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Do no harm: an evaluation study of providing culturally competent services to African American women who are victims of domestic violence
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Content
Running head: DO NO HARM 1
DO NO HARM: AN EVALUATION STUDY OF PROVIDING CULTURALLY
COMPETENT SERVICES TO AFRICAN AMERICAN WOMEN WHO ARE VICTIMS OF
DOMESTIC VIOLENCE
by
Angela Nicole Parker
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2018
Copyright 2018 Angela Nicole Parker
DO NO HARM 2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I dedicate this work to my mother Elena Parker, and my father, Allen Parker. I am so
grateful for all the support that you have given me throughout the years. Your love and guidance
has made me the woman that I am today. I love you both very much!
To two beautiful nieces Sofia and Isabel and my wonderful nephew Richard. Thank you
for allowing your Auntie to disappear during this process. You were all with me in spirit. To my
brother Richard and sister-in-law Adriana, thank you for being there when I needed you during
the process.
To Karen Earl, Pamela Thomas, Alyson Messenger, Michelle Hudson, Donna Derden,
Genny Ewing, Alice Brown, Debra Ward, Yasmin Tarver ---- my Jenesse family. Thank you for
your guidance, support, encouragement, and most importantly your friendship through this
process.
To all of my friends, especially Yazmin O’Quinn, Pamela Moore, and Christina Lewis,
thank you for being there when I needed you. Thank you for the times that you allowed me to
vent my frustrations about this project and for being there during those times when working on
this dissertation was the last thing I wanted to do. I cherish our friendship.
Lastly, I would like to thank members of the dissertation committee, primarily Dr.
Melora Sundt. Your guidance on this project was irreplaceable. To Dr. Priscilla Ocen, your
suggestions were invaluable and made for a richer, more impactful study. To Dr. Jody Armour,
your passion was infectious! Thank you for joining me on this journey. I couldn’t have
completed this project without the support of all three of you. I truly appreciate you.
DO NO HARM 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements 2
List of Tables 5
List of Figures 6
Abstract 8
Chapter One: Introduction 9
Introduction of the Problem of Practice 9
Background of the Problem 10
Related Literature 11
Culturally Competent Services 13
Unequal Freedom 16
Ain’t I a Woman? 18
Fear of Law Enforcement 21
Fear of Homelessness 23
Mental and Physical Health Issues 25
Post-Traumatic Stress Syndrome 26
Importance of an Evaluation Study 26
Organization Context and Mission 27
Organizational Performance Goal and Current Performance 29
Description of the Stakeholders 30
Staff Members 30
Clients 30
Donors 31
Stakeholder Group for Study 31
Purpose of the Project and Questions 32
Methodological Framework 33
Definitions 33
Organization of the Dissertation 34
Chapter Two: Literature Review 35
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences 35
Knowledge and Skills 35
Motivation Influences 44
Organizational Influences 48
Chapter Three: Methodology 55
Conceptual and Methodological Framework 55
Assessment of Performance Influences 60
Knowledge Assessment 60
Motivation Assessment 61
Organization/Culture/Context Assessment 61
Participating Stakeholders 67
Data Collection 68
Survey Sample Selection 68
Interviews 69
Documents and Artifacts 70
Credibility and Trustworthiness 72
Validity and Reliability 74
DO NO HARM 4
Ethics 76
Summary 77
Chapter Four: Results and Findings 78
Research Questions 78
Summary of Data Collection Strategies 79
Validation Criteria 80
Participating Stakeholders 80
Results and Findings: Assets and Barriers in Providing Culturally Competent Services 84
Knowledge Results and Findings 85
Motivational Results and Key Findings 101
Organization Results and Findings 107
Summary and Implications 117
Summary of Results for Research Question 1 119
Summary of Results for Research Question 2 120
Chapter Five: Solutions, Integrated Implementation and Evaluation 125
Recommendations for Practice to Address Influences 125
Factual Knowledge Solutions or Description of Needs or Assets 130
Procedural Knowledge Solutions, or Description of Needs or Assets 131
Metacognitive Knowledge Solutions or Description of Needs or Assets 132
Motivation Recommendations 133
Organization Recommendations 138
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Framework and Plan 144
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations 145
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators 145
Level 3: Behavior 146
Level 2: Learning 149
Level 1: Reaction 152
Summary 156
Limitations and Delimitations of the Study 156
Recommendations for Future Study 158
Conclusion 159
References 161
Appendix A: Survey Items 178
Appendix B: Interview Protocol 184
Appendix C: Informed Consent/Information Sheet 188
Appendix D: Recruitment Letter 190
DO NO HARM 5
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: African American Women Find Peace at The Community Haven 28
Table 2: Organizational Mission and Performance Goals 32
Table 3: Knowledge Factors 43
Table 4: Motivation Factors 48
Table 5: Organizational Factors 54
Table 6: Assumed Knowledge Influences 62
Table 7: Respondents’ Demographics 81
Table 8: Assumed Knowledge Causes and Validations 100
Table 9: Assumed Motivation Causes and Results 107
Table 10: Assumed Organizational Causes and Results 116
Table 11: Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 127
Table 12: Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations 134
Table 13: Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations 140
Table 14: Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes 145
Table 15: Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Staff members 147
Table 16: Required Drivers to Support New Reviewers’ Critical Behaviors 148
Table 17: Components of Learning for the Program. 151
Table 18: Components to Measure Reactions to the Program 153
Table 19: Possible Key Performance Indicators for Internal Reporting and Accountability 155
DO NO HARM 6
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Client service model: The Community Haven 2011information sheet 29
Figure 2: Conceptual framework representing the importance of providing culturally competent
services: Implications for African American women who are victims of DV. 58
Figure 3: Primary goal of The Community Haven (N=29) 88
Figure 4: Importance of cultural sensitivity in respondent’s work (N=29) 91
Figure 5: Respondent’s level of confidence that clients can use the services received at The
Community Haven to secure permanent employment (N=28). 93
Figure 6: Respondent’s Level of Confidence That Clients Can Use the Services Received at The
Community Haven to Secure Permanent Housing (N=28). 93
Figure 7: Respondent’s level of confidence that clients have developed a better understanding of
the legal system during their time at The Community Haven (N=28). 94
Figure 8: Respondent’s level of confidence that clients will seek mental health services during
their time at The Community Haven (N=28). 94
Figure 9: Importance of client access to mental health services (N=28). 95
Figure 10: Level of comfort respondents have in meeting their performance goals (N=28) 96
Figure 11: Likelihood of a client seeking services at The Community Haven returning to abuser
(N=30) 99
Figure 12: Role that ethnic make-up of The Community Haven staff plays in client success
(N=29) 99
Figure 13: Frequency respondents meet with clients to discuss case plans. 103
Figure 14: Respondent’s level of satisfaction with their relationship with their clients (N=29) 104
Figure 15: Likelihood of a client seeking services at The Community Haven returning to abuser
(N=30) 105
Figure 16: Level of confidence respondents have in acquiring any resources they need to do their
job (N=28) 109
Figure 17: Frequency The Haven provides trainings in areas that respondents need improvement
(N=28) 110
Figure 18: Level of comfort respondents have in meeting their performance goals (N=28) 113
Figure 19: Findings by research questions. 118
DO NO HARM 7
Figure 20: Example of The Community Haven dashboard representation. 155
DO NO HARM 8
ABSTRACT
This study used a mixed method analysis to examine the importance of providing culturally
competent services to African American women who are victims of domestic violence. Despite a
large body of work that addresses the various types’ of domestic violence, and the results the
abuse has on victims, few studies focus on African American women and the historical, social
and economic norms that make their experiences different from their Anglo American
counterparts. The study interviewed six staff members in leadership positions, and surveyed 40
staff members from all departments, who work at a domestic violence intervention program that
services a predominantly African American female population. The results from the study
revealed that staff members who work with this population believe that offering cultural
competent services increases their clients’ likelihood of program success.
DO NO HARM 9
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
“I had lots of held in resentments and feelings that I shut down and never expressed. I
feel good about getting it out. It’s good for me to remember where I came from”
~ African American Domestic Violence Survivor at The Community Haven
Introduction of the Problem of Practice
Domestic violence (DV) impacts one in every three women in the United States (Black et
al., 2011). Both men and women can be victims of DV, though women make up 86% of reported
victims (Black et al., 2011). While DV has devastating long-term effects on both heterosexual
and lesbian women of all ethnic and racial backgrounds, African American women are the
victims of one-third of domestic homicides in the United States each year. Furthermore, African
Americans have a DV homicide rate four times higher than that of their Anglo counterparts
(Hampton, Oliver, & Magarian, 2003). Since mainstream America tends to see African
American women as living in a culture that is violent and strange, the plight of these women is
often ignored (Sokoloff, 2008). So, as Hampton et al. (2003) point out, these women are not only
victimized by the partners they love, but also by an indifferent society that often fails to provide
them the intervention services needed to break free of the abuse.
Hill Collins (1998) stated that “African American women’s subordinate status within the
multiple social hierarchies minimizes their access to legitimation power over violence” (p. 930)
As a result, they often find themselves unable to access the very services that they need to
survive, particularly when it comes to DV intervention. Crenshaw (1994) discussed how the
ability to access intervention services is essential for DV victims to move from crisis to stability.
However, she pointed out that traditional DV advocates are often ill-equipped to assist African
American women whose norms, values and experiences often differ from their own. Bent-
Goodley (2001) found that these women often cite a lack of culturally competent services as a
DO NO HARM 10
major barrier to accessing assistance because traditional service models make them feel
disempowered in their own intervention process. As a result, researchers have suggested that DV
service providers prioritize providing culturally sensitive programs and services if they are to
become viable and effective options for African American women DV survivors (Bent-Goodley,
2001; Crenshaw, 1994). The purpose of this study was to evaluate the way the staff at a
nationally recognized DV intervention program provides services to African American female
clients. This chapter presents at the background of the problem, related literature, the importance
of the evaluation, the organizational context and mission of the organization, description of the
stakeholders, the methodology framework, the purpose of the project and pertinent definitions.
Background of the Problem
African American women experience DV at a rate that is disproportionately higher than
their Anglo-American counterparts (Bent-Goodley, 2001; Hampton et al., 2003; Nicolaidis et al.,
2010). However, research shows that African American women who are victims of DV tend to
shy away from seeking assistance from social service providers they have grown to distrust
(Health Indicators for Women in Los Angeles County, 2017; Sokoloff & Dupont, 2005; Sullivan
& Rumptz, 1994). Statistics show that it typically takes women seven attempts before she finally
leaves her abuser, and, when she does leave, a strong shelter support system can be key to her
ultimately not returning (Sokoloff, 2008). Bradley, Schwartz, and Kaslow (2005) stated that
traditional DV intervention programs can be frustrating for African American women because,
as Crenshaw (1994) pointed out, these programs tend to be rooted in middle-class Anglo-
American values. While there is not a robust body of literature on the topic, researchers tend to
agree that much of the tension between African American women and DV service providers
stems from the economic and racial disparities that lead to these women needing more time and
DO NO HARM 11
assistance getting back on their feet than most shelters can provide (Bradley et al., 2005;
Crenshaw, 1994; Kasturirangan, Krishnan, & Riger, 2004). Thus, as these women struggle to
conform to a system that cannot fit their needs, they become frustrated and begin to feel
misunderstood and unwanted (Kasturirangan et al., 2004). As a result, researchers argued that
African American women need to feel as if they can connect with their service providers, or they
will not seek or accept intervention services (Bent-Goodley, 2001).
Related Literature
Crenshaw (1994) discussed how Anglo-American women have long been the face of the
DV movement and have historically excluded issues important to women of color from their
agenda. In the past two decades, mainstream feminist movements have attempted to rectify this
and become more inclusive; however, women of color often found themselves in what they
viewed as marginal roles and push back against their perceived tokenism created anger and
mistrust among women in a movement that was supposed to transcend race and class
(Ruttenberg, 1994). Consequently, Black feminists have argued that traditional DV intervention
models have failed to take in to account the unique cultural, historical, social and economic
realities of African American women (Bradley et al., 2005; Crenshaw, 1994; Ruttenberg, 1994).
As a consequence, intersectionality allows for discourse on DV that both gives African American
women a voice and connects their struggle to the larger social structure of their reality (Sokoloff,
2008). This cultural lens is increasingly seen in DV literature. Kasturirangan et al. (2004) discuss
how DV poses a threat to African American communities and families, yet many women are
reluctant to seek intervention services due to what they perceive is a lack of sensitivity about
their cultural norms and an inability to understand their basic educational, economic and mental
health needs. Bradley et al. (2005) expounded on this as they pointed out that 61% of direct DV
DO NO HARM 12
service providers in the United States are Anglo-American women who often have only had
surface contact with African American women and have a limited understanding of the societal
oppression these women face. With very little personal experience to go on, these Anglo-
American service providers unintentionally treat their African American female clients based on
cultural stereotypes that portray them as violent in nature and more tolerant of violence. Glenn
(2004) expounded on this idea that African American women have been so marginalized, so
misunderstood, and so misrepresented by the dominant culture that it colors how they are treated
in every aspect of society. Indeed, Anglo-American service providers often label these women’s
reality as abnormal or problematic, creating a dual barrier to services as shelters are sometimes
reluctant to serve a population they fear (Glenn, 2004). A program advocate who worked with
DV intervention programs explained it like this:
We know that a lot of DV shelters have these unwritten rules. They won’t take women
who don’t have this or that. They won’t take women who don’t have an education or
cannot work, and, you know, that leaves out some women.
So, while the literature does show that African American women tend to need more resources
than their Anglo-American counterparts, researchers also argue that it is the treatment of these
needs as a burden rather than an outgrowth of hundreds of years of abuse, neglect and poverty
that unfairly colors the way they receive services.
Consequently, this study sought to evaluate how DV service providers serve their African
American female clients by building upon existing research that posits that service providers
must understand how race and class shape women in order to provide comprehensive services
that help them become self-sufficient and break the cycle of violence (Crenshaw, 1994; Sokoloff,
2008). However, if traditional service providers lack the knowledge and skills to create relevant
DO NO HARM 13
programming for African American women, then the question becomes, how do we rectify this
situation? To answer that question, this study analyzed an organization that provides culturally
competent services targeted towards African American female victims of DV and evaluated its
service delivery model. In doing so, knowledge and skills that contribute to or interfere with their
service delivery and the motivational factors that influence their work were examined along with
the cultural framework in which DV service providers operate and the organizational influences
that affect their ability to render care.
Culturally Competent Services
Despite the increase in research in the past two decades on DV, there remains a dearth of
literature focused on the unique experiences of African American women (Bell & Mattis, 2000;
Gillum, 2008; Nash, 2005). However, current researchers have begun to take a culturally
grounded approach to this topic with an eye on the role that culture plays in how these women
access DV intervention services (Bell & Mattis, 2000). In fact, much of this literature
emphasized how race, class and gender intersect in ways that impact women’s ability to access
DV intervention services. Some of the most prominent researchers on African American women
and DV have argued that they are often turned away from shelters by service providers who are
unwilling to engage with a population they do not understand (Crenshaw, 1994; Sullivan &
Rumptz, 1994; Johnson, 1998; West, 1999). As Johnson (1998) noted, “This minimization of
Black women’s concerns is manifested in social, legal, and cultural norms, as well as by the lack
of response of societal institutions that are supposed to address all women’s expectations of
safety and redress” (p. 484). While African Americans have adapted their looks, attitudes and
social interactions to align with those of the dominant society, they still retain their own distinct
DO NO HARM 14
culture. Therefore, African American women experience violence in ways that render color
blind, one-size-fits-all services ineffective.
For the purpose of this study, culture is defined as the norms, values and practices that
characterize members of a group and affects how these groups understand their world
(Kasturirangan et al., 2004). Indeed, African Americans are linked by a shared history and by
religious, gender and family mores that can be traced back to their African ancestors (Bell &
Mattis, 2000). Since, as Sue (2001) pointed out, each cultural/racial group has its own “different
interpretation of reality,” service providers must determine whether their “standards for judging
normality and abnormality” (pp. 795–796) are similar to how the population they serve judges
what is normal.
This study defines cultural competency as the incorporation of cultural knowledge, norms
and values of a specific culture into services in ways that acknowledge and meet their culturally
unique needs (Betancourt, Green, Carrillo, & Ananeh-Firempong, 2003; Sue, 2001). This
incorporation requires continuous education about what matters to one’s service population and
self-reflection that allows one to recognize the personal biases that are potentially harmful to a
client’s healing process (Tervalon & Murray-Garcia, 1998).
While cultural competency hinges on understanding the psyche of a person, it can be
actualized only if those who provide services to individuals implement this knowledge into their
programs and services to eliminate what Donnelly, Cook, Van Ausdale, and Foley (2005)
referred to as the othering of African American women. Cultural competency in service
organizations is more effective when it goes beyond merely hiring people who reflect the ethnic
make-up and speak the language of the clients. Research shows that true cultural competency
recalibrates the organization through employees’ actions and the implementation of all programs
DO NO HARM 15
and policies that reflect and acknowledge a deep understanding of the ways values and traditions
shape a person, their needs, and their behaviors (Kumpfer, Alvarado, Smith, & Bellamy, 2002).
Collins (2002) stated that this creates safe spaces for African American women in which they are
not viewed as an other and where they have the autonomy for self-definition and self-
empowerment.
One argument for the slowness of DV intervention organizations to understand the needs
of African American women has been a tendency to downplay abuse when they seek assistance;
partially due to many of the competing problems they face (Hampton & Yung, 1996; West,
1999). West (1999) referenced Monica Williams, a director of a sexual assault crisis center
founded specifically to work with African American women, in an account of an African
American victim of DV and sexual assault who complained about the priorities of her service
provider:
It seemed that all she was concerned about was the fact that I got raped. Hell! I know that
was important, but that bastard got my last 25 dollars. That was all the money I had, till
payday (p. 78).
As another DV counselor asserted, “We have African American women who are in pain,
who cannot process this pain because for so long they have been told by the world to ‘get over
it.’” Still, the literature stressed that many of these women have tried to acknowledge the
violence they experienced at the hands of their partner only to find their experiences ignored,
devalued or justified (Williams-Campbell, Campbell, King, Parker, & Ryan, 1994). West (1999)
made the case for safe spaces that will decrease negative experiences when attempting to access
traditional DV services. She also discussed how some of these prejudices against African
DO NO HARM 16
American women are subconscious and that many Anglo-American service providers refuse to
entertain the notion that racial bias influences their interactions.
Unequal Freedom
Glenn (2004) discussed how racial bias and gender discrimination shape one’s experience
in the United States. As Glenn pointed out, historically, racial issues in the United States have
been seen through the lens African American men, while gender issues have been discussed in
relation to Anglo-American women, making African American women and their struggles all but
invisible. As women of color began to look at their own experiences in the 1980s, the idea of
intersectionality, of how race and gender work simultaneously to create barriers for women of
color seeking to escape the various forms of their oppression, became part of the discourse
(Glenn, 2004). Collins (2000) defined intersectionality as “analysis claiming that systems of
race, social class, gender, sexuality, ethnicity, nation, and age form mutually constructing
features of social organization, which shape Black women’s experiences and, in turn, are shaped
by Black women” (p. 299). Out of these conversations has come the acknowledgement that,
when the trauma of African American women is addressed, it is in terms of pathology and not of
personhood.
When discussing a recent meeting, the executive director of a DV intervention program
expressed her frustration at the way the needs of African American women were addressed.
The new ED at one of our sister organization, a White woman, got up and began talking
about how domestic violence programs cannot help Black women because they need too
many resources. She then pointed to this wall in the back where they used a 59-year-old
Black woman with a history of trauma as an example and walked us through all the
places she would have to go to begin to address her issues, and every woman in the room,
DO NO HARM 17
who were all White with the exception of two of us, began to nod their heads. Angry, I
raised my hand and said that if she came to my shelter she would receive all these
services in one place. The ED and some of the other women in the room quickly
acknowledged this, but it was obvious that they were just embarrassed. I had called them
out, but it didn’t change how they thought. That’s all Black women are to most of these
people. Black women are pathologies and White women are the cure.
This attitude reflects what Bent-Goodley (2001) referred to as a knowledge gap related to
the experience of African American women with those who often are tasked with helping them
deal with trauma. Maton et al. (2006) stated that it is natural that service providers’ own value
and culture would impact their work and how they relate to the individuals they serve. The
danger comes when service providers refuse to acknowledge any difference between themselves
and their clients in favor of focusing on their sameness and, thus, unintentionally doing their
clients a disservice. While it is important that service providers respect clients in a way that
acknowledges their shared humanity, it is disingenuous to act as if historical and cultural factors
play no role in shaping a person’s identity (Maton et al., 2006). For Maton et al. (2006),
understanding how people define themselves in the context of their own community is how
cultural competency begins. Consequently, it makes sense that, as Waters and Asbill (2013)
argued, cultural competency should be looked at “as a process rather than an end product” (p. 1)
and that cultural competency must go beyond factual knowledge to include one’s ongoing
attitudes towards both one’s clients and one’s self.
Many traditional service providers may feel that the services they offer their African
American clients are fair; however, their status as a privileged group creates a level of distrust
that they must overcome (Steele, Spencer, & Aronson, 2002). In fact, studies have shown that
DO NO HARM 18
even upper- or middle-class African American women find it hard to connect with their poorer
sisters, as they are shielded by their wealth from some of the violence and indignities their
counterparts face and cannot relate to the economic and social struggles that keep them with their
abusive mate (Sokoloff, 2008). Waters and Asbill (2013) discussed that one of the ways that
cultural competency can manifest itself is through cultural humility, which helps one understand
and develop a process-oriented approach to services. Tervalon and Murray-Garcia (1998) argued
that service providers can use cultural humility to acknowledge that there will always be more to
learn about those one serves and that one will never stop having to learn about their needs and
experiences. According to Tervalon and Murray-Garcia, cultural humility is not just about
serving one individual; it is about a systemic change that affects entire communities. In this way,
cultural humility tends to force service providers to make a lifelong commitment to self-
evaluation and self-critique (Tervalon & Murray-Garcia, 1998). The authors also stated that
cultural humility helps put service providers and clients on equal footing, as each recognizes that
they have knowledge the other does not. Service providers have the procedural knowledge and
clients understand their own history and needs (Tervalon & Murray-Garcia, 1998).
Ain ’t I a Woman?
Higginbotham (1992) discussed how African American women often face unique
challenges with the idea of womanhood due to their race. In a speech delivered at the Women’s
Convention in Akron, Ohio, on May 29, 1851, former slave, Sojourner Truth, asked:
And ain’t I a woman?
Look at me
Look at my arm!
I have plowed and planted
and gathered into barns
and no man could head me. . .
And ain’t I a woman?
I could work as much
DO NO HARM 19
and eat as much as a man--
when I could get to it--
and bear the lash as well
and ain’t I a woman?
African American women are victims of routinized physical and verbal forms of violence
across an array of societal institutions (Collins, 1998). Historians and researchers have found
that, since slavery, African American women of all ages and socioeconomic backgrounds have
been dehumanized, historically been blamed for their own victimization and have had very few
outlets to seek help when in need (Bent-Goodley, 2001; Higginbotham, 1992; West, 1995).
Researchers state that, in the confines of patriarchy and White supremacy, an assertive African
American woman is seen as a threat to the status quo (Collins, 1986). Thus, one of the most
prevalent stereotypes is that they invite violence with their aggressive nature and sexual allure. In
fact, African American women have long been stereotyped as the loud, sassy woman who
disrespects her men and has no real regard for her own self-image (Gillum, 2008). Ironically,
while these women are seen as strong matriarchs, they are simultaneously viewed as lazy and
worthless, the quintessential welfare queens.
When they are not cast as the hardened matriarch or mammy, African American women
find themselves being labeled as Jezebel whores (Higginbotham, 1992; West, 1999). One of the
reasons that the image of the sexual temptress has taken root in the American psyche is that,
since slavery, the image of African American women has been “intertwined with (racial) gender
assumptions” and “cultural imagery that equates Black with dirtiness,” (West, 1999, p. 70). In
the 21st century, the depiction of African American women in the global mass media continues
to show them as sexually reckless and wild. In fact, African American artists and producers have
now embraced these images and continue to push them, creating a new depiction of that once
again turns these women’s bodies into commodities to be consumed by the highest bidder
DO NO HARM 20
(Collins, 2000, p. 128). Some African American women have also begun to normalize this
image, as they play vulgar caricatures of themselves on reality television as angry, sexually
promiscuous and motivated by money and fame—the ultimate ghetto bitch. Conversely, the
African American woman’s attempt to remake herself not as hood rats but as ladies in the mass
media has failed. While the Black Lady depicted on screen “uses standard English, dresses
impeccably, and always had a dignified demur,” her power is dangerous (Collins, 2002, p. 141).
Scandal’s Olivia Pope and How to Get Away With Murder’s Annalise Keaton may be strong,
beautiful and educated women, but they are destroyers who use their mask of respectability to
get what they want no matter the costs. They are the educated bitch who emasculates her man,
and, underneath the perfect hair and dress, are portrayed as the Savage Black Woman in disguise
(Collins, 2002, p. 141).
These portrayals have affected how others view African American women and how they
view themselves (Higginbotham, 1992; West, 1995). West (1999) discussed how the continued
and accepted marginalization of African American women and their experiences ensured that the
brutality against them is often normalized and expected. For these women, the need to swallow
their own pain and fear and keep moving forward has historically been a part of their self-
identity (Bent-Goodley, 2001). In fact, one of the most harmful stereotypes that has created
barriers to seeking and receiving services is the Strong Black Woman trope whose obligation is
to make her relationships work at all costs (West, 1999). While fragility has been the desirable
trait for an ideal White woman, African American women must prove that they can be both
strong and silent when necessary to be real women. West (1999) described a study conducted
with Dr. Gail Elizabeth Wyatt that examined the differences between 126 African American
women and 122 White women who had been sexually assaulted or raped. Wyatt’s study
DO NO HARM 21
underscored what Crenshaw (1994) and Bent-Goodley (2001) often stated: African American
girls and women tend to put the needs of family ahead of their own. One young lady told the
story of her abuse and how she did not tell her parents or brother for fear that her abuser would
kill her family or, equally as bad, her brothers would kill her batterer and she would have to live
with that guilt. Instead, she believed it was her responsibility to singlehandedly take care of the
problem and that, as an African American woman, she must be independent and fight her own
battles. These beliefs can be detrimental in terms of attempts to fit into prescribed roles and
struggling with physical and mental issues that often go unchecked. For many, this image of
themselves is so deeply ingrained that they cannot allow themselves to identify as a victim and
continue to erect barriers to any attempt to assist them in their plight (Sokoloff, 2008). In this
way, the pressure on African American women to be superwomen has made them the caretakers
of their community and creates intra-community pressure for them to protect their community
and themselves from scrutiny.
Fear of Law Enforcement
Historically, women have been seen as the property of their husbands and, thus, DV was
a state sanctioned crime. The first known attempt by a woman to hold her husband accountable
in court for his abuse in fourteenth-century England failed (Ruttenberg, 1994). Not only was the
wife in Neffeld v. Neffeld denied assistance, but she was also sent back to her abusive husband
(Ruttenberg, 1994). Six centuries later, in 1871, the United States abolished laws that legally
permitted men to beat their wives; however, DV continued in homes and continued to be viewed
as a personal matter between partners (Davis, 2008). It was not until the latter half of the
twentieth century that law enforcement began to intervene in DV disputes, creating a new set of
problems for an already vulnerable population (Ruttenberg, 1994).
DO NO HARM 22
While rape survivors and victims of DV have always viewed law enforcement with distrust,
African American women have a deeper distrust of law enforcement that is very much rooted in
their experiences with institutional racism and their own cultural norms (Bent-Goodley, 2001;
Coker, 2004; Kasturirangan et al., 2004; West, 1999). Ruttenberg (1994) explored this further
and pointed out that mandatory arrest laws in 48 states and the District of Columbia requiring
warrantless arrests when there is probable cause in a DV case actually made African American
women more fearful of calling the police and, thus, putting their mate in jeopardy of arrest
(Ruttenberg, 1994). As much as African American women suffer in their silence, the fear of what
will happen if they break that silence can be overwhelming (Collins, 1998). These women tend
to prioritize family above all, as their family is their sanctuary from a hostile outside world
(Bent-Goodley, 2001; Coker, 2004; Ruttenberg, 1994). As a result, any violence in the home is a
taboo subject, as intercultural norms against sharing family business pressures women to stay
silent about their abuse (Collins, 1998). Furthermore, these women often depend on their partner
to financially support their family. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, US Department
of Labor, in the first quarter of 2016, the average weekly income for African American women
was $650, as opposed to $778 made by Anglo women. Thus, losing their mate may not only
potentially destroy their family unit, but it may create financial hardship (Ruttenberg, 1994;
Sokoloff, 2008).
African American women also fear for their own freedom when they call the police
(Bent-Goodley, 2001; Coker, 2004; Richie, 2012; Ruttenberg, 1994), as they are devalued in
American society and therefore the laws and public policies that tend to protect Anglo women
offer no refuge for them. Richie (2012) pointed out that African American women are often
blamed and criminalized for the abuse they suffer. Research shows these women suffer disparate
DO NO HARM 23
arrest and incarceration rates when compared to other races due to DV (Coker, 2004; Sullivan &
Rumptz, 1994). Mandatory dual arrest laws in some states require police to arrest the woman if
police determine that she was the primary physical aggressor in the attack (Ruttenberg, 1994). In
fact, more than 50% of African American women currently imprisoned have been subjected to
DV or sexual abuse and were arrested even though they acted in self-defense (Bent-Goodley,
2001; Coker, 2004).
Distrust of Social Services
African American women have historically struggled with the idea of seeking assistance
from social service agencies, and a distrust of the system as a whole colors how they access DV
intervention services (Bent-Goodley, 2001; Sullivan & Rumptz, 1994). Social service agencies
have historically been intrusive, monitoring whom women can live with, how much they can
make to qualify for services, mandating classes, and mandatory drug testing (Bent-Goodley,
2001).
With new laws surrounding DV intervention stating that children are equal victims of
DV, any home where DV takes place is, by law, an unfit place (Coker, 2004). As a result, there
is a fear that involving social services will lead to the removal of their children from their care
since African American women have a higher rate of children being removed from the home due
to DV than their White counterparts (Coker, 2004). Thus, they fear the implications of reporting
abuse and seeking services. This fear makes them leery of reaching out to law enforcement or
social service organizations for help because they believe these institutions are not sympathetic
to their needs or, worse, will break up their families.
DO NO HARM 24
Fear of Homelessness
Socioeconomic status also plays a role in reactions to DV. African American women as a
whole tend to have fewer resources than their Anglo-American counterparts, and this dearth is a
factor in a woman’s decision to leave a violent relationship (Bent-Goodley, 2001; Crenshaw,
1994; Sullivan & Rumptz, 1994). In the United States, there is a proven intersection of race,
poverty and gender, and those who cannot overcome even the slightest decrease in their finances
often find themselves homeless (Moxley & Washington, 2016). Research does show a link
between homelessness and DV. In 1979, more than 250 shelters existed in the United States to
house victims of DV (Rollins, Billhardt, & Olsen, 2013). By 1983, the number had grown to 700
but cuts to funding in the 1980s,1990s and 2000s reduced the number of shelters, and many DV
victims found themselves with nowhere to go (Rollins et al., 2013). In 2005, 50% of U.S. city
mayors surveyed identified DV as the primary cause of homelessness in their city (Rollins et al.,
2013). Moreover, a study by Baker, Cook, and Norris (2003) reported that between 25% and
50% of women surveyed who were victims of DV stated they experienced a range of housing
problems, 38% reported they had become homeless immediately as a result of the abuser, and
25% reported having to leave their home within a year after the abuse. The 2010 Federal
Strategic Plan to Prevent and End Homelessness also cited that 80% of the homeless mothers
they surveyed stated they had been victims of DV (Rollins et al., 2013). Furthermore, when these
women and their children are forced to flee their homes, the search for housing often becomes
daunting as continued federal cuts in subsidized housing have created a lack of affordable
housing for low-income women (Baker et al., 2003; Rollins et al., 2013).
African American women who are victims of DV, in general, tend to be heads of their
households and are more likely to have a higher poverty rate than their White or Latina
DO NO HARM 25
counterparts. They also have a high rate of unemployment and are much more likely to be
homeless than their counterparts (Health Indicators for Women in Los Angeles County, 2017). A
Los Angeles study conducted by the 2016 Downtown Women’s Needs Assessment administered
by the Downtown Women’s Action Coalition reported that African American is significantly
over-represented in the homeless population of downtown Los Angeles. Census data from 2014
showed that 8.7% of women in Los Angeles County were African American, yet they comprised
57.7% of 2016 Needs Assessment survey respondents. Of those women, 32% reported they slept
most regularly on the streets. Thus, African American victims of DV face the destructive tempest
of poverty and trauma that threatens to blow their lives apart as they face the threat of
homelessness, mental illness and substance abuse issues.
Mental and Physical Health Issues
Research shows that African American women who are victims of DV have historically
had their mental health needs ignored (Bethea-Whitfield, Harley, & Dillard, 2005). Because
these women have been taught to be strong no matter the circumstances (Bent-Goodley, 2001),
they often view therapy as a weakness that other people indulge in (Bethea-Whitfield et al.,
2005). Consequently, they often see little value in therapy because they have been taught to see
little value in their own well-being, and, when they do decide to seek help, they tend to face
many barriers to therapy, including access to services (Bethea-Whitfield et al., 2005), creating a
cycle in which many victims of DV suffer from post-traumatic stress in silence (Thompson et al.,
2000). Also, it is important to note these women often have trouble embracing traditional
programming such as therapy because of their culture’s skepticism about mental health issues
and may not respond to counseling like other women (Mitchell et al., 2006).
DO NO HARM 26
Post-Traumatic Stress Syndrome
Research shows that the stress African American women who are victims of DV face
leads to trouble functioning in important social spaces such as school, home and work
(Thompson, et al., 2000). In fact, they often suffer from PTSD as a result of experiencing a
lifetime of racism and sexism that is exacerbated by DV. In addition, research shows that
healthcare providers often let their racial biases cloud how their diagnosis and treatment, leading
to misdiagnoses of personality disorders when the real issue is PTSD (Ammons, 1995). This is
important to understand because data reveal a correlation between suicide rates and African
American women who are victims of DV, as approximately 5% of African American women
who attempted suicide in 1997 reported being victims of DV (Fischbach & Herbert, 1997).
Consequently, these women are re-victimized by cultural and social stereotypes that affect both
how others respond to their trauma and how they process their abuse as well.
Importance of an Evaluation Study
Domestic violence (DV) poses a threat to communities and families (Bent-Goodley,
2001); however, many African American women are victims not just of the abuse, but also of the
societal and cultural norms that keep them from getting help for the abuse. The Community
Haven (pseudonym) seeks to rectify this through nationally recognized, culturally competent
work. Since it is one of the only DV intervention programs in the nation founded to specifically
work with African American women, they are often the last resort for women who are not able to
function in traditional Anglo-American oriented programs. Multiple studies show that African
American women who improve their economic situation through job training and securing of
permanent housing, affordable childcare and social services assistance can build a stable life for
themselves and their children once they leave a shelter (Bent-Goodley, 2001; Coker, 2004;
DO NO HARM 27
Ruttenberg, 1994; Sokoloff, 2008; West, 1999). Consequently, if they cannot receive the services
they need within the program, then they can find themselves at risk for returning to a violent
situation out of necessity, or even becoming homeless (Rollins et al., 2013).
Research shows that service providers tend to unintentionally erect barriers between
service and African American clients due to unacknowledged biases and a lack of knowledge
relating to cultural competency and cultural sensitivity (Bradley et al., 2005; Crenshaw, 1994;
Kasturirangan et al., 2004). Consequently, this study analyzed the context in this particular
setting to analyze what role employees’ knowledge and organization can play in improving The
Community Haven’s program model to help the organization better achieve its goals. Evaluating
the organization’s performance allows stakeholders to understand their strengths and weaknesses
and create sustainable action that can facilitate change and necessary program improvement
(Weiss, 1998).
Organization Context and Mission
The Community Haven is a DV intervention program in the United States. Since its
inception, staff members have prided themselves on providing culturally competent services to
women who often do not thrive in traditional shelter programs. To this end, they have expanded
their services to include men and the growing Latina population currently living in their
traditional service areas. Sixty percent of the client base is African American, while 35% are
Hispanic, and 5% are other. Ninety-eight of The Community Haven’s clients are women, and 2%
are men. Many of the clients nurture several children, 2.5 on the average. The Community Haven
provides a continuum of services 24 hours a day all year long. The organization operates
emergency shelter and transitional housing shelter facilities. The innovative program offers
individualized case management and mental health services; as well as expansive Vocational and
DO NO HARM 28
Legal Departments. In addition to its intervention services, The Community Haven works to end
the cycle of DV through youth programming, education, public awareness and outreach
initiatives, public policy, and advocacy strategies and collaborations with key partners. It is
important to note that, while The Community Haven provides culturally competent services to all
clients, this study addressed the African American female population. Table 1 below illustrates
the stories of two African American clients.
Table 1
African American Women Find Peace at The Community Haven
Client 1 When I found The Community Haven, I had not slept in days; he threatened my
children for the final time. I watched my children sleep and vowed that I would
not put them through this again.
Client 2 I arrived at The Community Haven’s Emergency Shelter …all my medical
needs were attended to and I was able to obtain a restraining order immediately.
I attended classes on domestic violence and anger management while in The
Emergency Shelter. With no income and ineligible for cash benefits because of
a prior open case with CALWORKS, The Community Haven considered me a
special needs” case and allowed me to enter into the transitional program.
A unique aspect of the organization is its service model: a self-contained learning center
that meets most of its clients’ needs in-house. The shelter facilities are spacious, colorful and
vibrant. In addition to free onsite mental health, vocational education and legal aid, the
organization’s shelters house onsite classrooms, children centers, relaxation rooms, boutiques,
and hair and makeup salons. Figure 1 below illustrates the programs and services clients receive.
DO NO HARM 29
Figure 1. Client service model: The Community Haven 2011information sheet
Organizational Performance Goal and Current Performance
The Community Haven’s mission is to provide victims of DV with a comprehensive,
centralized base of support that is culturally responsive and ensures their transition from
immediate crisis to stability and self-sufficiency. At the time of this study, the organization had
recently enacted a 5-year strategic plan with an intended goal of ensuring all clients received
culturally competent services. An important element was the drafting of a cultural competency
policy statement that declared the organization would always provide “culturally and
linguistically relevant DV services to any individual regardless of gender, race, color, religion,
ancestry, national origin, sexual orientation, physical and/or mental disability or financial status.”
DO NO HARM 30
Description of the Stakeholders
Stakeholders are defined as a group of individuals invested in meeting an organization’s
performance goal (Harrison & Freeman, 1999). The stakeholders for The Community Haven are
staff members, clients, and donors involved in the achievement of the organization’s
performance goals.
Staff Members
The Community Haven has approximately 40 part-time and full-time employees. They
are divided into three categories: executive staff, frontline staff and consultants. The executive
staff manages the high-level priorities of the organization. Their main responsibility is to ensure
the frontline staff and consultants have the resources they need to provide culturally competent
services. Frontline staff and consultants provide direct services to clients. These stakeholders
have varying levels of influence, depending on their position in the organization, but have a high
level of interest because of their bond with the clients and their level of devotion to the
organization (Harrison & Freeman, 1999).
Clients
The Community Haven has three different client bases: residential, drop-in and
community. Residential clients live at one of organization’s residential facilities for up to 2
years. Drop-in clients receive legal, mental and educational services, but they do not require
shelter. Community clients receive legal services through various legal clinics or participate in
trainings and workshops about healthy relationships and DV, according to the program’s 2015
information sheet. These stakeholders often have a low level of influence and a high level of
interest because organization’s services directly affect their lives (Harrison & Freeman, 1999).
DO NO HARM 31
Donors
Like most non-profits, The Community Haven depends on external funders to keep the
organization afloat. Consequently, leadership often struggles to juggle the upward pulls of the
funders who have the power to withhold necessary resources if they are displeased (Candler &
Dumont, 2010; Ospina, Diaz, & O’Sullivan, 2002) with the downward pull of employees and
clients (Ospina et al., 2002).
Stakeholder Group for Study
While the joint efforts of all stakeholders contribute to the achievement of the overall
organizational goal of providing all African American female clients with culturally competent
services, it is important to evaluate current efforts to meet that goal. Therefore, the stakeholders
of focus for this study were all employees, with an emphasis on frontline staff. The stakeholders’
goal, supported by the chief executive officer, is that all employees will provide culturally
competent services daily. Culturally competent services include providing shelter services,
mental health services, legal services, and vocational education in ways that reflect the needs and
life experiences of African American women. Failure to accomplish this goal will lead to these
clients leaving the shelter before they have the tools to become self-sufficient and possibly
putting their lives at risk by returning to their abusers. This failure affects the organization’s
overall goal of providing culturally competent services to its clients. Below, Table 2 shows the
organizational mission and performance goals for The Community Haven.
DO NO HARM 32
Table 2
Organizational Mission and Performance Goals
Organizational Mission
The Community Haven’s organizational mission is to provide comprehensive, culturally
competent prevention and intervention services to victims of domestic violence.
Organizational Performance Goal
The Community Haven’s organizational goal is that 100% of their African American women
clients receive culturally competent services.
Chief Executive
Officer
Staff Clients
By September 2017, the
CEO will evaluate all
policies and procedures
relating to staff and
cultural competency.
By January 2019, all staff will be
able to provide culturally
competent services to 100% of
their African American women
clients 100% of the time.
By January 2020, 80% of
African American women
clients surveyed will show
100% satisfaction with the
services provided by at The
Community Haven.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to evaluate the degree to which staff members can meet
their goal of providing culturally competent services to African American female clients all the
time. The analysis focused on knowledge, motivation and organizational elements related to
achieving the organizational goals. While a complete performance evaluation would focus on all
stakeholders, for practical purposes the stakeholders to be focused on in this analysis were staff
members. The questions that guided the evaluation study addressed knowledge and skills,
motivation, and organization elements.
1. What are the knowledge, motivation and organizational assets and barriers in relation to
the stakeholder’s goal of providing culturally competent prevention and intervention
services to 100% of their African American women clients?
DO NO HARM 33
2. What solutions and recommendations in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and
organizational resources may be appropriate for solving the problem of staff providing
culturally competent services to 100% of it African American women clients at The
Community Haven?
Methodological Framework
This project employed a case study using qualitative data gathering and analysis
strategies. The Community Haven’s employees’ current performance in relationship to the
organizational goal was assessed using surveys, observations, interviews, literature review and
document analysis. Research-based solutions were recommended and evaluated in a
comprehensive manner.
Definitions
Below are the key terms referenced throughout this study.
Domestic violence: A pattern of abuse that is inflicted physically, sexually, mentally, legally,
financially, digitally, and/or emotionally by one partner to another.
Culture: The norms, values and practices that characterize members of a particular group so
strongly that it affects how these groups understand their world (Kasturirangan et al., 2004).
Cultural competency: The incorporation of cultural knowledge, norms and values of a specific
culture into services in ways that acknowledge and meet the unique needs of individuals who
share that culture. (Betancourt et al., 2003; Sue, 2001).
Intersectionality: The exploration of simultaneous, multiple and interlocking oppressions that
shapes the individual experience of marginalized women (Crenshaw, 1994).
DO NO HARM 34
Organization of the Dissertation
This dissertation was organized into five chapters. Chapter One provides the key
concepts and terminology on culturally competent services and discusses the organization’s
mission, goals and stakeholders as well as the framework for the project. Chapter Two provides a
review of current literature on the scope of the study. Topics on how knowledge, motivation and
organization influences affect the stakeholders’ ability to achieve their goal are addressed.
Chapter Three presents the data collection methods. Chapter Four provides a discussion of data
analysis. Chapter Five describes solutions and implementation of suggested improvements.
DO NO HARM 35
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter provides a review of literature to identify the barriers to providing culturally
competent services to African American female clients. The purpose of the study was to evaluate
how employees at The Community Haven perform their duties and discuss their strengths and
weaknesses in relation to this issue. This chapter also examines how knowledge, motivation and
organizational influences contribute to staff members’ understanding of culturally competent
services and the ways in which they do or do not render these services.
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences
Clark and Estes (2008) examined the correlation among knowledge, skills and motivation
and argued that these three traits are essential to staff and organizational success. This means that
employees must be able to evaluate both their strengths and needs and understand the role both
play in their job performance. One way to do this is through a gap analysis. According to the
knowledge and skills gap integrated solutions, the results of a gap analysis can indicate a need
for information, training and education that can be designed, developed and implemented to
close the gap (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Knowledge and Skills
Service providers who work with African American female victims of DV must navigate
the cultural norms and values that make intervention services difficult to embrace (Sullivan &
Rumptz, 1994; Bent-Goodley, 2001). In fact, research shows that African American women who
feel they are offered culturally competent programming tend to be more willing to enter a shelter
and more open to some of the mental health and educational programs they usually shun
(Sullivan & Rumptz, 1994; Bent-Goodley, 2001). To be relevant to this population, the
organizational global goal of The Community Haven is to ensure that all clients receive
DO NO HARM 36
culturally competent services. While this goal is commendable, it cannot be achieved unless the
organization meets its stakeholder goal of having all staff members understand the role of
culturally competency by 2018 and be able to articulate the policies and services for their
departments.
Consequently, it is important to ascertain whether staff members possess the necessary
knowledge and skills to meet this goal. Clark and Estes (2008) noted a correlation between
employees’ knowledge, skills and motivation and organizational success. Moreover, Purnell
(2003) stated that no organization can truly provide culturally competent services if it does not
ascertain its strengths, weaknesses, and capacity. This means that staff members must be able to
evaluate both their strengths and their gaps. One way to do this is through a gap analysis.
According to the knowledge and skills gap integrated solutions, the results of a gap analysis can
indicate a need for information, training and education that can be designed, developed and
implemented to close the gap (Clark & Estes, 2008). Consequently, this literature review focuses
on how knowledge-related influences can help staff at The Community Haven meet the
stakeholder goal.
Knowledge influences. One is not born with knowledge; it must be taught (Mayer,
2011). The literature on knowledge influences discusses the various knowledge types that can
help an organization educate and motivate staff to reach goals. Introduced by Bloom in 1956, the
taxonomy of educational objectives was created to produce a common language about learning
that would allow educators to measure their students’ academic success. Since its inception, the
taxonomy has been revised many times to fit different settings. Krathwohl’s (2002) revised
version of the taxonomy includes Bloom’s original knowledge dimensions: factual knowledge,
conceptual knowledge, and procedural knowledge. To these, Krathwohl added metacognitive
DO NO HARM 37
knowledge. Declarative knowledge ensures staff members have a rudimentary understanding of
their job and their organization’s mission and goals. Procedural knowledge ensures they have
enough understanding about their job that they can complete tasks and implement processes in
ways that leads to expected outcomes. Metacognitive knowledge ensures they can look within
themselves, reflect on how their own knowledge and skill set, and make necessary changes
accordingly (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011).
Assumed factual knowledge influences. Staff members need the factual knowledge of
the various elements that contribute to being able to provide culturally competent services to
African American female clients.
Staff needs to know The Haven ’s goal for implementing culturally relevant services.
Research discusses how effective staff members understand the vision, mission, values, goals,
and strategies of an organization (Van Tiem, Moseley, & Dessinger, 2004; Saul, 2004). A quick
review of The Community Haven’s mission reminds staff members that the goal is to provide
victims of DV and their children with comprehensive and culturally responsive support. The
Haven identified this as key to ending the cycle of DV and the literature supports the claim that
African American women tend to embrace DV intervention services they believe account for
their needs and experiences (Bent-Goodley, 2001; Coker, 2004; Crenshaw, 1994; Sullivan &
Rumptz, 1994).
At The Community Haven, cultural competency is defined the way it is in the literature:
the incorporation of cultural knowledge, norms and values of a specific culture into services in
ways that acknowledge and meet clients’ culturally unique needs (Betancourt et al., 2003; Sue,
2001). This means that the organization implemented programs and services directly based on
the specific needs of African American women. Hentschke and Wohlstetter (2004) discussed
DO NO HARM 38
how good accountability models ensure that service providers understand how their work and
decisions affect organizational goals. Because these needs often include historical, societal and
familial abuse and oppression that have led to financial, mental and physical hardships, staff
members must understand the role intersectionality, or the exploration of multiple simultaneous
and interlocking oppressions that shape the individual experience of marginalized women
(Crenshaw, 1994), plays in how African American women approach DV intervention services.
Staff needs to know what culturally relevant service strategies are. Bent-Goodley
(2005) discussed it is not enough for DV service providers to have a service understanding of the
role culture competency plays in intervention services. They must know and implement key
strategies centered on providing culturally relevant care. Consequently, it is important that
service providers acknowledge the previous limitations of their work. Service providers must be
willing to change their service delivery model if current modalities are not effective. This what
also includes a willingness of staff to seek out training and materials on successful culturally
competent training models that they can implement in their own work (Sokoloff & Dupont,
2005). In fact, Minnich (1991) argued that service providers’ forcing clients to accept a system
that they have deemed best, despite the client proving otherwise, hurts the organization’s ability
to provide culturally competent services and makes lasting organizational transformation
impossible.
Offering practical services. Culturally competent service strategies must begin with
assessment, continue with intervention and address the way evaluation models are designed and
implemented (Bent-Goodley, 2005). African American women who seek DV intervention
services tend to have practical, immediate needs that service providers need to immediately
address, including access to affordable housing, educational needs, employment, affordable
DO NO HARM 39
childcare and access to physical and mental health services (Bent-Goodley, 2005; Weis & Fine,
2000). By addressing these needs, service providers acknowledge the myriad of issues that
African American DV victims often prioritize before the abuse (West, 1999).
Creating a coordinated community response. Because women of color tend to deal with
many interconnected issues (Bent-Goodley, 2005; Crenshaw, 1994; Weis & Fine, 2000; West,
1999), researchers argued that service providers should reach out to sister organizations and
create a coordinated community response that crosses sectors (Murphy, Musser, & Maton, 1998;
Williams, 1999). For example, the literature suggests that service providers may want to develop
relationships with those who work at child welfare and social services organizations (Graham-
Bermann & Edleson, 2001; Schechter & Edleson, 1999). Service providers can also partner with
organizations that offer the mental health, physical health and vocation and educational services
they do not have the capacity to offer in-house (Bent-Goodley, 2005; Hampton, Senatore, &
Gullotta, 1998). Also, with African American women, it is important to understand the role
religion and spirituality play in their lives and whether partnering with faith-based communities
would increase their level of success with clients (Sokoloff & Dupont, 2005).
Creating strategies that address social structures. Sokoloff and Dupont (2005) discussed
how service providers must also include strategies in their service delivery model that addresses
the role that community violence plays in why African American DV victims often reject
services. The literature suggests that service providers should begin dialogue in the community
around combating police brutality, incarceration, racism, and economic concerns in ways that
help communities understand the link between community violence and relationship violence
prevalence and intervention (Sokoloff & Dupont, 2005). This can also be done through the
DO NO HARM 40
development of public policies that support cultural competence on both institutional and direct
service levels (Sokoloff & Dupont, 2005).
Assumed conceptual knowledge influences. In addition to the factual knowledge of
culturally competent services, staff needs conceptual knowledge on the relationship between
providing culturally competent services and client success.
Staff needs to understand the cultural norms of their African American clients. Gill,
Kuwahara, and Wilce (2016) discussed how traditional Anglo-American service models often do
not work for ethnic minorities and that providing culturally sensitive care to clients is key to
ongoing and meaningful stakeholder engagement. To combat this issue, the research points out
that employees at successful organizations understand the importance of catering to the cultural
orientation of their population, whether that is providing services in their first language or
providing resources and programs in ways that reflect their culture needs (Dana, 1996). This
means that, to do their job effectively, service providers need to know the cultural norms of the
people they serve (Sullivan & Rumptz, 1994; Bent-Goodley, 2001). While providing culturally
competent services is rooted in The Community Haven’s mission and strategic plan, it is often
not stated aloud. This calls into question just how much declarative knowledge some staff
members may possess. Since declarative knowledge is factual knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002), if
the mission is to provide culturally conceptual services to clients, the mission and goals of must
be presented in a way that can be easily understood and emulated. This is important because, if
employees can master the basic knowledge about their organization’s goals and mission, they
have the building blocks necessary to become productive and invaluable employees (Krathwohl,
2002).
DO NO HARM 41
Assumed procedural knowledge influences. Staff needs to know the processes involved
to reach the stakeholder goals (Krathwohl, 2002). Knowledge of the most effective processes to
provide culturally competent services is also important to the organizational goal.
Staff needs to be able to apply what they know about their clients to their practice.
Once the what is understood, employees need to be able to move into the how. Thus, DV service
providers need to know how to incorporate culturally competent strategies into their programs
and services. This is referred to as procedural knowledge, which refers to whether an employee
can transfer knowledge into performance (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). If employees know
what they are supposed to do, but they do not know how to do it, then they will never be able to
push the organization’s missions and goals forward. For employees at The Community Haven,
the ability to actualize their culturally sensitive knowledge may be the difference between a
client staying at the shelter or returning to a dangerous situation (Dana, 1996; Sullivan &
Rumptz, 1994; Bent-Goodley, 2001). Critical thinking plays a strong role in procedural
knowledge because it facilitates creativity and buy-in (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). For
example, a staff member who does not really understand the goal of the mission but simply does
what they are told is less likely to do more than the minimum, while one who knows the mission
and has embraced it in their work has true buy-in. This is important to look at because studies
show that there must be a certain level of personal engagement for a person to feel motivated to
actively do their job (Schraw & Lehman, 2009).
Assumed metacognitive influences. Metacognitive knowledge is often the hardest to
assess because it comes from within (Rueda, 2011). Metacognitive knowledge will allow staff
members to reflect on their role and evaluate their own thinking on relation to providing
culturally competent services to African American (Krathwohl, 2002).
DO NO HARM 42
Staff needs to be able to reflect on the role their procedural knowledge plays in their
failure and successes. Research on metacognitive knowledge showed that service providers need
to reflect on how well they understand the language, culture norms and values of their population
before they can truly plan and develop and successful intervention programming (Im, 2015;
Rueda, 2011). Therefore, The Community Haven’s employees need to reflect on their own
responsibility, at every level, to provide culturally competent services if they are to be effective
in their work. Metacognitive knowledge requires one to look past external pressures that may be
impeding one’s work to scrutinize one’s own capabilities (Rueda, 2011). Cultural competency
hinges on understanding one’s own knowledge, understanding, and skills about a diverse cultural
group (Bedny & Karwowski, 2006). For that reason, the ability to reflect is imperative for
employees at The Community Haven because they face many external pushes, including
managerial expectations and client resistance.
Maton, Perkins, Altman, Gutierrez, Kelly, Rappaport, and Saegert, (2006) stated that self-
reflection gives service providers a consistent accountability measure through which to
determine how their behaviors and perceptions influence client outcomes in a way that does not
damage their efficacy. For example, sometimes, no matter how hard they try, they cannot
convince a client to stay. This can lead to employees doubting their abilities. However, true
reflection is not about blame; rather, it is about an understanding of one’s limitations and a
mechanism to think out new ways to improve one’s job performance in realistic ways (Maton et
al., 2006). In fact, Whitaker, et al. (2007) pointed out that successful employees often reflect on
their own service gaps so that they can implement necessary changes. As a result, self-reflection
leads to self-regulation. Bedny and Karwowski (2006) pointed out that self-regulation leads to
self goals and these goals often determine how motivation. For example, a self-regulated
DO NO HARM 43
employee will be self-motivated to thrive in their workplace without the need for monetary
incentives of thinly veiled threats of termination. In this way, they accept responsibility for
building up their own knowledge and skills as they work to improve their work and evaluate
their own performance (Purnell, 2003).
Below, Table 3 summarizes key literature this study used to posit the assumed influence
skills and knowledge have on stakeholders being able to provide culturally competent services.
Table 3
Knowledge Factors
Factor Selected Citations
Knowledge Types Krathwohl (2002)
Factual Knowledge
Staff needs to know The Haven’s goal for
implementing culturally relevant services.
Staff needs to know what culturally relevant
service strategies are.
Staff needs to understand the cultural norms
of their African American clients.
Krathwohl (2002)
Bent-Goodley (2004), Chronister (2007),
Liang et al. (2005), Koverola &
Panchanadeswaran (2004), Sullivan &
Rumptz (1994)
Bent-Goodley (2004), Chronister (2007),
Liang et al. (2005), Koverola &
Panchanadeswaran (2004), Sullivan &
Rumptz (1994)
Bent-Goodley (2004), Chronister (2007),
Liang et al. (2005), Koverola and
Panchanadeswaran (2004), Kulkarni et al.
(2015), Sullivan & Rumptz (1994)
Conceptual Knowledge
The Community Haven’s staff needs to
understand the role culture plays in how
African American women access and receive
DV intervention services.
Krathwohl (2002)
Bedny & Karwowski (2006), Dana (1996), Im
(2015), Krathwohl (2002), Rueda (2011),
Schraw & Lehman (2009)
DO NO HARM 44
Table 3, continued
Factor Selected Citations
Procedural Knowledge
Staff needs to be able to apply what they
know about their clients to their practice
The Community Haven’s staff needs to know
how to incorporate culturally competent
strategies into their programs and services.
Krathwohl (2002)
Bedny and Karwowski (2006), Im (2015),
Krathwohl (2002) Rueda (2011)
Bedny and Karwowski (2006), Im (2015),
Krathwohl (2002) Rueda (2011)
Metacognitive Knowledge
Staff needs to be able to reflect on the role
cultural competency plays in their failure and
successes
Krathwohl (2002)
Bedny and Karwowski (2006), Maton et al.
(2006). Rueda (2011), Purnell, (2003)
Motivation Influences
Clark and Estes (2008) stated that motivation is an important factor in how well
employees problem solve and bridge their knowledge and skills gap. In this section, the literature
review is focused on motivation-related influences that are integral to the achievement of the
stakeholders’ goal of having the knowledge and skills to provide culturally competent services to
all clients. Motivation is defined as “an internal state that initiates and maintains goal-directed
behavior” (Mayer, 2011, p. 39). In other words, it is why people move forward to attain a goal or
push themselves to learn more about a particular subject (Mayer, 2011; Pintrich, 2003).
Motivation often happens in stages: (1) pre-conscious motivational stage (2) goal related (3) task
evaluative (4) process related (5) result related (Bedny & Karwowski, 2006). This means that
motivation is complex and ever-changing (Pintrich, 2003). Eccles (2006) discussed how one’s
expectation for success or failure is often a strong predictor of whether one puts forth the mental
effort, active choice, and persistence needed to successfully absorb and transfer new knowledge
and put that knowledge into action.
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Assumed self-efficacy. The term self-efficacy was coined by Albert Bandura in 1977 to
analyze the role one’s beliefs play in motivation and performance outcomes (Maddux &
Gosselin, 2011). Bandura (2000) stated that self-efficiency is important to examine because,
once a person begins to doubt their capabilities, their motivation decreases. Consequently,
understanding self-efficacy is crucial a realistic understanding of one’s capabilities. Social
cognitive theory states that individuals both experience and create their environment, and the
expectations they have for this environment guides how they react in certain situations (Bandura,
2000). For example, a person who doubts that they can do a task, despite all evidence to the
contrary, may not even attempt it, while another person who has an inflated sense of self-efficacy
may take on the project with negative results (Maddux & Gosselin, 2011). Research points out
that self-efficacy has four pillars: (1) performance attainments and failures—how well one
succeeds at a task; (2) vicarious performances—what other people do; (3) verbal persuasion—the
feedback from others on performance; and (4) imaginable performances—what we imagine
ourselves doing (Maddux & Gosselin, 2011). Looking at these components individually, it
becomes clear that self-efficacy is fluid. In fact, Schraw and Lehman (2009) stated that
motivation and behavior are not fixed.
The Community Haven ’s staff needs to feel confident that they can deliver culturally
competent services. Research shows that, to truly be effective, DV service providers need to feel
confident that they are the experts at providing culturally competent services and can make a
difference in their clients’ lives (Sullivan & Rumptz, 1994; Bent-Goodley, 2001). Contrary to
what one sees in the for-profit world, non-profit employees are driven by their feelings. In fact,
antecedent conditions play a major role in motivation because, for most service providers in the
non-profit world, business is personal. Murray and Welch (2010) pointed to a survey in which
DO NO HARM 46
DV service providers state, that they were motivated do the work because: (1) they were
committed to “eradicating DV, (2) had a strong desire to help others, and (3) often self-identify
with victims, receives much personal satisfaction from it” (p. 2287). Since these employees were
often motivated by intrinsic motivation, self-satisfaction and achievement was at the core of what
motivated them. However, employees must not become so self-involved that they lose sight that
the work will always be about more than how it makes them feel. By creating an environment in
which they can feel confident about their ability to help others, staff creates controllability and
stability in their work.
Expectancy value theory. Through expectancy value motivation theory (EVT), Eccles
(2006) examined the connection between the expectation an individual has of succeeding and the
importance they place on achieving that success. The EVT looks at the relationship between
motivation and intrinsic value, attainment value and utility value (Schraw & Lehman, 2009). All
these needs are important because they fit into one’s short-term or long-term goals and often
fulfill some type of psychological need (Schraw & Lehman, 2009). Intrinsic value refers to one’s
expectation to feel enjoyment from a task. Intrinsic value attempts to explain why people are
more motivated to do a task that either makes them feel good or they feel good about doing.
Attainment value refers to the role one’s identities and preferences play in completing tasks. It is
also rooted in one’s self-image. In addition, succeeding at these tasks tends to make a person feel
more competent and, depending on the task, can even offer a sense of belonging. Utility value
refers to the usefulness of completing the tasks to current or future goals (Schraw & Lehman,
2009).
Domestic violence service providers need to believe that their work transforms
communities affected by DV and make a real difference in their clients ’ lives. EVT manifests
DO NO HARM 47
very differently in a non-profit setting than it does in a for-profit setting, meaning the value is not
in the financial rewards received or in the learning of a new skill, but in the feelings attached to
each task (Murray & Welch, 2010). Employees who work at non-profits tend to focus on
transformative outcomes and, thus, are motivated when they can see how their work improves
the lives of the families and communities they serve (Creswell, 2014). Schraw and Lehman
(2009) discussed how, in many ways, EVT interconnects employees’ personal benefits with their
ability to complete their tasks. In addition, research shows that self-schema, the way one feels
about oneself often affects how one functions in certain spaces (Wheeler, Petty, & Bizer, 2005).
In the case of DV service providers, this means they will put much time and energy into a task
they value, and this higher level of engagement can increase competency because a person is not
merely performing a task out of obligation but feels a personal sense of accomplishment in
making their client’s life better (Schraw & Lehman, 2009). However, the idea of success and
failure for clients should never be fixed, but should be changed over time (Mayer, 2011; Pintrich,
2003; Schraw & Lehman, 2009). Indeed, Mayer (2011) cautioned that service providers can use
EVT as an affirmation about their own skills through helping others but must be mindful of not
letting their own needs supersede the needs of those they are trying to help.
Staff believes that the effort they put forth will bring about the desired outcomes.
Employees need to feel like the experts at their jobs. Research shows that, to truly be effective,
DV service providers need to believe that they are the experts at providing culturally competent
services who can make a difference in their clients’ lives (Sullivan & Rumptz, 1994; Bent-
Goodley, 2001). As mentioned, non-profit employees are driven by their feelings (Murray &
Welch, 2010). Bedny and Karwowski (2006) pointed out that research has just begun to look at
how working for justice/doing things for the moral good plays into motivation. This is
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sometimes referred to as the moral intrinsic model because it looks at how people receive moral
satisfaction from within and goes beyond personal satisfaction because it posits that, when
people are motivated by intrinsic motives, they typically end up providing useful goods to others
(Bedny & Karwowski, 2006). By creating an environment in which they can feel good about
helping coworkers create controllability and stability in their work. Moreover, the psychological
effect of this often leads to better self-efficacy. Since, as Schraw and Lehman (2009) stated,
motivation and behavior are not fixed, understanding the role that belief plays in motivation
helps one understand how and why motivational behavior changes over time and ways that can
be used to make positive changes in the workplace.
Below, Table 4 summarizes key literature used to posit the assumed influence of
motivation on The Community Haven’s employees’ providing culturally competent services.
Table 4
Motivation Factors
Factor Selected Citations
Self-efficacy theory
The Community Haven’s staff need to believe
that their efforts, knowledge and dedication
play a key role in their clients’ successes
Bandura and Wessels (1986), Pajares (2006),
Wigfield & Eccles (2000)
Bandura and Wessels (1986), Pajares (2006),
Pintrich (2003)
Expectancy Value Theory
Staff believe that the effort they put forth will
bring about the desired outcomes
Wigfield and Eccles (2000)
Bandura and Wessels (1986), Wigfield and
Eccles (2000), Maddux and Gosselin (2011),
Schraw and Lehman (2009)
Organizational Influences
Organizational influences are the internal and external factors that determine an
organization’s success or failure in achieving stakeholder goals (Burke, 2002). In fact, research
argues that accessing organizational influences is essential to identifying organizational
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performance gaps and the first step to implementing any necessary changes (Burke, 2002), since
change can only occur once leaders and stakeholders see its necessity (Kezar, 2001).
Furthermore, Schneider, Brief and Guzzo (1996) argued that organizations are merely a
reflection of the people in them. Consequently, no organizational change can happen without
first ascertaining the way employees think and feel about achieving organizational goals
(Schneider et al., 1996). Much of this can also be determined by understanding the “climate and
culture” (Schneider et al., 1996, p. 8) of an organization. As a result, this study evaluated the role
of organizational influences, culture and climate as staff at The Community Haven sought to
meet the global goal of providing all African American women clients with culturally competent
services.
Organizational culture. Organizations have their own culture with deeply embedded
views on what they value, what they do, and what they stand for (Clark & Estes, 2008). This
extends to who is hired and what processes are used to do the work (Clark & Estes, 2008). As a
result, organizational culture is the driving force behind how one does their job (Clark & Estes,
2008). Schein (2004) noted organizational culture is defined by the basic assumptions
organization members hold about the goals, beliefs and environment of the organization. These
assumptions usually manifest in three ways. The first is artifacts, which includes the “visible
organization structures and process.” In other words, “all the phenomena that one sees, hears,
and feels when one encounters a new group with an unfamiliar culture” (Schein, 2004, p. 25).
The second is exposed beliefs and artifacts, the socially accepted strategies, goals and
philosophies. The third is underlying assumptions, the beliefs and values of an organization that
have been in place for so long that it is taken for granted that they are the preferred and necessary
organizational norms (Schein, 2004). Organization cultures develop over time (Clark & Estes,
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2008). Thus, it is imperative to understand how assumed organizational norms can hinder an
organization successfully reaching its goals.
Assumed organization influences. The literature discusses how organizational
environment is directly linked to staff accountability, since the environment often dictates how
the organization functions (Benjamin, 2008; Campbell, 2002; Ebrahim, 2010; Firestone &
Shipps, 2005; Melendéz, 2001; Ospina et al., 2002; Zadek, 2003). Murray and Welch (2010)
discussed how most non-profits have a natural resistance to change (Murray & Welch, 2010).
Agocs (1997) discussed how this resistance is often rooted in comfort with the way things have
always been done. Therefore, resistance to change is not an attempt to sabotage the work, but a
rejection of changes deemed unnecessary (Agocs, 1997).
The staff works in an environment in which they are held accountable for providing
effective, culturally responsive service to clients. Non-profit service providers tend to believe
they are the experts at their jobs and be unwilling to engage with unfamiliar training, research
methodologies, or performance strategies they feel may not work. Conversely, other employees
chafe under the mandate to add more responsibilities to an already taxing work schedule with
very few resources to facilitate the necessary changes. To combat this, Kearns (1996) proposed
that an accountability environment, in which organizations create spaces in which staff can fulfill
both public expectation and organizational goals without feeling as if they are being saddled with
unrealistic expectations. This further speaks to Ospina and colleagues’ (2002) idea of “negotiated
accountability” (p. 9) in which outcomes are “justified, explained and promoted” in a way that
meets everyone’s needs. Consequently, good accountability environments are those in which
everyone feels they have a say in what goes on in the organization and where they have a clear
understanding of duties and expectations (Hentschke & Wohlstetter, 2004). This not only creates
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a feeling of inclusion and equity (Harrison, Price, Gavin, & Florey, 2002), but also tends to
because a fulfilled staff is a loyal staff (Dubnick, 2014; Ebrahim, 2003).
As Campbell (2002) points out, the most successful nonprofits utilize performance-based
outcomes they can evaluate and use to make necessary changes. In fact, Candler and Dumont
(2010) discussed how organizations that adhere to their mission have mechanisms for employee
accountability, as an organization that emphasizes professional accountability consistently
underscores to staff how their expertise is the key for them to successfully facilitate the
completion of the organization’s goals (Burke, 2004; Firestone & Shipps, 2005). Firestone and
Shipps (2005) discussed how accountability environments help organizations recognize the
importance of human capital gaps. This is usually done through a mechanism for feedback,
evaluations, trainings or staff development opportunities that offer employees the tools they need
to succeed, with the expectation that they will incorporate these tools in the work (Firestone &
Shipps, 2005; Hentschke & Wohlstetter, 2004).
As Campbell (2002) pointed out, being able to measure performance outcomes is the best
way to hold staff accountable for their work since, if an organization is failing to meet its goals,
it has mechanisms to pin point the service gaps. Accountability also allows employees an
opportunity for self-reflection on how their work aligns with the mission of the organization
(Saul, 2004; Van Tiem et al., 2004), Moreover, the literature points out that true accountability
occurs when organizations can commit to creating an environment in which the clients remain
the priority, despite whatever pulls the organization may feel from external stakeholders
(Hentschke & Wohlstetter, 2004; Jordan, & Van Tuijl, 2000; Ospina et al., 2002).
The staff works in an environment that uses data and evidence to assess staff
performance. Creswell (2014) discussed how individuals are free to choose their research
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methods based on what they believe works best at the time, and this often involves the
“intersection of philosophy, research design, and specific methods” to implement the design (p.
5). DV service providers, however, often become absorbed in their own set of beliefs and fail to
utilize research and data analysis to improve their work. In fact, non-profits have historically
valued anecdotal data over numeric outcomes in relationship to program success (Campbell,
2002). Indeed, most nonprofit organizations favor rich narratives to retell the lives of clients in
ways that stakeholders can relate to (McEwan & McEwan, 2003). As a result, personal
experience is valued over data. This can make it difficult to access staff performance because
data and evidence should shape how organizational success is viewed, not description of trends,
attitudes, and opinions of our population (Creswell, 2014).
Practically, as non-profit organizations compete for, and win, more grants, they find
themselves forced to create data-driven benchmarks and quantifiable accountability measures
(Malloy, 2011). This means they must look at how they evaluate service delivery from intake a
through the exit summary process to verify the validity of their work to funders with capital they
need to sustain their work (Creswell, 2014). Malloy (2011) discussed how using data to examine
programs’ input and output allows staff to continue to set goals for particular programs and have
clearly defined ways of measuring how successful they are at meeting these goals. Therefore, the
use of data ensures employees have a more global view of how the sum of programs and services
affects clients and organizational goals.
The staff works in an environment in which performance goals, including what
culturally competent service consists of, are clearly communicated. Good managers understand
the relationship between staff and organizational growth (Harrison et al., 2010). Moreover, good
managers are good communicators. When the mission and goals of an organization are clearly
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communicated, staff can grow and change in ways that make the actualization of performance
goals possible (Clark & Estes, 2008; Schein, 2010).
The staff works in an environment in which resources and incentives are aligned with
the goal of providing culturally relevant services. McGregor (1960) discussed the Theory Y
managerial approach, which argues that the most productive employees work in environments
that empower them to contribute ideas and enact change. However, that cannot happen if
organizational resources and goals are not aligned with the work employees believe it is their
mission to do. Harvey (1988) discussed how organizations tend to find themselves falling into
the Abilene Paradox, in which they pursue goals and outcomes that are not their own and do not
align with their mission and goals. As a result, they sometimes find themselves squandering
resources in the wrong direction.
Kezar (2001) alluded to how staff resources are often misused in a misguided attempt to
manage both external forces and internal environments (Kezar, 2001). Indeed, nonprofit
organizations tend to cater to the demands of external stakeholders whose priorities may differ
from the organization (Kezar, 2001), which can overwhelm employees and impede their ability
to provide culturally competent services. Increasingly, “reward and punishment” at non-profits
are based on outcomes (Firestone & Shipps, 2005, p. 86), but the question that often arises
concerns whose outcomes are used as the basis. If an organization burdens employees with the
fulfillment of public expectation regarding organizational goals at the expense of internal
organizational goals, then they become confused about just what constitutes success (Ospina et
al., 2002). For example, if a board member pushes the idea of housing foster care youth on an
organization whose focus has traditionally been serving African American DV victims, and
leadership acquiesces, employees will find their time and resources unwittingly diverted in ways
DO NO HARM 54
that make it harder for them to provide culturally competent services. Furthermore, this can lead
to a permanent reactionary climate in which staff will be consistently asked to veer away from
the clients they wish to focus on and be forced to attend training and produce performance
outcomes consistently dictated by outsiders who lost sight of the organization’s mission, value
and goals.
Below, Table 5 summarizes key literature to posit the assumed influence organization has
on the staff at Community Haven being able to provide culturally competent services.
Table 5
Organizational Factors
Factor Selected Citation
Organizational Influences Clark and Estes (2008)
Staff needs to work in an environment in
which they are held accountable for providing
effective, culturally responsive service to
clients.
Staff needs to work in an environment that
uses data and evidence to assess staff
performance.
Staff needs to work in an environment in
which performance goals, including what
culturally competent service consists of, are
clearly communicated.
Staff needs to work in an environment in
which
resources and incentives are aligned with the
goal of providing culturally relevant services.
Benjamin (2008), Hentschke and Wohlstetter
(2004)
Creswell (2014), Van Tiem et al. (2004), Saul
(2004), McEwan and McEwan (2003),
Malloy (2011), Saul (2004)
Harrison et al. (2010), Schein (2010)
Bhuvanaiah and Raya, (2014), Radda,
Majidadi, & Akanno, (2015)
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CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
This study sought to understand the factors influencing The Community Haven staff
members’ ability to provide culturally competent services to African American female clients.
Examination of the problem was based on the perspective of employees’ needing to understand
their own biases, understand what it meant to be culturally competent and understanding how to
provide culturally competent services to their clients. Two questions guided this study:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation and assets and barriers in relation to the
stakeholder’s goal of providing culturally competent prevention and intervention services
to 100% of their African American women clients?
2. What solutions and recommendations in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and
organizational resources may be appropriate for solving the problem of staff providing
culturally competent services to 100% of it African American women clients at The
Community Haven?
Conceptual and Methodological Framework
Clark and Estes’ (2008) conceptual framework served as the basis for a conceptual
framework tailored to this study. Previous sections of this dissertation posited that researching
the overall relationship between racial identity and access to DV intervention services will
enable understanding of the role knowledge and motivation play in The Community Haven’s
frontline staff members’ ability to provide African American clients with culturally competent
services. Consequently, we have focused on two research questions with two constructs:
culturally competent services and staff efficacy. This study relied on the postulation that frontline
staff members can provide culturally competent services by understanding the role cultural
DO NO HARM 56
norms and values play not only in how their clients access DV services, but also in how the
employees themselves provide services.
This study also aimed to determine if frontline staff members were equipped to provide
culturally competent services. In other words, as presented in work by Tervalon and Murray-
Garcia (1998), does The Community Haven incorporate continuous education about what
matters to its service population and encourage staff to self-reflect in ways that allow them to
recognize personal biases that are potentially harmful to a client’s healing process?
Consequently, the study looked at the dynamics between the staff and the organization that
promote this goal and those which impede this goal. Staff members’ own biases in relation to
their work were examined along with whether the organization created an environment which, as
Sue (2001) pointed out, has “standards for judging normality and abnormality” (pp. 795–796)
similar to how the population they serve judges what is normal. This study was also intended to
analyze an organization that works with African American women who are victims of DV, its
success and ways it can improve its services. To do this, Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis
model was used to examine the ways in which the organization supports staff in providing
culturally competent services.
Clark and Estes (2008) examined the correlations among knowledge, skills and
motivation and argued that these three traits are essential to stakeholder and organizational
success. Clark and Estes’ framework offers a mechanism for stakeholders to evaluate how their
strengths and their limitations contribute to performance outcomes. According to the knowledge
and skills gap integrated solutions, the results of a gap analysis can indicate a need for
information, training and education that can be designed, developed and implemented to close
the gap (Clark & Estes, 2008). Krathwohl (2002) stated that knowledge and skills can be
DO NO HARM 57
examined in four parts: factual knowledge, conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge, and
metacognitive knowledge. Moreover, research shows these dimensions also play a key role in
stakeholder motivation. Motivation is defined as “an internal state that initiates and maintains
goal-directed behavior” (Mayer, 2011, p. 460). In other words, it is why people move forward to
attain a particular goal (Eccles, 2009; Mayer, 2011; Pintrich, 2003). Motivational ideology often
hinges on self-efficacy and expectancy value (Eccles, 2006; Maddux & Gosselin, 2011). Eccles
(2009) emphasizes the connection between motivation and organizational culture (Eccles, 2009)
and Ospina et al. (2002) pointed out a correlation between organizational influences and staff
performance. Thus, it is important to examine the impact of knowledge, skills, motivations and
organizational influences on stakeholders meeting organizational goal (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Below, Figure 2 presents the conceptual framework for the study.
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Figure 2. Conceptual framework representing the importance of providing culturally competent
services: Implications for African American women who are victims of DV.
For frontline staff to provide all African American clients with culturally competent
services, they must have the factual/conceptual knowledge needed to do their job effectively.
Simply put, factual knowledge can be defined as how service providers understand their job
description (Bandura, 2000; Maddux & Gosselin, 2011). Research shows that factual/conceptual
knowledge shapes how service providers understand their roles and obligations to ensure their
clients’ successes (Maddux & Gosselin, 2011; Rueda, 2011). However, frontline employees
cannot do their job if they do not understand their clients’ basic needs. In issues relating to
cultural competency, factual/conceptual knowledge should start with understanding the social
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norms and values of African American women and what they need to thrive at The Community
Haven. Consequently, the cultural setting at the organization must provide the support and
resources necessary to provide culturally competent services. Employees need internal and
external support such as training, open dialogue sessions and realistic expectations from internal
and external stakeholders to strengthen their procedural knowledge. Moreover, having the right
procedural knowledge will provide a step-by-step roadmap for their job and foster accountability
as they receive clear outcomes to measure their successes and failures (Bandura, 2000; Maddux
& Gosselin, 2011).
In addition, frontline staff members must also have the metacognitive knowledge and
skills to reflect on how they attribute their client’s failures and successes (Maddux & Gosselin,
2011; Rueda, 2011). Metacognitive knowledge leads to self-efficacy, and as employees begin to
understand their strengths and weaknesses, they gain a better understanding of the skills they
possess or lack to succeed in their work (Maddux & Gosselin, 2011; Rueda, 2011). For example,
if an employee can analyze their service delivery model and honestly look at whether it is
helping clients achieve success, then they can continue to do more of what works and tweak the
things they are doing that are not working.
The EVT provides another way to motivate frontline employees to reflect on how
successfully they provide services, since it encourages them to view their clients’ success as a
reflection of their success as a service provider (Schraw & Lehman, 2009). Thus, frontline staff
at The Community Haven must have the knowledge, skills (cultural competency), and
motivation (self-efficacy and EVT) to create relevant programs and services that can be
sustained in their organizational context (cultural settings and models).
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Assessment of Performance Influences
This study sought to analyze how knowledge, motivation and organizational influences
affect employees’ delivery of culturally competent services to African American female
clientele. Utilizing research by Krathwohl (2002), the traits of interest herein were factual,
conceptual and procedural knowledge. Also studied were motivational factors, including self-
efficacy (Bandura & Watts, 1996; Pajares, 2006) and expectancy value (Eccles, 2006). Finally,
Clark and Estes (2008) conceptual framework served to discuss organizational factors that can
impede or encourage staff to reach their stakeholder goal of providing culturally competent
services to all African American female clients by January 2019.
Knowledge Assessment
The literature identified seven different possible knowledge types that impact the way
staff offer culturally competent services (Table 5): (1) staff needs to know the goal for
implementing culturally relevant services; (2) staff needs to know what culturally relevant
service strategies are; (3) staff needs to understand their African American clients’ cultural
norms. These factors were assessed through surveys, interviews, observations and document
analysis that asked participants to describe their factual knowledge on providing culturally
competent services. The two types of procedural knowledge influences identified in the literature
are that (1) staff members need to be able to apply what they know about their clients to their
practice and that (2) they need to know how to incorporate culturally competent strategies into
their programs and services. These factors were assessed through surveys, interviews and
observation.
The two types of metacognitive knowledge identified by the literature are that (1) staff
members need to be able to reflect on the role their procedural knowledge plays in their failure
DO NO HARM 61
and successes and (2) need to reflect on how their efforts, knowledge and dedication play a key
role in their service delivery successes. These factors were assessed through surveys, interviews
and observation.
Motivation Assessment
The literature identified one motivation influence which is listed in Table 6. It addresses
self-efficacy (Bandura & Watts, 1996) and whether The Community Haven’s employees need to
believe that their efforts, knowledge and dedication play a key role in their clients’ successes.
This factor was addressed through interviews.
Organization/Culture/Context Assessment
The literature identified five organizational influences which impact how staff members
provide culturally competent services: they need to work in an environment in which (1)
performance goals, including what culturally competent service consists of, are clearly
communicated; (2) they are held accountable for providing effective, culturally responsive
service to clients; (3) data and evidence are used to assess staff performance; (4) resources and
incentives are aligned with the goal of providing culturally relevant services; and (5) they have
access to the resources they need. These influences were assessed through surveys, interviews
and document analysis.
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Table 6
Assumed Knowledge Influences
Assumed Influences Assessment Tools
Factual Knowledge
Staff needs to know The
Haven’s goal for
implementing culturally
relevant services.
Survey
Which of these is the goal for the primary goal for The Haven?
• (a) to achieve world peace
• (b) to end the cycle of violence through community-
based education programs
• (c) to provide shelter to domestic violence victims
• (d) unsure
• (e) to provide holistic, wrap-around programs and
services to underserved/underserved clients
•
Interview:
Tell me what you think The Haven’s goal is for implementing
culturally competent services to its African American female
clients.
Document analysis:
Strategic plan regarding The Haven’s goal of providing
culturally competent services.
Staff needs to know what
culturally relevant service
strategies are.
Interview
Tell me what you think constitutes culturally relevant
programming.
Tell me about some of the culturally relevant services that The
Haven offers.
Tell me what you think culturally relevant services are for a
client” and “describe for me the most recent time you believe
you provided a client with culturally relevant service.
Give me an example of how your clients have a better
understanding of the legal system during their time at The
Haven?
Describe how your clients access mental health services during
their time at The Haven?
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Table 6, continued
Assumed Influences Assessment Tools
Staff needs to know what
culturally relevant service
strategies are.
Survey:
What does research say is our African American female clients’
most pressing concern? (a) Permanent housing
• (b) Access to legal services
• (c) Access to health care
• (d) Access to mental health services
• (e) Employment
How likely is your client to have a restraining order before they
entered The Haven?
• (a) Highly likely
• (b) Likely
• (c) Not likely
• (d) Highly unlikely
• (e) Unsure
How likely is your client to be in need of some sort of public
assistance before they entered The Haven?
• (a) Highly likely
• (b) Likely
• (c) Not likely
• (d) Highly unlikely
• (e) Unsure
How likely is your client’s child to be involved with The
Department of Children’s and Family Services before they
entered The Haven?
• (a) Highly likely
• (b) Likely
• (c) Not likely
• (d) Highly unlikely
• (e) Unsure
Staff needs to understand
the cultural norms of their
African American female
clients.
Interview
Tell me about some of the culturally relevant services that The
Haven offers.
What would you say are some of the biggest hurdles that your
clients face before they can reach self-sufficiency?
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Table 6, continued
Assumed Influences Assessment Tools
Conceptual Knowledge
Staff needs to understand
the role culture plays in
how African American
women access and receive
DV intervention services.
Surveys
How important is it for your African female clients to have
access to staff?
• (a) Very important
• (b) important
• (c) unsure
• (d) somewhat important
• (e) not important at all
How involved are you your African American female clients
with the creation of their case plan?
• (a) Very involved
• (b) Involved
• (c) Unsure
• (d) Somewhat involved
• (e) Not involved at all
Interview
What tends to be the driving force for African American women
to seek services at The Haven?
What would you say are the biggest barriers to African
American women seeking domestic violence intervention
services?
Procedural Knowledge
Staff needs to be able to
apply what they know
about their clients to their
practice
Staff needs to know how to
incorporate culturally
competent strategies into
their programs and
services.
Do you approach your case plan for your African American
female clients in a way that differs from your other clients?
Interview:
Can you describe what a day is like for you at work?
Can you tell me some approaches that you use when a when
interacting with your African American female clients?
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Table 6, continued
Assumed Influences Assessment Tools
Metacognitive Knowledge
Staff needs to be able to
reflect on the role cultural
competency plays in their
failure and successes
Survey
What would you say your most important role is when working
with clients?
• (a) Not sure
• (b) Being a shoulder to lean on
• (c) Ensuring that clients stay in the program
• (d) Ensuring that clients feel safe
• (e) Referring clients to social service agencies that can
help them
Interview:
How important is cultural sensitivity to your work?
How would you describe your role in providing culturally
competent services?
In what ways do your interaction with your African American
clients differ with your interaction with your other clients?
Self-efficacy theory
Staff needs to believe that
their efforts, knowledge
and dedication play a key
role in their clients’
successes.
Interview
What motivates you to work with your African American
clients?
What role do you believe you play in your clients’ success?
Possible Organizational
Influences
Staff needs to work in an
environment in which
performance goals,
including what culturally
competent service consists
of, are clearly
communicated.
Survey:
How clearly are your performance goals communicated to you
by your supervisor?
• (a) Very clearly
• (b) Clearly
• (c) not sure
• (d) Not very clearly
• (e) Not at all
It has been __________ ___ since I last reviewed my
performance goals with a supervisor.
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Table 6, continued
Assumed Influences Assessment Tools
Possible Organizational
Influences
Staff needs to work in an
environment in which
performance goals,
including what culturally
competent service consists
of, are clearly
communicated.
Interview
Do you feel like that your performance goals are clearly
communicated to you?
Staff needs to work in an
environment in which they
are held accountable for
providing effective,
culturally responsive
service to clients.
Interview
Are you pleased with how your work is evaluated?
What are some of the challenges you wish your organization
took into account when evaluating your work?
Survey
How important is the use of data and evidence in assessing staff
performance?
• (a) very important
• (b) somewhat important
• (c) not sure
• (d) somewhat unimportant
• (e) very unimportant
Staff needs to work in an
environment that uses data
and evidence to assess staff
performance.
Interview:
What role do you feel data collection and evidence should play
in how staff performance is evaluated?
Staff needs to work in an
environment in which
resources and incentives
are aligned with the goal of
providing culturally
relevant services.
Interview
In what ways does your job description match the duties that you
are expected to perform?
In what ways do you feel obligated to please external
stakeholders such as volunteers, board members and funders?
Why?
What mechanisms does the organization currently have in place
for you to air your concerns?
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Table 6, continued
Assumed Influences Assessment Tools
Staff needs to work in an
environment in which
resources and incentives
are aligned with the goal of
providing culturally
relevant services.
Document analysis
Annual reports/newsletters/brochures that discuss the culturally
relevant services offered.
Survey:
How confident are you that you can get any resources that you
need to do your job?
• (a) very confident
• (b) confident
• (c) not sure
• (d) somewhat confident
• (e) not confident at all
How often does The Haven provide trainings in areas you feel
you need improvement in?
• (a) fairly often
• (b) often
• (c) not sure
• (d) rarely
• (e) not at all
Staff needs to work in an
environment in which they
have access to the
resources they need.
Interview:
What resources does The Haven provide you to do your work
effectively? What resources do you need?
What types of training opportunities does The Haven offer?
What training opportunities do you wish they would offer that
they currently don’t?
Participating Stakeholders
Fink (2013) discussed the importance of a target population for a study. The stakeholder
of focus for this study was the frontline staff. These employees provide direct services to clients.
For this study, it was essential to understand the skills, knowledge and motivation of direct
service providers. Most frontline staff members have high school degrees. This lack of post-
secondary education does not necessarily mean they come to the job with deficits in skills that
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may affect their interaction with clients, but it is worth exploring whether there is a correlation
between previous education and current service delivery.
Data Collection
Four sources of data were utilized, surveys, interviews, and documents. As Creswell
(2014) discussed, in qualitative research, surveys can be used to inform the interview questions
that follow. The research questions focused on the role knowledge and motivation play in how
staff at The Community Haven provide culturally competent services to African American
clients. Such a complex issue needs a variety of data collection methods to study these ideas
from different angles. Furthermore, various data collection methods helped to strengthen the
validity of this qualitative study while also decreasing the probability of bias (Glesne, 2006).
Interviews with stakeholders helped understand some of their viewpoints relating to the study.
Qualitative interviews allow researchers to provide descriptions of phenomena that cannot be
learned in any other way (Weiss, 1994). Since the interviewing process is a partnership (Weiss,
1994), it was important that the researcher not approach the interview expecting predetermined
responses (Patton, 2002). Data analysis was completed with a survey that brought all the threads
together and built off the information gathered from interviews. Purposeful sampling was
appropriate during this data collection process because, again, the researcher was looking at a
specific group (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Survey Sample Selection
The researcher looked at several criterions for sample selection before beginning the data
analyses portion of the study.
Criterion 1. Employees who have worked at The Community Haven for at least a
year. The researcher’s experience has been that a year is a sufficient time for staff to speak to
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their own knowledge/motivation and how the organization pursues its aim of providing effective
culturally competent services.
Survey recruitment. The participants recruited for this study were staff members who
work directly with clients. There were approximately 40 members invited to participate.
Survey instrumentation. Twenty-five survey items (Appendix A) spoke to the
conceptual framework of the study to assess the degree to which employees have the knowledge,
skills, motivation and organizational support, according to the literature, to create culturally
relevant programs and services. Most of the questions focused on assessing motivation and
organization factors as effective assessments of knowledge via an online a survey. Most of the
assumed knowledge factors were accessed via interview.
Survey data collection strategy. The survey was created using the online platform
Survey Monkey, to make the survey easy to take and to evaluate. The survey was conducted
entirely in English. The link to the survey was sent to participants via email. at the beginning of
the work week when staff was more focused. The survey was disseminated at least one month
before the deadline needed to interpret the results to give participants time to respond and the
researcher time to await the responses without pressure. Two reminders were sent as the due date
approached, so that participants did not feel pressured. Surveys were provided after the
interviews. The expected response rate was 80%, which was a reasonable expectation based on
past surveys disseminated at the organization.
Interviews
Participants were recruited through email and through a face-to-face invitation. The
participants were staff members in leadership positions who also worked directly with the
clients. Employees who had been at the organization for at least 3 years were recruited for
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interviews, as they were likely to understand the needs of the population the organization serves
and hold strong idea of some of the service delivery gaps.
Interview instrumentation. Interviews were also conducted with stakeholders to
triangulate staff members’ knowledge, skills and motivation pertaining to providing African
American clients with culturally competent services. The questions for the interview protocol
(Appendix B) were derived from the assumed causes in Table 6.
Interview data collection strategy. The interviews were conducted in an informal
conversational tone that was conducive to flexible and spontaneous responses (Patton, 2002).
The questions for the interviews were open-ended, and the researcher was careful not to
dominate the conversation and ensure interviews are an exchange of ideas (Glesne, 2011). The
ideal time for the interviews was in the morning, in the middle of the week, when participants
were still alert, and their work load had eased. Again, probing open-ended questions guided the
discussion. The questions were short and clear for maximum results (Krueger & Casey, 2009).
The most successful interview questions provided an opportunity to build upon the respondent’s
answers and ask more relevant questions that to enrich the data.
Documents and Artifacts
Instrumentation. As part of the study documents, both printed and electronic that
directly discussed how the organization provided culturally competent services, were examined.
Documents relating to performance goals and those generated by clients that discussed their
experiences with the organization were also reviewed.
Data collection strategy. The documents analyzed were annual reports, information
sheets, brochures and booklets available to the public and written specifically to inform the
community on services offered and the organization’s priorities. A strategic plan discussed the
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priorities for the organization for the 5 years following this study. The documents collected were
disseminated to the public. These documents provided insight on what the organization
prioritized. Furthermore, because they were distributed by the organization, authenticity was
ensured. However, since none of the documents were created for research, they had to be
interpreted it in a way that was useful and easy to understand. Because the researcher was
employed at the organization, personal documents written by clients were accessible, as many
clients wrote notes and letters about their experiences which could be shared in the context of
this research study.
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) discussed how, in research, the term “document,” refers to
the written, visual, digital and physical materials that are relevant to the subject, while artifacts
are the “physical things” that reveal something meaningful about the participants (p. 162). For
the purpose of this study, researching documents prior to data analysis portion yielded a
preliminary idea of the strengths and weaknesses of the organization when related to the topic of
interest. Finding relevant documentation was key when using this type of information in research
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). It was important to review the materials with an open mind and an
idea of what might be obtained from them. Relevant and rich information served as a secondary
source, and the information gathered helped to inform some of the questions for the study.
These documents were invaluable in understanding how clients viewed the services they
receive. In fact, this information was compared with data from the staff to see if clients’
experiences matched what employees claimed to offer. These types of documents also acted as
both primary and secondary sources, as they provided an opportunity to incorporate real-life
stories in the study. In addition, these documents can offer personal stories from people not
interviewed (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
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Data Analysis
Frequencies were calculated. For stakeholder groups larger than 20, means and standard
deviations were presented to identify average levels of responses. Descriptive statistical analysis
was conducted once all survey results were submitted. For interviews, data analysis began during
data collection with analytic memos written after each interview. Thoughts, concerns, and initial
conclusions about the data in relation to the conceptual framework and research questions were
documented. After data collection, interviews were transcribed and coded. The first phase of
analysis involved open coding to seek empirical codes and apply priori codes from the
conceptual framework. A second phase of analysis was conducted where empirical and a priori
codes were aggregated into analytic/axial codes. The third phase of data analysis involved
identifying pattern codes and themes that emerged in relation to the conceptual framework and
study questions. Documents and artifacts were also analyzed for evidence consistent with the
concepts in the conceptual framework.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Ensuring the credibility and trustworthiness was essential in making sure research is
useful to the body of literature on the topic (Patton, 2015). Most of this was done through
internal validity, which looked at whether the study measured what it intended to. Thus, research
design helped make the study both credible and trustworthy (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Shenton
(2004) stated that one way to ensure credibility in a qualitative study is to build off recognized
and respected studies on the topic. Taking that in to account, interview questions were
comparable to those used by other researchers. Because this study sought to analyze the role
knowledge and motivation played in service providers’ work a study such as that by Gillum
(2008) was a good framework to build upon. Gillum (2008) engaged women seeking services at
a mid-sized Midwestern city DV shelter which targeted African American women. Gillum found
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the use of archival information and interviews with agency staff to be successful data gathering
techniques. For this study, written artifacts were used as the basis for questions. Archival data
added to the credibility of the study because they reflected the organization’s portrayal of the
mission, vision and operations. In addition, the information gathered was used to create specific
questions for respondents during the interviews and allowed incorporation of relevant questions
gleamed from the stated program design that required respondents to reflect on how their
motivation and knowledge aligned with what the organization stated they do. This use of
triangulation provided the opportunity to use a variety of analysis methods to ensure t credible
results while compensating for limitations of individual methods (Shenton, 2004).
Research also shows that ensuring credibility is one of most important factors in
establishing trustworthiness (Shenton, 2004). If the reader believes the study has been performed
ethically, then the findings of the study will be believed (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Consequently, it was important to continuously evaluated the techniques utilized during data
collection, record general impressions on the data, and consistently generate theories from the
data that could be tweaked with each new finding (Shenton, 2004). In this study, it was always
the intent to ensure credibility and trustworthy by eliminating as much bias as possible.
According to Patton (2015), credibility as a researcher is important because, if the reader does
not trust the researcher, they will not trust the data collection or analysis presented. Thus, to
bolster trustworthiness of this study, biographical information and potential biases were
presented early. Since bias can affect a study, I kept personal journal notes reflecting
unvarnished observations and reflected on them throughout the data collection process. The
relationship to the organization was also stated to ensure the confidential nature of the study and
checked for accuracy by paying close attention to transcripts and allowing participants the
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opportunity to read them. It was also important that field notes included the contextual meaning
of all the information accumulated as detailed descriptions alleviated some concerns regarding
scrutiny (Shenton, 2004). Also, as mentioned, correlating findings with those of previous
research served to establish the trustworthiness of this study (Shenton, 2004).
Validity and Reliability
While credibility and trustworthiness in qualitative studies deals with phenomena,
quantitative data deal with hard facts (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). As a result, in quantitative
studies, rigor is determined through an evaluation of the validity and reliability of the tools or
instruments utilized (Heale & Twycross, 2015). In this study, to review for validity and
reliability the research design, consisting of the survey questions, was evaluated. Heale and
Twycross (2015) defined validity as “the extent to which a concept is accurately measured in a
quantitative study” (p. 66). In addition, Creswell (2008) stressed that, in quantitative studies, it is
important to look at the threats to validity of service design, which includes instrumentation and
confusion of treatment. To address the instrumentation issue, the survey was well-designed. It
was administered online, and, to ensure the questions were relevant and linked to the research
questions, fellow doctoral students looked over them and provided input. Furthermore, an online
survey ensured confidentiality, ease and comfort, leading to more respondents participating. It is
important to note that validity can be measured in three ways: content validity, construct validity,
and criterion validity. Content validity looks at whether the data instrument used measures what
it was intended to measure. Construct validity refers to whether inferences can be drawn about
the subject studied (Creswell, 2008). Criterion validity looks at other instruments that measure
the same variable (Heale & Twycross, 2015). Consequently, this study addressed all these factors
to show validity. One way this was accomplished was by creating survey questions that aimed to
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measure how the stability, equivalency and homogeneity of the data compares to predicted
theories (Heale & Twycross, 2015). For example, when theorizing that African American
women would succeed in an organization that provides culturally competent services, the survey
has to account for all factors that might go into client success, and results should be interpreted in
a non-biased way. This is also important because any study that is proven valid is also deemed
reliable (Heale & Twycross, 2015).
The second measure of quality in a quantitative study is reliability. Reliability often refers
to the accuracy of the data instrument in yielding the same results repeatedly in the same
situation (Heale & Twycross, 2015). Therefore, reliability refers to the internal consistency of a
measure (Creswell, 2008). Consequently, service providers completing a survey meant to
measure motivation should have approximately the same responses regardless of how many
times they take the survey. However, because the survey was administered only once, answers
were compared to ascertain which were similar and which were different and how they related to
the research questions. It was important to ensure confidence in respondents by choosing those
who had both real insight into the site’s organizational culture and access to the clients. As
mentioned earlier, administering the survey online allowed respondents to answer anonymously,
mitigated some of the bias that could come from co-workers who may fear answering honestly,
or who may say what they think the researcher wants to hear. An online survey also meant that
respondents had a better opportunity for self-reflection and honesty in their responses. While
there is not much that can be done when respondents choose not to answer, efforts were taken to
lessen the non-response rate, and the bias that came with it, by nudging participants along. To
that end, it was important to ensure that the questions were easy to answer and that the process
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was easy to navigate. In addition, early deadlines motivated respondents. Early reminders
allowed time for a sufficient response rate that made for confidence in the results.
Ethics
For this study, the researcher utilized both qualitative and quantitative research and, as a
result, focused on creating research questions that helped recognize how participants understood
and interpreted their world (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Ethics played a large role in this as
research questions, validity issues, and conceptual framework were rooted in ethical concerns
(Maxwell, 2013). In fact, “ethical concerns were involved in every aspect of design”
(Maxwell, 2013, p. 7). The research focused on the unique experience of African American
women; thus, there was an ethical responsibility to understand their cultural norms and values
throughout the study. While I am an African American woman, I have been educated in a
Eurocentric system and, as Maxwell (2013) warned, I had to be careful that I did not approach
the research using Anglo-American norms and values that participating clients and staff could
not relate too. In addition, I have never been a victim of DV, nor have I suffered many of the
physical, emotional and financial hardships that define both the clients and staff at The
Community Haven. Consequently, I had to reflect on my own unwitting biases when it came to
serving African American woman. One of the ways to combated this was to think of strategies to
break down bias. Acknowledging bias in the study was the first step. Also, reading journals that
focused on African American perspectives also helped hone perspectives.
Since most of the stakeholders who provided data were my co-workers and friends, it was
important that I understood how these relationships could affect data collection. To combat this, I
made the data collection process as confidential as possible. To protect the confidentiality and
the beneficence of participants, I followed the rules and guidelines as laid out by the University
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of Southern California Institutional Review Board for the protection of human research subjects.
I also ensured all participants understood that their participation was voluntary and that they
could withdraw from the study at any time.
I secured participants’ informed consent (Appendix C) by providing all the information
about the study in a way that is easy for them to understand and by asking all participants to sign
a written consent form. I also secured permission to do audio recordings of the interviews and
offer participants the option to view all transcripts. I stored all data on a lap top in my possession
at all times.
Role of the Researcher
This study’s purpose was to evaluate the knowledge, motivation and organizational
influences that impact the ability to provide culturally competent services. Everything shared
was confidential and kept in the possession of the researcher. Participants had the opportunity to
review all data collected. Also, there seemed to be an opportunity to share any general themes
and finding that may improve organizational performance at the organization in the future.
Summary
Chapter Three outlined the procedures and methodology used for this study, which
include surveys, interviews, observations and document analysis. Chapter Four presents the data
collected and discusses the validation process.
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CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS
The purpose of this study was to examine the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
elements that contribute to service providers being able to achieve their stakeholder goal of
providing culturally competent services to all African American women who seek DV
intervention services at The Community Haven. This chapter discusses the results obtained from
the data using Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis framework outlined in Chapter Three to
determine which assumed influences were validated. A mixed-methods approach, utilizing both
qualitative and quantitative data collection methods, was used. Furthermore, qualitative
interviews were used to inform the creation of the quantitative survey instrument before it was
administered to the respondents. This chapter presents the study’s results and findings, presented
by categories of assumed causes. The questions that guided the evaluation study are as follows:
Research Questions
1. What are the knowledge, motivation and organizational assets and barriers in relation to
the stakeholder’s goal of providing culturally competent prevention and intervention
services to 100% of their African American women clients?
2. What solutions and recommendations in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and
organizational resources may be appropriate for solving the problem of staff providing
culturally competent services to 100% of it African American women clients at The
Community Haven?
This chapter focuses on the first research question one while Chapter Five addresses the
second with recommendations for closing the service gap in frontline staff member’s knowledge,
skills, motivation and organizational influences identified from the results and findings presented
in this chapter.
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Summary of Data Collection Strategies
The data collection process consisted of artifact analysis, qualitative interviews and
quantitative surveys. Data collection began with an artifact analysis of the organization’s mission
statement and program philosophy taken from the 2005 and 2015 overviews of programs and
services. Following the artifact analysis, six members in management were interviewed to
understand the organizational culture and the assumed knowledge, motivation and organizational
factors related to the stakeholder goal. Interviews were conducted with members of leadership,
and all participants answered the interview questions with an ease and frankness that yielded rich
results. A secondary researcher was tasked with transcription to validate what was transcribed by
hand and recorded by the primary researcher during the interviews. The primary researcher
ensured that respondents met the following interview criteria: (1) employees who worked at The
Community Haven for at least 1 year as of September 15, 2017. While the interview results
include a description of respondents, respondents were assigned pseudonyms to protect their
anonymity.
Data collection concluded with a quantitative survey. Given that frontline staff would feel
more comfortable with the anonymity of an online survey, some questions on the survey were
modified to ensure that the questions were relevant for the study questions and appropriate for
the intended audience. To maintain confidentiality, the surveys were anonymous. Descriptive
statistics were taken utilizing a Likert scale. Out of the 40 individuals in the population group
who were invited to participate, 32 (80%) participated. Due to the small sample, respondents had
the opportunity to comment and add to the discourse around the problem of practice.
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Validation Criteria
Assumed causes of the organizational gap were considered fully validated if at least 55%
of the evidence presented from the surveys, interviews and/or document analysis confirmed that
the staff lacked knowledge, motivation, or organizational influences assumed to cause the gaps.
Assumed causes were determined to be partially validated if 30% to 50% of the evidence
confirmed the staff lacked knowledge, motivation, or organizational influences assumed to cause
the gaps. Lastly, assumed causes were not validated if less than 30% of the evidence presented
determined that the staff lacked knowledge, motivation, or organizational influences that are
assumed to be causing the gaps.
A validated gap in one of the influences was an indication that staff at The Community
Haven did not possess the necessary knowledge to meet their stakeholder goal of providing
culturally competent services to all their African American female clients. A partially validated
gap in one of the influences was an indication that staff possessed some, but not all, the
necessary knowledge to meet that stakeholder goal. A non-validated gap in one of the influences
was an indication that staff did not at all possess the knowledge to meet the goal.
Participating Stakeholders
The primary stakeholders of focus for this study were all staff members who work at the
organization. All 40 staff members were sent the survey, although only six participated in the
interview. Two demographic questions were asked in the survey. Other questions focused on the
department that the respondents worked for, their years at the organization and their experience
at the organization. Table 7 shows the breakdown of the respondents’ years of clinical
experience.
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Table 7
Respondents’ Demographics
Race/Ethnicity of Respondents
Frequency Percent
Valid
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid African American 22 68.8 73.3 73.3
Hispanic 4 12.5 13.3 86.7
Latino 2 6.3 6.7 93.3
White 1 3.1 3.3 96.7
Declined to state 1 3.1 3.3 100.0
Total 30 93.8 100.0
Missing System 2 6.3
Total 32 100.0
Gender of Respondents
Frequency Percent
Valid
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid Male 6 18.8 18.8 18.8
Female 26 81.3 81.3 100.0
Total 32 100.0 100.0
Department of Respondents
Frequency Percent
Valid
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid Administration 3 9.4 10.7 10.7
Client Services 4 12.5 14.3 25.0
Data & Contracts 1 3.1 3.6 28.6
Family Services 8 25.0 28.6 57.1
Information
Technology 1
3.1 3.6 60.7
Legal 8 25.0 28.6 89.3
Operations 3 9.4 10.7 100.0
Total 28 87.5 100.0
Missing System 4 12.5
Total 32 100.0
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Table 7, continued
Number of Years Respondents Worked at Haven
Frequency Percent
Valid
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid < 6 months 3 9.4 10.0 10.0
1 year up to 3 years 4 12.5 13.3 23.3
3 years up to 5 years 10 31.3 33.3 56.7
More than 5 years 13 40.6 43.3 100.0
Total 30 93.8 100.0
Missing System 2 6.3
Total 32 100.0
All six interviewees have at least 5 years’ experience at The Haven. Each respondent held
a management position, and all worked directly with clients. All participants were women who
ranged in age from 45 to 60, and are African American.
Carol is the residential manager. She was in her early 40s and had worked at The
Community Haven for 8 years. She finished high school and, while she had not yet obtained her
bachelor’s degree, she had a variety of certificates from national training that she attended. A
victim of DV herself, Carol believed that she could relate to the organization’s African American
clients on a personal level:
I have much to say on that, but, I guess, starting with being raised, having a mother that
went through domestic violence and died behind it not knowing that there are places out
here that help. I believe that it’s the drive within you because everything I went through,
and I experienced, to have a place where you can come, and you can be made whole.
That’s my drive: to be able to see them transition from a crisis to self-sufficiency.
Helen is the director of family services. She was in her mid-forties and had worked at
The Community Haven for 4 years. She held a master’s degree in public administration. Helen
took a more methodical approach to her work, and, during the interview, she was strategic with
her words. In her position, she oversaw the staff and programs at the emergency and transitional
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shelters. Helen believed that her responsibility as a leader included “To see what’s happening
and see how staff interacts with clients because when you look at how people interact, you can
see the disconnects and the functions and what’s working and what’s not working.”
Charlotte is the director residential manager. She had worked at The Community Haven
for 8 years. At the time of the interview, she had just turned 60. She had a master’s in public
health. She believed that her years of experience in the community, combined with her
experience in the health field, gave her a strong foundation for offering culturally competent
services to clients:
I always try and use a cultural lens in approaching any kind of program implementation. I
think that, sometimes, you have to integrate strategic goals with innovative types of
activities that really strive to address the reality of the community you are serving.
Tanisha is the contracts manager at the organization. Before securing that position, she
had been a residential manager for a year. She had worked at The Community Haven for 5 years.
She finished three years of college and majored in music science. Her role as a residential
manager came at time when the organization was in transition, so she was initially unsure if her
feedback would be valuable. Tanisha believed her strength lay in her ability to pay attention to
details and meet clients where they were:
I am always mindful of who I am talking to. It is never a cookie cutter kind of thing. I
customize my conversation with each and every one of the ladies so that I can be sure
that their services are met.
Beverly is the managing staff attorney and had worked at The Community Haven for 5
years. She earned a juris doctorate and believed that, in her role, she could help clients overcome
a variety of legal barriers impeding their self-sufficiency:
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I would like to say that there is a level of trust between me and the clients from the get go
because it’s one sister helping another, so we don’t have to work hard to establish that
trust and communication that’s so vital to a successful attorney/client relationship.
Without that barrier, there is better communication, transparency and openness that
fosters more successful outcomes and improves client satisfaction.
Milan is the director of operations and compliance. She had worked at The Community
Haven for 11 years. She held a bachelor’s degree. In her position, Milan helped oversee the
function of the entire organization. Milan was new to her position, but she stated that she was
extremely dedicated to improving the program and services. When she began working at the
organization, she worked as a residential assistant, a position she did not feel suited for. In fact,
she admitted to having some reservations about her ability to connect with the clients one-on-
one. Milan believed that having respect for the clients, even if she could not connect with them,
was key to clients feeling comfortable with staying at the shelter:
It is important that we recognize the differences between each client and respect that.
Respecting them for who they are and allowing them to be themselves and allowing them
to be different services the clients in a way that they appreciate and can connect with.
The six interviewees allowed the interviewer to draw conclusions about the
organization’s front-line staff, the clients served and the culture of the organization as a whole.
Results and Findings: Assets and Barriers in Providing Culturally Competent Services
This section presents information collected from organizational documents, qualitative
interviews and quantitative surveys to answer the first research question about staff members’
ability to provide culturally competent services compared to the organizational goal. In the
conceptual framework shown and described in Chapter Two, this information corresponds with
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the performance goal, providing the data against which to measure how the various knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences came together to impact desired outcomes. Documents
collected were the 2005 and 2015 overviews of programs and services, which outlined the
mission statement and philosophy for the organization. By reviewing such documents, it is
possible to ascertain the gap between current organizational performance and the organizational
goal. Furthermore, the use of interviews allowed study of possible gaps using the staff members’
own experiences and observations, while surveys allowed analysis of possible performance gaps.
Knowledge Results and Findings
Krathwohl (2002) discussed the importance of factual, conceptual, procedural and
metacognitive knowledge when looking at assumed causes. The assumptions going into this
analysis were that staff members (1) may not know what culturally competent services are, (2)
may not know the organization’s goal for implementing culturally relevant services, (3) do not
understand the role culture plays in how African American women access and receive DV
intervention services, (4) do not know how to incorporate culturally competent strategies into
their programs and services, and (5) do not reflect on the role cultural competency plays in their
failure and successes. Together, these five assumptions formed the basis for the knowledge
components of the research questions.
Assumed knowledge influence 1: Staff may not know The Haven ’s goal for
implementing culturally relevant services (Factual). Findings from the document analysis
were that the organization philosophy, which is given to staff at their time of employment and
featured prominently in a majority of collaterals disseminated by the organization, states that the
organization believes DV is a societal issue and that clients should receive culturally competent
services that go beyond shelter and include men as part of the conversation.
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The fact that documents refer to DV as a societal issue reflects the point Kasturirangan et
al., (2004) made that culturally competent service providers must understand that DV poses a
threat to communities and families and that service providers must understand that African
Americans are linked by shared and mores (Bell & Mattis, 2000). The philosophy statement
shows the organization outright embraces the idea that clients must receive culturally competent
services. The philosophy also acknowledges that African American women need more than
shelter. This idea links to the literature stating that this population needs more resources than
most shelters can provide (Bradley et al., 2005; Crenshaw, 1994; Kasturirangan et al., 2004) to
succeed in their intervention programs. Also, another important point is that the organization
acknowledges the role of men, something that speaks to the place men hold in African American
culture and the desire in their community not to demonize African American men. Furthermore,
the 2005 overview booklet mentioned,
Women of color face significant barriers transitioning from domestic violence situations.
Often times their educational and employment levels, as well as perceived limited
opportunities and resources in the community, prevent them and their children from
transitioning to stable, permanent living situations.
This understanding of culturally competent services connects with the literature on how
the lack of comprehensive services to fill these gaps by traditional DV intervention programs
makes it hard for African American women to function in traditional Anglo-centric service
model (Bent-Goodley, 2001; Crenshaw, 1994).
Findings from interviews showed that participants understood what the organization
expected of them in regards to providing culturally competent services. As Milan stated, the
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organization embraced African American culture and offered a variety of programs and services
“that meet these women where they are at.” She said,
It’s in the programming, it’s in the staff, and it’s also in recognizing the differences
between the experiences of each client, and respecting that. We have a great respect for
who they are, and we create case plans that reflect that.
Additionally, the survey yielded results that indicate the majority of respondents, 72.4%,
understood what the organization’s goal was for providing culturally competent services both to
clients and in the community. A deep dive into question 14 (Which is the primary goal for The
Haven?) revealed that 34.4% of respondents stated that the primary goal was “to provide holistic,
warp around programs and services to unserved/underserved clients.” This means the majority of
staff did have factual knowledge about the mission and goals, although the fact that the majority
was focused on the larger community and the fact that seven responded that the mission was “to
provide shelter to domestic violence victims” could indicate that there were still some staff
members whose idea of what the organization was trying to accomplish was narrow and not
focused enough on the big picture that cultural competency sets The Community Haven apart.
Interestingly, this might reveal an unspoken unease among staff around providing culturally
competent services that could create a potential problem for the organization, as some fear that
the more services they are asked to provide, the less competent they will be to provide them.
This can be summed up best in one of the comments from the participants:
The Haven is constantly evolving to meet the needs of its clients and staff. This is a good
and bad thing. Good because it brings us closer to achieving our goals for the clients we
serve, but bad because some changes may force out staff who cannot make a quick
transition to new concepts.
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Figure 3 below shows the distribution of the respondents’ answers for question 14.
Figure 3. Primary goal of The Community Haven (N=29)
Conclusion for assumed knowledge influence 1. An analysis of the documents,
interviews and surveys showed that the first assumed influence was not validated. Staff members
did have factual knowledge of what defined culturally competent services and were exposed
early on to information that clearly stated the organization’s goal was to provide culturally
competent services to African American female clients.
Assumed knowledge influence 2: Staff may not know what culturally relevant
service strategies are (Factual). No documents or survey items were analyzed to test this
assumption. Interviews were the main source of data used to analyze this assumption.
Interviewees indicated that they had a clear understanding of what culturally competent services
looked like. For example, Beverly stated that she believed that the expansive nature of services
was what providing culturally competent services looked like:
I would say some of the biggest hurdles clients face are the result of generational poverty,
just, simple lack of resources. That, coupled with low educational attainment, can provide
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real barriers in terms of employability and the amount of compensation they’re able to
command in the workplace. Many of our clients come to us with no real comprehensive
work experience and no marketable skills. Another factor that affects many of our clients
is poor credit history. Many times that is related directly to their experience as victims of
intimate partner/domestic violence; some also having a criminal record. Many of our
clients have been involved with the criminal justice system, not merely as
victims/witnesses, and we take this into account when they come to us and know we have
to help them overcome these issues if they are going to achieve self-sufficiency.
Conclusion for assumed knowledge influence 2. Through interview analysis, it was
determined that the second assumed influence was not validated, as staff had a factual
understanding that the services that they were providing were culturally specific.
Assumed influence 3: Staff does not understand the role culture plays in how
African American women access and receive DV intervention services (Factual). Returning
to the documents, the 2005 and 2015 overviews stated specifically that services were provided
based on factual knowledge of what clients need. Both covers for the overviews feature African
American women on beaches with serene words such as “I knew it was time,” “hope,” and “self-
empowered” that underscored the idea that this was a safe space for African American women in
crisis. In fact, in the 2015 overview, the organization plainly stated,
The Community Haven was founded on the premise that you must understand the culture
of the women, men and children that you serve. The Community Haven was one of the
first organizations to begin a national discussion on the importance of culturally
competent domestic violence services. The Community Haven is also one of the pioneers
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in the implementation of programs and services that are designed to meet our clients
where they are, and encompass their social, economic, and cultural background.
In her interview, Charlotte validated this finding as she made the connection between factual and
procedural knowledge, stating,
I see cultural competency as being a process of understanding and responding to the
cultural needs and environments of our clients. I see it from an organizational standpoint,
in terms of being able to have staff and systems that are innovative and culturally
responsive to the populations we serve primarily African American women.
One of the intentions of the survey was to understand whether staff could implement
what they know about culturally competency into their work. Since conceptual knowledge also
involves reflection (Krathwohl, 2002), a goal of this study was to determine if respondents had
given any thought to the role culturally competency plays in their work. When asked question
27, about how important cultural sensitivity was to their work, 89.3% answered “very
important,” which indicated that the clear majority of respondents have thought about the role
cultural competency plays in successful intervention. This finding is important because the
literature states that one cannot implement an organizational mandate without genuine
knowledge and understanding of what they are being asked to do and why (Ismail Al-Alawi,
Yousif Al-Marzooqi, & Fraidoon Mohammed, 2007). Figure 4 below shows the distribution of
the respondents’ answers for question 27.
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Figure 4. Importance of cultural sensitivity in respondent’s work (N=29)
In addition, analysis of the survey results indicated that staff knew the services they were
providing were intentionally culturally specific. Since the data showed respondents had the
factual knowledge about culturally competent services, questions 15 through 19 measured how
confident they were that their culturally competent service model yielded results. Question 15
asked, “How confident are you that your clients can use the services that they receive at The
Haven to secure permanent employment?” A large number of respondents (46.4%) felt very
confident, while 27.3% felt somewhat confident. Interestingly, 14.3% were unsure, which
indicated that some respondents struggle with how successful they are in pushing clients
forward, a fear also seen in data pertaining to the first assumed influence. Question 16 asked,
“How confident are you that your clients can use the services that they receive at The Haven to
secure permanent housing?” Results showed 42.9% of respondents answered, “very confident,”
while 27.3% answered somewhat confident. Again, we see that the majority of respondents, 70%
are confident that their service model is successful, while a small majority, 24.3% remains
unsure. Since the number of unsures in question 15 and question 16 were so similar, it is
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probably a safe assumption that these are the same respondents and more training for certain
staff members may be warranted to alleviate some of their concerns. Interestingly, when
respondents were asked to weigh in on a service that most of them were not involved in
providing, their confidence increased. Question 17 asked, “How confident are you that your
clients have a better understanding of the legal system during their time at The Haven?” Results
were that 60.7% of respondents were very confident, 32.1% were somewhat confident and 3.6%
were unsure or somewhat skeptical. This indicated that respondents had a strong belief in the
legal service employees and their ability to provide clients real access to and understanding of
the legal system.
Another interesting finding was the value The Community Haven placed on providing
mental health services. Question 19 asked, “How important is access to mental health services
for clients?” While 85.7% of respondents stated that providing these services to a population that
traditionally reject these them is very important, it is interesting to note that when asked, in
question 18, “How confident are you that your clients will seek mental health services during
their time at The Haven?” Only 67.9% of respondents stated that they are “very confident,”
meaning that, despite their culturally sensitive approach, they struggled with connecting with
clients on this issue. Figures 5 through 9 below show the distribution of the respondents’ answers
for questions 15 through 19.
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Figure 5. Respondent’s level of confidence that clients can use the services received at The
Community Haven to secure permanent employment (N=28).
Figure 6. Respondent’s Level of Confidence That Clients Can Use the Services Received at The
Community Haven to Secure Permanent Housing (N=28).
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Figure 7. Respondent’s level of confidence that clients have developed a better understanding of
the legal system during their time at The Community Haven (N=28).
Figure 8. Respondent’s level of confidence that clients will seek mental health services during
their time at The Community Haven (N=28).
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Figure 9. Importance of client access to mental health services (N=28).
Conclusion. Based on the results of the interview and survey analysis, the third
assumption was not validated because respondents did understand the role culture plays in how
African American women access and receive DV intervention services.
Assumed knowledge influence 4: Staff does not know how to incorporate culturally
competent strategies into their programs and services (Procedural). Document analysis.
Combing through the artifacts, which included intake forms, program overviews, and reports, it
was clear that performance goals were understood through verbal communication and through
the organization’s goals, mission and philosophy, but there was no set performance written
down, meaning that whether one was successfully incorporating these strategies was up to
individual interpretation. Thus, the fact that staff members feel confident that they are meeting
their performance goals and successfully incorporating culturally competent services does not
mean they are. However, without data to the contrary, we decided to take staff members’
responses as the value, but the lack of written set standards was enough to create caution around
the results.
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This comfort was also apparent in the interviews, as Charlotte stated,
I think, in terms of staff, we have a good sense of how to serve our clients. I believe that,
when we design programs, we design programs based upon actual experiences of our
clients that use a cultural lens to discern processes that will work for those population.
In addition, survey question 28 asked, “How comfortable are you with meeting performance
goals?” Results showed 50% of respondents stated that they were very comfortable, and 39.3%
responded that they were comfortable. This showed that respondents felt they were doing a good
job integrating the culturally competent strategies that make up their performance goals. Figure
10 shows the distribution of the respondents’ answers for question 28.
Figure 10. Level of comfort respondents have in meeting their performance goals (N=28)
Conclusion. Based on the analysis of the documents, interviews and the surveys,
the fourth assumption that staff did not know how to incorporate culturally competent strategies
into their programs and services was validated in part. Performance goals were analyzed in order
to examine this assumption to determine that, while respondents had a general sense of
understanding and based their performance goals on these understandings, the organization has
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no clear defined performance goals for them to follow, so they were mostly operating from
anecdotal knowledge.
Assumed knowledge influences 5: Staff does not reflect on the role cultural
competency plays in their failure and successes. Staff must incorporate metacognitive
knowledge in order to successfully do their job. Metacognitive knowledge offers an opportunity
to understand the individual role one plays in organizational success beyond just meeting the
obligatory performance goals. There were no documents analyzed to test this assumption.
During the interviews, the answers given by participants showed they had reflected on
their role and the role of all staff in the organization. When asked to reflect on the role of staff,
Beverly was clear in her belief that they themselves epitomize the culturally competent attitude
of the organization:
I think we’ve certainly tried to be very deliberate in our hiring selections. You know,
making sure that we are hiring staff who understand the concept of cultural competency,
who buy into the concept, who are proponents of it, and who are going to be
enthusiastically supportive of our organizational mandate and imperative that the services
we provide be culturally competent. Here, we really embrace the idea of cultural
competency.
The survey results revealed that staff had thought about the role they play in client
success, which corresponds with literature stating that those who are most successful in
providing DV intervention services to African American women understand the role they
individually play in their client’s success (Crenshaw, 1994). Since 95% of staff at the
organization are African American, this idea was tested by asking respondents to reflect on the
role their race plays in the client’s short-term success. Moreover, since the previous survey
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results revealed that some respondents questioned their ability to facilitate change in their
client’s lives, it was also important to look at the role they believed their overall services play in
the long-term sustainability of their clients. Question 10 of the survey asked, “What role does the
ethnic makeup of your staff play in client success?” Results were that 55.2% stated their
ethnicity plays a significant role. With the majority of participants answering in this way, it was
clear that the staff have thought about the role their race plays in their client’s success.
These results may be related to question 7, which asked, “In your experience, how likely
is it that the client who seeks services at The Community Haven will return to their abuser?” In
all, 50% of respondents believed that it was “somewhat likely.” These results are validated by
the literature that states that, on average it takes a woman seven times before she finally leaves
her abuser (The National Domestic Violence Hotline, 2017). Consequently, these results lead to
questioning on what knowing that clients would return to their abusers no matter what services
they were offered did to staff members’ feeling of accomplishment or their motivation to do their
job? Bandura and Watts (1996) discussed how self-efficacy influences motivation, and, if staff
are questioning their efficacy no matter how they are responding in their surveys and interviews,
they are likely to suffer. Figure 11 shows the distribution of the respondents’ answers for
question 7.
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Figure 11. Likelihood of a client seeking services at The Community Haven returning to abuser
(N=30)
Figure 12. Role that ethnic make-up of The Community Haven staff plays in client success
(N=29)
Conclusion. An analysis of the interviews and the surveys showed that the fifth
assumption that staff did not reflect on the role cultural competency plays in their failure and
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successes was not validated. This was because staff had thought about how the services they
offered played a role in their clients’ success. However, it is important to note that this
assumption was based on answers gathered from several survey items. No question on the survey
directly asked about reflection, as to not lead respondents, but a straightforward question might
have yielded stronger data or different answers altogether.
Synthesis of findings. Overall, staff at The Community Haven seemed to have the
knowledge and skills to provide culturally competent services to African American women who
are victims of DV. Because I assumed that the staff did not have this knowledge, I must
acknowledge that as a member of the staff I might have allowed my own biases to cloud my
assumptions about staff. This further underscores the importance of triangulation in ensuring that
the study was not compromised. Since the results showed that staff can build upon their
knowledge to provide culturally competent services to clients, the survey moved forward and
focused on the role motivation plays in ensuring that staff members can do their jobs effectively.
Table 8 below outlines the assumed knowledge causes and the determination of validation for
each.
Table 8
Assumed Knowledge Causes and Validations
Category Assumed Cause Validated
Validated
in Part
Not
Validated
Factual
Staff may not know The Haven’s
goal for implementing culturally
relevant services.
X
Factual
Staff may not know what culturally
relevant service strategies are.
X
Conceptual
Staff does not understand the role
culture plays in how African
American women access and receive
DV intervention services.
X
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Table 8, continued
Procedural
Staff does not know how to
incorporate culturally competent.
strategies into their programs and
services.
X
Metacognitive
Staff does not reflect on the role
cultural competency plays in their
failure and successes.
X
Motivational Results and Key Findings
The second area of results and findings pertains to motivation. As detailed in Chapter
Two, this study explored two types of motivation: self-efficacy and expectancy value theory. The
conceptual framework serves to analyze how organizational influences and knowledge
influences work in tandem to reveal the gaps in knowledge, skills and motivation of staff who
provide culturally competent services to African American women who are victims of DV.
Results and key findings are presented for both motivation areas followed by a synthesis
of results and findings for motivation influences.
Self-efficacy assumption: Staff may not believe that their efforts, knowledge and
dedication play a key role in their clients ’ successes. There were no documents analyzed to
test this assumption. The interview responses indicated that participants understood the large
undertaking it is to work with this client population. Interviewees believed that any successful
service intervention with African American women included an understanding that DV is often a
generational issue.
Beverly spoke for the staff when she expressed what seemed like insurmountable odds
when tackling this issue:
A lot of times, it’s generational. It could be from their great-grandmother, you know, and
then, their mom. You know, it’s a history. So, when they start looking at the history,
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they’re trying to figure out, “Well, how did I get caught up here?” Like, they feel like it’s
a curse, and who’s going to break it? And then, they’re trying to break so that their child
and you get people in here that their children have older children, and it’s a long cycle
and then, here’s the mother, because she wants to break it, because her daughter went
through it. She’s trying to set the example.
Interviewees also expressed that it was important that DV service providers reframe the
issue of DV as a community issue and not just a private behind closed doors family issue. As
Beverly put it,
It’s super important that, as someone coming in and offering help, you be able to
understand from their cultural perspective what impacts them experiencing this violence
has had on their lives. And what it’s gonna take in order for them to be able to overcome
it and move forward successfully.
Charlotte agreed with Beverly’s assessment:
I don’t want to say this is our culture, but our clients live in, you know, one of the lowest
economic areas. And, as a result of that, there are not a lot of resources. And so, a lot of
things happen in African American homes that don’t happen with other races. And a lot
of times it’s very taboo for us to talk about what is happening in our homes outside of the
home so in many instances you don’t talk about it at all. I see many cases when you’re
trying to get a trauma and people have suppressed it because they have been encouraged
to do so by their community.
Many of the survey items were intended to analyze whether respondents believed their
work had a successful impact on their client’s future. Questions 15 through 18 dealt directly with
how confident they felt in meeting the goal for clients’ success as they currently understood it:
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providing vocational, housing, legal and mental health services. Question 15 asked, “How
confident are you that your clients can use the services that they receive to secure employment?”
A large portion of respondents (46.4%) answered that they were very confidently. Question 16
asked, “How confident are you that your clients can use the services that they receive to secure
permanent housing?” A large portion, 42.9%, of respondents answered very confidently.
Furthermore, question 17 asked, “How confident are you that your clients have a better
understanding of the legal system during their time at The Haven?” Results were that 60.7% of
respondents answered very confidently. Finally, question 18 asked, “How confident are you that
your clients will seek mental health services during their time at The Haven?” Results showed
67.9% responded very confident. These findings indicate that respondents believed their
knowledge and dedication was leading clients towards success. Figure 13 below shows the
distribution of the respondents’ answers for question 5.
Figure 13. Frequency respondents meet with clients to discuss case plans.
The survey also explored if participants believed their direct contact with clients made a
difference. Question 23 asked, “How important is it for African Americans clients to have access
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to staff? With 75.1% stating very important, results indicated that staff members understood they
played a pivotal role in their client’s success. However, this knowledge did not seem to motivate
them to connect more with clients. This was seen in answers to question 13, which asked, “How
satisfied are you with your relationship with your client?” Only 55.2 % responded very satisfied,
a decrease of 20% from the previous question, which indicated that respondents were not
motivated to put this idea into action. This was also seen in responses to question 5, which asked,
“How frequently do you meet with your clients to discuss your case plan?” With the majority of
respondents answering 39.4% answering 1 hour or less, This is not much time to spend with a
population all interviewees stated needed much hand holding. As a result, the data showed a
breakdown between how much respondents felt they should be seeing clients and how much they
were actually seeing them. Figures 14 and 15 below show the distribution of the respondents’
answers for questions 23 and13.
Figure 14. Respondent’s level of satisfaction with their relationship with their clients (N=29)
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Figure 15. Likelihood of a client seeking services at The Community Haven returning to abuser
(N=30)
Conclusion: The assumption that staff may not believe that their efforts, knowledge and
dedication play a key role in their clients’ successes was partially validated. While participants
seemed confident that they could provide services their clients need to move towards self-
sufficiency, the size of the problem gave them pause and created doubt about their role in their
client’s success.
Assumed influence expectancy value theory: Staff may not believe that the effort
they put forth will bring about the desired outcomes. There were no documents and no survey
items analyzed to test this assumption. The expectancy value theory relates to the value one
assigns to a task (Eccles, 2006). In this particular case, it was the value interviewees placed on
serving their clients. All interviewees stated that they worked at The Community Haven because
they believed in the work and did not expect much from the organization in terms of help or
rewards. Tanisha stated whatever small changes she could make were gratifying:
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I believed just being able to help one person, even if it’s just one person, you’ve done
something good. I came from a for-profit world before I went to nonprofit. So, I was so
used to doing things because of the money. And then when I came to this job and it was,
“Oh wow. I like helping people.” And I realized I would sacrifice the money to help the
people. So, I think, right now, because a lot of African American women don’t get the
opportunities that others get, it’s gratifying to know that I’m able to help at least another
African American woman seek shelter or find employment or reunify with their children
or something that helps them be more successful and more self-sufficient. That’s
gratifying.
Conclusion. The assumed influence that employees may not believe that the effort they
put forth will bring about the desired outcomes was partially validated. Interviewees expressed
concerns that they would never be able to meet the desired outcomes for clients in a way that
would please management. As one of the respondents commented,
The Haven is constantly evolving to meet the needs of its clients and this is a good and
bad thing; good because it brings us closer to achieving our goals for the communities
that we serve, but bad because some changes may force out staff who cannot make a
quick transition to new concepts.
Summary of key findings and results. Although some participants expressed concern
that they were not given enough resources to do their job, the majority seemed pleased with what
the organization offered in terms of resources and trainings. One reason for these findings may
be that participants were motivated by intrinsic value in that they did the work for work’s sake
and they asked for very little, even resources to do their work, in return. Still, there was a belief
among them that they could make a difference in their client’s lives. In fact, they seemed to be
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motivated most by intrinsic value. Vilkka (1997) stated that intrinisc value is rooted in the idea
that someone commits an act or provides a service for no other reason than for its own sake.
However, staff were acutely aware of myriad issues that this population faces and questioned, at
times, if their knowledge and motivation were enough. Therefore, participants expressed a belief
that community intervention was essential to these women achieving any long-term success.
Table 3 below outlines this assumed motivational cause and the determination of its validation.
Table 9
Assumed Motivation Causes and Results
Category Assumed Cause Validated
Validated
in Part
Not
Validated
Self-Efficacy
Staff may not believe that their
efforts, knowledge and
dedication play a key role in
their clients’ successes
X
Expectancy
Value
Staff may not believe that the
effort they put forth will bring
about the desired outcomes
X
N= not validated; V=validated
Organization Results and Findings
The third area of results and findings involves organizational influences on staff
members’ ability to provide DV intervention services to African American women.
Organizational influences were framed in this study by cultural models, those elements that
cannot be seen, and cultural settings, the visible elements of a workplace culture elements of
culture (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001; Schneider et al., 1996). Research affirmed that cultural
models and cultural settings are ingrained so deeply into the psyche of staff that they often or not
even aware how they affect their work (Rueda, 2011; Schneider et al., 1996). In this study, four
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assumptions were made about the organizational influences that contributed to staff being able to
meet their stakeholder goal. The first two assumptions were cultural models, and the last two
were cultural setting influences. The two cultural model influences focused on whether
employees worked in an environment that provided them with the resources and guidance to
meet their stakeholder goal of providing culturally relevant services. The two cultural settings
focused on whether they worked in an environment that clearly made them accountable for their
performance. Results and key findings are presented for each organizational influence, followed
by a summary of key results and findings for organizational influences.
Cultural models: Staff does not work in an environment in which resources and
incentives are aligned with the goal of providing culturally relevant services. There were no
documents analyzed to test this assumption. While previous results revealed that respondents did
not expect or require resources or praise to do their job, it was clear from the interviews that they
believed they could benefit from both. Charlotte stated,
We need more professional development. We can get more out of either going to
conferences or workshop or having a guest speaker come to address new innovative ways
of servicing diverse populations. I also think we can do better in terms of having a more
systematic training program, specifically leadership training.
Beverly also felt as if the organization needed to improve the way it supports staff in their work:
I think that there is an assumption that, if staff looks like the clients, then they are
automatically culturally competent in terms of how they interact with the clients. And, in
some cases, that’s true, but I don’t think that’s universally the case. And I think that there
are some best practices around the provision of culturally competent services that are not
intuitive, and they actually have to be taught. I also think we could do a better job in
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terms of providing training and sort of building that into the onboarding process for new
hires.
The survey results showed that the majority of respondents disagreed with this
assessment. Question 29 asked, “How often does The Haven provide trainings in areas you feel
you need improvement in?” The majority of staff (57.2%) answered often or fairly often.
However, 14.3% did not answer at all, which led to concerns as to whether there was fear in
answering negatively. Similarly, question 30 asked, “How confident are you that you can get any
resources that you need to do your job?” An even greater majority (71.5%) answered either very
confident or confident with 14.3% answering not sure. These findings indicated the majority of
staff members felt they received enough training and those who did not feel that way believed
the organization would be open to providing more trainings and resources, if asked. Figure 16
and Figure 17 below show the distribution of the respondents’ answers for this category.
Figure 16. Level of confidence respondents have in acquiring any resources they need to do their
job (N=28)
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Figure 17. Frequency The Haven provides trainings in areas that respondents need improvement
(N=28)
Conclusion. This assumption was partially validated by the data. The early data analysis
discussed the organization’s commitment to providing staff with culturally competent services,
yet some respondents claimed that they were rarely given the resources they needed to succeed.
Cultural Models: Staff does not work in an environment in which performance
goals, including what culturally competent service consists of, are clearly communicated.
There were no documents and no survey items analyzed to test this assumption. Interviewees
offered that the organization shied away from formally aligning goals and incentives because of
the monetary compensation staff might expect. Beverly stated,
We don’t have a consistent performance review protocol. And, I think, historically, one
of the reasons we have not is because performance reviews are typically tied to merit
increases. And, because we have never been in a position to give regularly scheduled
merit increases, the performance evaluation aspect of that has been allowed to lapse. I
think it needs to be done, regardless of whether they’re going to give an increase because
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everyone kinda deserves that feedback on how they’re doing and if they are meeting their
performance goals. You know, what are their successes, where are the areas of
improvement, et cetera. And so, I think as an organization, we could be doing that better.
Subsequent research showed that trend to be motivated by intrinsic value, so this fear was
unfounded and, therefore, this appeared to be an unnecessary gap. However, some participants
felt frustrated by the lack of communication around performance goals and questioned why, if
they were meeting their understood performance goals, they were not being compensated with
standard incentives. In fact, Milan stated that, despite the intrinisic value of the work, the lack of
communication and frustration around performnace goals and compensation did have an effect
on the quality of employees they were able to attract and retain:
I think the biggest challenge is that we just can’t pay for the best people. I mean, when
don’t want to do consistent evaluations, for whatever reason, and you don’t offer
feedback in a way that rewards staff who go above and beyond it’s hard to get people to
stay.
So, while staff does receive some communication around expected performance goal is not
provided in a consistent, sustainable manner.
Conclusion. The assumption that staff did not work in an environment in which
performance goals, including what culturally competent service consists of, are clearly
communicated was validated in part. The results of the data revealed The Community Haven, as
an organization, struggled with communication, and this assumed influence was validated due to
inconsistencies around what the expected performance goals were. Interviewees stated that they
understood what they were expected to do: provide a variety of culturally competent services that
include vocational education, health and wellness, mental health, and a pathway to securing
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employment and permanent housing because it was told to them or they figured it out for
themselves.
Cultural settings: Staff does not work in an environment in which they are held
accountable for providing effective, culturally responsive service to clients. There were no
documents analyzed to test the assumption. Interview respondents revealed that evaluations were
rarely performed with staff, so there was no way to truly hold staff accountable for meeting
performance goals. In addition, the organization was leery of letting staff go, even when they
were not working out. Charlotte stated that she was bothered by the leniency the organization
showed some employees, even though there were human resource policies in place to facilitate
letting go of employees who were not working out:
I am not sure what it is. I have seen so many employees who are clearly not working out
being moved to different positions instead of being fired because we are always trying to
give people a chance. Other organizations just get rid of you if you can’t do your job, but
we have such a soft hand, and we are always worrying about how they are going to
survive without their job. It just makes everything harder for everyone else because not
only does someone else have to pick up their slack, but it sends a message that you can
just do the bare minimum here and there will be no consequences.
Survey items looked at how comfortable staff were with the accountability environment
the organization fostered. For this assumption, question 28, which asked, “How comfortable are
you that you are meeting your performance goals?” Half of the respondents stated they felt very
comfortable. Figure 18 shows the results of question 28.
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Figure 18. Level of comfort respondents have in meeting their performance goals (N=28)
Conclusion. The assumed influence that staff did not work in an environment in which
they are held accountable for providing effective, culturally responsive service to clients was
validated. The research showed that many of the issues nonprofits have with accountability stems
from leaders having difficulty defining and implementing broadly defined standards of
responsiveness and accountability (Firestone & Shipps, 2005; Ospina et al., 2002). Kearns
(1996) proposed the idea of an accountability environment in which accountability must include
the fulfillment of both public expectation and organizational goals. In other words, the
accountability environment created by a non-profit often dictates how the non-profit functions.
During data analysis, it seemed that The Community Haven fell into this category, and there
were no set accountability measures. However, it is important to note that, in the absence of
more data, it is hard to determine what The Haven can do to improve this situation, although
implementing evaluations and a stricter employee accountability model may be a step in the right
direction.
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Cultural Settings: Staff does not work in an environment that uses data and
evidence to assess staff performance. There were no documents or survey items analyzed to
test this assumption. During the interviews, staff expressed that The Haven was not an
organization that utilized data and evidence as part of its organizational structure. Charlotte
summed up this reality:
Researcher: Does the organization do a good job in incorporating data and evaluation into
its organizational structure.
Charlotte: The short answer is no. We can do better. I have been saying that for years.
Researcher: So, you feel that data analysis and evidence should be taken into account
when staff performance and programs are evaluated?
Charlotte: Yes. I do think it needs to; it takes everything to the next level to get a regular
evaluation system in. At some point you have to be able to identify what are
those measurable outcomes would give somebody a superior outstanding
rating versus poor, needs improvement. And that has to be based on data or
some type of evidence-based result. It also helps people understand what
their leadership role is in the organization. Are you accomplishing that? How
successful are you in developing projects? Raising money? Moving a
program along? We need to have a discussion on that we can’t without
definite measurements that you can add to one’s evaluation.
Researcher: And so, just to be clear, that’s currently not being done?
Charlotte: No. I don’t think so. Or if it is being done consistently. It’s not being done
across the board.
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Beverly also stated that this hindered the organization from looking at some of its gaps
when it came to employee onboarding and retention:
I think one of the reasons we have avoided implementing data and evaluation models is
that it shines a light on the inequity of salary and stuff like that. You know, once you start
doing performance evaluations, then you have to really see if the amount of money
you’re paying people is in line with what they’re doing. The use of data and evidence-
based results would allow The Haven to create a regular system that produced
measurable outcomes the organization would be able to provide staff with a real sense of
how they are performing.
Conclusion. Data and evidence were not used to assess staff performance, and,
consequently, this assumption was validated. This is an important finding because research states
that, if employees are going to be held to a certain accountability standard, then they must be
given the tools to succeed, which includes information gathered from data that pertains to their
performance outcomes (Campbell, 2002). Data analysis is a way to create mechanisms to
measure success. Furthermore, the research argued that data and evaluations are essential to
implementing necessary changes at The Haven in a systematic way that that does not alienate
staff and turn them off the process all together (Dessinger et al., 2012).
Candler and Dumont (2010) discussed how organizations that adhere to their mission
have procedural accountability mechanisms that also speak to legal and political accountability
goals. It is my opinion that Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick’s (2016) four levels of evaluation would
be useful in helping with this. In addition, utilizing formative evaluations to continuously track
employee performance; summative evaluations to trace the knowledge, skills, and motivation
during implementation; confirmative evaluations to identify and explain the sustainability of the
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changes; and meta evaluations will allow employees a chance for self-reflection (Dessinger et
al., 2012). Table10 below outlines the assumed organizational causes and the determination of
validation for each.
Table 10
Assumed Organizational Causes and Results
Category Assumed Cause Validated
Validated
in Part
Not
Validated
Cultural Model
Staff does not work in an
environment in which resources
and incentives are aligned with the
goal of providing culturally
relevant services.
X
Cultural Model
Staff does not to work in an
environment in which performance
goals, including what culturally
competent service consists of, are
clearly communicated.
X
Cultural
Setting
Staff does not work in an
environment in which they are held
accountable for providing effective,
culturally responsive service to
clients.
X
Cultural
Setting
Staff does not work in an
environment that uses data and
evidence to assess staff
performance.
X
Summary of key findings and results. Overall, staff at The Community Haven lacked
the resources they need to be as successful as they could be in providing culturally competent
services to African American women who are victims of DV. Results showed that some
respondents cited limited resources and non-existent accountability measures as areas that
needed improvement. They also cited a need to integrate data and evaluations as a way to
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improve staff performance and boost morale. It is interesting to note that very few assumed
influences were validated in. However, one of the strongest findings was that research is correct
in stating that an emotional attachment to clients and to the work motivates many do this work.
Summary and Implications
A number of themes emerged across results. In fact, three themes and six subthemes
became apparent. Each is discussed along with implications related to the organizational goal.
Figure 19 summarizes the themes and their respective subthemes that emerged from the
narrative.
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Figure 19. Findings by research questions.
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Summary of Results for Research Question 1
Based on the interviews, two themes emerged to answer the first research question. The
first theme was that respondents demanded little from the organization because they were
intrinsically motivated, and the second theme was that they needed more resources from the
organization to do their jobs better. First it became clear that participants demanded little from
the organization because they were intrinsically motivated. Vilkka (1997) stated that intrinisc
value is rooted in the idea that someone commits an act or provides a serrvice for no other reason
than for its own sake. All interviewees believed in the work and did not expect help or rewards.
This altruistic motivation was expressed by Helen, who believed that her work was an extension
of herself:
I think what motivates me is that I’ve always been raised to help people and to try to
make a difference. And I think working every day at the shelter gives me a good sense of
reality, and it keeps me grounded. And I think seeing people make small steps, even if
it’s getting out of their bed and venturing out of their door.
Since the majority of interviewees saw their work as a higher calling and, in some
instances, as an extension of their faith or their way of giving back to their community and
practicing their faith, examining their knowledge and skills was almost secondary because they
were acting on emotion. Consequently, they did not demand focus on the resources they may
lack to do their jobs. However, these were limitations that must be examined as the second theme
that emerged was that respondents need more resources from the organization to do their jobs
better. While interviewees did not expect or require resources or praise to do their jobs, it was
clear they could benefit from both. Charlotte stated the need more for professional development,
such as conferences, workshops or guest speakers to address new ways of serving diverse
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populations. Since this study was guided by the idea that the lack of knowledge and skills creates
a service gap must be attended to, the continued lack of resources, lack of training, lack of
evaluations and feedback, and continued expansion of duties must to attended to or else the
organization is in danger of creating unrealistic performance goals that makes staff accountable
for outcomes in an environment makes it impossible for them to produce (Hentschke &
Wohlstetter, 2004). This was bound to create discontent even among those who desire very little.
Summary of Results for Research Question 2
Based on the interviews, two themes emerged pertaining to the second research
questions. The first theme was that the community’s norms and values must be integrated in how
staff addressed DV. Three subthemes emerged: the belief that African Americans have a unique
historical experience that effects how clients embrace their services, a belief that employees must
provide DV intervention in partnership with the community, and a belief that they must approach
DV intervention as generational. Seen throughout the interviews was the idea that culturally
competent services are rooted in programs and services that integrate a population’s norms and
values. Sokoloff (2008) stated that, in any community, family violence and the way the violence
is sanctioned cannot be separated when attempting to intervene in ending it. Consequently,
respondents believed that they had to understand the unique cultural and historical experiences of
their African American clients in order to truly serve them. Beverly stated,
I would define cultural competency as having an understanding of the unique historical,
cultural, and political, environment, out of which our clients, are coming, and how that
will impact them in terms of overcoming DV. That will decide what additional tools and
services they may need as a result of their unique cultural circumstances and being able
to provide for those needs. You know, the DV movement really sort of came out of the
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feminist movement of the ’60s and ’70s. So, the roots of the movement are very, what is
the word I’m looking for? Has a very White female perspective in terms of, you know,
what are the remedies to DV? Like, is separation the only answer? Is it to distrust all
men? I think what we have learned, doing this work, that African American women tend
to view the issue of DV differently from their White counterparts.
In this way, employees were able to use their existing knowledge to inform their skill set in
working with African American women who are victims of DV.
As a result, another subtheme was the belief that the feeling of sisterhood they shared
with their clients was essential to the way they delivered services. Collins (2000) discussed how
African American women find safety in the ability to form fellowship with each other. Beverly
stated that she was motivated to work with “African American women because those are my
sisters.” She continued,
I feel like, when something has been done wrong to one, it’s been done wrong to us. And
I think we have a collective pain that we share having been marginalized, you know,
historically, currently in society. So, I think there is just a special connection that I feel to
African American women. And, you know, for me, it’s like a moral imperative that I use,
the skills that God has blessed me to obtain in, you know, furtherance of helping my
fellow African American sisters. So, that’s why I do it.
Consequently, one of the subthemes that emerged was that staff can only successfully
connect with clients if they understand their cultural norms and values. Milan shared that, for
her, cultural competency was about first being willing to open your doors and make your clients
feel welcome where they are normally rejected.
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Beverly stated,
I think we’ve certainly tried to be very deliberate in our hiring selections. You know,
making sure that we are hiring staff who understand the concept of cultural competency,
who buy into the concept, who are proponents of it, and who are going to be
enthusiastically supportive of our organizational mandate and imperative that the services
we provide be culturally competent. Here, we really embrace the idea of cultural
competency.
From this, another subtheme that emerged was that clients react better to intervention
programs that employ people who reflect their culture and ethnicity. Beverly explained,
Well, I think one of the ways in which we offer culturally competent and relevant service
is that our staff really mirrors the client demographic that we serve. Approximately 65%
of our [clients] are African Americans, and currently our staff is about 85 to 90% African
American. And so, because the staff mirrors the clientele culturally, I think that there’s a
natural level on which staff is able to connect with the clients. In terms of shared history,
shared culture, shared values, and, shared backgrounds. So, that’s, you know, obviously,
one, one way in which we provide culturally competent services, particularly as it
pertains to African American women.
Also, you know, our staff comes from the Los Angeles area, the vast majority of
them. And so, we kind of have, you know, that shared experience of growing up in the
same community and can relate to the clients on that level. Staff is intimately familiar
with some of the challenges our communities face and are familiar in terms of how those
challenges intersect with the issue of domestic violence, and how it impacts our clients.
Still, participants acknowledged that their being African American did not mean that all
clients had the same experience or that they could relate automatically to all their clients. Part of
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being culturally competent is understanding the intergroup dynamics of a culture (Harrell &
Bond, 2006). African American women have different socioeconomic experiences, educational
backgrounds, sexual orientations and religious affiliations that effect how they see the world
(Collins, 1998). Helen stated this very plainly:
I am not saying that you understand everything about a client, you’re Black and she’s
Black, because there still are some cultural differences within the African American
culture. We still have to work hard to understand where each particular person is coming
from.
This means that there is an opportunity for the organization to improve the way it
supports its employees in their work. Because the majority of staff share the culture or ethnicty
of the clients, there is a danger of assuming they are automatically culturally competent in terms
of how they interact with the clients. In some cases, that is true, but that cannot universally be the
case. Nonetheless, while no homogenous African American female culture exists, there are still
core values and beliefs that African American women have based on their culture and identity
(Collins, 2000). Consequently, best practices around the provision of culturally competent
services acknowledges that cultural competency is not intuitive, and some aspects need be
taught, no matter how much you have in common with the population. This can be done through
training and consider during the onboarding process for new hires.
The third subtheme that emerged was that staff must often become a surrogate family to
clients in order to connect with them. Interviewees expressed the sentiments that clients have
personal connections with the staff, and that they are like a big family. Milan stated that, for
many of the clients, this was the first time that they felt like they had a family:
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We have many young clients who never had a mother figure in her life to teach her
anything. Sometimes they connect with some staff members as a mother figure other
times they connect with the older staff members as a grandmother figure. They are
looking for that family base that they missed. So, we recognize that individual need and
seeing that, “Okay, she really needs this connection.”
This, however, creates a difficult situation for employees as they find themselves in the
position of being all things to people they do not know very well. Since previous themes showed
that respondents often have an emotional investment in their clients, it is important that the
organization tend to the staff members’ emotional well-being. Research states that service
providers often experience high levels of stress from working closely with trauma survivors, but
organizations tend to neglect their emotional well-being (Kulkarni, Bell, Hartman, & Herman-
Smith, 2013). Therefore, The Community Haven must ensure that staff members do not fall prey
to provider burnout or secondary traumatic stress, both of which can damper motivation and,
consequently, lead to low job satisfaction and even a higher rate of job turnover (Alarcon, 2011).
In this way, the organization will promote the wellness of staff in ways that will produce a
healthier and productive workforce.
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CHAPTER FIVE: SOLUTIONS, INTEGRATED IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION
Chapter Four examined the first and second research questions in regard to whether the
staff at The Community Haven had the knowledge, skills and motivation to provide culturally
competent services to African American female victims of DV. The results were framed using
Clark and Estes’ (2008) framework for evaluation. Findings were also synthesized, and
implications from the data were discussed. The last chapter of the study centers on the final
research question: What are the recommended solutions to close the knowledge, skills,
motivation, and organizational gaps with regard to employees at The Community Haven
providing culturally competent services to African American female clients?
With an emphasis on Clark and Estes’ (2008) framework, this chapter discusses specific
recommendations for knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational solutions and
presents possible ways for implementation and evaluation of solutions that incorporate the New
World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Finally, Chapter Five presents an
analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of the study, limitations and delimitations, and
recommendations for future study.
Recommendations for Practice to Address Influences
The assumed knowledge influences for this study were based on Krathwohl’s (2002)
revised Bloom’s taxonomy which organizes knowledge into three types: factual (staff members’
concept of cultural competency); procedural (staff members’ knowledge of how to implement
culturally competent services); and metacognitive (staff members’ self-assessment of their
impact on clients). Clark and Estes (2008) claimed that there are strong correlations among the
knowledge, skills and motivation of staff and organizational success, while Purnell (2003) stated
that no organization can truly provide culturally competent services if it does not ascertain its
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strengths, weaknesses, and capacity. In the study, factual knowledge focused on the respondents’
understanding of the definition of cultural competency and whether they had a basic
understanding of the role it played in the client’s success. A need for factual knowledge of the
definition of cultural competency was not validated, nor was there a need to explain what
culturally competent services are. Respondents also had a good understanding of the procedural
knowledge necessary to meet their stakeholder goal. Focusing on providing culturally competent
services to African American female clients was important as an organizational priority because
both the research and the data collected showed that providing services in this way increased the
retention rate and the long-term successful outcomes of these clients. In the case of
metacognitive knowledge influences, the connection between staff being able to self-reflect on
their role in clients’ success and how they provide services was found to be highly probable.
Table 11 summarizes knowledge influences, as well as validation and priority status. Table 11
also provides the organization-specific recommendations and recommendations for knowledge
influences.
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Table 11
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
Knowledge
Influence:
Cause, Need, or
Asset*
Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
or No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Staff needs to
know The
Haven’s goal for
implementing
culturally relevant
services. (f)
N Y Effective staff members
understand the vision,
mission, values, goals,
and strategies of an
organization (Van Tiem
et al., 2004; Saul,
2004).
Being explicit when
considering what people
should know is critical in
helping achieve
important learning goals
and improving
performance (Rueda,
2011, p.32).
Ensure that staff knows the
mission and vision of the
organization as it is presented
and understood by stake holders.
Provide training to leadership on
initiating positive and ongoing
communication/dialogue with
staff around how they are
implementing the mission and
vision.
Staff needs to
know what
culturally relevant
service strategies
are. (f)
N Y Factual knowledge
includes things like
terminology, details or
elements one must know
or be familiar with in
order to understand and
function effectively or
solve a problem in a
given area (Rueda, 2011,
p. 28).
Provide a detailed description of
job duties, goals and objectives
Weekly assessments on how
successful the services being
implemented are for clients.
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Table 11, continued
Assumed
Knowledge
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*
Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
or No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Staff needs to
understand the
cultural norms of
their African
American clients.
(f)
N Y Gill et al. (2016) discuss
how traditional Anglo-
American service models
often do not work with
ethnic minorities, and that
providing culturally
sensitive care to clients is
key to ongoing and
meaningful stakeholder
engagement.
Successful organizations
have staff who understands
the importance of catering to
the cultural orientation of its
population, whether that is
providing services in their
first language, or providing
resources and programs in
ways that are understanding
of their culture needs (Dana,
1996).
Provide training and educational
sessions for staff that discuss the
cultural norms and values of African
American clients and the importance
of integrating them into the service
model.
The Community
Haven’s staff needs
to understand the
role culture plays in
how African
American women
access and receive
DV intervention
services. (C)
N Y
African American women
who feel that they are being
offered culturally competent
programming tend to be
more willing to enter into a
shelter and more open to
some of the mental health
and educational programs
they usually shun (Sullivan
& Rumptz, 1994; Bent-
Goodley, 2001).
Service providers should begin
Creating dialogue in the community
around combating police brutality,
incarceration, racism, and economic
concerns in ways that help
communities understand the link
between community violence and
relationship violence prevalence and
intervention
Developing public policies that
support cultural competence on both
institutional and direct service levels.
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Table 11, continued
Assumed
Knowledge
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*
Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
or No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Staff needs to be
able to apply what
they know about
their clients to
their practice (p)
N Y It is not enough for DV service providers
to have a service understanding of the
role culture competency plays in
intervention services. They must know
and implement key strategies that are
geared towards providing culturally
relevant care (Bent-Goodley, 2005).
Strategies that encourage and monitor
mental operations facilitate creative and
critical thinking (Barksdale and Lund,
2001).
The ability to actualize their culturally
sensitive knowledge may be the
difference between a client staying at the
shelter or fleeing back to a dangerous
situation (Dana, 1996; Sullivan &
Rumptz, 1994; Bent-Goodley, 2001).
Critical thinking plays a strong role with
procedural knowledge because it
facilitates creativity and buy-in
(Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011).
Assessments with
intervention and
evaluation models that are
designed, implemented
with defined goals in
mind.
Service providers should
develop relationships
with those who work at
child welfare and social
services organizations.
Staff needs to be
able to reflect on
the role cultural
competency plays
in their failure and
successes (m)
HP Y One of the major differences between
successful and less successful individuals
in any field is that successful individuals
know how to motivate themselves even
when they do not feel like performing a
task, whereas less successful individuals
have difficulty controlling their
motivation (Dembo & Eaton, 2000).
In order to be truly culturally competent,
those who work in the community must
be self-reflexive and continuously
explore the way their characteristics and
social background influence their
perceptions and behaviors with others
(Harrell & Bond, 2006).
Weekly meeting should
be held to discuss how
staff feel about what is
and is not working
Staff should be evaluated
on a regular basis on their
ability to provide
culturally competent
service
Staff should have safe
spaces where they can
vent their anger and
express concerns in an
anonymous way.
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Table 11, continued
Assumed
Knowledge
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*
Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
or No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Hentschke & Wohlstetter (2004) discuss
how good accountability models ensure that
service providers understand how their
work and decisions affect organizational
goals.
*Indicate knowledge type for each influence listed using these abbreviations: (F)actual; (P)rocedural;
(M)etacognitive
Factual Knowledge Solutions or Description of Needs or Assets
Research shows that effective staff members understand their organization’s vision,
mission, values, goals, and strategies of (Saul, 2004; Van Tiem et al., 2004). Rueda (2011)
discussed how factual knowledge includes terminology, details or elements one must know or be
familiar with in order to understand and function effectively or solve a problem in a given area.
This suggests that, unless staff member receives information on what culturally competent
service strategies should look like, they will not be able to effectively do their job. This also
suggests that providing them a fundamental understanding of the core principles and values of
the organization is essential to meeting their expected program goals. The data showed
respondents did understand the definition of cultural competency and how their organization
defined cultural competency in its mission and philosophy. However, this knowledge was either
told verbally or presented in a format that they did not generally have daily access to.
Consequently, the recommendation for staff is to provide them with job aids that include written
copies of the mission and vision of the organization as presented and understood by internal and
external stakeholders.
Clark and Estes (2008) discussed how job aids provide people information to achieve
performance goals on their own. In fact, Tilaro and Rossett (1993) emphasized the fact that job
DO NO HARM 131
aids enhance program performance by providing information in a clear and concise manner, so
employees develop a guided perspective on how to most effectively do their job. Consequently,
the recommendation is to provide a job aid that clearly and consistently reminds staff of the
mission, values and goals of the organization will assist them in providing culturally competent
services to their African American female clients. Moreover, as Barksdale and Lund (2001)
pointed out, a job aid is a strategy that encourages and monitors mental operations and facilitates
creative and critical thinking. In order to see if this is the case, it is recommended that the
organization conduct weekly assessments on how successful services are for African American
female clients.
Clark and Estes (2008) also stated that training influences how staff members implement
their procedural knowledge. Parsons, Rollyson, and Reid (2012) stated that researchers have long
argued that training human service staff is essential to having a large-scale impact on the clients
they serve. As such, it is recommended that staff receive training and educational sessions on the
cultural norms and values of African American clients and the importance of integrating them
into the service model.
Procedural Knowledge Solutions, or Description of Needs or Assets
Bent-Goodley (2005) discussed how it is not enough for DV service providers to
understand the role culture competency plays in intervention services. They must know and
implement key strategies based on providing culturally relevant care. Researchers such as
Sullivan and Rumptz (1994) and Bent-Goodley (2001) stated that African American women who
feel they are offered culturally competent programming tend to be more willing to enter into a
shelter and more open to some of the mental health and educational programs they usually shun.
In fact, research states that the ability to actualize their culturally sensitive knowledge may be the
DO NO HARM 132
difference between a client staying at the shelter or fleeing back to a dangerous situation (Dana,
1996; Sullivan & Rumptz, 1994; Bent-Goodley, 2001). This suggests that staff must understand
their cultural norms and values to successfully service them. Research results from the study
showed that staff does have this understanding. However, this knowledge comes with an
understanding that the complexities of the clients’ experiences mean that staff feels that the
community must be involved in the solutions. Consequently, it is recommended that staff receive
information on how to create dialogue in the community around combating police brutality,
incarceration, racism, and economic concerns in ways that help communities understand the link
between community violence and relationship violence prevalence and intervention that will
allow all groups to have a greater understanding of each other.
Also, since critical thinking plays a strong role with procedural knowledge and facilitates
creativity and buy-in (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011) one suggestion is to ensure employees
receive the necessary training and development to do their jobs. Training helps staff members
make connections between them and their work, and studies show that there has to be a certain
level of personal engagement for a person to feel motivated to actively do their job (Schraw &
Lehman, 2009). Furthermore, Clark and Estes (2008) stated that training is useful when staff
needs guided practice to perfect new ideas and procedures. As a result, the recommendation is
that staff is consistently observed, evaluated and on how they are performing their day to day
tasks and trained on innovative and practical ways they can improve their service to clients.
Metacognitive Knowledge Solutions or Description of Needs or Assets
Research shows that one of the major differences between successful and less successful
individuals in any field is that successful individuals know how to motivate themselves even
when they do not feel like performing a task, whereas less successful individuals have difficulty
DO NO HARM 133
controlling their motivation (Dembo & Eaton, 2000). Harrell and Bond (2006) stated that, to be
truly culturally competent, those who work in the community must be self-reflexive and
continuously explore the way their characteristics and social background influence their
perceptions and behaviors with others. Thus, the assumed influence that staff needs to be able to
reflect on the role cultural competency plays in their failure and successes was partially validated
as respondents did reflect on their role in client success but did not receive any organization tools
to do so. As a result, a recommendation is that staff members receive information that allows
them to reflect on their work, including evaluations and feedback. Another recommendation is
providing staff with safe spaces where they can vent anger and express concerns anonymously.
This also includes holding weekly meetings to exchange information about how they feel about
what is and is not working and evaluating and discussing, on a regular basis, how successfully
they are providing culturally competent services.
Motivation Recommendations
The motivation influences in Table 2 represent the assumed motivation influences and
whether these were validated based on the most frequently mentioned motivation influences to
achieving the stakeholders’ goal. Research states there are three indicators of motivation in task
performance: choice, persistence and mental effort (Clark & Estes, 2008). Choice is going
beyond intention to start something. Persistence is continuing to pursue a goal in the face of
distractions, and mental effort is seeking and applying new knowledge to solve a program issues
or perform a new task. The fact that all interviewees and survey participants chose to work at this
non-profit shows both persistence and mental effort in reaching their stakeholder goal. As such,
as indicated in Table 12, some motivational influences have a high probability of being validated
DO NO HARM 134
and have a high priority for achieving the stakeholders’ goal. Table 12 also shows the
recommendations for these influences based on theoretical principles.
Table 12
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
Motivation
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*
Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Staff needs to be
able to reflect on
the role cultural
competency plays
in their failure and
successes (Self-
efficacy)
P Y Accountability also
allows staff and
opportunity for self-
reflection on how their
work aligns with the
mission of the
organization (Saul, 2004;
Dessinger, Moseley and
Van Tiem, 2004)
Self-reflection allows one
to recognize the personal
biases that are potentially
harmful to a client’s
healing process (Tervalon
& Murray-Garcia, 1998).
Whitaker, et al. (2007)
points out that successful
employees often reflect
on their own service gaps
so that they can
implement necessary
changes since self-
reflection leads to self-
regulation.
Bedny & Karwowski
(2006) point out that self-
regulation leads to self
goals and these goals
often determine how
motivation.
Create accountability
mechanisms for feedback,
evaluations, trainings or staff
development opportunities that
offer staff the tools they need to
succeed, with the expectation
that they will incorporate these
tools in the work
Facilitate regular staff meetings
that allow staff to discuss their
work and their feelings about
their successes and failure.
Encourage staff to write weekly
progress notes and provide
incentives for accurate and
timely completion of reviews
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Table 12, continued
Assumed
Motivation
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*
Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
In this way, staff accepts responsibility
for their building up their own knowledge
and skill set as they find ways they can
improve their work and evaluate their
own performances (Purnell, 2003).
Staff needs to
believe that their
efforts, knowledge
and dedication play
a key role in their
clients’ successes.
(EVT)
N Y Clark and Estes (2008) state that
motivation is an important factor in how
well employees problem solve and bridge
their knowledge and skills gap.
Contrary to what one sees in the for-profit
world, non-profit employees are driven
by their feelings. In fact, antecedent
conditions play a major role in motivation
because for most service providers in the
non-profit world business is personal
(Murray & Welch, 2010)
Eccles (2009) discusses how one’s
expectation for success or failure is often
a strong predictor of whether one puts
forth the mental effort, active choice, and
persistence needed to successfully absorb
and transfer new knowledge and put that
knowledge into action.
Research shows that in order to truly be
effective, DV service providers need to
feel confident that they are the experts at
providing culturally competent services
and can make a difference in their clients’
lives (Sullivan & Rumptz, 1994; Bent-
Goodley, 2001).
Provide opportunities
for staff to hear about
current and past clients’
success
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Table 12, continued
Assumed
Motivation
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*
Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Provide trainings that reinforce the
model that the staff is using while
offering new information that can
help them improve their work.
Staff need to
believe that their
work transforms
communities
affected by DV
and make a real
difference in their
clients’ lives.
(EVT)
N Y In EVT, Eccles (2009) examined
the connection between the
expectation an individual has to
succeed and the importance they
place on achieving that success.
Employees who work at non-
profits tend to focus on
transformative outcomes and
thus are motivated when they
can see how their work improves
the lives of the families and
communities they serve
(Creswell, 2014).
DV service providers will put a
lot of time and energy into a task
they value because a person is
not merely performing a task out
of obligation but feels a personal
sense of accomplishment when
they make their client’s life
better in some way (Schraw &
Lehman, 2009).
Provide opportunities through
workshops, panel discussions,
social media and collaterals to
recognize demonstrate the positive
public impact resulting from
careful the work is having.
Staff needs to
believe that the
effort they put
forth will bring
about the desired
outcomes. (Self-
efficacy)
HP Y Research shows that in order to
truly be effective, DV service
providers need to believe that
they are the experts at providing
culturally competent services
and can make a difference in
their clients’ lives (Sullivan &
Rumptz, 1994; Bent-Goodley,
2001).
Provide opportunities for staff to
discuss their individual goals and
performance outcomes and to
make suggestions based on their
experience.
Host a yearly thank you event to
acknowledge and thank staff for
their work.
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Table 12, continued
Assumed
Motivation
Influence:
Cause, Need,
or Asset*
Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
a Research posits that when people are
motivated by intrinsic motives they
typically end up providing useful goods
to others. By creating an environment in
which they can feel good about helping
other staff create controllability and
stability in their work (Bedny &
Karwowski, 2006).
Mayer (2011) defined motivation as “an internal state that initiates and maintains goal-
directed behavior” (p. 39). Furthermore, Clark and Estes (2008) stated that motivation is an
important factor in how well employees problem solve and bridge their knowledge and skills
gap. Since motivation is complex and ever-changing (Pintrich, 2003), it is essential to examine
the link between how expectation for success or failure can determine the effort needed to turn
knowledge into action (Eccles, 2009).
Self-efficacy. Self-efficacy refers to the role of beliefs in ones in motivation and
performance outcomes (Maddux & Gosselin, 2011). Bandura (2000) stated that self-efficiency is
important to examine because, once a person begins to doubt their capabilities, their motivation
decreases. Consequently, understanding self-efficacy is important to a realistic understanding of
one’s capabilities. Whitaker et al. (2007) pointed out that successful employees often reflect on
their own service gaps so that they can implement necessary changes since self-reflection leads
to self-regulation. In this way, staff accepts responsibility for building up their own knowledge
and skills set as they improve their work and evaluate their own performance (Purnell,
2003). Thus, it the literature supports the idea that self-reflection creates accountability in how
employees ensures their work aligns with the mission and goals of their organization (Saul,
DO NO HARM 138
2004; Van Tiem et al., 2004). The results showed that respondents have a high sense of self-
efficacy and therefore, it is recommended that staff embrace self-efficacy through meetings and
evaluations.
Expectancy value theory. The EVT examines the connection between the expectation an
individual has to succeed and the importance they place on achieving that success (Eccles, 2009).
EVT manifests itself very differently in a non-profit setting than it does in a for-profit setting,
meaning the value is not in the financial rewards received or in the learning of a new skill, but in
the feelings attached to each task (Murray & Welch, 2010). The research supported this data, as
respondents stated they were very much motivated to do their work by intrinsic value, which is
how the work made them feel and the personal sense of accomplishment when they make their
client’s life better. Consequently, a recommendation for employees who work at non-profits is to
receive constant updates and data on client successes so that they can see how their work
transforms and improves the lives of the families and communities they serve (Creswell, 2014).
The results revealed that respondents do feel confident they can deliver culturally competent
services. However, even though they are often intrinsically motivated, they still need to be
acknowledged by the organization for their work. Thus, the recommendation is that staff is
spotlighted for the work they do for others through newsletters, at meetings and personally by
their managers. By creating an environment in which staff can feel good about helping others,
the organization can create controllability and stability in their work (Bedny & Karwowski,
2006).
Organization Recommendations
Organizational culture is the driving force behind how one does their job (Clark & Estes,
2008). Schein (2004) discussed how an organizational culture is defined by the basic
DO NO HARM 139
assumptions organization members hold about the goals, beliefs and environment of the
organization. The organization influences in Table 3 represent the assumed organization
influences and whether they were validated based on the most frequently mentioned organization
influences to achieving the stakeholders’ goal during informal interviews and supported by the
literature review and the review of organization and culture theory. Gallimore and Goldenberg
(2001) proposed two constructs about culture: cultural models or the observable beliefs and
values shared by individuals in groups, and cultural models or the settings and activities in which
performance occurs. Thus, both resources and processes and cultural models and settings must
align throughout the organization’s structure to achieve the mission and goals. As such, as
indicated in Table 13, some organizational influences have a high probability of being validated
and have a high priority for achieving the stakeholders’ goal. Table 13 also shows the
recommendations for these influences based on theoretical principles.
DO NO HARM 140
Table 13
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
Organization
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*
Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Staff needs to work in
an environment in
which they are held
accountable for
providing effective,
culturally responsive
service to clients.
V Y Organizational environment
is directly linked to staff
accountability (Benjamin,
2008; Campbell, 2002;
Ebrahim, 2010; Firestone &
Shipps, 2005; Melendéz,
2001; Ospina et al., 2002;
Zadek, 2003).
Organizational performance
increases when processes
and resources are aligned
with goals established
collaboratively (Clark &
Estes, 2008)
Firestone and Shipps (2005)
discuss how accountability
environments help
organizations recognize the
importance of human
capital gaps.
Conduct regular
evaluations with staff.
Conduct team meetings
with new and
experienced staff and
leadership to establish
realistic goals and time
frames.
Conduct staff evaluations
and trainings that offer
them the tools they need
to succeed.
Staff needs to work in
an environment that
uses data and evidence
to assess staff
performance.
HP Y Data and evidence should
shape how organizational
success is viewed.
(Creswell, 2014).
Create intake forms that
ascertain the needs and
goals of the clients.
Design curriculums and
classes that meet client’s
needs based on intake
and data collection.
Create reports that
showcase client
outcomes.
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Table 13, continued
Assumed Organization
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*
Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Non-profits have historically
valued anecdotal data over
reporting numeric outcomes
in relationship to program
successes. However, funders
require quantitative data.
(Campbell, 2002).
Ensure that all relevant data is
collected and catalogued by the
data department.
Ensure that the data department,
program managers and grant
writers are exchanging relevant
data information for use in
grants.
Staff needs to work in
an environment in which
performance goals,
including what
culturally competent
service consists of, are
clearly communicated.
V Y Good communication
increases organizational
Performance (Clark & Estes,
2008)
When the mission and goals
of an organization are clearly
communicated to staff, staff
are able to grow and change
in ways that make the
actualization of performance
goals possible (Clark &
Estes, 2008; Schein, 2010).
Conduct meetings that
consistently communicate the
vision, mission and goals, of the
organization.
Use email, in-person
conversation and social media
to reinforce communication and
praise those who are meeting
performance goals.
Staff needs to work in
an environment in which
resources and incentives
are aligned with the goal
of providing culturally
relevant services.
HP Y The Theory Y managerial
approach, which argues that
the most productive
employees work in
environments that empower
employees to contribute ideas
and enact change (McGregor,
1960)
Facilitate consistent staff
trainings and staff check-ins
that emphasize how cultural
competency should look like at
the organization.
Reward staff with
\gift cards, time outs, etc. when
they exceed performance goals.
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Table 13, continued
Assumed
Organization
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*
Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Harvey (1988) discusses
how organizations tend
to find themselves
falling into the Abilene
Paradox, in which they
are pursuing goals and
outcomes that are not
their own and do not
align with their mission
and goals.
Engage both internal and
external stakeholders in
communication and feedback
that achieving that will ensure
that staff can meet
organizational goals.
Cultural models. Clark and Estes (2008) suggested that organization and stakeholder
goals are often not achieved due to a lack of resources, most often time and money, and
stakeholder goals that are not aligned with the organization’s mission and goals. Hentschke and
Wohlstetter (2004) discussed how good accountability models ensure that service providers
understand how their work and decisions affect organizational goals. This is because information
helps staff better manage their routine job tasks (Clark & Estes, 2008). According to initial
analysis of data, because staff at The Community Haven are motivated by social awareness and
not money, they function best when they feel they are making a difference in the lives of their
clients and that their work is appreciated. The Community Haven’s leaders state they provide
culturally competent services to clients that ensure that they move from crisis to self-sufficiency,
however, staff must be equipped with the trainings and resources to make that happen. As a
result, program goals can only truly be met through consistent feedback, evaluation and training
that allows staff to get a feel for their failures and success and ascertain ways they can improve
their work.
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Ensuring that employees are always aware of the importance of their work can be
integrated in numerous ways. Weekly staff meetings should always communicate the vision,
mission and goals, of the organization so that employees are aware of why they are doing the
work. Clark and Estes (2008) stated that good communication increases organizational
performance. In fact, when the mission and goals of an organization are clearly communicated to
staff, staff are able to grow and change in ways that make the actualization of performance goals
possible (Clark & Estes, 2008; Schein, 2010). The organization can use email, in-person
conversation and social media to reinforce communication and praise those who meet
performance goals. Since staff members are often underpaid, it is also important to reward them
with incentives such as gift cards and time away from work when they exceed performance
goals. McGregor (1960) argued that the most productive employees work in environments that
empower them to contribute ideas and enact change. As a result, the organization needs to
facilitate consistent staff training and check-ins that emphasize what cultural competency should
look like at the organization. Making sure employees feel appreciated and productive will
validate their feelings of usefulness and ensure they remain committed to the work.
Cultural settings. Non-profits have historically valued anecdotal data over reporting
numeric outcomes in relationship to program successes. Creswell (2014) posited that data and
evidence should shape how organizational success is viewed. The data analysis in the previous
chapter showed that The Community Haven does not provide sufficient feedback and does not
have an evaluation method that allows staff to measure how well they meet goals and objectives.
Data analysis is one way that staff can measure their successes and determine if their work aligns
with the organization’s mission and goal. Furthermore, since organizational environment is
directly linked to staff accountability (Benjamin, 2008; Campbell, 2002; Ebrahim, 2010;
DO NO HARM 144
Firestone & Shipps, 2005; Melendéz, 2001; Ospina et al., 2002; Zadek, 2003), staff need
mechanisms to measure client outcomes and train clients on relevant data collection methods that
will help them measure performance goals. To that end, The Community Haven can improve
data collection methods by creating intake forms that ascertain the needs and goals of the clients,
designing curriculum and classes that meet clients’ needs based on intake and data collection,
creating reports that showcase client outcomes and ensuring that all relevant data are collected
and catalogued by the data department. Providing these facts to the staff will show how their
work transforms lives and how they contribute to the organization meeting its mission and goals.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Framework and Plan
The model that informed this implementation and evaluation plan is the New World
Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016), based on the original Kirkpatrick Four
Level Model of Evaluation (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). This model suggests that
evaluation plans start with the goals of the organization and work backwards and that, by doing
so, the leading indicators that bridge recommended solutions to the organization’s goals are both
easier to identify and more closely aligned with organizational goals. Further, this reverse order
of the New World Kirkpatrick Model allows for a sequence of three other actions: (a) the
development of solution outcomes that focus on assessing work behaviors, (b) the identification
of indicators that learning occurred during implementation, and (c) the emergence of indicators
that organizational members are satisfied with implementation strategies. Designing the
implementation and evaluation plan in this manner forces connections between immediate
solutions and the larger goal and solicits proximal buy-in to ensure success (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016).
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Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations
The purpose of the study was to access the skills, motivational, and organizational
barriers to providing culturally competent services to African American women who are victims
of DV. The proposed solution, more comprehensive training programs, better incorporation of
data and evaluations, more on-the-job supports, and a greater focus on incentives should produce
the desired outcome: an increase in the number of clients who complete the program and attain
employment and permanent housing.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Table 4 shows the proposed Level 4 results and leading indicators in the form of
outcomes, metrics and methods for both external and internal outcomes for staff at The
Community Haven. If the internal outcomes are met as expected through training and
organizational support, then the external outcomes should also be realized. Table 14 shows the
outcomes, metrics, and methods for external and internal outcomes.
Table 14
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
1. Increase the number of
African American women
who seek services at The
Community Haven.
1. The number of clients who
are seeking service at a given
time.
1. Increase outreach efforts at
Social Service agencies
1b. The length of time clients
stay connected to the program
(even beyond graduation).
1b. Weekly meetings that discuss
client outcomes. Quarterly
check-in for clients up to five
years of graduating from the
program.
2. Increase public policy
discussions around African
American Women and DV
2. The number of public policies
that are created around healthy
relationships and DV in the
African American community.
2.Solicit local, statewide and
national politicians.
DO NO HARM 146
Table 14, continued
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
3. Improved relationships with
community partners who can offer
more resources to African
American clients
3a. The number of referrals
we are able to provide
clients.
3a. Weekly meetings that
discuss client outcomes.
Quarterly check-in for clients
up to five years of graduating
from the program.
3b. The number of joint
activities held with partners.
3b. Comparison of joint
events were participated in
with partners from year to
year.
4.Increase in funding to ensure the
sustainability of the organization.
4. The increase in funding
for programs and services
for clients.
4. Compare funding levels
from supporters against the
previous fiscal years.
5.. Expand working to create
healthy relationships and families
into the community.
5. The frequency of
workshops and programs in
the community around
healthy relationships and
DV.
5. Track frequency of
workshops and programs.
6. Increase The Community
Haven’s social media network.
6. The creation of various
social media campaigns
related to healthy
relationships and DV.
6. Keep track of social media
mentions and impressions.
Internal Outcomes
7. Retain quality staff members for
a longer period of time.
7. The number of years staff
stays in their position.
7. Increase pay to qualified
employees, provide more
staff trainings, and offer
incentives.
8. Increased employee
confidence/satisfaction
8a. EVS results on key
questions.
8a. Compare annual survey
results.
8b. Positive/negative
feedback from Supervisors.
8b. Set aside regular times for
1:1 conversations between
new staff and supervisors.
Level 3: Behavior
Critical behaviors. The first critical behavior is to connect staff in culturally competent
ways that lead them to higher retention rates. The second critical behavior is to identify and close
gaps in service models. The third critical behavior is ongoing emotional check-ins, since it is the
culture of the organization to ensure that staff members are also focused on self-care. The
DO NO HARM 147
stakeholder goal is that all employees will provide culturally competent services to all African
American female clients. The specific metrics, methods, and timing for each of these outcome
behaviors appear. Table 15 shows the critical behaviors, metrics, methods and timing for staff
members.
Table 15
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Staff members
Critical Behavior Metric(s) Method(s) Timing
1. Connect with
African American
female clients on a
culturally
competent level.
The number of
female clients
who come into
and stay in the
shelter.
1a. Supervisors will observe
interaction between staff and
clients and staff will keep
detailed notes on client
interactions and achieved
outcomes.
1a. Daily
observations.
Bi-yearly staff
evaluations.
1b. Supervisors check client
folders looking for incomplete
information.
1b. Staff shows
Supervisor file
weekly.
2. Identify gaps
between service
delivery and client
success.
2. The number of
services clients
are accessing.
2a. Data will track the number
of services clients are accessing
and clients’ outcomes will be
analyzed.
2a. Weekly review of
data.
Quarterly evaluation
of data that is shared
with and discussed
with frontline staff. .
3.Train staff in
order to close any
service gaps.
3. An increase in
desired client
outcomes.
3a. Management will track
increase in client outcomes,
looking for errors, feedback and
improvements.
3a. During quarterly
evaluations.
Required drivers. The Community Haven’s leadership play a direct role in helping staff
achieve the stakeholder goal. It is important leadership help staff identify the gaps in their service
delivery model through observations, evaluations and data analysis. Leaders will also reinforce
the values of the organization and staff expectation in ways that uplift employees and empower
them to be successful. Incentives should be should be established to emphasis that the
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organization’s values and respects completed staff work and completed program goals. Table 16
shows the recommended drivers to support critical behaviors of staff.
Table 16
Required Drivers to Support New Reviewers’ Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing
Critical
Behaviors
Supported
1, 2, 3 Etc.
Reinforcing
Job Aid including mission and philosophy of organizations. Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Job Aid including checklist for what goes into client folders. Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Team meetings with staff to establish goals and time frames. Weekly 1, 2, 3
Use company list-serves’ and other internal social media to
reinforce communication outside of team meetings.
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Team meeting to troubleshoot collaboratively and for
additional training.
Weekly 1, 2, 3
Encouraging
Collaboration and peer modeling during team meetings. Weekly 1, 2, 3
Feedback and coaching from Supervisor. Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Rewarding
Performance incentive when client successes increases Quarterly, or
project-based
1, 2, 3
Public acknowledgement, such as a mention at weekly staff
meetings, in company newsletter, electronically after every
special program.
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Monitoring
Supervisor can create opportunities at weekly staff meetings
to share success stories
Quarterly 1, 2, 3
Supervisor can ask staff members to self-report their
confidence and self-efficacy in job-related tasks
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Supervisors do frequent, quick check-in with staff to see
how they can help increase their success rates.
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Organizational support. The staff at The Community Haven plays an important role in
helping African American clients who are victims of DV. First and foremost, job aids will be
created and posted at each site with the mission and philosophy of the organization. In addition,
job aids will be created that include a checklist for what goes into client folders. There will be
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ongoing team meetings with staff to establish goals and time frames, and we will use company
list-serves and other internal social media to reinforce communication outside of team meetings.
We will also utilize team meetings to troubleshoot collaboratively and for additional training. We
will also use collaboration and peer modeling during team meetings and feedback and coaching
from supervisors to improve staff work.
In addition, the organization will provide performance incentives when client success
increases and public acknowledgement, such as a mention at weekly staff meetings, in the
company newsletter, or electronically after every special program. Supervisors will create
opportunities at weekly staff meetings to share success stories. Supervisors will also ask staff
members to self-report their confidence and self-efficacy in job-related tasks. Finally,
supervisors will engage in frequent, quick check-in with staff to see how they can help increase
their success rates.
Level 2: Learning
Following completion of the recommended solutions, most notably the staff trainings and
evaluations, the stakeholders will
1. Recognize the culturally competent needs of African American female clients who are
victims of DV (D),
2. Classify and interpret the types of problems that African American female clients who
are victims of DV face (D),
3. Recognize the types of programs that are most effective for African American female
clients who are victims of DV (D),
4. Conduct a needs assessment to ensure they address root causes, (P),
5. Plan steps to address the needs (P, M),
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6. Create an appropriate timeline for needed changes (P),
7. Indicate confidence that they can identify a need and address it in a sustainable way
(Confidence), and
8. Value putting in time and effort into improve a communal concern or need (Value).
The learning goals listed in the previous section will be achieved with a training program
that explores in-depth the mission and philosophy of The Community Haven and ways to
successfully provide culturally competent services to African American clients. Staff will study a
broad range of topics pertaining to providing culturally competent services. The program will
consist of face-to-face application workshop. The total time for completion is 6 hours.
During the trainings, learners will be provided a job aid of key terms and references to
the rules and regulations, as well as a chart of different types of strategies to work with this
population. Another job aid will contain an organizational flow chart for which department
supplies which services to clients and also provide the appropriate program review. The job aids
will be demonstrated in person using applications and scenarios, and key terms will be defined
with examples and non-examples. Following the demonstrations, the learners will be provided
the opportunity to practice using the job aids and receive feedback from the learning
management system, peer review, and review by the instructor. The demonstrations, practice,
and feedback approach will also be used to train strategic planning for time management.
During the in-person sessions, the focus will be on applying what employees learned
about working with the clients in training groups, role-playing, discussions and peer modeling
and teaching back to each other. More experienced staff will also discuss the value and benefits
of providing culturally competent services to clients and model strategic ways to interact with
this particular population.
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Components of learning. Demonstrating factual knowledge is often necessary as a
precursor to applying the knowledge to solve problems. Thus, it is important to evaluate learning
for both declarative and procedural knowledge being taught. It is also important that learners
value the training as a prerequisite to using their newly learned knowledge and skills on the job.
However, they must also be confident that they can succeed in applying their knowledge and
skills and be committed to using them on the job. As such, Table 17 lists the evaluation methods
and timing for these components of learning.
Table 17
Components of Learning for the Program.
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it. ”
Report out after training. Engage participants in a debriefing
session at the end of each session.
Knowledge checks through discussions and
individual/group activities.
Periodically during the in-person
workshop and documented via
observation notes.
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now. ”
During the course using scenarios that incorporate role-
playing.
During the sessions
Demonstration in groups and individually of using the job
aids to successfully perform the skills.
During the workshops. .
Quality of the feedback from peers during group sharing During the workshops.
Retrospective pre- and post-test assessment survey asking
participants about their level of proficiency before and after
the training. .
At the end of the workshop.
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile. ”
Facilitator’s observation of participants’ statements and
actions demonstrating that they see the benefit of what they
are being asked to do on the job.
During the workshop.
Quality of discussions on the value of what they learned. During the workshop.
Retrospective pre- and post-test assessment item. After the course.
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Table 17, continued
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job. ”
Feedback from participants about the trainings
regarding their concerns and abilities to do the job.
Following the sessions.
Discussions following each lessons and feedback.
During the workshop.
Retrospective pre- and post-test assessment item. After the course.
Commitment “I will do it on the job. ”
Discussions following each training and feedback.
During the workshop.
One on one discussion with participants During and after workshop
As participants to create an individual action plan.
During the workshop.
Retrospective pre- and post-test assessment item. After the course.
Level 1: Reaction
Table 18 indicates the methods or tools and timing for level one evaluation of the
intervention in the New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) for The
Community Haven. Staff members will be measured on their ability to provide culturally
competent services. Providing culturally competent services are important to making sure
stakeholders are learning and attentive at the training. Relevance is necessary, or learners will not
be engaged. Finally, client satisfaction reflects the overall feeling participants have towards the
training. Evaluating the types of culturally competent services offered and client satisfaction will
aid in determining if the training needs to be adjusted, enhanced, or is sufficient to present the
necessary information. A survey will be administered to staff in order to evaluate the
effectiveness of the trainings.
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Table 18
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
Completion of each training session Ongoing
Observation by instructor/facilitator During and after the workshops
Attendance During the workshops
Course evaluation Two weeks after the course
Relevance
Brief pulse-check with participants via survey (online)
and discussion (ongoing)
After every workshop
Course evaluation Two weeks after the course
Customer Satisfaction
Brief pulse-check with participants via survey (online)
and discussion (ongoing)
After every module/lesson/unit and
the workshop
Course evaluation Two weeks after the course
During and immediately following the program. Assessment of staff learning will be
determined from the very first day of the course. Staff will be observed by the facilitator and
he/she will gather data on staff learning and progress. This information will also be gathered
through observation, role-playing and short quizzes asking staff to indicate how they would
approach a particular client case. Facilitators will ask for continuous feedback on their own
performance and how they can improve staff members’ engagement with the material.
For Level 1, the facilitator will gather pulse-checks by periodically asking employees
how the training material relates to their work. Facilitator will reflect on how he/she can improve
throughout the trainings to ensure that staff members learn the skills and knowledge necessary to
achieve the stakeholder goal. Level 2 will be assessed through discussions and observations from
the facilitator.
Delayed feedback after training implementation. Two weeks after the completion of
the trainings, facilitators will administer a survey containing both open and scaled items. The
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survey will address staff members’ reactions to the course (Level 1), their knowledge and skills
gained (Level 2), application of this knowledge and skill as they have moved on (Level 3), and
the extent at which they are moving towards achieving the stakeholder goal (Level 4). Using this
survey, facilitators and leadership will be able to evaluate how the trainings went and make
adjustments to ensure that it is providing the intended learning and outcomes.
Data analysis and reporting. The Level 4 goal of this implementation plan is to provide
The Community Haven’s staff the knowledge, motivation and organizational tools to effectively
provide culturally competent services to African American female victims of DV. The goal will
be measured by their adherence to accountability expectations. Metrics that include the number
of clients who complete certain classes and secure employment and permanent housing will be
tracked and displayed on the staff dashboard. Each month management will track the time staff
spends with clients, the number of key performance indicators that are being met. Weekly and
quarterly reports will be shared with management, so they can monitor staff members’ progress.
The data will be combined with the surveys gathered from the various trainings. In fact, data will
be analyzed directly after each training session, at six weeks, and bi-annually. Similar
dashboards will be created to monitor Levels 1, 2, 3 and 4. An example of the dashboard
representation for the first key performance indicator listed, increase in ability to provide
culturally competent services, is shown in Table 19.
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Table 19
Possible Key Performance Indicators for Internal Reporting and Accountability
Key Performance
Indicators
Metrics Frequency Dashboard Representation
Client retention Monthly retention
rates
Monthly Table (Target Rate to Actual
and Prior Year)
Frontline staff
engagement and
satisfaction
Employee
engagement survey
Quarterly Bar Chart (Satisfaction Rating
and Prior Year)
Client course
completion
Course completion
forms
Monthly Bar Chart (number of clients
completed and what courses
they are completing)
Client securing
employment and
permanent housing
Graduation post-
exit survey and
intake forms
Monthly,
yearly
Bar Chart (number of clients
securing employment and
permanent housing are
completing)
Hiring and training
cost
Profit and lost
statement
Monthly Table (Planned Budget to
Actual Spend)
Client satisfaction Client enjoyment
survey
Monthly Bar Chart (Satisfaction Rating
and Prior Year)
Accountability
measures taken
Management
interviews and
notes
Quarterly Bar Chart (Number Needed
Interventions by Management)
Figure 20. Example of The Community Haven dashboard representation.
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Summary
In order to successfully utilize the New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick, &
Kirkpatrick, 2016) to plan, implement and evaluate an intervention model, it is imperative that
researchers first identify the desired outcomes. In fact, any training evaluation should focus on
three questions: Does the training meet our expectations? If not, why not? If so, why? These
questions allow for data analysis and provide an opportunity to identify gaps. This chapter
focused on how The Community Haven could best implement the New World Kirkpatrick
Model (Kirkpatrick, & Kirkpatrick, 2016) to create a series of trainings to help staff improve the
way they provide culturally competent services to African American female clients. The training
is expected to give staff the knowledge and skills necessary to recognize their service gaps and
achieve their stakeholder goal. By utilizing the framework, the facilitators will receive consistent
feedback on how to improve the course, thus giving staff a better chance of achieving the
stakeholder goal. By underscoring important culturally competent strategies, and ensuring staff
have the skills and knowledge to identify and address the needs of their clients, The Community
Haven can ensure that staff members uphold the mission to heal families and connect
communities.
Limitations and Delimitations of the Study
There were a few limitations, both anticipated and unanticipated when conducting this
study. With observation, there is the risk that the researcher’s presence may be seen as an
intrusion and participants may act differently. For interviews, since participants were friends of
mine, they may have had the desire to present well and answer questions in the way they thought
I wanted to hear. There are also participants with different levels of articulation and
understanding. During the document analysis phase, I used information that was not developed
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for research. Consequently, this research may have built-in biases on the part of the author. Also,
I dealt with information collected by different people with different abilities over time.
Simon (2011) defined limitations as elements that are out of the control of the researcher
that impact or limit participation, results, or findings. In this study, one limitation was the small
population for the interviews (6 staff members). While it the intent to interview more frontline
employees, the reluctance of staff who had previously agreed to participate meant that there were
more voices from leadership than lower level staff than was originally anticipated. Also, there
was no instrument in place to measure staff knowledge and performance goals at DV
intervention programs, which meant survey, interview, and observation methods, were original
and lacked established validity or reliability. Also, the lack of established instruments within the
organization meant that there was a large percentage of anecdotal data used in the study. Since
the survey was distributed throughout the organization, responses demonstrated varied levels of
understanding and perceptivity to questions raised. In terms of document analysis, since the
documents that were analyzed were distributed by the organization, there was a built-in
organizational bias. Also, the lack of documents to evaluate program performance meant that I
had to lean on anecdotal data that may not be completely exact, or reliable.
Also, while not intentional, it is possible that knowledge of participants and
organizational processes subjectively influenced interaction with participants and data
interpretation. Furthermore, social desirability may have come into play as my position at the
organization may have lead some respondents to present well, thus impacting participants’
reactivity and limiting validity and reliability.
The design of this study was to evaluate the ways staff at The Community Haven provide
culturally competent services to African American clients. Looking at this stakeholder group
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allowed me to take a deep dive into potential service gaps at the organization. This study also
provides an indication of both the strengths and weaknesses in how staff offers these services.
Simon (2011) defined delimitations as the elements within one’s study that are within the control
of the researcher. Since The Community Haven provides very specialized services to one
population, there are limits to external generalizability. Any recommendations for another
organization must be tweaked and implemented based on the specific population they serve and
the existing organization’s knowledge, skills motivation and resources.
Recommendations for Future Study
Domestic violence within the African American community is a topic that has been given
very little research attention. As a result, strategies to provide services to this population, key
indicators of success and important program goals currently do not exist. An analysis of the
artifacts provided to the public by various non-profit organizations show that most DV
intervention programs provide the basics determined to assist survivors in their time of crisis:
shelter and mental health as well as legal services. However, key performance indicators were
shunned in favor of anecdotal client stories which provide little information about overall client
outcomes. Non-profits, particularly those working with traditionally unserved and underserved
populations, often view a client’s success in ways beyond the accepted categorizations of
external stakeholders. Thus, there is a need for new ways to hold these organizations accountable
in terms of the services they provide.
In addition, understanding the needs of the staff who work at these types of organizations
is important, as their altruistic nature leaves them vulnerable to employee burnout, creating a
potential for high employee turnover. Furthermore, since non-profit employees are often
motivated by non-monetary factors, many employees tend to be undereducated community
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members who are quickly overwhelmed by the job. This means they can become frustrated by
the constantly changing goals, deadlines and areas of focus they do not understand. Thus, there
are five suggestions for future studies:
1. Focus on the autonomy, or lack thereof, that staff members have to make decisions within
their organization and how that affects their work.
2. Focus on the culture “with” the culture being served and what challenges that presents
(i.e., educational, geographical, ethical).
3. Evaluate how a professional development program that includes cross-training, job skills,
and continuing education will improve performance.
4. Evaluate the role of community collaborations.
5. Evaluate how staff members at these organizations utilize technology in their work.
Consequently, it is recommended that a longer and deeper study be conducted at this or a
similar organization that will delve into the type of environment people who work with this
particular population can thrive in and what tools and resources they need to create this
environment.
Conclusion
This study sought to understand the importance of providing culturally competent
services to African American women who are victims of DV. In order to assess this, the
knowledge, skills, motivation, and organizational influences of employees at The Community
Haven were analyzed. Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis model served as the general
conceptual and methodological framework for the study. Document analysis revealed the
organization is dedicated to culturally competent services, yet it lacks key performance
indicators to measure staff and program success. Survey, interview, and observation results o
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revealed thematic gaps: failure to implement organization-wide standards of what constitutes
culturally competent services, minimal supportive trainings and programs to improve program
performance, lack of data and evaluations in implementing programs and services and lack of
accountability for long-term client success and staff needs. However, it is clear that staff
members to learn and grow, and they welcome learning opportunities. They want more training
and more opportunities to interact with each other.
While employees at The Community Haven are very successful on many levels, the
evidence suggests they are at a crossroads. As the organization grows, there is a need for
educated staff members who can implement culturally competent programs and services in a way
that both internal and external stakeholders can see the value in. The Community Haven is also
slowly seeing its population change, since it is opening its doors to an increasing number of
Hispanic clients. With these new stakeholders, staff members will have to ask themselves just
how committed they are to providing culturally competent services to African American women
in the next decade and how they will ensure their African American clients receive all the
services they need to become self-sufficient. Thus, by implementing the recommended solutions,
The Community Haven may begin to effectively address service gaps in ways that increase
employee satisfaction and improve outcomes through transformative changes that ensure
sustainability and safety for clients and challenges unhealthy and dangerous social norms in
marginalized communities.
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APPENDIX A
Survey Items
This survey asks questions about your experience working for The Community Haven. It starts
and ends with some questions about your satisfaction with various aspects of work and contains
other questions about how your clients think and feel about the organization. Thank you for
sharing your opinions.
Ethnicity: African American/Latino/Hispanic/White/ Asian American/ Asian Pacific
Islander/Other/Decline to state (Please circle which one(s) apply)
Gender: Male/Female (Please circle which one applies)
Department: ___________________________________________________________________
Please check the circle that applies.
1. How frequently do you meet with your clients to discuss their case plans?
o Not sure
o 1 hour or less
o 2 to 3 hours
o 4 to 5 hours
o 6 or more hours
2. How confident are you that your clients can use the services they received at The
Community Haven in ways that will allow them to secure employment when they leave?
o Very confident
o Somewhat confident
o Unsure
o Somewhat skeptical
o Not confident
3. In your experience, how likely is it that a client who seeks services at The Community
Haven will return to their abuser?
o Very likely
o Somewhat likely
o Unsure
o Somewhat unlikely
o Very unlikely
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How satisfied are you with the resources and trainings that The Community Haven provides you
to work with your clients?
o Very satisfied
o Somewhat satisfied
o Neutral
o Somewhat dissatisfied
o Very dissatisfied
4. What is the percentage of the clients who are African American? (Interval)
____________________________________________________________
5. What role does the ethnic makeup of your staff play in client success?
o A huge role
o Somewhat of a role
o Unsure
o No role at all
6. How much of your programs and services are geared to helping African American
women?
o All of our services
o Most of our services
o A few of our services
o None of our services
7. How important is cultural sensitivity to your work?
o Very important
o Somewhat important
o Not sure
o Somewhat unimportant
o Very unimportant
8. How satisfied are you with your relationship with your clients?
o Very satisfied
o Somewhat satisfied
o Neutral
o Somewhat dissatisfied
o Very dissatisfied
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9. Which of these is the goal for the primary goal for The Haven?
o To achieve world peace
o To end the cycle of violence through community-Havened education
programs
o To provide shelter to domestic violence victims
o Unsure
o To provide holistic, wrap- around programs and services to
unserved/underserved clients
10. How confident are you that your clients can use the services that they receive at The
Haven to secure permanent employment?
o Very confident
o Somewhat confident
o Unsure
o Somewhat skeptical
o Not confident
11. How confident are you that your clients can use the services that they receive at The
Haven to secure permanent housing?
o Very confident
o Somewhat confident
o Unsure
o Somewhat skeptical
o Not confident
12. How confident are you that your clients have a better understanding of the legal system
during their time at The Haven?
o Very confident
o Somewhat confident
o Unsure
o Somewhat skeptical
o Not confident
13. How confident are you that your clients will seek mental health services during their time
at The Haven?
o Very confident
o Somewhat confident
o Unsure
o Somewhat skeptical
o Not confident
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14. How important is access to mental health services to your clients?
o Very important
o Important
o Unsure
o Somewhat important
o Not important at all
15. How likely is your client to have a restraining order before they entered The Haven?
Likely
o Unsure
o Not likely
16. How likely is your client to be in need of some sort of public assistance before they
entered The Haven?
o Likely
o Unsure
o Not likely
17. How likely is your client’s child to be involved with The Department of Children’s and
Family Services before they entered The Haven?
o Likely
o Unsure
o Not likely
18. How important is it for your African American female clients to have access to staff?
o Very important
o Important
o Unsure
o Somewhat important
o Not important at all
19. How likely is it that this is not the first shelter program your African American female
clients to have come to?
o Very likely
o Unsure
o Not very likely
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20. How involved are you your African American female clients with the creation of their
case plan?
o Very involved
o Involved
o Unsure
o Somewhat involved
o Not involved at all
21. How frequently do you meet with your clients a week to discuss their case plans?
o Not sure
o 1 hour or less
o 2 to 3 hours
o 4 to 5 hours
o 6 or more hours
22. What would you say your most important role is when working with clients?
o Not sure
o Being a shoulder to lean on
o Ensuring that clients program
o Ensuring that clients feel safe
o Referring clients to social service agencies that can help them
23. How important is cultural sensitivity to your work?
o Very important
o Somewhat important
o Not sure
o Somewhat unimportant
o Very unimportant
24. How comfortable are you that you meeting your performance goals?
o Very confident
o Confident
o Not sure
o Somewhat confident
o Not confident at all
25. How confident are you that you can get any resources that you need to do your job?
o Very confident
o Confident
o Not sure
o Somewhat confident
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o Not confident at all
26. How often does The Haven provide trainings in areas you feel you need improvement in?
o Fairly often
o Often
o Not sure
o Rarely
o Not at all
27. What does research say is our African American female clients’ most pressing concern?
(a) Permanent housing
o (b) Access to legal services
o (c) Access to health care
o (d) Access to mental health services
o (e) Employment
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APPENDIX B
Interview Protocol
Please note that we will be recording our conversation today to ensure that we have
accurate accounts of what you say. I just want you to know that only the researchers on this
project will have access to the recordings and that you will be able to review the transcripts. I am
asking all participants to sign a confidentiality form to protect to protect you and to ensure that
you understand that parameters of the study. Please know that your participation is voluntary,
and we can stop at any time. Thank you for agreeing to participate. This interview should last no
longer than an hour. During this time, we have several questions that we would like to cover.
Introduction
You have been selected to speak with us today because you are someone who has a great
deal to share about working with victims of domestic violence. My study focuses on the
improvement of programs that engage African American women who enter domestic violence
intervention programs. Please know that the purpose of the interview is not to evaluate your
work performance but to learn more about your interaction with your African American female
clients, and hopefully learn what practices are effective to improving successful outcomes for
them.
A. Interviewee Background
How long have you been …
_______ in your present position?
_______ at this organization?
Interesting background information on interviewee:
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What is your highest degree? ___________________________________________
Interview questions are as follows:
1. Tell me about some of the culturally relevant services that The Haven offers. (Knowledge)
o Probes: What services do you provide your African American female clients?
2. What would you say are some of the biggest hurdles that your clients face before they can
reach self-sufficiency? (Knowledge)
o Probes: Do your African American clients have different needs than your
Latina/Anglo clients?
3. What tends to be the driving force for African American women to seek services at The
Haven?
4. What would you say are the biggest barriers to African American women seeking domestic
violence intervention services?
5. Do you approach your case plan for you African American female clients in a way that
differs from your other clients?
6. Can you talk about what a day is like for you at work? (Procedural Knowledge)
o Probes: How are you involved in the day- to- day operations of the organization?
7. Do you think that a hands-on approach is important when interacting with your African
American female clients?
8. How would you describe your role in providing culturally competent services?
9. In what ways does your interaction with your African American clients differ with your
interaction with your other clients?
10. What motivates you to work with your African American clients? (Motivation)
o Probes: Do you feel a special obligation to help them? Why or why not?
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11. What role do you believe you play in your client’s success?
12. Do you feel like that your performance goals are clearly communicated to you?
13. Are you pleased with how your work is evaluated?
14. What are some of the challenges you wish your organization took into account when
evaluating your work?
15. What role do you feel data collection and evidence should play in how staff performance is
evaluated?
16. In what ways does your job description match the duties that you are expected to perform?
17. In what ways do you feel obligated to please external stakeholders such as volunteers, board
members and funders? Why?
18. What mechanisms does the organization currently have in place for you to air your concerns?
19. What resources does The Haven provide you to do your work effectively? What resources do
you need? (Organization)
o Probes: Do you need more training? Staff? Supplies?
o How can barriers to helping clients achieve success be overcome?
20. What types of training opportunities does The Haven offer? What training opportunities do
you wish they would offer that they currently don’t?
21. Tell me what you think culturally relevant services are for a client” and “describe for me the
most recent time you believe you provided a client with culturally relevant service
Give me an example of how your clients have a better understanding of the legal system during
their time at The Haven?
22. Describe how your clients access mental health services during their time at The Haven?
DO NO HARM 187
Conclusion
Thank you so much for your time. Do you have any questions or concerns now that we are done?
If you would like transcripts of the interview, I will have them for you in a few weeks. Have a
great day.
DO NO HARM 188
APPENDIX C
Informed Consent/Information Sheet
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Organizational Leadership and Change
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90069
INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
Staff ’s Role in Providing Culturally Competent Services to African American Female
Clients
You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who
voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You should
ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This research study is trying to understand how staff can provide culturally competent services to
African American clients.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
Participants who choose to participate in this study will be asked to complete an online survey
lasting approximately 30 minutes. During the survey, you will have the ability to answer only
the questions you desire to answer and can mark other questions as “N/A” if for any reason you
do not desire to respond. In addition, participants will be asked to participate in an individual
interview with the researcher lasting between 30-60 minutes. To aid in capturing the information
shared, these interviews will be recorded and hand written notes will be taken, with the
interviewee’s permission. You can choose not to respond to any question, for any reason. You
may also choose to end the survey or the interview at any time with no further explanation.
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will receive a $10 gift card for your time. You do not need to respond to all questions in the
survey or the interview to receive this gift card.
ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION
Participation in this study is voluntary. Your alternative is to not participate. Your relationship
with your employer will not be affected whether you participate or not in this study and your
employer will not be notified of who decides to participate in the study and who does not.
DO NO HARM 189
CONFIDENTIALITY
There will be no identifiable information asked during the survey, nor will any identifying
information be kept with interview responses. Your name, address, or other identifying
information will not be collected.
You have a right to see or listen to all interview notes, transcripts, and recordings upon request.
After the recordings are transcribed, they will be destroyed and not kept as records.
Required language:
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
Principal Investigator Angela N. Parker at angelanp@usc.edu or phone at (xxx) xxx-xxxx or
Faculty Advisor Dr. Melora Sundt Sundt@rossier.usc.edu or (xxx) xxx-xxxx.
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu
DO NO HARM 190
APPENDIX D
Recruitment Letter
Dear Community Haven Staff Member,
In fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Education, Organizational
change and Leadership, I am conducting a study with the staff, and leadership of The
Community Haven. The goal of the research is to learn more about the knowledge and beliefs of
leaders, and the organizational culture and structure of The Community Haven, as they relate to
providing culturally competent services to your African American female clientele.
Please note that all information collected from participants will be completely
confidential. Also, since I am an employee, I will engage another researcher to conduct some of
the interviews for this study. The commitment is as follows: 1) a recorded, transcribed, and
confidential in-person interview, which should take approximately 30 minutes to an hour; 2)
an anonymous, on-line survey, which should take you approximately 30 minutes to complete; 3)
approximately three opportunities for me to observe Frontline Staff interaction with clients.
Again, this study is confidential, and every effort will be made to protect the identity of
participants and the organization.
If you are interested in participating in this study, or have any questions, please contact
me at angelanp@usc.edu or you can call me on my cell at xxx-xxx-xxxx.
Thank you,
Angela N. Parker
Angela N. Parker
Ed.D. Candidate, University of Southern California
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
This study used a mixed method analysis to examine the importance of providing culturally competent services to African American women who are victims of domestic violence. Despite a large body of work that addresses the various types’ of domestic violence, and the results the abuse has on victims, few studies focus on African American women and the historical, social and economic norms that make their experiences different from their Anglo American counterparts. The study interviewed six staff members in leadership positions, and surveyed 40 staff members from all departments, who work at a domestic violence intervention program that services a predominantly African American female population. The results from the study revealed that staff members who work with this population believe that offering cultural competent services increases their clients’ likelihood of program success.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Parker, Angela Nicole
(author)
Core Title
Do no harm: an evaluation study of providing culturally competent services to African American women who are victims of domestic violence
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)
Publication Date
04/10/2018
Defense Date
01/29/2018
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
African American women,comprehensive services,cultural competency,cultural sensitivity,domestic violence,domestic violence service providers,domestic violence shelters,intersectionality,OAI-PMH Harvest
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Sundt, Melora (
committee chair
), Armour, Jody (
committee member
), Ocen, Priscilla (
committee member
)
Creator Email
angelanp@usc.edu,aparkeronline@yahoo.com
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-7251
Unique identifier
UC11671719
Identifier
etd-ParkerAnge-6198.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-7251 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
etd-ParkerAnge-6198.pdf
Dmrecord
7251
Document Type
Dissertation
Rights
Parker, Angela Nicole
Type
texts
Source
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(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...
Repository Name
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Repository Location
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Tags
comprehensive services
cultural competency
cultural sensitivity
domestic violence
domestic violence service providers
domestic violence shelters
intersectionality