University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Historically Latino/a-based fraternities/sororities: understanding Latino/a student experiences in a historically White-dominated system

(USC Thesis Other)

Historically Latino/a-based fraternities/sororities: understanding Latino/a student experiences in a historically White-dominated system

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content Running head: UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

1

HISTORICALLY LATINO/A-BASED FRATERNITIES/SORORITIES: UNDERSTANDING
LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES IN A HISTORICALLY WHITE-DOMINATED
SYSTEM

by

Vanessa M. Bustamante

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2018

Copyright 2018 Vanessa M. Bustamante
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

2
Acknowledgements
I cannot even formulate how I feel writing this now. The power of my community has
gotten me to this point and served as my motivation throughout my educational journey. First
and foremost, my family has been my rock and foundation. Mom, dad, and Chatch, thank you for
always believing in me, when others did not. Thank you for raising me to be an empowered and
bold mujer that could accomplish anything in life. Thank you for believing in me when I didn’t
speak English at school, when I couldn’t learn to read or do math by fourth grade, and thank you
for encouraging me to apply to college when my advisor told me I would never get in. The three
of you are the reason why I have been able to get to this point. You have been my motivation,
my heart, and my determination when things got hard. Thank you for always being there for me,
believing in me, and for never leaving my side. I love you very much and could not have done
this without you three by my side. Your struggles, tireless work hours, and sacrifices are deeply
valued and appreciated; all those little things got me here. Please know that this accomplishment
is just as much yours as it is mine!
Additionally, I would like to thank all of my family members, friends, students,
colleagues, homegirls of CP, and hermanas of Lambda Theta Alpha Latin Sorority, Inc. who
have helped me on this journey. Thank you for understanding when I could not make it to events
or celebrations and thank you for always encouraging me and motivating me when I did not
believe in myself. Special thanks to Roy Tatum and Jeffrey Bustamante, who have been by my
side since I was born, constantly supporting me in everything I do. Thank you for being at all my
graduations, birthdays, and celebratory events; both of you have believed in me since day 1, and
for that I will always be grateful. Additionally, many thanks to my fourth-grade teacher, Ms.
Lysha Montiel who was the first teacher who ever believed in me. Thank you for writing letters
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

3
to me, saving my assignments, and for finding me almost 15 years later. I want you to know that
you made a difference in my life by taking the time to understand me and support me.
CP homegirls, thank you for providing me with much needed empowerment on this
journey. Thank you all for keeping me rooted and involved in the community and for
understanding when I could not organize and attend events. I appreciate the creation of the Ixchel
Scholarship and being the first recipient of the scholarship, as that was a tremendous financial
help. Thank you for making me the face of the sCHOLAr movement and for helping me find
empowerment through my community.
Hermanas of Lambda Theta Alpha Latin Sorority, Inc. thank you for keeping up with my
journey from all over the nation and for the constant motivational quotes and messages. Thank
you for checking in on me and always pushing me to accomplish my goals. My Delta Omega
chapter and neos, thank you for supporting me and for checking in on me through all aspects of
this journey. It is true when they say that, behind every successful mujer, there is a tribe of other
successful mujeres who have her back. To my line sisters, Lady Mendoza, Lizbeth Lopez, and
Jasmin Palomera, thank you for the emotional and physical support you have given me on this
journey and through all of academia. Thank you for pushing me to strive for greatness, making
me laugh when I needed a good laugh, the morning text messages, affirmations, reality checks,
and countless adventures. Thank you for helping me find my balance, when I thought I had lost
it. Las quiero mucho, hermanas de linea.
To my amazing students at CSUN in the IGC, USFC, and NPHC councils. You all are
the real MVP’s. You all have been one of the motivating factors for my dissertation topic and the
passion that fueled this writing. Thank you for checking in on me, asking me about school, and
sharing your excitement and genuine appreciation for this dissertation process. I am thankful for
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

4
all of you and for the energy and magic you exude in our daily interactions. Thank you for
making my job amazing and for sharing this journey with me. Remember that I am counting on
you all to continue this work and will always be here for all of you, should you choose to embark
on this journey. I cannot be the only person with a doctorate in the room, we need to continue
uplifting and empowering each other to follow our dreams and continue creating positive change
in our communities and society. Never let anyone tell you that you cannot do something, sí se
puede!
Last but definitely not least, thank you to my amazing chair and committee members. Dr.
Tracy, thank you for your constant support, countless conversations, and for all of your time.
Thank you for getting to know me and allowing me to get to know you. You are a kind and
positive soul and I am thankful to have gone on this journey with you. Dr. Green, thank you for
agreeing to serve on my committee and for all of your help throughout the program. Your
diversity class will remain with me as I continue to navigate institutions of higher education.
Thank you for the countless hours of talks on privilege, career guidance, and for bridging
connections for me. I appreciate you. Dr. Dougherty on my committee, and Kevin as my
colleague, thank you for agreeing to help me on my road through dissertation after meeting me
only once. I know my request came from left field, but I thank you for bringing your expertise in
Fraternity and Sorority Life to the committee. Thank you for helping me not only stay true to my
deadlines, but also for helping me realize my potential during this process. Thank you for being
kind with your time and for allowing me to take so much of it. I appreciate the long
conversations and strategy sessions. The three of you have been instrumental in this process as
well as in my growth as a sCHOLAr. From the bottom of my heart, thank you.
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

5
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................................................ 2
List of Tables.................................................................................................................................................................. 6
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................................................ 7
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Chapter 1: Overview of the Study .................................................................................................................................. 9
Statement of the Problem ........................................................................................................................................ 11
Purpose of the Study................................................................................................................................................ 12
Significance of the Study ........................................................................................................................................ 13
Limitations, Delimitations, Assumptions ................................................................................................................ 14
Definitions ............................................................................................................................................................... 14
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................................... 15
Chapter 2: Literature Review ....................................................................................................................................... 16
The History of Latino/Latina’s in Education .......................................................................................................... 16
Latino/a Students in Higher Education ................................................................................................................... 18
Student Involvement................................................................................................................................................ 24
History of Fraternity and Sorority Life ................................................................................................................... 28
Critical Race Theory ............................................................................................................................................... 34
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................................... 39
Chapter 3: Methodology .............................................................................................................................................. 41
Research Design and Methodology ......................................................................................................................... 42
Site Selection ........................................................................................................................................................... 42
Population and Sample Size .................................................................................................................................... 43
Instrumentation ........................................................................................................................................................ 45
Data Collection Process........................................................................................................................................... 46
Data Analysis .......................................................................................................................................................... 47
Validity .................................................................................................................................................................... 48
Role of Researcher .................................................................................................................................................. 49
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................................... 50
Chapter 4: Presentation of Data and Themes ............................................................................................................... 51
Summary of Participants ......................................................................................................................................... 52
Interview Participants .............................................................................................................................................. 55
Emerging Themes from Data .................................................................................................................................. 64
Development of Cultural Capital ............................................................................................................................ 74
Positive Identity Development ................................................................................................................................ 76
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................................... 78
Chapter 5: Overview, Discussion, Implications, Conclusion ...................................................................................... 79
Discussion of Findings ............................................................................................................................................ 80
Recommendations ................................................................................................................................................... 84
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................................... 87
References .................................................................................................................................................................... 89
Appendix A: Interview Protocol .................................................................................................................................. 99
Appendix B: Survey ................................................................................................................................................... 102
Appendix C: Information Sheet Template ................................................................................................................. 105
Appendix D: Recruitment E-mail .............................................................................................................................. 107

UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

6
List of Tables
Table 1: Educational Attainment of the Population Aged 25 and Older by Age,
Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin, and other Selected Characteristics…………………...19

Table 2: Participant Demographics…………………………………………………..…………..53

Table 3: Survey Responses……………………………………………………….……………..54

UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

7
List of Figures
Figure 1: Percentage of the Populations 25 Years and Older with a Bachelor’s
Degree or Higher by Race and Hispanic Origin: 1988 to 2015………………………..20

Figure 2: Educational Pipeline by Demographic Backgrounds………………………………….23

Figure 3: Theoretical Framework………………………………………………………..………80

UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

8
Abstract
This study examines the experiences of Latino/a students involved in historically Latino/a
fraternities and sororities at a Predominantly White Institution (PWI) in Southern California. The
sample in this study includes students from nine different historically Latino/a fraternities and
sororities. The study uses the theoretical framework of Critical Race Theory (CRT) to understand
the narratives and counterstories of Latino/a students and their experiences in White-dominated
systems and policies. Data from this study found that although students had positive
developmental experiences within their own organizations, they did not feel a sense of belonging
within the overall structure of fraternity and sorority life or on campus. Recommendations for
practice include the need for administrators to ensure there are institutional agents in positions of
power that can center social justice in processes, policies, and procedures that govern fraternity
and sorority life. Additionally, fraternity and sorority life offices need to include historically
Latino/a-based fraternity and sorority imagery, culture and processes in university materials and
finally, the need to create equity by allocating funding to smaller organizations in order to allow
for the same representation as larger, more affluent White-based organizations.

Keywords: Latino, Latina, Chicano, Chicana, Higher Education, Campus Climate, Fraternity,
Sorority, Critical Race Theory, CRT, Student Involvement, Involvement

UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

9
Chapter 1: Overview of the Study
There have been barriers to postsecondary access for people of color for decades. The
historical foundations of the American higher education system explain the many ways in which
students of color have been left out of the educational system (Gelber, 2007). To understand the
current landscape of higher education fully, it is imperative to understand the context of the
history in which these systems were created. Systems of higher education were originally
founded for elite, White-male students to reinforce a social hierarchy (Gelber, 2007).
Understanding the student populations for which these organizations were created inform the
systematic foundations, guiding policies, and missions these organizations follow (Delgado &
Stefancic, 2012). Discrimination remains embedded in the overall functioning of systems of
education and this has caused the entrenchment of discrimination on educational preparation and
attainment for students of color (Maralani, 2007). From the inception of segregation in schools,
to court rulings such as Brown vs. Board of Education, there have been many examples of the
negative racial climates for students of color. The negative campus racial climate has led to an
increasing number of students of color not attaining a higher education degree at all.
Historically, educational systems have attributed negative characteristics to students of
color, including labeling language as a handicap and creating names such as model minority to
separate groups (Ng, Lee, & Pak, 2007; Valencia, Menchaca, & Donato, 2002). Additionally,
deficit models of thinking and practice, such as banking models of teaching or fostering racial
tension in the classroom by separating students from their peers in blatantly oppressive ways,
contributes to the unequal outcomes of students of color (Freire, 1993). Freire (1993) identified
banking models of teaching as transmission models in which the teacher transmits knowledge
and the student sits and absorbs such knowledge. This model highlights the absence of critical
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

10
thinking skills and knowledge ownership. Today, an unequal distribution of opportunities
remains engrained in the educational system. The current landscape of institutions of higher
education still marginalizes underrepresented student populations and is evident in
disproportionately low access and completion rates. Bensimon (2005) identified the cognitive
frames of diversity, deficit, and equity to address cultural and structural barriers for oppressed
groups. To understand structural barriers for oppressed groups, Bensimon (2005) noted that
educators must take into account historical implications on current issues affecting
underrepresented students in institutions of higher education and referred to this as double-loop
thinking.
Researchers have studied various aspects of higher education, compiled data, and studied
Latino/a student populations to provide insight into issues affecting them. The evidence
highlighted many institutional issues and practices affecting Latino/a student success on college
campuses. Researchers have affirmed that campus climate, marginalization, and sense of
belonging on college campuses, affect students of color (Huber, Huidor, Malagon, Sanchez, &
Solórzano, 2006). However, the issues affecting Latino/a students need to be further assessed to
ensure access and completion rates increase for these students.
According to Bensimon (2005), if institutions of higher education moved towards
applying the theories and practices of organization learning, race and ethnic-based unequal
outcomes would be explored and issues would become visible. The invisibility of these student
experiences need to be explored and brought to the forefront of conversations for administrators
and professionals in higher education. The data suggest that even within the last ten years the
attainment gap for students of color persists. Students feel they must assimilate to be deemed
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

11
within standard American culture to make it through the educational pipeline (Chavez & Guido-
DiBrito, 1999).
This study examines the importance of student involvement, especially within historically
Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities. The evidence highlighted by Mina, Cabrales, Juarez,
and Rodriguez ‐Vasquez, (2004) revealed that family, community, and institutional partnerships
assist in increasing Latino/a students’ graduation rates and found that involvement in historically
Latino/a fraternities and sororities offered a sense of family and motivated them to succeed
academically and persist beyond undergraduate studies to graduate school (Mina, et al., 2004).
Statement of the Problem
In 2015, the United States (U.S.) Census Bureau reported that Latinos/as were the
nation’s largest minority group and will continue to increase until 2060. The increase in
enrollment is being driven by both population growth and by increasing proportions of the
Latino/a population enrolling in colleges and universities (Hoogeveen, 2013).
Latino/a students often encounter social and academic marginalization on college
campuses (Yosso, Smith, Ceja, & Solórzano, 2009). Major issues affecting Latino/a students on
college campuses include underrepresentation of Latino/a students in undergraduate institutions
and among faculty and senior university leadership, a negative campus climate, and lack of
positive role models and mentors (Huber, et al., 2006). The 13%-degree attainment gap of
Latino/a students in comparison to the 38% baccalaureate attainment of other groups signify that
negative campus racial climates are still negatively affecting Latino/a student’s (Galdeano &
Santiago, 2014).
This study examines the impact of historically Latino/a fraternities and sororities in
creating positive identity development, increasing academic and social integration, and
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

12
improving academic performance and persistence (Bowman & Denson, 2015). Historically
Latino/a fraternities and sororities are the focus in this study due to the unique history of how
these organizations were founded and the nature of how universities regulate fraternities and
sororities.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to understand the experiences of students involved in
historically Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities at a Predominantly White Institution (PWI)
and how participation in these organizations affect their ability to persist in college and graduate.
The research shows that Latino/a students have negative experiences in navigating campus racial
climates at institutions of higher education and the purpose of this study is to see the ways in
which institutions value involvement of students in historically Latino/a-based fraternities and
sororities (Huber et al., 2006; Tinto & Pusser 2006; Yosso et al., 2009). Moreover, the purpose is
to answer to the following questions:
1. What are the experiences of students involved in historically Latino/a fraternities &
sororities at four-year institutions?
2. Do students involved in historically Latino/a fraternities & sororities at four-year
institutions feel a sense of belonging in the overall fraternity and sorority life community
of the institution? If yes, how?
3. Do students involved in historically Latino/a fraternities & sororities at four-year
institutions feel that fraternity/sorority life policies and programs are relevant to their
experiences as diverse students? If yes, how?
Critical Race Theory (CRT) is a theoretical framework used to examine issues of social
justice and equity for marginalized communities, including issues that Latino/a college students
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

13
face (Villalpando, 2004). CRT offers a lens through which to understand the structural issues and
practices engrained in institutions that affect the campus racial climate for Latino/a students
(Delgado & Stefancic, 2012).
Significance of the Study
This problem is important to address because by 2060, the Latino/a population is
projected to increase, with significant implications for this population’s enrollment in colleges
and universities (U.S. Census Bureau, 2015). Research reveals that Latino/as are the largest
underrepresented group in the United States (U.S. Census, 2015). In 2015, the United States
(U.S.) Census Bureau revealed that 29% of the United States population were of Hispanic origin.
Undoubtedly, the increase in the Latino/a population is projected to lead to an increase in
enrollment in colleges and universities. The increase in enrollment will be driven by population
growth and by increasing proportions of the Latino/a population enrolling in colleges and
universities (Hoogeveen, 2013). Although enrollment has continued to increase in institutions of
higher education, Latino/a students still do not graduate at the same level as their White
counterparts (Krogstad & Fry, 2014). Research shows that Latino/Chicano students have a 13%-
degree attainment gap compared to 38% of other adults (ages 25 and older) (Galdeano &
Santiago, 2014).
The narratives provided in this study can assist administrators, student affairs
professionals, and fraternity/sorority advisors in creating educational climates that are more
inclusive and foster positive development of members of historically Latino/a fraternities and
sororities. This study can also inform administrators and student affairs professionals of the lived
experiences of students involved in historically Latino/a fraternities and sororities. It would
allow for an exploration of culturally relevant pedagogy, culturally inclusive processes, and ideas
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

14
on how to foster positive campus racial climates for students of color. Additionally, research has
already shown that historically multicultural-based fraternities and sororities have a more
positive impact on graduation rates for students than do historically White-based fraternities and
sororities (Severtis Jr. & Christie-Mizell, 2007). Understanding the first-hand experiences of
Latino/a students is imperative in fully understanding the gaps in access and equity in institutions
of higher education.
Limitations, Delimitations, Assumptions
This study, focusing solely on student experiences and narratives, may not be
generalizable to Latino/a students on other campuses. The post-secondary research institution
chosen for this study is a Predominantly White Institution (PWI) with an overwhelmingly higher
number of White-based fraternities and sororities. The limitation in number of participants does
not allow this study to be generalizable across institutions. Additionally, another limitation could
include interviewees not being completely honest with the researcher, due to knowing or hearing
that the interviewer is a fraternity/sorority advisor at another campus. Students may feel that
participation in the study may hurt their relationship with the Fraternity and Sorority Life Office
staff at their campus.
Definitions
Latino/a – refers to a social group composed of immigrants and descendants of anyone from
Latin America (Fernandez-Morera, 2010).
Chicano/a – refers to students whose families or descendants are from Mexico and those who
may identify as Mexican-American, with a politically conscious background and understanding
of indigenous history (Acuña, 2015).
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

15
Xicana – refers to students who identify with their indigenous heritage and have a politically,
socially, and culturally conscious background and understanding of indigenous and Chicano/a
history (Acuña, 2015).
Hispanic – term used by the government and U.S. Census Bureau to mainstream people who
speak Spanish, not acknowledging the diversity of cultures and backgrounds in those
communities (Fernandez-Morera, 2010).
First-generation college student - refers to students whose parents did not complete a college
education (Ishitani, 2006).
Historically Latino/a Fraternities and Sororities – refers to Greek Lettered organizations that
were founded on the principles of supporting, advocating, and including Latino/a students during
a time when other organizations did not cater to their needs.
Conclusion
This chapter provided an outline and road map of the study of students involved in
historically Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities. In this chapter, the researcher highlighted
the current problem in institutions of higher education, as well as the overview of what this study
attempts to uncover. Additionally, key terms used throughout this study have been defined to
ensure readers have a solid understanding of the terms. Chapter 2 provides the reader with in
depth historical knowledge of Latino/a students in higher education, student involvement theory,
the history of fraternities and sororities, and information on Critical Race theory (CRT).

UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

16
Chapter 2: Literature Review
Institutions of higher education have many facets and intersections of student
experiences. This review of literature highlights Latino/a students’ experiences navigating
educational climates. The college experiences of Latino/a students is explored through the
history of Latino/a students in education, educational access and equity, and finally delve into
involvement for these students in campus activities. In this review of literature, student
involvement focuses mainly on involvement in historically Latino/a-based fraternities and
sororities at colleges and universities. To understand the climate of higher education, Critical
Race Theory (CRT) serves as a lens to explain how the history of exclusion in institutions of
higher education has affected student experiences over the years.
The History of Latino/Latina’s in Education
Issues in education affecting Latino/Chicano students date back to 1848, following the
treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, in which given the high representation of Mexican families,
primarily Chicano/a students, were segregated from their White peers (Valencia, Menchaca, &
Donato, 2002). The separation of students of color created feelings of inequality, exclusion, and
inferiority in educational settings (Valencia et al., 2002). Segregated Mexican schools began in
the 1880s and continued to spread throughout the Southwestern United States into the 1900s in
response to the growing number of Chicano/a students in schools (Salinas, 1970). In addition to
being segregated in schools, Chicanos were not allowed in drugstores, restaurants, movie
theatres, hotels, beauty salons and barbershops until after the 1940s (Rangel & Alcala, 1972).
Valencia et al. (2002) highlighted that the segregation of schools ensured that Chicano/a students
received unequal treatment, inadequate teachers, and were identified as “slow learners” or to
have “language handicaps” (p. 71). In 1927, the League of United Mexican American Citizens
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

17
(LULAC) served as an instrumental advocacy group that helped raise funds to challenge the
segregation of Mexican-American schools in court (Salinas, 1970).
Educational desegregation efforts were raised predominantly by Mexican parents in the
1930s, leading to the first case, Del Rio Independent School District v. Salvatierra, to challenge
the desegregation of schools in Texas using “linguistic deficiencies” as a basis (Gonzalez, 2007).
While the decision was overturned on appeal, it was used as a model for future cases that
challenged the segregation of Mexican schools (Gonzalez, 2007). Additionally, Alvarez v. Lemon
Grove in 1931 was the first court case in the United States to be successful in desegregating
Chicano/a children, but did not have an impact on state or federal law and was limited to schools
in San Diego, California (Alvarez, 1986). In 1947 the subsequent case, Mendez v. Westminster,
which preceded Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, was the first federal court case decision
to end de jure segregation in California (Rangel & Alcala, 1972). The desegregation of schools
for Chicano/a students was a slight win, but issues of mistreatment, underrepresentation, and
achievement in educational climates persisted.
Advancement of Chicano/a’s in the United States
The mistreatment of those in the Mexican American community continued to persist in
the Southwest. Mistreatment of Chicano/a students persisted in schools and racial profiling
became prevalent in the larger society, especially in states such as Texas and California
(Escobar, 1993). Chicano/a students lacked educational resources and the schools lacked clean
and updated facilities (Acuña, 2015). During the Civil Rights Movement, Chicano/a and Latino/a
community members and students began to organize to speak up about the hostile conditions and
demand change (Rosales, 1996). During the 1968-1969 academic year, students staged various
walkouts in East Los Angeles to call attention to the need for better conditions and to demand
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

18
equal treatment in their school resources and facilities, as well as in the community (Acuña,
2015).
The movement called attention to issues of equal treatment in schools, adequate school
facilities, police brutality, and the criminalization of Chicano/a and Latino/a students and
community members (Rosales, 1996). The organizers of the movement consisted of student
groups such as United Mexican American Students (UMAS) and the Brown Berets alongside Sal
Castro, a teacher at Lincoln High School (Acuña, 2015). The student groups who organized the
demonstrations consisted predominantly of high school students in the area who demanded equal
rights (Escobar, 1993). The student groups adopted “non-violent” strategies, like those of the
Civil Rights Movement, to advance issues. During this time, Chicano/a and Latino/a students
were not graduating from high school and were even less likely than White counterparts to apply
to and enroll in colleges and universities (Acuña, 2015). The students demanded equal
opportunities and access.
Latino/a Students in Higher Education
In 2015, Latino/a students accounted for 36.8% of the population that had enrolled into
an institution of higher learning, but only accounted for 15.5% of students who obtained a
Bachelor’s degree (Ryan & Bauman, 2016). Table 1 illustrates the educational attainment of
Latino/a students in comparison to students in other racial/ethnic groups. The table revealed that
Latino/a students had the lowest levels of educational attainment among any other racial/ethnic
groups in all areas of education. Additionally, findings from the 2015 United States Census
showed that Latinos/Chicanos had the lowest rate of high school completion (67%) and
advanced degrees (5%) among all racial/ethnic groups (Ryan & Bauman, 2016). The educational
attainment for Latino/a students reveals that completion rates are overwhelmingly low, compared
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

19
to the number of students enrolled in high school and post-secondary institutions of higher
education.
Table 1

Educational Attainment of the Population Aged 25 and Older by Age, Sex, Race, and Hispanic
Origin, and other Selected Characteristics

Additionally, Table 2 shows the low completion rates of bachelor’s degrees by Latino/a
students compared to other racial/ethnic groups. Latino/a students had the lowest percentage of
completion rates for baccalaureate attainment. While degree attainment has increased for all
racial/ethnic populations, the increase for Latino/a students was the smallest when compared to
other racial/ethnic groups. Latino’s are becoming the largest underrepresented ethnic/racial
group and are projected to represent 60 million of the United States population by the year 2020
(Hernandez & Lopez, 2004). As illustrated in Table 2, the gap for degree attainment has
continued to increase for Latino/a students. The landscape of higher education, including
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

20
policies, structure, and practices, are continuing to negatively impact the Latino/a educational
pipeline of the 21
st
century (Sólorzano, Villalpando & Oseguera, 2005).

Figure 1

Percentage of the Populations 25 Years and Older with a Bachelor’s Degree or Higher by Race
and Hispanic Origin: 1988 to 2015

The evidence highlights that there are still structural issues in the educational system that
continue to marginalize communities of color, especially with respect to Latino/a students. Low
socioeconomic status and financial assistance are highlighted in the struggle that Latino/a
student’s face in attaining degree completion. According to researchers, the implications of not
receiving free aid such as federal/state funded grants is a leading cause of the retention deficit
among Latino/a student’s (Huber et al., 2006; Oseguera, 2005; Saenz, Hurtado, Barrera, Wolf, &
Yeung, 2007; Saunders & Serna, 2004). Latino/a students from low-income households are twice
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

21
as likely as their White peers are to be concerned with paying for college (Saenz et al., 2007).
Within the last ten years, tuition has increased in public institutions of higher education, which in
turn has affected low income Latino/a students at higher rates than their White counterparts
(Huber et al., 2006). An increase in tuition and other underlying institutional disparities such as
complicated financial aid processes that are hard to navigate and an unrealistic Expected Family
Contribution (EFC) continue to affect Latino/a students. Issues in the institutional financial aid
processes include lack of outreach to low-income communities to spread awareness of services, a
difficult government-imposed financial aid application process, and lack of education on the
difference between federal and state aid (Huber et al., 2006; Oseguera, 2005). Oseguera (2005)
highlights the effects of financial stress students face in navigating their educational endeavors as
a deficit, which can lead to a constant re-evaluation of their education. Latino/a students’
financial struggles directly influence their separation from institutions of higher education
because of their socioeconomic status (Oseguera, 2005).
Moreover, a system of meritocracy is prevalent in the institutional processes of many
scholarship awards. Financial scholarships awarded via financial aid offices are often based on
academic merit, which make it more likely for better-prepared, high-income students from
privileged backgrounds to be more qualified than their Latino/a counterparts (Huber et al., 2006).
The idea that hard work and great academic achievements reap rewards is an inequitable
criterion for Latino/a students because of the additional barriers they have faced in educational
and social climates (Sólorzano et al., 2005). Huber et al. (2006) suggests that persistence of
Latino/a students will continue to remain low as long as there is a need for them to provide their
own funding for education. Circumstances such as rising tuition, the increase in merit-based
scholarships, and less federal grant funding are highlighted as factors that could potentially lead
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

22
to an increase in the retention gap for Latino/a students (Huber et al., 2006). Being forced to
work to pay for tuition, Latino/a students must take jobs that are not always aligned with school
completion (Oseguera, 2005). Saenz et al. (2007) reveals that 22.2% of Latino/a students
reported working more than 20 hours a week compared to 15.0% of their peers. Additionally,
Latino/a students are more likely to work longer hours and acquire full-time employment while
attending school (Saenz et al., 2007). This number is projected to increase in coming years as
college costs continue to rise.
The Latino/a Educational Pipeline
The number of Latino/a students enrolling into colleges and universities had been
relatively low prior to the 1960s. Researchers found that prior to 1968, Latino/a students
accounted for less than 1% of the college population (Acuña, 2015; Rosales, 1993). Huber,
Huidor, Malagon, Sanchez, and Solórzano (2006) published their findings on the most recent
depiction of the number of Latino/a students reaching various educational levels. The Latino/a
educational pipeline depicts the ways in which Latino/a student’s move from one point of their
education to the next (Huber et al., 2006). It illustrates the way in which 100 Latino/a students
are pushed out of the pipeline at each stage of the educational process starting with elementary
education until a Doctoral level education (Sólorzano, Villalpando, & Oseguera, 2005). Figure 2,
outlines that out of 100 women and 100 men that start in elementary education, 54 women and
51 men will graduate high school, 11 women and 10 men will graduate college, four women and
four men will graduate from graduate school, and 0.3 women and 0.4 men will graduate with a
Doctorate degree (p. 2). The educational pipeline reveals that there are institutional issues at
every level of education that continue to force out Latino/a students (Hernandez & Lopez, 2004).

UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

23
Figure 2

Educational Pipeline by Demographic Backgrounds

The earliest National Center on Education Statistics (2017) data for Latino/a students in
institutions of higher education was not available until 1976. That year, out of 2,987 students
graduating from high school, only 80 Latino/a students enrolled into a college or university
(National Center on Education Statistics, 2017). Although enrollment rates for Latino/a students
have increased in the last 20 years, they continue to fall behind in degree completion in
institutions of higher learning (Hernandez & Lopez, 2004). Researchers have identified campus
climate, support services, and socio-cultural factors as important aspects to retaining Latino/a
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

24
students in the college environment (Hernandez & Lopez, 2004; Huber et al., 2006; Sólorzano,
Villalpando & Oseguera, 2005).
The evidence suggests that the historical implications of a marginalized history for
Latino/a students persists in current educational climates. The importance of a deeply rooted
history of oppression for Latino/a students is important to understand when considering the
current issues Latino/a students face in colleges and universities.
Student Involvement
Involvement, as highlighted in this study, expands upon identified and proven resources
on college campuses that aid in the success of underrepresented students. Researchers have
highlighted student involvement as a positive mechanism to combat negative racial climates for
students of color on college campuses (Guardia & Evans, 2008, Nunez, 2009; Ortiz & Santos,
2009; Villalpando, 2003). More specifically, researchers posit that participation in ethnic-based
organizations may help Latino/a students, especially in identifying cultural resources and assets
that help navigate racialized barriers (Villalpando, 2003). Understanding the inception and
evolution of student-based organizations is key in understanding the experiences and spaces of
students of color on college campuses.
The first student organizations were introduced in 1703 at Harvard and offered students
an opportunity to connect students with their religious practices (Torbenson, 2009). During this
time, student organizations evolved to include various types of campus groups, where they
invited students to come together in campus rooms to discuss various topics, share poems, and be
social with each other. Many student organizations failed after members graduated, and it was
not until the 18
th
century that students began to use recruitment as an avenue to sustain their
organizations on college campuses (Torbenson, 2009). Astin (1984) and Tinto (1998) posited
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

25
that student involvement is an important component of college life as well as pertinent to the
retention of underrepresented students on campuses today. The following section focus on the
theory of student involvement, campus climate, and the emergence of culturally-based
organizations and their impact on the success of Latino/a students in higher education.
Student Involvement Theory
Student involvement has many facets and benefits in educational climates. The use of
student involvement theory identifies the benefits to college students’ experiences and in their
overall development. The theory of student involvement posits that co-curricular involvement is
an integral component to the development and success of a student. Student involvement is the
physical and psychological energy that a student gives to their academic experience, can take
various forms, and positively correlates with persistence, support, academic success and even the
development of critical thinking skills in college students (Astin, 1984). Social support in the
academic environment is important to a student’s academic success, due to the isolation that
student’s often feel acclimating to a new college environment (Tinto, 1988).
Various forms of involvement within the college environment can help students connect
to the university environment. It can take the forms of on-campus jobs, academic research
assistantships, extracurricular activities in clubs and organizations, and attending campus events
(Astin, 1984). Tinto (2015) explained that students’ sense of belonging directly correlates with
their motivation to succeed in college. Latino/a students’ transitions to college is impacted by
cultural, social, and institutional issues that could be addressed through different forms of
campus involvement (Astin, 1984; Tinto, 1988). The Student/Institution Engagement Model
focuses on the importance of social experiences for Latino/a students in their retention and
persistence in the college or university (Nora, Barlow, & Crisp, 2006).
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

26
Theories on student involvement and student engagement were created through the lens
of a White student perspective. Thus, both theories historically leave out the intersectionality of
race, objectivity and neutrality, social justice, and do not offer experiential knowledge of
Latino/a student experiences. Critical Race Theory shows that these theories do not give a full
understanding of Latino/a student experiences through on campus involvement and engagement
opportunities in culturally specific organizations. Therefore, it is important to understand the
intersectionality of Latino/a student experiences through campus involvement in historically
Latino/a fraternities and sororities.
Campus Racial Climate
The college environment is an important factor to Latino/a student’s persistence and
retention and as such, must be explored to ensure it is a positive and inclusive space for them
(Tinto, 1988; Huber, et al., 2006). Negative racial climates pose one of the biggest barriers for
persistence and retention of Latino/a students on college campuses (Huber et al., 2006). Latino/a
student’s face assaults in form of microaggressions in many institutions of higher education
(Yosso, Smith, Ceja, & Solórzano, 2009). Yosso et al. (2009) explained that implicit and explicit
microagressions affect Latina/o students in psychological and physiological ways and many
institutions do not offer the resources and support programs to help them. Additionally, students
do not know how to navigate the university environment and may not know where to find
support services and help to schedule classes; some will choose to leave such a negative
environment. Tinto and Pusser (2006) define the term “expectational climate” as the expectations
that the campus environment sets out for students attending that institution (p. 12). For Latino/a
students, the expectational climate usually involves low expectations from university
administrators and professors (Tinto & Pusser, 2006). Huber et al. (2006) explained that families
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

27
should be encouraged to be involved and create an environment of social equality for Latino/a
students. Creating a comfortable environment where students do not feel judged could increase
retention for underrepresented students and allow them to succeed and complete a higher
education degree.
Latino/a students are underrepresented on many college campuses and it is natural for
them to want to find people who look like them, come from a common background, or share
similar ideals and values (Ortiz & Santos, 2009). Latinos are more likely to seek the support and
strong ties they experienced growing up as part of a close-knit family, within historically
Latino/a fraternities and sororities, while also fulfilling cultural and academic needs that the
institutional climate does not provide (Guardia & Evans, 2008). Additionally, these familial
structures allow Latino/a students to practice cultural traditions and customs without fear of
judgement or ridicule.
Nunez (2009) analyzed the effects of social capital, intercultural capital, and perceptions
of hostile campus climates on second year college students’ sense of belonging enrolled in a
four-year university in a national longitudinal study. The study found that students who are
involved with or understand social justice issues have more social, academic, and extracurricular
engagement, and experience a greater sense of belonging on the college campus despite
experiencing negative campus climates (Nunez, 2009). Additionally, Villalpando (2003) found
similar results in a longitudinal analysis of Chicano/a students from 40 universities across the
nation. The study, which began in 1985 and concluded in 1994, included 200 White and 200
Chicano/a students. The researchers sought to understand the experiences of Chicano/a students
navigating institutional racism on college campuses. The study’s findings revealed that
involvement in peer groups is a survival mechanism in a negative campus racial climate.
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

28
Villapando (2003) found that Chicano/a students’ involvement in peer (cultural) groups helped
students identify cultural resources and assets, community funds of knowledge, and empowered
students to participate in more service-based and community advocacy projects on campus and
in careers after graduating.
Ethnic/Cultural Student Organizations
Culturally-based student organizations began in the early 1900s at colleges and
universities. Prior to this, many organizations were underground or hidden from the general
undergraduate population (Torbenson, 2009). According to Bowman and Denson (2015), there
was a great need for cultural organizations due to the mistreatment of students of color on
college campuses. Researchers have studied the impact of ethnic student organizations on
undergraduate students and have determined that these organizations provide much needed
support in the college environment (Baker, 2008; Bowman & Denson, 2015, Peguero, 2010).
Ethnic student organizations benefit students of color by creating positive identity development,
increasing academic and social integration, and improving academic performance and
persistence (Bowman & Denson, 2015, p. 128).
Organizations like Latino/a fraternities and sororities have been beneficial to students in
recent years, especially since racial barriers and discrimination once prevented full participation
in such organizations in the past (Komives, Dugan, Owen, Slack, & Wagner, 2011). Prior to the
establishment of culturally-based fraternal organizations, historically White fraternities and
sororities were reserved only for White, elite students (Torbenson, 2009).
History of Fraternity and Sorority Life
Greek letter organizations in American universities began in 1776. The first fraternities
were modeled after secret societies, masonry rituals, and campus organizations (Nelson, 1998).
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

29
The first Greek letter organization was Phi Beta Kappa (ΦBK), formed December 5, 1776 at
William and Mary College in Williamsburg, VA (Torbenson, 2009). Phi Beta Kappa, along with
many of the social fraternities established in this era, were established by White, Protestant males
and later White, Protestant females during the growth of fraternity/sorority life (Nelson, 1998).
Fraternities became firmly established in the late 1820s and early 1830s with the establishment
of more White, Protestant-based fraternities predominantly in the Southern United States
(Torbenson, 2009). During the establishment of fraternities, many women were not allowed full
membership or were excluded from joining fraternities and therefore began to seek ways in
which to create spaces for themselves in fraternal type organizations (Torbenson, 2009).
Fraternities like Sigma Alpha Epsilon were among one of the first organizations to allow
women limited membership status. Torbenson (2009) noted that women began to seek full
fraternity membership, which began with the establishment of Pi Beta Phi. Women’s fraternities
that formed during this time had previously been literary societies. Much like the men’s
fraternities, women wanted to be “bound” together in a “mystic chain of sisterhood” (Turk, 2004,
p. 4). The term “sorority” did not emerge until 1882, with Gamma Phi Beta, when a Latin
professor suggested the term to make a distinction between female and male organizations (Turk,
2004). Moreover, with the increase of so many chapters of traditional White-based sororities and
fraternities, there was a need to establish umbrella organizations to oversee the many chapters
(Torbenson, 2009). The National Panhellenic Council formed in 1902 to serve as the national
governing board for White-based sororities. The National Interfraternity Conference formed in
1909 to serve as the national governing board for the White-based fraternities (Torbenson, 2009).
Fraternities and sororities catered to the White-dominated student body and provided a social
arena for many of these members to make connections and create a community within the school
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

30
(Torbenson, 2009). The predominantly White fraternities and sororities did not include students
of color on the campuses.
Historically Black Greek Letter Organizations
December 4, 1906, was important in the development of Greek letter organizations with
the emergence of the first historically Black fraternity, Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity (Kuyk, 1983).
Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity, Inc. formed at Cornell University by the “Seven Jewels,” the name
used to describe the seven founders of the organization. The organization emerged with the
vision of supporting minority men, despite the racial injustices of the times (Kuyk, 1983). In
January 15, 1908, the climate for Black students became more inclusive with the establishment
of the first Black sorority, Alpha Kappa Alpha Sorority, Inc. (Kuyk, 1983). Alpha Kappa Alpha
formed due to the lack of opportunities afforded for minorities and women in the college
environment; their goal was to service all of humankind due to the unjust climate of the time
(Trotter, 2004). The establishment of these organizations set the foundation for other Black
sororities and fraternities to start at various college campuses. The establishment of these
organizations gave students of color a newfound support system to help them succeed and
service their communities. The “Divine Nine,” a term coined by Lawrence Ross, formed in 1930
and makes up the National Pan-Hellenic Council (Trotter, 2004). This council consists of Alpha
Phi Alpha, Alpha Kappa Alpha, Kappa Alpha Psi, Omega Psi Phi, Delta Sigma Theta, Phi Beta
Sigma, Zeta Phi Beta, Sigma Gamma Rho, and Iota Phi Theta (Trotter, 2004).
Staying true to their mission of service to their community and fellow Black students on
college campuses, researchers have found that historically Black fraternities and sororities
provide an inclusive environment for them to excel academically and find a space amidst a
negative campus racial climate (Berkowitz & Padavic, 1999; McClure, 2006; Patton, Bridges, &
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

31
Flowers, 2011). A study conducted by Berkowitz and Padavic (1999) revealed that Black
sorority women involved in an NPHC organizations were encouraged by peers in their
organization to “get ahead” by utilizing their network of members to immerse themselves in
service and networking opportunities as undergraduate students on their college campus. The
same study highlights that White women involved in White-based sororities were encouraged to
“find a man” as a source of support by being pushed to engage in socials and receiving
recognition in their organization for relationship milestones. Similarly, in a study conducted by
McClure (2006) of 20 male students involved in an NPHC organization, the students revealed
that they felt more connected to each other, the campus, and to Black history because of their
involvement.
Moreover, involvement in NPHC organizations also positively correlates with academic
achievement, persistence, and graduation. Harper (2007) conducted a study of 131 members
from seven historically Black fraternity and sorority chapters at Predominantly White Institutions
(PWI) to understand class participation and engagement. The study revealed that most students
felt that their organizations instilled a sense of pride in their experiences as Black students at a
PWI. Additionally, the students revealed that they were more inclined to speak up in classroom
discussions, attend classes prepared with all homework/readings completed, and strive for the
best possible GPA’s because their GPA affected their chapters (Harper, 2007). The research
shows positive correlations for members of historically Black fraternities and sororities at college
campuses in combatting negative campus climates.
Historically Latino/a Fraternities and Sororities
Muñoz and Guardia (2009) described the emergence of Latino/a fraternities and sororities
in four stages, the “principio” (beginning), “fuerza” (force), and “fragmentación”
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

32
(fragmentation), and “adelante” (moving forward) (p.107). The beginning was comprised of
secret societies, such as the Union Hispano Americana (UHA) in 1898, which became Pi Delta
Phi and later Phi Lambda Alpha in 1921. Phi Lambda Alpha proceeded to merge with Sigma
Iota, which was named the first Latin American fraternity at Louisiana State University. On
December 26, 1931, Sigma Iota changed their name to Phi Iota Alpha to honor the deeply rooted
history of the changes over the years within the organization. Between the 1930s and the 1970s,
Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities did not continue to expand within the United States, but
instead expanded in Latin American countries (Muñoz & Guardia, 2009).
The establishment of more Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities spurred from the
Civil Rights movement that started in the 1960s with the rise of Latino/a and Chicano/a activism.
During this time, Lambda Theta Alpha Latin Sorority and Lambda Theta Phi Latin Fraternity
were the first to establish nationally recognized Latino/a-based Greek lettered organizations in
1975 at Kean College in New Jersey (Muñoz & Guardia, 2009). Latino/a students were
experiencing inequality and it was in the 1970s that colleges began to receive an influx of
enrollment, creating the need for support groups, advocacy efforts, and outreach programs
(Muñoz & Guardia, 2009). A familial, cultural, and inclusive environment was needed and a
push towards achieving a higher education was at the forefront. These organizations paved the
way for other Latino/a, Chicano/a, and multicultural-based organizations to establish, which
resulted in the second stage, “fuerza.” With the rise of new fraternities and sororities in the 1980s
catering to students of color on college campuses all over the nation, the need for a governing
board was evident. In the third stage, “fragmentación,” the National Association of Latino
Fraternal Organizations (NALFO) formed in 1998 to address the needs of Latino/a Greek
lettered organizations on college campuses, since other councils did not provide the support
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

33
needed for their success (Torbenson, 2009). Currently, Latino/a Greek-lettered organizations are
still in their “adelante” stage.
Organizations like Latina/o-based fraternities and sororities have been beneficial to
Latina/o students, especially since racial barriers and discrimination once prevented full
participation in fraternal organizations in the past (Komives, Dugan, Owen, Slack, & Wagner,
2011). Latino/a students who belong to historically Latino/a fraternities and sororities attain
personal, social and academic benefits and find support to common issues such as familial
resistance, isolation, and cultural isolation (Garcia, 2005). According to Garcia (2005), Latina
sororities also help students in finding role models within the educational structure with the
support of the Alumni base of many of these organizations.
Moreno (2012) identified five main purposes of historically Latino/a Greek letter
organizations within the Latino/a undergraduate community, including the development of
meaningful relationships, validation of culture, cultivation of leadership and empowerment,
promotion of higher education, and enhancement of professional development. The five purposes
contribute to the commitment of social justice within these organizations and the educational
outcome for many Latino/a students on university campuses (Baker, 2008). Additionally, in a
study conducted by Moreno and Banuelos (2013), Latino/a students involved in Latino/a-based
fraternities and sororities felt more supported and developed a stronger attachment to the
university. Through these organizations, students develop confidence to be able to continue into
the professional world while understanding ways in which to adapt to various cultural settings
while still maintaining their own cultural ties and traditions (Patton, et al., 2016). The support
and social interactions that students gain in a historically Latino/a-based fraternity or sorority
impacts their own self-authorship and solidifies their ability to overcome the obstacles they face
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

34
on the college campus together (Nelson Laird, 2005). The familial groups they create help in
various areas of campus life and in navigating institutionalized barriers in the university
environment collectively.
Critical Race Theory
In the present study, Critical Race Theory (CRT) is used to analyze and outline the
experiences of Latino/a students’ experiences in navigating institutional barriers such as campus
climate. Critical Race Theory research and scholarship reveals the underlying historical systems
of oppression that marginalize people of color. CRT posits that racism is engrained and
indoctrinated in laws and policies of U.S. institutions (Delgado & Stefancic, 2012; Parker, 1998).
Critical Race Theory is a framework that can serve as a lens and inform research to improve
issues of social justice and equity for marginalized communities, including issues that Latino/a
college students face (Villalpando, 2004). There are four main themes in CRT: interest
convergence, material determinism, revisionists’ interpretation of history, the critique of
liberalism, and structural determinism (Delgado & Stefancic, 2012). The themes are explained in
the five tenets, outlined to identify issues in institutions of higher education (Delgado &
Stefancic, 2012; Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995; Villalpando, 2004). Ladson-Billings and Tate
(1995) connected CRT to the field of education by identifying the ways in which institutions of
higher learning have continuously left out students of color.
Intersectionality of Race and Racism
Critical Race Theory advances the idea that institutions of higher education were built for
the dominant group. The foundations of institutions of higher learning were not built to include
people of color, nor where they structured to help them succeed (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995).
Policies and practices in higher education only help to contribute to the institutionalized
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

35
oppression of students of color and the continuous lack of support, contributing to issues that
Latino/a student’s face in colleges and universities (Solorzano, 1997). The centrality of race and
racism in higher education intersect with student identities (Parker & Villalpando, 2007).
Language, generational status, gender, sexuality, and class are only a few of the intersectional
identities that cause subordination and conjure various forms of oppression for students of color
in the university environment (Parker & Villalpando, 2007; Yosso, Parker, Solorzano, & Lynn,
2004). In particular, CRT has relevance for students involved in historically Latino/a fraternities
and sororities because of the unique issues they face in being part of historically marginalized
groups that campuses have not yet learned to embrace and support. As with institutionalized
practices and processes, historically Latino/a fraternities and sororities have to follow White-
based policies, procedures, and structures because of the lack of research and progression in the
field.
Objectivity and Neutrality
Critical Race Theory challenges the objectivity and neutrality of colleges and
universities. CRT challenges institutions of higher education on the following, objectivity,
meritocracy, color blindness, race neutrality, and equal opportunity to combat White privilege
(Parker & Villalpando, 2007; Villalpando, 2004; Yosso, et al., 2004). Acknowledging that
colleges and universities camouflage the self-interest, power, and privilege of dominant groups is
essential in assisting Latino/a students in their fight for equal opportunity in colleges/universities
(Iverson, 2007; Solorzano, 1997; Yosso, et al., 2004). Meritocracy is highlighted as a systemic
issue in the United States that adversely affects students of color, more so because educators
believe that only the highest performing students should be rewarded, or accepted into
universities (Villalpando, 2004; Yosso, et al., 2009). The issue of meritocracy is that those with
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

36
unequal opportunities, usually from underrepresented communities, are expected to perform the
same as those with more opportunity, usually from affluent White communities (Villalpando,
2004).
Institutionalized policies in colleges and universities continue to favor White students in
both admission processes and the educational attainment practices, as evidenced by the lower
number of completion rates of Latino/a student’s (Hiraldo, 2010). White privilege continues to
permeate the policies and practices in institutions of higher learning, through policies, programs,
and services (Yosso, et al., 2004). Institutions of higher education often use a White, male,
perspective to track and measure success, which continually aids in the issue of students of color
not being as successful as White students are (Iverson, 2007). The dominant ideologies of color-
blindness, fairness and race-neutral meritocracy must be challenged to assist students of color in
creating a positively holistic campus climate (Villalpando, 2004).
Ray and Rosow (2012) conducted a study of 52 men in three White fraternities and four
Black fraternities to understand institutionalized privileges of fraternity men. The study revealed
that White men involved in White-based fraternities with large chapter sizes made them less
visible and accountable for organizational representation on the overall campus and with
university personnel. Additionally, the study revealed that students involved in historically Black
fraternities and sororities had a communal responsibility to represent their organizations and
themselves positively to the overall campus community and administration, while White students
felt they could disassociate themselves from their organizations at any time (Ray & Rosow,
2012). Moreover, the study also discussed the power of privilege in White fraternities, with
notable Alumni and housing corporations that use money and privilege to bend rules for White
fraternity men (Ray, 2013). The use of power and White privilege need be examined in these
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

37
organizational and institutional structures to move to a social justice-centered framework to
create equitable climates for students involved in multicultural organizations, like Latino/a
fraternities and sororities.
Social Justice and Praxis
The third tenet of Critical Race Theory highlights the importance of racial and social
justice research in higher education (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995). Moving institutions of
higher education to a social justice orientation could eliminate racism and other forms of
subordination (Solorzano, 1997). This could also empower those who have been marginalized
and who are underrepresented (Solorzano & Bernal, 2001). Linking theory with practice,
scholarship with teaching, and the academy with the community through the lens of CRT could
assist in a positive campus racial climate for students of color (Solorzano, 1998). Additionally,
ensuring that social justice is engrained in praxis at all levels of the institution serves all students
in understanding intersectionality of diverse student experiences.
Critical Race theorists believe that institutions of higher learning operate in contradictory
ways that continue to marginalize students of color through practices and policies (Yosso,
Villalpando, Delgado Bernal & Solórzano, 2001). Scholars suggest that various layers of
transformational resistance need to occur to combat the multiple layers of oppression and
discrimination (Solorzano & Bernal, 2001). Higher education scholars and practitioners can lead
in the fight for equity by instituting an ethic of caring and service in a social justice agenda to
help students of color succeed (Villalpando, 2004). The need for culturally relevant responses,
programs, and services in institutions of higher learning could lead to understanding the
importance of Latino/a students’ identities and aid in their success (Villalpando, 2004).
Experiential Knowledge
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

38
Scholars suggest that naming one’s own reality, using parables, chronicles, stories,
counterstories, poetry, fiction or history can help overcome ethnocentrism (Ladson-Billings &
Tate, 1995). Critical Race Theory views experiential knowledge as necessary and important in
understanding the lived experiences of people of color (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995; Solorzano
& Villalpando, 1998). In higher education, creating spaces for students to tell their story allows
them to heal the wounds of oppression (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995; Solorzano, 1998).
Additionally, hearing the lived testimony of students of color can cause the oppressor to self-
examine their own beliefs (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995; Villalpando, 2004).
It is important that institutions of higher education provide spaces and opportunities for
students to share their experiential knowledge (Solorzano, 1997). Sharing experiential
knowledge can help empower students to succeed both personally and academically in the
college environment (Parker & Villalpando, 2007; Solorzano, 1997). Counterstories can expose
and challenge stories of racial privilege and can be useful in racial reform (Villalpando, 2003). In
a study conducted by Villalpando (2003), testimonials and interviews with Chicano/a students
revealed that peer groups had positive influences on Chicano/a students. Additionally, the study
revealed that claiming and maintaining a critical Chicano/a identity grounded in cultural beliefs,
values, norms, and language helps them achieve their desired outcomes (Villalpando, 2003).
Transdisciplinary Perspective
Critical Race Theory goes beyond traditional disciplinary boundaries to analyze race and
racism in systems of higher education. Delgado and Stefancic (2012) highlighted the importance
of analyzing race and racism through a historical and contemporary context using
interdisciplinary methods. Understanding the history of Latino/a students in systems of higher
education is important in revealing the oppressive nature of their navigation through the
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

39
educational pipeline (Villalpando, 2003). Higher education professionals have the ability to
challenge issues of race and racism in colleges and universities. Stanton-Salazar (1997)
examined the importance of institutional agents such as teachers, faculty and counselors, in the
development of students and explores the idea of institutional support for them. Through the lens
of Critical Race Theory, higher education scholars and practitioners can help inform policy and
practice to create spaces that are different from those that were forged long ago (Parker &
Villalpando, 2007). The new educational climate cannot allow a one-size-fits-all approach to
pedagogy, curriculum, services, and programming (Villalpando, 2003). Institutions of higher
education most go further than the diversity action plans and mission statements to include
student of color (Iverson, 2007). There are support services and programs that colleges and
universities can utilize in the creation of more welcoming and accepting campus climates. Going
beyond academic departments and programs, higher education scholars and practitioners can
serve as institutional agents to link students to student lead programs, organizations, and
initiatives (Stanton-Salazar, 1997).
Conclusion
Chapter 2 examined the history of Latino/a students in education, showing the trends in
educational access and equity, highlighting strides made by Latino/a and Chicano/a students to
have better educational climates and access to institutions of higher education. Additionally, the
chapter explored the importance in addressing barriers to Latino/a student retention such as
negative campus climates and offered empirical evidence on student involvement theory to
address negative campus climates. Identifying ethnic/cultural organizations among opportunities
for involvement allowed in highlighting historically Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities as a
means for inclusion and positive campus affiliation. Finally, in highlighting the importance on
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

40
Critical Race Theory (CRT) as a theoretical framework in analyzing and understanding structural
institutional practices that continue to privilege White students reveal the current institutional
marginalization of historically Latino/a fraternities and sororities.
Chapter 3 highlights the importance of understanding the experiences of students
involved in historically Latino/a fraternities and sororities and provide background information
on the research design and methodology. The chapter highlights the institution, population, and
instrumentation of the study.

UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

41
Chapter 3: Methodology
In 2015, the United States (U.S.) Census Bureau reported that Latinos were the nation’s
largest minority group and that this population will continue to increase until 2060. The increase
in the Latino/a population is projected to lead to an increase in enrollment in colleges and
universities (Hoogeveen, 2013). However, there are still barriers to Latino/a student success, and
this study examines the problem of negative campus racial climates for Latino/a students on
college campuses (Yosso, Smith, Ceja, & Solórzano, 2009).
Researchers have studied various aspects of higher education, compiled data, and studied
the Latino/a student population to provide insight into issues affecting them. Three main aspects
that have been identified by researchers to assist in the persistence of Latino/a students on
college campuses, and include a supportive culture, a positive campus racial climate, and campus
resources/support services (Yosso, Smith, Ceja, & Solórzano, 2009). This problem is important
to address because without appropriate efforts, data show that the graduation rate among Latino/a
students will remain the weakest among all racial/ethnic groups in the United States (Sólorzano,
Villalpando, & Oseguera, 2005). Additionally, this problem will affect equity and diversity in
society when looking at employment and business patterns for the Latino/a population.
Research Questions
1. What are the experiences of students involved in historically Latino/a fraternities &
sororities at four-year institutions?
2. Do students involved in historically Latino/a fraternities & sororities at four-year
institutions feel a sense of belonging in the overall fraternity and sorority life community
of the institution? If yes, how?
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

42
3. Do students involved in historically Latino/a fraternities & sororities at four-year
institutions feel that fraternity/sorority life policies and programs are relevant to their
experiences as diverse students? If yes, how?
Research Design and Methodology
This study used qualitative methods due to the important nature of personal experiences
and narratives in the study of Latino/a students in the college environments. This research study
focused on gaining quality data—not a high quantity of it—that allowed for first-hand
information through student voices (Weiss, 1994). Additionally, interviews allowed participants
to express themselves without interference of others (Agee, 2009). Interviews also allowed
students to share their experiences comfortably and for the interviewer to observe mannerisms
and non-verbal cues (Creswell, 2013). Interviews with students involved in historically Latino/a
fraternities and sororities were used to increase understanding of their experiences as involved
members of these groups, and the overall campus culture and institutional acceptance of these
groups.
Site Selection
The university selected was a private, research university located in Southern California.
I refer to this institution as Sunny University (SU). The university was a Predominantly White
Institution (PWI), with almost 40% of the student population identifying as White. According to
the National Center on Education Statistics (NCES), the student population at SU was around
40,000, and of that total population about 40% were White, 20% Asian, 13% Hispanic, 10%
International, 5% Multi-Ethnic, 5% Unknown, 4% Black, and less than 1% were Native
American. This university ranked in the top twenty among 1,061 public and private universities
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

43
in the U.S. according to the Wall Street Journal/Times Higher Education survey (Abelev, 2016).
Additionally, SU ranked in the top five in diversity among 25 national universities.
At the time of study, SU had over 800 clubs/organizations, 55 of which were categorized
as fraternities or sororities. SU divided fraternal organizations up by councils according to the
following categorizations; Asian Greek Council (AGC), Multicultural Greek Council (MGC),
Interfraternity Council (IFC), National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC), and Panhellenic Council
(PHC). This study focused on organizations categorized under the Multicultural Greek Council,
in which of all 13 fraternities/sororities, 10 were categorized as historically Latino/a-based. The
Multicultural Greek Council was the newest of all the councils at SU, having just celebrated their
20
th
anniversary on campus. The purpose of MGC is to serve the surrounding community via
philanthropic work, through a diverse membership and embody cultural expression in the overall
fraternal community. This university was the ideal site for this study because, in comparison with
universities in the area, it had the largest number of historically Latino/a fraternities and
sororities. Additionally, the campus had a large fraternity/sorority population overall and was
more representative of traditional fraternity/sorority campuses across the nation in that the school
had a sorority/fraternity row and a contract with housing corporations.
Population and Sample Size
Population
The researcher sought voluntary student participants at Sunny University who were
members of the 10 historically Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities within the Multicultural
Greek Council. At SU, the number of historically Latino/a-based fraternities/sororities was small
when compared to the other organizations. Councils were broken up as follows; five in the Asian
Greek Council, thirteen in the Multicultural Greek Council, twenty in the Interfraternity Council,
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

44
nine in the National Pan-Hellenic Council, and ten in the Panhellenic Council. Latino/a-based
fraternities and sororities only made up 18% of fraternity/sorority life, while historically White-
based fraternities/sororities comprised 49% of the fraternities/sororities at Sunny University.
Sample
The researcher interviewed and observed nine students who were active undergraduates
of one of the historically Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities. Four students were from one
of the five historically Latino fraternities and the other five participants were from one of the five
historically Latina sororities at SU. Participants ranged in academic year, academic discipline,
age, sex, and level of involvement. Only nine students were involved in the research study,
because students involved in historically Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities are fewer in
numbers than traditional White-based fraternities and sororities. Some chapter sizes of
historically Latino/a fraternities and sororities range from one to five active members during a
semester. To ensure representation from all most organizations at SU, the goal was to have one
student represent each organization. One Latino/a fraternity was not accessible due to only
having one member with active status at SU.
Additionally, CRT highlights that narratives and stories are important in understanding
the experiences of Black and Latino/a students as they most often share a counterstory to
mainstream notions and perceptions (Delgado & Stefancic, 2012). The researcher used a
homogenous, purposeful sampling approach to gather data from interviews. Clark and Creswell
(2014) identify homogenous sampling as a sample based on membership within a sub-group with
defining characteristics (p. 334). In this study, a homogenous sample was more effective due to
the demographics and categorization of the student participants, who were from only historically
Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities at SU.
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

45
Instrumentation
The interview protocol was structured in a way that would be fitting and comfortable for
participants in the study. Weiss (1994) highlighted that interviews need not be restricted to one
approach and, as researchers, we must be intentional in which model is used in each
circumstance. In this study, the researcher served as the key instrument in collecting the stories
of student participants. The interview structure chosen in this study involved face-to-face
interviews and anonymous surveys to understand student experiences of being involved in
historically Latino/a sororities and fraternities at Sunny University. The researcher provided an
Information Sheet and walked students through the interview protocol to establish an open
relationship with the respondents. I highlighted that as a volunteer, they could choose at any time
to discontinue or not respond to interview questions (Weiss, 1994).
Moreover, it was imperative to the study that there was intentionality in laying a foundation
to develop the student narrative. All questions sought to understand the experiences of students
involved in historically Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities at SU (Agee, 2009).
Additionally, probing questions were included to clarify points that participants made or to gain
more information (Clark & Creswell, 2014). All questions in the interview protocol were open-
ended to uncover the student experiences of being involved in historically Latino/a-based
fraternities and sororities at Sunny University. Using interviews and surveys to understand the
student experience in the overall Greek Life environment allowed for first-hand knowledge of
their experience at SU (Rubin & Rubin, 2012).
The study also incorporated anonymous surveys to understand student experiences in the
overall fraternity and sorority life structure at SU. Surveys allowed for a greater understanding of
how the students experienced fraternity and sorority life and how they interacted with others
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

46
from the community (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Surveys were distributed to at least ten students
involved in historically Latino/a fraternities and sororities that identified as current
undergraduates, inactive members, and alumni members of the organizations at SU. Making sure
to collect surveys anonymously allowed for a holistic view of the ways in which Latino/a
students experienced a historically White-dominated system (Rubin & Rubin, 2012). Conducting
interviews and surveys allowed for the triangulation of data by cross verifying two different
sources (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Data Collection Process
Permission was secured through the university’s Internal Review Board (IRB). Following
approval, the researcher contacted the Fraternity/Sorority Life office to gain communication
access to the 10 historically Latino/a-based fraternities/sororities at SU. The Fraternity/Sorority
Life office notified the researcher that they could not assist the researcher with sending the e-
mail to students; thus, an amendment was submitted to IRB to access student participants via
their national governing boards. After the IRB amendment was approved, the researcher e-
mailed the 10 national boards, asking for their assistance in outreaching to their members at SU.
To begin the interview, the researcher introduced herself to the participants and explained the
purpose of the study, both parties reviewed the Information Sheet and participants received a
copy of the form (Weiss, 1994). A copy is in the Appendix section. Creating an interview release
form and walking students through the interview protocol allowed for an establishment of an
open relationship with the respondents in which they could choose at any time to discontinue or
not respond (Maxwell, 2013). The interview questions were open-ended and unstructured to
allow students to share their holistic experiences. To ensure an easy flow of communication, the
interview started with introductions and a brief description of the purpose of the study, followed
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

47
with nine questions and one to two probes for each, followed with a thank you statement and
acknowledgment of time spent on the interview (Creswell, 2010).
Ensuring anonymity of student participants was crucial in this study. Clark and Creswell
(2014) highlighted that it is the researcher’s responsibility to protect the anonymity of all
participants in the study and that often pseudonyms can protect interviewees. Therefore, all
participants remained anonymous by choosing a name to use throughout the study. Additionally,
data were secured on a password-protected document stored only on the researcher’s personal
computer. During the transcription process, pseudonyms were used when the students identified
landmarks, the actual university name, or other members of the fraternal community. Moreover,
compensation was offered to each interview participant in the form of a five-dollar Starbucks gift
card.
Data Analysis
Since interviews were audio-recorded, transcription was necessary to ensure the student
experience was accurately depicted (Clark & Creswell, 2014). Using a third-party professional
transcription company to transcribe all interviews, the researcher listened to the audio recordings
as well as read along the transcribed data to review interviews. Interviews were reviewed to
ensure anonymity of the participants and site selected. During the initial review, the researcher
wrote down any notes or memos on common themes or ideas across all interviews that were later
used in writing the final narrative (Creswell, 2010).
Prior to coding, the researcher focused on some parts of the data and disregarded other,
non-relevant information to be able to aggregate data in a small number of themes (Guest,
MacQueen, & Namey, 2012). Using “Tesch’s Eight Steps in the Coding Process” to develop the
codes, the researcher read all transcripts carefully, picked the lengthiest and most detailed
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

48
interview to begin identifying themes/topics, followed by creating abbreviations for the
themes/topics and color coded them on the interview sheet. Later the researcher proceeded to
create categories or umbrella terms to group similar data, alphabetized codes, conducted a
preliminary analysis, and finally reviewed and recoded when necessary (Creswell, 2010, p. 292).
After the data were aggregated and the themes were developed, the researcher coded interviews.
Validity
Ensuring credibility and trustworthiness in any qualitative study is a challenge since it is
not possible to measure reliability among respondents (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Merriam and
Tisdell (2016) note that member checks are a strategy for ensuring validity, which often work to
double check findings. Conducting member checks was an important part of the process that
ensured accuracy in documenting the student narratives. Credibility develops over time and
through various studies, therefore as a new researcher there may be room to question credibility
of this study. As a new researcher, following other research models was essential in ensuring that
credibility and ethics were not questioned.
To ensure that the study was conducted ethically, all data were given sufficient time for
analysis and review by another researcher (Glesne, 2011). Additionally, all data procedures had
an audit trail in which all recordings and electronic notes of all processes were saved (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). There are many reasons outlined as to the various ways in which researchers may
not be truly ethical in data collection measures and, even more so, in interview and survey
collection; several guidelines helped to ensure ethics in this study (Glesne, 2011). This study
followed the Merriam and Tisdell’s (2016) “Ethical Issues Checklist” to ensure that the study
maintained an ethical process for data collection and submission. The checklist was helpful in
assisting in the triangulation of interviews and surveys to ensure research was conducted in an
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

49
ethical manner. Additionally, the triangulation of data from member checking, surveys, and
journaling for reflective purposes assisted in reducing researcher bias in this study.
Role of Researcher
The researcher’s interest in this area stems from her own experiences having been
involved in a Historically Latina-based sorority. Having been initiated nine years ago, her
passion for understanding the experiences of students involved in historically Latino/a, Black,
and Multicultural fraternities and sororities has only grown. Moreover, the researcher shares a
similar background to the interview participants. The researcher identifies as Xicana, speaks
English and Spanish, is first-generation, a current graduate student at Sunny University and is
from a similar socioeconomic background as the participants. The researcher had not
met/previously interacted with the student participants at Sunny University nor did they know
her affiliation or work at another campus.
Currently, the researcher works as a Fraternity/Sorority Advisor at a public institution
with very diverse student demographics. Prior to this role, the researcher served as a university
advisor to two Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities at her current institution and served in
regional and area levels of her own national organization. Conversely, the researcher has
attended national conferences for fraternity/sorority advisors and regional conferences where
students in historically multicultural-based organizations have had different experiences than
those involved in traditional White-based fraternities and sororities. As a research-practitioner,
the researcher aims to understand the current climate of the fraternal community at Sunny
University and to understand the needs of Latino/a students.
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

50
Conclusion
Chapter 3 outlined the research design, methodology, instrumentation, population, and
sample size of the study. Using qualitative methods such as interviews and surveys, this study
aimed to understand the lived experiences of students involved in historically Latino/a-based
fraternities and sororities (Creswell, 2010). Open-ended interviews and surveys were the primary
data collection methods to understand student experiences via narratives and storytelling as
outlined in Critical Race Theory (CRT). Using a campus like Sunny University that has 10
historically Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities, this study provides information about
campus-based experiences of Latino/a students involved in historically Latino/a-based
fraternities and sororities. Additionally, this chapter outlines the role of the researcher and
highlights the researcher’s knowledge and practice-based experiences within fraternity/sorority
life.
Chapter 4 provides the data collected from interviews and survey results of members
involved in historically Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities at SU. The chapter presents all
data collected and identify the themes that emerged from data collection during this study.

UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

51
Chapter 4: Presentation of Data and Themes
This chapter presents data collected through interviews and surveys of participants who
are members involved in historically Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities at Sunny
University. The chapter presents all of the data collected and identifies salient themes.
The purpose of this study is to understand the experiences of students involved in
historically Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities. The study sought to understand Latino/a
student experiences in navigating a historically White-dominated fraternity and sorority system.
The research questions for this study included:
1. What are the experiences of students involved in historically Latino/a fraternities &
sororities at four-year institutions?
2. Do students involved in historically Latino/a fraternities & sororities at four-year
institutions feel a sense of belonging in the overall fraternity and sorority life community
of the institution? If yes, how?
3. Do students involved in historically Latino/a fraternities & sororities at four-year
institutions feel that fraternity/sorority life policies and programs are relevant to their
experiences as diverse students? If yes, how?
This chapter provides an overview of student participants in this study and includes data
from surveys of members from historically Latino/a-based fraternity and sororities. The research
utilizes, Critical Race Theory (CRT) as the theoretical framework to analyze and understand
structural institutional practices that continue to favor White students. It also unveils the current
institutional marginalization of members of historically Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities
through their narratives and counterstories. Additionally, this chapter discusses the six emergent
themes along with their connection to the data.
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

52

Summary of Participants
Interviews
The nine interview participants in this study were undergraduate students at Sunny
University and were active members of historically Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities.
Participants were able to select a pseudonym to identify themselves and their organization to
maintain confidentiality for this study. The student participants ranged in number of years in
college, age, sex, and organizational affiliation. Table 1 illustrates the demographic information
of the interview participants in the study. The criteria to be eligible to partake in the study
included the following parameters:
1. Each participant must be a member of a historically Latino/a-based fraternity or sorority
at SU
2. Each participant must be an active undergraduate member of the organization
The five members of historically Latina-based sororities include Elizabeth, Clara, Jasmin,
Carmen, and Stephanie; all identified with she/her/hers gender pronouns and identified
themselves as cisgender female. Similarly, the four members of historically Latino-based
fraternities, John, Kiké, Michael, and Carlos identified with he/him/his gender pronouns,
identifying themselves as cisgender males. To gain a deeper understanding of student
experiences, an anonymous survey was e-mailed to each student participant to share with their
organization’s members, who also had to meet the aforementioned criteria to participate.

UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

53
Table 2

Participant Demographics

Name Gender Organization Background Initiated into
Organization
Year in
College
Elizabeth Female
Chi Sigma
Delta Sorority
Mexican Spring 2017 Senior
Clara Female Beta Sorority Salvadorean Fall 2016 Senior
Jasmin Female
Omicron
Sorority
Mexican/Latina Spring 2016 Senior
Carmen Female
Alpha
Sorority
Mexican Spring 2016 Junior
Stephanie Female
Lambda
Sorority
Mexican/Latina Spring 2017 Senior
John Male
Delta
Fraternity
Latino Fall 2016 Junior
Kiké Male
Raza
Fraternity
Puerto Rican/
Nicaraguan
Fall 2015 Senior
Michael Male
Sigma
Fraternity
Guatemalan-
American
Spring 2016 Senior
Carlos Male
The First
Fraternity
Mexican-
American
Fall 2014 Senior

Surveys
The twelve surveys collected were divided evenly, in that six participants identified as
members of a historically Latina-based sorority, and six identified as part of a Latino-based
fraternity. Additionally, nine participants were active undergraduate members, none were
inactive members, and three were alumni. Table 3 illustrates responses from the surveys
collected on a Likert scale by the number of persons responses in each category.

UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

54
Table 3

Survey Responses
Question
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Neither
Agree /
Disagree
Agree
Strongly
Agree
The language and terminology used in university
fraternity/sorority life materials (i.e., pamphlets,
PowerPoint, presentations, etc.) is inclusive of the
language/terminology used in my organization
0 5 4 2 1
The university community (i.e., Faculty, staff,
administrators, and students) respects my
organization the same way they respect
organizations in the Panhellenic and
Interfraternity Council
6 3 2 1 0
The Fraternity/Sorority Life Office staff shares
accolades or positive organizational practices
from Latino/a-based fraternities/sororities the
same way they share those from Panhellenic and
Interfraternity Councils
3 4 3 2 0
The imagery used in university fraternity/sorority
life materials (i.e., pamphlets, PowerPoint,
presentations, etc.) accurately depicts my
organization
3 6 2 1 0
Members of my organization have access to the
same resources as those from Panhellenic and the
Interfraternity Council
2 5 4 1 0
Fraternity/Sorority Life Office staff understand
the unique needs of members of my organization
4 6 2 0 0
When I visit the Fraternity/Sorority Life Office
staff, I feel that I am greeted the same as
members of the Panhellenic and Interfraternity
Council
1 2 6 3 0
When I engage with the Fraternity/Sorority Life
Office staff, I feel that I am given the same
priority as members of the Panhellenic and
Interfraternity Council
4 2 6 0 0

UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

55
Contacting the national board/headquarters of each sorority and fraternity was the initial
step in gaining access to the student population. Once a student leader granted permission, the
researcher attended a Multicultural Greek Council meeting in which the researcher connected
with at least one member from each of the historically Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities.
Currently, one of the five historically Latino-based fraternities at SU only has one member; the
organization has low representation and is not able to be as active as others are on campus and
therefore not represented in this study. Snowball sampling was also used in this study, as
demonstrated through students recommending other students for participation.
Interview Participants
Elizabeth is a member of Chi Sigma Delta Sorority, an organization she helped charter in
Spring 2017. The organization is the newest among all the historically Latina-based sororities.
Elizabeth identifies as Mexican and is a psychology major, with an expected graduation in May
2018. Elizabeth was primarily exposed to historically White-based sororities through friends and
had begun the recruitment process for those organizations. When describing the process, she
stated:
When I did it for the two days, I was like… this is completely removed. I was hoping for
there to be a little bit of a watered-down Latino culture in there, at least some Latino
members, but I didn't see that. I would say out of, there's 10 houses, I think I spoke to two
Latina women and one of them was generations down and the other one was second
generation. Even then there was that disconnect. As a first-generation college student, I
was hoping for someone that was a little more similar to me and I didn't feel like I found
that.
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

56
When discussing the issue of lack of representation of Latino/a students on “the row” she
passionately spoke about how her organization is the perfect fit for her:
I'm in the right place and I found my place because of the women I'm surrounded by.
After being in my organization for almost six months I would say, I see the women that
my grandbig and my big [older members in sorority that serve as mentors] are and I'm
inspired to be like them. Not only that, I just see the work that women in my organization
do and I'm like, that's the type of things I want to go into. A lot of the women in my org
are activists for LGBT rights, and they are people who stand up for that and I think that's
super important. Not that that's not present in other organizations but I feel like the tone
in which that's done is just more fitting to my personality.
The importance of culture, especially at a PWI, was important to Elizabeth in finding a
connection to the campus and other resources. Surrounding herself with others with the same
background gave her a family at school, where she could actually refer to members of her
organization as; “sisters, because I know that if something were to happen they'd try to get me
out of trouble or one of them would figure out how to be there.” Joining her sorority was a
positive aspect of being a student at SU.
Clara became a member of Beta Sorority in the Fall of 2016 and is a graduating senior,
majoring in history. Clara shared that her experience in navigating a PWI was especially hard
when she moved on campus. She was living on the Southside of campus where she did not see
much representation from her community. She did not live on the Latino floor in housing;
therefore, she was not exposed to involvement opportunities that interested her. Instead, she was
only exposed to historically White-based fraternities and sororities. Navigating the campus, she
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

57
came across members of Beta Sorority and attended an event they had on campus. She explained
why she was drawn to this specific sorority:
I started to get to know the sisters more and I related to them a lot and I loved how they
challenged me in the way I was thinking. I never introduced myself with pronouns until I
went to a Beta informational and that was something that's very new to me.
Involvement in the sorority helped Clara develop as an individual and provided a space for her to
embrace her queer identity and challenge the intersectionality in the Latinx community. She
explained: “Beta has made me a lot more conscious about the world, about society, about politics
and a more self-aware about who I am, how I identify, how I want others to perceive me and
how I perceive myself.” Joining a historically Latina-based sorority has helped Clara’s identity
development and has connected her to others in the Latinx community at SU; however, she feels
that her involvement has not afforded her a connection to the overall campus or administration.
Clara’s pride for her organization was evident in all of her responses; she had an appreciation for
the work they do on campus and the impact they have on the Latinx community.
Jasmin is a member of Omicron Sorority at SU, where she was initiated in Spring 2016.
She is a senior, with a business administration major and a projected graduation date of May
2018. Jasmin identifies with her Mexican heritage and prefers the term Latina. When Jasmin
explained her transition to SU from High School, she explained that her intentions were never to
join a sorority, mainly because she had not been exposed to sororities prior to entering school. As
she was exposed to fraternities and sororities at SU, Jasmin still had no intention of joining.
Jasmin explained her first feelings of fraternity and sorority life at SU; “I didn't really think it
was for me, especially at this institution. It's really big here, but most of the people in them are
not of color. I didn't really think it was an option for me.”
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

58
The shift to join fraternity and sorority life did not occur for Jasmin until she became a
sophomore and she met members of multicultural fraternities and sororities. At that time, she
expressed that she did not know a multicultural council existed on campus. After hearing about
the diverse organizations, Jasmin explained the process of learning about historically Latino/a-
based fraternities and sororities: “I did my research, looked into different sororities, [and]
attended different informationals. Ultimately, I found one that my values aligned more towards
and decided to go through the process and join.” Jasmin’s journey to find a place in which she
belonged at SU was difficult due to the invisibility of organizations as she navigated the campus.
Carmen became a member of Greek life in the spring of 2016 when she became a
member of Alpha Sorority at SU. She identified as Mexican and was an anthropology major in
her junior year. Carmen was originally from Arkansas and when she became a student at SU, she
sought to find opportunities to connect with others from the Latinx community. Carmen
explained that she “was very much anti-Greek life when I came in. It was my friend who became
my line sister who eventually solidified the decision for me to join.” She explained that images
of negative stereotypes about fraternities and sororities, especially those in movies “weren't
focusing on what I wanted to focus on. I still feel like that's what happens with IFC and
Panhellenic. What I really wanted on campus was a family, a group of people that I could be
around. I thought that if I was joining them it was really just joining something more superficial,
that they were all about partying.”
Through her involvement in the sorority, Carmen made connections to other resources at
SU, while focusing on supporting impacting Latino/a students on the campus. Additionally, she
highlighted her sororities’ influence and support on her leadership development:
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

59
I feel like I've been able to grow a lot in a space that I feel comfortable. I was recruitment
chair my first year, and it really scared me because of all the presentations I had to do. I
was really bad at public speaking. I'm still working on it. It was something that terrified
me. With a lot of the support that I got, I was able to get better at it.
Carmen’s experience in finding others like herself was imperative in being able to navigate the
SU campus, since she wanted a familial bond with people from her Latinx community. Alpha
Sorority gave her a family at school in which she could find support and get involved with others
like her. Acclimating to the campus at large was still a struggle she explained, and after some
time in her sorority, she realized that even those from her Latino/a community do not support her
involvement in a Greek lettered organization. Through her experience in working with the Latinx
Resource Center at SU, she has found that even the Director is not particularly fond of
fraternities/sororities, but still helps Alpha sorority because of the good work they do to impact
the campus and local community.
Stephanie is a member of Lambda Sorority, the first Latina sorority established at SU.
She became a member in spring 2017, but her sorority has operated on campus for 20 years. She
was a current senior, human biology major graduating in May of 2018. Stephanie was originally
exposed to sororities in the Panhellenic Council but based on their rush processes, she knew she
was not interested in joining a historically White sorority at SU. Stephanie described her
experience by explaining that she “never resonated with their story, not just that but their rushing
process where they made you dress up to even be considered. You couldn't go in there just
wearing jeans, really angered me, because that was only for the women.”
Lambda Sorority was ideal for her due to the nature of events and relaxed environment
the organization provided her. She explained, “It never really felt like I had a home until I found
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

60
my sorority.” Stephanie described her organization as a support network that allowed her to
“balance academics and mental health” because she had someone she could relate to that has also
experienced the same issues. She felt that her sorority had done so much for her, especially in
providing a space for her to be herself, while helping her develop on campus. She stated;
So, you don't know just how much you miss your family until you don't have one. Then
it's really hard to be on a new college campus surrounded by people where, not only do
you not know them, but they don't look like you. When you finally find an org that you
know is your family and you know they're going to have your back, that significantly
impacts all other aspects of your life. It just gives you so much more confidence once you
find someone that understands you.
John is a member of Delta Fraternity at SU, where he was one of only two active
members. He became a member in Fall 2016 and was a junior majoring in Design with an
expected graduation date of May 2019. John identified as Latino, with Mexican American roots.
Originally, John did not know anything about Greek life before enrolling at SU and only knew
that the university was known to be a big party school. He was encouraged to attend events on
“the row” during week one, by his roommates, with whom he is still very close to. John decided
to rush a historically White fraternity on “the row” when he saw that his roommates were all
rushing. He explained his decision in beginning the rush process for an IFC organization:
My friends were rushing and I obviously wasn't going to stay behind, so I decided to go
even though I felt really... I was like, ‘No, I can't do this. This is not for me.’ At a certain
time, once I was there rushing I felt like, "Oh yeah, this is it. This is going to be for me.
I'm going to figure something out here. I'm joining a frat on the row." Then comes bid
night and then I didn't get a bid, but my two roommates, the guys who I still live with to
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

61
this day, they did. Yeah, so I felt like shit. I felt pretty bad that they got bids, and they
were pledging, and I wasn't.
After not receiving a bid, John felt apprehension about joining other organizations and therefore
did not really seek other involvement opportunities, until he was stopped on his way to class
during the first week of school. John explained:
I was walking to class and I got stopped by a group of guys, and they were like, ‘Oh
yeah, are you interested in Greek life?’ I was just like, ‘Oh,’ but they were like Latinos
and I was like, ‘These guys aren't in a frat. Frats are like what's on the row. This isn't a
real frat.’ I was like, ‘You guys are a Latino frat’ I was like, ‘You guys are a Mexican
frat?’ They're like, ‘No, we're a Latino frat.’ I was like, ‘Oh, okay.’ They're like, ‘Yeah,
you should check it out.’ I was like, ‘All right.’ Later I signed up.
John’s quest to find friends at his new campus led him to continue pursuing involvement with
Delta Fraternity. Although, he started his journey with them to fit in with a group, he later forged
real friendships with people with whom he could identify.
Kiké is a member of Raza Fraternity at SU, where he became a member in Fall 2015. He
identified as Puerto Rican and Nicaraguan and was a history major. Before graduating in
December of 2017, he also served as the President of Raza Fraternity. He explained that he
“came to Greek life entirely by accident” and that it was something he “never stood for and still
doesn’t necessarily.” The only organizations he knew about before going to college were
historically White fraternities and sororities and historically Black fraternities and sororities, and
that was mainly based on media representation of those organizations. Kiké noted that he merely
stumbled across Latino fraternities at the involvement fair that the campus hosted and explained
what drew him to these organizations:
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

62
[I] didn't really know much about them, but they started talking about their organizations.
I was interested. I saw like a group of Latinos in a historically White institution like this.
I saw that they were trying to do good for the community. I saw that they were all about
their academics. Then I saw above that, they all were just there to support each other and
have each other's backs. It's something that I was interested in.
The negative stereotypes he had of Greek life were demystified as he was introduced to different
Greek organizations he had not been exposed to previously. Kiké described his ongoing
discontent with Greek life due to other organizations, like those on “the row” continuing to give
impactful organizations like Raza, a bad name:
I just feel like historically every time there's something negative that comes up with
Greek life, it's usually IFC and Panhellenic, and it's usually all of Greek life that's judged
based upon them, whether it would be, what's the word I'm looking for? The racist-
themed parties or whether the hazing with alcohol or whether it be just the whole, for
lack of a better term, Greek culture that some of the organizations promote.
Kiké’s ability to find a space on campus that he identified with was a struggle and continued to
be a struggle due to the negative stereotypes he encountered. The lack of visibility and
representation of his fraternity as well as negative stereotypes were all issues he had to struggle
with for three years.
Michael is a member of Sigma Fraternity at SU, which he joined in Spring 2016. He was
a senior majoring in both economics and mathematics with an expected graduation in December
2018. Michael’s first impression of fraternity and sorority life was what he saw in the movies
growing up. That was until he began studying at SU and saw people from his nearby high school
in historically multicultural fraternities and sororities. Having friends from high school was
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

63
Michael’s link in becoming interested in Sigma Fraternity. Michael described his experience in
joining as a positive aspect in acclimating to the campus:
The whole cliché, I felt like it was home-away-from-home. Because our chapter's very
small, so when we joined, me and my line brothers, we essentially became the chapter.
We became the chapter. We decided what the chapter would be doing, how we would
show it off.
The idea of autonomy and being able to infuse his own passion excited Michael. Joining an
organization with few members was a positive experience for him. This provided a beneficial
space where Michael felt comfortable and supported to create, develop and implement events at
SU. Michael described an event his organization recently hosted for custodians on staff and
highlighted his involvement in the fraternity stating that he thought, “If I hadn't joined this
organization I wouldn't have the courage to not only set up an event like that, but actually attend
one. By joining the organization, it gave me the courage to actually do it.” Michael’s ability to
impact his local community and develop in the process had been a positive experience for him.
Carlos became a member of The First Fraternity in Fall 2014 and was a current senior
majoring in International Relations and Global Business with an expected graduation in
December 2018. He identified as Mexican-American, with roots in South Los Angeles. The First
Fraternity is the only historically Latino-based fraternity to have a house on “the row” at SU.
Carlos did not start at SU with the intention of joining a fraternity because he “knew what the
demographics was, and I knew it wasn't necessarily the kind of demographic that I wanted to be
in that kind of group with.” Carlos refers to the lack of Latino representation in fraternity life as a
key reason he did not want to join one and it was only “through word-of-mouth” that he found
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

64
“there was a Hispanic fraternity.” He explained that joining his fraternity provided solace for him
amidst the displacement he felt on campus:
I mean other than providing a space where I can feel like I'm a normal student in, I
honestly don't know how to describe that but just... I come from South LA and being at
SU, the environment alone in this little quadrant is so much different than the
neighborhood around SU, and I remember when I first came, that feeling kind of really
hit me even though I was almost two miles from home. It felt like I was a city apart.
Joining The First Fraternity allowed Carlos to feel “included in the university” and feel
like he “could be a part of it [the university] because I wasn't the only one that was going through
this.” Initial interest in his fraternity came from being offered a cup of “horchata” which he
explains is not something you would come across at SU. Carlos explained, “You get it at home
right here in South LA with Hispanic parents but not here [at SU] and then just getting that cup
and then tasting it, and it was literally a taste of home.” The importance of maintaining culture
while navigating college was important to Carlos. He explained that through his fraternity, he
networked and forged relationships with on campus departments and entities.
Emerging Themes from Data
Data from participant interviews and surveys were analyzed to answer the research
questions. Themes emerged from participants’ responses and were broken down into five main
areas: invisibility, institutional agents, negative associations to historically White
fraternities/sororities, development of cultural capital, and positive identity development. The
first three themes relate directly to how participants interacted and felt while working with/via
campus entities and administrators. The last two themes relate more to how participants made
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

65
meaning of their experiences as being members of historically Latino/a-based fraternities and
sororities at SU.
Invisibility
The theme of invisibility emerged most clearly from the data because it was at the center
of conversation for every participant from the beginning of the interview to the end. Each
participant stated at some point in their interview that they had not known historically Latino/a
fraternities and sororities existed at SU. This central theme was at the core of why most did not
feel an immediate connection to the campus and served as a reminder that they were at a
Predominantly White Institution. Additionally, the overall invisibility the campus imposed on
historically Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities was evident in promotional materials for
fraternity/sorority life, which was distributed to participants prior to the first day of school.
We were mailed this pamphlet probably during the summer before I came here as a
freshman, and it listed all the organizations that were Panhellenic. I never received
anything for the multi-cultural organizations. [Jasmin]
Furthermore, interview participants felt that the invisibility of historically Latino/a-based
fraternities and sororities was also perpetuated by campus professionals and administrators.
Campus Resources. Participants felt that they did not have access to the same resources
as members of historically White-based fraternities and sororities. They explained that there
seemed to be favoritism since more marketing opportunities were made available for
organizations within the Panhellenic and Interfraternity councils. Carmen, from Alpha Sorority,
expressed that many of the Latino/a fraternities and sororities had been upset with the campus
because “IFC and Panhellenic events are featured in the welcome week. We just haven't been
part of that.” Carmen also discussed the invisibility of members of historically Latino/a-based
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

66
fraternities and sororities in the campus newspaper when covering a new policy affecting
fraternities and sororities at SU:
The [campus paper] definitely wrote a few articles about it, but it only featured
Panhellenic and IFC as the people who were being impacted by this. They were definitely
the ones who were contacted. The [campus paper] knows about us, but it just wasn't
important I guess... to talk to us.
Additionally, to the disregard of Latino/a fraternity and sororities in the campus newspaper, the
silencing of student voices was also apparent in administrative practices. Carmen went on to
state:
…the vice president of something, came into one of our council meetings to talk about it
[new recruitment policy]. I later found out it was a conversation that had been happening
for a few years, and through some of the people that I know in Panhellenic, that they
were the ones who were in meetings with him.
The continual marginalization of students of color was evident in the invisibility of their voices
in the overall makeup of fraternity and sorority life at SU. Moreover, students also described
their experience in navigating processes and procedures to have events on campus as a means of
privileging some groups over others:
For their welcome week thing they [Panhellenic Sororities] got to have [Elite
Auditorium] and all these other really nice facilities and MGC had to make due with our
budget and we had smaller events and stuff where we had to partner with other
organizations. It was a lot harder to organize because of it. [Clara]
Respectability. All participants expressed having put forth advocacy efforts for their
communities via workshops, community service events, and through acts of resistance at SU.
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

67
Historically Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities have been seen as a safe haven on an
unwelcoming campus and aid in the inclusion of students of color. The work they do is not
otherwise promoted, advertised, celebrated or encouraged by campus entities, nor is it
highlighted on a larger scale within the university through administrative communications or
even the campus newspaper. Stephanie, a member of Lambda sorority, explained an interaction
with the fraternity and sorority life department:
One of our sisters once went to the department here [fraternity and sorority life
department] to go check something out and there was a girl that she was meeting with
and she didn't know the name of our sorority. It was the first Latina sorority here and they
didn't know it and they didn't bother to know it.
It is evident that this is a groundbreaking organization for SU, especially because twenty years
ago, the demographic make-up of SU was very different. The study found that all participants
felt that the invisibility of their organizations was almost always disrespectful and discrediting of
the work they do.
SU is this weird place because it's just so heavily White and I don't think the people in
those communities [Panhellenic and IFC] care to learn about us. [Elizabeth]
John, from Delta Fraternity, stated that organizations not on “the row are seen as irrelevant.” In
respect to the vast allocation of time given to these specific organizations by the University,
Michael revealed a possible justification:
The university I feel sometimes allocates a lot more time for them, but I feel like it goes
hand-in-hand with the size just because there's a lot more White—Caucasian—people
here who are willing to rush their organizations.
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

68
The overall invisibility students feel at SU stems from the many issues they have dealt with
regarding marginalization of their identity as well as the marginalization of their organizations.
The importance of their organizations is genuinely valued by each participant, but not reflected
in the overall campus environment. The need for institutional agents is evident in their
identification of lack of support services and campus resources.
Institutional Agents
The second theme that emerged from the data was the low number of institutional agents
at SU. Institutional agents refer to campus professionals that could be resources and provide
support to historically Latino/a fraternities and sororities and the members involved in these
organizations (Stanton-Salazar, 1997).
Cultural centers. The nine interview participants reported that each of their
organizations find the most support from the cultural centers at SU. The cultural centers were
highlighted for not only collaborating on events, but also as a resource for space and budgeting
needs. Additionally, they served in filling the gap between historically Latino/a-based fraternities
and sororities and other non-Greek affiliated organizations. Most specifically, the Latinx
Resource Center was noted for being the most utilized among all historically Latino/a-based
fraternities and sororities at SU. Carmen gave some background on the Director of the Resource
Center:
He knows a lot of us. He doesn't like Greek organizations though. It's a little interesting
sometimes interacting as part of the sorority and being there. He also understands the
benefits of being part of an organization like ours.
She goes on to explain that he does not like fraternity and sorority life because “when he was in
college he had bad interactions with them. I think it was an IFC organization.” Although he helps
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

69
all of the organizations and assists them with space in the center, he is not fully supportive of
them, due to their affiliation with the overall fraternity/sorority community.
Fraternity and sorority life department (FSL). All participants mentioned the integral
role the FSL plays to each of their organizations at SU. As participants explained the dissonance
between their organizations and FSL, they acknowledged that there had been a recent shift in
leadership. According to the participants, the FSL office has been changing over the last few
years. Under new leadership, the FSL office has invited historically Latino/a fraternities and
sororities, the Multicultural Greek Council, and other underrepresented councils to collaborate
with the department. As Clara explained:
I think they’re doing more than what they did before. [Before], you went in there to sign
a paper about having an intake class and they didn't really follow up with you, whereas
now there are one-on-ones that you have to go to and there are check-ins. And it helps
keep you accountable and it helps to let them know what you're doing and how they can
help you with getting new members or doing programming.
The new shift in leadership is a positive indicator that there seems to be a shared value of
inclusion for members of fraternities and sororities at SU. Moreover, Carmen talked about a
speaker the FSL office contracted for an MGC meeting last Fall semester, to address “toxic”
issues:
I understood some of the things she was saying as well, with conflict resolution. She says
she's from Texas from the wrong side of the tracks, so that's how she described her accent
and when she first started speaking we were like, "They're trying to pander to us."
Because she was very much a White, middle-aged woman. It took us back for a bit. She
was definitely Panhellenic.
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

70
Carmen felt as though the speaker was trying to connect with them by saying “she was from the
wrong side of the tracks.” Carmen understood the intent behind providing a program to unify the
multicultural council but did not like the approach taken. The issue with bringing someone
outside of their MGC community in an attempt to connect with the students, added to the feeling
of inferiority the council felt at SU.
Moreover, of the departments mentioned, students did not feel entirely supported by their
two sources of support. Participants reported that academic departments, room reservations, and
campus faculty and staff were less supportive of them. This could be attributed to their lack of
knowledge of participant’s existence and/or negative associations with stereotypes or issues that
historically White fraternities and sororities have had at SU.
Negative Associations to Historically White Fraternities/Sororities
The third theme that emerged from the data were the ways in which students involved in
historically Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities were often associated with all of the
negative issues that historically White fraternities and sororities have created. This theme is
particularly important because it explains how these individuals are constantly compared to their
White counterparts without necessarily gaining the privileges they are afforded. The research and
data showed that historically White fraternities and sororities receive privileges that others do
not. Due to overwhelming support of donors and prestigious alumni, historically White
fraternities and sororities receive recognition, access, and other luxuries (Ray, 2013). Student
participants identified the ways in which these organizations receive certain privileges.
Also, yeah, just ties to the University, a lot of the people in IFC organizations have
alumni that are high up in the University. They'll have people, oh, yeah, such and such
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

71
brother from this organization is actually in charge of housing. Or, they're part of USC
hospitality. [Michael]
Michael was not the only participant who identified privilege in the connections that historically
White fraternities and sororities had at SU. Kiké described the relationship that these
organizations had to the overall campus and the ways in which IFC and PHC organizations are
able to “get away with” or “easily avoid certain situations.” He stated:
Like IFC and Panhellenic organizations just because they have those connections they get
more recognition from the University or, yeah, pretty much just the whole recognition bit.
Carmen also explained her experiences in navigating politics while attempting to gain
recognition for her organization on campus in order to attain resources through student
government. She explained that currently, the student body President is part of an IFC fraternity
and the Vice President is part of a Panhellenic sorority, therefore access to resources was limited.
She stated that they not only make-up the majority of student government positions, but they
were also in committees and the senate and it thereby affected access for students of color:
I know that part of the issues with SG [student government] have been that people that
aren't already in it or aren't friends of people who are in it can't really go into it and take
positions that maybe have more power, and that are more in the decision making. That's
been a general overall [SU] issue that's come up in the last two years. I know that for us, I
think something that's more accessible is to be director or assistant director of the Latinx
Assembly. I know the people who have done it before having gone on to become other
parts of SG. That's an entrance. That's just one way. We only have two people that can
take that position every year.
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

72
Jasmin elaborated on the issue of power that members of historically White-based fraternities
and sororities have been afforded. She identified alumni members’ powerful ties to the university
as a key indicator of power.
They have parents who are in very powerful positions and have very powerful ties with
the university. They definitely get a lot more leverage in terms of, outreach to faculty,
just because you can say, "This is my parent. He was in this organization. This is my
grandfather. He was in this organization and what not." They're usually legacies. That
usually gets them stronger support when they're trying to advocate for themselves. I think
they've just established a certain reputation on campus that we have yet to establish or
that we're working hard to establish. I don't think we're working on equal levels. I think
the university is barely trying to facilitate that, but we're not there yet, not even close.
Thus, navigating campus politics and resources is far more difficult for smaller organizations at
SU. Clara described these hurdles as normalized issues at SU, mainly because historically
Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities simply do not have “the pull” that historically White
fraternities and sororities have on campus. When asked if she felt fraternities and sororities were
treated equally at SU, Clara responded with the following:
I don't think so and it's unfortunate because I feel we get the bad misconceptions of being
Greek, but we don't benefit from what the row benefits from. I feel that we definitely get
grouped into that, but we don't get grouped into the total support from administration and
how much visibility the row has on campus.
Additionally, Stephanie identified the structural injustices as a “definite class difference” at SU.
She explained her experience in trying to build community among all fraternities and sororities at
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

73
SU, by supporting different organizations and being shunned at a historically White fraternities’
event:
I know the few times that I've gone to the row, which are the parties at IFC Fraternities...
I once went there with my roommate and my roommate was Black and there was a circle
around us where nobody would get close to us. It's just very uncomfortable. I feel like
there's a lot of unspoken things going on there. Even though they claim to be diverse and
inclusive, once you actually get a person from a different perspective or from a different
background that's not White and that's also not from an affluent class, which is what SU
mostly has, you can tell that they haven't been exposed to people from this background.
Students also identified institutional documents, such as award packets and policies as
documents that cater to historically White fraternities and sororities due to not using culturally
relevant information for historically Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities. Kiké identified a
few ways that policies and other information was not relevant to organizations like Raza
Fraternity:
Just all the rules and regulations for the houses, the different party regulations they have
for houses. Regulations that they have for bids or regulations that they have for even
things like party buses and what's allowed. Even regulations like if your, I don't know the
exact number, if your party reaches this amount of people, it's classified as this. You
actually need to submit a form for this. You can only serve this certain kind of alcohol.
Something wasn't relevant to us like drinking with letters, we don't do that. Definitely the
house bit was completely irrelevant to us… [and] the bids as well.
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

74
The experiences of students involved in historically Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities
outlined various ways in which their organizations are asked to understand, conform, and adapt
to organizational processes of historically White fraternities and sororities.
Development of Cultural Capital
The fourth theme, development of cultural capital, emerged amongst all participants as a
positive attribute of membership in their organizations. Participants shared that because of their
fraternity or sorority, they have made connections to others from the surrounding community,
alumni members of their organizations and connections to other culturally rooted organizations.
Participants identified their increase in networks and associations to others as positive
experiences afforded to them through their membership. Carlos, a member of The First
Fraternity, described his link to working with a campus department, which was “a job that a
fraternity brother got me.” Through his job, he connected the fraternity to the Local Academics
Initiatives program, where he made connections to people both on and off campus, which
enabled him to expand his network.
Furthermore, Kiké described the ways in which his fraternity has taught him to reach out
to similar organizations for partnerships and resources. Through Raza Fraternity, there is
“definitely a heavy emphasis on the resources that we have like [Latinx Resource Center] based
with primarily Latinos, we could use it to study or print, the LGBTQ resource center as well.”
Through his involvement, he connected to resources on campus that welcomed students of color.
Additionally, the ability to create partnerships with via various resources allowed students to join
in efforts to create impactful programs for members of underrepresented communities.
All of the participants identified the Multicultural Greek Council and the Latinx
Assembly as a main source of support to create partnerships among diverse students at SU. The
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

75
MGC and Latinx Assembly provide students with arenas to raise issues of equity, funding, and
support. Through involvement in their organizations, they are able to connect to larger entities,
therefore increasing their networks to ensure underrepresented students have a voice. Jasmin
stated that through the Latinx Assembly, ‘[we] try to bring awareness to campus that we're here.”
Sharing the same sentiment, Kiké described the Latinx Assembly “not only as a space for
organizing rallies, but also a place for funding as well.” Elizabeth described the function of the
MGC as “a place where all organizations [MGC affiliated] are present and there’s an advisor for
MGC.” Students from the various organizations were able to use that space to create
partnerships with other historically multicultural organizations while also having access to an on-
campus advisor.
The ability to connect with members of their organizations and, in turn, to connect with
outside entities allowed members of fraternities and sororities to explore and collaborate to
create a larger impact on society and those in the local community. Clara described one way in
which developing cultural capital through her sorority will create a greater cultural capital for
future generations:
My organization is partnered with a firm, which is a transnational feminist organization,
it's a grassroots coalition. There's a lot of intentionality behind partnering with an
organization like that and it's because you want to advance women of color and give
women of color opportunities.
Additionally, the encouragement of academic ideals and professional success is
embedded in the structures of these national fraternities and sororities. Carmen described the
ways in which Alpha sorority has afforded her professional development opportunities that she
may otherwise never have experienced.
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

76
I also enjoy the conferences and larger meetings that our area and nationals puts on.
There's an access to leadership development that I don't think I would have otherwise. It
would be harder to find.
Moreover, the cultural capital students build through their involvement with their individual
fraternity and sorority assists in their overall acclimation to the university environment. The
ability to find others like themselves on a predominantly White campus allowed them to build
bridges and create partnerships with various on and off campus entities. Having the ability to
reinforce their cultures and connect with those from like cultures helped them maintain positive
experiences at SU.
Positive Identity Development
The fifth and final theme, positive identity development, emerged across all nine
participants stories. Through their affiliations in historically Latino/a-based fraternities and
sororities, student participants shared many narratives as to how their organizations have allowed
them to find home on a predominantly White campus. Where often, others have not appreciated
their culture or have had an understanding of their unique cultural differences. Through
leadership roles, community service, interactions with other members, and academic workshops,
all nine participants shared ways in which they infused their culture in their organization as well
as continued to embrace it while on campus.
Clara enthusiastically highlighted the ways in which Beta Sorority has positively affected
her growth while in college, she stated that “[Beta Sorority] has made me a lot more conscious
about the world, about society, about politics and a more self-aware about who I am.”
Additionally, students like Elizabeth connected with causes and advocacy efforts through those
in her organization to maintain her authenticity, she explained:
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

77
A lot of the women in my org are activists for LGBT rights, and they are people who
stand up for that and I think that's super important. Not that that's not present in other
organizations but I feel like the tone in which that's done is just more fitting to my
personality.
Kiké identified his connection to his fraternity as a communal effort to not only better
himself, but also his community. He described that for him “and a lot of others it’s to be that first
one in the door try to not only do it for ourselves but also for our family, because they sacrifice a
lot to put us in here. Also try to emphasize that to others as well to not only to graduate, but so to
speak keep the door open to try to help others.” Jasmin also highlighted ways in which being a
member of Omicron Sorority has helped her “network and also help her community”. She
explains, “I think just everything I was looking to do, right about half way through my college
career, this organization complemented it rather well. I find myself very supported by the women
in my sorority, and also, I've had lots of opportunities to go out in to the community and try to
make a difference.”
John, a member of Delta Fraternity reflects on his upbringing in a predominantly White
school and discusses the ways in which he found people with similar experiences to him who
were also trying to impact social change:
Specifically, with some of the alumni brothers in my fraternity, we had extremely similar
backgrounds growing up amongst White people. Same stories. Me identifying with them.
All these guys are cool. They're woke just like me. Because over here, I'm thinking, ‘I'm
woke.’ I'm like, ‘They're just like me.’
The positive associations in which the participants viewed their identity as correlating with
affirmations they received within their organizations and among other members.
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

78
Conclusion
All of the research participants had positive associations with joining historically
Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities. They provided counterstories of their experiences in
navigating fraternity and sorority life that challenged the dominant ideology that these are elite
structures that afford their members privilege. In their account of navigating this system, they
acknowledge that privileges are afforded, just not necessarily to them. The privilege they find in
these organizations is the real connections to those that most represent their homes, families, and
academic pursuits within these organizations.
This chapter presented the qualitative data provided by nine undergraduate student
participants at Sunny University. The research data and analysis revealed five main themes
presented; invisibility, institutional agents, negative associations to historically White
fraternities/sororities, development of cultural capital, and positive identity development. The
themes serve as a framework to examine the ways in which members of historically Latino/a
fraternities and sororities navigate and experience the overall structure of fraternity and sorority
life at SU. The findings show the unique experiences of these students and the ways in which
they are experiencing a historically White-dominated system. The experiences in their respective
organizations also show the ways in which they find positive associations to themselves and their
community at-large. The final chapter reviews findings from the study, discusses implications
and recommendations for practice, and concludes with final remarks about the study and
population.

UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

79
Chapter 5: Overview, Discussion, Implications, Conclusion
This qualitative study examined the experiences of students involved in historically
Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities at Sunny University. Their narratives and counterstories
on their experiences in fraternity and sorority life are important to understanding how to serve
students of color at a PWI more effectively. This study also provided insight into the multiple
ways in which they experience negative perceptions among other communities due to their
affiliation with fraternity and sorority life.
The significance of this study is in the overall experiences of students involved in
historically Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities, navigating not only a PWI, but also in
navigating the historically White fraternity and sorority system. The findings reveal that even
within what is perceived to be an elite structure; members of historically Latino/a-based
fraternities and sororities are compared and associated with historically White-based fraternities
and sororities without equitable measures of funding and support. Moreover, the positive aspects
to their affiliation with fraternity and sorority life are also highlighted. Within a negative campus
racial climate, research participants were able to create positive environments on their campus.
Participants identified ways in which their involvement in a historically Latino/a-based fraternity
or sorority fostered development of cultural capital, positive identity development, and
motivation towards success.
The purpose of this chapter is to review the issues of campus racial climates identified in
Chapter 1 and to respond to the research questions using the Critical Race Theory (CRT)
theoretical framework to connect to the data. This chapter also connects findings from this study
to literature from Chapter 2. The end of this chapter highlights implications for practice and
research and provides concluding remarks.
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

80
Discussion of Findings
This section focuses on the research questions and examines them through the framework
of Critical Race Theory (CRT). Critical Race Theory research and scholarship reveals the
underlying historical systems of oppression that are used to marginalize people of color in
institutions of higher learning (Delgado & Stefancic, 2012). Figure 1 illustrates the ways in
which historical systems of higher education affect different areas of student life. The diagram
below centers Critical Race Theory as a means to inform new ways of transforming spaces for
students of color in higher education. In this section, findings from both interview participants
and survey responses of the experiences of members in historically Latino/a-based fraternities
and sororities at SU are connected to the theoretical framework of this study.
Figure 3

Theoretical Framework

Higher Education
Policies
Practices Campus Climates
Historically Latino/a
Fraternities/Sororities
Cri t i c a l
Ra ce
T h e o ry
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

81
Research Question 1
The first research question asked, “What are the experiences of students involved in
historically Latino/a Fraternities & Sororities at four-year institutions?” Critical Race Theory
focuses on the lived experiences of people of color (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995; Solorzano &
Villalpando, 1998). The testimonials and experiences of members of historically Latino/a-based
fraternities and sororities in this study were key in understanding the ways in which they
experienced fraternity and sorority life at their institution. The research revealed that members of
historically Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities have positive experiences in personal,
academic, communal, and professional development. Participant responses showed that their
organizations empowered them to put their academics and personal development at the forefront
of their fraternal experience. Often, fraternities and sororities are identified as social
organizations and this study revealed that participants saw their organizations as meaningful
entities that helped them acclimate to campus life (Torbenson, 2009). Students identified ways in
which they found support in working alongside others from underrepresented communities to
make impactful contributions to people of color on campus and in the local community.
Parker and Villalpando (2007) noted that having experiential knowledge, one of tenets of
CRT, could help empower students to succeed personally and academically in college. All
research participants developed cultural capital by interacting with one other and from other
culturally specific campus entities and administrators. Their positive cultural associations are
characterized by their involvement in a historically Latino/a-based fraternity or sorority.
Additionally, all members said involvement in their respective organization was associated with
positive identity development, illustrated in Chapter 4. Despite the negative campus racial
climate, students involved in historically Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities identified
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

82
small pockets of the university as positive spaces for them. The other two research questions
provide additional insight on various aspects of the student experiences in navigating fraternity
and sorority life at SU.
Research Question 2
The second research question asked, “Do students involved in historically Latino/a
Fraternities & Sororities at four-year institutions feel a sense of belonging in the overall
fraternity and sorority life community of the institution? If yes, how?” Research participants
identified many ways in which they felt as they did not belong in the overall fraternity and
sorority community at SU. Participant responses revealed White privilege was at the core of the
reasons in which they did not feel a sense of belonging in the overall fraternity and sorority
community.
Participants involved in historically Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities highlighted
that the engrained privilege of the institution and fraternity and sorority life was evident to them
in the ways in which White students were valued on campus. The lived experiences of the
participants, highlighted money, institutional power, and recognition as key indicators of the
privilege historically White fraternities and sororities have at SU. Additionally, the survey also
revealed that nine students involved in historically Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities did
not feel the university community respected them. Additionally, ten survey participants also felt
that the Fraternity and Sorority Life Department did not understand the unique needs of members
in historically Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities.
Yosso et al. (2004) explained that White privilege permeates the policies and practices in
institutions of higher learning, through policies, programs, and services. Students described their
organizations to be “smaller” in numbers than fraternities and sororities in Panhellenic and IFC,
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

83
and identified the ways in which campus entities, like the Fraternity and Sorority Life
Department could help with increasing their visibility. The survey found that nine students felt
that imagery in university fraternity and sorority life materials did not accurately depict their
organizations. Additionally, multiple students highlighted the fraternity life pamphlet as a key
area of concern when discussing the privilege that historically White fraternities and sororities
have due to their large numbers. Stephanie said, “Even the pamphlet and the information that
goes out [from the university] is very centered on Panhellenic and IFC experiences.”
Furthermore, Jasmin noted the contents of the pamphlet she received the summer prior to starting
at SU and stated, “It really was just a pamphlet describing every organization. It was really long.
I remember reading through each one. I think the year they were established, their cause. Then, I
think if they offered a house for students to live in, which is usually something that people who
rush, are attracted to.”
The continuous privileging of these organizations is evident in the student responses in
naming the resources and visibility afforded to members of historically White fraternities and
sororities. The issues expressed highlight the tenet of objectivity and neutrality of CRT, in that
institutions such as SU are still privileging certain groups through objectivity, meritocracy, color
blindness, race neutrality, and equal opportunity (Parker & Villalpando, 2007).
Research Question 3
The third research question asked, “Do students involved in historically Latino/a
Fraternities & Sororities at four-year institutions feel that fraternity/sorority life policies and
programs are relevant to their experiences as diverse students? If yes, how?” In both interviews
and survey responses, students identified issues with processes and recognition from the campus
as a key component to feeling they were not supported by the university. Participants expressed
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

84
that in the development of new processes, like the new recruitment and intake policy, their
voices go unheard or unsought by university personnel. Additionally, the issue with bringing
speakers to MGC meetings that were not culturally relevant to a diverse student population was
also identified as problematic, in that the speaker could not connect with diverse students in a
positive way.
Students also identified the policies at SU that govern the ways in which fraternity and
sorority life is regulated as a systemic issue. Participants highlighted the recruitment form and
awards program application as other documents in which they also felt underrepresented.
Language in the application packets for awards and recruitment processes and timelines reflected
the needs of Panhellenic and IFC organizations. Additionally, one participant described the
problems with applying to awards like the philanthropy award, stating, “we hold smaller events,
we can’t host these big giant events and we shouldn’t be penalized for that because of our size.”
The issue of meritocracy is that those with unequal opportunities, usually from underrepresented
communities, are expected to perform the same as those with more opportunity, usually from
affluent White communities (Villalpando, 2004). The survey data also found that nine
participants did not feel accurately represented in Fraternity and Sorority life materials.
Recommendations
This section offers recommendations for administrators, student affairs professionals, and
fraternity/sorority advisors to create more inclusive educational climates that foster positive
campus racial climates for members of historically Latino/a fraternities and sororities.
Recommendations are based on two tenets of CRT, which include social justice and praxis and
the transdisciplinary perspective.
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

85
Recommendation 1 – Administrators need to ensure there are institutional agents in
positions of power that can center social justice in processes, policies, and procedures that
govern fraternity and sorority life. The research participants all identified the need for
resources and avenues of support within the university that understood the ways in which their
organizations function differently than historically White fraternities and sororities. The need for
someone at the table to challenge policies and procedures was evident in the responses of
participants. Additionally, positioning institutional agents with a deep understanding of issues of
social justice would help in revising terminology on forms and creating programs that cater to
the needs of a growing diverse student population.
Double-loop thinking must be employed by higher education professionals to take into
account historical implications on current issues affecting underrepresented students in
institutions of higher education (Bensimon, 2005). For advisors of fraternity and sorority life, it
is imperative that they understand that rules and processes for fraternities and sororities are often
based on those created by historically White fraternities and sororities. Over the last 40 years,
historically Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities have been instituting policies and
procedures at national levels that do not mirror those of historically White fraternities and
sororities, but instead have been created to cultivate their diverse membership.
Recommendation 2 – Fraternity and sorority life offices need to include historically
Latino/a-based fraternity and sorority imagery, culture and processes in university
materials. All student participants highlighted the lack of inclusion they felt when attempting to
host an event and in the ways in they were depicted in university materials. Students consistently
identified issues in representation through their remarks on the fraternity and sorority life
pamphlet that did not represent their organizations and even through smaller occurrences during
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

86
their shows and programs. Allowing students to have a voice in discussions of new processes and
policies prior to implementation allows them to help in creating policies inclusive of them prior
to their publication. Moreover, including pictures on the website, pamphlet, and in postings for
welcome week activities would allow visibility for historically Latino/a-based fraternities and
sororities.
It is important to acknowledge that colleges and universities camouflage the self-interest,
power, and privilege of dominant groups, like historically White fraternities and sororities, and it
is essential to assist students involved in historically Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities in
their fight for equal opportunity in colleges/universities (Iverson, 2007; Yosso, et al., 2004).
Ensuring that institutions create spaces to hear from the students would allow for a holistic view
of the entire fraternal community at SU, which could be beneficial in guiding conversations on
inclusion and equity.
Recommendation 3 – Create equity by allocating funding to smaller organizations to
allow the same representation as larger and more affluent White-based organizations.
Funding and access to room reservations for nicer, more elite spaces on campus are not available
for students of color who do not have large memberships to fund those locations. Participants
stated that room reservations on campus were too costly for their small organizations.
Historically Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities do not have houses and therefore need
room reservations on campus to have meetings and events, especially during peak recruitment
times. Many students mentioned access to the “Elite Auditorium” that historically White
sororities use for their recruitment events during the first few weeks of the semester and how an
auditorium like that, “costs thousands of dollars to rent,” which would not be feasible for
organizations in MGC.
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

87
Administrators need to work with fraternity and sorority life to allocate resources to these
student groups so that they are able to access resources that they have not been able to afford.
Additionally, creating partnerships with offices for equity and inclusion, facilities, and room
reservations could help in creating policies that are more equitable for students in historically
multicultural Greek councils, like those in MGC. As explained by Freire (1993), those in power
must work with those who have been oppressed to create circumstances that are more equitable.
It is up to those administrators to bring students to the table to ask them what type of support
they need but also to identify gaps in the representation of the community.
Conclusion
Understanding ways in which to create positive racial climates for Latino/a students on
colleges campuses is imperative. The projected population growth of Latinos/as in the next few
years will lead to an increase in Latino/a students attending colleges and universities. This study
focused on a small population of Latino/a students at SU and their experiences in historically
Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities. The evidence presented in this study confirms that
Latino/a students are still encountering social and academic marginalization on college campuses
(Yosso, Smith, Ceja, & Solórzano, 2009). Although Torbenson (2009) found that fraternities and
sororities are seen as elite student organizations, this study shows that only a small percentage of
students in fraternity and sorority life prosper from that recognition. The participants in the study
reported that historically White fraternities and sororities are still entities of privilege that
continue to be afforded luxuries other groups are not. Through the five tenets of Critical Race
theory, the findings of this study reveal solutions to combatting negative campus racial climates.
Strayhorn (2012) highlights that sense of belonging for Latino/a students can lead to
“cultural suicide” in that they will separate themselves from their cultural heritage to fit in with
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

88
the campus community (p.33). It is important to identify these issues and discuss ways in which
to create equitable measures to recognize and strengthen organizations such as historically
Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities. Elevating these organizations and creating more
representation could allow for increased benefits to students experiencing negative or hostile
campus racial climates. Lastly, more visibility, respect, and accurate representation of these
groups could lead to more positive associations of fraternity and sorority life instead of the
negative portrayals of historically White fraternities and sororities.

UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

89
References
Acuña, R. (2015). Occupied America. The Latino/a condition: A critical reader. (co-edited with
Jean Stefancic; New York University Press) and The Rodrigo Chronicles (New York
University Press). 61-4.
Abelev, Eric. (2016, September 28). USC ranked No. 15 nationally in new comprehensive Wall
Street Journal survey. USC News. Retrieved from https://news.usc.edu/108766/usc-
ranked-no-15-nationally-in-new-comprehensive-wall-street-journal-survey/
Agee, J. (2009). Developing qualitative research questions: a reflective process. International
Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 22(4), 431-447.
Alvarez, R. R. (1986). The lemon grove incident. The Journal of San Diego History, 32(p.116).
Astin, A. W. (1984). Student involvement: A developmental theory for higher education. Journal
of college student personnel, 25(4), 297-308.
Atkinson, E., Dean, L. A., & Espino, M. M. (2010). Leadership outcomes based on membership
in multicultural Greek council (MGC) organizations. LEADERSHIP, 5(p.34).
Baker, C. N. (2008). Under-represented college students and extracurricular involvement: The
effects of various student organizations on academic performance. Social Psychology of
Education, 11(3), 273-298.
Bensimon, E. (2004). The diversity scorecard: a learning approach to institutional change.
Change, 36(1), 44-52.
Bensimon, E. (2005). Closing the achievement gap in higher education: An organizational
learning perspective, New Directions for Higher Education, 131(p.99-111).
Berger, J. B., & Milem, J. F. (1999). The role of student involvement and perceptions of
integration in a causal model of student persistence. Research in higher Education, 40(6),
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

90
641-664.
Berkowitz, A., & Padavic, I. (1999). Getting a man or getting ahead: A comparison of White and
Black sororities. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 27(4), 530-557.
Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. K. (2007). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to
theory and research.
Bowman, N. A., Park, J. J., & Denson, N. (2015). Student involvement in ethnic student
organizations: Examining civic outcomes 6 years after graduation. Research in Higher
Education, 56(2), 127-145.
Castillo, L. G., Conoley, C. W., Choi-Pearson, C., Archuleta, D. J., Phoummarath, M. J., & Van
Landingham, A. (2006). University environment as a mediator of Latino ethnic identity
and persistence attitudes. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 53(2), 267.
Chavez, A., & Guido-DiBrito, F. (1999). Racial and ethnic identity development. New
Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 84, 39-47.
Clark, V. L. P., & Creswell, J. W. (2014). Understanding research: A consumer's guide. Pearson
Higher Ed.
Creswell, J. W. (2013). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods
approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA. Sage publications
Crisp, G., Taggart, A., & Nora, A. (2015). Undergraduate Latina/o students: A systematic review
of research identifying factors contributing to academic success outcomes. Review of
Educational Research, 85(2), 249-274.
Delgado, R., & Stefancic, J. (2012). Critical race theory. New York, NY: NYU Press.
Escobar, E. J. (1993). The dialectics of repression: The Los Angeles police department and the
Chicano movement, 1968-1971. The Journal of American History, 79(4), 1483-1514.
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

91
Fernandez-Morera, D. (2010). Ask a scholar: What is the true definition of Latino? National
Association of Scholars.
Freire, P. (2000). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York. Bloomsbury Publishing.
Galdeano, E. C., & Santiago, D. (2014) Latino college completion: United States. Excelencia in
education. Retrieved April 2014 from
http://www.edexcelencia.org/sites/default/files/Exc2014-50StateFS-National.pdf
Gelber, S. (2007). Pathways in the past: Historical perspectives on access to higher
education. Teachers College Record, 109(10), 2252-2286.
Glesne, C. (2011). Prestudy tasks: Doing what is good for you. Qualitative research and
educational sciences: A reader about useful strategies and tools, Pearson, 1-37.
Gonzalez, J. C. (2007). The ordinary-ness of institutional racism: The effect of history and law in
the segregation and integration of Latinas/os in schools. American Educational History
Journal, 34(1/2), 331.
Guardia, J. R., & Evans, N. J. (2008). Factors influencing the ethnic identity development of
Latino fraternity members at a Hispanic serving institution. Journal of College Student
Development, 49(3), 163-181.
Guest, G., MacQueen, K. M., & Namey, E. E. (2012). Applied thematic analysis.
London: Sage Publications, p.79-106.
Harper, S. R. (2007). The effects of sorority and fraternity membership on class participation and
African American student engagement in predominantly White classroom
environments. College Student Affairs Journal, 27(1), 94.
Hernandez, J. C., & Lopez, M. A. (2004). Leaking pipeline: Issues impacting Latino/a college
student retention. Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory &
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

92
Practice, 6(1), 37-60.
Hiraldo, P. (2010). The role of critical race theory in higher education. The Vermont
Connection, 31(1), 7.
Huber, L. P., Huidor, O., Malagon, M. C., Sanchez, G., & Solórzano, D. G. (2006).
Falling through the cracks: Critical transitions in the Latina/o educational pipeline.
2006 Latina/o Education Summit Report. CSRC Research Report. Number 7. UCLA
Chicano Studies Research Center (NJ1).
Iverson, S. V. (2007). Camouflaging power and privilege: A critical race analysis of university
diversity policies. Educational Administration Quarterly, 43(5), 586-611.
Johnson, A. (2006). Privilege, power, and difference. New York, NY: McGraw Hill
Krogstad, J. M., & Fry, R. (2014). More Hispanics, blacks enrolling in college, but lag in
bachelor’s degree. Pew Research Center). Retrieved from
http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/04/24/more-hispanics-blacks-enrolling-in-
college-but-lag-in-bachelors-degrees/
Kuh, G. D., Kinzie, J., Schuh, J. H., & Whitt, E. J. (2011). Student success in college: Creating
conditions that matter. John Wiley & Sons.
Kuyk, B. M. (1983). The African derivation of black fraternal orders in the United
States. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 25(04), 559-592.
Ladson-Billings, G., & Tate, W. F. (1995). Toward a critical race theory of education. Teachers
college record, 97(1), 47.
Lopez, G.P., (2003). The (racially neutral) politics of education: A critical race theory
perspective. Educational Administration Quarterly, 39, 68-94.
Maralani, V. (2007). The transition to college from a demographic perspective: Past findings and
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

93
future possibilities. Teachers College Record, 109(10), 2287-2300.
Maxwell, J. A. (2013). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (3
rd
ed.). Los
Angeles: Sage Publications.
McClure, S. M. (2006). Voluntary association membership: Black Greek men on a
predominantly White campus. The Journal of Higher Education, 77(6), 1036-1057.
Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2016). Qualitative research: A guide to design and
implementation (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Mina, L., Cabrales, J. A., Juarez, C. M., & Rodriguez ‐Vasquez, F. (2004). Support programs that
work. New Directions for Student Services, 2004(105), 79-88.
Moreno, D., & Banuelos, S. (2013). The influence of Latina/o Greek sorority and fraternity
involvement on Latina/o college student transition and success. Journal of Latino/Latin
American Studies, 5(2), 113-125.
Muñoz, S. M., & Guardia, J. R. (2009). Nuestra historia y futuro (Our history and future):
Latino/a fraternities and sororities. Brothers and sisters: Diversity in college fraternities
and sororities, 104-132.
National Center on Education Statistics (NCES). (2017). College enrollment rates of high school
graduates, by race/ethnicity: 1960 to 1997. Retrieved from
https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d98/d98t183.asp
Nelson, D. D. (1998). National manhood: Capitalist citizenship and the imagined fraternity of
white men. Duke University Press.
Nelson Laird, T. F. (2005). College students’ experiences with diversity and their effects on
academic self-confidence, social agency, and disposition toward critical
thinking. Research in Higher education, 46(4), 365-387.
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

94
Ng, J., Lee, S., & Pak, Y. (2007). Contesting the model minority and perpetual foreigner
stereotypes: A critical review of literature on Asian Americans in education. Review of
Research in Education, 31, 95-130.
Oseguera, L. (2005). Four and six-year baccalaureate degree completion by institutional
characteristics and racial/ethnic groups. Journal of College Student Retention: Research,
Theory & Practice, 7(1), 19-59.
Parker, L., & Villalpando, O. (2007). A Race(cialized) perspective on education leadership:
Critical race theory in educational administration. Educational Administration
Quarterly, 43(5), 519-524.
Parker, L. (1998). 'Race is race ain't': An exploration of the utility of critical race theory in
qualitative research in education. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in
Education, 11(1), 43-55.
Patton, Lori D., Bridges, Brian K., & Flowers, Lamont A. (2011). Effects of Greek affiliation on
African American students' engagement: Differences by college racial
composition. College Student Affairs Journal, 29(2), 113-123.
Patton, L. D., Renn, K. A., Guido, F. M., Quaye, S. J., & Forney, D. S. (2016). Student
development in college: Theory, research, and practice. John Wiley & Sons.
Peguero, A. A. (2010). A profile of Latino school-based extracurricular activity
involvement. Journal of Latinos and Education, 9(1), 60-71.
Rangel, J. C., & Alcala, C. M. (1972). Project report: De jure segregation of Chicanos in Texas
schools. Harv. CR-CLL Rev., 7, 307.
Ray, R. (2013). Fraternity life at predominantly white universities in the US: the saliency of
race. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 36(2), 320-336.
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

95
Ray, R., & Rosow, J. A. (2012). The two different worlds of Black and White fraternity men:
Visibility and accountability as mechanisms of privilege. Journal of Contemporary
Ethnography, 41(1), 66-94.
Rosales, F. (1996). Chicano!: The history of the Mexican American civil rights movement.
Houston, TX: Arte Público Press.
Rubin H.J., & Rubin, I.S. (2005). Qualitative Interviewing (2nd ed.): The Art of
Hearing Data (2nd ed., Qualitative Interviewing (2nd ed.): The Art of Hearing Data).
Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications.
Ryan, C. L., & Bauman, K. (2016). United States Census Bureau. Educational Attainment in the
United States: 2015. Retrieved from:
http://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2016/demo/p20-578.pdf
Saenz, V.B., Hurtado, S., Barrera, D., Wolf, D., & Yeung, F. (2007). First in my family: A
profile of first-generation college students at four-year institutions since 1971. Report
from the Higher Education Research Institute and the Foundation for Independent Higher
Education. Cooperative Institutional Research Program: UCLA, Los Angeles, CA.
Salinas, G. (1970). Mexican-Americans and the Desegregation of Schools in the
Southwest. Hous. L. Rev., 8, 929.
Sánchez, G. J. (1995). Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture, and Identity in Chicano
Los Angeles, 1900-1945. Oxford University Press.
Saunders, M., & Serna, I. (2004). Making college happen: The college experiences of
first-generation Latino students. Journal of Hispanic Higher Education, 3(2), 146-
163.
Severtis Jr, R. E., & Christie-Mizell, C. A. (2007). Greek-letter membership and college
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

96
graduation: Does race matter. J. Soc. & Soc. Welfare, 34, 95.
Shalka, T. R. (2008). An exploration into differences in consciousness of self and congruence
among culturally based fraternity, social fraternity, and non-affiliated college men.
University of Maryland, College Park.
Smith, W. A., Yosso, T. J., & Solórzano, D. G. (2007). Racial primes and Black misandry on
historically White campuses: Toward critical race accountability in educational
administration. Educational Administration Quarterly, 43(5), 559-585.
Solorzano, D. G. (1997). Images and words that wound: Critical race theory, racial stereotyping,
and teacher education. Teacher Education Quarterly, 5-19.
Solorzano, D.G. (1998). Critical race theory, race and gender microagressions and the experience
of Chicana and Chicano scholars. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in
Education, 11:1, 121-136. doi:10.1080/095183998236926
Solorzano, D. G., & Bernal, D. D. (2001). Examining transformational resistance through a
critical race and LatCrit theory framework: Chicana and Chicano students in an urban
context. Urban Education, 36(3), 308-342.
Solorzano, D. G., & Villalpando, O. (1998). Critical race theory, marginality, and the experience
of students of color in higher education. Sociology of education: Emerging perspectives,
211-224.
Sólorzano, D. G., Villalpando, O., & Oseguera, L. (2005). Educational inequities and Latina/o
undergraduate students in the United States: A critical race analysis of their educational
progress. Journal of Hispanic Higher Education, 4(3), 272-294.
Stanton-Salazar, R. D. (1997). A social capital framework for understanding the socialization of
racial minority youth. Harvard Educational Review, 67(1), 1-40.
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

97
Strayhorn, T. L. (2012). College students' sense of belonging: A key to educational success for
all students. Routledge.
Torbenson, C. L., & Parks, G. (Eds.). (2009). Brothers and sisters: Diversity in college
fraternities and sororities. Associated University Presse.
Trotter, J. W. (2004). African American fraternal organizations in American history: An
introduction. Social Science History, 28(3), 355-366.
Turk, D. B. (2004). Bound by a mighty vow: Sisterhood and women's fraternities, 1870-1920.
New York, NY: NYU Press.
U.S. Bureau of Census. (2014). Projection of the size and composition of the U.S. population:
2014 to 2060. Retrieved April 17, 2017 from https://www.census.gov/
content/dam/Census/library/publications/2015/demo/p25-1143.pdf
Valencia, R., Menchaca, M., & Donato, R. (2002). Segregation, desegregation, and integration of
Chicano students: Old and new realities. In R. Valencia (Ed), Chicano School Failure
and Success: Past, Present, and Future (pp. 83-99, 104-109). New York, NY: The
Continuum Publishing Company.
Villalpando, O. (2003). Self ‐segregation or self ‐preservation? A critical race theory and Latina/o
critical theory analysis of a study of Chicana/o college students. Qualitative Studies in
Education, 16(5), 619-646.
Villalpando, O. (2004). Practical considerations of critical race theory and Latino critical theory
for Latino college students. New directions for student services, 2004(105), 41-50.
Weiss, R. S. (1994). Learning from strangers: The art and method of qualitative interview
studies. Simon and Schuster.
Yang, R. K., Byers, S. R., Salazar, G., & Salas, R. A. (2009). Cultural adaptation to a university
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

98
campus: The case of Latino students. Journal of Hispanic Higher Education, 8(2), 115-
129.
Yosso, T. J. (2005). Whose culture has capital? A critical race theory discussion of community
cultural wealth. Race Ethnicity and Education, 8(1), 69-91.
Yosso, T. J., Parker, L., Solorzano, D. G., & Lynn, M. (2004). From Jim Crow to affirmative
action and back again: A critical race discussion of racialized rationales and access to
higher education. Review of Research in Education, 28(1), 1-25.
Yosso, T., Smith, W., Ceja, M., & Solórzano, D. (2009). Critical race theory, racial
microaggressions, and campus racial climate for Latina/o undergraduates. Harvard
Educational Review, 79(4), 659-691.
Yosso, T., Villalpando, O., Delgado Bernal, D., & Solórzano, D. G. (2001). Critical race theory
in Chicana/o education. National Association for Chicana and Chicano Studies Annual
Conference. SJSU ScholarWorks
Zhao, C. M., & Kuh, G. D. (2004). Adding value: Learning communities and student
engagement. Research in Higher Education, 45(2), 115-138.

UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

99
Appendix A: Interview Protocol
Research Questions:

1. What are the experiences of students involved in historically Latino/a fraternities &
sororities at four-year institutions?
2. In what ways do students involved in historically Latino/a fraternities & sororities at
four-year institutions feel a sense of belonging in the overall fraternity and sorority life
community of the institution?
3. Do students involved in historically Latino/a fraternities & sororities at four-year
institutions feel that fraternity/sorority life policies and programs are relevant to their
experiences as diverse students? If yes, how?

Introduction
Hello, my name is Vanessa Bustamante. I am a student at the University of Southern
California (USC) in the Doctor of Higher Education Leadership program and I am currently in
my third year. The purpose of this study is to understand the experiences of students involved in
historically Latino/a Fraternities/Sororities. I will be talking to various students involved in
historically Latino/a Sororities and Fraternities to get an understanding of ways in which these
organizations intertwine with their overall campus experience. I appreciate the time you are
taking to speak with me on this topic and would like for you to know that as a volunteer, you can
choose not to answer questions if you do not feel comfortable, as well as you may ask me to stop
at any time if you no longer would like to participate. Additionally, I have an information sheet.
Would you please take a moment to read the form. You will keep one for your records and I will
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

100
keep one for mine. Furthermore, if you allow I would like to record our conversation so that I
accurately note your experience in the course of research, would you be okay with this?

Interview Questions
1. RQ 1. Tell me the process of how you came to join this Fraternity/Sorority.
a. How do you think this has been a good fit for you?
2. RQ 1. Why did you join a historically Latino/a Fraternity/Sorority opposed to any other
Fraternity/Sorority on campus?
a. Why was this a good decision for you?
3. RQ 1. Do you feel you are more connected to your university because of your
involvement in your sorority/fraternity?
a. How do you feel more connected?
4. RQ 2. What, if any differences are there among Latino/a Fraternities & Sororities and
White-based Fraternities & Sororities?
a. What, if any are the similarities among all these organizations?
5. RQ 2. Do you think your experience has been different in a Historically Latino/a-based
Fraternity/Sorority than it would have been in White-based fraternity/sorority?
a. How so?
b. Are there any visible differences? (i.e., Campus community, administration,
programs)
6. RQ 3. Do you feel all Fraternities & Sororities are treated equally among the Greek
Community on campus?
7. RQ 3. How, if in any ways do you feel you are supported/not-supported being part of a
historically Latino/a Fraternity or Sorority by the overall campus community?
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

101
8. RQ 3. Is there any misconceptions/misinformation about the Latino/a fraternity/sorority
community?
a. Are these on a micro or macro level?
b. Do you think your campus helps inform students?
9. RQ3. Do you feel fraternity/sorority life programming is relevant to your organizations?
a. Which topics are most relevant?
b. Do you think anything could be added to programming that would specifically
help your organization/members?

UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

102
Appendix B: Survey
Fraternity/Sorority Life Interactions Survey for Students at SU
1. I am a member of a
a. Historically Latina Sorority
b. Historically Latino Fraternity
2. My current status is
a. Active Undergraduate
b. Inactive Undergraduate
c. Alumni Member
3. The language and terminology used in university fraternity/sorority life materials
(i.e., pamphlets, PowerPoint, presentations, etc.) is inclusive of the
language/terminology used in my organization
a. Strongly disagree
b. Disagree
c. Neither agree nor disagree
d. Agree
e. Strongly agree
4. The university community (i.e., Faculty, staff, administrators, and students) respects
my organization the same way they respect organizations in the Panhellenic and
Interfraternity Council
a. Strongly disagree
b. Disagree
c. Neither agree nor disagree
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

103
d. Agree
e. Strongly agree
5. The Fraternity/Sorority Life Office staff shares accolades or positive organizational
practices from Latino/a-based fraternities/sororities the same way they share those
from Panhellenic and Interfraternity Council’s
a. Strongly disagree
b. Disagree
c. Neither agree nor disagree
d. Agree
e. Strongly agree
6. The imagery used in university fraternity/sorority life materials (i.e., pamphlets,
PowerPoint, presentations, etc.) accurately depicts my organization
a. Strongly disagree
b. Disagree
c. Neither agree nor disagree
d. Agree
e. Strongly Agree
7. Members of my organization have access to the same resources as those from
Panhellenic and the Interfraternity Council
a. Strongly disagree
b. Disagree
c. Neither agree nor disagree
d. Agree
UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

104
e. Strongly agree
8. Fraternity/Sorority Life Office staff understand the unique needs of members of my
organization
a. Strongly disagree
b. Disagree
c. Neither agree nor disagree
d. Agree
e. Strongly agree
9. When I visit the Fraternity/Sorority Life Office staff, I feel that I am greeted and
given the same priority as members of the Panhellenic and Interfraternity Council
a. Strongly disagree
b. Disagree
c. Neither agree nor disagree
d. Agree
e. Strongly agree
10. When I engage with the Fraternity/Sorority Life Office staff, I feel that I am greeted
and given the same priority as members of the Panhellenic and Interfraternity Council
a. Strongly disagree
b. Disagree
c. Neither agree nor disagree
d. Agree
e. Strongly agree

UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

105
Appendix C: Information Sheet Template
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089-4033

INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

Historically Latino/a-based Fraternities/Sororities: Understanding Latino/A Student Experiences
in a Historically White-dominated System

You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Vanessa Bustamante under the
supervision of Dr. Tracy Tambascia, at the University of Southern California. Research studies
include only people who voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about
this study and the volunteer procedures. Please feel free to ask any questions, should they arise at
any time.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to understand the experiences of students involved in historically
Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities at a Predominantly White Institution (PWI) and how
participation in these organizations affect their ability to persist in college and graduate. This study
will help inform administrators and student affairs professionals, of the lived experiences of
students involved in historically Latino/a fraternities/sororities. It would allow for an exploration
of culturally relevant pedagogy, culturally inclusive processes, and ideas on how to foster positive
campus racial climates for students of color.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in a 60-90-minute audio-
recorded in-person interview. At any time during the study, the participant can opt out of answering
certain questions.

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
Participants will receive a five-dollar Starbucks gift card for participating in the study.

CONFIDENTIALITY
Any and all identifiable information obtained in connection with this study will remain
confidential. Participant responses will be coded with a false name of your choosing (pseudonym)
and maintained separately in a password protected file on the researcher’s personal computer. The
audio files will be stored on a password-protected computer in the researcher’s computer for five
years after the study has been completed and then all information will be destroyed.

UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

106
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies
to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research study, please contact the following
Vanessa Bustamante via e-mail vbustama@usc.edu or phone at (818) 497-1735 or Faculty Advisor
Dr. Tracy Tambascia at tpoon@rossier.usc.edu or (213) 740-9747.

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu

UNDERSTANDING LATINO/A STUDENT EXPERIENCES

107
Appendix D: Recruitment E-mail
Dear [Name],

My name is Vanessa Bustamante and I am Doctor of Higher Education Leadership program in
the Rossier School of Education at University of Southern California. I am conducting a research
study as part of my dissertation, which examines the authentic experiences of students involved
in Historically Latino/a-based fraternities and sororities at the University of Southern California,
which is a Predominantly White Institution (PWI). The study will use interviews and anonymous
surveys. If you agree to participate in an interview, you are invited to e-mail me, text, or call me
to setup your interview.
Each interview is anticipated to last approximately 60-90 minutes and will be audiotaped. The
interview will take place at the University of Southern California between October 23rd and
December 8th based on your availability.
Participation in this study is completely voluntary and will be compensated with a Starbucks gift
card. Your identity as a participant will remain confidential at all times during and after the
study.
If you have questions or would like to participate, please contact me at vbustama@usc.edu or
(818) 497-1735.
Thank you for your participation,

Vanessa M. Bustamante
Doctoral Candidate - Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study examines the experiences of Latino/a students involved in historically Latino/a fraternities and sororities at a Predominantly White Institution (PWI) in Southern California. The sample in this study includes students from nine different historically Latino/a fraternities and sororities. The study uses the theoretical framework of Critical Race Theory (CRT) to understand the narratives and counterstories of Latino/a students and their experiences in White-dominated systems and policies. Data from this study found that although students had positive developmental experiences within their own organizations, they did not feel a sense of belonging within the overall structure of fraternity and sorority life or on campus. Recommendations for practice include the need for administrators to ensure there are institutional agents in positions of power that can center social justice in processes, policies, and procedures that govern fraternity and sorority life. Additionally, fraternity and sorority life offices need to include historically Latino/a-based fraternity and sorority imagery, culture and processes in university materials and finally, the need to create equity by allocating funding to smaller organizations in order to allow for the same representation as larger, more affluent White-based organizations.

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

Student perceptions and experiences: deconstructing race in fraternity/sorority life

PDF

The influence of a Latina-based sorority on the academic experiences of Latina college students

PDF

The racialized experiences of Black students in online master’s degree programs at a Predominately White Institution

PDF

Latino/a college student-athletes: Influences on recruitment, enrollment and degree completion

PDF

Understanding the influences on academic performance of African American students in Black Greek letter organizations

PDF

The lived experience of first-generation latino students in remedial education and navigating the transfer pathway

PDF

Campus change agents: examining the experiences of cultural center scholar practitioners at a predominantly White institution

PDF

A critical worldview: understanding identity and sense of belonging of underrepresented students' participation in study abroad

PDF

Assessing LGBT student experiences and perceptions: a campus climate case study

PDF

The psychosociocultural model as it relates to Latino/a college students and their academic success: a literature review

PDF

Promoting equity in discipline practices for Latino students: a gap analysis

PDF

Defining and implementing Hawaiian culture based education at a Hawaiian focused charter school

PDF

Academic dishonesty among international students: Exploring aspects of language and culture

PDF

Enhancing the international student experience through graduate employment preparedness

PDF

Assessing the impact of the Puente Project on Latino males in California community colleges

PDF

Transfer students from California community colleges: a narrative approach to understanding the social capital and institutional factors that lead to a timely transfer to a public, four-year univ...

PDF

Closing the achievement gap for marginalized students using the college-going culture: a promising practices study

PDF

¿Dónde están todos los hombres latinos? A qualitative exploration of barriers to and enablers of participation in study abroad for first-generation Latino male college students

PDF

Pa’delante, la lucha continúa: resiliency among Latinx college students with past experiences of bullying

PDF

Utilization of accommodations for learning or other non-apparent disabilities: the influence of ableism on student behavior

Asset Metadata

Creator Bustamante, Vanessa Marie (author)

Core Title Historically Latino/a-based fraternities/sororities: understanding Latino/a student experiences in a historically White-dominated system

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/12/2018

Defense Date 03/14/2018

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag campus climate,Chicana,Chicano,critical race theory,CRT,fraternity,Higher education,historically Latina-based sororities,historically Latino-based fraternities,involvement,Latina,Latino,OAI-PMH Harvest,sorority,student involvement

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Tambascia, Tracy Poon (committee chair), Dougherty, Kevin A. (committee member), Green, Alan (committee member)

Creator Email ra.vanessa.b@gmail.com,vbustama@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-8266

Unique identifier UC11671811

Identifier etd-Bustamante-6232.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-8266 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Bustamante-6232.pdf

Dmrecord 8266

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Bustamante, Vanessa Marie

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA