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Advertising sales performance at a traditional media company operating in the digital age

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Advertising sales performance at a traditional media company operating in the digital age

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Content Running head: ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 1

ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE AT A TRADITIONAL MEDIA COMPANY
OPERATING IN THE DIGITAL AGE

by
Michael Pettiette

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2018

Copyright 2018 Michael Pettiette

ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 2

TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Tables 3
List of Figures 4
Abstract 5
Introduction to Problem of Practice 6
Organizational Context and Mission 7
Importance of Addressing the Problem 7
Organizational Performance Goal 8
Stakeholder of Focus and Stakeholder Goal 8
Purpose of the Project and Questions 8
Review of the Literature 9
Perceived Role Clarity and Perceived Role Ambiguity 10
Perceived Role Conflict 11
Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences 12
Knowledge and Skills 12
Motivation 17
Organizational Influences 23
Conceptual Framework 29
Data Collection and Instrumentation 31
Survey 31
Data Analysis 32
Validity and Reliability 32
Findings 34
Knowledge Findings 34
Motivation Findings 39
Organizational Findings 47
Recommendations and Solutions 53
First Step: Set Goals That Are Achievable, Fair, and Timely 54
Second Step: Provide Training 57
Limitations and Delimitations 62
Recommendations for Future Research 63
Conclusion 64
References 65
Appendix A: Survey Data 75
Appendix B: Ethics 80
Appendix C: Implementation and Evaluation Plan 82
Appendix D: Survey Items 90

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: ZAP Corporation Knowledge, Motivational, and Organizational Factors 28
Table 2: Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes 84
Table 3: Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation 85
Table 4: Recommended Training 86
Table 5: Components of Learning for the Program 88
Table 6: Components to Measure Reactions to the Program 89

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: ZAP Corporation conceptual framework 29
Figure 2: Custom marketing Likert 34
Figure 3: Sales process Likert 35
Figure 4: Broadcast knowledge Likert 36
Figure 5: Digital knowledge Likert 36
Figure 6: Sales goals reflection Likert 38
Figure 7: Multi-goal reflection Likert 38
Figure 8: Top Salesperson Likert 40
Figure 9: Best Salesperson Likert 41
Figure 10: Mastery versus performance orientation Likert 42
Figure 11: Goal understanding Likert 44
Figure 12: Goal prioritization Likert 44
Figure 13: Achievable goals Likert 45
Figure 14. Understand how to achieve goals Likert 46
Figure 15. Short/long term goals Likert 48
Figure 16. Innovation Likert 49
Figure 17. Trust Likert 50
Figure 18. Differences of opinion Likert 51
Figure 19. Industry change Likert 52

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ABSTRACT
ZAP Corporation, a traditional media company, has experienced a lack of revenue growth
related to the industry-wide disruption caused by digital media. Role clarity is an important asset
for organizations that require innovation and creativity to prosper, and the ZAP Corporation will
likely require innovation and creativity to cope with this industry-wide disruption. Therefore,
the purpose of this study was to evaluate the degree to which the ZAP Corporation is meeting the
stakeholder goal of achieving 100% perceived role clarity among salespeople, based on survey
data, by the end of 2019. Two different groups of salespeople at the ZAP Corporation were
surveyed regarding knowledge, motivational, and organizational factors uncovered through a
literature review related to role clarity. The survey results show that many of the salespeople do
not perceive themselves as fully knowledgeable about the digital media assets that they are
selling. The survey results also demonstrate that the salespeople do not perceive their sales goals
to be achievable, timely, or fair. They perceive their goals as being too voluminous, and they do
not believe that the organization properly balances short-term and long-term goals. To address
these findings, I recommend three actions. First, the organization must change its goal-setting
practices so that the goals are perceived to be achievable, timely, and fair. Further inquiry might
be required to better understand what specific changes would address these goal-setting issues.
Second, education-based digital industry training will arm the salespeople with deeper industry
knowledge that may be more valuable than simple product-specific knowledge, given that the
products themselves are rapidly-changing. Third, training on metacognition (reflective practices)
may help the salespeople become clearer on how their goals reciprocally support the goals of the
organization, how digital ties in with these goals, and how metacognition can be used as a tool to
help salespeople think through their voluminous goals so that they may better prioritize them.
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 6

INTRODUCTION TO PROBLEM OF PRACTICE
For many of the largest media companies in the world, the sale of advertising space
represents a major percentage, and in many cases a majority, of overall revenue (Arsenault &
Castells, 2008; Macnamara, 2010). A company’s ability to generate profits is important for
financial success and the firm’s long-term competitiveness (Lafley & Charan, 2008; Sarkees &
Hulland, 2009). The overall media industry has seen consistent growth in recent years (Letang
& Leszenga, 2017), although the mix of revenue has shifted from traditional advertising to
digital advertising in many cases (Arsenault & Castells, 2008; Letang & Leszenga, 2017;
Macnamara, 2010). During this industry growth, a division of the ZAP Corporation has not
achieved its revenue budgets and has experienced revenue declines in each of the past three years
(internal documents
1
). This problem could be caused by a number of factors. To ensure that this
inquiry remains appropriately focused and effective, I chose to focus on the area of role clarity.
It is possible that this industry-wide digital disruption has reduced the clarity of roles and
expectations for the people working within traditional media companies as the employees
struggle to understand how to move forward in a changed landscape (Briggs, Jaramillo, &
Weeks, 2012; Horst & Moisander, 2015; Karimi & Walter, 2015; Maidell, 2015). In addition to
this industry change, ZAP Corporation was also undergoing internal change during this inquiry.
Because role clarity is directly linked with change success (Hall, 2008), role clarity is a relevant
consideration in this situation given the internal and external changes taking place. It is a
problem that this division of the ZAP Corporation has not achieved revenue growth over the past
three years. This inquiry focused on one potential contributing factor to this problem: the
possible lack of role clarity for salespeople operating within the ZAP Corporation. Training for

1
specific citation information has been omitted to maintain confidentiality
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salespeople in digital media and reflective practice, and changes in goal-setting practices are
indicated as possible solutions to coping with the numerous factors suggested in the data that
may be inhibiting role clarity.
Organizational Context and Mission
The ZAP Corporation is a publicly traded, mass-media firm operating businesses that
include broadcast and digital media interests in major media markets in the United States. The
mission of the organization is to deliver shareholder value while serving the communities it
operates within by delivering timely, informative, and entertaining content to consumers:
broadcast, streaming, digital video, digital articles, and via other means (ZAP website, 2016
2
).
In 2015, a majority of ZAP’s revenue came from advertising sales (Forbes.com, 2016
3
).
Although there are several different measures of financial performance that are important for the
organization’s stock price, sustainable topline revenue growth, regardless of market conditions,
is the paramount organizational goal within the company.
Importance of Addressing the Problem
A company’s ability to generate profits is important for financial success and the firm’s
long-term competitiveness (Lafley & Charan, 2008; Sarkees & Hulland, 2009). ZAP
Corporation’s upper management has repeatedly verbalized the need to grow revenue every year
in national earnings calls. Furthermore, it is also clear that market changes created by the digital
disruption are likely to remain uncertain for some time:
The business models that have been adopted and that are being modified show that the
industries are adapting to the new environment and responding to consumers’ readiness

2
specific citation information has been omitted to maintain confidentiality
3
specific citation information has been omitted to maintain confidentiality
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 8

to embrace the Internet. It is also clear that for both producers and users, change is
ongoing. (Ala-Fossi et al., 2008, p. 166)
ZAP’s mission and organizational goals must be examined within the context of these market
changes.
Organizational Performance Goal
Many traditional media companies have seen digital revenue experience double-digit
growth as traditional media revenue sources decline (Ala-Fossi et al., 2008). Ala-Fossi et al.
(2008) pointed out that these growing digital revenue streams make up too small a percentage of
many traditional media companies’ revenue to overcome the declines in the traditional core
business. With an understanding of these market changes, ZAP’s organizational goal is to
achieve a sustainable and consistent three percent annual growth in sales each year starting in
2020.
Stakeholder of Focus and Stakeholder Goal
ZAP has multiple stakeholder groups: the organization is vast and includes many
disparate businesses and stakeholders. For the purposes of this inquiry, I have focused on the
salespeople as my stakeholder of focus. Salespeople are responsible for generating advertising
revenue. Because I am focused on role clarity for this inquiry, the stakeholder goal is to achieve
100% perceived role clarity among the salespeople based on survey data by the end of 2019.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to evaluate the degree to which ZAP Corporation is
meeting the stakeholder goal of achieving 100% perceived role clarity among the salespeople
based on survey data by the end of 2019. The analysis focused on the knowledge, motivation,
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 9

and organizational influences related to achieving the stakeholder goal. The questions that
guided this study are the following:
1. To what extent are the salespeople at ZAP Corporation meeting the stakeholder goal of
achieving 100% perceived role clarity by the end of 2019?
2. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related to achieving
ZAP Corporation’s stakeholder goal of achieving 100% perceived role clarity among the
salespeople?
3. What are the recommendations for ZAP Corporation’s organizational practice in the
areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources as they relate to achieving
100% perceived role clarity among the salespeople?
Review of the Literature
The traditional media industry’s revenue problem caused by the digital disruption is well
researched (Gianatasio, 2017; Truong, McColl &, Kitchen, 2010; Yoon & Kim, 2001; Zhu,
2001). Traditional media spending is predicted to stagnate while digital media revenue is
predicted to grow at annual rates as high as 40% (Truong et al., 2010, p. 711). The current sales
strategies that are based on traditional media models will likely require reexamination and
creative modification to remain effective (Truong et al., 2010). Therefore, to achieve more than
middling revenue growth, media companies need to better understand how best to effect cultural
change, innovation, and creativity within the traditional media organizations as digital media
alters the landscape. To that end, according to Schein (2004), it is important that before cultural
change can be addressed, “one needs to (1) have a clear definition of the operational problem or
issue that started the change process and (2) formulate specific new behavioral goals” (p. 324).
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 10

Insufficient role clarity has been empirically demonstrated to reduce the individual’s
creativity and innovativeness (Donnelly & Ivancevich, 1975; Lyons, 1971; Tang & Chang,
2010). Moreover, the literature highlights the need for clear decision-making to create
successful change (Rogers & Blenko, 2006). In addition to industry change, ZAP Corporation
was also undergoing significant internal change during this inquiry; because role clarity is
directly linked with change success (Hall, 2008), it is an important factor to consider in this
situation given the internal and external environments. Therefore, there are strong arguments
present in the literature that the problem of insufficient role clarity would have a negative effect
on traditional media companies and individuals because these organizations, like many
organizations, must produce culture change and creative innovations as mechanisms for coping
with industry disruption and declining sales (Donnelly & Ivancevich, 1975; Gianatasio, 2017;
Karimi & Walter, 2015; Lyons, 1971; Tang & Chang, 2010; Truong et al., 2010; Yoon & Kim,
2001; Zhu, 2001).
Perceived Role Clarity and Perceived Role Ambiguity
There is recognition in the literature that role clarity itself suffers from a lack of clarity in
terms of definition. In his seminal work, Sawyer (1992) recognized that the terms role clarity
and role ambiguity are really two sides of the same coin that contain a combination of the same
constructs. According to Tang and Chang (2010), “Role clarity refers to how clearly a set of
activities expected from an individual are expressed. Role ambiguity…is the reverse situation”
(p. 870). Experienced role ambiguity involves perceived confusion about responsibilities (Tang
& Chang, 2010; Sawyer, 1992). Many scholars have thus chosen to focus their inquiry on
perception when looking at role clarity (Bliese, & Castro, 2000; Donnelly & Ivancevich, 1975;
Singh, & Rhoads, 1991; Walker, Churchill, & Ford, 1975). Therefore, it can be assumed that
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 11

references to role ambiguity and role clarity throughout this inquiry are synonymous (two sides
of the same coin) in terms of the perceptual constructs that were being referenced and measured
during the inquiry.
Perceived Role Conflict
Role conflict “results from two or more sets of incompatible demands involving work-
related issues” (Tang & Chang, 2010, p. 871). As highlighted by Tang and Chang (2010), the
literature frequently refers to role conflict as a separate and distinct element that may contribute
to role ambiguity. Role conflict may take place when components of the role definitions conflict
with each other (Floyd & Lane, 2000; Sawyer, 1992; Tang & Chang, 2010; Walker et al., 1975).
As an example, salespeople must deliver on their clients’ objectives as well as their company’s
objectives. The company (ZAP) wants more profit, and the client (advertiser) wants more profit.
This may create a role conflict for the salesperson because they want to get a high price for their
company, and their own pocketbook if they are paid on commission, and a low price for their
clients (Floyd & Lane, 2000). This role conflict is an aspect of role clarity because there is some
evidence that this conflict can create perceived ambiguity (Floyd & Lane, 2000; Sawyer, 1992;
Singh & Rhoads, 1991; Tang & Chang, 2010; Walker et al., 1975). The company may have
some awareness that this conflict is present for the salesperson as they balance the needs of their
client and their company (Floyd & Lane, 2000; Sawyer, 1992; Tang & Chang, 2010; Walker et
al., 1975). However, role conflict may also take place in a way that is not planned or understood
during industry disruption or innovation (Horst & Moisander, 2015).
Multiple empirical studies (Briggs et al., 2012; Horst & Moisander, 2015; Karimi &
Walter, 2015; Maidell, 2015) demonstrate that the digital media disruption is creating a need for
strategic renewal among traditional media companies: each study finds some evidence of role
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 12

conflict created by innovation and strategic renewal. If a media salesperson is told to sell
broadcast advertising and digital advertising, how do they decide how to tackle those
responsibilities? Even if there is a clear answer, if the salesperson does not perceive the answer
to be clear, she may suffer from perceived role conflict because the two objectives appear to be
at odds (Floyd & Lane, 2000). This role conflict for the media salesperson may, therefore,
contribute to role ambiguity. It is possible that some role conflict pushes people to arrive at
creative solutions, while too much conflict creates too much stress and reduces creativity (Tang
& Chang, 2010). Tang and Chang (2010) link this concept of role conflict with stress and
arousal theories: some stress, perhaps created by role conflict, is beneficial for creating
performance and creativity, but too much stress may kill out performance and creativity.
Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
Knowledge and Skills
In this section, I will review the literature that focuses on knowledge-related influences
that are pertinent to the achievement of the stakeholder goal of achieving role clarity. According
to Clark and Estes (2008), “it is necessary to determine whether people know how (and when,
what, why, where, and who) to achieve their performance goals” (p. 44). These aspects of
knowledge appear to directly correlate with sales success: in an empirical study of salespeople,
Sharma, Levy, and Evanschitzky (2007) found that “knowledge structure variables explain 50.2
percent of the variance in sales performance” (p. 169). Therefore, it is important to examine the
relevant aspects of knowledge that are necessary for role clarity and organizational effectiveness
within these stakeholders’ context.
Knowledge influences. I will examine literature that is relevant to salespeople within
ZAP Corporation with a special emphasis on role expectations knowledge and metacognitive
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 13

knowledge factors. I will examine these factors broadly and then look at the concepts as they
pertain to salespeople in the media industry. It is important to examine role expectations
knowledge because there is evidence that knowledge of one’s role expectations and goals is a
critical aspect of creativity and persistence (Shalley & Gilson, 2004; Tang & Chang, 2010).
And, within a sales context, Bell, Mengüç, and Widing (2010) pointed to several organizational
learning benefits related to having well-defined role expectations and a thorough understanding
of how the roles interact in a sales organization. It is important to examine metacognitive
knowledge factors because, according to Matsuo (2011) “metacognitive knowledge facilitates
decision-making, problem solving, and task performance” (p. 312).
Role expectations is a concept referenced in serval areas of the literature (Bell et al.,
2010; Shalley & Gilson, 2004; Tang & Chang, 2010). I have chosen to adopt the knowledge of
one’s role expectations as a precept for this inquiry because there are specific links with this
concept and role clarity, creativity, and innovation present within the literature (Bell et al., 2010;
Shalley & Gilson, 2004; Tang & Chang, 2010). There is a distinction here between role
expectations knowledge and the more granular elements that make it up: declarative and
procedural knowledge. Furthermore, there may be a link with role expectations knowledge and
metacognitive knowledge, as the literature frequently addresses metacognitive thought as it
relates to one’s role expectations (Bell et al., 2010; Shalley & Gilson, 2004). Do the salespeople
understand what is expected in their role? Do they know how to fulfill those expectations? If
they do not have the appropriate knowledge to answer affirmatively to these first two questions,
they may have a gap in their role expectations knowledge. Do they understand that they do not
yet have this role expectations knowledge (metacognitive knowledge)? Some metacognition
may take place as the salesperson examines if they do, in fact, understand their own role
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 14

expectations, especially given the evidence that perception is the driving force behind
experienced role clarity (Bliese, & Castro, 2000; Donnelly & Ivancevich, 1975; Singh, &
Rhoads, 1991; Walker et al., 1975).
Role expectations knowledge. One must possess some procedural and declarative
knowledge to understand one’s role expectations and responsibilities (Banks & Millward, 2007;
Tang & Chang, 2010). According to Banks and Millward (2007), “procedural knowledge is
defined as ‘the steps, procedures, sequences, and actions required for task performance’” (p. 4).
As a part of their role, salespeople are required to know the steps about what they are supposed
to do and have declarative knowledge about their products and industry so that they can
appropriately execute these steps (Jones, Chonko, Jones, & Stevens, 2012). Role expectations
knowledge for a salesperson includes knowing how to sell and knowing about what they are
selling; the salespeople must have knowledge of their own role and responsibilities and have
enough clarity to engage in creative selling behaviors (Tang & Chang, 2010).
Understanding what to do is as important as understanding how to do each task (Banks &
Millward, 2007). In a sales role, one must know the procedures related to getting an
appointment, asking questions to uncover potential needs, handling objections, negotiations, etc.
(Jones et al., 2012). Jones et al. (2012) label one of these steps as “prescription” (p. 109). In the
prescription step, salespeople work to fully understand the customer’s challenges and to develop
appropriate solutions (Jones et al., 2012). Without the necessary procedural knowledge
highlighted by Sharma et al. (2007), the prescription step mentioned by Jones and colleagues
may not be effective. Effective salespeople need to have the role expectations knowledge that
drives them to understand the required procedures to uncover customer needs (asking questions
and doing research). Moreover, there is empirical evidence to support the strength of the
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 15

predictive relationship between these abilities and sales success (Sharma et al., 2007). If you do
not know the steps in selling, you will likely not sell the client anything, but, if you sell the client
the wrong product, they may not stay your client for long. Lack of product knowledge is a
problem often noted by customers who interact with salespeople (Jones et al., 2012). Therefore,
role expectations knowledge includes both an understanding of the required procedures of the
sales process, and the declarative product knowledge of what products are appropriate to sell to
which clients.
The need for procedural knowledge related to this prescription step among media
salespeople at ZAP may be even more essential given clients’ general uncertainty related to
digital media and the industry’s corresponding disruption (Gianatasio, 2017; Truong et al., 2010;
Yoon & Kim, 2001; Zhu, 2001). There is also a link with procedural knowledge and creativity
and, given the industry’s disruption, creative solutions may be an important part of developing
positive client outcomes (Evans, McFarland, Dietz, & Jaramillo, 2012; Truong et al. 2010; Yoon
& Kim, 2001; Zhu, 2001). According to Evans et al. (2012), these critical aspects of procedural
knowledge of salespeople may enhance their ability to adapt creatively to unusual and
challenging situations. Therefore, there is strong evidence in the literature related to the
importance of procedural knowledge in the context of a rapidly changing media sales context
(Banks & Millward, 2007; Evans et al., 2012; Jones et al., 2012; Sharma et al., 2007; Truong et
al. 2010; Yoon & Kim, 2001; Zhu, 2001). As an expectation of their role, media salespeople at
ZAP Corporation are also required to gain declarative knowledge across a variety of broadcast,
event sponsorship, and digital advertising products. The relatively recent digital declarative
knowledge requirements are challenging given the speed of industry change (Gianatasio, 2017;
Truong et al. 2010; Yoon & Kim, 2001; Zhu, 2001). Both the declarative information about the
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 16

product and industry, and the steps of selling are important components of role expectations
knowledge.
Metacognitive knowledge. According to Matsuo (2011), self-reflection is a critical
element of our ability to adapt and learn. Three key areas of metacognitive knowledge are
“strategic knowledge, knowledge about cognitive tasks, and self-knowledge” (p. 312). In an
empirical study of salespeople, Matsuo (2011) found a statistically significant link between
metacognitive knowledge and sales performance. Salespeople who engage in metacognition
related to achieving their customers’ objectives and their own personal goal achievement are
more likely to achieve goals in the early stages of their careers (Matsuo, 2011).
Given that ZAP Corporation operates in an industry undergoing rapid change
(Gianatasio, 2017; Truong et al. 2010; Yoon & Kim, 2001; Zhu, 2001), and because there is
evidence that metacognition and reflection enhance the individual’s ability to adjust to a rapidly
changing environment (Immordino-Yang, Christodoulou, & Singh, 2012; Isaacson & Fujita,
2006; Rodgers, 2002), there is a strong argument present in the literature related to the value of
metacognition. There may also be an argument related to the power of reflection and role clarity;
even if some role clarity is provided by management, the mere perception of role ambiguity is
enough to affect outcomes (Lyons, 1971; Tang & Chang, 2012). Therefore, metacognition
(reflection) may aid a salesperson in enhancing their own role expectations knowledge over time
as they continuously think about their own knowledge as it relates to their role. Reflective
activity related to one’s self and one’s organization could mitigate perceived role ambiguity
merely through the metacognitive activity of thinking through one’s role: this process may in and
of itself reduce the perception of ambiguity (Immordino-Yang et al., 2012; Isaacson & Fujita,
2006; Rodgers, 2002). If the salesperson does not possess the appropriate knowledge related to
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 17

the expectations of their role, it is possible that metacognition could help them recognize this
(Immordino-Yang et al., 2012; Isaacson & Fujita, 2006; Rodgers, 2002; Shalley & Gilson,
2004). The salesperson needs the factual and procedural knowledge that encompasses their role,
and metacognition could help them recognize if they do not have clarity on critical aspects of
that role (Isaacson & Fujita, 2006; Immordino-Yang et al., 2012; Rodgers, 2002).
Motivation
According to Clark and Estes (2008) “motivation is the internal, psychological process
that gets us going, keeps us moving, and helps us get jobs done” (p. 44). For the purposes of
understanding role clarity within ZAP Corporation, I focused this literature review on goal
orientation and self-efficacy with an emphasis on how these concepts affect role clarity,
creativity, and innovation. According to Clark and Estes (2008), motivation factors have
influence on our choices as they relate to pursuing goals, persisting in the face of adversity as we
work to achieve these goals, and the amount of mental effort we invest in achieving these goals.
Therefore, motivation is a critical element of salesperson success in situations that require the
adoption of challenging goals, persistence, and investment of mental effort.
Goal orientation. Anderman (2015) provided a working definition of the goal orientation
concepts in the context of student learning that includes mastery orientation and performance
orientation. Mastery-oriented individuals are focused on deeply understanding the concepts at
hand and are more likely to persist in many tough situations. Performance-oriented individuals
simply want to demonstrate that they have abilities that are appropriate as they relate to the
measured abilities of others. The performance-oriented individual is frequently more
extrinsically motivated than the mastery-oriented individual. It is important to emphasize that
people can simultaneously “be both mastery-approach oriented and performance-approach
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 18

oriented; such a student truly wants to learn and master the material but is also concerned with
appearing more competent than others” (Anderman, 2015, para. 4). There is also some evidence
that an individual’s attitude towards intelligence affects their predisposition to mastery versus
performance; people who believe that intelligence is modifiable through hard work are more
likely to hold a mastery orientation (Anderman, 2015; Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Elliott & Dweck,
1988). According to VandeWalle, Brown, Cron, and Slocum (1999), goal orientation may have
a positive link with self-regulation. These self-regulation tactics include individual goal-setting
behaviors (VandeWalle et al., 1999).
Salesperson goal orientation. There are specific aspects of goal orientation that apply
uniquely to salespeople. Bell et al. (2010) suggested that aspects of goal orientation should be
considered in the hiring process and that training programs may be less important than once
thought. However, the goal orientation motivation-effect may be moderated by repeated
individual failure: salespeople may become more performance-oriented and less mastery-
oriented in the face of adversity (Boichuk et al., 2014). Boichuk et al. (2014) referred to this
type of performance orientation as “sales-oriented behaviors” that “can be defined as customer-
directed influence attempts that are indifferent to customers’ unique needs and intended to spur
immediate sales” (p. 95). When engaging in this type of sales-oriented behavior, salespeople
may effectively ignore any role expectations knowledge or metacognitive knowledge they may
have gained in favor of engaging in behaviors that disregard the steps of the sales process (Jones
et al., 2012) in hopes of creating quick, perhaps one-time, sales that may snub client needs
(Boichuk et al., 2014). An example of sales-oriented behavior might involve making a generic
advertising campaign and trying to sell it to multiple clients with high-pressure tactics: the
salesperson is just trying to make a sale without worrying about what would work for the client
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 19

in the long-term. This type of motivation issue may be an orientation problem rather than a
persistence problem (Boichuk et al., 2014; Pintrich, 2003).
This sales-oriented behavior is a form of “learned helplessness” where there is still some
motivation to persist in the sales effort, but when the proper techniques (role expectations
knowledge) are abandoned (Boichuk et al., 2014, p. 96). According to Boichuk et al. (2014),
“We contend that salespeople also behave helplessly during their interactions with customers by
way of engaging in sales-oriented behaviors, which, unlike the avoidance behaviors studied to
date, aim to make a sale” (p. 97). There is also evidence that role conflict may reduce intrinsic
motivation that, therefore, reduces creative solution-seeking (Tang & Chang, 2010). The
findings of Boichuk et al. (2014) and Tang and Chang (2010) appears to draw compatible
conclusions that job stress, perhaps related to role conflict or sales failure, may affect motivation
in a way that encourages sales-oriented behavior and reduces the type of creativity that is
necessary to develop customized and effective client solutions.
Goal content. Clark and Estes (2008) argued that effective “C
3
”

goals are “concrete,”
“challenging,” and “current” (p. 26). The term concrete is defined as “clear, easily
understandable, and measurable” (p. 26). Clark and Estes (2008) also wrote about the concept of
“cascading goals” (p. 35). They argued that members of an organization are most effective if
they have a clear understanding of what they need to do “this week (and next)” to hit the
organization’s long-term organizational goals (p. 35). The most effective goals give short-term,
intermediate, and long-term guidelines with demonstrated links among the steps; each step
should also be concrete, challenging and current (Clark & Estes, 2008). Furthermore, Clark and
Estes (2008) recommended caution related to a goal-setting challenge they refer to as “thrashing”
(p. 27) that creates so many goals and layers of accountability measurement metrics such that
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 20

each metric is reduced in its effectiveness at driving organizational outcomes. Paradoxically,
this amount of goals and goal measurement may inhibit the individual’s ability to be accountable
as they become overwhelmed with their responsibilities. According to Clark and Estes (2008),
“Current evidence suggests people can think about approximately three to five new chunks or
items at once, and that number decreases as stress increases” (p.27). The goal content must be
C
3
and cascading but cannot be so voluminous that the goals create thrashing (Clark & Estes,
2008). Miao, Evans, and Shaoming (2007) find that this type of voluminous goal setting does
not properly function in the long-term because such specific goals are not adaptable enough to
function in a changing environment. Miao et al. (2007) also found that this type of voluminous
goal setting may kill out motivation because the individual has no room to experiment or apply
new learnings they develop in the field.
There is a link between highly prescriptive goal content, role clarity, and self-efficacy
(Tang & Chang, 2010). If role conflict and role ambiguity make individuals believe that their
circumstances are difficult to control, self-efficacy can be negatively affected (Tang & Chang,
2010). Role ambiguity makes it more difficult for an individual to accurately access their skills:
the individual needs to be able to visualize what ideal performance looks like to assess self-
efficacy (Bandura, 1977; Tang & Chang, 2010).
However, according Griffin, Neal, and Parker (2007), it is also possible that too much
role clarity via prescriptive goal content can create an external mode of control: “Role clarity
facilitates an external mode of control because the procedures and processes are specified, so
role incumbents know what to do, how to do it, and how they are evaluated” (p. 333). The
literature often refers to this concept of external control as a low locus of control, and a low locus
of control is associated with higher job-related stress, lower job satisfaction, and reduced job
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 21

performance (Chen & Silverthorne, 2008; Lefcourt, 2014). Therefore, there is a tension present
in the literature related to the amount of role clarity and prescriptive goal content that is
appropriate to maintain self-efficacy: the individual needs to be able to visualize success without
being micro-managed on all required behaviors needed to achieve that success (Bandura, 1977;
Chen & Silverthorne, 2008; Griffin, et al., 2007; Lefcourt, 2014; Tang & Chang, 2010). The
goal content must not be so voluminous that it cannot be well-understood (Clark & Estes, 2008).
The goal content cannot be so specific that it is no longer adaptable to changing environments or
restrains experimentation (Miao et al., 2007). The goal content cannot be so prescriptive that the
internal locus of control is destroyed (Chen & Silverthorne, 2008; Griffin, et al., 2007; Lefcourt,
2014), and it cannot be so structured that all creativity is removed (Tang & Chang, 2010).
However, the goal content must provide enough role clarity that success can be visualized and
therefore self-efficacy can be maintained (Bandura, 1977; Tang & Chang, 2010).
Salesperson goal content. Boichuk et al. (2014) found that leadership practices that
include “fostering the acceptance of group goals…reduces newly hired salespeople’s intentions
to engage in sales-oriented behaviors during early stages of sales performance failure but that its
efficacy diminishes as periods of failure accumulate” (p. 96). This empirical evidence is
consistent with Clark and Estes’ (2008) research related to cascading goals. A clear
understanding of how the salespersons’ short-term goals interacted with the organization’s
higher-level group goals led to reduced instances of the improper sales-oriented behavior
(Boichuk et al., 2014). Therefore, there is some empirical evidence that appropriate knowledge-
related goal content may influence a salesperson’s mastery orientation (Boichuk et al., 2014).
However, there is also some evidence that these task-oriented, short-term activity goals
could cause some reduction in motivation in a sales environment despite increasing role clarity if
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 22

the short-term sales activities are not perceived as meaningful (Miao et al., 2007). Miao et al.
(2007) found that many layers of controls and goals for specific behavioral activity:
influence behavioral and outcome performance only through salesperson’s challenge
seeking dimension of intrinsic motivation. Sales managers who rely on activity control
must ensure that the assigned activity goals are considered useful and challenging by the
salespeople. For instance, excessive use of detailed call reports may be perceived as less
consequential and challenging than such activities as number of new accounts visited. (p.
423)
Again, the findings of Miao et al. are consistent with Clark and Estes’ (2008) contention that
there is value in the individual’s clear knowledge of how their own short-term goals fit in with
their own long-term goals, and how these goals fit in with the long-term goals of the organization
as a whole, but caution is suggested related to micro-management removing all challenge and
meaning: these are necessary aspects of motivation.
Industry disruption must also be considered in the area of salesperson goal content at
ZAP Corporation (Gianatasio, 2017; Truong et al. 2010; Yoon & Kim, 2001; Zhu, 2001). The
added layer of new digital industry knowledge requirements (Gianatasio, 2017; Truong et al.
2010; Yoon & Kim, 2001; Zhu, 2001) and the multiple goals related to digital advertising
created by ZAP
2
, may be counterproductive in this context insofar as “thrashing” could reduce
motivation and role clarity (Clark & Estes, 2008, p. 27). Sales managers must strike a balance in
providing an appropriate amount of clarity with the content of their goals: goal content that
provides too much rigorous task prescription can actually reduce the motivation to complete the
tasks (Miao et al., 2007).

2
Internal documents withheld to protect confidentiality
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 23

Organizational Influences
According to Clark and Estes (2008), it is likely that, if knowledge and motivational
factors have been addressed but the organization is still not performing, organizational barriers
are the culprit. Clark and Estes recommended an examination of the organization’s technology
tools, business processes, and operating procedures as a part of the organizational analysis
(2008). To achieve lasting change, processes must be aligned with strategic goals,
communication must be constant, and upper managers must be heavily involved in the process
(Clark & Estes, 2008).
Rapidly changing goals with a short-term focus. Organizations that constantly change
goals and have a bias towards focusing only on short-term objectives may encounter several
challenges related to achieving organizational objectives. There is a large amount of evidence
present within the literature that organizational decisions that have short-term benefits and
decisions that have long-term benefits are frequently at odds with each other (Bogacz, McClure,
Li, Cohen, & Montague, 2007; Gureckis & Love, 2009). Technology innovation frequently
nullifies the competitive advantage of established companies in disrupted industries (Sabatier,
Craig-Kennard, & Mangematin, 2012). The media industry has been disrupted by digital
offerings (Gianatasio, 2017, Truong et al., 2010; Yoon & Kim, 2001; Zhu, 2001), and it is
possible that goals must change somewhat frequently simply because the environment is
changing rapidly. However, the frequent adoption of short-term goals that are ineffective in
creating long-term change that addresses the new environment is not a path to success.
Sabatier et al. (2012) argued that managers in an industry will typically subscribe to a
“dominant logic” in which many of the approaches, nomenclature, and salient business strategies
become a type of shared knowledge among all competitors (p. 4). By definition, this type of
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 24

disruption experienced in the media industry requires companies to take a hard look at their long-
term strategies (i.e. their dominant logic) so that they can understand how best to address
industry changes (Clark & Estes, 2008; Sabatier et al., 2012). Learners must develop a cognitive
understanding of the new environments they are operating within before they can develop the
new knowledge required to form effective long-term strategies (Gureckis & Love, 2009): they
must challenge their dominant logic (Sabatier et al., 2012).
Many times, there are multiple components of the environment that initially appear to be
very alike, but they are not. As an example, salespeople frequently have multiple products to sell
that initially appear to them to be very similar. The salespeople “must deal with the problem of
perceptual ali asing …where multiple states or situations in the world may map to a single
percept” (Gureckis & Love, 2009, p. 3). However, it is possible that this aliasing can lead people
to make incorrect decisions that aim only to provide short-term gain at the expense of long-term
opportunity. If the salesperson has a choice between two products, traditional broadcast
advertising and digital advertising, she may perceive the products to be basically the same. If
one is easier to sell, she sells that. Upper management may operate in much the same way: if
one strategy is easier to perceive than another, they may do the easier strategy rather than the
correct strategy. One product, digital advertising, is growing at a significantly higher rate in the
media marketplace, although it may be more difficult to sell in the short-term due to the more
technical nature of the medium (Truong et al., 2010; Yoon & Kim, 2001; Zhu, 2001). If the two
products are perceived as a single percept, it is somewhat natural for the organization to move
towards things that appear to have more immediate payoff and less immediate effort (Gureckis &
Love, 2009). At a macro level, leaders of an organization may also suffer from the perceptual
aliasing effect in disrupted environments. This effect may contribute to the frequent difficulty
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 25

that established firms have when faced with challenges from an innovator: the innovator does not
suffer from aliasing or dominant logic and can be more creative in pursuing more effective long-
term goals (Clemons, Croson, & Weber, 1996; Gureckis & Love, 2009; Sabatier et al., 2012).
In his seminal work, Narayanan (1985) found strong empirical evidence that managers
frequently make decisions that favor short-term results at the expense of long-term opportunities.
Stavrou, Kassinis, and Filotheou (2007) found that, while troubled firms may make the choice to
downsize to enhance short-term financial returns, there is evidence that these decisions harmed
returns in the long-term. Furthermore, according to Gigler, Kanodia, Sapra, and Venugopalan
(2014), there is strong empirical evidence that the frequent financial reporting requirements of
publicly traded firms may contribute to this low accountability for long-term goals:
When the results of operations are reported too frequently, capital market pricing
becomes equivalent to premature evaluation of managerial actions whose benefits arrive
mostly in later periods. Consequently, actions that produce large short-term benefits
become more attractive and actions that do not immediately produce such benefits but
would ultimately create more value for the firm become less attractive. (p. 41)
Therefore, it is possible that, merely by nature of being publicly traded, firms such as the ZAP
Corporation are set up with an organizational economic incentive to engage in short-termism and
low accountability to long-term goals (Gigler et al., 2014).
Culture of low trust and fear. A culture of low trust and fear may create several
organizational barriers related to achieving organizational objectives. Trust is put forward by
many scholars as a critical component of an effective organizational culture (Conchie, 2009;
Lencioni, 2002). The benefits of trust within an organization are numerous: lower information-
processing costs, greater satisfaction with interpersonal relationships, reduced uncertainty, and
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 26

more (Bachmann & Zaheer, 2006). In an empirical study, organizations run by general
managers that were perceived as highly trustworthy had higher sales, higher profitability, and
lower employee turnover (Bachmann & Zaheer, 2006). There is also a link between trust and
innovation (Drucker, 2015). To innovate, individuals need to feel free to share their ideas in a
way that will not negatively affect them if their idea is not viewed as sound, and trust is one of
the ways that this type of social capital is built (Drucker, 2015). Renzl (2008) also documented
the knowledge-sharing benefits associated with organizations that have a high amount of trust.
To innovate and adapt, an organization needs a free flow of ideas, good and bad, and the
organization needs to be able to discuss all ideas and select the best in a way that does not create
an environment of fear or intimidation (Bachmann & Zaheer, 2006; Drucker, 2015; Renzl,
2008).
However, these shifts in strategy and the ensuing uncertainty and fear that the shifts cause
are often framed by the organization’s political climate rather than pure logic (Kaplan, 2008).
Managers who are politically strong and successful in framing the challenges may succeed in
driving a new strategy agnostic to the prudence of their strategic plan (Kaplan, 2008). This
framing is critical to the firm’s ability to operate within a changing environment: the frames are
necessary for the organization to succinctly communicate ideas (Kaplan, 2008). However, the
adopted frame is not necessarily chosen purely on the merit of the strategy: “Where frames about
a strategic choice were not congruent, actors engaged in highly political framing practices to
make their frames resonate and to mobilize action in their favor” (Kaplan, 2008, p. 729). Droege
and Marvel (2009) linked these disruptions and the process of strategy formation within those
environments with the presence of “perceived strategic uncertainty” (p. 43). That perceived
uncertainty that creates fear, the organization’s struggle to understand the most salient strategy,
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 27

the framing of that strategy, and the political selection of the frame may each contribute to a lack
of clarity in terms of the strategic focus of the firm (Droege & Marvel, 2009; Gureckis & Love,
2009; Kaplan, 2008; Sabatier et al., 2012). When people are uncertain and scared, they may pick
the wrong strategy based on the political strength of the framer (Kaplan, 2008).
Schoen and Fusarelli (2008) pointed out the body of research that argues that “fear not
only inhibits creative thought but also causes dishonesty and competition which are
counterproductive to achieving organizational goals” (p. 94). An organizational culture that has
a large amount of fear may suffer depressed motivation and a lack of risk-taking (Wennberg,
Pathak, & Autio, 2013). At times, the literature refers to the absence of fear as “psychological
safety” (Walumbwa & Schaubroeck, 2009, p. 1276). The presence of psychological safety
means there is a comfort with sharing differences in opinion without fear of negative
consequences (Walumbwa & Schaubroeck, 2009). An organization with a high amount of trust
and a low amount of fear may benefit from increased performance due to the effect of
psychological safety (Bachmann & Zaheer, 2006; Drucker, 2015; Renzl, 2008; Schoen &
Fusarelli, 2008; Walumbwa & Schaubroeck, 2009; Wennberg et al., 2013). An organizational
culture of fear creates an environment that can lead to bad strategic choices.
Following this section, I have provided a table to summarize the relevant knowledge,
motivational, and organizational influences uncovered through this literature review:

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Table 1
ZAP Corporation Knowledge, Motivational, and Organizational Factors
Organizational Mission
To deliver shareholder value while serving the communities ZAP operates within by
delivering timely, informative, and entertaining content (broadcast, streaming, podcasts, digital
video, digital articles, etc.) to consumers.

Organizational Goal
To achieve a sustainable and consistent three percent annual growth in sales each year starting
in 2020.

Stakeholder Goal
To achieve 100% perceived role clarity among the salespeople based on survey data by the end
of 2019.

Knowledge Influence Knowledge Type
Knowledge Influence
Assessment
Role Expectations Knowledge –
knowledge about the expectations
of the job that includes procedural
knowledge of how to sell and
factual knowledge about what
product is appropriate to sell.

Procedural/Declarative Survey
Metacognitive Knowledge – how
one’s personal and professional
goals reciprocally support the
organization’s outcome-based
mission and global goals.

Metacognitive
Knowledge
Survey
Assumed Motivational Influences
Motivational Influence
Assessment
Goal Orientation – focus on learning and mastery rather
than looking superior: intrinsic goal orientation (mastery)
and extrinsic goal orientation (compensation and
competition).

Survey
Goal Content – goals are Strategic, Measurable,
Achievable, Relevant, and Timely.
Survey
Assumed Organizational Influences
Organizational Influence
Assessment
Rapidly Changing Goals with a Short-Term Focus

Survey
Culture of Low Trust and Fear Survey
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Conceptual Framework
According to Maxwell (2013), a conceptual framework is a “theory, however tentative or
incomplete” that presents “ideas and beliefs that you hold about the phenomena studied” (pp.
39–40). Although I have endeavored to thoroughly explain each of the top influences I believe
to be involved in reaching the stakeholder goal, these influences do not represent an exhaustive
list. Furthermore, the influences must not be considered in isolation: they are interdependent.
For the purposes of this inquiry, I have utilized the knowledge, motivation, and organization
framework put forward by Clark and Estes (2008). I have utilized this framework to analyze
possible gaps that are interfering with the sales organization’s ability to grow revenue with an
emphasis on issues related to role clarity. The below figure is meant to illustrate the
interconnectedness of these variables as they interact to enhance or impede the achievement of
the stakeholder goal.

Figure 1. ZAP Corporation conceptual framework.
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 30

The salespeople operate within the ZAP Corporation. The organization sets a strategy
that affects the necessary knowledge and motivation that is required of the salespeople.
Salespeople cannot achieve the role clarity necessary to achieve revenue growth if they do not
first have a clearly defined organizational strategy. The salespeople’s knowledge and motivation
influence the organization, too. As knowledge and motivation change, the salespeople will need
different support from their organizations: new products need new organizational systems, new
technological support, strategies, and goals. The stakeholder (salespeople) sits inside the
organization and influences the organization’s choices and needs. The combined organization
works as a unit towards achieving revenue growth.

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DATA COLLECTION AND INSTRUMENTATION
The literature demonstrates that, because role clarity is a construct of the individual, the
perception of role clarity is itself an appropriate measurement mechanism for role clarity (Bliese,
& Castro, 2000; Donnelly & Ivancevich, 1975; Singh & Rhoads, 1991; Tang & Chang, 2010;
Walker et al., 1975). Quantitative surveys have been demonstrated to be effective at measuring
individual attitudes and opinions (Fink, 2012). Therefore, because the perception of role clarity
appears to be important to examine (Tang & Chang, 2010), I chose quantitative surveys as the
primary method of data collection because they have been demonstrated to be an effective
measure of individual attitudes and opinions (Fink, 2012). I also utilized a small amount of
open-ended qualitative survey questions: this inquiry is technically mixed-methods, although the
majority of the questions were quantitative in nature.
Survey
I administered the surveys using Survey Monkey. I utilized an anonymous survey relying
heavily on Likert scales related to the salespeople’s perceived role clarity as it relates to the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors uncovered in the literature (full instrument
and results are included in the appendixes). I primarily used the 5-point Likert scale to allow
room for the respondent to be indifferent to the question (neither agree nor disagree). This
choice may have reduced the chance for a bias in the survey towards finding role ambiguity as it
relates to knowledge, motivation, and organization factors: the salespeople had the option to
answer in a neutral way. The survey included 21 Likert scale questions and three open-ended
questions. Survey instruments and responses can be found in Appendix A.

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Data Analysis
In terms of analyzing the qualitative component, I set up some a priori codes that reflect
the knowledge, motivation, and organizational aspects identified. I used the counting method in
a matrix (Miles, Huberman, & Saldana, 2013) as the first round of a codebook. I also identified
certain in vivo codes (Miles et al., 2013) in the matrix that emerged from the data (timeliness of
goals as an example). This qualitative coding process served to frame my interpretation of the
quantitative data. I also utilized triangulation of the data between the quantitative and qualitative
results (Creswell, 2014).
Validity and Reliability
According to Salkind (2017), “Validity is, most simply, the property of an assessment
tool that indicates that the tool does what is says it does. A valid test is a test that measures what
it is supposed to” (p. 123). I utilized subject matter experts in sales (sales managers and sales
researchers) as well as experts in the knowledge, motivation, and organizational constructs
(education researchers) put forward by Clark and Estes (2008) to enhance content validity
(Salkind, 2017). I asked each of these pilot reviewers to evaluate the survey and then I asked
each of them for feedback on the validity and biases of the items.
There is some bias inherent in non-response (Berg, 2005). To minimize this as a concern,
increase confidence in my sample, and generally reduce bias, I took a number of actions. I sent
the survey to two different sales offices within the organization. I had a member of the human
resources team send out the link to the sales groups. Before the survey was sent, I had this
person send out an email explaining that a survey would be sent in the future to further enhance
response rate (Fink, 2012).
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I piloted the survey to enhance reliability (Fink, 2012). I asked several individuals who
are similar to individuals in the sample, but are not located in offices that I sampled, to pilot the
survey. To get a good sample size, I also wanted to make sure the survey could be taken quickly
(Fink, 2012). To that end, I limited the survey to 24 questions (a mix of 21 Likert questions and
3 qualitative questions). I paid attention to how long the surveys took the pilot respondents to
complete with the goal of keeping the survey time under 10 minutes. I had the HR professional
mention in the email that went out before the survey that the survey would take under 10 minutes
to complete. I believe this enhanced my response rate and aided in reducing non-response bias.
Of the population of approximately 98 salespeople, I had a survey response rate of 41 (42%).
I did not have access to all of the offices within the ZAP Corporation. I had to balance
my desire to obtain information from individuals across the entire company with my ability to
collect the data (Fink, 2012). I gained access to two markets of sales teams for my sample,
which, hopefully, added to the validity of the inquiry as well as helped the salespeople
understand that, because multiple markets were surveyed, it would be more difficult for any
responses to be traced back to an individual. The multiple-market approach also provided
additional anonymity in the data.

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FINDINGS
Knowledge Findings
Role expectations knowledge. The survey data demonstrate that the respondents
perceive themselves to be very knowledgeable about the process of selling: they feel very
confident in their product knowledge and in their knowledge of the sales process (Figure 2 and
Figure 3).

Figure 2. Custom marketing Likert
0 0
1
12
27
I understand how to create custom marketing programs for my clients.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 35

Figure 3. Sales process Likert
It is possible that this is an overly-optimistic appraisal of participants’ role expectations
knowledge. According to Clark and Estes (2008), people are frequently not aware of their own
lack of knowledge, and, even if they are aware, they may be hesitant to admit these gaps.
However, in this case, I am most interested in their perception of their own knowledge rather
than actual knowledge because perception is the driving force behind experienced role clarity
(Bliese, & Castro, 2000; Donnelly & Ivancevich, 1975; Singh, & Rhoads, 1991; Walker et al.,
1975). There is some evidence that there is a lack of perceived knowledge for digital when
compared to the survey responses related to product knowledge for broadcast advertising (Figure
4 and Figure 5):
0
1 1
17
22
I am comfortable with each part of the sales process (client needs analysis, proposal,
closing, etc.).
0
5
10
15
20
25
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 36

Figure 4. Broadcast knowledge Likert

Figure 5. Digital knowledge Likert
0
2 2
19
17
I am knowledgeable about the broadcast advertising products that I sell.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
0
4
9
19
8
I am knowledgeable about the digital advertising products that I sell.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 37

Participants were not as confident about the digital advertising products as they were for
the overall sales process, which is somewhat contradictory. However, several people answered
in this contracictory way; these findings are consistent with Clark and Estes’ (2008) contention
that people are not always the best judges of their own knowledge. As the data relate to the
specific components of role expectations knowledge, the area where salespeople indicate that
there is a gap is in this digital space. This is also triangulated (Creswell, 2014) in the qualitative
data. One responder wrote, “I think I could use more training on digital.” When asked, “what
would help you better achieve your sales goals”, a responder wrote, “To have more digital
training.” Of the approximately 32 qualitative responders, training is mentioned a total of seven
times in the responses. A need for training on digital was mentioned twice, a training need
without a specific topic is mentioned twice, a training need is mentioned once as it relates to
closing and sales process, and then training is mentioned twice as a complaint about there being
too much training. Digital training appears to be something that the sales force believes it would
benefit from, at least more so than any other role-expectations-knowledge-related factor present
in the data that were collected, although this need does not seem to affect the participants’
overall perception that they have appropriate role expectations knowledge. Nevertheless,
training in digital may have a benefit purely insofar as it could enhance the perception of having
role expectations knowledge among some of the salespeople.
Metacognitive knowledge. According to the quantitative data, the majority of the
participants believe that they take the time to engage in metacognition: 36 out of 38 respondents
either agree or strongly agree that they “take time to think about how I can better achieve my
sales goals” (Figure 6). However, the results were slightly less clear-cut when they were asked
whether they frequently think about “how my personal success fits in with my organization’s
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 38

goals” because 9 out of 39 respondents (23%) answered in a neutral way (7) or disagreed (2), as
seen in Figure 7.

Figure 6. Sales goals reflection Likert

Figure 7. Multi-goal reflection Likert
0 0
2
13
23
I take time to think about how I can better achieve my sales goals.
0
5
10
15
20
25
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
0
2
7
9
21
I frequently think about how my personal success fits in with my organization’s goals.
0
5
10
15
20
25
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 39

One respondent wrote, “I think I could use more training on digital and more knowledge
on opportunities on other property stations beside my own, so I can increase my sale [sic]
opportunities.” This person appears to be engaging in metacognitive behavior related to his or
her role expectations knowledge. Another salesperson appears to be engaging in metacognition
as it relates to role expectations when he or she wrote, “Looking at past performance and future
expectations than [sic] trying to prioritize where I need to spend the most time to achieve both
my current billing and the projection for the following year.” Another salesperson wrote, “I
want to achieve all of my professional and personal goals. I think goals are not based on past
account performance but are arbitrary based on corporate budget.” This person appears to have
given some thought to a possible link between his or her goals and the organization’s goals, even
if the link between the two sets of goals is not perceived to be present. However, some people
appear to be avoiding thinking about their role this way: one salesperson wrote, “I don’t focus on
my budget/goals. I honestly don’t know what they are...spot, digital, [other media, redacted to
protect anonymity], etc. I focus on keeping my clients successful and finding ways to improve
their successes and to find as many new clients as time will allow.” This person is engaging in
metacognition, but is avoiding metacognitive thought as it relates to goals. Therefore, there is
some evidence that metacognitive knowledge is present, but there may be an opportunity to
increase this skill, especially insofar as the behavior of thinking about how one’s own personal
goals might fit in with the goals of the organization. When asked what would help respondents
better achieve their sales goals, one salesperson simply responded, “I don’t know.”
Motivation Findings
Goal Orientation. There is some evidence present in the survey data that the respondents are
fairly performance-oriented. No salesperson answered with a negative response when asked if
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 40

being considered a top salesperson is very important (Figure 8). No salespeople answered with a
negative response when asked if being the best salesperson they can possibly be is important
(Figure 9). Anderman (2015) pointed out the possibility of being simultaneously performance-
oriented and mastery-oriented: this data set points to the presence of that phenomenon.

Figure 8. Top Salesperson Likert
0 0
3
12
23
Being considered a top salesperson is very important to me.
0
5
10
15
20
25
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 41

Figure 9. Best Salesperson Likert
These data suggest that there is some desire to be a top salesperson when compared to
others (performance) as well as some desire to be the best salesperson that the person can be
(mastery). Almost all surveyed salespeople (35 of 38) answered affirmatively when asked if
being considered a top salesperson (performance) was very important to them, and an
overwhelming majority (40 of 41) answered affirmatively that being the best salesperson
(mastery) they can possibly be is important to them, although Clark and Estes (2008) also
recommended caution when interpreting results like these because people may give answers
simply because they believe certain responses are desired. Therefore, I will moderate my
findings in this data set with that caution in mind.
There are some individuals who appear to be motivated extrinsically (i.e., money). This
is not a surprise within a sales organization. One salesperson wrote, “I am the sole provider for
my family, so they are my motivation to hit my budget and kickers to make the most money I
can.” When asked about their approach “to achieving your individual sales goals,” another
0 0
1
7
33
Being the best salesperson I can possibly be is important to me.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 42

salesperson wrote, “Continue to do what I know to do in order to make decent money and earn a
livable income in this business.” It appears that a majority of the respondents are simultaneously
performance-oriented and mastery-oriented; however, there may be a leaning towards mastery
orientation because a majority (28 of 41) answered agree or strongly agree when asked if “Being
the best salesperson I can possibly be is more important to me than being a better salesperson
than my coworkers” (Figure 10).

Figure 10. Mastery versus performance orientation Likert
Therefore, it seems to be appropriate to conclude that the organization is overwhelmingly
performance-oriented, but a majority of the salespeople simultaneously lean towards mastery
orientation.
Goal content. There is somewhat of a conflict present in the data. The quantitative data
show that respondents understand all of their goals, and they understand what they need to do to
achieve their goals, but they question if their goals are achievable, and they appear to be having
some difficulty with prioritization of the goals that they are given. The quantitative data indicate
0
1
12
11
17
Being the best salesperson I can possibly be is more important to me than being a better
salesperson than my coworkers.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 43

that there is less of a problem with the goal content being understood and more of a problem with
the perceived achievability of those goals, and, according to some of the qualitative responses,
that perceived lack of achievability could be linked to thrashing. When asked about goals, a
salesperson wrote,
The goals come from outer space. Not reality. If you have a good quarter, your goals get
bumped. Once set, they change once again from outer space. If you lose accounts to
other AE’s or national, your goals don’t change. And, if you actually hit your goals, it is
incredibly difficult to get actually paid on your achievement, making it unrewarding. It’s
obviously not working for the company, as we have 10 different sales contests going on
at one time. You have to do all the external work, and, then, you have to do all the
internal work to actually get paid.
Several salespeople provided feedback in the open-ended survey questions that their sales
goals were not provided in a timely manner: “Our team also has to wait far too long to even
receive goals for the next month from our sales manager, sometimes we do not get them until a
week before the month begins.” To be given a monthly sales goal a week before a month begins
would certainly make it difficult to properly visualize success and understand when the required
effort was to be exerted. Another salesperson wrote simply that the goals “Need to be
communicated earlier.” Therefore, there appears to be a gap in providing role clarity to the sales
staff related to the timing of providing sales goals. Timing of goals came up several times in the
qualitative responses. When asked what would help you to better achieve your sales goals, one
person wrote, “Better direction and timing! Not last minute [redacted to protect anonymity]
given to us a month prior, and then expecting to sell it within 2 weeks.”
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According to the data, there is some possible lack of clarity in terms of the salespeople’s
understanding of their goals (Figure 11 and Figure 12).

Figure 11. Goal understanding Likert

Figure 12. Goal prioritization Likert.
0
4
7
14 14
I understand all of the goals that my sales manager provides to me.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
2
16
6
12
5
Sometimes I am confused about which of my sales goals should be prioritized.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
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Of the 39 respondents, 11 answered disagree or neutral when asked if they understand the
goals that are given to them by their managers. The more telling data come when the salespeople
were asked if they are sometimes confused about which of their goals should be prioritized: 41%
answered agree or strongly agree. When asked their thoughts, in general, on the individual sales
goals, one salesperson answered, “not clearly defined” and another said, “They are not defined.”
Individuals need to be able to visualize what success looks like to assess self-efficacy (Bandura,
1977; Tang & Chang, 2012). According to the data in this study, there is a significant number of
salespeople within the organization who perceive their goals and/or the prioritization of their
goals to be unclear. Interestingly, there is some belief that the required tasks involved with goal
achievement (role expectations knowledge) are perceived to be well-understood.
As noted in Figure 14, there also appears to be a very strong belief that the goals are not
achievable and/or are not fair.

Figure 13. Achievable goals Likert.
3
6
14
15
1
I believe that my sales goals given to me by my manager are achievable.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
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When asked if goals are achievable, a majority of salespeople (23 of 39) answered in a
neutral or negative way. Of the 16 salespeople who answered affirmatively, only one answered
“strongly agree.” The qualitative data also demonstrate a strong argument for a perceived lack of
fairness/achievability of the goals. When asked their thoughts, in general, on the individual sales
goals, there were 32 responses. A majority of respondents (17) mentioned something related to
the goals being unfair, unachievable, or arbitrary. One salesperson wrote, “A fair goal would be
nice.” When asked about goals, another salesperson wrote, “They seem arbitrary and don’t tend
to align with the [organizational] goals.” As referenced in Figure 15, although the participants
do not perceive their goals to be fair, a majority believe they understand how to achieve them.
Although, the largest response group answered agree rather than strongly agree. There is a bit of
a contradiction here: the salespeople do not perceive the goals as fair, but they feel that they
know how to achieve their goals.

Figure 14. Understand how to achieve goals Likert.
0
1
5
27
8
I understand what I need to do to achieve my sales goals.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
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It is possible that the source of this lack of clarity comes from a phenomenon referred to
by Clark and Estes (2008) as thrashing. This condition takes place when many layers of goals
and goal measurement become overwhelming and inhibit one’s ability to be accountable:
sometimes, there are just too many goals to keep up with for any one of the goals to be effective.
In the open-ended component of the survey, one salesperson wrote, “we have 10 different sales
contests going on at once.” Another salesperson wrote, “I don’t focus on my budget/goals. I
honestly don’t know what they are...spot, digital, [redacted to protect anonymity], etc.” When
asked what would help them to achieve their goals, one salesperson wrote, “More meaningful
meetings with manager instead of where are we with this client? How many meetings do you
have this week?” There is some evidence that the salespeople perceive there to be an
inappropriately large volume as it relates to their goals.
These data indicate that, at a minimum, there is a large percentage of respondents who
perceive themselves to correctly understand their goals, but a majority do not know how to
prioritize them, a majority do not perceive them to be achievable, and at least some are
overwhelmed by the volume of the goals. The qualitative and quantitate data both point to issues
related to the content of goals that would prevent salespeople from being able to visualize what
success looks like. Without this visualization, they cannot evaluate their success (self-efficacy)
in achieving their role expectations.
Organizational Findings
Rapidly changing goals with a short-term focus. Perhaps the single most extreme data
from this survey is the question related to balancing short-term and long-term goals (Figure 16).
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The data are clear as it relates to the respondents’ beliefs as they pertain to the organization’s
ability to balance short-term and long-term goals (Figure 15).

Figure 15. Short/long-term goals Likert
When asked if the organization does a good job of balancing short-term and long-term
goals, most respondents (30 of 40) provided negative responses (15 of 40 answered disagree or
strongly disagree) or neutral responses (15). No salespeople answered strongly agree to this
question. However, there was not much concern as it relates to being able to take risks (Figure
17): 24 of 40 responders answered affirmatively when asked if the organization lets people make
innovative choices even if they are sometimes risky.

4
11
15
10
0
I believe my organization does a good job balancing short-term and long-term goals.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
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Figure 16. Innovation Likert
Culture of low trust and fear. The data are mixed as it relates to the presence of trust
and fear in the organizational environment. A majority of respondents (25 of 40) answered
affirmatively when asked if they trust their leaders (Figure 17). However, 8 of 40 answered the
question with a neutral response, and 7 of 40 answered with a negative response (Figure 17).

2
4
10
23
1
My organization lets people make innovative choices even if the choices are sometimes
risky.
0
5
10
15
20
25
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
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Figure 17. Trust Likert
A majority of the salespeople (23 of 41) feel comfortable sharing differences of opinion
without fear of negative consequences. However, 10 of 41 answered with a neutral response,
and eight people answered with a negative response when asked about their comfort with sharing
differences of opinion (Figure 18).

2
5
8
17
8
I trust my leaders.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
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Figure 18. Differences of opinion Likert
One salesperson wrote, “The environment that is bred here in the office is very
competitive and insidious. I think if we had more of a team approach and less revolving door of
employees, it would breed confidence and security. I think we should take care of the employees
that are here and actively pursuing the company’s goals.” Although there is room for
improvement, there does not appear to be a significant lack of trust, nor does there appear to be a
problem as it relates to fear of taking risks.
There does not appear to be a significant amount of fear present as it relates to losing
one’s job due to the rapid industry change. Just under a majority of salespeople (20 of 41)
answered with a negative response when asked if they feared that rapid industry change would
cause them to lose their job (Figure 19). Only five people answer this question in the
affirmative, and 16 people answered with a neutral response.

4 4
10
20
3
I feel comfortable with sharing differences in opinion within my organization without
fear of negative consequences.
0
5
10
15
20
25
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
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Figure 19. Industry change Likert
There is a tension in the data as it relates to trust and fear. Most of the people trust their
leaders, but a majority (17 of 32) of respondents mention that the sales goals set by the
leadership are somehow unfair, uncertain, or arbitrary. That implies that blame for these
unreasonable goals is not being applied to the leaders, or that if the salespeople do blame the
leaders for these unfair goals, it has not reduced trust. It is possible that the salespeople cast
blame for this lack of performance on the macroeconomic situation of the industry. When asked
for thoughts on the goals, one person wrote, “I believe that while technically they are achievable
the reality is that right now not a lot of people are spending on [media] and with the way our
economy is, it had become harder and harder for small business owner to be able to invest on
[sic] advertising.” Another salesperson wrote, when discussing goals, “I think that they are
unrealistic...they do not seem to be based off of local market conditions and realistic industry
growth.” The industry challenges seem somewhat well-understood by at least some of
4
16 16
3
2
I fear that rapid industry change will cause me to lose my job.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
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salespeople, yet some still take personal responsibility for performance: a salesperson discussed
their view on goals when they wrote, “It is my world and my job, no matter the obstacles I may
have to overcome such as attrition, the word “no”, or whatever that maybe [sic]. It’s my job to
get it done or at least have a plan in place to achieve those goals.”
There appears to be a challenge as it relates to how the goals set by the organization are
perceived in terms of balancing short-term and long-term objectives, fairness, volume,
timeliness, achievability, and arbitrariness. Again, perhaps it is possible that the salespeople are
simply providing responses that they think the organization wants to hear (Clark & Estes, 2008),
but there does not appear to be a significant issue related to the presence of fear or a lack of trust
for leadership.
Recommendations and Solutions
The data indicate three main areas that need to be addressed. First, although it cannot be
modified by enhancing the stakeholder’s (salespeople) knowledge, the organization must address
the issues related to goal setting. The respondents do not perceive the goals to be attainable or
timely, and this is likely harming their motivation and their role clarity. The salespeople
surveyed believe that there is not a good balance between short-term and long-term goals. They
also believe that there is a volume of goals that makes it difficult to navigate their roles with
confidence. These issues should be addressed first because the solutions for achieving
organizational goals cannot be measured appropriately if the goals themselves are perceived as
neither timely nor achievable.
Once the goal-setting issues are addressed, two areas of the knowledge influences should
be tackled in terms of learning opportunities of the stakeholders (salespeople): digital industry
knowledge (a component of role expectations knowledge) and reflection (metacognitive
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knowledge). In these recommendations, I have chosen not to address several areas of
knowledge, motivation and organization that were measured because the data did not
demonstrate a significant gap (goal orientation, culture of trust and/or fear). It appears that the
stakeholders are highly motivated, but elements of the goals themselves are hampering perceived
role clarity. Those motivational issues can perhaps best be addressed in the goal-setting process
rather than in learning objectives for the salespeople. However, enhanced metacognition
(reflection) may help salespeople cope with these goals that are perceived to be unachievable and
untimely: the reflection process may help them understand how best to address the challenge.
The issues related to a perceived lack of balance among short-term and long-term goals should
be addressed in the goal-setting process. This issue that appeared in the data could also be a
result of thrashing, the volume of the goals may be too high for salespeople to understand the
links among the goals. Although this issue is best addressed in the goal-setting process,
metacognition (reflection) could also help people understand the links among the myriad goals.
Although not a full solution in and of itself, metacognition would be a tool to help cope with this
challenge.
First Step: Set Goals That Are Achievable, Fair, and Timely
Clark and Estes (2008) argue that organizational resources, policies and procedures, and
cultural settings/models may prevent people from achieving goals. The cultural models are often
invisible and are a shared mental representation of the organization (the structures, values,
practices, and policies) that are present in the work settings (Rueda, 2011). One cultural model
identified relates to the need for the organization to set goals that are perceived to be achievable,
fair, and timely. According to expectancy value theory, higher expectations for success and
perceptions of confidence can positively influence learning and motivation (Eccles, 2009). Clark
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and Estes argue that persistence is greater when goals are challenging but achievable. Positive
feedback should be provided when appropriate, and such feedback should focus on ability and
effort (Clark & Estes, 2008). Corrective feedback should be focused on faults in strategy rather
than the person that implemented the faulty strategy (Clark & Estes, 2008). Goals need to be
achievable and timely to be effective (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Within the ZAP Corporation, a component of motivation can be addressed in the goal-
setting process. The survey data show that the respondents do not believe that goals are
attainable, and the data show that goals are not perceived as being delivered in a timely manner.
Clark and Estes (2008) argued that effective

goals are “Concrete,” “Challenging,” and “Current”
(p. 26). According to Pajares (2009), goals need to be set so that they are close, concrete and
challenging while allowing the learner to experience success at the task. ZAP may need to set
goals that allow the salespeople to perceive themselves to be successful. As mentioned
previously, setting goals related to sales activity that follows the correct processes and creates
client results rather than simply rewarding budget attainment may not only enhance mastery
orientation, but also self-efficacy, if those goals also give salespeople an opportunity to perceive
themselves as being successful.
Salespeople need goals that are perceived to be timely, achievable, and fair. The
organization must support this type of a cultural model. According to Kluger and DeNisi (1996),
learning, motivation and performance will be enhanced if participants have clear, current and
challenging goals. For feedback to be effective, it should be timely, concrete (task focused), and
goal-focused (Kluger & DeNisi, 1996). Moreover, motivation, learning and performance are
enhanced when the participant perceives that the anticipated outcome will be positive and fair
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(Vroom, 1964). According to the qualitative data, many of the salespeople do not perceive the
goals to be timely or fair.
Within the context of ZAP, there should be more organizational guidelines set as they
relate to providing timely goals to the team and conducting fair and routine performance
appraisals. Special attention needs to be focused on getting goals out on time and setting goals
that are perceived to be fair. Because the perception of achievability, fairness, and timeliness of
goals is the main driver of perceived role clarity, it is important that these elements are
communicated in a way that calls attention to the organization’s efforts. Perhaps a consideration
of goals that are more easily achievable should be an element of goal-setting in the ZAP
Corporation. Moreover, if the salespeople say that they do not receive goals in a timely manner,
what timeline would they perceive to be timely? Perhaps simply communicating a standard and
adhering to it (one month in advance for goal setting) would be enough to address this
perception.
The data also indicate the possible presence of thrashing in the organization. If the
cultural model of the organization allows for a volume of goals that is too high for individuals to
properly understand, an organizational barrier is present. One possible way of addressing this
relates to the organization’s cultural model of goal setting. A less prescriptive goal that focuses
on the end result rather than all possible paths to that end result may enhance interest and reduce
thrashing. As an example, the organization could choose to no longer provide separate monthly
revenue goals for broadcast and digital assets. Instead, the organization could provide one
revenue goal and allow the salespeople to choose their own path to success.
According to self-efficacy theory, learning and motivation are enhanced when learners
have positive expectancies for success (Pajares, 2009). However, the individual needs to be able
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to visualize what ideal performance looks like to assess self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977; Tang &
Chang, 2010). Adaptive self-efficacy and belief of competence is motivating (Rueda, 2011). It
is possible to augment self-efficacy by setting close, concrete, and challenging goals that allow
the learner to experience success at the task, thereby allowing individuals to see themselves
succeed at a task (Pajares, 2009). Therefore, setting some goals that are readily achievable and
allow the people to see what success looks like is compatible with the principles espoused by
self-efficacy theory. What goals could the organization set for the salespeople who are readily
achievable? If a large amount of people achieved these goals, would that enhance perceived
fairness?
I recommend that inquiry be made into what changes to goal setting would enhance the
perception of fairness, the perception of timeliness, and the perception of achievability. What
would make the salespeople believe that the sales goals are fair? What would make the
salespeople believe that the goals are achievable? What would make the salespeople believe that
the goals are timely? How could short-term and long-term goals be balanced better? It is true
that a majority of salespeople do not hit their goals. Would they perceive the goals to be fair if
51% of people hit the goals? Would one month before be considered a timely goal, or would it
need to be three months? Because perception is the driver of role clarity, it may be valuable to
conduct surveys/interviews to better understand what would enhance perception in the area as a
first step. These issues should be addressed before any learning events for the salespeople take
place.
Second Step: Provide Training
The knowledge influences addressed include role expectations knowledge that covers
both the procedural (P - the how) and the conceptual (C - the what), as well as the metacognitive
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dimension (M - one’s own self) of knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002). Salespeople must understand
the steps of the sales process to succeed in sales (Jones et al., 2012). According to social
cognitive theory, modeling to-be-learned strategies or behaviors improves self-efficacy, learning,
and performance (Denler, Wolters, & Benzon, 2009). Moreover, vicarious reinforcement and
punishment can increase or decrease behaviors and learning (Mayer, 2011).
Train salespeople on digital industry knowledge (role expectations knowledge).
Fortunately, a majority of the salespeople, according to the data, perceive themselves to have
clarity on the procedural element of their role expectations knowledge (the steps of the sales
process), although, there is a conflict in the data because not feeling comfortable with selling
their digital products affects the procedural steps of how to sell. However, because this
discomfort with digital is not creating a perception of a lack of clarity in terms of their
procedural role expectations knowledge, it is not validated as negatively influencing role clarity.
Therefore, addressing the procedural knowledge of the sales process steps is not a high priority
because there is a minimal lack of perceived knowledge, and perceived knowledge is the area I
am most concerned with for managing role clarity. This lack of perceived role ambiguity should
not be misconstrued as a factual lack of correct behavior. The recommendation in this section
would still apply in terms of augmenting behavior and enhancing, albeit relatively strong, role
clarity.
Factual knowledge about what product is appropriate to sell (C). The salespeople need
to have some level of conceptual knowledge related to their products in order for them to sell
those products (Jones et al., 2012). To develop mastery, individuals must acquire component
skills, practice integrating them, and know when to apply what they have learned (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2013). There is some evidence in the survey data that this is, indeed, an issue as it
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relates to digital products; there is a vast amount of necessary knowledge to be able to sell the
full suite of digital products. According to information processing theory, it may be beneficial to
help individuals identify and understand important points (Schraw & McCrudden, 2013) and
provide experiences that help people make sense of the material rather than just focus on
memorization (Schraw & McCrudden, 2013). An approach that helps salespeople understand the
component skill of digital advertising product knowledge, rather than simply memorizing the
features and benefits of the products that ZAP sells, may help them more deeply understand the
features and benefits of the products so that they can choose the best solution based on the
client’s need. Education-based training on digital industry knowledge may also be necessary
because job aids are not able to stay up to date due to the scale of information and because the
marketing challenges are frequently novel (Clark & Estes, 2008). Case studies that discuss
specific digital industry experiences may help make sense of the material and result in deeper
processing of information rather than just focusing on memorization (Schraw & McCrudden,
2013). This type of training would enhance role expectations knowledge as it relates to digital
products (what to sell). Therefore, it appears that education related to digital media as an
industry is the best prescription for this issue.
Self-efficacy and product knowledge. The data from this study show that there is a
possible digital knowledge gap. It is possible that the salespeople have related experience in
traditional media, but not enough experience in digital media. However, there is a confounder to
consider: the source of the problem is not identified in the survey data, and it is possible that
there is a self-efficacy issue at work as much as an information-processing problem. The
salespeople may have enough knowledge to sell their own specific digital products, but they
could feel overwhelmed by their lack of digital industry knowledge to the extent that they are
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less confident overall. If the people are simply not confident in their knowledge, education-
based digital industry knowledge may be necessary to help them understand that they do have a
good grasp of the landscape (Clark & Estes, 2008). In this situation, it is also possible that job
aids would not be able to address the scale of the information effectively, and it may be difficult
to keep job aids up to date due to the client marketing challenges frequently being novel.
Therefore, it appears that education related to digital media as an industry is the best prescription
for this issue if either an information processing and/or a self-efficacy issue is at play (Clark &
Estes, 2008). The problem here is either an actual knowledge gap, or merely a perceived
knowledge gap. Either way, the prescription is the same. However, it must be understood that,
if addressing the perceived knowledge gap with industry training does not abate the perceived
knowledge gap, there could be a more complex motivational issue at work.
Train Salespeople on Metacognitive Knowledge (Reflection Practices). According to
information processing theory, the use of metacognitive strategies facilitates learning (Baker,
2006). There is strong evidence that metacognition/reflection is linked with enhanced
organizational outcomes (Clark & Estes, 2008). Novel approaches will likely be required for the
ZAP organization to be successful given the dramatic industry disruption (Truong et al., 2010).
The goals of the organization are more likely to be achieved if the individuals understand how
their own goals support the organization’s goals: the links help in achievement (Clark & Estes,
2008). The data suggests that there may be an opportunity to increase reflective thought in the
sales organization. Because there is minimal experience or related expertise, but the activity is
routine, training on reflection and metacognition is suggested (Clark & Estes, 2008).
This training on reflection could have a number of benefits for the organization.
Reflection could help salespeople more deeply understand why they should avoid sales-oriented
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behavior in favor of following the correct sales process. Reflection on digital media information
could help people more deeply understand the fundamental industry changes taking place. That
new knowledge could benefit them in terms of their ability to choose appropriate digital products
to recommend for their clients, and this could simultaneously enhance self-efficacy. Reflection
could help people understand their role more thoroughly: they might resolve the dissonance of
answering that they understand their role while simultaneously answering that they do not know
enough about digital, simply by thinking through it. It is also possible that reflection could have
a positive impact on some of the goal content issues. If people think through how their goals
reciprocally support the organization’s goals, it may help them have more clarity in terms of
prioritization while reducing the feeling of thrashing as the links among the various goals could
become clearer. Reflecting on the links among all goals might help them to feel less
overwhelmed and abate the thrashing phenomena that appears to be present.
It is important to highlight that this reflection training is not offered as the best way to
address the goal-setting issues that are present in the organization. However, the ability to reflect
may be a coping tool that can minimize the motivational effect of the goal problem. Moreover,
reflection has benefits beyond coping with goal-setting problems. Therefore, the reflection
training prescription is valid for multiple reasons.
When constructing the training, I should consider the literature as it relates to information
processing theory and behavioral theories of learning. According to Baker (2006), modeling
your own metacognitive process by talking out loud and assessing strengths and weaknesses may
be an effective tactic for encouraging reflection. This would need to be modeled as it relates to
the previously mentioned knowledge factors as well as other possible gaps that are observed in
the survey data. According to behavioral theories of learning, modeled behavior is more likely
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to be adopted if the model is credible, similar (e.g., gender, culturally appropriate), and the
behavior has functional value (Denler et al., 2009). Therefore, a series of trainings on reflection
where a peer that is credible and similar to the salespeople models the desired behavior would be
a cogent strategy for addressing this gap. Reflection could be a powerful tool that addresses each
gap highlighted in the survey data. More specific recommendations related to the execution of
these training events are included in the appendices.
Limitations and Delimitations
Speed of data collection was an important variable to consider (Fink, 2012), and the
requirements related to that speed were a limitation. There was a large change that took place
just after the survey was completed. More information related to this change cannot be provided
as it might identify the organization. Because these changes could have represented a
confounding variable as it pertains to role clarity, there was a concern related to the speed of the
data collection. A large sample is desirable because it can help reduce sampling error (Fink,
2012). However, I had to strike a balance between the desire to achieve a large and anonymous
sample with the need for a speedy assessment. This survey is also limited based on the number
of participants who voluntarily chose to answer the questions. The survey approach also lent
itself to a relatively fast execution. However, the need for a speedy study did threaten my ability
to create external validity because the sample only included a fraction of the many offices in the
firm (Salkind, 2017). I could have attempted to gain permission to survey all offices, but that
approval process would have taken additional time.
Delimitations include potential sampling error related to the lack of full participation of
the salespeople in the organization (the entire organization was not surveyed). Because the
sample was conducted within one large media company, this study cannot be generalized to
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other media companies. It was not feasible to sample other companies due to challenges related
to access. In addition, this study focused on the areas identified in the literature review as
contributing to role clarity. A delimitation of the study is present as it relates to other possible
factors that contribute to a lack of performance. However, given the scale of possible factors,
role clarity was concentrated on to ensure an in-depth inquiry.
Recommendations for Future Research
The survey data in this study highlights a strong belief among the salespeople that the
goals they are assigned are not perceived as achievable or fair. The salespeople do not believe
that long-term and short-term goals are balanced properly. Moreover, there appears to be an
issue with when the goals are provided. More inquiry should be undertaken to understand the
specific reasons that these goals are not perceived to be fair or achievable. Is it simply that the
goals are too high? Is the problem related to the previous lack of performance that simply makes
people lose faith that they can achieve goals (self-efficacy)? Do the salespeople simply want to
be more involved in the goal-setting process? Would they prefer one revenue goal rather than
layers or prescriptive revenue goals (thrashing) that add up to the total revenue goal? In terms of
timeliness, how early do they want their goals? Is a month early enough, two months, three
months? These specific areas of inquiry would help the organization to better handle its goal
setting.
If addressing the perceived digital knowledge gap with industry training does not abate
the perceived knowledge gap, there could be a more complex motivational issue at work. If the
problem is confidence-based (self-efficacy) rather than knowledge-based, the training should still
help. However, if the education-based industry training does not help, future inquiry should be
conducted in this area to better understand the issue. This survey did not look at the possible
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 64

source of the perceived knowledge gap; it is therefore possible that there is a different issue at
play here. There is strong enough evidence in the data to recommend conducting this digital
industry training as the first step, but future inquiry should not be ruled out at this point.
Conclusion
When I designed the study, I hoped to uncover some areas of possible perceived role
ambiguity that the organization could address. During this inquiry, the organization was
experiencing significant internal change, as well as significant external change due to the digital
disruption of the industry. Because role clarity is linked with successful organizational change
(Hall, 2008), role clarity is important to help in the success of these multiple changes that the
ZAP Corporation is experiencing. My hope is that addressing these role clarity issues will
enable the organization to be more successful in achieving its overall goal of achieving
consistent and sustainable revenue growth. Fortunately, the organization benefits from several
key assets. Generally, the salespeople surveyed perceive themselves to understand the
expectations of their role. Moreover, the group appears to be highly motivated. A large portion
of the salespeople are simultaneously performance-oriented and mastery-oriented. The
salespeople also appear to have a relatively high amount of trust in their leadership, and the
salespeople feel fairly comfortable in taking necessary risks within the organization without fear
of negative consequences. The main issue needing to be addressed appears to be goal setting. It
is possible that providing a stronger set of goals would greatly enhance role clarity. Once the
goal setting concern has been tackled, a series of trainings related to broad digital industry
knowledge and reflection/metacognition will likely further enhance salespeople’s role clarity.
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 65

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APPENDIX A
Survey Data

Q1. I understand how to create custom marketing programs for my clients.
Total Weighted Average
1 0.00% 0 0.00% 0 2.50% 1 30.00% 12 67.50% 27 40 4.65
Answered 40
Skipped 1
Q2. I take time to consider how I could have improved after I have a client meeting.
Total Weighted Average
1 0.00% 0 0.00% 0 9.76% 4 24.39% 10 65.85% 27 41 4.56
Answered 41
Skipped 0
Q3. I take time to think about how I can better achieve my sales goals.
Total Weighted Average
1 0.00% 0 0.00% 0 5.26% 2 34.21% 13 60.53% 23 38 4.55
Answered 38
Skipped 3
Q4. I understand how to cold-call new business prospects.
Total Weighted Average
1 0.00% 0 2.50% 1 5.00% 2 27.50% 11 65.00% 26 40 4.55
Answered 40
Skipped 1
Q5. I am comfortable with each part of the sales process (client needs analysis, proposal, closing, etc.).
Total Weighted Average
1 0.00% 0 2.44% 1 2.44% 1 41.46% 17 53.66% 22 41 4.46
Answered 41
Skipped 0
Q6. I am knowledgeable about the broadcast advertising products that I sell.
Total Weighted Average
1 0.00% 0 5.00% 2 5.00% 2 47.50% 19 42.50% 17 40 4.28
Answered 40
Skipped 1
Q7. I am knowledgeable about the digital advertising products that I sell.
Total Weighted Average
1 0.00% 0 10.00% 4 22.50% 9 47.50% 19 20.00% 8 40 3.78
Answered 40
Skipped 1
Q8. I frequently think about how my personal success fits in with my organization’s goals.
Total Weighted Average
1 0.00% 0 5.13% 2 17.95% 7 23.08% 9 53.85% 21 39 4.26
Answered 39
Skipped 2
Q9. I understand the goals of my organization.
Total Weighted Average
1 2.44% 1 2.44% 1 19.51% 8 39.02% 16 36.59% 15 41 4.05
Answered 41
Skipped 0
Q10. I understand all of the goals that my sales manager provides to me.
Total Weighted Average
1 0.00% 0 10.26% 4 17.95% 7 35.90% 14 35.90% 14 39 3.97
Answered 39
Skipped 2
Q11. Sometimes I am confused about which of my sales goals should be prioritized.
Total Weighted Average
1 4.88% 2 39.02% 16 14.63% 6 29.27% 12 12.20% 5 41 3.05
Answered 41
Skipped 0
Q12. Being considered a top salesperson is very important to me.
Total Weighted Average
1 0.00% 0 0.00% 0 7.89% 3 31.58% 12 60.53% 23 38 4.53
Answered 38
Skipped 3
Q13. Being the best salesperson I can possibly be is important to me.
Total Weighted Average
1 0.00% 0 0.00% 0 2.44% 1 17.07% 7 80.49% 33 41 4.78
Answered 41
Skipped 0
Q14. Being the best salesperson I can possibly be is more important to me than being a better salesperson than my coworkers.
Total Weighted Average
1 0.00% 0 2.44% 1 29.27% 12 26.83% 11 41.46% 17 41 4.07
Answered 41
Skipped 0
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 76

Q15. I believe that my sales goals given to me by my manager are achievable.
Total Weighted Average
1 7.69% 3 15.38% 6 35.90% 14 38.46% 15 2.56% 1 39 3.13
Answered 39
Skipped 2
Q16. I understand what I need to do to achieve my sales goals.
Total Weighted Average
1 0.00% 0 2.44% 1 12.20% 5 65.85% 27 19.51% 8 41 4.02
Answered 41
Skipped 0
Q17. I fear that rapid industry change will cause me to lose my job.
Total Weighted Average
1 9.76% 4 39.02% 16 39.02% 16 7.32% 3 4.88% 2 41 2.59
Answered 41
Skipped 0
Q18. I believe my organization does a good job balancing short-term and long-term goals.
Total Weighted Average
1 10.00% 4 27.50% 11 37.50% 15 25.00% 10 0.00% 0 40 2.78
Answered 40
Skipped 1
Q19. I trust my leaders.
Total Weighted Average
1 5.00% 2 12.50% 5 20.00% 8 42.50% 17 20.00% 8 40 3.6
Answered 40
Skipped 1
Q20. My organization lets people make innovative choices even if the choices are sometimes risky.
Total Weighted Average
1 5.00% 2 10.00% 4 25.00% 10 57.50% 23 2.50% 1 40 3.43
Answered 40
Skipped 1
Q21. I feel comfortable with sharing differences in opinion within my organization without fear of negative consequences.
Total Weighted Average
1 9.76% 4 9.76% 4 24.39% 10 48.78% 20 7.32% 3 41 3.34
Answered 41
Skipped 0
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 77

Q22. In general, what are your thoughts on your individual sales goals?
Respondents Responses
1
I think that they should be evaluated based on where I finish this year not where I was projected to finish
considering the market down 20%, plus [redacted to protect anonymity] and the [redacted to protect anonymity]
2 Hopeful for a great 2018!
3 I welcome advances in the product in order to help achieve my goals and the clients' goals
4
They are achievable at times, but as 100% commission sales people i do not believe we should be docked a
percentage point for coming up slightly short of our budget.
5
I think I could use more training on digital and more knowledge on [redacted to protect anonymity] opportunities on
other property stations beside my own, so I can increase my sale opportunities
6
I believe that while technically they are achievable the reality is that right now not a lot of people are spending on
[broadcst advertising] and with the way our economy is, it had become harder and harder for small business owner
to be able to invest on advertising while all the big hitter are either taken by another AE or agency.
7 My [broadcst advertising] and digital are reasonable. my [redacted to protect anonymity] goal is incredibly high.
8
Sales goals are given without any input from sales person. Our team also has to wait far too long to even receive
goals for the next month from our sales manager, sometimes we do not get them until a week before the month
begins. To be given a sales goal that is only based off of last year's numbers is troubling. These goals do not take
into consideration factors such as changing ratings, lost accounts, numerous talent changes, accounts that have
to be given to ******[name redacted to protect privacy], accounts that change agencies, etc.
9
Considering the ratings, I think they should be adjusted. Now that we get penalized for not making the budget,
there should be consideration for adjusting due to the ratings.
10 Need to be communicated earlier.
11
I feel that building a book of business from scratch is very difficult and takes more than 6 months to achieve a
consistent client base. The goals are sometimes big long shots for such new AE's.
12 If I work hard and smart I will achieve my goals
13
I want to achieve all of my professional and personal goals. I think goals are not based on past account
performance but are arbitrary based on corporate budget.
14
It various throughout the year. Depending on what your manager gives you each month- There is not a strong
[redacted to protect anonymity] every single month, so the demand is not there. In those months it is harder to hit
your budget.
15
there is no rhyme or reason to them. They are just averaged out to the amount of salespeople on the staff. More
often to high to make up for deficiencies within the sales team.
16
They are not 'individual' sales goals. They are a number allocated to sales reps in order to achieve [local goals].
Have very little to do with specific individuals or the clients they manage.
17 not clearly defined
18 Do whatever it takes to hit.
19 Very difficult to achieve, and demotivating.
20
It is my world and my job, no matter the obstacles I may have to overcome such as attrition, the word "no", or
whatever that maybe. It's my job to get it done or at least have a plan in place to achieve those goals.
21
I think that they are unrealistic...they do not seem to be based off of local market conditions and realistic industry
growth.
22 HIT MY PERONAL BUDGET , NOT MY MANAGERS BUDGETS !
23 Budgets are not achievable
24
Year over year my goals are much higher due to a great 2016. With market changes, attrition and other
circumstances my goals have been harder to reach in 2017
25 Not enough incentives or bonus in hitting budgets
26
They seem arbitrary and don't tend to align with the [redacted to protect anonymity] goals. Especially programming.
Success is not celebrated--rather expected and used as a long-term negative
27 They are not defined
28 They're a mathematical equation - not much is left up to me in the creation of that budget -
29 The goals come from outer space. Not reality. If you have a good quarter your goals get bumped. Once set they
30 they are too high
31 I'm never involved. They are given to me.
32 I have not yet been given a budget or sales goal because I have only recently completed 90 days here.
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 78

Q23. What is your approach to achieving your individual sales goals?
Respondents Responses
1
Looking at past performance and future expectations than trying to prioritize where I need to spend the most time to
achieve both my current billing and the projection for the following year
2 increase share of agency business and increase direct and digital business
3 relationship building, digging deeper, bringing more viable solutions
4
I am the sole provider for my family, so they are my motivation to hit my budget and kickers to make the most
money i can.
5
Push more digital and [redacted to protect anonymity] and sale other [redacted to protect anonymity] beside my
own.
6
Work on accounts that start at $3000 a month minimum, with the suggestion of them starting at $5000. It is not only
about achieving my sales goals but giving the client a budget that will actually deliver a good campaign
7 Looking at my goal, creating a plan on how many calls I need to make, to make the goal.
8 Setting as many CNA's as possible.
9 Prospecting new clients and reviewing current client list and coming up with ideas that fit their marketing objectives.
10 It's all a numbers game and I try to find new prospects daily.
11 Work in more new business
12 Work smart and show up.
13 Always working ahead, and figuring out what I need to bill to achieve the goals.
14 creating a plan each month to achieve the goals based on client Needs analysis and our in house marketing tools.
15 Continue to do what I know to do in order to make decent money and earn a livable income in this business.
16
continuing prospecting, monitor competition, excellent service to existing clients, being the resource they want even
if it does not mean immediate biz
17 Planning and relentless hard work
18 I do the best I can.
19
Making weekly lists as reminders of tasks that need to get done. It's follow up with current clients, making new
sales calls and growing my sales funnel and being better than every single media sales person in this market place.
I tell my kids every day as they go to school "to do your job and do it well." I live by those words as well.
20 RESEARCH AND COLD CALLING
21 Keep on keeping on
22
My approach is lots of prospecting, cold calling and taking the time to give each client the time they need as well as
building thoughtful marketing campaigns rather than throwing together a schedule that may or may not work for that
client.
23 volume
24 I focus on being as productive as I can be using our tools to best serve our clients
25 Focus on income & how those goals can be achieved by hitting sales goals.
26 My budget doesn't change how I approach my business.
27 week by week
28
I don't focus on my budget/goals. I honestly don't know what they are...spot, digital, ntr, etc. I focus on keeping my
clients successful and finding ways to improve their successes and to find as many new clients as time will allow.
29
I understand that consistency in revenue driving activities each and every day is key. I focus on new opportunities
to connect with prospects and lapsed prospects at every chance.
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 79

Q24. What would help you better achieve your sales goals?
Respondents Responses
1
Not to have to sit at my desk and work on preempts and putting out fires that our very capable assistants could
likely solve, so I am able to get out in front of new and current patners , and can expand my client base while look
for other buckets of money. I think assistants should be an even BIGGER priority & resource for sales, which
means they share responsibilities and support each other when one assistant has 5 sales people and one has 10
and now with wide orbit, the new collections center it’s become very very desk work consuming! I’m not willing to
work hard I just think that we could evaluate how to help sales people get out from behind the desk rather than bog
them down more

I think we should work to sales people strengths , digital dept strengths , creative people strengths , rather than
trying to be all things to all people and not getting out of the building to do what we do best!
2 an assistant
3 Better training. Processes that are less time consuming so we can focus on selling
4 Product enhancements, travel budget
5 To have more digital training, and have updated information and understanding on other stations.
6
To have more structure. I understand what sets us apart from our competitors is that we are able to customize
campaigns based on their marketing objectives however it is hard for clients to picture what that looks like when it
comes to the investment. If we had packages or a minimum base to start off of and customize it from there I think
that would be very helpful specially to the newer people coming onto the team
7 I don't know
8
A fair goal would be nice. Furthermore, to have a commission plan that punishes sales people who are 100%
commission is ridiculous. If one rep has a goal of 100,000 and bills 94k, she is paid at a lower percentage than a
salesperson who has a goal of 50k and bills 52k. Does not make sense, which is why many of our colleagues have
left.
9
Less internal meetings. We have way too many trainings and meetings. I think if you have been at [ZAP] for over 5
years, you should not have to do [redacted to protect anonymity] training....and [redacted to protect anonymity] was
a waste of time.
10
The environment that is bred here in the office is very competitive and insidious. I think if we had more of a team
approach and less revolving door of employees, it would breed confidence and security. I think we should take care
of the employees that are here and actively pursuing the company's goals.
11 research
12 Quicker approval and turn around time from management in various departments.
13
Better direction and timing! Not last minute [redacted to protect anonymity] given to us a month prior, and then
expecting to sell it within 2 weeks. It takes time for clients to decide if they want to do it, what they have budgeted
for, and all the assets that come with it.
14
a new commission structure that doesn't punish you for not hitting a specific [redacted to protect anonymity] budget.
We are commission only. We don't need to be punished. We cant help if a client's needs analysis changes away
from our home station. Its absolute BS.
15 With a more reasonable goal - I could better achieve it.
16 Lower sales goals
17 Reasonable goals.
18
More sales support. I used to have a dedicated person assigned to me and it led to hitting my sales goal each
quarter and the entire year. It just allows me to go out and do what I do best as opposed to doing the "desk work."
19 If the goals were more realistic, and not some pie in the sky number based on unrealistic growth
20 QUAILIFY LEADS FROM OUR MANANGERS
21 Lower goals
22
More idea generation and one on one time with managers. More meaningful meetings with manager instead of
where are we with this client? How many meetings do you have this week? I understand it's a numbers game but at
the end of the day we have to come up with cool, custom ideas to get to those number for our clients. Without that
we're just another [redacted to protect anonymity] station in the mix.
23 more training
24 better technology, more training in closing/sales process management, better time management systems
25 Advance planning on what is best for the client with more focus on total $ booked than filling specific buckets
26
A NEW System designed to let sales people SELL & Work with clients vs paperwork, collections, forms, reports,
meetings. More sales support, better systems, allows us more time in front of clients--thus more opportunity to
generate dollars. Company seems fixated on dumping all on sales people & cant understand why we don't sell ---
we don't have enough FACE TO FACE client time
27 Not to take stupid tests like this. You want real feedback - ask us and let us have a conversation
28 more support internally- copy writers and more female talent options
29
More time from having to do the admin activities that have been placed on my plate. I'm paid to bring in revenue for
the company but I spend just as much time doing no revenue generating tasks.
30
I would like to submit a suggestion here that a faster and more fluid CNA to Proposal process is not a hindrance to
a good relationship with a client or agency. On the contrary, it engenders a sense that their time and yours is
valuable and a quick turn-time on key proposals is essential.
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 80

APPENDIX B
Ethics
As I engaged in this inquiry, I made every effort to fully achieve informed consent for all
participants, voluntary participation, data confidentiality, participation confidentiality, and secure
storage of the collected data. As required by the institutional review board (IRB), I asked survey
participants to agree to a confidential statement of informed consent as a part of the inquiry
process (Krueger & Casey, 2009; Rubin & Rubin, 2012). I made it clear that participation was
completely voluntary. To gain accurate and ethically derived data, it is also important that the
participants do not feel pressured to participate (Rubin & Rubin, 2012). As a measure to reduce
perceived pressure to participate, I asked a member of the human resources department to
volunteer to email participants. My goals were related to achieving role clarity for the
organization. Evidence of a lack or role clarity reflects poorly on the organization and the
executive leaders. I paid special attention to the wording of my questions (Patton, 2015) so that I
could make it clear that such faults are not with the individuals being surveyed. I did not want
the participants to fear that these types of answer would pose them any risk of harm (Rubin &
Rubin, 2012). I made it clear that I was looking for evidence of a lack of role clarity to help the
organization without biasing their answers in such a way that they would simply tell me what
they thought I wanted to hear. To conform to IRB standards, I made it clear to the survey
participants that all data related to their identities would be masked (Rubin & Rubin, 2012).
I also had certain biases that were considered. As stated previously, the inquiry related to
role clarity implies that I believed that there was a problem. I attempted to avoid engaging in
confirmation bias as I engaged in this inquiry. Furthermore, the evaluation of role clarity in and
of itself may have created a bias in the mind of the participant that is agnostic of their desire to
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 81

respond in a way that is compatible with supporting my hypotheses. The wording of my
questions was critical, as I sought to avoid creating these biases while maintaining questions that
elicited rich responses (Patton, 2015). I paid special attention to these biases when I constructed
my questions (Rubin & Rubin, 2012).

ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 82

APPENDIX C
Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
For this implementation and evaluation plan, I will utilize the New World Kirkpatrick
Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) put forward four
levels of training and evaluation (Level 4 - Results, Level 3 - Behavior, Level 2 - Learning, and
Level 1 - Reaction). Level 4 looks at results by measuring leading indicators (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). Level 3 measures how much the individual transfers the information back
into their specific work setting by looking at critical behaviors, required drivers, and on-the-job
learning (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Level 2 evaluates learning by looking at the
knowledge, skills, attitude, confidence, and commitment that occurred through instruction.
Level 1 measures the reaction of the participants in the training in terms of satisfaction,
engagement, and relevance (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations
ZAP’s organizational goal is to achieve a sustainable and consistent three percent annual
growth in sales each year starting in 2020. For the purposes of this inquiry, I have focused on
the salespeople as my stakeholders of focus. Salespeople are responsible for the advertising
revenue generation. Because I am focused on role clarity for this inquiry, the stakeholder goal is
to achieve 100% perceived role clarity among the salespeople based on survey data by the end of
2019.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) recommended the use of leading indicators to
measure accomplishments and desirable outcomes by tracking the behaviors that affect the
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 83

outcomes that are desired. The following provides external and internal outcomes, metrics, and
methods that would demonstrate that role clarity is being achieved. The stock price would be the
single most valuable external indicator of success. This would signal that the media and
advertising industry, and the larger business community, have recognized that the organization
has achieved an amount or role clarity for its employees that will put it on track to achieve
revenue growth. Monthly, quarterly, and annual revenue growth versus the previous year would
also be a strong external leading indicator of success. Although achieving stock growth and/or
revenue growth does not necessarily guarantee perceived role clarity, it is an external indicator.
An internal indicator would be perceived clarity on goal content (achievability and
timeliness). This can be measured via survey. Another possible internal result that would be an
indicator of success would be a survey that demonstrates 100% perceived role clarity among the
salespeople. Perceived digital product knowledge is an area that the data show is lacking, and
this knowledge is required for proper role clarity. Digital training that includes a broader,
industry-wide education may ease this perceived lack of knowledge. A survey should also
measure for digital knowledge specifically to measure for success against this metric.
Unprompted metacognition would also indicate that clarity issues are being considered and
tackled.

ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 84

Table 2
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) (How will the outside world know
that ZAP salespeople have role clarity?)
Method(s)
External Outcomes
(1) Sales Growth Monthly revenue this month versus monthly
revenue the same month in the previous
year
Financial
Records
(2) Stock Price Increase in stock price Public
Exchange
Listings
Internal Outcomes
(3) Unprompted
metacognitive behavior
related to one’s role
Salespeople engage in reflection
(metacognition) related to their role and
achieving the goals of their role
Observation
(4) Perceived Digital
Product Knowledge
Salespeople report that they feel
comfortable in their knowledge of digital
products
Survey Data
(5) Perceive goal content to
be attainable and timely
Salespeople report that they feel that their
goals are attainable and timely
Survey Data

Level 3: Behavior
One possible beneficial behavior would be an increase in metacognition and reflection.
An example would be verbal discussion of how one’s personal revenue goals could better be
achieved. An ability to accurately articulate the prioritization of one’s goals would also be a
positive behavior. Metacognition may help the salespeople to prioritize their goals and cope
with thrashing. Articulation of goal content that is perceived to be attainable and timely would
also be an asset in terms of behavior.
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 85

Table 3
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical Behavior Metric(s) Method(s) Timing
(1) Metacognition Number of recurrences of
unprompted metacognitive
behavior that relates to one’s
role and one’s goal content
Observation Approximately 3
months after
training
(2) Articulate Role
Expectations
Knowledge
Percentage of salespeople who
perceive themselves to be
knowledgeable of the digital
media industry and how that fits
in with their role expectations
Survey Approximately 3
months after
training
(3) Articulate Goal
Content Knowledge in a
way that is perceived to
be timely and attainable
Percentage of Salespeople who
perceive their goals to be
attainable and timely
Survey Approximately 3
months after
training

Required drivers. To support these recommendations, training is recommended related
to metacognition and the digital advertising industry. Recognition of peer success in the areas of
goal achievement that also models the metacognitive process and utilization of digital advertising
is also recommended. Finally, it is recommended to enact a pay plan that does not
penalize/reward for selling specific products (digital), but, instead, allows the salesperson to
determine their own path to budget achievement. Quarterly surveys can measure the success on
these tactics in enhancing perceived role clarity.

ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 86

Table 4
Recommended Training
Method(s) Timing
Critical Behaviors
Supported
1, 2, 3 Etc.
Reinforcing

Provide training on metacognition and
reflective practices
Weekly for 3
months
1,2,3
Provide training on digital industry
knowledge
Weekly for 3
months
2,3
Encouraging

Recognition of peer sales success (goal
achievement) that includes modeling of
metacognition, and digital advertising
revenue
Ongoing 1,2,3
Rewarding

Compensation plan that does not prescribe
the specific mechanisms for budget
attainment so that salespeople may
determine their own path to success (no
reduction in commission for not hitting
digital revenue as an example)
Immediately 1,2,3
Monitoring

Surveys to measure elements of role clarity quarterly, to begin
approximately 3
months after
training events
1,2,3

Organizational support. Changing goal-setting practices so that said goals are
perceived to be both achievable and timely is recommended. Even if the goals are clear, there
will be an implicit lack of clarity if the goals are not perceived to be achievable and timely.
Further inquiry is recommended to understand what changes in goal setting would make these
goals be perceived as attainable and timely. How much time in advance to goals need to be
communicated to be timely? What would make the goals be perceived to be more attainable?

ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 87

Level 2: Learning
After the implementation, the salespeople will be able to do following:
1. Identify how digital advertising fits in with their own individual perception of their role
expectations.
2. Apply digital advertising knowledge in their role.
3. Recognize how metacognition can help contribute to their own success, the success of the
organization, and their own role clarity.
4. Apply metacognition (reflection) to more deeply find coherence with the links among the
salesperson’s role, digital advertising information, and the goals of both the individual
and the organization.
Program. A series of training events will take place that focus on digital industry
knowledge and reflective practices. These trainings will take place weekly for 3 months. The
training events will focus on digital industry knowledge rather than specific product knowledge.
Reflection will be heavily utilized during these trainings. The instructors (who has yet to be
chosen but should be a person viewed as credible and similar to the population) will model
reflection throughout the training by talking through how the delivered information applies to
his/her own role as well as his/her own goals and how that role and those goals fit in with the
organization’s goals. The trainer will also ask the participants to reflect and verbally share how
the new digital industry information applies to their success. These behaviors will also be
monitored and encouraged in the sales manager one-on-one meeting each week. Approximately
3 months after these training events, quarterly surveys will be utilized to measure the effect on
role clarity. The timing and content of these surveys will be based partially on feedback from the
managers given that they may have a unique understanding of salespeople’s progress and/or need
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 88

for more learning support, as well as feedback from the two surveys that will measure for the
effectiveness of the learning events themselves.
Table 5
Components of Learning for the Program.
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”

Knowledge checks on role expectations knowledge (including
digital) and metacognition in sales manager 1 on 1 meetings
Weekly
Observation of behavior before, during, and after sales calls
via sales manager ride-along days
Monthly
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”

Knowledge checks on role expectations knowledge (including
digital) and metacognition in sales manager 1 on 1 meetings
Weekly
Observation of behavior before, during, and after sales calls
via sales manager ride-along days
Monthly
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”

Survey on learning goals 1 week and 6 weeks after
learning events are completed
Knowledge checks on role expectations knowledge (including
digital) and metacognition in sales manager 1 on 1 meetings
Weekly
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”

Knowledge checks on role expectations knowledge (including
digital) and metacognition in sales manager 1 on 1 meetings
Weekly
Survey on learning goals 1 week and 6 weeks after
learning events are completed
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”

Knowledge checks on role expectations knowledge (including
digital) and metacognition in sales manager 1 on 1 meetings
Weekly
Ask the attendees to write down and share
how they will implement what they have
learned on the job
After the learning event
Observation of behavior before, during, and after sales calls
via sales manager ride-along days
Monthly
Survey on learning goals 1 week and 6 weeks after
learning events are completed

Level 1: Reaction
The table below outlines the reaction components of the evaluation. Surveys and
manager one-on-one meetings will be utilized to measure these reactions. Sales managers will
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 89

also be present during the training events to observe engagement and provide feedback to the
instructors.
Table 6
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program.
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement

Observation completed by sales managers at the
learning event
During the learning event events
Training Evaluation Surveys 1 week and 6 weeks after learning events
are completed
Relevance

Sales manager 1 on 1 meetings Weekly after training event
Training Evaluation Surveys 1 week and 6 weeks after learning events
are completed
Customer Satisfaction

Sales manager 1 on 1 meetings Weekly after training event
Training Evaluation Surveys 1 week and 6 weeks after learning events
are completed

Two instruments are provided in the appendices for evaluation of the learning events.
One survey will be sent within one week of the completion of the events, and one survey will be
sent six weeks after the completion of the events. The instrument consists of five-point Likert
questions and one open-ended question. The questions are designed to evaluate each level of
desired learning. The survey will be administered via email.
Summary
The New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) frames this
implementation plan. I have used the recommendations put forward in the model to design the
implement and evaluation of the achievement of the stakeholder goal of achieving 100% role
clarity. This intervention will better equip ZAP Corporation in its goal to grow revenue in a
sustainable way.
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 90

APPENDIX D
Survey Items
(Bolded text will not be included in the instrument)
This is a brief survey about the trainings that you have attended over the last several
months. This survey is anonymous. We want to understand how we can improve these types of
training in the future. Your response will help us in the effort.
A five-point Likert scale from strongly disagree to strongly agree will be used for questions
1-10 and question 11 will be open-ended.
Level 1: Engagement
1. The trainings increased my understanding of the digital advertising industry.
2. The courses increased my understanding of metacognition and reflective practices.
Level 1: Relevance
3. I will be able to use the information that I learned to help me with my job.
4. The information provided in these trainings was relevant to my ability to succeed in my job.
Level 1: Customer Satisfaction
5. The trainings were a good use of my time.
6. The instructors were effective in teaching the material.
Level 2: Learning
7. After the training, I can better identify how digital advertising fits in with my job
expectations.
8. After the training, I recognize how metacognition can help contribute to my own success in
my job.
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 91

9. After the training, I recognize how metacognition can help contribute to the success of the
organization.
10. After the training, I have reflected on how my own personal goals fit in with the goals of the
overall organization.
11. How will you use what you learned to better understand how to be successful in your job?
A five-point Likert scale from strongly disagree to strongly agree will be used for questions
1-9 and question 10 will be open-ended.
This is the second, brief, survey related to the trainings you completed six weeks
ago. Now that you have had some time to think about the materials, we would like to understand
more about your satisfaction with the course. The information learned from this anonymous
survey will be used to improve future training.
Level 1: Reactions
1. I enjoyed the training classes
2. I found the training classes to be useful
Level 2: Learning
3. My learning about the digital advertising industry was enhanced from attending the trainings.
4. My learning about reflection and metacognition was enhanced from attending the trainings.
Level 3: Behavior
5. My use of digital advertising assets in my client’s marketing plans has increased since
attending the trainings.
6. My use of reflection and metacognition has increased since attending the trainings.
7. My ability to think through the multiple steps required to be successful in my job has
increased since the trainings.
ADVERTISING SALES PERFORMANCE 92

8. I better understand how digital advertising fits in with my success in my role.
9. I better understand how my own personal goal contribute to the organization’s goals.
Open-Ended Response:
10. How could the trainings be improved?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract ZAP Corporation, a traditional media company, has experienced a lack of revenue growth related to the industry‐wide disruption caused by digital media. Role clarity is an important asset for organizations that require innovation and creativity to prosper, and the ZAP Corporation will likely require innovation and creativity to cope with this industry‐wide disruption. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the degree to which the ZAP Corporation is meeting the stakeholder goal of achieving 100% perceived role clarity among salespeople, based on survey data, by the end of 2019. Two different groups of salespeople at the ZAP Corporation were surveyed regarding knowledge, motivational, and organizational factors uncovered through a literature review related to role clarity. The survey results show that many of the salespeople do not perceive themselves as fully knowledgeable about the digital media assets that they are selling. The survey results also demonstrate that the salespeople do not perceive their sales goals to be achievable, timely, or fair. They perceive their goals as being too voluminous, and they do not believe that the organization properly balances short‐term and long‐term goals. To address these findings, I recommend three actions. First, the organization must change its goal‐setting practices so that the goals are perceived to be achievable, timely, and fair. Further inquiry might be required to better understand what specific changes would address these goal‐setting issues. Second, education‐based digital industry training will arm the salespeople with deeper industry knowledge that may be more valuable than simple product‐specific knowledge, given that the products themselves are rapidly‐changing. Third, training on metacognition (reflective practices) may help the salespeople become clearer on how their goals reciprocally support the goals of the organization, how digital ties in with these goals, and how metacognition can be used as a tool to help salespeople think through their voluminous goals so that they may better prioritize them.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Pettiette, Michael (author)

Core Title Advertising sales performance at a traditional media company operating in the digital age

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 06/28/2018

Defense Date 05/04/2018

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag advertising,broadcast,digital,digital media,disruption,media,metacognition,OAI-PMH Harvest,reflection,role ambiguity,role clarity,Sales,sales goals,sales performance,thrashing,traditional media

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Hirabayashi, Kimberly (committee chair), Boichuk, Jeffrey (committee member), Seli, Helena (committee member)

Creator Email mpettiette@gmail.com,pettiett@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-13731

Unique identifier UC11671646

Identifier etd-PettietteM-6353.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-13731 (legacy record id)

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Dmrecord 13731

Document Type Dissertation

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Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

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