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Factors related to the training, recruitment, and retention of quality bilingual teachers in dual language immersion programs in international schools

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Content Running Head: FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND
RETENTION
i

FACTORS RELATED TO THE TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION OF
QUALITY BILINGUAL TEACHERS IN DUAL LANGUAGE IMMERSION PROGRAMS IN
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS

by

Scott A. Oskins

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2018

Copyright 2018 Scott A. Oskins

FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION ii
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to dual language immersion teachers and paraprofessionals
who work in the field of bilingual education. Both groups have dedicated their careers to the
development of bilingual, biliterate, and bicultural students, even when they are provided with
limited resources or inadequate support networks. It is my hope that this study will contribute to
the field of research that will eventually make quality dual language immersion programs a
reality for students from all backgrounds.
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION iii
Acknowledgements
Earning a doctorate degree has been a personal and professional goal for more than a
decade, and I would like to thank Dr. Chip Kimball and Dr. Jennifer Sparrow for creating an on-
campus EdD program that made my dream a reality. My dissertation chair, Dr. Ruth Chung,
supported and guided me throughout the dissertation process. I am grateful that she pushed me to
be my absolute best. Dr. Lawrence Picus served as my second committee member and deserves
recognition for being a thoughtful instructor and helping me to work through my original
dissertation topics. I asked Dr. Rudy Castruita to serve as my third committee member because
of his knowledge of bilingual education and numerous connections with district administrators
throughout the state of California. I want to give a special thanks to Dr. Castruita for serving as
my advocate and for believing in me since day one in the EdD program. My principal, Lauren
Mehrbach, has been my champion in the middle school as we work to implement a dual
language immersion pilot program. She has trusted me to make decisions and her unwavering
support and dedication of dual language immersion should not go unnoticed. Finally, thank you
to Mark Swarstad, Chris Raymaakers, Chris Beingessner, and Ben Robertaccio for going above
and beyond to ensure that dual language immersion will be implemented efficiently.
On a personal level, I want to thank my partner, Ein Mas Indra, for dealing with my
mood swings over the past three years and making sure that I ate properly and maintained a
certain degree of balance between work and school. I don’t know what I would do without you
on this journey. I would like to recognize my sister, Stacie Oskins, for being my number one
cheerleader in life and throughout the rollercoaster of the doctorate program. I love you! To my
parents, John and Laurie Oskins, thank you for instilling in me from a very young age the work
ethic and self-esteem that allowed me to attend college, participate in two study abroad
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION iv
programs, earn a bilingual teaching credential, complete my master’s degree, and finish my EdD.
To my friends, Leah, Victoria, Tina, Jesse, Becky, Gale, Gary, José, and Mary, thank you for
supporting me through this process and for showing up on the big day in Los Angeles for my
doctoral hooding. Your encouragement and friendship means the world to me. To Alissa,
George, Anne and Selvie, thank you for helping me attempt to maintain some resemblance of a
social life throughout my EdD overload. And to my Singapore family – Alhamdullilah! Thank
you for your prayers, encouraging words, and delicious Malay food.
To my neighbor, friend, colleague, classmate, editor, travel partner, and car pool buddy,
Dr. Betsy Hall, thank you for surviving the last three years with me. I’m not sure that I would
have been able to get through the EdD without your help. To my remarkable USC Singapore
cohort, you are the smartest and most dedicated group of individuals I know. Dr. Anne
Wenstrom, Dr. Sarah Farris, Dr. Betsy Hall, Dr. Monica San Jose, Dr. Lauren Murphy, Dr.
Treena Casey, Dr. Martha Began, Dr. Cris Ewell, Dr. Amanda Wood, Dr. Susan Shaw, Dr.
Robin Pearson, Dr. Lauren Bokaer, Dr. Lisa Wan, Dr. Dennis Steigerwald, Dr. Jennifer Sparrow,
and Dr. Marianne Yong-MacDonald, it has been a pleasure spending Saturday mornings with
you. And I am sure looking forward to sleeping in next year!
Lastly, my dissertation would never have become a reality had it not been for two
professors earlier in my academic career that challenged me as a researcher and a writer. Dr.
Bruce LaBrack of the University of the Pacific and Dr. Marilyn Korostoff of California State
University, Long Beach, you both pushed me to be a better student, teacher leader, and academic
researcher. I sincerely believe that I would not be where I am today without having taken your
classes. Finally, a big thanks to all of my professors and teachers, you have inspired me
throughout my 20-year career in the field of education.
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION v
Table of Contents
List of Tables viii
List of Figures ix
Abstract x
Chapter One: Overview of the Study 1
Introduction and Statement of the Problem 1
Background of the Problem 2
Purpose of the Study 3
Conceptual Framework 4
Importance of the Study 9
Limitations and Definitions of Terms 10
Definitions 11
Chapter Two: Literature Review 14
The Politics of Bilingual Education in the Context of American
Education 14
The Four Main Periods of History for Bilingual Education 15
The Permissive Period 15
The Restrictive Period 15
The Opportunist Period 16
The Dismissive Period 18
Current Challenges for Bilingual Programs 20
Challenges for Bilingual Education at Int’l School Campuses 21
Solutions and Models: California as a Trendsetter 22
Solutions and Models: School Administration as Advocates 22
Approaches to Bilingual Education 23
Dual Language/Two-Way Bilingual Immersion 23
Maintenance Bilingual Education 24
Transitional Bilingual Education 24
Foreign Language (One-Way) Immersion 24
Other Approaches to Bilingual Education 25
Summary of the Politics of Bilingual Education in the Context of
American Education 27
Training, Recruitment, and Retention of Quality Bilingual Educators 27
Definition of a Quality Bilingual Educator 28
Training 29
Recruitment 30
Retention 33
The Context of International Schools 35
Emerging Bilingual Programs at SIS 36
Summary of the Literature 37
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions 38
Chapter Three: Methodology 39
Participants and Sampling Rationale 40
Site Descriptions and Sampling Procedures 41
Instrumentation and Procedure 44
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION vi
Document Analysis 44
Interviews 45
Planned Analysis 48
Document Analysis 48
Document Analysis as a Bridge to Interview Candidates 49
Interview Analysis 50
Credibility and Trustworthiness 50
Ethics 51
Positionality of the Researcher 52
Chapter Four: Results 54
Participating Institutions 54
Research Question One 55
Document Analysis 56
Interviews 58
Characteristics of Teacher Candidates 58
Alternative Pathways 59
Recruitment Practices 60
Teacher Certification 61
Professional Development 62
Long-Term Planning 62
Resources 63
Retention Programs 63
Research Question Two: Interviews 64
Recruitment 66
Characteristics of Teacher Candidates 66
Headhunting Practices 68
Exploring Alternative Pathways 69
Recruitment Practices 71
University Partnerships 73
Training 75
Teacher Certification 75
Teachers on Special Assignment 77
Retention 77
Multiple Layers of Support 77
Resources 78
Retention Programs 79
Other Emerging Themes 81
Models of Dual Language Immersion Programs 81
School Culture 84
Seal of Biliteracy 85
Sharing Candidate Information 85
Summary 86
Chapter Five: Discussion 87
Summary of Findings 89
Recruitment Practices 89
Characteristics of Teacher Candidates 90
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION vii
Headhunting Practices 91
University Partnerships 91
Alternative Teacher Candidate Pathways 92
Teacher Certification 92
Resources 93
Models of Dual Language Immersion Programs 94
Discussion of Findings 94
Limitations of the Study 98
Implications for Practice 99
Balancing Internal Versus External Candidates 100
Initiating a Headhunting Mentality for Recruitment 100
Expanding Bilingual Certifications 101
Considering a 50/50 DLI Program Model 102
Alternative Pathways: Creating a Pipeline of DLI Teachers 102
Recruiting at National Conferences 103
Collaborating with Peer International Schools 104
Developing TOSAs 104
Forming University Partnerships 105
Summary and Conclusion 105
References 107
Appendix A: Interview Protocol for School/District Administrators 114
Appendix B: Interview Protocol for Educational Consultants 116

FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION viii
List of Tables
Table 1: Institutions and Organizations from which Study Participants Were Selected 43
Table 2: An Example of a Table to Organize Data Found Through Document Analysis 45
Table 3: Interview Questions for School/District Administrators 47
Table 4: Interview Questions for Educational Consultants 48
Table 5: Institutions Participating in Person-to-Person or Online Interviews 55
Table 6: Summary of Data Collected as a Result of Document Analysis 57
Table 7: Dual Language Immersion Model at SIS 83
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION ix
List of Figures
Figure 1: Qualities of Effective Dual Language Educators 6
Figure 2: Conceptual Framework: Quality Bilingual Teachers 7
Figure 3: Conceptual Framework: Quality Bilingual Teachers 88

FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION x
Abstract
Today, more than ever, 21st century learners need access to multilingual instruction and the
opportunity to understand diverse perspectives and cultures (Goldenberg & Wagner, 2015). As
the need for bilingual and dual language immersion classrooms continues to grow, the
characteristics of quality bilingual teachers have emerged as the key to an effective program
(Alfaro, 2017; Ovando, 2003). The purpose of this qualitative descriptive study was to address
the shortage of qualified bilingual teachers in the American education system by examining the
recruitment, training, and retention practices in school systems with model bilingual programs in
order to apply best practices at American international schools. Additionally, the qualities and
characteristics of bilingual teachers at a private international school in Southeast Asia were
examined in regards to institutional practices related to the recruitment, training, and retention of
bilingual teachers. Finally, the institutional practices were compared to peer international schools
and U.S. public schools with successful bilingual programs. Guided by a conceptual framework
based on the work of Alfaro (2017), the researcher gathered data through document analysis and
semi-structured interviews with school administrators. Transcripts of interviews were coded and
organized into emerging themes. Nine recommendations emerged as a result of the study: (1)
balancing internal versus external candidates, (2) initiating a headhunting mentality for
recruitment, (3) expanding bilingual certifications, (4) considering a 50/50 program model, (5)
exploring alternative candidate pathways, (6) recruiting at national conferences, (7) collaborating
with peer international schools, (8) developing the role of teachers on special assignment, and (9)
forming university partnerships.
Keywords: Bilingual education, dual language immersion, recruitment, retention, training
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 1
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Introduction and Statement of the Problem
The history of bilingual education in the United States dates back to the colonial period
of the early 1600s, with the first established bilingual schools on the American continent
designed specifically for Polish immigrants in Virginia (Goldenberg & Wagner, 2015).
Throughout American history, distinct communities have pushed for legislation to protect or
promote fluency in languages other than English. Modern bilingual education in the United
States is rooted in the first two-way bilingual program developed at Coral Way Elementary in
Dade County, Florida during the 1960s to serve the Cuban refugee community (Goldenberg &
Wagner, 2015). According to Goldenberg and Wagner (2015), “The bilingual programs they
created in Florida were and remain among the most successful in the country” (p. 29).
Unfortunately, bilingual programs have long been the target of political campaigns and
the immigration debate instead of a focus on cultural awareness and globalization. The landmark
Supreme Court case Lau v. Nichols (1974) influenced the development of bilingual programs;
however, the court failed to establish a specific bilingual policy for schools to follow (La Morte,
2005). The class action lawsuit represented 2,856 Chinese-speaking students in the San
Francisco school system that alleged discrimination on the grounds that they could not achieve at
high levels because they could not understand the instruction of their English-speaking teachers
(Moran, 2005). Although the ruling in Lau v. Nichols was based on a violation of Title VI of the
1964 Civil Rights Act, weak federal guidelines were used to form programs in school districts
and local school sites. As a result, bilingual programs have struggled for decades to meet the
needs of students amid policy debates in school systems and state legislatures.
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 2
In the 21st century, the influences of globalization now impact language instruction in
American schools due to a changing international economic focus and threats to national
security. Today, more than ever, 21st century learners need access to multilingual instruction and
the opportunity to understand diverse perspectives and cultures. In order to meet this growing
need, there will be an increased demand in schools for trained bilingual teachers. There will be
an even greater demand in international schools. If a shortage of bilingual teachers already exists
in U.S. public schools, how does that translate to the specific settings of international schools
such as Straits International School (SIS) in Singapore and others in the region? As the demand
for education at international school campuses increases worldwide, school systems will need to
respond by meeting the needs of this global community through multilingual instruction that
prepares learners to be successful for the challenges of the 21st century.
Context of the Inquiry
The Straits International School
1
(SIS) is a non-profit, independent Pre-K-12,
coeducational day school in the city-state of Singapore serving over 3,900 students from 49
different countries (SIS, 2016). The school is committed to its mission of ensuring that each and
every student receives an exemplary American educational experience with an international
perspective. Since the school’s founding in 1956, an entire decade before Singapore declared its
own independence, SIS has been on the leading edge of preparing predominantly expatriate
students for the American university system. SIS offers more Advanced Placement (AP) courses
and exams than any other school outside of the United States, with 1,590 exams given in 2015
and 93.5% of students scoring a 3 or higher (Solution Tree, 2016).

1
In order to protect the identity of the organization examined in this study, Straits International
School is a pseudonym.
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 3
The SIS vision is “A world leader in education, cultivating exceptional thinkers, prepared
for the future” (SIS website
2
). As SIS continues to progress toward fulfilling the vision, three
strategic anchors have been identified: a culture of excellence, a culture of extraordinary care,
and a culture of possibilities (SIS website). A culture of possibilities has allowed SIS to
experiment with a bilingual Mandarin Chinese program, which started in the 2017-18 school
year with two kindergarten classrooms. This cohort of students will continue to advance through
the elementary school until the program has expanded completely to fifth grade classrooms. At
the secondary level, a modified single subject bilingual program in Spanish for the 2018-2019
school year is in the planning stages for grade eight. Course offerings will include social studies
offered in Spanish for students at the Intermediate High Spanish level and above, along with a
world language class for linguistic maintenance and support. This program would expand into
the high school through a series of advanced courses offered in disciplines depending on staffing.
The middle school program would then expand to grades six and seven to meet the needs of
emergent bilingual students arriving from the elementary school. It is clear that at the secondary
level, the strength and offerings of the bilingual program will depend heavily on the quality and
availability of certified bilingual teachers.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this qualitative descriptive study was to address the shortage of qualified
bilingual teachers in the American education system by examining the recruitment, training, and
retention practices in school systems with model bilingual programs in order to apply best
practices at American international schools. Additionally, the qualities and characteristics of
bilingual teachers at SIS were examined in regards to institutional practices related to the

2
In order to protect the identity of the institution examined in this study, all references to the SIS
website do not refer to the school’s actual URL.
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 4
recruitment, training, and retention of bilingual teachers. Finally, these institutional practices of
recruitment, training, and retention were compared to selected peer international schools and
U.S. public school districts with successful bilingual programs. The research questions are as
follows:
1. What are the current practices for the recruitment and retention of bilingual teachers
at SIS, as compared to those practices at other peer international schools and
American public school districts?
2. What best practices exist at peer international schools and American public school
districts for the training, recruitment, and retention of bilingual candidates in order to
nurture quality bilingual teachers?
Conceptual Framework
Maxwell (2013) defines a conceptual framework as “the actual ideas and beliefs that you
hold about the phenomena studied, whether these are written down or not” (p. 39). It’s a tentative
theory of the phenomena that is being investigated (Maxwell, 2013). The conceptual framework
developed for this study is based on the work presented by Alfaro (2017) during the National
Association for Bilingual Education (NABE) Dual Language Symposium. Figure 1 below shows
the dual language educator at the center of the process, with six distinct components feeding into
the qualities of effective dual language educators. Alfaro (2017) describes the components as
pedagogical clarity (biliteracy development), linguistic and cultural efficaciousness, family and
community, bilingualism/biliteracy, knowledge in content standards, and ideology/advocacy.
Each element is based on the challenges and incentives for bilingual teacher candidates.
Pedagogical clarity is the ability to create equitable academic spaces that provide access
to a rigorous curriculum and the development of biliteracy (Alfaro & Hernandez, 2016).
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 5
Efficacious language education leverages the linguistic capital of emergent bilinguals to realize
their true academic potential. The ability of the bilingual teacher to connect to the family and
community is important in building the linguistic status of the target language. Dual Language
Immersion (DLI) programs create a space that allows students to develop not only as bilingual,
but also biliterate and bicultural. Knowledge of specific content, whether it is early elementary
education or single subject teaching credentials at the secondary level, is one of the guiding
principles of DLI programs. The goal of DLI is for students to develop high levels of language
proficiency and literacy in both program languages, to demonstrate high levels of academic
achievement, and to develop an appreciation for and an understanding of diverse cultures
(http://www.cal.org/twi/). This is in contrast to traditional bilingual education in which the goal
is to develop some skills in the target language with an emphasis on a full transition to
mainstream English classrooms (https://www.cde.ca.gov/sp/el/ip/langedprogdefs.asp). Finally,
the DLI educator is seen as an advocate of bilingualism and the ideology of language education,
especially for language minority students and their families.

FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 6

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework: Qualities of Effective Dual Language Educators (Alfaro,
2017).
Using elements of the conceptual framework developed by Alfaro (2017) in Figure 1, this
study utilizes a conceptual framework with quality bilingual teachers and DLI programs at the
center (see Figure 2). In order to build an effective DLI program at an individual school site or
within a school system, it is essential to first cultivate a team of quality bilingual teachers. The
institutional practices of training, recruitment, and retention emerge as the necessary drivers of
change in this paradigm shift. According to Darling-Hammond, Berry, Haselkorn, and Fideler
(1999), as cited in a United Nations Education, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
study by Cooper and Alvarado (2006), the American school system has no “coherent
infrastructure of recruitment, preparation, and support programmes” in place in order to retain
quality teachers (p. 2). If a school system were to dedicate resources in the key areas of
recruitment, training, and retention (support programs) in order to fill shortage areas such as
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 7
bilingual education, the development of a team of quality bilingual teachers would help to make
effective DLI programs a reality. Figure 2 shows quality bilingual teachers at the core of the
conceptual framework with the institutional practices of training, recruitment, and retention
circulating around the boundary. Within each institutional practice, there are drivers such as
professional development and partnerships, external versus internal recruitment, and
incentives/resources. While training or recruitment might be viewed as the first step in the
development of quality bilingual teachers, the process is cyclical because additional training and
ongoing recruitment are trademarks of any quality DLI program. See Figure 2.

Figure 2. Conceptual Framework: Quality Bilingual Teachers.

FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 8
The institutional practices of training, recruitment, and retention will be referred to
throughout this study as the principle drivers of quality bilingual teachers in DLI programs.
Simply stated, without the institutional practices to attract and retain quality bilingual educators,
a DLI program would not exist. Training, recruitment, and retention are the drivers of
organizational change in the development of a successful and effective DLI program. Dr.
Cristina Alfaro of San Diego State University (SDSU), the largest bilingual teacher education
program in California, argues that “programs will only be effective if the teachers receive
appropriate professional development, have a solid curriculum and cultural competence for the
students they work with. Developing these things takes time.” (White, 2017, p. 2). It is estimated
that SDSU graduates between 50 to 60 bilingual teacher candidates per year as the state’s largest
bilingual education program (White, 2017). According to Alfaro (2017), this is not even enough
to fill the growing need for dual language immersion programs in San Diego, let alone the region
or the state (White, 2017). If the demand for quality bilingual teachers is this great in San Diego,
what does that demand look like for school districts throughout California, nationally, and
globally?
“We know that multilingualism is a real asset in the global society that we live in,”
argues Alfaro (White, 2017, p. 3). The growth of international schools overseas is staggering and
the demand for international school education continues to expand globally. The expansion of
the international school market for expatriates has grown exponentially over the past 20 years. In
the year 2000, there were less than one million students attending 2,500 international schools
around the world (International School Consultancy, 2018). In 2011, this number increased to
three million spread across 6,000 schools overseas (ISC, 2018). According to the latest market
data compiled by the International School Consultancy (ISC) in January 2018, the amount of
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 9
students enrolled in international schools increased to about five million in 9,306 schools in
virtually every country in the world (ISC, 2018). International schools are in a unique position to
learn from U.S. school districts and university teacher preparation programs. Leading university
systems and school districts with established dual language programs could serve as models for
international schools interested in developing or expanding an educational program based on
dual language immersion.
Importance of the Study
The mission of SIS is to provide “each student an exemplary American educational
experience with an international perspective” (SIS website). Providing students with an
international perspective in the 21st century includes the ability to communicate, collaborate, and
think critically in another language as outlined in the 2020 Strategic Plan (SIS website). As a
school system, SIS could learn from model US public school districts on how to effectively
implement a quality K-12 DLI program in Chinese or Spanish. Additionally, it might build
partnerships with international schools in the region to share resources such as teacher training or
develop university partnerships as it develops a bilingual teacher corps.
Murray (2006) argues, “Languages are the key to communication, which is clearly vital
to success in this global business environment” (p. 46). It is imperative in this age of
globalization that our international perspective, as outlined in the SIS mission, includes
proficiency in a language other than English. Building a quality DLI program starts with the
training, recruitment, and retention of bilingual teachers. Mitchell (2016) explains that “demand
for dual language programs for their English-speaking peers have more districts tapping an
already shallow talent pool” (p. S5). If the talent pool is shallow in the United States, what does
the applicant pool look like for American schools overseas?
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 10
For American international schools, there are additional considerations when hiring for
positions overseas. As the world becomes increasingly globalized, the need for high quality
language instruction is heightened. This is especially true in international school settings due to
the demographics of the student population. Many of the students at these schools will graduate
and eventually become leaders in government, education, and corporations throughout the world
as well as advocates within Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and the United Nations
(UN) (Murray, 2006). The future cooperation between corporate and government entities and the
collaboration with NGOs and the UN depend upon the linguistic abilities of the graduates from
these institutions. The global expatriate community is another factor in the emergence of
bilingual/DLI programs at international schools. With the growing number of international
schools worldwide, parents now have a number of choices for their children’s education when
they are relocated or transferred to new country by their employer. In the competitive
international school market, especially in Singapore, a dynamic curricular program featuring
dual language immersion is a major selling point.
Limitations and Definitions of Terms
Limitations will most likely be directly connected to the availability of model programs
and access to administrators at those particular school sites. As the study is based in Singapore,
school sites with model bilingual/DLI programs in the region will be given preference. School
sites in regions known for exemplary bilingual/DLI programs, such as Florida and California,
will be considered based on the practicality of the location. Researcher bias is another challenge
for this study because of my involvement with the planning for a future bilingual/DLI Spanish
program in the middle school at SIS. Researcher bias and the effect of the researcher on the
individuals studied, or reactivity, are two important threats to the conclusion of a qualitative
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 11
study (Maxwell, 2013). However, Maxwell (2013) argues that since the “researcher is part of the
world that he or she studies—it is a powerful and inescapable influence” (p. 125). At the end of
the day, it is the integrity of the researcher in qualitative studies that matters the most (Maxwell,
2013).
Definitions
American International School – American international schools overseas are typically private,
tuition-based schools that recruit the vast majority of their faculty/administration from North
America. Many of these schools are operated as K-12 campuses with separate facilities and
administration for elementary, middle, and high schools. They serve international business
families, the diplomatic community and the host national community, ranging enormously in
size, number, origin of staff, and composition of the student body. English is the primary
language of instruction. The administrative structure is provided by a board of trustees and the
superintendent or director of the school, as in private schools in North America. The board is
usually comprised of embassy employees (elected or appointed) and members from the business
or NGO community.
BCLAD Certificate – An authorization to provide specialized instruction to individuals for whom
English is a second language. Specifically it authorizes instruction for 1) English Language
Development (ELD) in preschool, K-12, and adults, 2) Specially Designed Academic Instruction
Delivered in English (SDAIE) in the subjects and grade levels authorized by the prerequisite
credential or permit, and 3) instruction for primary language development and content instruction
delivered in the primary language in the subjects and grade levels authorized by the prerequisite
credential or permit. The BCLAD authorization can be listed on a Single Subject or Multiple
Subject Teaching Credential as an emphasis if a college or university program was completed or,
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 12
if the applicant met BCLAD requirements separate from the teacher preparation program, a
BCLAD Certificate may be obtained (CTC, 2017).
Bilingual Education – the goal of a traditional bilingual education program is to develop some
skills in the target language with an emphasis on a full transition to a mainstream English
classroom. Traditional bilingual programs have a negative connotation associated with them
because the main goal is not biliteracy/bilingualism. There is an additional political stigma
associated with traditional bilingual programs because immigrant children are the major
benefactors of these types of programs.
Bilingual Teacher – A certified K-12 classroom instructor who is able to teach academic content
in English as well as another language, such as Spanish or Mandarin Chinese.
Dual Language or Two-Way Bilingual Immersion – The goals of dual language and two-way
bilingual immersion programs is bilingualism and biliteracy, usually in K-12 classroom settings
in which half the students are native speakers of the target language (Spanish, Chinese, etc.) and
the other half are native English speakers.
Emergent Bilingual – A term used in lieu of English language learner (ELL) to describe students
who come from homes where a language other than English is spoken. The term ‘emergent
bilinguals’ serves as a reminder that in adding English to their linguistic repertoire these students
are becoming bilingual or multilingual, and thus English is not the sole academic outcome
(Menken & Solorza, 2015).
Foreign Language (One-Way) Immersion – A program typically found in K-12 settings,
designed for English proficient students. The goals of such programs are bilingualism and
biliteracy, immersing English speakers in a foreign language at different intervals depending on
the specific school site
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 13
Heritage Speaker – Otherwise known as a native speaker, this student may sometimes speak the
target language at home but have little or no reading/writing skills.
Maintenance Bilingual Education – The goal of a maintenance bilingual education program is
bilingualism and biliteracy, however these programs are most often found in K-5 settings.
Transitional Bilingual Education – A program typically found in K-3 environments in which the
program goal is fluency in English.

FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 14
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
The purpose of this qualitative descriptive study was to address the shortage of qualified
bilingual teachers in the American education system by examining the recruitment, training, and
retention practices in school systems with model DLI programs in order to apply best practices at
American international schools. The research questions focus on the programs used by U.S.
public schools and peer international schools to recruit and retain quality bilingual educators.
Additionally, the human resource practices and policies developed to recruit, train, and retain
quality teachers for successful bilingual education programs were analyzed. To support the aims
of the study and provide background and context of the literature that frames it, the role of
bilingual education in the American education system will be analyzed through distinct periods
of history. The literature review begins with an introduction to the history and politics behind the
development of bilingual education programs in the United States. Next, the definition of a
quality bilingual educator is explored within the context of a variety of classroom settings.
Finally, the training, recruitment, and retention of quality bilingual educators is analyzed,
keeping in mind the specific needs of U.S. school districts compared to overseas international
schools.
The Politics of Bilingual Education in the Context of American Education
The history of modern bilingual education is deeply connected to the changing political
climate and immigration policy, rather than pedagogical expertise and experience. The constant
disruption of politics in reaction to historical events has impacted the development of modern
bilingual programs in American schools. Ovando (2003) states, “Language ideology in the
United States, rather than maintaining a stable course, has shifted according to changing
historical events” (p. 2). Instead of bilingual education programs developing in accordance to the
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 15
changing needs of language learners, state and federal programs have been altered dramatically
with the changing political atmosphere. Ovando (2003) argues, “Issues of language inclusion or
exclusion often masked ignorance, indifference, or collective psychological repression” (p. 2).
Goldenberg and Wagner (2015) conclude that the United States has great linguistic resources,
however schools are failing to utilize them and state governments are suppressing any attempt to
take advantage of the 11 million public school students who speak at least one of 400 languages
other than English at home.
The Four Main Periods of History for Bilingual Education
According to Ovando (2003), there are four main periods in the history of bilingual
education in the United States: the Permissive Period, the Restrictive Period, the Opportunist
Period, and the Dismissive Period. The history of American bilingual education dates back to the
colonial period of the early 1600s, with the first established bilingual schools on the American
continent designed specifically for Polish immigrants in Virginia (Goldenberg & Wagner, 2015).
The permissive period. The Permissive Period, as explained by Ovando (2003), started
in the 1700s and lasted until the 1880s. During the 19th century, a large number of immigrant
communities formed enclaves and aggressively promoted their language, religion, and culture
(Ovando, 2003). Havighurst (1978) labeled this act of promoting native languages and cultures
by European immigrants during the colonial period as Defensive Pluralism.
The restrictive period. During the Restrictive Period, from the1880s to the 1960s, a
number of repressive policies began to appear on the American landscape. First, the American
Protective Association promoted English-only school laws (Kloss, 1998; Ovando, 2003). The
founding of the Immigration Restriction League and the requirement of literacy tests for
citizenship followed during this period (Higham, 1988). The emphasis on becoming an American
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 16
through cultural assimilation and the exclusive use of English in educational settings had a
devastating effect on bilingual education (Faltis & Hudelson, 1998). Ovando (2003) argues, “The
Naturalization Act of 1906 stipulated that to become naturalized U.S. citizens, immigrants must
be able to speak English” (p. 5). This fear of foreign languages resurfaced as a result of World
War II, and a general mistrust of non-English languages remained until the 1960s when Chicano
and Native American advocacy groups started to demand radically new types of schools for their
children (Faltis & Hudelson, 1998).
The opportunist period. The Opportunist Period, from the 1960s through the 1980s, was
a wake-up call for Americans regarding their inadequacies in foreign language instruction
(Ovando, 2003). As the United States entered the Cold War, the National Defense Education Act
of 1958 was created, with the primary goal of raising the level of foreign language instruction in
the United States (Ovando, 2003; Department of Defense, 2005). Ovando (2003) argues,
“Although the National Defense Education Act promoted much-needed improvement in the
teaching of foreign languages, it did not alter the linguistically disjointed tradition of the United
States” (p. 7). As the Opportunist Period advanced from the 1960s to the 1970s, Chicano
activists called for materials and curriculums that realistically reflected the contributions of
Mexican Americans to American society (Faltis & Hudelson, 1998). The social activism on the
part of Chicano citizens throughout the southwest of the United States greatly impacted the
development of bilingual education programs.
Modern bilingual education in the United States is rooted in the first two-way bilingual
program developed at Coral Way Elementary in Dade County, Florida during the 1960s to serve
the Cuban refugee community (Faltis & Hudelson, 1998; Goldenberg & Wagner, 2015). The
programs established in Dade County were a reaction to the arrival of 3,000 Cuban refugees per
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 17
day in 1963 (Flores & Murillo, 2001). According to Goldenberg and Wagner (2015), “The
bilingual programs they created in Florida were and remain among the most successful in the
country” (p. 29). Ovando (2003) argues that bilingual education for Cuban refugees was
accepted with little political protest because families originally planned to return to Cuba after a
short stay in southern Florida. Coral Way’s success with bilingual education was attributed to the
availability of well-trained Cuban teachers in the area and federal assistance through the Cuban
Refugee Act (Ovando, 2003).
Faltis and Hudelson (1998) note, “As efforts to reintroduce bilingual schooling mounted
in California and the Southwestern states…an unrelated event occurred in southern Florida that
may have cleared the pathway for the acceptability of bilingual education by the government and
its constituents” (p. 6). Valverde and Brown (1978) argue that these events cleared the way for
the passage of the Bilingual Education Act in 1968 as part of the Elementary and Secondary
Education Act (ESEA). Flores and Murillo (2001) note that more importantly, “This act shifted
the focus from viewing students with limited English skills as deficient to viewing them for their
positive potential to become fully bilingual” (p. 198). The passage of the Bilingual Education
Act also linked bilingualism with higher cognitive achievement (Garcia, 1999). This would be an
important advancement in the bilingual education debate from this point forward.
The next important event in the rebirth of bilingual education during the Opportunist
Period was the 1974 Supreme Court case Lau v. Nichols. Ovando (2003) asserts that the “Lau
decision can be seen as the most important and enduring legal symbol through which the civil
rights of language-minority students will continue to be deliberated in the years to come” (p. 9).
The class action lawsuit represented 2,856 Chinese-speaking students in the San Francisco
school system who alleged discrimination on the grounds that they could not achieve at high
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 18
levels because they could not understand the instruction of their English-speaking teachers
(Moran, 2005). Additionally, the school district offered special assistance to Spanish-speaking
students, yet it did nothing to accommodate Chinese-speaking students. The ruling in Lau v.
Nichols was based on a violation of Title VI of the 1964 Civil Rights Act. Title VI bans school
practices that have the effect of excluding children from the learning process based on language,
where language is a proxy for race, ethnicity, or national origin (Moran, 2005). Ovando (2003)
concludes that the Lau decision had an enormous impact on the development of bilingual
education in America because it raised the nation’s awareness of the need for bilingual
education, inspiring federal legislation.
The landmark Supreme Court case Lau v. Nichols influenced the development of
bilingual programs; however, the court failed to establish a specific bilingual policy for schools
to follow (Ovando, 2003). As a result, bilingual programs have struggled for decades to meet the
needs of students amid vague state regulations and policy debates in school systems and state
legislatures. In an attempt to provide guidance for school districts, the Commissioner of
Education created the Lau remedies. These guidelines allowed for stricter interpretation of the
ruling, spelled out the guidelines for schools not in compliance with Lau’s interpretation, and
favored native language instruction as opposed to English as a Second Language instruction
(Flores & Murillo, 2001). As immigration rates began to rise in the 1980s, policies impacting
programs already in place in schools were developed in accordance with the changing political
climate.
The dismissive period. During the Dismissive Period, from the 1980s until present,
legislation was introduced to seriously restrict bilingual education programs throughout the
country (Flores & Murillo, 2001; Ovando, 2003). According to Ovando (2003), “The politics of
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 19
language education during the Reagan and George H. W. Bush administrations provided the
context for the anti-bilingual seeds that were sown during the 1980s” (p. 12). Despite the efforts
during the Opportunist Period to legally define bilingual education, the Lau compliance
standards were never published as official regulations during the Reagan Administration
(Ovando, 2003). In addition, the anti-immigrant sentiment of the 1980s was detrimental to the
development of bilingual education programs, even for dual language immersion programs
designed for native speakers of English. A number of related ballot measures were proposed in
states to punish immigrant populations, in turn limiting the development of bilingual education
programs. In 1994, California’s Proposition 187 was designed to sharply curb illegal
immigration through strict restrictions on the social and educational services that undocumented
immigrants could receive (Flores & Murillo, 2001). California voters later passed Proposition
227 in 1998, essentially eliminating bilingual education classrooms throughout the state, except
under strict parent waiver programs (Ovando, 2003).
It is clear in the literature that there have been distinct periods of opportunities and
setbacks related to bilingual education throughout the history of the United States. While
bilingual programs were originally designed to maintain the language and culture of European
immigrants, program objectives shifted in the late twentieth century to serve the needs of recent
arrivals from Latin America and Asia. A significant advancement in the development of modern
bilingual education programs took place during the Opportunist Period in south Florida. The
programs developed for Cuban refugees proved to be important as they linked higher cognitive
development to bilingual education, and programs were no longer viewed as deficit models.
Despite this development, bilingual education has been faced with significantly more obstacles
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 20
than prospects since the first arrival of Cuban refugees along the coasts of south Florida. The
challenges faced by bilingual education programs today will be explored below.
Current Challenges for Bilingual Programs
In the 21st century, the influences of globalization now impact language instruction in
American schools due to a changing international economic focus and threats to national
security. Now, more than ever, 21st century learners need access to multilingual instruction and
the opportunity to understand diverse perspectives and cultures. Flores and Murillo (2001) argue
that not since colonialism have citizens from former colonizers, such as the United States, been
forced to respond to increased diversity due to reconfigurations in local economies and
workplaces. Murray (2006) states, “Languages are the key to communication, which is clearly
vital to success in this global business environment” (p. 46). Clearly, one major component of
globalization is the ability to communicate effectively in a language other than English.
Ovando (2003) argues that evidence exists to prove that quality bilingual programs
promote academic success, with the added bonus that students become bilingual. Furthermore,
Ovando (2003) states, “Convincing politicians and the public that bilingual education is a
theoretically sound and effective way to educate not only language-minority students but also
language-majority students has been difficult” (p. 14). The politics of bilingual education have
gotten in the way of the true development of appropriate pedagogical methods in language
learning.
Krashen (1999) argues that bilingual programs have been condemned without a fair
hearing. In his book, Krashen (1999) disproves many of the false assumptions and outright
distortions that led to the passage of Proposition 227 in California on the June 1998 ballot.
Goldenberg and Wagner (2015) point out that researchers in a 2006 study by the National
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 21
Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) on the effects of Proposition 227 found that an
English Language Learner (ELL) had less than a 40 percent chance of being considered
proficient in English. This was the case for California, Arizona, and Massachusetts, all states
where similar legislation against bilingual education had been passed nearly a decade earlier, in
an attempt to close the achievement gap in the classroom between English Language Learners
(ELLs) and native English speakers. However, compared to states where bilingual education is
generally an option, the reading achievement gap between ELLs and native speakers of English
has decreased by nearly a grade level in fourth grade (Goldenberg & Wagner, 2015).
Challenges for Bilingual Education at International School Campuses
As demand for international school education continues to expand globally, the current
amount of students enrolled in international school campuses is estimated to be five million
spread across 9,306 schools in virtually every country in the world (ISC, 2018). Parents enroll
their children in these elite institutions with the expectation that they will receive a world-class
western education in English with access to proficiency in a second (or third) world language.
This demand is met with programs such as DLI that are relatively new to international school
campuses. However, shortages for quality bilingual educators play an even more significant role
when the context of international schools is added to the scenario. As a result, international
schools are in a unique position to learn from U.S. school districts with diverse populations and
university teacher preparation programs specializing in bilingual education. The traditional
recruitment process for international school administrators of attending job fairs once a year in
the United States and advertising positions on the school’s website in order to conduct a Skype
interview with potential candidates is no longer sufficient. School administrators in international
schools face a new recruitment challenge in the 21st century.
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 22
Solutions and Models: California as a Trendsetter
California often leads the nation in education reform. As the most ethnically and
linguistically diverse state in the nation, over 2.6 million children of the approximately 6 million
enrolled students K-12 come from homes where there is another language spoken (Alfaro, 2017).
Flores and Murillo (2001) state, “Many people concur that whatever trends and dynamics that
play out in California often serve as a prophetic barometer to what can be expected for the rest of
the country” (p. 200). Although Proposition 227 had a drastic impact on bilingual education
programs, California voters overwhelmingly passed Proposition 58 in 2016, effectively repealing
the bilingual education restrictions of Proposition 227. The passage of Proposition 58 by
California’s electorate is an important step forward in increasing the state’s and the country’s
linguistic resources (Goldenberg & Wagner, 2015). As California begins to shift the pendulum in
multilingual instruction, other states may follow the trend.
Solutions and Models: School Administration as Advocates
School administration can play an important role as advocates for bilingual programs
(Menken & Solorza, 2015). Menken and Solorza (2015) state, “Principals are particularly crucial
to the survival and success of bilingual education…we found that few actually receive the
preparation they need to serve their emergent bilingual students” (p. 676). In a qualitative study
conducted in 17 of New York City schools, it was found that the school’s level of success with
bilingual education was deeply connected to the school leader’s knowledge of bilingual
programs. Menken and Solorza (2015) explain:
The school leaders we interviewed who had eliminated their bilingual programs hold
limited understandings of bilingualism, linguistic diversity, and bilingual education. By
contrast, principals who have maintained their bilingual education programs were found
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 23
to be well prepared to serve emergent bilinguals and strongly believe in the benefits of
bilingual education. They also advocate for bilingual education and protect their school’s
programming choices in the face of English-only pressures. (p. 676)
It is clear that school administrators can act as advocates for bilingual education given the
proper training. Part of Menken and Solorza’s (2015) recommendations include school leaders
receiving specialized training in order to better serve emergent bilinguals. This could be done in
the same fashion as teacher credential requirements in California for the Cross-Cultural
Language and Academic Development (CLAD) or California Teachers of English Learners
(CTEL) certificates (California Commission on Teacher Credentialing, 2017).
Approaches to Bilingual Education
The way in which bilingual programs are built within school districts and at particular
school sites may influence the success of the program. Principals at school sites and
administration in district offices guide the design of pathways offered to emergent bilinguals.
Los Angeles Unified School District (LAUSD) identifies four types of bilingual education
programs: dual language program or two-way bilingual immersion, maintenance bilingual
education, transitional bilingual education, and foreign language (one-way) immersion (LAUSD,
2017).
Dual Language/Two-Way Bilingual Immersion
As schools in the United States grow more diverse both culturally and linguistically, Dual
Language Immersion (DLI) Programs from pre-kindergarten onward are an emerging trend. DLI
programs provide students, whether native English speakers or not, an opportunity to study core
academic content (e.g., math, science, social studies) in two languages. At the elementary level,
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 24
students spend 50% of the day in the immersion language; at the secondary level, students take at
least two year-long academic courses in the immersion language (Fortune & Tedick, 2008).
The goals of dual language and two-way bilingual immersion programs is bilingualism
and biliteracy, usually in K-12 classroom settings in which half the students are native speakers
of the target language (Spanish, Chinese, etc.) and the other half are native English speakers.
These are the types of programs recognized by the Seal of Biliteracy, an award given by a school
district in recognition of students who have studied and attained proficiency in two or more
languages by high school graduation (sealofbiliteracy.org). Dual language or two-way programs
truly aim to graduate students who are biliterate, bicultural, and bilingual. The dual language
initiatives at international schools are modeled after these types of programs.
Maintenance Bilingual Education
The goal of a maintenance bilingual education program is also bilingualism and
biliteracy, however these programs are most often found in K-5 settings. Since it is not typical to
transition to a secondary bilingual program, this is not a scheme that K-12 international schools
campuses would replicate.
Transitional Bilingual Education
Transitional bilingual education is typically found in K-3 environments in which the
program goal is fluency in English. There is a negative connotation associated with these types
of bilingual programs because the main goal is not biliteracy/bilingualism.
Foreign Language (One-Way) Immersion
Finally, foreign language (one-way) immersion programs are typically found in K-12
settings, designed for English proficient students. The goals of such programs are bilingualism
and biliteracy, immersing English speakers in a foreign language at different intervals depending
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 25
on the specific school site (LAUSD, 2017). Since international schools may not have the luxury
of enrolling native/heritage speakers in their programs in order to count as two-way, this is
typically the type of program supported by overseas schools. This is especially true for
international school campuses in Asia with Spanish programs.
Other Approaches to Bilingual Education
In contrast to the definitions used today by LAUSD, Faltis and Hudelson (1998)
originally identified just three types of bilingual education: transitional, maintenance, and
enrichment/two-way programs. Transitional or early exit bilingual programs are similar to
transitional programs described by LAUSD above, with the goal of “learner achievement in
English” (Faltis & Hudelson, 1998, p. 26). These programs use the student’s native language and
English for instruction, advocating for the use of non-English instruction only until learners are
able to function exclusively in English medium classrooms (Faltis & Hudelson, 1998). In
contrast, Faltis and Hudelson (1998) argue that the goal of maintenance or late exit programs is
“the development of proficiency in both the learners’ native language and in English, and the
utilization of both languages in the learning of significant content” (p. 30). Ideally, maintenance
bilingual education acknowledges, values, and seeks to promote the linguistic and cultural
identity of non-English speaking students and their communities. Finally, enrichment, two-way
immersion, two-way maintenance, and dual language programs are labels used to describe
pathways that are designed for both English language learners and native speakers of English.
The basic goals of enrichment or two-way dual language programs are to: learn the language of
the others as well as their own language, achieve academically through and in both languages,
and appreciate each others’ languages and cultures (Faltis & Hudelson, 1998).
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 26
Ovando (2003) classifies bilingual education into five categories: structured immersion
programs, partial immersion programs, transitional bilingual programs, maintenance or
developmental bilingual education, and two-way immersion programs. In structured immersion
programs, there is no use of the native language. Instead, students are provided with specialized
English as a Second Language (ESL) instruction or Specially Designed Academic Instruction in
English (SDAIE). In partial immersion programs, a small amount of time outside of ESL
instruction “may be set aside temporarily for instruction in the native language, but the goal is to
move to English as quickly as possible” (Ovando, 2003, p. 11). Transitional bilingual programs,
as described by Ovando (2003), are similar to the descriptions above provided by Faltis and
Hudelson (1998) and LAUSD (2017). Ovando (2003) distinguishes between early-exit
transitional programs, in which mainstreaming to English classrooms occurs after two years or at
the end of second grade, and late-exit transitional programs, in which students are exited to
mainstream classes in fifth or sixth grade.
A key difference between transitional bilingual education and maintenance or
developmental bilingual education is that maintenance programs “continue to receive part of
their instruction in the native language even after they become proficient in English” (Ovando,
2003, p. 11). Finally, in two-way immersion programs, the language-majority students become
bilingual, biliterate, and bicultural alongside the language-minority students (Ovando, 2003).
Two-way immersion allows for native speakers of both Spanish and English to work
academically in both languages alongside each other in a truly bilingual classroom. This
dissertation will focus on two-way dual language/enrichment bilingual education programs, with
a K-12 grade level span designed for English proficient students.

FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 27
Summary of The Politics of Bilingual Education in the Context of American Education
Bilingual education is deeply connected to the changing political climate and
immigration policies of the United States. The American narrative has contained four major
periods related to the history of bilingual education in the United States: the Permissive Period,
the Restrictive Period, the Opportunist Period, and the Dismissive Period (Ovando, 2003). Each
phase is distinctly connected to the American political and economic outlook of the time period.
As a result, American bilingual education has developed at the expense of changes in
sociopolitical ideology, instead of advancing due to pedagogical effectiveness and educational
research (Faltis & Hudelson, 1998; Ovando, 1990; Ovando, 2003).
Training, Recruitment, and Retention of Quality Bilingual Educators
One of the unique challenges of bilingual education is related to the training and
recruitment of the qualified bilingual candidates needed to run a successful bilingual program.
Due to the fact that it typically requires five to seven years of classroom instruction to learn a
world language such as Spanish, it’s not possible to simply shift teachers into the role of a
bilingual teacher without the prerequisite language knowledge (Hakuta, Butler, & Witt, 2000).
This phenomenon, among others, has created a shortage for decades of qualified bilingual
candidates, and impacts the retention rates at school sites as well. As Yu-Lan Lin, an advisor for
the Chinese Advanced Placement (AP) program states: “The biggest challenge we face in
creating successful Chinese programs is the lack of highly qualified teachers” (Sweley, 2006, p.
33). Building a quality bilingual program within a school district or individual school site starts
with the training, recruitment, and retention of highly qualified bilingual teachers.

FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 28
Definition of a Quality Bilingual Educator
It is important to establish the definition of a quality bilingual educator for the context of
this review of literature. The National Association for Bilingual Education (NABE) suggests
standards developed by the National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education
(NCATE) and Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL). NCATE and
TESOL focus on five domains of teacher preparation: language, culture, planning instruction,
assessment, and professionalism (Téllez & Waxman, 2006). The definition of a quality bilingual
educator as endorsed by Téllez and Waxman (2006) and NABE/TESOL/NCATE is as follows:
1. Language – Understand first and second language acquisition.
2. Culture – Understand the nature of culture in language development and academic
achievement.
3. Planning, implementing, and managing instruction – Understand resources and ELD
content standards.
4. Assessment – Know methods and techniques for assessing language growth.
5. Professionalism – Know the research and history in the field of ELD. (p. 9)
The California Commission on Teacher Credentialing (CTC) uses six standards assess
approved bilingual teacher preparation programs. The standards are program design, assessment
of candidate competence, context for bilingual education and bilingualism, bilingual
methodology, culture of emphasis, and assessment of candidate language competence (CTC,
2017). Definitions from NABE, NCATE, TESOL, and CTC place an important emphasis on
training in the areas of language, pedagogy, and culture. The concept of training related to
bilingual education programs will be explored in detail below.

FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 29
Training
Darling-Hammond (2000) argues that investments in teacher knowledge are among the
most productive means to increase student achievement. Specifically, Darling-Hammond (2000)
focuses on the need to achieve greater equality in all students’ access to high-quality teaching,
especially in high-needs fields such as bilingual education. The report discusses whether it is
possible to raise standards and have enough teachers (Darling-Hammond, 2000). Furthermore,
the study offers action steps for state governments in the areas of salary, standards, recruitment,
subject matter assessments, and community resources. Specific to teacher training, one
suggestion is to establish rigorous standards for teacher education and licensing that are linked to
student standards (Darling-Hammond, 2000).
Cuellar and Colina (2014) investigate which factors are most important in recruiting and
retaining bilingual and ESL teachers from the viewpoint of 161 pre-service teachers at the Texas
State University, San Marcos. Two questionnaires were developed for this study, the Bilingual
Pre-Service Teacher Questionnaire (BPTQ) and the ESL Pre-Service Teacher Questionnaire
(EPTQ). Respondents rated four questions on the BPTQ and EPTQ using a five point Likert
scale (1-5) in relation to classroom resources, salary, professional development, and support
from administration, parents, and co-workers. Respondents from both the BPTQ and EPTQ rated
support from administrators, parents, and co-workers as the most important factor leading to
recruitment, retention, and job satisfaction. This finding was consistent with the literature on
teacher recruitment, retention, and job satisfaction.
Marquez (2002) analyzes the shortage of certified teachers in critical areas such as
bilingual education and the recruitment efforts in Texas, Arizona, New Mexico, and California to
recruit and retain certified bilingual educators. In Marquez (2002), a study by Berry, Darling-
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 30
Hammond, and Haslkorn (1998) is cited which divides recruitment efforts into five distinct
categories: (1) pre-college recruitment programs; (2) programs used to heighten the recruitment
and retention of college students; (3) articulation pathways between community colleges and
universities; and (5) programs designed for mid-career teacher candidates.
According to a report on bilingual teachers compiled by the CTC (2015), “In 2009-10
more than 1,200 teachers earned a bilingual authorization. In 2012-13, the number of bilingual
authorized teachers certified dropped to less than 900, a decline of 35 percent between 2009-10
and 2012-13” (p. 1). The drop in bilingual teacher preparation, together with increased
enrollment of English learners along with the recent passage of Proposition 58 in California,
promises little improvement for the bilingual teacher shortage. Nearly two decades later, the
bilingual teacher shortage is just as evident in California public schools as it was in the years
leading up to the passage of Proposition 227. What are school districts doing to resolve the
looming teacher shortage? The topic of teacher recruitment related to bilingual education will be
explored below.
Recruitment
School districts have struggled for decades to fill bilingual teacher vacancies with
qualified candidates because shortages are more concentrated in bilingual education compared to
other fields (Mitchell, 2016; Sakash & Chou, 2007). Boe (1990) explains the history of teacher
demand, supply, and shortages in the area of bilingual education. Shortages started in the 1980s
as a result of increased immigration to the United States from Latin America and Asia (Boe,
1990). As teacher shortages in general fields began to develop during this time period, bilingual
educator shortages became even more impacted because bilingual certification includes
demanding requirements for language and cultural knowledge.
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 31
Six million immigrants moved to California in the 1980s, increasing the number of
students eligible for bilingual education in public schools to 750,000 by the end of the decade
(Diaz-Rico & Smith, 1994). By 2015, the number of English learners eligible for bilingual
education reached more than 1.4 million (CTC, 2017). Diaz-Rico and Smith (1994) state,
“Severe understaffing of bilingual classrooms has plagued California classrooms in the wake of
increasing immigration” (p. 255). Sakash and Chou (2007) argue the same shift in demand in
Chicago, two decades later. It is clear in the literature that the demand for qualified bilingual
educators is not specific to certain states; the bilingual teacher shortage is a national challenge.
Cuellar and Colina (2014) assert that school districts and universities “are faced with the
challenge of recruiting and retaining highly qualified bilingual and ESL teachers for the growing
ELL population” (p. 234). A 2013 study found that 67 school districts had a shortage of bilingual
teachers or anticipated struggling to fill bilingual positions in the near future, and NABE has
advocated for a federal response to the problem (Mitchell, 2016). A number of school districts
have looked to Spain and Puerto Rico to find bilingual teachers (Mitchell, 2016). Buckley (2017)
argues that the closing of schools in Puerto Rico has prompted U.S. school districts to increase
their recruiting efforts on the island. School districts in Buffalo and Rochester, New York have
followed the recruitment model set by districts in Dallas and Houston, Texas. The process of
recruiting fully certified teachers in Puerto Rico means that educators are given a conditional
initial contract, allowing them to take New York state certification exams within one year
(Buckley, 2017). Associate Superintendent Jamie Warren argues that it’s easier for teachers from
Puerto Rico to adjust to life in Buffalo, as opposed to former recruits from Spain on an H-1B
Visa (Buckley, 2017). With over 100 schools in Puerto Rico closing each year for the past three
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 32
years due to the economic crisis on the island, this could be a lucrative recruiting ground for
several U.S. school districts.
The literature on recruitment forces us to ask why school districts must travel to Puerto
Rico and Spain to recruit qualified bilingual teacher candidates? How is it possible for a
multicultural and multilingual nation to struggle so much in attracting qualified bilingual teacher
candidates? Unfortunately, recruiting for school districts with secondary bilingual programs in
math, science, and social studies presents a set of even more difficult challenges for school
districts. “Our bilingual program goes all the way up to high school, so not only do we need
bilingual classroom teachers at the elementary level, we need for the core subject – math,
science, social studies – we need bilingual in those areas too,” states Associate Superintendent
Jamie Warren (Buckley, 2017, p. 2). Faltis and Hudelson (1998) assert that until 1990, the bulk
of funding and implementation of bilingual education was focused on elementary classrooms. In
their book, Faltis and Hudelson (1998) explore a number of secondary bilingual education
programs to illustrate some of the ways that middle and high school educators have worked to
incorporate guiding principles for learning and language acquisition.
Gonzalez (1999) explores one of the negative implications of the bilingual teacher
shortage, an increase in the issuance of emergency credentials throughout the 1990s. Gonzalez
(1999) analyzes the delicate relationship between the quantity of teachers and the quality of
teacher preparation programs in light of a bilingual shortage in the state of Texas and across the
nation. He argues that both quality and quantity are important, and there must be an acceptable
balance (Gonzalez, 1999). A major factor in the teacher shortage formula is retention, and
Gonzalez (1999) concludes, “we really may not have a teacher shortage per se” (p. 16). Gonzalez
(1999) states in his recommendations:
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 33
What we have is the inability of teacher preparation programs and school districts to
prepare and guide teachers through their first formative teaching experiences. Strong
partnerships between universities and school districts need to be legislated so that teacher
induction programs are not left to chance but rather begin during their freshman college
year and end during the teachers fifth year of teaching. (p. 16)
The literature shows that retention is one of the most important, if not the most important, factors
in solving the teacher shortage. The theme of teacher retention and its role in the bilingual
education shortage will be explored below.
Retention
As identified above, teacher retention may be one of the most important characteristics of
the teacher shortage (Gonzalez, 1999). Marquez (2002) argues, “The demand for additional
teachers can also be attributed to teacher attrition” (p. 2). With teachers leaving the teaching
profession at the end of each school year, the bilingual teacher shortage is even more impacted.
A variety of reasons exist to explain why teachers decide to permanently leave the field of
education. Bullard (1998) explains, “The likelihood of leaving teaching differs by age, gender,
years of experience, academic background, level, specialty field, salary, and workplace
conditions” (p. 12).
Garrison (2006) investigated teacher attrition and retention among 527 teachers who
earned teacher certifications between 1991 and 1998 through a large university in southern
California. The study aimed to determine if differences in attrition rates could be explained by
differences in working conditions. The study was particular to the community because a large
majority of the teachers were born and raised in the same rural neighborhoods in which they
were assigned to teach. Garrison (2006) concludes, “Therefore, in hard-to-staff localities,
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 34
teachers and teacher candidates should be recruited from the pool of people committed to living
in the area” (p. 381). In summary, Garrison (2006) states that a viable solution to the teacher
shortage is to train and hire from within. This is a consideration when considering teacher
preparation programs with the goal of moving bilingual paraprofessionals into the role of
classroom teacher.
The study conducted by Cuellar and Colina (2014) required teacher candidates to rate the
importance of resources, compensation, professional development, and support from
administration, parents, and colleagues. In both the BPTQ and EPTQ, respondents reported that
salary was rated lowest in importance on both questionnaires, which is consistent with the
literature. Respondents rated support from administrators, parents, and co-workers as the most
important factor leading to recruitment, retention, and job satisfaction (Cuellar & Colina, 2014).
It is clear that the efforts of a school district around retention should focus first on classroom
support from administration, parents, and co-workers.
Bilingual stipends have been used for the past several decades to attract qualified
bilingual professionals to the teaching profession. While the stipend for a bilingual teacher in
LAUSD was $5,000 per year in 1998, during the 2016-2017 school year it could have been as
little as $133 per semester, depending on teaching assignments and years of service (LAUSD,
2016). According to negotiations with United Teachers Los Angeles (UTLA), the teachers union
that represents LAUSD teachers, only bilingual educators who were earning bilingual stipends
from 1998 to 2001 are eligible for the full stipend of $2,703 per semester (LAUSD, 2016;
UTLA, 2017). Newly hired bilingual teachers are only eligible for a maximum stipend per
semester of $1,696 or minimum of $424, depending on teaching assignments (LAUSD, 2016).
Newly hired secondary bilingual teachers with fewer than three qualifying periods are eligible
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 35
for a maximum of $1,060 and a minimum of $133 per semester (LAUSD, 2016). It is evident
that LAUSD is not in the business of recruiting bilingual individuals to the teaching profession
through its bilingual differentials.
The Context of International Schools
De Mejía (2002) defines an “international school” as a global institution, originally
formed to serve monolingual students, that offers a private, selective, and independent education
mainly for the affluent. Matthews (as cited in De Mejía , 2002), divides the typical student
population into one of three categories:
(1) English-speaking members of the expatriate community who require an English
language education as they expect to return to an English-speaking education system; (2)
non-English-speaking members of the expatriate community who desire an English
language education in order to facilitate future moves around the world, or because they
wish to attend college or university in North America or the UK; (3) local nationals who
want an English-language education for the same reasons in (2) above. (p. 14)
It is clear that international schools were not originally formed as bilingual institutions, but rather
independent establishments that offered a particular educational and cultural model (De Mejía,
2002).
De Mejía (2002) questions why international schools are based in monolingual American
or British curriculums when the populations they serve are increasingly bilingual and bicultural.
De Mejía (2002) probes, “How far do international schools see bilingualism or multilingualism
as a priority, or how far are they content to offer their clients access to a world language (usually
English) without taking into account local or individual language and cultural backgrounds
within the curriculum?” (p. 21). How does Straits International School (SIS) fit into this pattern?
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 36
Emerging Bilingual Programs at SIS
The vast majority of the published literature is focused on bilingual education programs
serving ELLs in public school settings. Applying the knowledge gained from public school
settings during the Opportunist and Dismissive Period to the context of international schools will
help SIS move forward with its own DLI program. Several questions surface as SIS embarks on
a program based on dual language/two-way immersion. What can we learn about training,
recruitment, and retention of teachers in dual language programs serving a mix of predominantly
native English speakers, as well as a few native speakers of Spanish/Chinese? How do public
schools districts in the United States and international schools throughout the world compare?
DLI classrooms at SIS and peer international schools will look dramatically different than
dual language/two-way immersion as defined by LAUSD. The stigma of bilingual education
attached to immigrant children does not exist in international schools and therefore programs can
be developed with greater autonomy and increased resources, free of the political rhetoric which
has plagued the development of bilingual education in the United States. However, the
institutional practices of training, recruitment, and retention will mirror that of U.S. public school
districts. As SIS expands its DLI offerings to each grade level, a dramatic shift in human
resource policies will need to take place.
The dual language initiatives at international schools aim to graduate students who are
biliterate, bicultural, and bilingual. At SIS, the second cohort of students in the elementary
school will start Chinese immersion in the 2018-19 school year, while a pilot program in the
middle school will give some Spanish students an option for DLI. Grade eight students will have
the opportunity to learn exclusively in Spanish for more than two hours a day, accessing social
studies content in Spanish while continuing enrollment in their world language Spanish course
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 37
for linguistic maintenance. As initiatives of this type expand in the future, campuses like SIS are
in a unique position to learn from U.S. school districts with diverse populations. SIS will need to
hire and train two bilingual teachers per year as the Chinese DLI offerings expand, in addition to
retaining bilingual teachers currently working within the program. If the DLI pilot is successful
in the middle school, the school will need to look beyond grade eight social studies to extend the
program to the original cohort of students as they enter grade nine. Additionally, SIS will need to
investigate options for DLI in grades six and seven, in both Spanish and Chinese. This creates a
challenge for the institutional practices of training, recruitment, and retention.
Summary of the Literature
This review of literature started with an introduction to the history and politics behind the
development of bilingual education programs in the United States. The four periods of history
related to bilingual education in the United States were first analyzed within the context of the
changing political landscape (Ovando, 2003). Throughout the Permissive Period, the Restrictive
Period, the Opportunist Period, and the Dismissive Period, American bilingual education
developed at the expense of changes in sociopolitical ideology, instead of advancements in
pedagogy (Faltis & Hudelson, 1998; Ovando, 1990; Ovando, 2003). Programs developed for
Cuban refugees during the Opportunist Period, together with the passage of the Bilingual
Education Act, proved to be important as they linked higher cognitive development to bilingual
education, and programs were no longer viewed as deficit models (Garcia, 1999).
Today, bilingual education faces challenges and setbacks as anti-immigrant sentiment,
coupled with restrictive state legislation, is at an all time high. However, the recent passage of
Proposition 58 in California gives bilingual educators hope for much needed educational reform.
As the need for qualified bilingual educators continues to grow, the institutional practices of
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 38
training, recruitment, and retention are key factors in the success of bilingual education
programs. The literature asserts that training should start earlier in university programs to avoid
further drops in bilingual candidates, as recruitment efforts in school districts stretch to Puerto
Rico and Spain (Mitchell, 2016). It is clear from the literature that the efforts of a school district
around retention should focus first on classroom support from administration, parents, and co-
workers, instead of salary and benefits (Cuellar and Colina, 2014).
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions
The purpose of this qualitative descriptive study was to address the shortage of qualified
bilingual teachers in the American education system by examining the recruitment, training, and
retention practices in school systems with model DLI programs in order to apply best practices at
American international schools. Additionally, the qualities and characteristics of bilingual
teachers were examined in regards to institutional practices related to the recruitment, training,
and retention of bilingual teachers. Finally, these institutional practices of recruitment, training,
and retention were compared to selected peer international schools and U.S. public school
districts with successful DLI programs. The research questions are as follows:
1. What are the current practices for the recruitment and retention of bilingual teachers
at SIS, as compared to those practices at other peer international schools and
American public school districts?
2. What best practices exist at peer international schools and American public school
districts for the training, recruitment, and retention of bilingual candidates in order to
nurture quality bilingual teachers?

FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 39
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

This chapter reviews the methods utilized in conducting the current qualitative
descriptive study that addresses the shortage of qualified bilingual teachers in the American
education system by examining the recruitment, training, and retention practices in school
systems with model DLI programs in order to apply best practices at American international
schools. Additionally, the qualities and characteristics of bilingual teachers at SIS were examined
in regards to institutional practices related to the recruitment, training, and retention of bilingual
teachers. Finally, these institutional practices of recruitment, training, and retention were
compared to selected peer international schools and American public school districts with
successful bilingual programs. It is clear from the literature that bilingual shortages will continue
to be a challenge for DLI programs in the future, as the need for qualified bilingual educators
continues to grow both nationally and abroad. Therefore, it is imperative to understand the type
of support that is provided to bilingual teachers and the subsequent impact on teacher
recruitment, training, and retention.
This study was completed in three phases. First, document analysis was performed on
existing documentation in relation to recruitment at 13 school sites, both at international schools
and public school districts in the United States. Next, emails for potential interviews were sent to
program administrators at international schools and American public school districts. Finally,
personal interviews were conducted with administrators and consultants at seven school and
district sites.
This chapter includes a description of this study’s research design, including a summary
of the participants involved, the data collection procedures followed, and the instruments utilized
in the process. The final section of the chapter includes the credibility and trustworthiness of the
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 40
participants involved a discussion of how the researcher analyzed the data once it is collected.
The chapter concludes with a section dedicated to the role of the researcher.
Participants and Sampling Rationale
Thirteen institutions of learning were chosen to participate in the study. Following
document analysis, seven individuals were selected as candidates for personal interviews. I
conducted person-to-person interviews with three individuals, three more were conducted online
synchronously via Skype video, and the final interview was conducted online asynchronously
due to a cancellation. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) explain that online interviews can be
conducted synchronously (in real time) through Skype or Adobe Connect. Alternatively, online
interviews might be conducted “asynchronously (where there is lag time) over email or an online
discussion group” (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p. 115).
The National Association for Bilingual Education (NABE) is a non-profit organization
devoted to representing bilingual education professionals and bilingual/multilingual students.
The mission of NABE is to “advocate for educational equity for bilingual/multilingual students
in a global society” (NABE, 2017). I chose NABE’s third annual Dual Language Symposium in
July 2017 as a networking event in order to expand possible participants in the study. The Dual
Language Symposium “is a highly interactive professional development workshop for both
teachers and administrators designed to heighten the effectiveness of dual language programs”
(NABE, 2017). Among the five discussion questions at the symposium, recruitment of bilingual
candidates is a principle dialogue: “Finding bilingual teachers is a constant challenge. What best
practices exist for recruiting or growing your own qualified bilingual candidates?” (NABE,
2017). The bilingual symposium, which took place in South Florida, expanded my network of
school district contacts well beyond my familiar community of international schools.
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 41
In addition to school contacts developed at the bilingual symposium, international
schools with exemplary bilingual programs and similar recruitment practices as SIS were
selected. The World Languages Director at SIS and an international consultant for world
language education were contacted directly in order to suggest school sites. A similar process
was used to determine U.S. public school districts with exemplary bilingual programs. In some
cases, a personal contact between myself and the institution was used to gain access to
gatekeepers, or “individuals at the site who provide access to the site and allow or permit the
research to be done” (Creswell, 2014, p. 188). See Table 1 for the full list of 13 school
sites/organizations.
Site Descriptions and Sampling Procedures
American international schools overseas are typically private, tuition-based K-12 schools
that recruit the vast majority of their faculty from North America. They serve international
business families, the diplomatic community and the host national community, ranging
enormously in size, number, origin of staff, and composition of the student body. English is the
primary language of instruction, in addition to secondary courses taught in world languages.
Some international schools offer classes or entire programs in the language of the host country,
and some offer a bilingual program. Most of the students at international schools speak more
than one language fluently.
The administrative structure at international schools is provided by a board of trustees
and a superintendent or director of the school, as in independent schools in North America. A
particular company, embassy or other community-based entity sometimes oversees the board.
Depending on the size of the student enrollment, schools may have between two to over a dozen
administrators. The superintendent or director, in addition to designated administrators at certain
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 42
grade levels, is in charge of the recruitment, hiring, and professional development of new faculty.
In order to fill teacher vacancies, directors utilize hiring fairs that are sponsored by companies
such as International School Services (ISS) or Search Associates each year. These hiring fairs
allow administrators from international schools to meet, select, interview, and hire pre-screened
teacher candidates. Most new teachers are directly hired at these fairs each winter for the
following school year. However, recent candidate shortages in the expanding arena of world
languages have caused administrators to look beyond the traditional hiring fairs to fill vacancies
for world language teachers and bilingual teachers, similar to U.S. public school districts. This
study focuses on this transformation in the hiring process as it relates to the training, recruitment,
and retention of bilingual educators.

FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 43
Table 1
Institutions and Organizations from which Study Participants Were Selected
Name of Institution and Contact Person (if applicable) Location
World Language Consultant
President of International Language Consultants*

Georgia, USA
Capital International School (CIS)*
Principal of Dual Language Program

Beijing, China
North Bay School District*
Director of the Bilingual Education Dept.

California, USA
National Association for Bilingual Education (NABE)
Dual Language Symposium

Florida, USA
Avenues: The World School New York, USA
Independent Schools Foundation Academy

Hong Kong, China
Uruguayan American School, Middle & High School
Uruguayan Program

Montevideo, Uruguay
Colegio Franklin Delano Roosevelt (The American School
of Lima) Official Peruvian Program

Lima, Peru
University of Southern California World Masters in
Language Teaching

Los Angeles, Hong
Kong, and Mexico
South Bay School District*
Director of English Learner Programs

California, USA

Straits International School (SIS)*
Elementary School Principal

Singapore, Republic of
Singapore
Straits International School (SIS)*
World Languages Director

Singapore, Republic of
Singapore
American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages
(ACTFL)

Virginia, USA
Eastern Coast School District*
Coordinator of K-12 World Languages
Virginia, USA
* Indicates schools with a pseudonym
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 44
Instrumentation and Procedure
Creswell (2014) states, “The idea behind qualitative research is to purposefully select
participants or sites (or documents or visual matter) that will best help the researcher understand
the problem and the research question” (p. 189). Document analysis, surveys, and interviews
were conducted to collect data related to the phenomenon of the shortage of qualified bilingual
teachers in the American education system. The data collection steps outlined by Creswell
(2014) were closely followed by the researcher, including setting boundaries for the study,
collecting information through surveys, semi-structured interviews, and existing documents, as
well as establishing a protocol for recording data. This process is in line with the inquiry practice
of gathering multiple forms of data, such as interviews, observations, and documents, rather than
rely on one single data source (Creswell, 2014). The three data sources strengthened the study
through data triangulation. Patton (2002) argues that triangulation uses “several kinds of methods
or data, including using both quantitative and qualitative approaches” (p. 248). The procedures
developed for document analysis, surveys, and interviews are outlined below.
Document Analysis
Document analysis of existing print material on the bilingual education programs at 13
school or district sites (see Table 1) was completed during the first phase of the research process.
Data collected from the document analysis of 13 school/district sites provided the basis for
creating the interview protocol. Information was collected by reviewing each institution’s
website for program objectives, bilingual teacher recruitment practices, bilingual teacher
incentives, training and professional development. The researcher developed a final evaluation
after reviewing each school site. See Table 2 for a visual representation of the data collection
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 45
process. During the document analysis phase, an effort was made to distinguish between U.S.
public school districts, international schools in Asia, and international schools in Latin America.
Table 2
An Example of a Table to Organize Data Found Through Document Analysis
Recruitment
Practices
Bilingual
Incentives
Training and Professional
Development
School Site 1
School Site 2
…
School Site 13

Interviews
Interviews help us to understand how people closely related to our topic visualize the
world. We interview to find out from people the details we are unable to observe (Patton, 2002).
According to Creswell (2014), “The idea behind qualitative research is to purposefully select
participants or sites that will best help the researcher understand the problem and the research
question” (p. 189). Maxwell (2013) defines purposeful selection as specific people “selected
deliberately to provide information that is particularly relevant to your questions and goals, and
that can’t be gotten as well from other choices” (p. 97). Convenience sampling, as defined by
Merriam and Tisdell (2016), is selecting a “sample based on time, money, location, availability
of sites or respondents, and so on” (p. 98). The researcher chose convenience sampling as a way
to approach gatekeepers at each institution selected. Maxwell (2013) refers to “gatekeepers” as
those “who can facilitate or interfere with your study” (p. 90). Maxwell (2013) goes on to
explain that the decision to initiate and negotiate relationships with participants of a study is a
key design decision.
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 46
A semi-structured interview is a more open-ended and less structured format to collect
qualitative data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Merriam and Tisdell (2016) state that the format of
the interview “allows the researcher to respond to the situation at hand, to the emerging
worldview of the respondent, and to new ideas on the topic” (p. 111). The researcher’s rationale
for the structure of the interview protocol was based on the need to allow for probing into the
two research questions around the themes of training, recruitment, and retention. The interview
protocol allowed for the collection of specific information from respondents, but at the same
time permitted the researcher the flexibility in the wording of other questions, including deep
probing. The goal of asking truly open-ended questions is closely connected with the need to
explore the second research question – best practices around the institutional practices of
training, recruitment, and retention. Patton (2002) states, “The truly open-ended question allows
the person being interviewed to select from among the person’s full repertoire of possible
responses those that are most salient” (p. 354). See Table 3 for a list of interview questions used
with school/district administrators. Table 4 reflects a modified interview protocol used with
educational consultants.
The purpose of interviewing is to record the perspective of the interviewee fully and
fairly (Patton, 2002). Additionally, because every interview is also an observation, the researcher
made the decision to record each interview with a Voice Record application available on all
iPhones while taking hand notes. This way, the researcher was able to observe the behavior of
the respondents, maintain eye contact during the interview, and write down ideas for probing.
Using Patton’s (2002) “Tips for Tape-Recording Interviews: How to Keep Transcribers Sane”,
the researcher made sure to test the recording device, pause during interruptions, set the device
on a stable surface, place the microphone close to the respondent, and keep papers away from the
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 47
microphone. An online transcribing tool, Speechmatics.com, was used to assist in the
transcribing process. As Patton (2002) suggests, the researcher was immersed in the data
following the interviews and edited all pages of the final transcriptions.
Table 3
Interview Questions for School/District Administrators
Interview Questions
Demographic 1 What is your position and the name of your school site and/or school
district?

Demographic 2 Would you describe your job duties on a daily basis?

1 Would you please describe the recruitment process for teachers at your
school site or school district? How does that process differ for
bilingual candidates? Probe.

1A What’s the percentage of your teachers that are fully certified when
they are hired? Is that statistic different for bilingual teachers?

1B Do you use hiring fairs such as ISS or Search? Why or why not?
Probe.

2 How would you describe the programs or incentives that exist to train
or provide professional development to bilingual teachers? Probe.

2A How would you describe the recruitment techniques used by your
school site/school district? Probe.

2B Can you tell me about the programs in place at your school site/district
to retain quality bilingual teachers? Probe.

3 Is there anything else you would like to share with me?
Is there anything else that I could/should ask you about this topic?

FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 48
Table 4
Interview Questions for Educational Consultants
Interview Questions
Demographic 1 What is your position and the name of your employer?

Demographic 2 Would you describe your typical job duties on a daily basis?

1 Given your work with so many schools throughout the world, would
you be able to recall any schools with an exceptional recruitment
process for teachers, in particular bilingual teachers?
2 What particular programs or incentives exist at schools you visit to
train or provide professional development to bilingual teachers?

2A How would you describe the recruitment techniques used at public US
school districts versus independent schools?
And how does that process differ for international schools?

2B Can you tell me about any programs in place at school sites to retain
quality bilingual teachers?

3 Are there any experts in this field that you think I should reach out to?
ISB, HK?
4 Is there anything else you would like to share with me?
Is there anything else that I could/should ask you about this topic?

Planned Analysis
This section summarizes the analysis of data resulting from document analysis, email
contacts, and interviews.
Document Analysis
Document analysis began in July, following the NABE Dual Language Symposium in
Florida. The analysis of the websites from participating institutions provided me with valuable
information that was integrated into email messages and the interview protocol. The diversity of
bilingual programs became quite clear when comparing U.S. public schools, international
schools in Latin America, and Asian international schools. The diversity of the population
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 49
served, type of program offered, availability of teachers, credentials of the teaching staff, and
resources all became important factors as a result of the document analysis. Additionally, the
types of teachers recruited by international schools for dual language immersion programs
became clear during the initial phases of document analysis. While international schools in Asia
recruit worldwide for bilingual teachers in their programs, schools in Latin America tend to rely
on local contract teachers to fill bilingual Spanish positions. Finally, U.S. public school districts
use more innovative recruitment techniques and dedicate entire departments at the district office
level to attract and retain quality bilingual teachers for their classrooms.
Document analysis as a bridge to interview candidates. The data gathered during the
document analysis stage would assist the researcher in determining which of the 13 peer schools
would be willing to take part in a possible interview. The researcher reached out to his informal
network of colleagues in the international school circuit in order to identify key administrators at
institutions willing to be a part of this descriptive study. Additionally, the researcher met with a
world language consultant and members of NABE to identify two to three model U.S. public
school districts with quality K-12 dual language immersion programs. Using tips from Fink
(2013), informal surveys were used with a group of respondents that have a deep interest in the
topic. By including initial email contacts as informal surveys after document analysis and before
personal interviews, data in this study was triangulated, and therefore the internal validity was
increased (Merriam and Tisdell, 2016). Creswell (2014) argues, “Triangulate different data
sources of information by examining evidence from the sources and using it to build a coherent
justification for themes. If themes are established…then this process can be claimed as adding to
the validity” (p. 201). Themes developed as a result of open coding through interviews will be
discussed in the interview analysis below.
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 50
Interview Analysis
Interviews and school site visits started in October and continued through late November.
The first step in analyzing the interview data was to transcribe the recorded interviews and begin
to develop emerging themes in the data. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) state, “The overall process
of data analysis begins by identifying segments in your data set that are responsive to your
research questions” (p. 203). Keeping this process in mind, open-coding was utilized, jotting
down repeated words used by the participant in the margin in addition to concepts from the
literature (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). As each transcript was analyzed, a list of emerging themes
was developed and placed in a codebook.
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) define axial coding, or analytical coding, as the “process of
grouping your open codes” (p. 206). Harding (2013) states that coding should begin with a
thorough reading of the full transcripts to be analyzed, underlining key phrases, and making
notes to assist in thinking holistically. Conflicting data was kept track of in the margins, usually
dissenting opinions expressed by administrators within the same school district. This will be
further explored in the results section. The themes that emerged from document analysis, email
contacts, and interviews provided a rich narrative in the results section.
Credibility and trustworthiness. The participants were specifically selected because
they meet three criteria. First, participants are site or district administrators of an exemplary
bilingual education program as identified by NABE or an equivalent professional organization.
Second, participants were willing and able to be interviewed and included in this study. Finally,
participants were in a desirable geographic location, namely Southeast Asia, California, or South
Florida. These locations were chosen because I live in the region of Southeast Asia, I used to
work in California and often spend vacations in the area, and I attended a symposium in South
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 51
Florida during the summer of 2017. Additionally, member checking was utilized through an
informal process of consulting with world language and bilingual education colleagues at SIS, as
well as an international world language consultant (Creswell, 2014).
A validity threat, or a way that a researcher might be wrong, is explained as a rival
hypothesis (Maxwell, 2013). Maxwell (2013) states, “The people you interviewed are not
presenting their actual views, or that you have ignored data that don’t fit your interpretation, or
that there is a different theoretical way of making sense of your data” (p. 123). This caused me to
believe that some of the answers obtained during the in-person/Skype interviews were not
completely valid or reliable. Additionally, since open coding was practiced throughout the data
analysis process, it is possible that there is a different theoretical way of making sense of the
data.
Ethics. Creswell (2014) notes that qualitative reliability “indicates that the researcher’s
approach is consistent across different researchers and different projects” (p. 201). During the
interviews, a similar interview protocol was used for all seven interviews and probing for more
information was attempted with the same questions for each participant. This was not always
possible as some participants volunteered their own details to particular questions. The
remaining participants needed more probing in order to retrieve more specific data (Glesne,
2011). Merriam and Tisdell (2016) state, “The best a researcher can do is to be conscious of the
ethical issues that pervade the research process and to examine his or her own philosophical
orientation” (p. 266). Finally, it was important to carefully negotiate an appropriate research
relationship with these model bilingual institutions, since SIS has started a dual language
immersion program that will expand by multiple grade levels and subjects in the future.
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 52
Maintaining a collegial relationship with the participating institutions was a factor that
manifested during the study.
Positionality of the Researcher
Researcher bias and the effect of the researcher on the individuals studied, or reactivity,
are two important threats to the conclusion of a qualitative study (Maxwell, 2013). My bias as a
fully licensed, yet non-practicing bilingual teacher is one element of researcher bias in this study.
I spent the first part of my teaching career preparing to be a secondary bilingual teacher, as a
bilingual district intern with LAUSD. I was hired for my first teaching position on the day that
Proposition 227 passed in California, and subsequently spent the first semester of my career
transitioning three of my designated bilingual classes into SDAIE classrooms. As a result, I
eventually shifted careers into world language and started to teach high school Spanish. I was
hired at SIS to teach Spanish in the middle school and worked in that position for five years
before transferring to my current position in middle school social studies.
In addition to being a Professional Learning Community (PLC) leader for my grade level
in social studies, I have been developing a pilot study in DLI for the last two years. This course
will be offered to a small cohort (15-20) of students during the 2018-19 academic school year,
pending administration approval. The pilot study has been the principal driver behind this study
and throughout much of the coursework of the USC doctoral program. It is in my best interest to
see SIS be successful with its DLI programs at the elementary and secondary levels, and
therefore I am heavily invested in this process at SIS. Interviews conducted with external world
language consultants who work with SIS, as well as interviews with SIS administrators in charge
of DLI have an impact well beyond this qualitative descriptive study.
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 53
Finally, probing might have happened for longer periods of time during interviews
conducted in person in comparison to interviews conducted via Skype. In the analysis of
reactivity (Maxwell, 2013), administrators might have been purposefully selected from programs
that I knew a great deal about. However, Maxwell (2013) argues that since the “researcher is part
of the world that he or she studies—it is a powerful and inescapable influence” (p. 125). At the
end of the day, it is the integrity of the researcher in qualitative studies that matters the most
(Maxwell, 2013).

FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 54
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
The purpose of this qualitative descriptive study was to address the shortage of qualified
bilingual teachers in the American education system by examining the recruitment, training, and
retention practices in school systems with model DLI programs in order to apply best practices at
American international schools. First, the qualities and characteristics of bilingual teachers at SIS
were examined in regards to institutional practices related to the recruitment, training, and
retention of bilingual teachers. Next, these institutional practices were compared to peer
international schools and U.S. public school districts with successful dual language immersion
programs. Finally, data was analyzed in order to develop a set of recommendations for SIS.
This chapter presents the findings of the combined data sources of document analysis and
interviews. I completed the document analysis process by reviewing the websites of 13 distinct
educational institutions (see Table 5 below). The document analysis process assisted me in
initiating and securing personal interviews with specific schools. Finally, steps were taken to
ensure that the group was diverse and inclusive of international schools, U.S. public school
districts, educational consultants, and professional bilingual organizations.
Participating Institutions
Thirteen institutions of learning were chosen to participate in the study. Following
document analysis, seven individuals were selected as candidates for personal interviews. I
conducted person-to-person interviews with three individuals, three more were conducted online
synchronously via Skype video, and the final interview was conducted online asynchronously
due to a cancellation. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) explain that online interviews can be
conducted synchronously (in real time) through Skype or Adobe Connect. Alternatively, online
interviews might be conducted “asynchronously (where there is lag time) over email or an online
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 55
discussion group” (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p. 115). See Table 1 for a list of participating
institutions for the document analysis portion of this study. See Table 5 for a list of schools used
to conduct synchronous online interviews or asynchronous online interviews, in addition to
person-to-person interviews.
Table 5
Institutions Participating in Person-to-Person or Online Interviews (Pseudonyms)
Name of Institution and Contact Person Location
Straits International School (SIS)
Administrator 1, Elementary School Principal

Singapore, Republic of
Singapore
Straits International School (SIS)
Administrator 2, World Languages Director

Singapore, Republic of
Singapore
South Bay School District
Administrator 3, Director of English Learner Programs

California, USA
North Bay School District
Administrator 4, Director of the Bilingual Education Dept.

California, USA

World Language Consultant
Administrator 5, President of International Language
Consultants

Georgia, USA
Eastern Coast School District
Administrator 6, Coordinator of K-12 World Languages

Virginia, USA
Capital International School (CIS)
Administrator 7, Principal of Dual Language Program
Beijing, China

Research Question One
What are the current practices for the recruitment and retention of bilingual teachers at
SIS, as compared to those practices at other peer international schools and American public
school districts?

FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 56
Document Analysis
The document analysis phase of this study was divided by recruitment, training, and
retention. At the start of the study, I held an initial meeting with key administrators at SIS with
the objective of constructing a list of schools with model dual language immersion programs.
Recommendations were based on campus visits that took place during the school’s research and
development trips. References were also suggested during this meeting based on personal and
collegial contacts at schools and school districts with exemplary dual language immersion
programs. Document analysis was an essential phase of the study in order to initiate contacts for
possible interviews to be conducted in the second phase of the study. The data compiled during
the document analysis phase of this study is summarized on Table 6.

FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 57
Table 6
Summary of Data Collected as a Result of Document Analysis
Recruitment
Practices
Bilingual
Incentives
Training and
Professional
Development (PD)
International Language
Consultants*
N/A N/A School-based
workshops tailored
to needs of school
Capital International
School (CIS)*
Website; hiring
fairs (ISS, Search)
PD funds
each year
Language
consultant visits
school twice a year
North Bay School
District*

Website, HR
team, information
sessions
Yearly
stipend
Workshops
provided by
Bilingual Ed Dept.
NABE

National
conference
N/A Symposiums, nat’l
conference,
workshops
Avenues: The World
School

Recruitment
video; recruitment
website
No evidence
of a bilingual
stipend
Tuition
reimbursement for
grad school
Independent Schools
Foundation Academy
Recruitment flyer;
website
No evidence
of a stipend
Personal PD budget
Uruguayan American
School
Website Bilingual
staff are local
No mention of PD
funds
Colegio Franklin Delano
Roosevelt
Website; job fairs,
Schrole(3rd party)
Bilingual
staff are local
Professional leave
available
University of Southern
California World Masters
Website N/A Study abroad
immersion
South Bay School
District*

Website, job
interest cards,
third party
websites
No bilingual
stipend
Site and district
workshops; state
grants
Straits International
School (SIS)*

Website; hiring
fairs (ISS); third
party job websites
Professional
development
funds
Language
consultant visits
school twice a year
ACTFL

National
conference
N/A Symposiums, nat’l
conference,
workshops
Eastern Coast School
District*

Pools of qualified
candidates,
conferences; ad in
Ed Week;
recruitment video
No bilingual
stipend
Training by district
language
specialists; nat’l
conferences
* Indicates schools with a pseudonym
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 58
Interviews
The emerging themes from the interviews are divided into recruitment, training, and
retention based on two personal interviews conducted at Straits International School (SIS). SIS is
in its first year of a Chinese dual language immersion program with two kindergarten classrooms
participating as learning hubs. It will expand by one grade level (two classrooms) each year until
it reaches fifth grade. Administrator 1 is the elementary principal and Administrator 2 is the
director of world languages. The following sections reflect questions on recruitment (see
questions 1, 1B, and 2A from the interview protocol in Appendix A).
Characteristics of Teacher Candidates
Creating a balance between internal and external candidates is a challenge for any DLI
program, especially emerging ones. Currently, SIS’s Chinese immersion is made up of foreign
language teachers who transferred to DLI from positions in the middle school and the elementary
school. In explaining the application process for SIS, Administrator 1 explained that positions
are first advertised internally before they are placed on the school website for external applicants.
“So if there are internal candidates who may be interested in the position, they have first right to
apply” (Administrator 1, personal communication, November, 9, 2017). Those candidates
usually have about three days to apply and then the administration has a couple of days to
interview them, as they want to finalize the internal candidate process as quickly as possible.
Administrator 1 explained that since there are internal candidates, the school prefers to
give them an opportunity to apply for those positions first. If there are no qualified internal
candidates, then the job is opened up as an external position immediately. This was the case for a
dual language immersion job that was heavily recruited for the 2018-19 school year, as it was
advertised externally for several months. Administrator 1 clarified that a consultant working with
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 59
the school and other experts in the field explained the need to bring somebody from outside SIS
with dual language immersion experience. “But we thought it’d be good to bring somebody in
with the immersion expertise that could have that side of it. And then we have somebody that
we’re hiring with our own institutional expertise that they can work really closely together”
(Administrator 1, personal communication, November, 9, 2017). One change on the horizon that
Administrator 2 spoke of was the hiring practices for DLI positions. As the program continues to
expand by two classrooms each year, SIS will endeavor to create a balance of external and
internal candidates on teams.
The structure of the applicant pool plays a major role in the development of a quality DLI
program. SIS made a conscious decision in selecting internal candidates for the first cohort of
DLI in the elementary school. Administrator 2 explained that when the two kindergarten teachers
were hired at SIS, they selected internal candidates because they were their best applicants for
the new immersion program, as they had an open mindset and “were willing to be flexible in
their thinking” (Administrator 2, personal communication, October 10, 2017).
Alternative Pathways
Investigating alternative pathways to attract DLI teacher candidates is an area that SIS is
actively exploring. This is crucial as the Chinese DLI expands by two classrooms each year for
the next five years, in addition to pilot programs for Spanish DLI on the horizon. During the
interview with Administrator 1, he explained that in the future SIS was looking to hire an
instructional assistant with each one of the elementary dual language immersion classrooms.
This idea was proposed to the superintendent and school administration by Administrator 1 in
order to explore a way to hire assistant teachers as the instructional assistant, rather than hiring a
local part-time staff member for the job. This plan could be labeled as a grow-your-own model in
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 60
which teacher candidates are trained with practical methods, eventually leading to the
development of a cohort of fully trained bilingual teachers. This practice is widely used in U.S.
public school districts in paraprofessional career ladder programs (LAUSD, 2018).
Recruitment Practices
Expanding its presence nationally over the next several years in the United States is one
way for SIS to increase the number of quality bilingual teacher candidates in its applicant pool.
Recruiting at national conferences is one way to expand their presence with organizations that
attract exemplary teacher candidates, such as ACTFL or NABE. When asked directly about
recruiting at national conferences such as the one sponsored by ACTFL, Administrator 1 stated:
“So we didn’t do any direct interviewing because we weren’t at that point looking to hire
anybody” (Administrator 1, personal communication, November, 9, 2017).
The idea of recruiting by reputation emerged in both interviews at SIS. Both
Administrator 1 and Administrator 2 spoke of recruitment tactics related to the reputation of the
institution. Simply, that the school is known throughout the world as a stellar place to work at
and that this contributes to recruitment practices.
Certainly when we went out to schools last year I think we were using our name with our
school and our reputation, to make sure that was getting out there to the schools we were
with. And knowing we were seeing a lot of good candidates while we were out there in
some of these schools. (Administrator 1, personal communication, November 9, 2017)
The school website is used as a chief recruitment tool at SIS. “Again, when we have a position it
gets advertised out on the school’s website. And so anybody from around the world can apply”
(Administrator 1, personal communication, November, 9, 2017). It was stated that the reputation
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 61
of SIS amongst global educators and the way we approach professional development is an initial
recruitment tactic utilized by the school.
In the international school community, word of mouth is a powerful tool, especially
during recruitment season. In response to relying on word of mouth to get the word out about
new positions at SIS, Administrator 1 explained: “Because the school has a good reputation, we
can get a lot of candidates in a short amount of time. So usually within a couple of weeks, we can
generate 40 plus applications” (personal communication, November, 9, 2017). A number of
teachers and administrators are interviewed and hired for positions in international schools based
on word of mouth, in reference to the school and/or the candidate. The following sections reflect
questions on training (see question 2 on the interview protocol in Appendix A).
Teacher Certification
Teacher certification is an important topic for several reasons. It plays a role in the
employment process in Singapore, as the school must defend their decision to the government in
hiring foreign talent for a particular position. Additionally, the school prides itself on hiring the
most qualified teachers. Certification in the correct content area is one of the minimum
qualifications for a teaching position at SIS.
Both Administrator 1 and Administrator 2 explained that all teachers at SIS are fully
certified teachers in their country of origin, as this is a condition of employment with the
Singapore government. Administrator 2 pointed out that teacher certification varies greatly by
country, and that a teacher certification from mainland China may look different than Australia
or the United States. In response to the world language faculty as a group, Administrator 2
stated: “Yeah, so they all have some sort of qualifications; whether that means that they are
actually effective in the classrooms or not is the other complication” (Administrator 2, personal
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 62
communication, October 10, 2017). The current dual language immersion teachers at SIS do not
hold bilingual authorizations or bilingual teaching certificate, a prerequisite to teach in a dual
language program in states like California.
Professional Development
Professional development for the DLI program was a crucial need when it was in the
initial planning stages at SIS. Administrator 1 described the training process the director of world
languages went through by taking the DLI teachers to several model school sites in Hong Kong
and the United States one semester before they began their teaching assignments. “So they were
able to get some training in that regard too, where they were able to go back and see this program
in action and get more opportunity that way” (Administrator 1, personal communication,
November, 9, 2017). He explained the process of releasing newly hired teachers one semester
before their dual language immersion placement started. Both of the teachers hired for the first
year of the program were released from their positions as world language teachers and were
replaced with long-term substitutes for one semester. Administrator 1 explained that the new
internal hire for first grade would be given the same opportunity the semester prior to her start
date. This will also give her a chance to develop Chinese curriculum for the dual language
immersion program while she is working with the current first grade PLC. The following
sections reflect questions on retention (see question 2B on the interview protocol in Appendix A)
Long-Term Planning
Building a DLI program requires long-term and strategic planning. In response to the
challenges of building a DLI program from the ground up, Administrator 2 stated:
But I would like to see a separate role created for someone to and possibly teach as well,
but someone to teach and manage this immersion program, be given that authority to do
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 63
that and for my role to come back to focusing in the Chinese program only because to be
honest, that’s where the bulk of the time and energy is needed. (Administrator 2, personal
communication, October 10, 2017)
When probed about the challenges of adding two dual language immersion classrooms to a grade
level for the next five years at SIS, it is clearly perplexing: “Exactly, because you will be adding
every year two positions” (Administrator 2, personal communication, October 10, 2017).
Resources
Resources are a crucial component to any DLI or bilingual program. In fact, when
bilingual education was first introduced in the United States, teachers felt the pressure to create
their own materials by hand when resources in the target language were not readily available.
This is still the case today for some DLI teachers, even though the market for DLI resources has
expanded exponentially over the last few decades. Administrator 2 explained that materials and
resources are not always readily available. The two dual language immersion teachers must
translate the bulk of the traditional English classroom resources used in the kindergarten
program. “What we are looking at though is additional instructional assistant support for the
program” (Administrator 2, personal communication, October 10, 2017). The immersion
teachers need the additional support because they translate every document, lesson, and form
used in the mainstream kindergarten classroom into Mandarin Chinese.
Retention Programs
Retaining quality DLI teachers is a challenge for a variety of reasons. Support, incentives,
school climate, and resources can all play a crucial role in retention. Administrator 2 stated: “We
certainly don’t want them to just disappear off into the sunset very quickly and they will be
imminently poachable. That’s one of the other things when you make that investment in people”
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 64
(personal communication, October 10, 2017). SIS invests in their teachers with the idea that they
will contribute to the greater good of the institution in the long run.
Research Question Two: Interviews
What best practices exist at peer international schools and American public school
districts for the training, recruitment, and retention of bilingual candidates in order to nurture
quality bilingual teachers? The emerging themes from the interviews are divided into
recruitment, training, and retention based on five personal interviews with school administrators
and educational consultants. The first person-to-person interview was conducted with
Administrator 3 at South Bay School District in Southern California. The South Bay School
District is in its second year of dual language immersion in Spanish at the elementary level. It is
in its first year of dual language immersion program in Vietnamese at one elementary school site
in the district. Administrator 3, the Director of English Learner Programs, was interviewed in her
office on October 17, 2017. A written request by the researcher to interview the principals at
both dual language immersion school sites was declined by the school district’s Research
Review Team. Administrator 4 is the Director of the Bilingual Education Department at the
North Bay School District in Northern California. The interview with Administrator 4 was
originally scheduled as a person-to-person interview on October 16, 2017. Unfortunately,
Administrator 4 canceled the appointment on the morning of October 16 due to an absence
beyond his control. This meeting was then transformed into an asynchronous online interview
via email. The researcher received the interview data on November 1, 2017 and a follow up
communication was sent in December 2017.
Administrator 5 is an education consultant employed by a company based in the United
States called International Language Consultants. The interview with Administrator 5 took place
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 65
synchronously online via Skype video while he was on location consulting with an international
school in Dubai on October 27, 2017. Administrator 5 works closely with faculty and
administrators at SIS and other international school campuses, in addition to independent and
public schools in the United States. During the interview with Administrator 5, I employed
snowball (network) sampling by asking him to refer any experts in the field (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). This is how Administrator 6 became part of the study. The synchronous online Skype
video interview with Administrator 6, the Coordinator of K-12 World Languages at Eastern
Coast School District in Virginia, took place on December 1, 2017. Eastern Coast School District
offers dual language immersion programs at three elementary campuses and one middle school
campus. Finally, Administrator 7 was the result of snowball (network) sampling by reaching out
to Administrator 2 at SIS. Capital International School (CIS) in China was referred to me
because its dual language immersion program and student demographics are comparable to SIS.
The synchronous online Skype video interview with Administrator 7, a Principal at CIS, took
place on November 21, 2017 during the school day. CIS is currently in its second year of a dual
language Chinese immersion program at the elementary level, about a year ahead of the process
at SIS.
The interviews conducted with administrators at South Bay School District, North Bay
School District, International Language Consultants, Eastern Coast School District, and Capital
International School are summarized below. The data has been divided into the topics of
recruitment, training, retention, and emerging themes, with subthemes identified within each
area.

FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 66
Recruitment
This section is made up of the responses to questions 1, 1B, and 2A from the interview
protocol (see Appendix A or Appendix B). The headings outlined below represent the themes
gleaned from the interviews with Administrator 3, Administrator 4, Administrator 5,
Administrator 6, and Administrator 7.
Characteristics of Teacher Candidates
Balancing bilingual teacher candidates from within the school system with applicants
from outside the school district is a theme that emerged in almost every single interview. This
topic was of significant importance for school districts developing relatively new DLI programs,
as was the case with South Bay School District. Administrator 3 from South Bay explained that
in the first year of their dual language immersion program, given that it was new, they wanted a
mix of teachers. In other words, some teachers with dual language immersion experience to
compliment those without experience. The challenge was that the school district did not have any
teachers with that type of experience. Additionally, they did not want to launch a program with
brand new teachers to the school district, without being familiar with the school community and
the specific pedagogy at the elementary school level. The opening year served to be really
challenging in recruiting a balance of teachers first within the school district and then from
outside the district.
The reality with any bilingual/DLI program is that there is a shortage of teachers. This is
especially true in a state like California, the most ethnically and linguistically diverse state in the
nation (Alfaro, 2017). Administrator 4 spoke of challenges related to a shortage of dual language
immersion teachers. The Human Resources Department at North Bay School District employees
staff who serve in a diversity recruiting role, leading their efforts to create a more diverse
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 67
applicant pool. These efforts include a bilingual education night in which candidates can learn
about the different language pathways that North Bay School District has to offer.
Administrator 3 explained that as the dual language immersion program “came up and
running…then there was an interest from within. And actually, we’ve been, this year, we
completely staffed from within” (personal communication, October 17, 2017). However, in
response to possible candidate shortages in the future, Administrator 3 stated that this scenario
would require a different approach from their end.
Administrator 5 explained the challenges of having a shortage in the candidate/applicant
pool for a new dual language immersion program:
It is far easier to take someone who is an elementary school teacher and they happen to
be a bilingual person. It's easier to take them and help them become an immersion teacher
than it is to take a good language teacher and make them a good elementary school
teacher. So, this is a huge challenge for immersion programs. And this is understandable
because if you don't know what we just said, what I just said about elementary teachers
and language teachers, then you think that you're gonna go with known people in-house.
That proves that they have a track record of success. (personal communication, October
27, 2017)
Administrator 5 is referring to other monolingual school administrators who might not
understand the complexity of hiring for dual language immersion program. Those school
officials might confuse experience at the school site as a proven record of success for the
position. It was clear from the interview with Administrator 5 that school employees tasked with
the job of hiring for a dual language immersion program must have a fundamental understanding
of language acquisition and bilingualism.
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 68
Headhunting Practices
The term headhunting appeared in this study by reference from Administrator 5. Although
traditionally used in the business world, headhunting has become a trend with human resource
administrators tasked with the job of recruiting qualified bilingual teachers in a competitive
environment. Administrator 5, in response to his consulting work with SIS and other
international schools, explained that it is important for schools to redefine recruiting practices as
they move forward with dual language immersion programs.
That’s the bigger question. What kind of people are you looking for? And what’s your
vetting mechanism? Cause you can find people there. Like we said, 900 people wanted to
teach at the SIS elementary level. And we had to narrow it down to five. So, you can
always find people. But are they the right kind of people? (personal communication,
October 27, 2017)
Administrator 5 continued to describe what that means for institutions. “They are out there, you
just have to go out and find them…put on your headhunter hat. Not your recruiting hat. Your
headhunter hat” (personal communication, October 27, 2017). The headhunter mentality is
needed when taking on a brand new dual language immersion program and building it from the
ground up.
Through the variety of schools he visits in his consulting work, Administrator 5 explained
that some independent schools and public school districts in the U.S. have developed a
headhunting model that works and naturally grows a program. In one particular school, the
principal first filled dual language immersion positions with experienced internal elementary
candidates who happened to be fluent in Spanish. Once those ran out, “the principal then has
been actively seeking, headhunting, has been seeking teachers to staff the grade level that will
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 69
come up next” (Administrator 5, personal communication, October 27, 2017). This works out
well for the development of the program because the immersion teacher for the next year has
already spent one year teaching that grade level’s curriculum in English.
Administrator 5 argued that international schools are sometimes missing the boat on
headhunting because of their long-standing recruitment practices:
And so, if you don't go seek out, if you don't have the headhunter attitude…I mean I
know some international schools who bring new teachers in, the recommendation to the
principal comes through the recommendation of a colleague at a school who happens to
know another colleague in another school. And thinks that it might be a good fit. This
person gets hired and they are not. They are like dead wood. So, it's really, we get stuck
with people then. And there's not a good supervision model in the international schools.
And so, we end up all the times just being, perpetuating bad experiences for kids.
(personal communication, October 27, 2017)
Exploring Alternative Pathways
Schools are building their own pipeline by seeking alternative ways to develop, recruit,
and train bilingual teachers. Some school systems, such as North Bay Unified School District,
have developed a Talent Division to hire and retain qualified staff, including supporting
development of pipelines of bilingual educators for dual language programs. Other school
districts are focusing in on their current students and growing their own programs by actively
recruiting graduates with qualifications such as a Seal of Biliteracy on their high school diploma.
South Bay Unified School District is actively recruiting young bilinguals first as tutors and later
as potential bilingual teacher candidates. One of the areas that South Bay is heavily invested in is
bringing their own graduates back as district employees. Administrator 3 described the process,
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 70
“So as college students, we hire them to be mentors and tutors because…we want to build that
pipeline…and hopefully, we will influence them into the teaching field” (personal
communication, October 17, 2017).
The educational consultant commented on the power of a “grow your own” type of
program within the international school circuit.
So, I think that's a huge challenge for international schools. It's just getting the word out
there to potential candidates. So, what I think is where the international schools missed
the boat is by not having some sort of organized presence with teacher training
institutions in the United States. (Administrator 5, personal communication, October 27,
2017)
The recruitment power of international schools is one area that Administrator 5 highlighted as an
area of development.
I think the international schools completely missed the boat by not having some sort of
avert attention getter for the teacher training institution. So, let's say Ohio State is a huge
place where language teachers are training. So, why would SIS, or international schools
in general, not have an organized way of making sure that the teacher educators at OSU
know about this opportunity so that they can tell them about all of these kinds of places
out there. If I were a recruiter at SIS that's exactly where I'd be putting my attention.
(personal communication, October 27, 2017)
Possible university partnerships with college campuses also came up during interviews with
Administrator 1 and Administrator 2 from SIS.
Administrator 3 spends considerable time analyzing the demographics of teachers
currently in the pipeline of South Bay in order to develop future bilingual teachers. Out of the
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 71
current 40 that are candidates of the districts paraprofessional ladder (similar to LAUSD),
Administrator 3 stated that 17 were flagged as candidates for bilingual authorizations.
Recruitment Practices
Recruiting at national conferences is a topic that materialized during four out of the seven
interviews of this study. It was a key recruitment strategy for only one of the four schools.
Recruiting at national conferences is one way for a school district to expand their presence with
organizations that attract exemplary teacher candidates, such as ACTFL or NABE. Administrator
6 at Eastern Coast School District enthusiastically endorsed recruiting bilingual teachers at
national conferences. She actively recruits teachers across the country in at least three different
conference settings per year, ranging from New York to the southern states. The most promising
recruitment efforts have been at the Northeast Conference on the Teaching of Foreign Languages
(NECTFL):
And we’ve identified that there are large number of Spanish speakers and Spanish
teachers in that area and we, I would have a table with beach balls that say “teach at the
beach” to entice them in the freezing cold February to come and apply to teach at the
beach. Then in that way I gauge with the people who are at NECTFL. (Administrator 6,
personal communication, December 1, 2017).
The NECTFL conference is one of three or four major national conferences attended by Eastern
Coast each year in their endeavor to recruit quality bilingual teachers.
North Bay Unified School District has an established alliance with a national university
in Taiwan that meets the needs of their Asian dual language programs. The school district
receives interns from Taiwan for about one month at a time. A more formal process is securing
interns via Amity, an agency who screens the requesting schools, searches appropriate
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 72
candidates, connects with the overseas entity, and obtains internship visas for the interns. The
duration of the internships are six months or one year.
Administrator 5, the consultant, is certain that international schools are some of the worst
at recruiting because of the fact that they don’t tap into great talent. During the interview, he
explained that recruitment is an issue everywhere, but it’s a bigger concern for international
schools. He argues that the talent he observes in independent schools in the United States and
U.S. public school districts is far superior to the foreign language teachers he sees in overseas
schools. SIS is one exception to this as the school has “historically endeavored to do the absolute
best…by going to recruiting fairs and this sort of thing” (Administrator 5, personal
communication, October 27, 2017). However, just showing up at recruitment fairs does not
guarantee quality staffing for international schools because “you only get people who come to
those fairs or who's dossier happens to pop up in front of you. SIS gets a lot of dossiers because
it's SIS, period” (Administrator 5, personal communication, October 27, 2017). This view is
consistent with opinion of Administrator 7 from Virginia, that schools must take a headhunting
approach as they recruit for quality bilingual teachers.
For independent schools in the United States, it is a different story. This is due to the fact
that they have their own association, the National Association of Independent Schools (NAIS).
Additionally, each state has its own affiliate association of NAIS. This provides an instant
network for recruiting at the state level and national level. In many states, independent schools
cancel classes on the day of the conference so that all teachers and entire schools can attend.
Administrator 5 stated that specific regions of international schools might somehow emulate this
practice.
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 73
The theme of recruiting related to the reputation of a school emerged during both
interviews with international schools. Administrator 5 explained that when SIS had five positions
to fill for its new elementary Spanish program, they received 500 applications. As the consultant
in charge of conducting initial interviews with candidates, he was tasked with the job narrowing
down the number applicants by first conducting a paper audit of applications. He then proceeded
to interview 30 potential teachers in Spanish. Administrator 5 stated, “The difference between
recruiting and headhunters, recruiting can just be letting people know we have a job.
Headhunters actively go out and find the kind of people that you need” (personal
communication, October 27, 2017). The act of headhunting is topic that developed out of
conversations with Administrator 5, in addition to Administrator 6 in Virginia.
Most of the teachers who apply for dual language immersion openings at CIS, according
to Administrator 7, are both Chinese and foreign [Chinese] language teachers. She argued that
finding a dual language immersion teacher is “just finding a needle in a haystack” (Administrator
7, personal communication, November 21, 2017). It’s a difficult process because you are looking
for candidates who are trained in western teaching methodologies and have some homeroom
(elementary self-contained) experience. Additionally, that person needs to be fully bilingual,
bicultural, and biliterate. Certainly, CIS attracts a number of applicants simply because it is CIS.
This is a shared challenge in Singapore and China for SIS and CIS – the fact that a number of
people will apply for open positions based on the outstanding reputation of the schools. The
theme of a school’s reputation played a role in interviews related to international school
campuses only.
University partnerships. Universities are often overlooked as recruiting partners,
especially by international schools. In the case of bilingual candidates, university campuses
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 74
should be one of the first places a school system looks to develop an educational partnership.
Developing partnerships with universities to support growing programs is a topic that
Administrator 6 from Virginia brought to the conversation on recruitment practices. The idea
came up in four of the seven interviews conducted for this study. Administrator 6 explained that
East Coast School District most recently started recruiting at a reputable university in Puerto
Rico to post flyers and set up informal interviews for teaching candidates. Other school districts
in Virginia have been more successful with this type of relationship between top-notch education
schools in Puerto Rico.
In Beijing, Administrator 7 has been developing the idea of university partnerships for
some time:
I've had some other ideas that I feel would really help support us moving forward in the
recruitment and I think we are really trying to partner with the teacher college is one of
those pieces, right. Be that, let's say Beijing Normal University here where we actually -
so to speak our training ground and they come in or it's something looking in at the
training colleges or training universities in the United States that are gearing teachers to
teach Chinese. That's been one of my other pieces. I am trying to really think out of the
box. (personal communication, November 21, 2017)
Finally, Administrator 3 in South Bay pointed out that through partnerships with universities,
schools are obviously looking to fill bilingual positions. On the other hand, these partnerships
allow them to recruit teachers that represent the demographics of the school system, something
that has not been the case in the past.

FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 75
Training
This section reflects question 2 on the interview protocol (see Appendix A or Appendix
B) related to training and professional development.
Teacher Certification
Teacher certification is crucial to the development DLI programs because it ensures that
the candidate not only has the content/grade level knowledge, but also holds the language and
cultural skills to manage a DLI classroom. Based on seven person-to-person interviews, bilingual
certification was clearly a concern only for administrators at U.S. public schools. The challenges
around teacher certification only came up during interviews with district officials at Eastern
Coast School District, South Bay School District, and North Bay School District. Administrator
6 at Eastern Coast School District identified one of the principle challenges: many applicants for
dual language immersion jobs are single subject world language teachers without elementary
homeroom classroom experience. In other words, they are Spanish or Chinese language teachers
who have spent their entire careers as foreign language instructors. They do not have the
pedagogical experience or training to teach math, science, language arts, or history.
Administrator 3 at South Bay School District predicts that in the future bilingual
certification will become a more complex problem:
I can foresee that as [Spanish immersion school site] continues to grow and we are
committed to hiring from within at this point. They’re credentialed to be multiple subject
credential teachers. But they may not have their bilingual authorization. So, we might
have to go that route. (personal communication, October 17, 2017)
Administrator 4 explained that dual language immersion teachers in the state of California must
possess a valid teaching credential (or out-of-state equivalent) in the appropriate content area and
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 76
a bilingual authorization. However, in Virginia there is no immersion certification or bilingual
authorization. According to Administrator 6, this is a challenge when recruiting and screening
candidates for one of the district’s four dual language immersion sites. She explained that what
this means is that anyone seeking employment in the elementary immersion program must be
certified in elementary education. Additionally, there is no certification to demonstrate a
candidate’s proficiency level in the language of instruction. Administrator 6 is typically called in
to test an applicant’s oral proficiency if the language is Spanish. She is currently advocating that
candidates demonstrate proficiency in academic language through an outside assessment such as
ACTFL’s Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI). The benchmark would be at the Advanced Low
level, the requirement for single subject world languages in the state of Virginia.
Administrator 6 identified another challenge in the area of teacher certification, an issue
unique to middle and high school immersion programs:
The new hire needs to be certified and was certified in middle school social studies, but
since there is no requirement of language proficiency, somebody thinks that they are a
speaker of Spanish or a heritage speaker of Spanish and that’s acceptable. Unfortunately,
from an instructional standpoint, it’s not sufficient content knowledge and it is not
acceptable. (personal communication, December 1, 2017)
She explained that as immersion programs expand from fifth grade self-contained classrooms on
elementary campuses to sixth grade classrooms at middle school sites, teacher certification is
bound to become a larger issue. In reference to the 15 dual language immersion teachers in
Eastern Coast School District: “Because 15 would need to possess the proper content knowledge
certification, in addition to the language” (Administrator 6, personal communication, December
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 77
1, 2017). This is the double certification that some schools, not bound by statewide teacher
credentialing laws, might ignore as they expand their dual language immersion programs.
Teachers on Special Assignment
Many of the schools that were interviewed as part of this study employed Teachers on
Special Assignment (TOSA) to support their dual language immersion programs. In South Bay
School District, they provide strategic support for bilingual teachers:
They also have what we call TOSAs, that are specially assigned to the dual immersion
school. And they provide in-classroom coaching, they provide weekly collaboration on
those practices. They just run, in terms of best practices for dual immersion, they run the
show there. Then they have a core group that they work with here at the district office to
stay in tuned with the latest. (Administrator 3, personal communication, October 17,
2017)
The programs at SIS make use of TOSAs, or instructional coaches, who are monolingual
teachers. Their job is to support the dual language teachers with best practices in the classroom
for that grade levels.
Retention
This section reflects question 2B in the interview protocol (see Appendix A or Appendix
B) related to the retention of bilingual teachers in dual language immersion programs.
Multiple Layers of Support
It is important for bilingual teachers to feel supported on the job through multiple support
structures. Administrator 3 explained that these multiple layers of support come in many
different formats – professional development, compensation, classroom resources, and support
staff. “We realize that being a bilingual teacher is hard. I’m not going to say that it’s double the
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 78
work, but it is more work. And certainly different work, if you want to think of it that way”
(Administrator 3, personal communication, October 17, 2017). The additional strain and
workload of bilingual teachers was a common theme shared across school sites in this study.
In order to retain quality bilingual teachers, school systems attempt to put in place
multiple layers of support whenever possible. “So, we want to make sure that we provide with
multiple layers of support. So as a compensation, if you will, we’re gonna give you everything
that you need” (Administrator 3, personal communication, October 17, 2017). However, this is
not consistent across dual language immersion programs in South Bay Unified School District.
In terms of workload, teachers have to scramble and look for resources.
Resources
Darling-Hammond (2000) argues that investments in teacher knowledge are among the
most productive means to increase student achievement, especially in high-needs fields such as
bilingual education. Darling-Hammond (2000) identifies resources as one of the many
components that lead to success in the classroom. A challenge for dual language immersion
programs is the limited quality resources in the target language and the push to translate
mainstream classroom materials from English into the language of instruction. This challenge is
multiplied for secondary programs with content-specific curriculum and materials that may not
be offered in the target language. Administrator 6 explained that in the sixth and seventh grades,
the social studies textbook is available in Spanish. For the eighth grade civics course, Eastern
Coast formed an agreement with the publisher to pay their teacher to translate the course content
using the platform of the textbook series. Additionally, teachers in Eastern Coast are
“accustomed to working without a text…and just using primary sources” (Administrator 6,
personal communication, December 1, 2017). The bilingual teachers in dual language immersion
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 79
programs in Eastern Coast also have access to an online resource created for the Puerto Rico
Department of Education by Santillana publishers in Miami.
It is clear from the data that dual language immersion programs targeting Asian
languages share greater challenges for classroom resources as compared to equivalent programs
in Spanish. At South Bay School District, Administrator 3 shared the frustration of obtaining
quality resources for Asian languages. In the case of South Bay, the language is Vietnamese and
that comes with its own set of cultural, linguistic, and political challenges. In reference to
Mandarin Chinese programs at SIS, she stated, “Where your teachers [at SIS] are pulling
materials, we’re writing materials” (Administrator 3, personal communication, October 17,
2017). One idea Administrator 3 had in relation to the lack of materials was to “identify where
the gaps are and then start creating, literally hire authors to create the material” (personal
communication, October 17, 2017).
At Capital International School in Beijing, administrators have been studying resources
for their DLI Chinese program over the last four years. Administrator 7 explained that one of the
major challenges around resources is the “lack of quality literacy resource materials in Chinese
that can help us point to some of our content areas, that are appropriate for those who might be
new to Chinese” (personal communication, November 21, 2017). Materials are just one of the
many challenges in the context of resources for dual language immersion programs.
Retention Programs
The emerging theme of retention developed more out of what school systems are not
doing to address it, as opposed to how they are currently addressing it. As Administrator 3 stated,
“Step one is finding them…Step two is developing the ones that aren’t there” (personal
communication, October 17, 2017). South Bay is currently identifying as many native speakers
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 80
of Spanish and Vietnamese within their workforce of teachers in preparation for the future
expansion of dual language immersion programs. Some schools are actively developing
programs to retain quality bilingual teachers, while others might not even have in on their radar.
Administrator 5 explained:
Honestly, I would say to you I don't think anybody is intentionally doing that. I think that
what they are doing is that they are trying to support teachers the best way they can in
terms of professional development. But, I don't think anybody is doing it so that they
don't lose their teachers. Maybe in the back of their mind they're thinking that's a
byproduct that we don't lose our teachers but leaving that to the front burner I just don't
know about it. One of the things that's big or frustrating to me about the international
schools where I work is that you get people training to a certain level, and you blink your
eye and they're gone. Now they may go to another place and plant seeds of change in
other schools and maybe that's a part and process, but that's very frustrating for somebody
like me (personal communication, October 27, 2017).
While U.S. public school districts might be more cognizant of the situation, some international
schools seem to be ignoring this important factor, almost to the point where it feels “accidental”
(Administrator 5, personal communication, October 27, 2017). Instead, any plan at retention
simply makes teachers feel supported in the long run and that is what makes them stay at the
school.
Some U.S. public school districts might label retention as professional respect, differing
from their counterparts in the world of international schools. Administrator 6 explained that the
topic of retention was a major theme in this year’s [2017] Assembly of Delegates at the national
ACTFL conference. “Part of what we do to recruit them is…maybe place them in an English
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 81
only context and then switch them over to Spanish immersion” (Administrator 6, personal
communication, December 1, 2017). This is a trend that Administrator 5 mentioned during his
interview that is happening at several dual language immersion campuses in the U.S. – both
public and independent schools. The idea is to take a third grade teacher who is bilingual and
place them in the mainstream third grade classroom for one year. They adjust to the curriculum
and the PLC for one year and then that teacher becomes your immersion classroom as the cohort
of bilingual students moves up from lower grades. Administrator 6 explained, “I’m saying that
even though this is a question about retention because by doing that we’re signaling how
important is for us to have them and that we respect what they’re bringing and that’s part of the
retention philosophy” (personal communication, December 1, 2017). The plan of “looping” a
teacher through the regular elementary program first is similar to the semester of leave that SIS
has historically given its Chinese teachers before transitioning into dual language immersion
classrooms. However, the experience of actual classroom teaching is far more impactful with the
plan developed by Administrator 6 in Virginia. Administrator 7 at CIS in Beijing alluded to this
thought as well during her interview, an idea that might be presented to SIS at a later date.
Other Emerging Themes
Other emerging themes are topics that were not initially discussed in the review of
literature or document analysis, but later emerged during the interviews.
Models of Dual Language Immersion Programs
DLI models, or the percentage of time spent each day in English and the target language,
vary greatly from one school system to another. If school systems were to use similar models,
resources and PD would be easier to allocate, making collaboration between school systems
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 82
simpler. A key difference between SIS and CIS is the model of dual language immersion.
Administrator 7 stated:
As far as the dual language program is concerned, I think that's been my biggest concern
when we started talking about the dual language program is where we are going to find
individuals who were both trained to teach Chinese, but also trained in western pedagogy
as far as being a homeroom teacher. And so with our first year of implementation we
opened up the applications to internal applicants first and so I was fortunate enough to
have some Chinese world language teachers who have had homeroom experience as well
as experience working in the dual language program. (personal communication,
November 21, 2017)
The model of immersion at CIS is a 50/50 model, meaning that students spend half of their day
learning in English and half of their day acquiring knowledge in Chinese. This type of program
requires one teacher who is in charge of English instruction, with a second teacher in charge of
teaching in Chinese. The two teachers typically share two cohorts of students and swap at a pre-
determined time during the instructional day. At SIS, the program is 25/75 in kindergarten and
first grade, meaning that students spend a quarter of their day learning in English and the
remaining 75 percent of instruction is in Chinese.
Eastern Coast School District uses a similar 50/50 model of immersion model for
students in the early elementary grades:
Yes, exactly. So, half a day Math and Science, for the most part, is taught in in Spanish
and then the students move to the other teacher, the English teacher, and they do English
Language Arts. It depends each year, each grade, because in some of our curricula the
Social Studies is embedded in the English Language Arts. Other times there is a flow of
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 83
Science and Social Studies time. So, it depends on if it’s grade 1, grade 2. Our program is
grade 1 through 5. (Administrator 6, personal communication, December 1, 2017)
While at SIS, the exposure to languages varies as the program expands English instruction from
a minimum in kindergarten to 50/50 in fourth and fifth grades. It’s 25/75 in kindergarten and first
grade, 40/60 in second and third grades, and 50/50 in fourth and fifth grades.
Table 7
Dual Language Immersion Model at SIS
Grade Level Percentage of English
Instruction
Percentage of Chinese
Instruction
Kindergarten 25 percent 75 percent
Grade 1 25 percent 75 percent
Grade 2 40 percent 60 percent
Grade 3 40 percent 60 percent
Grade 4 50 percent 50 percent
Grade 5 50 percent 50 percent

At CIS, they have been certain of their model of immersion since the inception of the
program. Administrator 7 explained that “part of our thinking around that was really based on
our parent community and knowing that they came and they chose our school for English
instruction as well” (personal communication, November 21, 2017). The one-way 50/50 dual
language immersion programs at CIS and Eastern Coast look similar based on the demographics
of predominantly native English speakers in the classroom. Alternatively, a two-way immersion
classroom would have a near even mix of native English speakers and native speakers of the
target language. These programs typically start with 90 percent instruction in the target language
and 10 percent in English. As students progress through elementary school, they eventually reach
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 84
a 50/50 model in grade five (Administrator 4, personal communication, November 1, 2017).
Such is the case for North Bay and South Bay school districts, which follow programs ranging
from 82 to 90 percent instruction in the target language. Administrator 3 explained that in South
Bay “everything has to be, for the most part, all content areas have to be in Spanish in the early
grades” (personal communication, October 17, 2017). SIS, even though it is a one-way program,
mirrors this platform with its 25/75 model in kindergarten and first grade and gradual push
towards 50/50 only in grades four and five.
School Culture
Since the goal of DLI is to graduate bilingual, biliterate, and bicultural students, the
culture of the school or the school system is inevitably entangled within the DLI program. South
Bay School District has a very particular way of doing business and it is spelled out clearly in
their strategic plan and mission statement. It is called The South Bay Way. Administrator 3
explained what that meant for the school district:
We have this thing, in South Bay that we call The South Bay Way. And it really is an
important aspect, how we do business, how we treat students, what are the supports that
we provide in a classroom setting. So, the benefit of working with teachers from within
this school district, is that they have that. We can give the other part. We can build
background knowledge on dual immersion, and so forth. (personal communication,
October 17, 2017)
Administrator 3 was clear that The South Bay Way impacted school culture across the district, at
school sites, and within individual classrooms. School culture and the strategic plan did not
emerge as a theme during the interviews with the other six schools in this study.

FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 85
Seal of Biliteracy
The Seal of Biliteracy is an award given by a school district in recognition of students
who have studied and attained proficiency in two or more languages by high school graduation
(sealofbiliteracy.org). SIS plans to add a Seal of Biliteracy to its diplomas starting with the
graduating class of 2019. According to Administrator 3, the Seal of Biliteracy is instrumental in
a grow your own type of model for future bilingual teacher candidates. She stated, “Then we also
included our Seal of Biliteracy kids to kind of develop a teacher pathway for them. So, we have
multiple ways to attack this shortage” (personal communication, October 17, 2017). SIS is only
at the very infancy of the Seal of Biliteracy process, and will soon need to determine which
state’s guidelines they will use to assure proficiency levels of its graduates.
Sharing Candidate Information
I was first exposed to the idea of sharing candidate information between school districts
during a presentation at the NABE Dual Language Symposium during a presentation by Dallas
Independent School District. Sharing candidate information across school systems is one of the
headhunting methods that came up during the interview with Administrator 6 from Virginia. This
is a shift in using headhunting as a primary way of attracting new teachers, or using active
recruiting versus passive recruiting. Administrator 6 explained there “really is an unexpectedly
rich resource in this networking between the supervisors” of different school districts (personal
communication, December 1, 2017). Administrator 6 stated:
So, part of my role as the president of the national association of district supervisors of
foreign languages is to connect all the people who have my role across the nation. I’ve
worked closely with [a school district] in Dallas, and when they get candidates that look
interesting in any language, not just in the bilingual context, but German teachers for
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 86
example, she will tell us who they are and I may reach out, and regularly do, and say to
the person, “Hi, I’ve been given your information from Dallas. You are interested and
you are qualified, there’s no position in Dallas, however, if you would consider living in
Virginia, we have opportunities for you." (personal communication, December 1, 2017)
The theme of sharing candidate information between international schools in specific regions
will be explored in chapter five.
Summary
In summary, eight themes emerged as a result of the data collected through document
analysis and interviews. The emerging themes include recruitment practices, characteristics of
teacher candidates, headhunting practices, university partnerships, alternative teacher candidate
pathways, teacher certification, resources, and models of DLI programs. These themes will be
further explored and analyzed in chapter five.

FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 87
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION
The purpose of this qualitative descriptive study was to address the shortage of qualified
bilingual teachers in the American education system by examining the recruitment, training, and
retention practices in school systems with model bilingual programs in order to apply best
practices at American international schools. Next, the qualities and characteristics of bilingual
teachers at SIS were examined in regards to institutional practices related to the recruitment,
training, and retention of bilingual teachers. Finally, these institutional practices were compared
to selected peer international schools and U.S. public school districts with successful bilingual
programs.
The data collected confirmed several of the factors related to training, recruitment, and
retention that were initially included in the conceptual framework and the review of literature.
Other emerging themes appeared as topics that were not initially discussed in the review of
literature or document analysis, but later developed during person-to-person interviews.
Interview data from CIS and the educational consultant provided areas of possible collaboration
on DLI between SIS and other international schools in the region. The details collected from
interviews with US public school districts confirmed that effective recruitment of quality
bilingual teachers is the key to successful DLI programs. In this chapter, the summary of
findings will be discussed according to the themes identified through the data collection process.
The findings will be connected to the literature, and implications for international school systems
and future research will also be presented. Finally, recommendations in the areas of recruitment,
training, and retention specifically tailored for the context of SIS will be explored.
Using elements of the conceptual framework developed by Alfaro (2017) in Figure 1, my
study utilized a conceptual framework with quality bilingual teachers and DLI programs at the
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 88
center (see Figure 3 below). In order to build an effective DLI program at an individual school
site or within a school system, it is essential to first cultivate a team of quality bilingual teachers.
The institutional practices of training, recruitment, and retention emerge as the necessary drivers
of change in this paradigm shift and as the drivers of organizational change in the development
of a successful and effective DLI program. Simply stated, without the institutional practices to
attract and retain quality bilingual educators, a quality DLI program would not exist. Figure 3
shows quality bilingual teachers at the core of the conceptual framework with the institutional
practices of training, recruitment, and retention circulating around the boundary.

Figure 3. Conceptual Framework: Quality Bilingual Teachers.
Within each institutional practice, there are drivers such as professional development and
partnerships, external versus internal recruitment, and incentives/resources. I referred to the
institutional practices of training, recruitment, and retention throughout this study as the principle
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 89
drivers of quality bilingual teachers in DLI programs. In the sections that follow, the summary of
findings will be shared in regards to current practices at SIS as compared to best practices at peer
international schools and U.S. public school districts. The discussion of findings, limitations,
implications for practice, and recommendations for SIS will follow.
Summary of Findings
The findings that emerged from the document analysis and interview data for this study
were organized into eight emerging themes. The emerging themes include recruitment practices,
characteristics of teacher candidates, headhunting practices, university partnerships, alternative
teacher candidate pathways, teacher certification, resources, and models of DLI programs. The
summary of findings will present each of these in sequence.
Recruitment Practices
In order to compete with the changing landscape of DLI, school administrators have
become more creative in their recruitment practices. Interviews with administrators at SIS
provided clear data that when positions are made available, they are first offered to internal
candidates currently employed in other positions at SIS. Interview data for CIS and SIS indicated
that initial interest in both schools comes from teacher’s ideas related to its reputation. This form
of passive recruiting makes it challenging to enact headhunting or active recruitment policies.
Continuing to practice reactive recruitment instead of focusing on proactive recruitment will
mean that SIS very well might miss opportunities to hire and the best DLI teacher candidates in
the future.
The idea of recruiting by reputation and word of mouth emerged as an overall theme in
the interview process with international schools. In the international school community, word of
mouth is a powerful tool, especially during recruitment season. A number of teachers and
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 90
administrators are interviewed and hired for positions in international schools based on word of
mouth, in reference to the school and/or the candidate. This lack of focused, proactive
recruitment will mean that SIS is ignoring a number of venues and recruitment possibilities to
attract quality bilingual teacher candidates for its expanding DLI program. Expanding its
presence nationally over the next several years in the United States is a way for SIS to increase
the number of quality bilingual teacher candidates in its applicant pool. Recruiting at national
conferences is one way to expand their presence with organizations that attract exemplary
teacher candidates, such as ACTFL or NABE. This is an area that should be explored by
administrators at SIS as DLI programs evolve and expand.
Characteristics of Teacher Candidates
The structure of the applicant pool plays a major role in the development of a quality DLI
program. It is clear that there is a need to maintain a better balance of internal versus external
candidates for DLI teaching positions at SIS. Currently, the program is made up of foreign
language teachers who transferred to DLI from positions in the middle school or the elementary
school. This will change in 2018-19 to one internal transfer from the foreign language classroom
and one external candidate with DLI elementary classroom experience, on the strict
recommendation from the educational consultant who works twice a year with SIS. Moving
forward, it seems likely that administrators will follow this formula for a balanced applicant pool
over the next five years as the Chinese DLI program fully expands to fifth grade. This shift in
teacher candidate demographics will bring the hiring practices at SIS closer in line with those of
peer international schools in the region, such as CIS.
Balancing bilingual teacher candidates from within the school system with external
applicants is a theme that emerged in almost every single interview. This topic was of significant
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 91
importance for school systems developing relatively new DLI programs, as was the case with
South Bay School District and Capital International School. In South Bay, the school district
mission supports efforts by school site administrators to expand DLI programs with one internal
teacher candidate who will be familiar with the school district and one external teacher candidate
who will have more practical experience with DLI. The theme of internal versus external
candidates will be explored in the recommendations section.
Headhunting Practices
Although traditionally used in the business world, headhunting has become a trend with
human resource administrators tasked with the job of recruiting qualified bilingual teachers in a
competitive environment. Administrator 5, in response to his consulting work with SIS and other
international schools, explained that it is important for schools to redefine recruiting practices as
they move forward with dual language immersion programs. Sharing candidate information
across school systems is one of the headhunting methods that emerged throughout the interview
with Administrator 6 from Virginia. This is a shift in using headhunting as a primary way of
attracting new teachers, or using active recruiting versus passive recruiting. The theme of
initiating a headhunting mentality for recruitment will be explored in the recommendations
section.
University Partnerships
Universities are often overlooked as recruiting partners, especially by international
schools. In the case of bilingual candidates, university campuses should be one of the first places
a school system looks to develop an educational partnership. Some schools such as CIS are
actively recruiting university partnerships to support their DLI program. Other campuses like SIS
have more than one university partnership, but they are not using those connections to support
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 92
the DLI program. The idea of forming university partnerships will be explored in the
recommendations section.
Alternative Teacher Candidate Pathways
Schools are building their own pipeline by seeking alternative ways to develop, recruit,
and train bilingual teachers. Some school systems, such as North Bay Unified School District,
have developed a Talent Division to hire and retain qualified staff, including supporting
development of pipelines of bilingual educators for dual language programs. Other school
districts are focusing in on their current students and growing their own programs by actively
recruiting graduates with qualifications such as a Seal of Biliteracy on their high school diploma.
South Bay Unified School District is actively recruiting young bilinguals first as tutors and later
as potential bilingual teacher candidates.
Investigating alternative pathways to attract DLI teacher candidates is an area that SIS is
actively exploring. This is crucial as the Chinese DLI expands by two classrooms each year for
the next five years, in addition to secondary pilot programs for Spanish DLI on the horizon. The
theme of examining alternative pathways will be explored in the recommendations section.
Teacher Certification
Teacher certification is an important topic for several reasons. It plays a role in the
employment process in Singapore, as the school must defend their decision to the government in
hiring foreign talent for each position. Additionally, the school prides itself on hiring the most
qualified teachers. Certification in the correct content area is one of the minimum qualifications
for a teaching position at SIS. However, data from interviews suggest that some elementary DLI
classroom positions are not staffed with teachers who possess a multiple subject teaching
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 93
credential for elementary classrooms in addition to a bilingual certification in the target
language.
Teacher certification is crucial to the development of DLI programs because it ensures
that the candidate not only has the content/grade level knowledge, but also holds the language
and cultural skills to manage a DLI classroom. Based on seven person-to-person interviews,
bilingual certification was clearly a concern only for administrators at U.S. public schools. This
is a problem for SIS that should continue to be addressed. The school is hiring foreign language
teachers to work in elementary DLI programs. In order to effectively expand a quality DLI
program, the theme of teacher certification will be explored in the recommendations section.
Resources
Resources are a crucial component to any DLI or bilingual program. In fact, when
bilingual education was first introduced in the United States, teachers felt the pressure to create
their own materials by hand when resources in the target language were not readily available.
This is still the case today for some DLI teachers, even though the market for DLI resources has
expanded exponentially over the last few decades. Classroom teachers in the kindergarten
program at SIS indicated that they translate (by hand) every single piece of material from the
mainstream English kindergarten curriculum – forms, assessments, exit slips, and reflections.
The question of the use of teacher preparation time to create materials by hand will be an area
explored in the recommendations section.
It is important for bilingual teachers to feel supported on the job through multiple support
structures. Administrator 3 from South Bay School District explained that these multiple layers
of support come in many different formats – professional development, compensation, classroom
resources, and support staff. Many of the schools that were interviewed as part of this study
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 94
employed a Teacher on Special Assignment (TOSA) to provide strategic support for bilingual
teachers. The idea of developing TOSAs will be explored in the recommendations section.
Models of Dual Language Immersion Programs
DLI models, or the percentage of time spent each day in English and the target language,
vary greatly from one school system to another. A key difference between SIS and CIS is the
model of dual language immersion, and perhaps a contributing factor to the success of a DLI
program. Interview data confirmed that parents at CIS strongly prefer and advocated for a 50/50
model, something that has been debated in the program model at SIS. Parents might be more
supportive of the DLI program at SIS if it followed a similar 50/50 model K-5. Additionally, if
school systems were to use similar models, resources and PD would be easier to allocate. This
theme will be explored further in the recommendations section.
Discussion of Findings
One of the key potential organizational barriers for sustaining a DLI program at SIS is the
recruitment of highly qualified bilingual teachers in both Chinese and Spanish. For the
elementary Chinese DLI program, administrators will be hiring two DLI teacher candidates each
year for the next four years, until the first cohort of DLI students arrives in grade five. The
question of secondary DLI opportunities for students exiting the elementary Chinese DLI
program will need to be addressed in 2023 and beyond. In addition, in order to address the future
needs of students enrolled in the grade eight Spanish DLI pilot during the 2018-2019 school
year, this cohort of students will need to be provided a similar experience in grade nine. While
there is currently sufficient bilingual staffing for this shift in high school social studies,
additional teachers with the proper qualifications will need to be hired as the program expands.
Also, if SIS seeks to expand the Spanish DLI program to grades six and seven, new staffing will
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 95
need to be considered in appropriate subject areas. Thus, there is a pressing need at SIS to recruit
quality bilingual teachers, and that need will remain high for years to come.
The review of literature for this study confirms that the majority of the published research
on the topic of bilingual education and DLI focuses on programs serving ELLs in public school
settings (Faltis & Hudelson, 1998; Goldenberg & Wagner, 2015; Ovando, 2003). Throughout the
Permissive Period, the Restrictive Period, the Opportunist Period, and the Dismissive Period,
American bilingual education developed at the expense of changes in sociopolitical ideology,
instead of advancements in pedagogy (Faltis & Hudelson, 1998; Ovando, 1990; Ovando, 2003).
Applying the knowledge gained from public school settings during the Opportunist and
Dismissive Period to the context of international schools will help SIS move forward with its
own DLI program (Ovando, 2003). DLI classrooms at SIS and peer international schools will
ultimately look dramatically different than dual language/two-way immersion in U.S. public
schools (LAUSD, 2017). Therefore, the stigma of bilingual education attached to immigrant
children does not exist as much in international school settings, allowing programs to be
developed with greater autonomy and increased resources. DLI programs in international schools
might be free of the political rhetoric that has plagued the development of bilingual education in
the United States. However, the institutional practices of training, recruitment, and retention will
mirror that of U.S. public school districts.
American school districts have struggled for decades to fill bilingual teacher vacancies
with qualified candidates because shortages are more concentrated in bilingual education
compared to other fields (Mitchell, 2016; Sakash & Chou, 2007). As teacher shortages in general
fields began to develop during the 1980s (Boe, 1990), bilingual educator shortages became even
more impacted because bilingual certification includes demanding requirements for language and
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 96
cultural knowledge, in addition to the standard licensing in content knowledge that all teachers
must pass as well. Building a DLI program requires long-term and strategic planning. According
to the literature, the security and stability of a program impacts overall teacher retention and is
the main challenge of any teacher shortage (Gonzalez, 1999).
Darling-Hammond (2000) argues that investments in teacher knowledge are among the
most productive means to increase student achievement. Specific to teacher training, one
suggestion is to establish rigorous standards for teacher education and licensing that are linked to
student standards (Darling-Hammond, 2000). However, challenges exist in the area of training.
For one, the number of newly certified bilingual authorized teachers dropped to less than 900, a
decline of 35 percent between 2009-10 and 2012-13 (CTC, 2015). The literature shows that
retention is one of the most important, if not the most important, factors in solving the teacher
shortage. Because bilingual education is such a demanding field, requiring daily preparation that
is time consuming and cognitively challenging, the retention rate of bilingual teachers is even
more perplexing.
The reality with any bilingual/DLI program is that there is a shortage of teachers. There
are a number of factors that contribute to this teaching shortage in American public schools,
notably due to the limited number of graduates completing bilingual teaching authorizations
(White, 2017). The number of vacancies in DLI/bilingual classrooms cannot keep up with the
number of graduates from teacher credentialing programs. In the case of overseas schools, DLI
programs are a relative novelty. Administrators have not been trained in the nuances of bilingual
education in order to actively recruit the best candidates for the job. In the case of SIS, a team of
single subject foreign language teachers was hired to develop the elementary DLI program
during its first year. At CIS, administrators appear to have a better idea of the types of candidates
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 97
needed to fill a DLI vacancy with a successful candidate. The ability to attract quality bilingual
teacher candidates will continue to be an area of growth for SIS as the DLI program expands at
the elementary and secondary levels.
Additionally, the development of teacher candidates will bring recruitment efforts closer
to the requirements outlined by the California Commission on Teacher Credentialing for DLI
programs. In California, a teacher in a DLI elementary classroom would be required to
demonstrate proficiency in the target language of instruction with a bilingual authorization, in
addition to a multiple subject teaching credential (CTC, 2017). A candidate with a qualifying
teaching license for a foreign language classroom would not be able to secure a position in a DLI
classroom, just like a teacher with a secondary credential would not be hired to teach in an
elementary classroom. As SIS adds two DLI teachers to the program over the next five years, it
might consider the licensing requirements for bilingual teachers in different states throughout the
U.S. This will ensure that students are receiving dual language instruction from quality bilingual
teachers in all DLI classrooms at SIS.
Today, DLI programs face challenges and setbacks due to a shortage in the applicant pool
of quality bilingual teachers. Although bilingual education was restricted in the past by a number
of state ballot measures due to anti-immigrant sentiments, the recent passage of Proposition 58 in
California gives DLI educators hope for much needed educational reform. For international
schools, this makes the job of recruiting for new and expanding DLI programs even more
challenging. As the need for qualified bilingual educators continues to grow, the institutional
practices of training, retention, and recruitment are key factors in the success of DLI programs.
The literature asserts that training should start earlier in university programs to avoid further
drops in bilingual candidates (Mitchell, 2016). It is clear from the literature that the efforts of a
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 98
school system around retention should focus on classroom support from administration, parents,
and co-workers (Cuellar and Colina, 2014). In order to fill the demand created by the bilingual
teacher shortage, Garrison (2006) argues that a viable solution is to train and hire from within.
These themes, originally identified in the review of literature, will be explored in the
recommendations section together with themes discovered through data collection.
Limitations of the Study
This qualitative descriptive study was a single snapshot examining the phenomenon of
the shortage of bilingual teachers in the American education system. It was not replicated in
multiple institutions of learning and consisted of seven interviews across six school systems. The
document analysis considered 13 school systems within the context of K-12 American public
school districts and international school campuses overseas. Therefore, it is not plausible to draw
conclusions for other school systems or to make generalizations based on the findings of this
study.
Limitations for this study were directly connected to the availability of model programs
and access to administrators at those particular school sites. As the study was based in Singapore,
school sites with model DLI programs in the region were given preference. School sites in
regions known for exemplary DLI programs, such as Florida and California, were considered
based on the practicality of the location. Researcher bias was another challenge for this study
because of my role as a PLC leader and my involvement with the planning for a future Spanish
DLI pilot program to be launched in the middle school in the fall of 2018. The DLI pilot has
been the principal driver behind this study and throughout much of my coursework in the USC
doctoral program. It is in my best interest to see SIS be successful with its DLI programs at the
elementary and secondary levels, and therefore I am heavily invested in this process.
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 99
Implications for Practice
The findings from this study bring about a variety of curricular, human resource,
personnel, professional learning, and program design model implications. The human resource
and personnel implications of this study are complex. This connects back to the literature and
confirms that the main challenge of a quality DLI program is staffing. This goes beyond the
hiring process and is deeply connected to training, recruitment, and retention. In order for each
elementary and secondary DLI cohort to become bilingual, biliterate, and bicultural, they will
need to be offered a similar program at the next grade level. Additional bilingual teachers with
the proper qualifications will need to be hired as the DLI program expands. If SIS seeks to
expand the Spanish DLI program to grades six and seven, new staffing will need to be
considered in appropriate subject areas. Finally, the question of secondary DLI opportunities for
students exiting the elementary Chinese DLI program will need to be addressed in 2023. This
will bring about a dramatic shift in hiring practices to fill these positions at the secondary level.
The results and implications of this study lead to a variety of recommendations that could
play a role in improving the structure of DLI programs at SIS and peer international schools.
There are a total of nine recommendations as a result of this qualitative descriptive study. The
recommendations include balancing internal versus external candidates, initiating a headhunting
mentality for recruitment, expanding bilingual certifications, considering a 50/50 DLI program
model, exploring alternative candidate pathways, recruiting at national conferences,
collaborating with peer international schools, developing TOSAs, and forming university
partnerships. Each recommendation will be explained in detail below.

FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 100
Balancing Internal Versus External Candidates
SIS should seek to find a balance with their internal transfers as compared to their
external teacher candidates, similar to best practices identified by South Bay School District. As
the DLI program expands over the next five years in the elementary division, internal transfers of
foreign language teachers should not be given priority in the recruitment process. Instead, a focus
should be placed on attracting external candidates with relevant DLI experience. The team
dynamics in kindergarten (both internal transfers) as compared to the first grade team (a balance
of one internal and one external candidate) should be studied for further research.
Initiating a Headhunting Mentality for Recruitment
In order to shift recruitment practices from passive to active, a headhunting mentality is
necessary. Using active instead of passive recruitment means that SIS should not turn to the
school website as its primary recruitment tool. Furthermore, it should not rely on reputation or
word of mouth to fill vacancies for high profile positions such as DLI teachers. There are a
number of untapped resources in the DLI world. In the state of California, the most ethnically
and linguistically diverse state in the nation, there are 7,000 bilingual teachers in English Only
classrooms (Alfaro, 2017). This population is ripe for picking. A headhunting mentality would
use a company like Carney Sandoe and Associates to locate exemplary DLI candidates who are
willing to relocate from California to Singapore in order to teach on an overseas contract.
Another suggestion developed from interviews with Eastern Coast and the educational
consultant is to hire quality DLI teachers one year ahead of time and place them in a mainstream
elementary classroom. This would give the new teacher a chance to adapt to the culture of SIS
and work with an elementary school PLC. According to the experts included in this study, it also
gives them legitimacy as an active member of the PLC before transitioning to a DLI classroom.
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 101
As the DLI program expands by one grade level each year, this teacher would then shift into the
role of DLI teacher for the next cohort of students. In other words, the grade level would be
staffed one year ahead of arrival of the DLI program. This would give the teacher the practical
experience of the grade level before the DLI cohort arrives. According to the interviews with the
external educational consultant, many top schools with successful DLI programs use this practice
to onboard new hires and build the reputation of DLI. SIS has already started to implement this
system by placing the new hire for grade two in a mainstream classroom during the 2018-19
school year. She will shift to a DLI classroom the following year as the first cohort of emergent
bilingual students enter grade two.
Expanding Bilingual Certifications
Bilingual teacher certification should be expanded to make sure that quality bilingual
teachers with elementary DLI experience are hired as the program expands over the next five
years. Certification should go well beyond the basic Singapore government Ministry of
Manpower requirements for employment passes. Currently, some bilingual teachers at SIS are
not necessarily trained bilingual teachers. They would not be able to work in a DLI program in
most states in the U.S. given their teaching credentials. They are foreign language teachers who
have transitioned to positions at SIS in a DLI classroom. However, it is possible in the future to
use a headhunting recruitment model in order to attract candidates who are bilingual, possess
elementary classroom experience, and are familiar with DLI. Collaborating with school systems
like CIS would allow SIS to learn how they were able to attract candidates that meet these
qualifications.

FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 102
Considering a 50/50 DLI Program Model
Looking at best practices for peer international schools in the region, such as CIS, a 50/50
DLI program model should be considered for all elementary grades K-5. This was heavily
debated by the parent community in Beijing, which led CIS to invest in two highly qualified
elementary classroom teachers for each bilingual cohort of students. The current model at SIS
allows for English instruction when children go to physical education, art, and music. In the
kindergarten program, the perceptual motor skills teacher is in charge of instruction for
English/language arts program. As the DLI program expands at SIS, the current model should be
examined and compared to best practices at international schools in the region with similar
student and parent demographics.
Alternative Pathways: Creating a Pipeline of DLI Teachers
DLI schools are building their own pipeline by seeking alternative ways to develop,
recruit, and train bilingual teachers. Garrison (2006) explains that a viable solution to the teacher
shortage is to train and hire from within. It is clear from the interviews with South Bay and North
Bay School Districts that grow-your-own-programs to expand the DLI applicant pool are on the
rise. Document analysis confirmed that similar programs have existed in LAUSD since the early
days of bilingual education in the 1980s (LAUSD, 2018). Additionally, interviews at SIS
indicated that this idea has already emerged as part of discussions around the idea of developing
assistant teachers in Chinese DLI classrooms. The assistant teachers would eventually take on
the role of DLI teacher after shadowing a classroom for a year or two, possibly in conjunction
with a university teacher preparation program.
Another area of focus in growing a pipeline is by actively recruiting graduates with
qualifications such as a Seal of Biliteracy on their high school diploma. The Seal of Biliteracy is
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 103
an award given by a school district in recognition of students who have studied and attained
proficiency in two or more languages by high school graduation (sealofbiliteracy.org).
According to South Bay School District, the Seal of Biliteracy is instrumental in creating a
pipeline for future bilingual teacher candidates (Administrator 3, personal communication,
October 17, 2017). As SIS begins to graduate students in 2019 with a Seal of Biliteracy, it is
effectively creating a database of potential bilingual teacher candidates. Similar to South Bay
School District, SIS could develop a database through the Alumni Office to track college majors
and possible career paths of students graduating with a Seal of Biliteracy.
Recruiting at National Conferences
Recruiting at national conferences is one way for SIS to expand its presence with
organizations that attract exemplary bilingual teacher candidates, such as ACTFL or NABE. The
ACTFL national conference takes place in November, right in the middle of the recruitment
season for international schools (ACTFL, 2017). This is an advantage for institutions like SIS
and CIS because school systems in the United States are not recruiting that early in the school
year. The best and brightest DLI teachers descend on the ACTFL national conference in
November and a variety of organizations set up booths and displays. However, few schools are
in the position to interview and offer jobs to bilingual teacher candidates in November. That is
where SIS has an advantage for the next five years as they recruit for two DLI teacher positions
each year. SIS should send a pair of administrators to the ACTFL 2018 Annual Convention and
World Languages Expo in New Orleans during November 16-18 to make a presentation on the
school and interview potential bilingual candidates. Hosting a session to screen the film that was
a result of the research and development journey at SIS is one option to spread the word about
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 104
the innovations taking place on campus. Finally, investigating potential partnerships with
universities is another possibility as part of an administrative recruitment trip to ACTFL.
Collaborating with Peer International Schools
Forming alliances with peer international schools in the region would support the
development of classroom materials, teacher training, professional learning, and retention. As
documented in my interview, the administration at CIS is excited to collaborate with SIS to share
best practices in the field, recruiting and training strategies, and even gathering DLI teachers
yearly to learn from one another. This is an opportunity for SIS to learn from a leading and
innovative school in the field of DLI with comparable student and parent demographics. Similar
to school districts in the U.S. such as Eastern Coast, sharing candidate profiles across school
systems makes sense. This is one additional area that SIS could collaborate with CIS on in order
to improve the DLI programs at both campuses.
Developing TOSAs
One of the last recommendations is to develop the current model of TOSAs at SIS to
support the expansion of the DLI program over the next five years. A consistent system of
curriculum and materials development that is ongoing and managed by a TOSA is best for
teachers as that allows them to focus on teaching and assessment, instead of constantly creating
materials throughout the year. Currently, the TOSAs assigned to support the DLI classrooms in
the elementary school do not speak Chinese. As the program expands, one TOSA position should
be filled with a Chinese speaker who is able to work closely with the DLI teachers as the
program develops. As DLI classrooms are added, a foreign language teacher who might fit this
role better than an actual teaching position in the DLI program could transfer to this position.
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 105
This shift would allow the current Director of World Language to focus on the development of
all language programs K-12.
Forming University Partnerships
As a final recommendation, university partnerships could help attract some of the best
and brightest DLI teacher candidates in the field. SIS has an established partnership with the
Rossier School of Education at USC through its on campus Ed.D. program. The Rossier School
of Education has developed an “innovative new dual master’s degree program to help address the
growing demand for bilingual education teachers in Chinese, Korean, and other languages”
(Brenneman, 2017, p. 1). A partnership with this new program at USC would create a number of
high quality bilingual Chinese teacher candidates with practical classroom experience in Taipei
and Los Angeles. It’s possible for SIS to collaborate with CIS and other school systems in the
region in order to support university partnerships focused on training and recruitment.
Additionally, a partnership with a university would provide cutting edge PD, an area worth
exploring in order to focus additional efforts on retention.
Summary and Conclusion
The dual language initiatives at international schools aim to graduate students who are
biliterate, bicultural, and bilingual. To reach this goal, school systems will need to reevaluate
their priorities related to the institutional practices of teacher training, recruitment, and retention.
At SIS, recommendations include balancing internal versus external candidates, initiating a
headhunting mentality for recruitment, expanding bilingual certifications, considering a 50/50
DLI program model, exploring alternative candidate pathways, recruiting at national
conferences, collaborating with peer international schools, developing TOSAs, and forming
university partnerships. SIS must make a dramatic shift related to its institutional practices in
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 106
order to fulfill its mission to provide “each student an exemplary American educational
experience with an international perspective” (SIS website). In the 21st century, an international
perspective requires global citizens to not only be bilingual, but also biliterate and bicultural. The
pathway to biliteracy, biculturalism, and bilingualism lies within a successful dual language
immersion program with quality bilingual teachers at its core.

FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 107
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FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 114
Appendix A
Interview Protocol for School/District Administrators
Thank you for agreeing to participate in my study about the factors related to the training,
recruitment, and retention of quality bilingual teachers. This interview should last about 30 to 45
minutes. Keeping in mind that we are focusing on bilingual education, the questions are designed
to focus on the recruitment of bilingual professionals. The purpose of this research study is to
examine the phenomenon of the shortage of bilingual teachers in the American education system.
In order for me to capture exactly what you say in this interview, I would like to record our
conversation. Is that okay with you? Perfect. Let me test my recording device and then we will
get started. Please note that our conversation will remain confidential, and pseudonyms will be
used to analyze the data.
Transition: Let’s start with some background information before moving straight into the
questions.
Demographic 1: What is your position and the name of your school site and/or school district?
Demographic 2: Would you describe your job duties on a daily basis?
Research Question
What are the current practices for the recruitment and retention of bilingual teachers at SIS, as
compared to those practices at other peer international schools and American public school
districts?
Question 1: Would you please describe the recruitment process for teachers at your school site
or school district? How does that process differ for bilingual candidates? Probe.
Question 1A: What’s the percentage of your teachers that are fully certified (North American
teaching credentials) when hired? Is that statistic different for bilingual teachers?
Questions 1B: Do you use hiring fairs such as ISS or Search? Why or why not?
FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 115
Research Question
What best practices exist at peer international schools and American public school districts for
the training, recruitment, and retention of bilingual candidates in order to nurture quality
bilingual teachers?
Question 2: How would you describe the programs or incentives that exist to train or provide
professional development to bilingual teachers? Probe.
Question 2A: How would you describe the recruitment techniques used by your school
site/school district? Probe.
Question 2B: Can you tell me about the programs in place at your school site/district to retain
quality bilingual teachers? Probe.
Question 3: Is there anything else you would like to share with me? Is there anything else that I
could/should ask about this topic?

FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 116
Appendix B
Interview Protocol for Educational Consultants
Thank you for agreeing to participate in my study about the factors related to the training,
recruitment, and retention of quality bilingual teachers. This interview should last about 30 to 45
minutes. Keeping in mind that we are focusing on bilingual education, the questions are designed
to focus on the recruitment of bilingual professionals. The purpose of this research study is to
examine the phenomenon of the shortage of bilingual teachers in the American education system.
In order for me to capture exactly what you say in this interview, I would like to record our
conversation. Is that okay with you? Perfect. Let me test my recording device and then we will
get started. Please note that our conversation will remain confidential, and pseudonyms will be
used to analyze the data.
Transition: Let’s start with some background information before moving straight into the
questions.
Demographic 1: What is your position and the name of your employer?
Demographic 2: Would you describe your typical job duties on a daily basis?
Research Question
What are the current practices for the recruitment and retention of bilingual teachers at SIS, as
compared to those practices at other peer international schools and American public school
districts?
Question 1: Given your work with so many schools throughout the world, would you be able to
recall any schools with an exceptional recruitment process for teachers, in particular bilingual
teachers?

FACTORS RELATED TO TRAINING, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION 117
Research Question
What best practices exist at peer international schools and American public school districts for
the training, recruitment, and retention of bilingual candidates in order to nurture quality
bilingual teachers?
Question 2: What particular programs or incentives exist at schools you visit to train or provide
professional development to bilingual teachers? Probe.
Question 2A: How would you describe the recruitment techniques used at public US school
districts versus independent schools? And how does that process differ for international schools?
Question 2B: Can you tell me about any programs in place at school sites to retain quality
bilingual teachers? Probe.
Question 3: Are there any experts in this field that you think I should reach out to? Perhaps at
the International School of Beijing or schools in Hong Kong?
Question 4: Is there anything else you would like to share with me? Is there anything else that I
could/should ask you about this topic?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Today, more than ever, 21st century learners need access to multilingual instruction and the opportunity to understand diverse perspectives and cultures (Goldenberg & Wagner, 2015). As the need for bilingual and dual language immersion classrooms continues to grow, the characteristics of quality bilingual teachers have emerged as the key to an effective program (Alfaro, 2017

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Asset Metadata

Creator Oskins, Scott Andrew (author)

Core Title Factors related to the training, recruitment, and retention of quality bilingual teachers in dual language immersion programs in international schools

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 07/25/2018

Defense Date 05/09/2018

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag bilingual education,dual language immersion,OAI-PMH Harvest,recruitment,retention,Training

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Castruita, Rudy (committee chair), Chung, Ruth (committee chair), Picus, Lawrence (committee chair)

Creator Email oskins@usc.edu,soskins@sas.edu.sg

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-24757

Unique identifier UC11672143

Identifier etd-OskinsScot-6464.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-24757 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-OskinsScot-6464.pdf

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Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Oskins, Scott Andrew

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