findings for Organizational Needs
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 86
There were six assumed organizational needs. The results and findings indicated that
five were validated and one was found to be not validated. Table 6 above shows a summary of
the organizational assumed needs that were validated and not validated. Analysis of the results
from surveys and interviews verify that professional development and counseling support
structures are needed to build a strong college-going culture and improve college enrollment
rates at American high school. With regard to professional development, results verified that
pre-service and in-service trainings are needed to adequately prepare and keep counselors up
to date with the knowledge necessary to perform the role of a college counselor. In addition,
results showed that counselors should attend professional development training on college
counseling annually to ensure that students graduate from American high school college ready
(prepared to enter and complete some form of postsecondary education or career/technical
training). With respect to support structures for counselors, results confirm that counselors
need additional support structures to ensure that all students school-wide receive the college
advising support necessary to successfully navigate the college application process and secure
the financial resources necessary to enroll and complete some form of postsecondary
education.
Summary of Validated Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Needs
Validated Knowledge Needs
Triangulation of survey results and interview findings revealed that counselors
need factual and procedural knowledge to develop and implement a school-wide college
access action plan at American high school to help establish a strong college-going culture
and increase college enrollment rates. Counselors need to know how to use the nine
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 87
critical principles of a college-going culture to create a solid school-wide action plan that
when implemented will result in a comprehensive college-going culture.
The results further indicate that counselors need knowledge of current state and federal
financial aid programs, policies and resources available for U.S. citizens and undocumented
students in order to effectively help students and their parents better understand how to pay for
college and navigate the financial aid system. Additionally, counselors need to strengthen their
knowledge of the college admissions and financial aid process in order to effectively help
students and their parents better understand how to successfully navigate the college enrollment
process.
Validated Motivation Needs
Analysis of results from the surveys and interviews verify that counselors’ motivation is
affected by two factors: their confidence in their ability to effectively perform the role of a
college counselor and their belief that every student in their caseload will enroll in some form of
postsecondary education within one year of high school graduation. The areas where counselors
need motivation overlap with the knowledge gaps and indicate a need for knowledge and
confidence in college admission and financial aid counseling and using the nine critical
principles of a college-going culture to build a strong college-going culture. The more confident
counselors feel in college counseling, the more likely they will be to improve college enrollment
rates at American high school.
Validated Organizational Needs
Results from surveys and interviews verify that professional development and counseling
support structures are needed to build a strong college-going culture and improve college
enrollment rates at American high school. With regard to professional development, results
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 88
verified that pre-service and in-service trainings are needed to adequately prepare counselors and
to establish an accountability system to ensure that all students receive the necessary counseling
support to become better prepared to enter and complete some form of postsecondary education
or career/technical training. With respect to support structures for counselors, results confirm that
counselors need additional support structures to ensure that all students school-wide receive the
college advising support necessary to successfully navigate the college application process and
secure the financial resources necessary to enroll and complete some form of postsecondary
education.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 89
CHAPTER FIVE: SOLUTIONS, IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION
The purpose of this chapter is to present evidence-based solutions to address the
validated knowledge, motivation, and organization needs necessary for American high school
counselors to develop a school-wide college access action plan that will help achieve the goal
of 100% of American high school seniors completing the critical steps for admission and
enrollment into some form of postsecondary education.
This chapter is divided into four sections. Since it will not be cost-effective or feasible
to implement proposed solutions to all validated needs identified through the research, the first
section presents the validated needs and the rationale for selecting the most critical needs. The
second section discusses the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational (KMO)
solutions that will help close the performance gap at American high school. The third section
presents an implementation plan, which provides direction for implementing the proposed
integrated solutions. Finally, an evaluation plan is presented to assess progress towards
achieving the desired performance goal.
Validated Needs Selection and Rationale
A systematic process was employed for selecting the most cost-effective or feasible
validated needs identified through the research, which affect the low college enrollment
performance gap. The validated needs were ranked according to the following criteria:
• Percent of counselors facing the need
• Most cost-effective or feasible validated needs to solve determined by level of
difficulty.
• Validated needs that would have the greatest impact on closing the KMO gaps.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 90
The criteria were used to rank each validated need from one to four in descending
order of significance (See Table 7). Each validated need was assigned a ranking score based
on survey and interview data collected from all participants in the study. Then, the mean
scores were calculated for the three criteria by averaging the scores for each criterion (See
Table 8). Table 7 displays how the mean scores were calculated for percent of counselors
facing the need, most feasible, and the greatest impact on closing the KMO needs. For
instance, the mean score for the first validated knowledge need is 1.0. This score was
calculated by averaging the scores for each criterion. In this case, the score was 1.0 for Criteria
1, 1.0 for Criteria 2, and 1.0 for Criteria 3 for a total of 3.0 points divided by three, which
equals 1.0.
Table 6
Ranking Criteria
Criteria 1 Criteria 2 Criteria 3
Ranking Percent of counselors
facing the need
Most feasible Greatest impact on
closing the KMO gap
1 75-100% Least difficult Most impactful
2 50-74% Somewhat difficult Impactful
3 25-49% Difficult Somewhat impactful
4 0-24% Very difficult Not impactful
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 91
Table 7
Validated KMO Gaps Ranked According to Selection Criteria
Category Validated Knowledge Need Criteria 1:
Percent of
counselors
facing the
need
Criteria 2:
Most
Feasible
Criteria
3:
Greatest
impact on
closing
the KMO
gap
Mean
Score
Knowledge
Factual Counselors need knowledge of the
“nine critical principles of a college
going culture.”
1
(100%)
1 1 1.0
Factual Counselors need knowledge of current
federal financial aid programs, policies
and resources available in order to
effectively help students and their
parents better understand how to pay
for college and navigate the financial
aid system.
1
(100%)
1 1 1.0
Factual Counselors need knowledge of
California state financial aid programs,
policies, and resources for U.S.
citizens, undocumented students, and
AB540 students to effectively help
students and their parents better
understand how to successfully
navigate the financial aid process.
1
(100%)
1 1 1.0
Factual Counselors need knowledge of current
college admissions policies,
procedures, and resources available in
order to effectively help students and
their parents better understand how to
successfully navigate the college
admission process.
1
(100%)
1 1 1.0
Factual Counselors need knowledge to develop
and implement of a school-wide college
access action plan at American high
school to help establish a strong
college-going culture and increase
college enrollment rates.
1
(100%)
1 1 1.0
Procedural Counselors need knowledge on how to
use the nine critical principles of a
college-going culture to create a solid
school-wide action plan that when
implemented will result in a
comprehensive college-going culture.
1
(100%)
1 1 1.0
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 92
Table 8, continued
Category Validated Need Criteria 1:
Percent of
counselors
facing the
need
Criteria 2:
Most
Feasible
Criteria
3:
Greatest
impact
on
closing
the KMO
needs
Mean
Score
Motivation
Self -Efficacy Counselors need more confidence in
their ability to effectively perform the
role of a college counselor such as
advising or leading a workshop for
students and their parents on how to
successfully navigate the college
admission process and/or financial
aid process.
1
(75%)
2 1 1.33
Organization
Support
Structure
American high school counselors
need to ensure that all students are
prepared to complete the critical steps
to enroll in some form of
postsecondary education immediately
after graduation.
1
(100%)
2 1 1.33
Professional
Development
Prior to the start of each school year,
new and returning American high
school counselors need to complete a
formal college counseling training
program to ensure that they are
proficient and have up-to-date
knowledge of the college enrollment
process including admissions and
financial aid policies and procedures.
1
(100%)
2 1 1.33
Professional
Development
Counselors need to receive formal
training on college admission and
financial aid counseling in the school
counseling university-based
preparation program that awards
master’s degree in school counseling
and recommends pupil personnel
service credential.
1
(100%)
4 2 2.33
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 93
Table 8,continued
Category Validated Need Criteria 1:
Percent of
counselors
facing the
need
Criteria 2:
Most
Feasible
Criteria
3:
Greatest
impact
on
closing
the KMO
needs
Mean
Score
Organization
Support
Structure
Counselors need to allocate more
time to meet with each student in
their caseload to help them find their
best-fit post-secondary options.
Counselors spend less than 30
minutes on college advising with
each student in their caseload over the
entire school year.
1
(100%)
4 2 2.33
Professional
Development
Despite school budget constraints
and/or work demands, counselors
need the time and/or financial
resources to participate in
professional development workshops
and/or conferences for school
counselors.
1
(100%)
4 2 2.33
For the next phase of solutions development, validated KMO needs with a mean score of
1.0 and 1.33 were selected because they were most feasible and had the greatest impact on
closing the KMO needs. Mean scores that fell outside of this range were not used in developing
solutions because they were considered less significant or difficult to address. The selection
process revealed that 14 validated needs have the greatest impact on closing the knowledge,
motivation and organizational needs. Solutions were developed and organized by validated
knowledge, motivation, and organization needs (KMO).
Solutions for Validated Knowledge Needs
The solutions provided in this section were based on three sources of research. The first
source is the Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) framework, which classifies four types of
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 94
knowledge and cognitive processes for learning, teaching and assessing: factual, conceptual,
procedural, and metacognitive knowledge. Counselors demonstrated a lack of factual and
procedural knowledge. Therefore, a solution to address these cognitive dimensions were
provided. The second source is the Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis framework, in which
knowledge and skill enhancements were recommended. The final source is an extensive
literature review that informed how the recommended solutions can be adapted to fit the context
of closing the “college aspirations – enrollment gap” to increase college enrollment at
American high school.
Validated Knowledge Needs and Solutions
The six validated knowledge needs the counselors demonstrated were:
1. Counselors need knowledge of the “nine critical principles of a college going culture.”
2. Counselors need knowledge of current federal financial aid programs, policies and
resources available in order to effectively help students and their parents better
understand how to pay for college and navigate the financial aid system.
3. Counselors need knowledge of California state financial aid programs, policies, and
resources for U.S. citizens, undocumented students, and AB540 students to effectively
help students and their parents better understand how to successfully navigate the
financial aid process.
4. Counselors need knowledge of current college admissions policies, procedures, and
resources available in order to effectively help students and their parents better
understand how to successfully navigate the college admission process.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 95
5. Counselors need knowledge to develop and implement of a school-wide college access
action plan at American high school to help establish a strong college-going culture and
increase college enrollment rates.
6. Counselors need knowledge on how to use the nine critical principles of a college-going
culture to create a solid school-wide action plan that when delivered will result in a
strong college-going culture.
Solution 1: Provide Comprehensive and Continuous College and Career Counseling
Professional Development Program for Counselors That Provides Counselors With Pre-
service and/or In-serve Training and Coaching to Address Knowledge Needs
The recommended solution is a comprehensive and continuous professional development
program that provides counselors with pre-service and/or in-serve training and coaching to
address the knowledge needs that was identified in the study (Clark & Estes, 2008). Counselors
will need training on the nine critical principles of a college-going culture terminology, specific
details of the nine key elements, and knowledge on how to apply the nine critical principles of a
college-going culture to develop and implement a solid school-wide action plan - that will
establish a strong college-going culture - and increase college enrollment rates (Anderson &
Krathwohl, 2001). Counselors also need training on the current federal financial aid programs,
policies and resources as well as knowledge of California state financial aid programs, policies,
and resources for U.S. citizens and undocumented students to effectively help students and
families better understand how to successfully navigate the financial aid process and secure the
financial resources needed to pay for a college education. Additionally, counselors need training
on the current college admissions policies, procedures, and resources to effectively help students
and families better understand how to successfully navigate the college application process.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 96
The validated knowledge needs and proposed comprehensive solution has been
summarized and illustrated in Table 9.
Table 8
Validated Knowledge Needs and Solutions
Validated Knowledge Needs Proposed Solution
Addresses all of the needs in the left hand column
Counselors need knowledge of the “nine
critical principles of a college going
culture.”
Comprehensive continuous professional
development program that includes:
Provide pre-service and/or in-service
training on the nine key elements of a
college-going culture.
Provide pre-service and/or in-service
training on current federal financial aid
programs, policies and resources.
Provide pre-service and/or in-service
training on California state financial aid
programs, policies, and resources for U.S.
citizens, undocumented students, and
AB540 students.
Provide pre-service and/or in-service
training on current college admissions
policies, procedures, and resources for
regionally accredited public and private 2-
year colleges and 4-year colleges and
universities.
Provide pre-service and in-service training
and coaching on action plan development and
on how to implement a school-wide action
plan. Additionally, provide training on how to
develop an assessment monitoring tool and
train counselors in its usage to track progress.
Provide pre-service and in-service training on
how to use the nine critical principles of a
college-going culture to create a solid school-
wide action plan.
Counselors need knowledge of current
federal financial aid programs, policies and
resources available in order to effectively
help students and their parents better
understand how to pay for college and
navigate the financial aid system.
Counselors need knowledge of California
state financial aid programs, policies, and
resources for U.S. citizens, undocumented
students, and AB540 students to effectively
help students and their parents better
understand how to successfully navigate the
financial aid process.
Counselors need knowledge of current
college admissions policies, procedures, and
resources available in order to effectively
help students and their parents better
understand how to successfully navigate the
college admission process.
Counselors need knowledge to develop and
implement of a school-wide college access
action plan at American high school to help
establish a strong college-going culture and
increase college enrollment rates.
Counselors need knowledge on how to use the
nine critical principles of a college-going
culture to create a solid school-wide action plan
that when delivered will result in a strong
college-going culture.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 97
Solutions for Validated Motivation Needs
The results from surveys and interviews revealed that counselors’ motivation is affected
by two factors: their confidence in their ability to effectively perform the role of a college
counselor and their belief that every student in their caseload will enroll in some form of
postsecondary education or career/technical training within one year of high school graduation.
The areas where counselors need motivation overlap with the knowledge gaps and indicate a
need for knowledge and confidence in college admission and financial aid counseling. The more
confident counselors feel in college admissions and financial aid counseling, the more likely they
will be to improve college enrollment rates at American high school. According to Pintrich’s
study (2002), this is an indicator of a lack of self-efficacy. The solution will need to increase
counselors’ self-efficacy, or belief in oneself to consistently and effectively provide college
admission and financial aid counseling to students and families.
Validated Motivational Need and Solutions
The validated motivation need is counselors need more confidence in their ability to
effectively perform the role of a college counselor such as advising or leading a workshop for
students and their parents on how to successfully navigate the college admission process and/or
financial aid process.
Solution 2: Provide Comprehensive and Continuous College and Career Counseling
Professional Development Program for Counselors That Includes Pre-service and/or In-
service Training, and Coaching to Build Counselors ’ Confidence to Consistently and
Effectively Provide College Admission and Financial Aid Counseling to Students and
Families
A counselor’s belief about whether they have the human capital required to successfully
perform the role of a college admissions and financial aid counselor significantly affects their
commitment to the task and the amount of mental effort they invest in their work (Clark & Estes,
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 98
2008). The recommended solution is to provide counselors with training on the college
admission and financial aid counseling skills required to effectively assist students and families,
and then to develop specific, short-term, but achievable goals and an action plan for counselors
to implement immediately within their counseling practice. This can be facilitated through
setting clear standards and objectives and developing a school-wide college access plan of action
for all counselors to implement during the academic year. Over time, as counselors begin to gain
confidence in college admissions and financial aid counseling, the trainers can gradually reduce
the amount of counseling support and work with counselors at the end of or perhaps at the start
of the academic year to assess counselor’s confidence and readiness to perform the role of a
college admissions and financial aid counselor (Bandura, 1997). The validated motivational
needs and proposed comprehensive solution are summarized in Table 10.
Table 9
Validated Motivational Need and Solutions
Validated Motivational Need Proposed Solutions
Addresses all of the needs in the left hand column
Counselors need more confidence in
their ability to effectively perform the
role of a college counselor such as
advising or leading a workshop for
students and their parents on how to
successfully navigate the college
admission process and/or financial aid
process.
Comprehensive continuous professional development
program that includes:
Pre-service and/or in-service training to school
counselors on the college admission and financial
aid counseling skills required to effectively assist
students and families, which will build high self-
efficacy and confidence in their ability to
effectively perform the role of a college and career
counselor.
Develop specific, short-term, but achievable goals
and an action plan for counselors to implement
immediately within their counseling practice.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 99
Table 10, continued
Solutions for Validated Organization Needs
The data from surveys and interviews verify that professional development and
counseling support structures are needed to build a strong college-going culture and improve
college enrollment rates at American high school. With regard to professional development,
results verified that pre-service and in-service trainings are needed to adequately prepare
counselors to help all of their student’s school-wide become better prepared to enter and
complete some form of postsecondary education or career/technical training. With respect to
support structures for counselors, results confirm that counselors need additional support
structures to ensure that all students school-wide receive the college advising support necessary
to successfully navigate the college application process and secure the financial resources
necessary to enroll and complete some form of postsecondary education.
Validated Organizational Needs and Solutions
The five validated organizational needs the counselors demonstrated were:
1. American high school counselors need to ensure that all students are prepared to
complete the critical steps to enroll in some form of postsecondary education
immediately after graduation.
2. Prior to the start of each school year, new and returning American high school counselors
need to complete a formal college counseling training program to ensure that they are
Validated Motivational Need Proposed Solutions
Addresses all of the needs in the left hand column
School administrators or other designated
person(s) serve as coaches and a support team to
counselors to monitor their performance and
provide corrective feedback privately which
includes praise for their commitment to students
and families, empathy and encouragement to help
build counselors’ confidence.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 100
proficient and have up-to-date knowledge of the college enrollment process including
admissions and financial aid policies and procedures.
3. Counselors need to receive formal training on college admission and financial aid
counseling in the school counseling university-based preparation program that awards a
master’s degree in school counseling and recommends pupil personnel service credential.
4. Counselors need to allocate more time to meet with each student in their caseload to help
them find their best-fit post-secondary options. Counselors spend less than 60 minutes on
college advising with each student in their caseload over the entire school year.
5. Despite school budget constraints and/or work demands, counselors need the time and/or
financial resources to participate in professional development workshops and/or
conferences for school counselors.
However, there are two validated organizational needs that were not addressed in the
proposed solution because they were considered less significant or difficult to address. The
two validated organizational needs include the following: Counselors need to receive formal
training on college admission and financial aid counseling in the school counseling
university-based preparation program that awards a master’s degree in School counseling and
recommends pupil personnel service credential. Additionally, counselors need to allocate
more time to meet with each student in their caseload to help them find their best-fit post-
secondary options.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 101
Solution 3: Provide Low Cost, Comprehensive and Continuous College and Career
Counseling Professional Development Program for Counselors That Includes Pre-service
and/or In-service Training, and Coaching to Address the Organizational Needs Necessary
to Build a Strong College-going Culture and Improve College Enrollment Rates at
American High School
To address organizational needs, the proposed solution is a comprehensive and
continuous professional development program that includes pre-service and/or in-service
training, and coaching on school-wide action planning; the nine key elements of a college-going
culture; and how to use the nine critical principles of a college-going culture to create a solid
school-wide action plan to establish a strong college-going culture. Additionally, the college and
career readiness training program for counselors will include training on assisting students and
parents with the college application and enrollment process, guiding parents and students of the
complexities of the financial aid process - state and federal financial aid policies and procedures,
postsecondary education and career advising and planning, and formative assessment and
summative evaluation, using disaggregated school-level data and individual student data to work
with students to develop and connect academic course planning and postsecondary plans, and
guide college and career readiness counseling. The validated organizational needs and proposed
comprehensive solution are summarized in Table 11.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 102
Table 10
Validated Organizational Needs and Solutions
Validated Organizational Needs Proposed Solutions
Addresses all of the needs in the left hand column
American high school counselors need to ensure that
all students are prepared to complete the critical steps
to enroll in some form of postsecondary education
immediately after graduation.
Comprehensive continuous professional
development program that includes:
Pre-service and/or in-service training,
and coaching on school-wide action
planning; the nine key elements of a
college-going culture; and how to use
the nine critical principles of a college-
going culture to create a solid school-
wide action plan to establish a strong
college-going culture.
Pre-service and/or in-service training,
and coaching on assisting students and
parents with the college application and
enrollment process including admissions
policies and procedures.
Prior to the start of each school year, new and
returning American high school counselors need to
complete a formal college counseling training
program to ensure that they are proficient and have
up-to-date knowledge of the college enrollment
process including admissions and financial aid
policies and procedures.
Counselors need to receive formal training on college
admission and financial aid counseling in the school
counseling university-based preparation program that
awards a master’s degree in school counseling and
recommends pupil personnel service credential.
Counselors need to allocate more time to meet with
each student in their caseload to help them find their
best-fit post-secondary options. Counselors spend less
than 60 minutes on college advising with each student
in their caseload over the entire school year.
Pre-service and/or in-service training,
and coaching on guiding parents and
students of the complexities of the
financial aid process - state and federal
financial aid policies and procedures.
Despite school budget constraints and/or work
demands, counselors need the time and/or financial
resources to participate in professional development
workshops and/or conferences for school counselors
Pre-service and/or in-service training,
and coaching on college and career
counseling and planning. To guide
college and career readiness counseling
and planning, the training program shall
develop and disseminate college and
career readiness counseling guidebooks
for counselors to use with students and
families.
Pre-service and/or in-service training,
and coaching on formative assessment
and summative evaluation – using
disaggregated school-level data and
individual student data to work with
students to develop and connect
academic course planning and
postsecondary plans, and guide college
and career readiness counseling.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 103
Table 11, continued
Despite school budget constraints and/or work
demands, counselors need the time and/or financial
resources to participate in professional development
workshops and/or conferences for school counselors.
School counselors’ job descriptions need
to be revised to ensure that counselors
are spending more time on college- and
career-ready counseling and planning.
Strengthen university-based school
counselor credential programs to ensure
that future school counselors have the
knowledge and field work experience to
perform the role of an effective college
and career counselor.
Revise state credential requirements to
ensure that all school counselors receive
specialized training and field work
experience in college- and career-ready
counseling and planning.
Support school counselors by requiring
new and returning credentialed school
counselors to complete a comprehensive
and on-going professional development
training and certificate program in
college- and career-ready counseling and
planning at least every two years.
Despite school budget constraints and/or work
demands, counselors need the time and/or financial
resources to participate in professional development
workshops and/or conferences for school counselors.
Increase the number of school
counselors to improve the student-to-
counselor ratio.
Schools and districts should consider
recruiting and training highly influential
high school students and/or college
students as a volunteer certified peer
college advisor (CPCA) to provide
assistance to school counselors to help
ensure that all students get the college
advising and support needed to complete
the necessary steps to enroll in a
postsecondary education career training
or degree program within one year of
high school graduation.
Summary of Validated Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Needs and Solutions
The KMO solutions have been integrated into one comprehensive and continuous college
and career counseling professional development program, which is described in the
implementation plan section below.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 104
Implementation Plan
The Proposed Solution: College- and Career-Ready Counseling Professional Development
Training and Certificate Program for School Counselors
The research conducted through this study suggests knowledge, motivation and
organizational needs to support more effective college and career counseling and planning at
American high school and possible solutions to those needs. These needs are not surprising given
that school counselors are not receiving the necessary training in college and career counseling
(Morgan, Greenwaldt, & Gosselin, 2014; Bruce & Bridgeland, 2012; McDonough, 2005). Most
school counseling graduate degree programs at regionally accredited universities across the
United States offer few to no specialized courses in college and career counseling (Morgan,
Greenwaldt, & Gosselin, 2014; Bruce & Bridgeland, 2012).
The proposed solutions discussed in Chapter Five will be integrated and delivered
through a specialized professional development training and certificate program in college- and
career-ready counseling for new and returning school counselors at American high school,
analogous to solution #3 described in the previous section of Chapter Five. The proposed policy
recommendation is a key solution to help school counselors build a strong college-going culture
school-wide and increase the number of American high school graduates who will enroll in some
form of postsecondary education immediately after graduation. However, in order for school
counselors to lead the college and career readiness movement at American high school, they
must receive specialized training and certification in school-wide action planning and college
and career counseling coupled with effective tools, strategies and resources to help all students
enroll in some form of postsecondary education that leads to a certificate or license in a trade or
technical career, or a regionally accredited 2- or 4-year college degree.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 105
There is no other stakeholder more important to work with on implementing the proposed
implementation plan than school counselors as the proposed policy solution will directly support
and benefit the work that school counselors perform daily at American high school. School
counselors will have a strong interest to be involved because they are committed to the success
of their students. In addition, the school’s leadership will also want to support the proposed
policy solution and implementation plan because they are highly motivated to improve their
school’s performance.
The goal of the program will be to equip new and returning school counselors at
American high school specifically and school counselors at other high schools in the American
Unified School District in the near future with the knowledge, skills, resources, confidence, and
support needed to increase their current postsecondary enrollment rate and improve the college-
going culture school-wide.
The principal researcher of this study found an organization that has agreed to assist and
fully support American high school with implementing this proposed training and certificate
program. The organization is nationally known as the National Association of Professional
College and Career Advisors (NAPCA), which is a division of the NAPCA Foundation. NAPCA
is planning to implement a college and career counseling training and certification program for
school counselors as well as for graduate students seeking a career as a school counselor, in
urban high schools across the United States. Additionally, NAPCA seeks to receive support from
College Board’s National Office of School Counselors Advocacy to develop and implement the
proposed training program. Therefore, the proposed program is important for both American
high school and NAPCA in the short-term and long- term as they consider how to implement the
program and scale up efforts.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 106
NAPCA has agreed to be accountable to fully support and operationalize the
implementation of the proposed solution. NAPCA’s commitment to developing and
implementing the professional development training program includes program design,
curriculum development, program administration, faculty hiring, training and support, and
marketing the program - program advertisement and promotion to all counselors at American
high school and other schools in the district. Furthermore, NAPCA will be responsible for
implementing the action steps and allocating the human and financial resources necessary to
successfully implement the proposed policy solution.
Implementation Action Steps
There are specific action steps that must be taken to in order to support and operationalize
the implementation of the proposed solution. Here are five action steps that will help build the
college and career counseling professional development training program for school counselors
at American high school.
1. Needs Assessment: Determine specific training needs from school counselors to best
serve their needs and create a collaborative environment.
2. Program Design and Development: Developing the professional development training
program includes program design, curriculum development, program administration,
faculty hiring, training and support, and marketing the program to all counselors.
3. Curriculum Design and Development: Develop the course syllabus for each course
offered in the program, which must be aligned with school counselor training needs.
Syllabus includes overview and purpose of the course, student learning outcomes, course
assignments and activities, session topics, etc. While developing the training program, the
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 107
delivery methods (i.e., online training only, hybrid training: online and in person) and
participants’ learning styles should also be considered.
4. Program Assessment and Evaluation: NAPCA will hire a research firm to objectively
analyze the effectiveness and impact of the training. The research firm hired will develop
data collection instruments to evaluate the training program and participant’s experience
in the program. The results from the study will be shared with the American high school
administration team and the American Unified School District board of directors.
5. Program Implementation: Conduct the pilot professional development training program
and gather feedback from the first cohort to help make adjustments before officially
launching the training program district-wide and/or to other school districts that have a
need for this school counselor training program.
Timeframe
In considering the organizational environment in which this policy will be implemented,
the actors involved and the human and financial capacity, the chart below will outline the
timeline for each phase in the proposed policy implementation process:
1. Determine specific training needs from school counselors to best serve their needs and
create a collaborative environment. (August - October 2020)
2. Implement action steps two through four. (November 2020 - June 2021)
3. Deliver ten (10) day specialized training program in college and career counseling to
American high school counselors and other school counselors in the American Unified
School District that may benefit from attending the professional development program.
Monitor implementation and make adjustments as needed. Training will be held in a
classroom at a local college or university campus in the month of July 2021.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 108
Table 11
Implementation Process Timeline
2020 2021
August September October November December Jan Feb March April May June July
1 2
3
Evaluation Plan
Evaluation is an effective way to acquire valid and reliable data to assess the program
design, implementation, and the intended impact of the intervention (Clark & Estes, 2008). The
purpose of this section is to provide a detailed evaluation plan to assist the professional
development program staff with monitoring the impact of the college and career counseling
professional development program and effectiveness of the proposed solutions.
Kirkpatrick ’s Four-Level Training Evaluation Model
The impact of the program will be assessed through applying Kirkpatrick’s Four-Level
Training Evaluation Model on counselors’ performance, which is the most widely used model
for evaluating the effectiveness of training programs (Kirkpatrick, 2007). The framework
consists of four levels:
Level 1: Evaluating Reaction. Level one measures counselors’ initial reactions and
perceptions of the program as well as their satisfaction with the program (Kirkpatrick, 2007).
Counselor reaction will be evaluated both qualitatively and quantitatively using an online
program evaluation survey. Each counselor will complete a program evaluation survey at the end
of the college and career counseling professional development training program. The post-
training survey will ask participants to respond anonymously to the following open-ended
questions (Clark & Estes, 2008):
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 109
Level 1: Sample Opened Ended Questions (for illustrative purposes only). The actual
questions will be tailored to the training program.
• Which sessions of the training did you find most relevant to your work?
• Which activities were particularly engaging for you?
• What did you like most about the training program?
• What did you dislike about the training, if anything?
• What recommendations would you give for how to improve future training?
The evaluation instruments and framework for this level of training is illustrated in Table 13.
Level 2: Evaluating Learning. Level two assesses new knowledge acquired as a result
of attending the program (Kirkpatrick, 2007) including the expected learning outcomes intended
from each course or seminar offered in the training program. Counselor knowledge will be
evaluated using a program survey. The survey will be completed anonymously at the end of each
seminar. While completing the survey, counselors will not be permitted to use notes or materials
received from the seminar. Counselors will be informed on the first day of the program that a
survey will be administered at the end of the seminar to determine the effectiveness of the
program (Kirkpatrick, 2007). In addition, counselor’s learning of the new knowledge and skills
will be measured through coaching sessions during the first two months of implementation. Prior
to delivering college and career counseling sessions with students and families, counselors who
participate in the training program will be required to develop an action plan for providing
academic and college and career counseling and perform mock counseling sessions during
training in which they will practice and demonstrate the new approach. According to Clark and
Estes (2008), “the combination of procedure-based checklists and an expert’s judgment” is an
effective measure of evaluation for Level 2 and Level 3. Therefore, the expert trainer will
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 110
evaluate the action plans and mock counseling sessions using a college and career counselor
performance rubric to measure the training content and skills. The assessment tool will include
space for comments, where the trainer/coach can indicate strengths, weaknesses, and suggestions
for improvement. The evaluation instruments and framework for this level of training is
illustrated in Table 13.
Level 3: Evaluating Behavior. Level three measures how the training program affected
the counselor’s behavior, attitude, confidence, and performance in the workplace as a college and
career counselor since attending the training program. Counselor behavior change will be
measured by interviewing counselors and their direct supervisor which is most likely the school
principal and/or an assistant principal who oversee counseling and guidance at the school
(Kirkpatrick, 2007). The post-program interview questionnaire will be used to conduct
interviews with counselors. The interview questionnaire will be an absolute rating scale survey
of 12 - 15 questions. There will be two versions of the survey. A counselor version will be used
to interview all counselors who attended the program three to six months after completion of the
program. A second version, with the same question content, will be completed by school
administrators at the counselor’s school three to six months after successful completion of the
training program to assess the extent of behavior change in counselor performance. Additionally,
in-depth interviews would be conducted with school administrators at the end of the school year.
Interview questions would focus on the following items: number of trained counselors still
employed at American high school, counselor transfer of knowledge, skills, behaviors and
attitudes (e.g., activities attempted, challenges encountered, and results), examples demonstrating
use of the skills, and observed changes in counselors’ behaviors and attitudes.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 111
In-depth interviews will also assess whether coaching transpired as intended – whether
the college and career counseling coach visited regularly, provided feedback, conducted in-
service training, and facilitated professional learning groups. Additionally, in-depth interviews
will identify any challenges with implementing the school-wide action plan and how the
challenges were addressed.
In addition, counselor short-term behavior change will be measured through informal
assessments conducted each academic semester by assigned coaches (school administrators, and
other designated staff) to provide support to counselors. Specifically, college and career
counseling coaches would visit the school counseling offices to assess counselor transfer of
knowledge, skills, behaviors and attitudes using a checklist which list core competencies of
professional college and career counselors. The selection and training of coaches who can
effectively build a trusting relationship with counselors is a strong indicator to the success of the
college and career counseling professional development program. Therefore, it is recommended
that a selection and hiring committee of experienced leaders and other stakeholders work
collectively to recruit and hire college and career counseling coaches to support the work of the
school counselors during the academic year.
Subsequent to counselor observations, the observer will hold a debriefing session with
the counselor to discuss strengths, weaknesses and develop a follow-up action plan. The
monitoring data will be shared with the training program administration team to incorporate what
was learned through counselor assessments into future training and professional development
activities. The evaluation instruments and framework for this level of training is illustrated in
Table 13.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 112
Level 4: Evaluating Results. Level four assesses whether the college and career
counseling professional development training program achieved the intended impact on the
counselor’s knowledge, motivation and organizational needs at American high school.
Additionally, level four will assess the impact of the professional development training program
on the school performance goal, which is to improve the college-going culture and to develop a
school-wide college access action plan that will help achieve the goal of 100% of American high
school seniors completing the critical steps for admission and enrollment into some form of
postsecondary education (i.e., workforce relevant training program, 2-year or 4-year college
degree program). The evaluation instruments and framework for this level of training is
illustrated in Table 13.
Table 12
Evaluation Instruments and Framework
Assessing Knowledge and Skills Assessing
Learning
Outcomes
Assessing
Organizational
Outcomes
Assessing
Motivation
Post-Training
Online Survey
Interview Counselor
Observation
& College
and Career
Counselor
Competency
Checklist
Document
Analysis
Document
Analysis
Post-Training
Survey
Kirkpatrick
4 Levels of
Evaluation
Likert
Scale
Open-
Ended
Semi-
Structured
Interviews
Counselor
Performance
Rubric
Number of
counselors
trained,
certified,
and
participating
in college
counseling
training
program
Increase in college
enrollment rates - #
of students
enrolled in a 2- or
4-year college
Self-report
change of
attitudes/
beliefs using
Likert-scale
Level 1
(Reaction)
X X X
Level 2
(Knowledge)
X X
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 113
Table 13, continued
Assessing Knowledge and Skills Assessing
Learning
Outcomes
Assessing
Organizational
Outcomes
Assessing
Motivation
Level 3
(Behavior)
X X X X
Level 4
(Impact)
X X
Expected Results
Specifically, the college and career counseling professional development program will set
expectations to achieve the following results:
1. Improve counselor knowledge and expertise in college and career counseling for at least
80% of counselors.
2. Increase counselor confidence in delivering college and career counseling services to
students and families for at least 80% of counselors.
3. Increase use of disaggregated school-level data and individual student data to monitor
student performance and guide college and career counseling for at least 80% of
counselors.
4. Recruit and train one to two college and career counseling coaches to provide continuous
professional development and coaching for newly recruited counselors, and in-service
counselors at American high school.
5. Increase the professionalization of pre-service and in-service counselors by providing
trained counselors with certificates and certification in professional college and career
counseling (Target: at least 80% of counselors to become certified by August 2019).
6. Retain 90% of trained and certified counselors for at least five years at American high
school.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 114
To assess the impact of the expected results, a college-going culture assessment against
the nine critical principles of a college-going culture will be carried out during the baseline and
endline assessment to determine the impact of the college and career counseling professional
development training program. The program will also conduct ongoing monitoring of the school-
wide college access action plan. A monitoring system will be developed to track results and
activities against specific success indicators. In addition, the program will support counselors in
setting school-level benchmarks for college and career readiness which includes monitoring
counselors’ performance against a checklist of completing the critical steps necessary to gain
admission to a 2- or 4-year college and secure financial aid (grants, scholarships, etc.) from the
state and federal government.
Limitations
The focus of this research study is to conduct a gap analysis to examine the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational needs necessary for American high school counselors to develop
a school-wide college access action plan that will help achieve the goal of 100% of American
high school seniors completing the critical steps for admission and enrollment into some form of
postsecondary education (i.e., workforce relevant training program, 2-year or 4-year college
degree program).
The primary delimitation of the case study is that it is context specific to American high
school and addresses their mission and organizational performance goal and cannot be
generalized. However, there are other institutions across the world that can perhaps benefit from
the application of this case study’s use of Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis process to help
improve their organization’s performance. The project is also delimited to examining one key
stakeholder, which are school counselors at American high school in American, California, who
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 115
may or may not be representative of that of other stakeholder groups. While other stakeholder
groups’ experiences and contributions are important to the organization, an in-depth
investigation of those lies outside the scope of the current study.
Future Research
Focusing this study on counselors only provided the counselor’s perspective on the low
college enrollment problem at American high school, which provided a great deal of insight into
the counselor’s knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs to help increase college
enrollment rates. However, a more comprehensive gap analysis research study, which would
include all school and community stakeholders (i.e., school leaders, students, parents, etc.), is
needed to fully understand the knowledge, motivation, and organizational barriers and needs to
develop a more comprehensive solution. Additionally, given that school counselors spend an
average of 30% of their time on college counseling during the school year, future research could
help school counselors figure out how to use their time more effectively so there is more time to
perform college counseling. Moreover, additional research at more low performing urban public
schools with low college enrollment rates, similar to American high school, could lead to a
diverse mix of creative and innovative solutions to help close the college aspirations - enrollment
gap. In addition, future research is necessary to fully understand the implications of the
recommended solution to the needs assessed during the dissertation study. The proposed solution
is still in the pilot phase and will be implemented Summer 2021. Hence, future research could
help to inform the rollout of the proposed solution.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 116
Conclusion
Prospective school counselors in almost every state across America are required to
complete a university-based school counselor preparation program. However, most university-
based school counselor training programs are not producing future school counselors that are
trained to perform the role of a college and career readiness counselor. Instead, most school
counselors are primarily trained to provide individual and group mental health counseling. As a
result, most school counselors are exiting their training program under-prepared to help students
school-wide graduate college- and career-ready. School counselors are also not trained to
develop and implement a school-wide college and career readiness strategic action plan to help
establish and sustain a strong college-going culture and increase college enrollment rates.
Therefore, state policy makers, university-based school counselor preparation programs, schools,
and districts need to do more to provide the level of support needed for school counselors to be
adequately trained to lead the college and career readiness movement in schools to close the
“college aspirations - enrollment gap” in America’s urban public high schools.
To leverage the support needed for school counselors, the study suggests that schools and
districts recommend that university-based school counselor training programs adequately prepare
its graduates to perform the role of a college and career readiness counselor and lead a college-
and career-ready agenda. Schools and districts can also support school counselors by offering a
comprehensive college and career counseling professional development program that all high
school counselors can attend prior to the start of each school year to ensure that they are
proficient and have up-to-date knowledge to perform the role of a college and career counselor.
In addition, university-based school counselor training programs will need to produce highly
qualified college and career readiness counselors with the knowledge and skills needed to
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 117
prepare all students for a productive future. However, to make that happen, they must be willing
to take a close look at their school counselor training program curriculum to ensure that their
graduates are placed on a path to perform the college and career readiness tasks that students,
parents and administrators need school counselors to perform.
State policy makers can support future school counselors by strengthening state
credentialing requirements for prospective school counselors to ensure that all future school
counselors have adequate training in college and career readiness counseling and using data to
develop and implement a school-wide college access action plan. Additionally, state policy
makers can work to get the funding that schools and districts need to hire more high school
counselors to improve the overwhelming counselor to student ratio, which is as high as one
counselor to 950 students in California public high school settings. Furthermore, this study
suggest that state policy makers can also work to revise job descriptions for school counselors at
the local and state level so that all school counselors can be held accountable to focus on
preparing all students to take ownership of their college and career aspirations.
While delimitations in the design of the case study prevent the results from being
generalized, the validated needs and solutions identified have implications for America’s urban
public high schools with low college enrollment rates. The proposed solution and
implementation strategies are widely applicable to urban high schools across America aiming to
improve college and career readiness outcomes for their students.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 118
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Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 129
APPENDIX A
KMO Needs and Solutions
Summary of Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Needs and Solutions
Validated Knowledge Needs Proposed Solution
Addresses all of the needs in the left hand column
Counselors need knowledge of the
“nine critical principles of a college
going culture.”
Counselors need knowledge of current
federal financial aid programs, policies
and resources available in order to
effectively help students and their
parents better understand how to pay
for college and navigate the financial
aid system.
Counselors need knowledge of
California state financial aid programs,
policies, and resources for U.S.
citizens, undocumented students, and
AB540 students to effectively help
students and their parents better
understand how to successfully
navigate the financial aid process.
Counselors need knowledge of current
college admissions policies,
procedures, and resources available in
order to effectively help students and
their parents better understand how to
successfully navigate the college
admission process.
Counselors need knowledge to develop
and implement of a school-wide
college access action plan at American
high school to help establish a strong
college going culture and increase
college enrollment rates.
Counselors need knowledge on how to
use the nine critical principles of a
college going culture to create a solid
school wide action plan that when
delivered will result in a strong college
going culture.
Comprehensive continuous professional development
program that includes:
Provide pre-service and/or in-service training on
the nine key elements of a college going culture.
Provide pre-service and/or in-service training on
current federal financial aid programs, policies
and resources.
Provide pre-service and/or in-service training on
California state financial aid programs, policies,
and resources for U.S. citizens, undocumented
students, and AB540 students.
Provide pre-service and/or in-service training on
current college admissions policies, procedures,
and resources for regionally accredited public
and private two year colleges and four year
colleges and universities.
Provide pre-service and in-service training and
coaching on action plan development and on how
to implement a school-wide action plan.
Additionally, provide training on how to develop
an assessment monitoring tool and train counselors
in its usage to track progress.
Provide pre-service and in-service training on how
to use the nine critical principles of a college going
culture to create a solid school wide action plan.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 130
Validated Motivational Need Proposed Solutions
Addresses all of the needs in the left hand column
Counselors need more confidence in their
ability to effectively perform the role of a
college counselor such as advising or
leading a workshop for students and their
parents on how to successfully navigate
the college admission process and/or
financial aid process.
Comprehensive continuous professional development
program that includes:
Pre-service and/or in-service training to school
counselors on the college admission and
financial aid counseling skills required to
effectively assist students and families, which
will build high self-efficacy and confidence in
their ability to effectively perform the role of a
college and career counselor.
Develop specific, short-term, but achievable
goals and an action plan for counselors to
implement immediately within their counseling
practice.
School administrators or other designated
person(s) serve as coaches and a support team
to counselors to monitor their performance and
provide corrective feedback privately which
includes praise for their commitment to
students and families, empathy and
encouragement to help build counselors’
confidence.
Validated Organizational Needs Proposed Solutions
Addresses all of the needs in the left hand column
American high school counselors need to
ensure that all students are prepared to
complete the critical steps to enroll in
some form of postsecondary education
immediately after graduation.
Comprehensive continuous professional development
program that includes:
Pre-service and/or in-service training, and
coaching on school-wide action planning; the
nine key elements of a college going culture;
and how to use the nine critical principles of a
college going culture to create a solid school
wide action plan to establish a strong college
going culture.
Pre-service and/or in-service training, and
coaching on assisting students and parents with
the college application and enrollment process
including admissions policies and procedures.
Pre-service and/or in-service training, and
coaching on guiding parents and students of the
complexities of the financial aid process - state
and federal financial aid policies and
procedures.
Prior to the start of each school year, new
and returning American high school
counselors need to complete a formal
college counseling training program to
ensure that they are proficient and have up
to date knowledge of the college
enrollment process including admissions
and financial aid policies and procedures.
Counselors need to receive formal training
on college admission and financial aid
counseling in the school counseling
university based preparation program that
awards master’s degree in school
counseling and recommends pupil
personnel service credential.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 131
Counselors need to allocate more time to
meet with each student in their caseload to
help them find their best-fit post-
secondary options. Counselors spend less
than 60 minutes on college advising with
each student in their caseload over the
entire school year.
Pre-service and/or in-service training, and
coaching on college and career counseling and
planning. To guide college and career readiness
counseling and planning, the training program
shall develop and disseminate college and
career readiness counseling guidebooks for
counselors to use with students and families.
Pre-service and/or in-service training, and
coaching on formative assessment and
summative evaluation – using disaggregated
school-level data and individual student data to
work with students to develop and connect
academic course planning and postsecondary
plans, and guide college and career readiness
counseling.
School counselors’ job descriptions need to be
revised to ensure that counselors are spending
more time on college- and career-ready
counseling and planning.
Strengthen university based school counselor
credential programs to ensure that future school
counselors have the knowledge and field work
experience to perform the role of an effective
college and career counselor.
Revise state credential requirements to ensure
that all school counselors receive specialized
training and field work experience in college-
and career-ready counseling and planning.
Support school counselors by requiring new
and returning credentialed school counselors to
complete a comprehensive and on-going
professional development training and
certificate program in college- and career-ready
counseling and planning at least every two
years.
Increase the number of school counselors to
improve the student to counselor ratio.
Schools and districts should consider recruiting
and training highly influential high school
students and/or college students as a volunteer
certified peer college advisor (CPCA) to
provide assistance to school counselors to help
ensure that all students get the college advising
and support needed to complete the necessary
steps to enroll in a postsecondary education
Despite school budget constraints and/or
work demands, counselors need the time
and/or financial resources to participate in
professional development workshops
and/or conferences for school counselors.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 132
career training or degree program within one
year of high school graduation.
APPENDIX B
Survey Protocol
Likert Scale Items
For the following statements, please indicate the extent to which you strongly agree, agree,
disagree or strongly disagree.
1. I enjoy my work as school counselor at American high school?
2. Learning the critical steps to build, strengthen and sustain a strong college going culture
at American high school is valuable/useful to my work as a school counselor?
3. As a school counselor, it is important for me to increase my knowledge of the college
admissions and enrollment process to help my students complete the critical steps to
enroll in some form of postsecondary education.
4. As a school counselor, it is important for me to increase my knowledge of the federal
financial aid system to effectively help students and their parents better understand how
to pay for college and navigate the financial aid system.
5. As a school counselor, it is important for me to increase my knowledge of the California
state financial aid system to effectively help students and their parents better understand
how to pay for college and navigate the financial aid system.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 133
6. I need to strengthen my knowledge to conduct college admission and financial aid
workshops and presentations to small and large groups of students and parents for a full
range of postsecondary options.
7. I have a sufficient amount of time each day to accomplish my work tasks.
8. I have a sufficient amount of time to provide college counseling services to each student
in my assigned caseload? (McDonough, 2009; The College Board, 2006)
9. I have access to the tools I need to effectively do my job.
10. Prior to joining American high school as a school counselor, I received formal college
and career counseling training/instruction.
11. I am satisfied with my salary.
12. I would like to spend more time on building and sustaining a strong college going culture
to help more students at American high school prepare to enroll in some form of
postsecondary education. (The College Board, 2006)
13. I believe that one of the priorities at American high school is to ensure that all graduating
seniors are prepared to enroll and complete some form of postsecondary education. (The
College Board, 2006).
14. I am open to the idea of working with an outside agency that shares my commitment to
help build and strengthen the college going culture at American high school.
Survey (open-ended items)
1. What do you think are the key principles and components to build or strengthen a strong
college going culture at American high school?
2. What role do you see for yourself in the effort to build a strong college going culture at
American high school?
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 134
3. Please describe the steps involved in building and sustaining a strong college going
culture at American high school?
4. How do you think American high school should go about planning and assessing its
efforts to build and strengthen a strong college going culture?
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 135
APPENDIX C
Interview Protocol
1. How would you best describe the current college going culture at American high
school? (McDonough, 2009)
2. What resources/assets do you need to support you in your role as a school counselor?
(The College Board, 2006)
3. What have been the barriers/challenges in your work as a school counselor? (The
College Board, 2006)
4. Are there any school policies and procedures that impede your efforts to help increase
the number of students who enroll in some form of postsecondary education
immediately after graduation?
5. How would you go about helping more students at American high school enroll in
some form of postsecondary education immediately after high school graduation?
6. What do you need in order to do your job more effectively (resources, training, &
encouragement)?
7. How much time do you think you spend on college advising with each student in your
caseload over the entire school year compared to other counseling activities? Do you
think you need to spend more time on college advising? (McDonough, 2009)
8. Do you agree that you need training to develop and implement of an effective school-
wide college access action plan at American high school to help establish a strong
college going culture and increase college enrollment rates? If no, how did you get
the knowledge to perform effective school-wide action planning?
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 136
9. Do you agree that you need training on the federal financial aid system in America? If
no, how did you get the knowledge to provide financial aid advising to your students?
If yes, how often would you like to receive training to ensure you are informed about
new financial aid policies and procedures? Are there any specific topics you would
like to receive training on to best advise your students?
10. Do you agree that you need training on the California state financial aid system? If
no, how did you get the knowledge to provide financial aid advising to your students?
If yes, how often would you like to receive training to ensure you are informed about
new financial aid policies and procedures? Are there any specific topics you would
like to receive training on to best advise your students?
11. Do you agree that you need training in the area of college admissions and enrollment
policies and procedures as it relates to two and four year colleges and universities? If
no, how did you get the knowledge to provide financial aid advising to your students?
If yes, how often would you like to receive training to ensure you are informed about
new college admissions policies and procedures? Are there any specific topics you
would like to receive training on to best advise your students?
12. Can you provide some examples regarding the steps you would take to use the nine
critical principles of a college going culture to develop an action plan to implement
them appropriately at American high school?
13. Do you agree that you have the confidence to effectively perform the role of a college
counselor such as advising or leading workshops for students and their parents on
how to navigate the college application process? If no, what do you think you need to
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 137
gain the confidence? If yes, what helped you gain the confidence to perform the role
of a college counselor?
14. Do you agree that you need to set higher expectations and believe that every student
in your caseload will enroll in some form of postsecondary education within one year
of high school graduation? Why or why not?
15. Do you agree that you need knowledge of the nine critical principles of a college
going culture to effectively build and sustain a strong college - going culture at
American high school?
16. Do you agree that you need to value the idea of building a strong college-going
culture at American high school?
17. Do you agree that you need to ensure that all students in your assigned caseload are
prepared to complete the critical steps to enroll in some form of postsecondary
education immediately after graduation? Why or why not?
18. Prior to the start of each school year, do you value the idea of attending a formal
college counseling training program to ensure that you and other school counselors
are proficient and have up to date knowledge to perform the role of a college
counselor? Why or why not?
19. Do you agree that you need to allocate more time to meet with each student in their
caseload to help them find their best-fit post-secondary options? Why or why not?
20. Do you agree that future counselors need to receive training on college admission and
financial aid counseling in their school counseling university based preparation
program that awards a master’s degree in school counseling and recommends pupil
personnel service credential? Why or why not?
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 138
21. Despite school budget constraints and/or counselor work demands, do you agree that
counselors need more time and/or financial resources to participate in professional
development workshops and/or conferences. Why or why not?
22. Counselors spend a significant amount of time on non-counseling duties such as
administering standardized tests and clerical duties. Do you agree that you need to
spend more time on counseling duties? Why or why not?
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 139
APPENDIX D
“Principles of a College Going School Culture”
College Talk
Clear Expectations
Information & Resources
Comprehensive Counseling Model
Testing & Curriculum
Faculty Involvement
Family Involvement
College Partnerships
Articulation
College Talk
“Developing a college culture requires clear communication about what it takes to get to college.
These conversations must take place in an ongoing manner with students, so that they understand
what is required and expected of them if they want to stay on a college path. By the same token,
faculty and administrators must have opportunities to share their own experiences and discover
their own assumptions about their roles in preparing students for college. Through this College
Talk, the purpose of building a college culture becomes clearer and the process becomes more
effective.”
Clear Expectations
“If all students are to be prepared for a full range of postsecondary options when they graduate
from high school, then the explicit goals of this preparation must be clearly defined. These goals
must be communicated in ways that make them part of the culture of the school, such that
students, family members such as parents, teachers, administrators and staff recognize the role
that each plays in preparing students for college.”
Information and Resources
“Students must have access to information and resources related to college. This information
must be comprehensive, up-to-date and easily accessible. Although counselors are likely to have
primary responsibility for collecting and maintaining resources, school faculty should be aware
of what’s available and incorporate it into daily classroom practices on a regular basis.”
Comprehensive Counseling Model
“In a school with a successful college culture, all counselors are college counselors. As such, all
student interactions with counseling staff become opportunities for college counseling, because
all counselors are informed about college issues. In this manner, decisions about students’
coursework and career options are made with all postsecondary options in mind.”
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 140
Testing and Curriculum
“Standardized tests like the PSAT and SAT are critical steps on the path to college. Students
must be knowledgeable about these tests and be aware of testing dates. Moreover, the school
must make a commitment to providing the resources necessary to ensure both that students are
prepared for the tests, and that testing fees are not a barrier to any student’s ability to take the
tests. This includes ensuring access to preparatory coursework like algebra and geometry.
Moreover, the school must ensure that students have access to coursework that ensures their
eligibility to apply to college upon graduation.”
Faculty Involvement
“School faculty must be active partners in the creation and maintenance of a college culture.
They should be kept up-to-date on important information related to college knowledge (e.g.,
admissions requirements, types of institutions, etc.) and be provided with ongoing professional
development to allow them to play an active role in preparing students to aspire to, apply to, and
attend college. This should include integrating college information and the very idea of college
into regular classroom activities. Faculty must make themselves available to family members to
answer any questions and make decisions about students’ academic futures.”
Family Involvement
“Parents and/or other family members must become informed partners in the process of building
a college culture. They must be provided with opportunities to gain knowledge about the college
planning process as well as be made aware that their children are college material. The
counseling staff must make themselves available to family members to answer any questions and
help make decisions about students’ academic futures.”
College Partnerships
“Forming active links between the school and local colleges and universities is vital to the
creation of a college culture. This facilitates the organization of college-related activities such as
field trips to college campuses or college fairs, and the provision of academic enrichment
programs, all of which raise awareness of and aspirations toward college.”
Articulation
“Students should have a seamless experience where a college message is communicated from
kindergarten through 12
th
grade. As such, there must be ongoing communication between
counselors and teaching staff among all schools in a feeder group. Work being done at each
school site should be coordinated with activities at other levels.”
Source: McDonough, P.M. (2009). Building A College Culture: Needs, Goals, Principles, and a
Case Study.
Closing the “College Aspirations - Enrollment Gap” 141
Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, May 2012, Public Elementary and Secondary School
Student Enrollment and Staff Counts from the Common Core of Data: School Year 2010-2011
APPENDIX E
K-12 Public School Student-to-Counselor Ratios, by State: 2010-2011
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
Applying a Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis framework, this case study examined the knowledge, motivational, and organizational needs necessary to help school counselors at American high school increase their current postsecondary enrollment rate of approximately 20% to 100% by June of 2021 (California Department of Education, 2015
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Asset Metadata
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Smith, Aaron W.
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Core Title
Closing the “college aspirations - enrollment gap” in America’s urban public high schools: an innovation study
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Global Executive
Publication Date
08/14/2018
Defense Date
07/25/2018
Publisher
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Tag
college aspirations-enrollment gap,college counseling,college preparation,college readiness,first-generation college students,high school counseling,improving college access,improving school counselor preparation programs,OAI-PMH Harvest,revising school counselor state credential requirements,School Counseling,school counselor,urban public high schools
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Tags
college aspirations-enrollment gap
college counseling
college preparation
college readiness
first-generation college students
high school counseling
improving college access
improving school counselor preparation programs
revising school counselor state credential requirements
school counselor
urban public high schools