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Curriculum model to increase fourth grade STEM interests using sports analogies

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Curriculum model to increase fourth grade STEM interests using sports analogies

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Content 1
Running head: CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST
CURRICULUM MODEL TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST
USING SPORTS ANALOGIES
by
Katherina Belinda Nanzka Bell
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2018
Copyright 2018 Katherina Belinda Nanzka Bell
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 2
Dedication
I would like to thank my Heavenly Father and my best friend and Lord, Jesus Christ
for blessing me with this third and final degree from USC. I ask that I continue to be used as
a vessel to serve in the lives of our children. I also would like to thank my mother and my
shero Gabriele Elizabeth Helena Nanzka Bell who sacrificed her life and worked tirelessly
by coming to a foreign country from Germany to ensure I was raised with both parents. I
would also like to thank my father, Phillip Maurice Bell who supported and loved me before
passing in 2011 while I was obtaining my MSW. I would also like to thank my grandmother
Pauline Ardath Martin who I instilled a fire for education in my spirit and my uncle Bunny
aka Leigh Martin. Although Uncle Bunny and my grandmother passed away one week of
each other while I was obtaining my Doctorate, I dedicate this degree to you. I also dedicate
this degree to my God mother Inez Willis who was a single foster mother was like an angel
on earth that instilled the importance of having a relationship with God while walking
through this life. I would also like to thank my Aunt Helen, my cousins Cherise and Arleen,
my aunt Jada Martin, my cousin Wanda, my aunt Mae, my cousins Robert “Kool ” Bell of
Kool and the Gang, my cousin Adil, my cousin Lydel, Evy Graves, my grandfather, Captain
Bell, my very best friend, my grandfather and Tuskegee Airman, Douglass Martin for all
those days you let me comb your hair and watch cowboy movies with you. I would also like
to thank my brother Maurice Bell and family who loved me unconditionally and who have
been a major influence in my life. I also dedicate this Doctorate to my Oma, Unkel Karl,
and Tante Inga, Tante Sabina and family and your unconditional love when I come to
Germany to visit family. Most importantly, I would also like to thank my daughter Imani
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 3
Gabriele Grimes who has been the biggest challenge and the biggest blessing of my life. To
you my daughter and my love, I dedicate this degree to you.
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 4

Acknowledgements

I would also like to thank my friends Latrice Freeman, Latasha Milton, Lettrice
Lawrence, Simba Sims, Darryl Phillips, and Cheree Montgomery for being an amazing sister
and support during a dark time, thank you for your unconditional love and making Hong
Kong so special; Codi Evans who always encouraged me and believed in me and has been an
amazing friend who has loved me unconditionally, Evelia Martinez, David Easter, Carla
Adagun for stepping into my life to remind me that this undertaking is bigger than me and is
for our children and future generations; Tiffany Peetewood for being my sister who taught
me so much during our amazing journey in Hong Kong and providing unconditional love and
support as my sister along with Cheree; Brian Morton who always made me laugh and
checked in on me to make sure I always had what I needed; Cami Thomas for being
incredibly supportive and all my friends that I have not mentioned who encouraged me
through this process.
I would also like to thank my supervisors and all my coworkers, with special thanks
to Peter A. Tom, Erika Hernandez, Corrine Munguia, Carolyn Moret, Jasmine Mencias,
Jimmy Camiling, Andrea Hychee, Sam Ortiz and my entire USC family. I would also like to
thank my teachers at Inglewood High and Mount Saint Mary ’s University who believed in
me. I would also like to thank Professor James Kincaid who has been a mentor and a friend
who mentored me as an undergraduate student, Professor Thomas Gustafson who celebrated
and encouraged me to be an independent thinker, Professor Raymond Lamb who taught me
how to be a better Social Worker and mother, Dr. Todd Boyd who encouraged me to tap into
my academic gifts, and Professor Dilligan who as an undergraduate student told me I did not
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 5

know how to write and should have never been admitted to USC, I dedicate all three of my
degrees from USC to you as well.
I would also like to thank Dr. Alan Green, Dr. Briana Hinga, and Dr. Kenneth Yates
for their continued support, compassion and encouragement through the storms, as you
have truly been a blessing. I would also like to thank Dr. Rebecca Lundeen with sharing
her personal journey and by encouraging me that I too can complete this task. I would also
like to thank Dr. Kimberly Hirabayshi for her guidance through the dissertation process.
Finally, I would like to thank all my ancestors who sacrificed their lives so I could study at
an institution such as USC.
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 6
Table of Contents
List of Tables 10
Abstract 11
Chapter One: Introduction 12
Statement of the Problem 12
Environmental Problem of Practice 13
Possible Causes for Fourth Grade Loss of Interest 13
Lack of Reading Ability 13
Lack of Prior Knowledge 14
Evidence of the Problem 15
Importance of Solving the Problem of Practice 18
Instructional Needs Assessment 19
Determine the Nature of the Innovation 19
Determining the Learning Goals that Accompany the
Innovation 20
Determining Whether These Goals are Appropriate
and High Priority 20
Curriculum Description and Purpose 21
Curriculum Goal, Outcomes, and Assessment 21
Definition of Terms 21
Potential Designer Biases 22
Organization of the Designer Blueprint 23
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 24
The Curriculum 24
STEM Subjects in Elementary School 24
Increasing Behavioral Engagement and Situational Interests 25
Curriculum Content 27
Role of Motivation in Teaching STEM 27
Summary 33
What are Analogies? 34
The Components of Analogies 36
Using Sports Analogies to Increase Behavioral Engagement
& Situational Interests 37
Using the SCAMPER Model and Analogies to Enhance
Creativity and Problem Solving 40
Prior Attempts 40
Analysis of Prior Attempts 42
Approaches to the Curriculum Design 42
Theoretical Foundation to the Curriculum Design 42
Constructivism 42
Social Cognitive Theory 43
Chapter Three: The Learners and Learning Context 45
Learner Profile 45
Ability 45
Cognitive Characteristics 47
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 7
Physiological Characteristics 47
Self-Efficacy 48
Affective Characteristics 49
Social Characteristics 50
Prior Knowledge 50
Description of the Learning Environment 51
Facilitator Characteristics 52
Existing Curricula/Programs 52
Available Equipment and Technology 52
Classroom Facilities and Learning Climate 52
Chapter Four: The Curriculum 54
Overall Curriculum Goal, Outcomes and Summative Assessment
Curriculum Goal 54
Curriculum Outcomes 54
Summative Assessment 55
Cognitive Task Analysis (Information Processing Analysis) 56
General Instructional Methods Approach Utilizing Bloom ’s
Taxonomy to Approach Learning Objectives 57
Prior Knowledge, Learning Characteristics and Generative
Strategies 58
Cognitive Load Theory 58
Description of Specific Learning Activities 59
Figure A: Overview of Instructional Strategies 61
Overview of the Course and Units 62
Unit 1 62
Terminal Learning Objective 62
Learning Activities 62
Learning Assessment 63
Unit 2 63
Terminal Learning Objective 63
Learning Activities 64
Learning Assessment 64
Unit 3 64
Terminal Learning Objective 64
Learning Activities 64
Learning Assessment 64
Unit 4 64
Terminal Learning Objective 64
Learning Activities 65
Learning Assessment 65
Delivery Media Selection 65
Key Considerations in Choosing Media 65
Course Media Selection Plan 65
1. Authenticity 66
2. Immediate Feedback 66
3. Sensory Requirements 66
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 8
Media Selection Plan 66
1. Instructional Delivery Options 66
2. Delivery Costs 68
General Instructional Platform Selection 69
Specific Media Choices 70
Chapter Five: Implementation and Evaluation Plan 71
Implementation of the Course 71
Implementation of the Evaluation 72
Plan Curriculum Purpose, Need and Expectations 72
Evaluation Framework 72
Level 4. Results and Leading Indicators 73
Level 3. Behavior 75
Critical Behaviors 75
Required Drivers 77
Organizational Support 79
Level 2. Learning 80
Learning Goals 80
Components of Learning Evaluation 81
Level 1. Reaction 81
Evaluation Tools 84
Immediately Following the Program Implementation 84
Delayed for a Period after the Program
Implementation 85
Conclusion of the Curriculum Design 85
References 86
Appendix A. Survey: Post Professional Development Completion 99
Appendix B. Survey: One Month Post Professional Development
Completion 101
Appendix C. Curriculum to Increase Fourth Grade STEM
Interest – Course Overview, Lesson Plan and
Instructor ’s Guide 103
Appendix D. Lesson One: What is an Analogy? Lesson Plan
and Instructor ’s Guide 107
Appendix E. Lesson One: Handout 112
Appendix F. Lesson One: PowerPoint Storyboard 115
Appendix G. Lesson Two: How to Increase Situational
Interest in STEM and Complex Subjects using
Analogies - Lesson Plan and Instructor ’s Guide 141
Appendix H. Lesson Two: Handout 146
Appendix I. Lesson Two: PowerPoint Storyboard 148
Appendix J. Lesson Three: How to use Sports Analogies to
Foster Situational Interest to Teach STEM - Lesson
Plan and Instructor ’s Guide 171
Appendix K. Lesson Three: Handout 176
Appendix L. Lesson Three: PowerPoint Storyboard 179
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 9
Appendix M. Lesson Four: How to Teach Students to
Construct Analogies to Enhance Problem-Solving
Skills using SCAMPER and Critical Thinking
Activities - Lesson Plan and Instructor ’s Guide 204
Appendix N. Lesson Four: Handout 209
Appendix O. Lesson Four: PowerPoint Storyboard 210
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 10
List of Tables
Table 1: Scope and sequence 63
Table 2: Instructional delivery options 67
Table 3: Delivery costs 68
Table 4: Indicators, metrics, and methods for external and internal
outcomes 74
Table 5: Critical behavior, metrics, methods, and timing for
evaluation 76
Table 6: Required drivers to support critical behaviors 78
Table 7: Evaluation of the components of learning for the program 82
Table 8: Components to measure reactions to the program 84
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 11
Abstract
In 2015, the Programme for International Assessment found a substantial academic decline
in US schools compared to their global counterparts with the slump being most prevalent in
the fourth grade. The purpose of this curriculum is to address the loss of interest in STEM
and reading comprehension in the fourth grade by providing a professional development
program to prepare teachers to increase situational interest in STEM subjects by
incorporating analogies into the fourth-grade curriculum. Applying social cognitive and
constructivism theories as theoretical approaches, the curriculum consists of a four-unit
online course. While completing the course, educators will confer with their peers within
their individual learning communities and will be encouraged to use the tools provided in the
training in their classroom. Upon the completion of the program, educators will also be able
to teach students how to create analogies by providing students with the tools to think
critically when attempting to comprehend complex subjects. The summative evaluation will
consist of teachers incorporating the use of analogies within weekly lesson plans and using
the resources provided in the professional development program. It is important to engage
fourth-grade students to increase critical thinking skills and interest in STEM subjects to
educate the next generation of students to compete academically within the global
marketplace.
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 12

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

Statement of the Problem

Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) has played an integral
part in shaping and influencing the development of societies globally (National Research
Council, NRC, 2012, p. 16). However, according to scores from the 2015 Programme for
International Assessment (PISA, Gonzales & Sen, 2017), academic achievement in the US
continues to decline. Every three years PISA (2015) ranks 15-year-old students in math,
science, and reading comprehension from 71 developed and developing countries. According
to PISA ’s findings, the US ranked 38% compared to their global counterparts. Although 15-
year old students were tested, it is vital to consider that the decline in science, mathematics,
and reading comprehension may have occurred in the fourth grade and as early as grades 0-3
with the decline continuing throughout high school. It is also important to note, that
according to the Trends in the International Mathematics and Science Student Study (TIMSS,
2015), there was a sharp drop in fourth-grade mathematic test scores in 2015, which has not
occurred since 1990. In 2015, the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP,
Kewal Ramani et al., 2018) commensurate with the TIMSS report, which found 40% of
fourth graders, 33% of eighth graders, and 25% of 12th graders scored at an average skill
level in math and reading comprehension.
Besides national implications and based on 2015 TIMSS scores, the consistent decline
of science, mathematics, and reading for fourth-grade and high school students, has global
ramifications. Such declines send a message to the world that the US is unable to properly
prepare students to compete within the global marketplace (Desilver, 2017). Moreover, only
29% of Americans consider K-12 education in the US superior compared to their global
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 13

counterparts. According to the American Association for the Advancement of Science
(AAAS, Desilver, 2017), only 16% of members considered US STEM education satisfactory
or exceptional, while 46% considered K-12 STEM education as subpar.
Environmental Problem of Practice

Pantoya, Aguirre-Munoz, and Hunt (2015) suggested the problem of practice is the
loss of interest in STEM in the fourth grade and as early as grades 0-3. The disinterest in
STEM is due to the lack of instructional processes, which fails to capture and hold students ’
attention during STEM instruction within the fourth grade (Rogers, 2016). Additionally, a
lack of creativity within instruction may also exist which fails to ignite the curiosity and
imaginations of students to understand the world around them using STEM subjects (Kang &
Lundeberg, 2010). This is compounded by the scarcity of science content that children are
exposed to before entering the fourth grade. According to the Annie C. Casey Foundation,
students in the fourth grade will experience difficulty making connections to STEM because
they lack prior knowledge due to the absence of instruction in grades 0-3 (Fiester, 2010). In
addition to the shortage of STEM instruction, fourth-grade students may also experience
difficulties understanding STEM subjects, which may be caused by the inability to
comprehend and read scientific literature before entering the fourth grade.
Possible causes for fourth grade loss of interest. There may be two explanations
for the loss of interest for fourth-grade students: lack of reading ability and lack of prior
knowledge.
Lack of reading ability. Based on findings from the Annie E. Casey Foundation
(Hernandez, 2011) and the 2015 NAEP report, two out of three fourth graders are not
capable of reading at their grade level. The contribution to the decline in literacy in grades
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 14

0-3 is based on student ’s lack of mastery in reading before entering the fourth grade
(Fiester, 2010). Although students within grades 0-3 may know how to read, many do not
comprehend what they have read. As a result, if comprehension is not mastered, learning
does not occur. If a child has not mastered reading comprehension, this may adversely
impact their ability to develop critical thinking skills into adulthood.
According to the Children ’s Reading Foundation (Fielding, 2006), three quarters of
children who lack reading comprehension skills will continue to experience difficulties with
literacy throughout their lifetime. During a child ’s academic development, children learn to
read between grades 0-3 but read to learn beginning in the fourth grade. As a result, if
children lack the ability to comprehend what they are reading and they do not possess prior
knowledge or a point of reference to understand what they are reading, students will lose
interest (Miles & Stipek, 2006).
Lack of prior knowledge. When students enter the fourth grade, language and
literacy demands rise and reading comprehension becomes increasingly more advance
(Fiester, 2010). According to Sanacore and Palumbo (2008), there is an expectation made by
teachers in grades 0-3, that it is the responsibility of fourth-grade teachers and beyond to
assist students to develop reading comprehension skills. In contrast, fourth-grade teachers
believe it is the responsibility of 0-3 educators to instill this ability in students before
entering the fourth grade. Additionally, students in grades 0-3 are taught using narrative text
and lack exposure to informational and scientific context found in textbooks (Sanacore &
Palumbo, 2008).
It is also essential to consider that although the decline in reading comprehension
and technical literacy begins in the fourth grade, the decline continues as children progress
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 15

pass this grade level. However, the fourth grade is a pivotal point in the student ’s
educational pathways. According to Chall ’s (1996 Stages of Reading Development, in
Stage 2, children are learning to read while in Stage 3, students are reading to learn and
comprehend.
When considering fourth-grade students within underserved communities, it is
important to note that based on Roswell and Chall ’s Diagnostic Assessment of Reading
(2013), students in underserved schools parallel the performance of the normative
population in all subtests. However, performance begins to decline in underserved schools
as the reading tasks become more technical (Sanacore & Palumbo, 2008). If young children
are unable to grasp what they are learning, they may become frustrated with the learning
process due to their inability to make connections to prior knowledge to acquire new
knowledge (Sanacore & Palumbo, 2008). Consequently, if children do not possess a well-
rounded vocabulary, which includes scientific content that is appropriate for their grade
level, they will have trouble making connections and developing cues to acquire new
knowledge when advancing to the next grade level (Chall, Jacobs, & Baldwin, 1990).
Evidence of the Problem

Based on Shymansky, Yore, and Good ’s (1991) findings, the evidence of the problem
is based on the use of story and narrative books in grades 0-3 and a lack of exposure to
scientific text until students enter the fourth grade. As a result, children lose or have no
interest in STEM because they have little or no exposure to STEM when entering the fourth
grade. The problem is compounded by the misconception of many 0-3 teachers who do not
believe there is a difference between reading science related text compared to narrative
literature (Shymansky et al., 1991).
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 16

While many 0-3 grade teachers are using narrative literature, they lack the
knowledge to teach reading that is related to understanding informational and technical
concepts. As a result, student are placed in a precarious predicament because from grades
0-3 they were taught to transition from narrative text to informational context in textbooks
with little to no prior knowledge of scientific data or vocabulary (Sanacore & Palumbo,
2008). Due to a lack of prior knowledge, students do not possess the ability to develop
educational cues because storybooks and scientific content found in textbooks is very
different (Kucer, 2016). Moreover, the grammatical structure and how narrative books are
written compared to textbooks are very different as textbooks are more driven by technical
concepts while narrative writings generally focus on where the story takes place and what is
occurring as it relates to the primary character in the book (Sanacore & Palumbo, 2008).
However, it is also important to consider when children are introduced to subjects
that interest them and are pleasurable, student interests increase (Martinez, Roser, Worthy,
Strecker, & Gough, 1997). If subjects such as STEM are introduced to students in the fourth
grade but there is no prior point of reference to STEM subjects, students may be reluctant to
learn and may lose interest. However, if students are exposed to STEM concepts using
activities they enjoy such as sports, students have a greater opportunity to make connections
based on their prior knowledge of sports ’ activities. In addition to educators making the
connection between STEM concepts and sports, fourth-grade teachers can also use sports
analogies to teach fourth-grade STEM topics while fostering situational interest using sports.
Recognizing the importance of increasing situational interest using sports analogies, the
professional development program will be designed to assist educators to understand how
analogies can be used to increase critical thinking while introducing fourth graders to
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 17

scientific and informational content. When students are engaged and there is an interest in
the subject, intrinsic motivation increases when students find what they are learning as
internally rewarding (Barron & Hulleman, 2015).
When students can develop learning cues to think critically, they are more
inclined to engage in the learning process, which can also increase intrinsic motivation
(Kucer 2017).
According to a study conducted by Kucer (2017), the learning habits of 35 fourth graders
(ages nine and ten) and miscues were examined when presented with complex science data. The
study found that when fourth graders are unable to form appropriate cues, the ability to
understand and comprehend what is being read was compromised. In addition to missing crucial
learning cues to solve complex scientific tasks, students became frustrated and became
disinterested in continuing the task because the text was unfamiliar.
It is also essential to consider what Kucer (2016), referred to as “meaning
maintaining ” which is the student ’s ability to recall words and understand text familiar to
the student. Consequently, students may be unable to maintain the meaning of scientific
text and develop learning cues on their own if no prior knowledge exists to make a
connection to acquire new knowledge. For this reason, students are unable to explain or
summarize ideas in their own words. Moreover, if STEM related subjects do not stimulate
students before entering the fourth grade, many learners may find it difficult to engage in
STEM related subject matter throughout their elementary, secondary, and postsecondary
education (Cho et al., 2015).
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 18

Importance of Solving the Problem of Practice

Exposure to STEM at an earlier age not only enhances behavior engagement, but
may also have a tremendous impact on fostering interest in STEM subjects beyond the
fourth grade (Robinson, 2013). Robinson (2013) also suggested behavioral engagement is
defined as the range of a student ’s approach to classroom learning and the effort exerted to
solve a challenging problem. However, a lack of interest may exist when subjects are too
ambiguous for students to understand because they do not see a connection to what they are
learning to their environment. This dilemma is compounded by the rigid timetables,
curriculum designs and structures that do not approach STEM in ways students can make
real life connections or formulate analogies to understand what is being taught (Williams,
2011).
Another important component to understand and solve the problem of practice is to
address the lack of qualified teachers to teach STEM. The Educational Trust West
(Ushomirsky & Williams, 2015) contended that students within districts with the highest
poverty levels are three times more likely to be taught by teachers who are not qualified to
teach STEM (Ushomirsky & Williams, 2015). The purpose of the curriculum design is to
give teachers additional tools to foster interest in STEM by using sports analogies.
By not approaching learning as a transformative experience by allowing students to
engage in STEM by using interests such as sports, STEM instruction may become
overwhelming and arduous instead of challenging but a rewarding undertaking. Moreover,
the implication of not implementing the professional development curriculum, which would
increase situational interest in STEM, could escalate the continued decline in achievement in
STEM subjects and subsequent decline in STEM careers.
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 19

Instructional Needs Assessment

Prior to developing curriculum to introduce a new learning tool using sports analogies
to teach STEM, Smith and Ragan (2005) recommended conducting an innovation-based
needs assessment in order to justify a need for the instruction. Smith and Ragan described
the innovation assessment as a requirement when creating a curriculum design to address a
need when no instruction is currently available. Smith and Ragan (2005) suggested the
following questions should be considered and will be addressed in the next sections:
(a) determine the nature of the innovation; (b) determine the learning goals of the innovation;
and (c) determine whether the goals are high priority.
Determine the Nature of the Innovation
The innovation is to create a curriculum model for educators to use sports analogies
in conjunction with The Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS Lead States, 2013) to
teach STEM. NGSS was created to foster student engagement and excitement in the
learning process when learning STEM. The innovation would incorporate sports analogies
into lesson plans to build excitement as students explore and discover how STEM and sports
are related. According to Barron and Hulleman (2015), when teachers engage students in
the learning process by using scientific processes instead of memorizing data, students are
more motivated to learn and have a better opportunity to retain what has been taught.
Additionally, when students are intrinsically motivated to engage in subjects they enjoy, a
memorable experience is created because the student is actively and willingly participating
in the learning process. According to Mitchell (1993), when an educator can catch and hold
a student ’s interest within the classroom using subjects such as sports, students are more
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 20

motivated to learn and retain what they learn because what they are learning is of personal
interest to the student.
Determining the Learning Goals that Accompany the Innovation

The curriculum design was specifically developed for fourth-grade teachers to
address the problem of practice, which is the academic decline that students experience
beginning in the fourth grade and is referred to as the fourth-grade slump (Chall & Jacobs,
2003). The innovation of the curriculum design is to support teachers in using sports
analogies to motivate students to learn STEM. Understanding that teachers play a vital role
in the success of the student achievement, providing educators with an invaluable tool of
teaching students how to develop their own analogies will not only help students understand
STEM but also various subjects students find challenging.
Determining Whether These Goals are Appropriate and High Priority
According to Whipp and Geronime (2015), many teachers do not possess the
expertise to properly teach STEM. The premise is based on their five-year research and
development project, which consisted of reform-based science curriculum and teacher
professional development to enhance STEM literacy in underserved schools. With the study,
a population of 213 third-, fourth-, and fifth-grade teachers were interviewed. One of the
most significant findings was that although teachers have access to instructional strategies,
more advance inquiry based strategies were not used when teaching STEM. Another
dilemma that is faced by teachers who are adequately prepared to teach STEM in low income
communities is the lack of support, guidance, resources, and professional development
required to provide effective instruction (Nadelson, Pfiester, Callahan, & Pyke, 2015).
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 21

Curriculum Description and Purpose

The purpose of the curriculum is to create a professional development course to
introduce the use of sports analogies to teach STEM. In response to the perceived need to
engage students in active learning by using analogies, this professional development program
is designed to introduce teachers to creative ways to use analogies within the classroom to
foster critical thinking skills. By constructing analogies using the source or current
knowledge to understand the target or new knowledge, educators will gain a greater
understanding of how different types of analogies can be constructed to teach STEM or any
subject that requires critical thinking. Once teachers are versed on how to use sports
analogies to teach STEM, educators will be able to teach students how to use different types
of analogies to increase comprehension in all subjects. In addition to creating a professional
development program to use sports analogies to teach STEM, the goal of the curriculum
model is to increase student engagement and intrinsic motivation as it relates to students
learning STEM.
Curriculum Goal, Outcomes, and Assessment

The goal of the professional development program is to increase teachers ’ conceptual
and procedural knowledge using sports analogies to promote student interest in STEM
concepts. Teachers will demonstrate their knowledge by creating lesson plans and applying
what is learned in the professional development program by transferring that knowledge into
the classroom.
Definition of Terms

A summary of the key terms and definitions used throughout the curriculum is provided

below.

CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 22

 Intrinsic motivation. A task that individuals find enjoyable to learn and finds
learning the subject internally rewarding (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002).
 Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS). The NGSS framework is a set of
disciplinary frameworks and core concepts related to STEM. NGSS is a set of
academic frameworks designed to prepare students beginning in elementary school
for college and graduate study in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics (STEM). In addition to subject-specific learning, STEM seeks to
increase student interests by nurturing inquiring minds, engaging in logical
reasoning, and building collaboration skills (Bybee, 2010) The standards were
created by a consortium of 26 states which includes members of the National
Science Teachers Association, the American Association for the Advancement of
Science, and the National Research Council (Gallard, Mensah, & Pitts, 2014).
 STEM. STEM is an acronym for science, technology, engineering and mathematics.

Potential Designer Biases
The potential designer biases are based on the designer ’s experiences as she recalls
experiencing the fourth-grade slump, which left her feeling insecure about her ability to
learn. Within the grades 0-3, the designer was accustomed to receiving high marks in all
subjects until she experienced a decline in the fourth grade. As she reflected when creating
the curriculum model, she recalls reading story books based in fantasy from grades 0-3.
When she was introduced to textbooks in the fourth grade, she felt confused and concerned
because she did not understand what she was reading.
Reflecting on the stress of being introduce to new topics and reading books that were
foreign to the designer left her with a level of anxiety that motivated her to write a
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 23

curriculum model so no other child would experience the level of stress she experienced.
She also recalls her teacher never explaining the transition that occurred within the fourth
grade from reading storybooks to textbooks to learn science. The designer also recalls that
there were no tools for fourth graders to think critically to understand scientific content.
Consequently, to the designer and her peers, STEM was an unsolvable mystery that every
student despised and did not want to learn.
Organization of the Design Blueprint

This dissertation is divided into five chapters. Chapter One explains the statement of
the problem, which is supported by empirical research, which reinforces the need and
importance of solving the problem of declining interest in STEM subject at the fourth-grade
level. Chapter Two includes a discussion of the theoretical approach to the content used to
design the curriculum model. An examination of the profile of fourth-grade teachers who
are the focus of the curriculum design and will be referred to as the learner is presented in
Chapter Three. Chapter Four also considers the ability, cognitive characteristics, self-
efficacy, affective and social characteristics, prior knowledge, general world knowledge, and
specific prior knowledge of fourth-grade educators. Chapter Four also includes a discussion
of the curriculum goals, outcomes, and the summative capstone assessment. Chapter Five is
an analysis of how the curriculum will be implemented and evaluated using the New World
Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick, 2014).
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 24

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

The Curriculum

The purpose of the literature review is to gain a greater understanding of the current
empirical and theoretical research that supports the importance and need for a professional
development program that will support educators in teaching STEM. The goal of the
curriculum model is to introduce sports related analogies to teach STEM concepts, increase
critical thinking skills and enhance situational interest, and student engagement within the
classroom. The literature review consists of three sections. The first part is the theoretical
approach to the curriculum, the second is the content of the curriculum, and the third is the
theoretical framework to the curriculum design.
STEM Subjects in Elementary School

To teach STEM, it is imperative to understand how teachers introduce STEM subjects
to students. When doing so, it is also important to consider the correlation between children
within underserved communities and the inequality that exists as it relates to lack of exposure
to high- behavioral engagement, which consists of attentiveness, task persistence, and tasks
that challenge students to think critically compared to affluent communities (Robinson,
2013). In his study, Robinson suggested incorporating behavioral engagement pedagogy
early within children’s academic pathways may considerably increase achievement in
mathematics. The study also posits that when behavioral engagement is incorporated into
lessons beginning in grades 0-3, the disparity between low academic achievement within
underserved communities and affluent communities is stabilized.
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 25

Increasing Behavioral Engagement and Situational Interests

The goal of introducing behavioral engagement early in a child ’s education pathway is
to increase critical thinking in grades 0-3 (Robinson, 2013). Behavioral engagement occurs
when students are actively participating in the learning process using cognition, emotions, and
behaviors. In addition to behavioral engagement, situational interest occurs when factors are
introduced through learning that peaks the interest of the student. By early exposure to
subjects such as STEM, children develop the ability to become more attentive and confident
in embracing learning tasks that may seem daunting or intimidating.
Moreover, students who have not been exposed to being challenged academically risk
becoming overwhelmed because they have not developed thinking skills to work through
complex subjects such as STEM (Robinson, 2013). For those who have not been introduced
to STEM in grades 0-3, children may experience cognitive overload where they give up on
the learning task compared to students who have been introduced to basic critical thinking
and problem-solving skills in grades 0-3. To increase behavioral engagement and situational
interest, educators must challenge students to think at a deeper level to comprehend complex
subject matter (Kucer, 2016). By using analogies, students may be better equipped to
identify cues that may assist them in navigating through difficult subjects.
Although studies find interest in STEM begins to decline in the fourth grade, the
drop is not limited to STEM related subjects. In addition to STEM, students also experience
difficulties in reading comprehension (Barbot, Lubart, & Besançon, 2016). Research has
also found that third graders who received high marks in reading and comprehension show a
decline when entering the fourth grade (Cho et al., 2015).
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 26

Fourth graders have trouble in all subjects due to their inability to identify patterns,
cues and/or connections to STEM subjects (Kucer, 2017). The inability to comprehend what
is being read in the appropriate context is compounded by what Kucer (2017) referred to as
the “monitor- in-chief. ” Monitor-in-chief is defined as the practice of teachers who points out
errors made by students and quickly provides the correct answer without allowing the child
to recognize and attempt to correct their error. Instead of this approach, it is recommended
that the educator provide guidance by suggesting that the student modify their method of
solving the problem without providing the answer. By doing so, the educator is promoting
the development of critical thinking skills. Additionally, by allowing students to struggle
through challenging problems, student begins to create their own learning cues (Rasinski &
Hoffman, 2003).
By not encouraging independent thinking, educators are hindering students from
developing critical thinking, problem solving, and analytical skills required to continue to
seek answers even when challenged (Novinger & Compton-Lilly, 2005). Understanding
that each child learns and thinks differently, it is vital that teachers allow students to
develop individual connections and cues based on their prior knowledge and personal
experiences to acquire new knowledge (Abrami et al., 2015). If teachers do not allow
students to develop such cues, students will experience difficulty comprehending
complicated scientific text as they progress through their education (Kucer, 2017).
However, by using analogies to explain obscure or difficult subjects such as STEM, the
educator can bridge the gap between the obscure and the familiar by showing the relationships
between the source and the target within an analogy (Duit, 1991). By using analogies, what may
seem as a daunting task or unsolvable quagmire becomes a solvable problem. One of the most
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 27

common analogies that is used in the fourth grade to explain whole numbers and fractions is by
using the analogy of cutting a cake into parts. This analogy is familiar to most children because
many enjoy cake. Although some students may enjoy eating the whole cake, they also
understand fractions because most parents will only allow their child to eat a fraction of the
dessert. Once the teacher presents a familiar scenario by using analogies, understanding
fractions and whole numbers may not seem as daunting to the student.
The educator can also use the same analogy not only to teach students about fractions
and whole numbers but by also incorporating a lesson about the importance of sharing with a
friend. The educator can reinforce the value of sharing with others instead of keeping the
whole cake by sharing a fraction of the cake with their friends. Analogies become an
effective way for educators to teach several lessons by using multiple scenarios. Not only is
this particular use of an analogy effective, it allows students to make connections and
develop individual learning cues (Simons, 1984). To utilize analogies effectively within the
classroom, it is imperative that teachers have a thorough understanding of what an analogy is,
various types of analogies, and how analogies are essential to develop critical thinking skills.
Curriculum Content

Role of motivation in teaching STEM. Based on the literature, individual interests are
rooted in intrinsic (self) and extrinsic (environmental) motivation.
Intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation occurs when an individual is personally
motivated to learn and is internally rewarded once they master what they are attempting to
learn (Levesque, 2011). Teachers may also experience intrinsic motivation by finding it
personally rewarding when they witness their students ’ joy when they understand a subject
they found difficult to understand (Keller, Goetz, Becker, Morger, & Hensley 2014). When
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 28

students recognize that their teacher is pleased with their performance, students are more
inclined to become intrinsically motivated to learn and an educator ’s excitement witnessing
the learning process resonates with students, which has a positive impact on student
academic behavioral engagement. According to Filsecker and Hickey (2014), teacher
enthusiasm directly influences student achievement and is directly correlated to enthusiasm
and intrinsic motivation. As teachers are intrinsically motivated to teach, students are just as
motivated to learn. When teachers are excited about pedagogy, it becomes contagious, as
students are also excited about the learning process (Keller et al., 2014). If educators are not
engaged and enthusiastic about what they are teaching, students will not be motivated to
learn what is being taught. In addition to intrinsic motivation, it is important to consider
extrinsic motivation, which are external rewards that do not affect student motivation.
Extrinsic motivation. When considering intrinsic motivation, it is also important to
consider extrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation refers to external rewards such as
material items provided to the learner by successfully completing a task (Keller et al.,
2014). Although learners may be extrinsically motivated to participate in the professional
development program because they may be required to do so due to monetary gains; if
educators are not intrinsically motivated, the educator may not find value in what is being
taught (Filsecker & Hickey, 2014).
Therefore, it is important to understand the role of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
when creating professional development programs. It also important to determine the desired
outcomes that teachers would like to obtain by incorporating topics that students can relate to
when teaching complex subjects such as STEM. Through the professional development
program, sports analogies will be introduced as a learning tool to promote critical thinking
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 29

and increase student achievement in STEM subjects. Understanding educators are not
motivated by extrinsic motivation; the same is true for students who are provided with
material rewards within the classroom (Filsecker & Hickey, 2014).
In any learning environment whether as a K-12 student or an educator, if there is
poor engagement whether in the classroom or participating in a professional development
program, learning will not occur if there is a lack of interest and learners are not intrinsically
motivated to engage in the learning process. Understanding extrinsic motivation using
material rewards does not impact student achievement, it is also important to explore how
situational interest, motivation. and catch and hold techniques triggers and maintains
interests (Rotgans & Schmidt, 2017).
Situational interest motivation and using analogies. Situational interests are
triggered by an immediate set of circumstances that temporarily captures students ’ attention
(Harackiewicz, Smith, & Priniski, 2016). Understanding that most students in the fourth
grade enjoy recess and sports activities such as kickball, tetherball, or hopscotch, sports
analogies are used in this curriculum design to teach educators how to use sports topics to
teach STEM. Moreover, if there is a lack of interest in sports activity by the learner or their
students, physical education courses within the school can be used to create sports analogies
because students are familiar with these courses because they are incorporated into the
school ’s curriculum (MacIsaac, 2014).
When interest is present, there is a psychological component where attention, effort,
and affect is also present. The moment in time when interest is ignited, this is referred to as
situational interest (Harackiewicz et al., 2016). After learners experience situational
interests and learning occurs, learners will transfer what they have learned over time by
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 30

applying and using their newly acquired knowledge. As it relates to professional
development activities, teachers will convey what they have learned through their
professional development training to captivate their students ’ attention within the classroom
using sports analogies to teach STEM.
Additionally, the professional development program provides not only a
comprehensive lesson on how to use sports analogies to teach STEM but how to engage
students so they are able to develop their own analogies to think critically (Harackiewicz et
al., 2016). In addition to increasing STEM pedagogy in the classroom, after learners
complete the professional development program, learners will be able to create sports
analogies based on student interest, extracurricular school activities such as soccer or
physical education courses offered at the learner ’s school to increase metacognition where
educators are aware of their thinking and how to develop analogies that are personally
significant to their students (Mayo, 2001). Understanding that situational interests and
metacognition creates a proclivity for learners to transfer what they have learned, situational
interests enhance the interest in the learning process if they are excited about what they are
teaching (Hidi & Renninger, 2006).
Based on Hidi and Renninger ’s (2006) Four-Phase Model of Interest Development,
situational interest motivation is appropriate to use as a learning tool as real-life scenarios
based on the interest of students where they are personally motivated to learn what is being
taught elicit it. Durik and Harackiewicz (2007) also described situational interest as a direct
response to an individual ’s experiences where the student can develop cues where they can
apply personal knowledge to understand newly acquired knowledge. The focus of the
professional development program is to increase situational interest within the classroom.
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 31

Once educators can capture and hold student interest, students may store memories of what
they have learned and recall the information later because they have made the connection to
what was familiar and what was learned.
According to Durik and Harackiewicz (2007), when educators can catch which refers
to inciting the enthusiasm of the subject and holding strengthens and retains the student ’s
interest in a subject by finding relevance in what is being taught. When educators use
analogies to develop learning cues, students are creating personal ideas and concepts by
making real-life connections (Driver & Erickson, 1983). By making symbolic and real-life
connections, educators can teach students to create analogies by identify what is familiar
which is known as the source to understand the target (Richland, Zur, & Holyoak, 2007).
In addition to situational interest, the Four Phase Model of Interest Development
consists of triggered situational interest, maintaining situational interest, the emerging
individual interest, and the well-developed individual interest (Hidi & Renninger, 2006).
The interest model is essential for teachers to understand so they can navigate where students
are in the learning process. The phases are defined as follows: Phase One is triggered
situational interest and occurs when short-term changes in cognitive and intuitive processing
occurs and which captivates students ’ interest by using stimuli that is present in the student ’s
environment (Hidi & Renninger, 2006). In this instance, the stimuli are sports analogies. It
is also important to consider that to trigger interest, students require support to maintain
interest and validation as they work through lessons while the educator supports them
through the learning process. At this stage, students need to know their efforts are
recognized and valued by the instructor.
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 32

In Phase Two, students maintain situational interests which requires focus and
persistence to learn while the educator helps as needed (Hidi & Renninger, 2006). Through
the professional development program, teachers will learn to encourage students to explore
new thoughts and ideas as they work through STEM subjects. During this phase, teachers
will provide direction on how to complete tasks and in turn, students will develop a sense of
value in what is being learned. By incorporating analogies, learners are able to establish
individualized connections to what is taught. When students formulate correct cues based on
the learning objectives, educators should provide positive reinforcement by making the
student aware that their efforts are appreciated (Renninger, 2009).
In Phase Three, the student becomes an emerging individual (Hidi & Renninger, 2006).

In this phase, students will begin to independently immerse themselves into the lesson
being taught. During this phase there is a curiosity about what the student is learning
(Renninger, 2009). Through the professional development program, teachers will be able
to engage in activities pertaining to STEM instruction using analogies where students
independently make connections with prior and newly acquired knowledge. Learners
should reinforce that the students are correct by providing positive feedback for making the
right connections (Hidi & Renninger, 2006). During this juncture, students will need to
express their ideas, develop their own questions, and independently by immersing
themselves in what they are learning.
In the final phase, the well-developed individual will emerge (Hidi & Renninger,
2006). In this stage, the student will be able to independently enthrall themselves in the
learning process but will still seek constructive feedback and reassurance to ensure their
thoughts and ideas are correct (Hidi & Renninger, 2006). At this stage, educators must
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 33

reinforce student ’s individual ideas by listening to and providing a dialogue where teacher
and students are engaged in the learning process and there is a reciprocity in sharing ideas.
At this point, students have developed the ability to self-regulate and can persevere through
frustrations to solve problems (Renninger, 2009). During the professional development
program, teachers will be provided with creative ways to engage students within this phase
through using analogies to enhance critical thinking using this model.
The Four Phases of Interest Development is essential for teachers to understand the
importance in recognizing where students are individually as it pertains to their unique
interest level (Hidi & Renninger, 2006). The goal of the professional development program
is to induce interest in students by using analogies to establish a personal value in learning
tasks. Understanding that sports is an activity that many students engage in through school
activities or extracurricular activities, the act of constant repetition of interacting in the sports
activity creates a psychological state through engagement which increases interest.
Summary. The goal of the curriculum design is to increase situational and intrinsic
motivation to learn STEM-related subjects using sports analogies. The development of the
professional development program is to assist students in making the connections between
specific information to establish individual interest (Hidi & Baird, 1986; Krapp, 2000).
Moreover, when students have a personal interest in what they are learning, positive effect
occurs through persistence as learners seek to accomplish their educational goals by finding
value and making personal connections through what is learned (Hidi & Renninger, 2006).
Through situational interests, educators can make connections through real-life scenarios
(Mayo, 2001). Through situational interests, individual activities, the ability to catch and
hold interest, the organization and delivery of tasks within the classroom and guidance by the
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 34

instructor, these components will increase situational interests within the classroom (Ainley,
Hidi, & Berndorff, 2002). In addition to increasing situational interest, by teaching
educators how to use sports analogies as a learning tool through the professional
development program, teachers will be able to transfer the newly acquired knowledge to
students to promote independent thinking by creating analogies using their own thoughts and
ideas.
What are Analogies?
Analogies are sets of examples that are used to identify the similarities and
relationships between complex subjects to simplify what is being taught (Simons, 1984).
Analogies have three components which consist of the source, which is what is familiar to
the student, the target, which is what the student is attempting to learn, and mapping refers to
the connections that bring the source and target together through learning cues or similarities.
Analogies are used to acquire new knowledge by utilizing prior knowledge, associations, or
experiences to understand complex subjects (Glynn, S. M., 1991).
Analogies provide a deeper insight and understanding of subjects while an example
presents a general overview of topics (Aragones, Gilboa, Postlewaite & Schmeidler, 2013).
Personal analogies make correlations between ideas, situations or items. Direct analogies
make connections between two different approaches or comparisons to things (Glynn, S.,
2007). Symbolic analogies which are also referred to as compressed conflict analogies
express how two conflicts can come together to understand a concept. Additionally,
analogies can be described using items, props, pictures, drawing, cartoons, or objects through
visual aids.
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 35

A metaphor is an imaginative or poetic way of comparing two items or ideas
(Simons, 1984). Metaphors can also take the form of verbal cues through aphorisms or
idioms. An example of a metaphor is describing earth as a balloon or ball. Another type of
analogy is synectics analogies, which refers to actions, roles or objects. An example of
synectics analogies would be, “Running water is similar to . . .” or “A ball is like . . . ” The
cognitive processes of metaphors consist of concrete, structural, and assimilation functioning
which identifies errors in critical thinking and problem solving (Evans & Evans, 1989).
Concrete functioning refers to the use of the physical makeup of an object to understand
abstract concepts.
An example of a concrete metaphor is using the physical attributes on an egg to
describe how fragile the relationship is between an unhappy customer and a business. The
egg is the relationship and breakdown of the relationship is like cracking the egg. Once the
egg is broken, there is no way to repair the egg just as there may be no way of repairing the
relationship. In addition to concrete metaphors, an assimilation metaphor consists of
throwing a football and understanding when the ball is thrown, spiraling occurs which is
related to physics (Evans & Evans, 1989). Assimilation functioning makes connections with
old information or prior to what is being taught to develop new knowledge (Simons, 1984).
Personification functioning metaphors consists of giving human qualities to a concept
that is abstract. A personification metaphor gives human attributes to objects. An example
of a personification metaphor would be a slogan that was used in an Oreo cookie commercial
that contends, “Oreos are milk ’s favorite cookies. ” (Oreo, 2017). Another type of metaphor
is a simile which consists of two different concepts that are compared to understanding an
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 36

idea by making comparisons using as and like (Evans & Evans, 1989). An example is “Jane
was as cool as a cucumber when she took her exam because she studied. ”
Psychologists contended that although analogies may often be used in everyday
conversations and within academia, they are vital in enhancing critical thinking and
problem- solving skills (Duit, 1991). When constructing analogies, it is also essential that
educators are specific and deliberate when making the deeper connections of an analogy
without focusing on the obvious (Harrison, A. G., & Treagust, 1993).
When using sports analogies such as throwing a football and applying physics to
understand how a ball travels to teach STEM, the source is the ball and physics is the
target. The source or the ball is what is familiar while the target or physics is what the
student is attempting to understand (English, 2013). As related to the professional
development program, students are interested in the source, which is sports, and STEM
is the target. Educators must encourage students to use analogies to promote adaptive
critical thinking to foster cognitive readiness and analogical reasoning. Once the student
can make the connections where they are demonstrating analogical reasoning, cognitive
reasoning begins to occur where the student is able to transfer what they have learned
even if the context of the source and the target has changed (Holyoak & Richland, 2014).
The Components of Analogies

Although there is no ideal analogy, critical thinking and attention to detail is
paramount when using analogies in learning (Evans & Evans, 1989). After the general idea
of an analogy is introduced, a more specific and concrete level of detail and explanation must
be provided. The last component of explaining the analogy is making the connection
between the source and the target through mapping (Aragones et al., 2013). To engage
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 37

students in the learning process, introducing students to analogies is only one aspect of the
importance of the use of analogies while the other component is making the connections to
thoughts or real-life scenarios. According to Holyoak (2012), when a student is able to make
these connections, they are demonstrating analogical reasoning. In addition to analogical
reasoning, when the students recognize the relationships that exists between a source and a
target, new knowledge is formed (Blake, 2004). Once this occurs, information within the
individual ’s memory is saved in segregated portions or “schema. ” Within these portions,
information is categorized with complex components at the top while the concrete segments
are at the bottom (Aragones et al., 2013).
Additionally, teachers can also increase critical thinking, using the “teaching with
analogies ” model (Glynn, S. M., 1991). The model consists of six functions which include
(a) Introducing the target or what is unfamiliar to the student, (b) Review of the concept or
analogy by referencing the relationships between the target and the source, (c) Identify the
important characteristics of the source and target, (d) Make connections by mapping the
similarities between the source and target, (e) Identify the limitations present in the analogy, and
(f) Conclude what was gleaned from making the comparison between the mapping of the target
and source.
Using Sports Analogies to Increase Behavioral Engagement & Situational Interests

Behavioral engagement consists of the student ’s level of effort, persistence, attention,
participation, and involvement in the learning process (Curran, Hill, & Niemiec, 2013). In
addition to behavioral engagement, situational interest can occur by a teacher temporarily
grasping students ’ interest using images, sounds, or activities (Seifert & Sutton, 2009). To
capture students ’ interest, sports analogies were specifically selected when designing the
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 38

curriculum model because it is a powerful learning tool which incorporates sports interest
while promoting critical thinking to learn STEM.
Moreover, sports activities such as physical education courses are incorporated in
schools because it has a positive impact on student cognition and overall well-being
(Wysession, 2015). According to Curran et al. (2013), students who participate in sports
activities may develop healthy psychological, social, and physical health. Additionally,
programs such as the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) were created to ensure
educators are actively challenging students to analyze and think critically about STEM
subjects.
Critical thinking is accomplished through four engagement behaviors, which consists
of interactive, constructive, active, and passive (ICAP) learning (Chi & Wylie, 2014).
Passive or traditional learning which Freire (1970) refers to as banking instruction, consists
of the instructor speaking while students are seated, taking notes or watching the teacher as
the educator is active while students are inactive. According to Chi (2009), the second
learning process is active learning where learners are taking notes and copying word for word
based on what educators are presenting; the third pedagogical process is constructive learning
where students are asking questions, note taking from the student ’s perspective where they
are explaining concepts in their own words (Chi & Wylie, 2014). The last concept is
interactive where students are actively participating by asking questions, thinking through
what is being taught and comparing while contrasting the similarities or differences in what
they are learning.
When considering behavioral engagement, it is also important to consider emotional
attentiveness as it relates to motivation and cognitive immersion (Chi, 2009). Behavioral
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 39

engagement focuses on behaviors such as how often a student turns in homework, attendance
in class, and how students interact in class while emotional engagement is when students are
emotionally engaged in the learning process where they enjoy what they are learning and are
intrinsically motivated (Chi & Wylie, 2014). When educators are engaging students in the
learning process, it is essential that teachers are aware of behaviors or actions that they can
recognize while they are teaching. Chi and Wylie (2014) also suggested that although
behavioral and emotional engagement are vital to the learning process, it is also essential to
reflect on what occurs where learning is in progress and the student is actively engaged which
refers to cognitive engagement.
Chi and Wylie (2014) also contended that although active learning is an excellent
concept to incorporate as a learning task, educators have a difficult time transitioning from
passive or traditional pedagogical approaches to lessons where students are actively
participating. However, when students are provided with analogies based on a subject where
there is an interest, students become emotionally engaged and intrinsically motivated because
they enjoy what they are learning (Graham, Frederick, Byars-Winston, Hunter, &
Handelsman, 2013). When educators create reciprocity between subjects students deem as
difficult and activities they enjoy, the interest in the challenging subject is peaked because the
student becomes fascinated by the relationship between what they enjoy and the subject they
view as laborious (Chi, 2009).
When analogies are used that are of interest to students, situational interest occurs
which is when a temporary attentiveness to the subject occurs (Srinath, 2014). However,
educators must strive not only to temporarily arouse student interest but also catch and hold
the interest of students (Rotgans & Schmidt, 2017). Moreover, it is also important to ignite
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 40

the curiosity of students (Abe & Izard, 1999). When educators are able to stimulate the
curiosity of students to learn a specific subject, the student becomes driven to learn more
about the subject especially when there is a correlation between their interest in sports and
what the student is attempting to learn (Wysession, 2015).
Using the SCAMPER Model and Analogies to Enhance Creativity and Problem Solving

In addition to using sports analogies to increase situational interest, it is also
important to consider applying SCAMPER (substitute, combine, adapt, modify, put to
another use, eliminate, and rearrange) when teaching students how to problem solve using
analogies (Hussain & Carignan, 2016). By using analogies, students can engage creatively
by inventing analogies that are relatable to each learner. According to Hussain and Carignan
(2016), the use of the SCAMPER chart while students are attempting to solve and
understand complex subject matter, fosters inventiveness and creativity as it relates to
making connections and developing learning cues by using analogies. Additionally, Hussain
and Carignan also suggested that when creativity is introduced into any subject, student
interest increased. This is evident by students ’ enjoyment in art and music because it allows
students to express themselves creativity. However, the same approach and creativity can be
applied when learning STEM or other complex subjects.
Prior Attempts

Prior attempts to use sports analogies to increase engagement and situational interests
have been made through the Mattel ’s Hot Wheels Speedometry which is a two unit,
standards- based curriculum that was designed to introduce fourth-grade students to STEM
(Mattel ’s Speedometry, 2015). The curriculum is significant because it aligns with the
Common Core Standards in Science and Mathematics (CCSS-M), NGSS, and California
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 41

State Education Standards (CSES) with STEM curriculum. The curriculum is also designed
using the 5E Model which consists of Engagement, Exploration, Explanation, Elaboration,
and Evaluation which fosters a learning environment where situational interests and Hot
Wheels ’ cars are used to introduce students to STEM.
Hot Wheels Speedometry uses creative play, imagination, and engagement to
understand STEM concepts using analogies by providing real-world approaches using
problem-based learning (Mattel ’s Speedometry, 2015). Problem-based learning promotes
active learning where students are engaged in the learning process with the goal of making
real-life connections to understand complex subjects such as STEM while enhancing critical
thinking skills (Wiggins, Chiriac, Abbad, Pauli, & Worrell, 2016). Using the Hot Wheels
Speedometry model, students are able to expand their critical thinking skills by using their
imagination in conjunction with STEM principles to broaden how they view STEM concepts
(Mattel ’s Speedometry, 2015). The program was created for kindergarten and fourth-grade
students where learners are approaching STEM from a case-study perspective by engaging,
exploring, explaining, elaborating, and evaluating. The Speedometer program is significant
because it exposes learners to STEM in kindergarten and fourth grade, which is a critical
time to introduce students to STEM due to a lack of or minimal exposure to STEM within
the classroom between grades 0-4.
In addition to the Hot Wheels Speedometry program, in 2011 Chevron created STEM
Zone, which is an interactive space studio, constructed at Chevron for students to actively
participate in learning STEM (Chevron, 2018. In addition to the STEM studio, Chevron
offers creative and innovative ways for teachers and parents to learn how to recognize that
STEM is connected to everyday life by fostering the belief that teachable moments are
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 42

everywhere. Moreover, Chevron specifically uses sports analogies through the STEM Zone
program to expose students to STEM.
Analysis of Prior Attempts

Although there were no prior attempts omitted nor were there any empirical research
that contends that the program did not work, Mattel ’s Speedometry and Chevron ’s STEM
Zone programs are exceptional as they provide educators with the ability to allow students to
use sports analogies and their student ’s imagination to increase situational and individual
interests in STEM.
Approaches to the Curriculum Design

The theoretical approach to the curriculum design is to apply analogies to
understand STEM subjects using the social cognitive theory and constructivism theory.
Theoretical Foundations to the Curriculum Design

The theoretical approach for the curriculum design is social cognitive theory and
constructivism theory. To ensure the success of introducing constructivism and social
cognitive theory, the training was devised for educators to introduce a constructivism
approach within the classroom which requires specific scaffolding, oversight, and monitoring
by the educator as students work through complex problems. The purpose of utilizing this
particular theory is to encourage teachers to allow students to view STEM from the
perspective of a scientist and to consider STEM subjects as case studies where students use
analogies to work through challenging subjects to gain understanding while being assisted
and guided by their teacher.
Constructivism. Educators will learn to use analogies to think critically using
students ’ prior knowledge and interests. Constructivism focuses on the connections or
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 43

interactions where the educator facilitates the learning process and the student questions why
things occur in their natural order to gain a better understanding of what is being taught
(Mayer & Alexander, 2011). Constructivism refers to the student ’s ability to learn through
critical thinking, reflecting on their prior knowledge and applying former knowledge to
understand newly acquired knowledge. The same applies to teachers who participate in the
professional development program who like their students will think critically about the
information they will learn through the lesson. Educators will also reflect on prior
knowledge and how to incorporate what they have learned through the program on how
analogies can be used to teach STEM within their classrooms. Like their students, educators
will construct meaning based on their experiences with their students within the classroom to
determine how what is learned in the professional development program will be applied. The
curriculum model is also designed to encourage educators to interact with their peers to share
ideas while working through the professional development program (Richardson, 1997).
Social cognitive theory. In addition to constructivism, social cognitive theory ’s
theoretical approach will be used, as the focus of the professional development program to
demonstrate what is being taught. Learners will process what has been taught and feedback
will be provided to ensure the learners have a clear understanding of what is being taught in
the professional development program. Compeau and Higgins (1995) maintained that social
cognitive theory, watching others perform a task through a computer-based lecture influences
the learner ’s perceptions of their abilities to complete the same task they are observing.
Additionally, self-efficacy or the learner ’s belief that they can or cannot complete the
professional development successfully will also influence the learning outcomes.
According to Bandura (1977), learning occurs through observing, mimicking a behavior
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 44

through demonstration through processing what is learned, and modeling the newly learned
behavior. Social cognitive theory incorporates attention, memorization, memory, attention,
practice, and feedback. For this reason, the professional development program is
comprised of visual presentations of educators interacting with their students, receiving
instruction, and are provided with instructional videos, which can be used within the
learner ’s classrooms. The rationale behind developing a professional development
program that was created to visually stimulate learners was to provide demonstrations of
scenarios that are relatable to the learners where they can visualize the concept and what is
learned in the professional development program within their classrooms.
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 45

CHAPTER THREE: THE LEARNERS AND LEARNING CONTEXT

Learner Profile

The curriculum design was intended for experienced and novice educators who have
prior knowledge in teaching general studies but may have trouble in finding creative ways to
teach STEM. Learners are fourth-grade teachers who are seeking ways to increase
situational interest within their classrooms using extracurricular activities such as sports to
create analogies to teach STEM. Although fourth-grade teachers are experienced in working
with students within this grade level, many fourth-grade teachers experience students who are
struggling to comprehend fourth-grade curriculum when entering this grade level. As a
result, the curriculum model will complement the expertise that fourth-grade teachers possess
but will also introduce analogies as a powerful and creative way to assist students to
comprehend what they are learning by cognitively engaging students creatively using real-
life scenarios. To understand the primary factors that influence the curriculum design, it is
imperative to consider the following when creating curriculum learner ’s prior knowledge,
ability, cognitive, physiological characteristics, self-efficacy, affect and social characteristics,
general world knowledge, and specific knowledge.
Ability
When creating a curriculum model for fourth-grade teachers, it is important to
consider that some teachers lack the confidence to teach STEM (Murphy & Mancini-
Samuelson, 2012). However, Murphy, Wilkinson, & Soter (2011) also maintained that as a
high school science teacher and university professor, they recognized that STEM education
in elementary schools or younger are vital to student success in STEM subjects.
Understanding that many elementary school teachers have a generalist background in
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 46

education, many do not possess the confidence to teach STEM (Murphy & Mancini-
Samuelson, 2012). If educators lack the confidence in their ability to teach STEM, students
will also feel uneasy about learning STEM subjects.
To combat the anxiety teachers, face regarding their ability to each STEM, Murphy
et al. (2011) designed a program at St. Catherine University that assists teachers in coping
with their anxiety related to teaching STEM for up and coming educators. Like the
curriculum model where sports analogies are used to teach STEM to engage students with a
subject they enjoy, St. Catherine University also utilized the same approach to encourage
STEM educators within elementary school to make learning enjoyable. Murphy et al.
(2011) also suggested that a third of girls and boys have lost their interest in STEM by the
time they reach the fourth grade. This decline is not only caused by the teacher ’s lack of
ability to teach STEM but students have not been exposed to STEM from grades 0-3.
In the creation of the STEM program at St. Catherine ’s University, Murphy et al. ’s
(2011) curriculum was based on the premise that at birth, children are naturally inquisitive
and are natural scientists, engineers, and critical thinkers. They also maintained that children
are fascinated by the world around them and at a very young age try to make sense by
making connections to understand the environment in which they live. Murphy et al. (2011)
also suggested that exploring how objects feel, how they work by dismantling and
rebuilding, discovering, examining, and exploring is a natural way of learning that is fun for
students. Like St. Catherine ’s University ’s model, the curriculum model was created to
increase teachers ’ ability and self-efficacy in teaching STEM using an approach that is
enjoyable to the teacher and students by using sports analogies.
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 47

Cognitive characteristics. As Santrock (1996) suggested, cognitive development
consists of an individual ’s thought process, intellectual abilities, and language. However,
as Santrock also maintained, cognition is not an individual function but works in unison
with biological and socioemotional processes. Understanding this, the cognitive
development for each educator may be different based on their experiences, how they view
the world, and their individual environment that influences each individual ’s personality.
However, as it pertains to general cognitive ability, although each educator may think or
perceive things differently, teachers are required to think critically, analyze, organize,
process, and present information to their students.
Moreover, educators are generally in early adulthood, which spans from age 20 into
their mid-30s or middle adulthood, which ranges from 40 to 60 years of age (Santrock,
1996). During early adulthood, educators are developing their professional and economic
independence and developing their careers; while in middle adulthood, teachers in this age
group are increasing their personal, social, and communal involvement and are nurturing, as
they are concerned in ensuring the next generation becomes mature, productive, and
competent members of society.
Physiological characteristics. The physiological characteristics vary for all teachers
that participate in the professional development program. The general average age for
teachers in California is 43 (National Center for Education Statistics, 2017). Additionally,
according to California ’s Department of Education (2017), in the 2015-2016 school year,
194,648 teachers were under 46 years of age, which equates to 55.2% of California teachers
while 25.9% of teachers are 46 to 55 years of age and the remaining 18.9% of teachers are
over 55 years of age.
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 48

Additionally, many teachers seek a career in education when they receive their
baccalaureate degrees at approximately 23 years of age. However, many teachers remain in
the profession until they retire at age 65 or older.
When considering learner ’s physiological characteristics, it is also important to
consider learners who participate in professional development programs that may have a
disability. In accordance with section 508 of the American Disabilities Act (Lovett, 2014),
individuals with disabilities should have access to electronic and information technology.
Understanding that the curriculum model was designed as an online course, the learner can
review the professional development program at their leisure. However, accommodations
will be made for the hearing and visually impaired to complete the learning module.
Self-Efficacy

According to Hoy, Sweetland, and Smith (2002), teacher efficacy consists of
educator ’s confidence in their ability to stimulate learning within the classroom. As Jerald ’s
(2007) research suggested, behaviors associated with a high sense of self-efficacy include
educators who are organized and plan activities, they are open to new concepts and ideas
that will improve student achievement, a persistence and resilience exists when faced with
adversity, they do not refer to students who have challenges as difficult, and they provide
constructive feedback rather than being critical of students when they make mistakes.
When educators consider their self-efficacy, W. K. Hoy (2002) contended that there
are two efficacy constructs. The first construct relates to an educator ’s personal confidence
regarding their individual teaching abilities. The second construct consists of the general
views regarding the influence that teachers possess to reach and help students that are
perceived as difficult. Educators who exhibit a low sense of self-efficacy are unsure of their
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 49

abilities and believe that it is the fault of the student who is labeled as difficult who is unable
or refuses to learn.
Consequently, this attribution is not about the student ’s ability but a reflection of the
teacher ’s lack of a strong sense of self-efficacy in their ability to teach (Armor et al., 1976, in
Henson 2001). In addition to self-efficacy, it is important to consider collective efficacy
which W. K. Hoy (2000) described as the opinion of educators of the collective view of the
school and administration where they teach. Whether the viewpoint is positive or negative,
the beliefs of teachers form the normative outlook of the school ’s culture.
Affective characteristics. As Kiemer, Gröschner, Pehmer, and Seidel (2015)
suggested, teachers are uncomfortable with introducing STEM curriculum to students
because of their insecurity about their abilities to teach STEM subjects. Moreover, educators
may find it difficult to associate real-world analogies to STEM because they do not possess
the tools to fully engage students to learn STEM subjects. As a result, this professional
development program seeks to increase learner ’s ability to teach STEM and complex subjects
using analogies based on real-life scenarios and subjects such as sports or other subjects
students enjoy peaking their interest.
The use of analogies can be a powerful learning tool for a young teacher who may not
have any or little teaching experience that is passionate about teaching literature and has no
desire to teach STEM. This may also be true for educators who are committing to teaching
within the urban school to gain teaching experience but may lack the commitment or desire
to teach STEM. The teacher may be enthusiastic about teaching literature because that may
be their passion, but in areas where teachers are not as strong in STEM, or do not prefer to
teach STEM, this becomes a challenge. For this reason, this professional development
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 50

program was created to provide a creative, innovative, and fun way to introduce STEM to
students.
Social characteristics. As Protheroe (2008) suggested, when educators are able
to observe other teachers to gain knowledge or understanding through social interaction,
this is referred to as vicarious experiences. For this reason, the curriculum model
consists of visual examples of educators providing instruction or participating in
Mattel ’s Speedometry professional development program to view other educators in
their classrooms who are using innovative ways to use sports analogies to teach STEM.
As a result, instructors are more confident when they can observe and apply practices
that they learned within their natural environment, which is their classrooms.
In addition to vicarious experiences, Protheroe (2008) maintained social persuasion,
which is constructive feedback, peer collaboration, or reflecting on the educator ’s strengths
by their peers or administrators. However, it is also important to consider positive social
persuasion can also diminish if the educator ’s experiences are not positive (Hoy, A. W.,
2000). A. W. Hoy (2000) also asserted that an educator ’s perception of their school
influences how educators are socialized. This is also especially true for new teachers.
Prior knowledge. The learner ’s knowledge base of student instruction relates to the
educator ’s professional experience working with students within the classroom. For this
curriculum model, the teachers participating in this professional development program
specifically teach fourth-grade students and are versed on how to create lesson plans and
provide instruction for this grade level. Educators also possess prior knowledge of classroom
instruction, engaging students in classroom activities, preparing assignments, and working
with school administration to address the needs of students while reporting the progress.
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 51

Besides working with school administration, educators also interact with parents to ensure
they are aware of their child ’s progress within the classroom.
General world knowledge. According to Verloop, Van Driel, and Meijer (2001),
although educators possess formal professional knowledge, teachers are deeply
influenced by their personal experiences. González-Gómez, Jeong, and Rodríguez (2016)
also suggested the way individuals uniquely define the world is based on their
perceptions and the lens in which they view their environment. Additionally, Smith and
Ragan (2005) suggested that worldview is a cognitive model of how an individual
perceives reality and is a wide-ranging framework of beliefs, habits, values, feelings, and
ideas about how individuals view themselves, the purpose of life, and the goals of their
lives. As most educators pursue a career in education to prepare the next generation of
children to become productive adults, it is important the educators come to the
professional development program prepared to apply their general world knowledge.
Specific prior knowledge. The goal of this professional development program is to
increase the educator ’s knowledge by building new knowledge to use sports analogies to
teach STEM. Required prior knowledge consists of creating a lesson plan and presenting
difficult subjects to students by using educational resources to assist in student achievement.
Description of the Learning Environment

The curriculum design is an online professional development program, which can be
viewed by the educator at their leisure and at their own pace. Recognizing that online
learning platforms are available to teachers to complete professional development programs;
the lesson can be viewed at home or at the learner ’s school site. PowerPoint presentations
and handouts of each lesson are also available for teachers to print and review in a setting
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 52

that is comfortable for the learner. It is also suggested that the learning environment for
participants be quiet and free of distractions.
Facilitator Characteristics

There is no facilitator to administer the online professional development program.

However, the narrator will act in the same capacity as a facilitator and will provide instruction
and guidance through each unit. The narrator will also encourage learners to share their thoughts
and ideas with their peers within their teacher learning communities. By doing so, teachers can
share what they have learned with their peers who are also reviewing the professional
development program. The narrator will also discuss the relevance of videos and the learning
instruction, which can be incorporated into the learner ’s lesson plans or used within the
classroom.
Existing Curricula/Programs

The curriculum design is unique as it stands alone and is not a part of any
components of another curriculum model or a larger program. However, the curriculum
model could be incorporated into a larger curriculum program in the future.
Available Equipment and Technology

Specific hardware that learners can use to view the program is a desktop, laptop
computer, or cellphone if the device is connected to the internet or Wi-Fi. A printer should
also be accessible to print lesson plan materials as needed.
Classroom Facilities and Learning Climate

There will be no classroom facilitation because the professional development
program occurs online. However, the learning environment may be composed of some
educators who are willing to view and utilize the tools within the professional development
program and will find the information useful. While others may be reluctant to complete the
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 53

course because they may view the program as another useless task without fully participating
and applying what is learned and transferring the knowledge into the classroom.
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 54

CHAPTER FOUR: THE CURRICULUM

Overall Curriculum Goal, Outcomes, and
Summative Assessment Curriculum Goal
The goal of the curriculum model is to provide fourth-grade teachers with the
knowledge and skills to use sports related analogies to teach STEM subjects to increase
students ’ situational and intrinsic interest in STEM. Although the sports is only one topic
educators can use to teach STEM, the training will encourage teachers to create analogies for
various topics. In addition to applying sports analogies to teach STEM, the goal of the
curriculum design is to provide educators with the ability to teach students how analogies can
be used as a dynamic tool to promote critical thinking to teach various complex subjects
using SCAMPER and various critical thinking models. Recognizing educators could
influence student learning by catching and holding student interest, the use of analogies
provides educators with the opportunity to use real- life scenarios to create analogies that are
specific to STEM or any subject (Snead-McDaniel, 2010). Additionally, the curriculum
model is designed to complement NGSS (2013) learning frameworks by using analogies to
adopt relatable scenarios to use as sports analogies.
Curriculum Outcomes

To help teachers, meet this goal, a series of curriculum outcomes have been developed.

Learners will be able to:

● After reviewing lesson one, learners will be able to construct different types of
analogies to increase critical thinking skills.
● After completing lesson two, learners will recognize situational interests and how
interest in sports subjects can increase situational interest within the classroom.
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 55

● After lesson three has been viewed, learners will be able to identify sport topics that
can be used to formulate analogies and to create a lesson plan, which incorporates
sports analogies to teach STEM.
● In lesson four, learners will be able to apply the SCAMPER and various critical
thinking models to teach students how to create their own analogies to understand
complex subjects.
Summative Assessment

Teachers will demonstrate their knowledge by creating a lesson plan using what they
learned in the professional development program. Educators will be encouraged to form
learning communities to support each other through peer modeling, practice, and feedback.
Additionally, outcomes of the success of the professional development design will consist of
requiring learners to reflect on what they have learned after completing each unit. At the end
of each unit, the learner will reflect upon personal real-life scenarios of sports activities or
topics that are of interest to the learner where they can construct their own analogies.
Learners will also view classroom scenarios within lesson two and will be asked to
define triggered, maintained, and situational interest after reviewing the videos within the
unit. By defining the components of situational interest, learners will be able to recognize
and create situational interest in the classroom. Learning outcomes will be assessed based on
how well the learner can answer questions. After the learner completes the professional
development program, learners will review their lesson plans, which will incorporate the use
of analogies. Once the educator understands how sports analogies can be used in the
classroom to teach STEM, teachers will learn how the SCAMPER model helps to teach
students how to formulate their own analogies. Learners will also be required to take notes
and reflect on what they will incorporate into classroom activities.
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 56

Cognitive Task Analysis (Information Processing Analysis)

To gain a greater understanding of how educators approach STEM pedagogy, three
instructors were interviewed to describe their teaching practices. The first teacher
interviewed was a 10th-grade chemistry teacher who also teaches 11th grade biology. The
second teacher taught anatomy and physiology and the third instructor taught biology with an
emphasis on medical interventions. Each teacher provided terms and conceptual knowledge
regarding the subject being taught. After providing instruction, the teacher provided
procedural knowledge by assigning tasks to students to apply what was learned. The findings
from the cognitive task analysis (CTA) and the literature review in Chapter Two are
summarized.
● Objective: To integrate sports concepts and analogies to increase STEM pedagogy
within the classroom.
● Cue: The cue or when the instruction should begin to use the newly acquired
knowledge is included into the learner ’s lesson plans and in-class activities.
● Condition: The context in which STEM should be taught is within fourth-
grade classrooms.
● Immediately after the completion of the professional development program, the
learner will meet with their supervisor to reflect on what was learned after completing
the learning module. The curriculum model was designed to provide learners with
the opportunity to create a lesson plan using sports analogies to teach STEM. The
educator will also be encouraged to incorporate SCAMPER into their lesson and
school activities. Understanding school administration reviews lesson plans created
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 57

by teachers, learners will be measured on how they have integrated what they have
learned within the allotted time to provide STEM instruction within the classroom.
● Equipment: Equipment that will be used to integrate what was learned into the
classroom will be sports equipment to describe sports analogies, videos that were
provided in the curriculum design which provided learners to introduce analogies and
the SCAMPER model, handouts, and television and video equipment for educators
to allow students to view videos related to what was learned after reviewing the
professional development program.
● Steps:

1. Identify the STEM concept, process, principle, or procedure to be taught.

2. Identify an appropriate sport concept, process, and use of a principle or procedure.

3. Using the sports element as the source, match the corresponding STEM
element as the target.
4. Write the analogy that incorporates both the sports and STEM components.

General Instructional Methods Approach Utilizing
Bloom ’s Taxonomy to Approach Learning Objectives
Utilizing Bloom ’s taxonomy, the general approach to the learning objectives
referenced three learning domains that consists of cognitive, affective, and sensory skills
(Bloom, 1956; see also Anderson et al., 2001). Cognitive domain refers to knowledge-based
learning which consists of remembering basic information and facts, terminology,
classifications or order. Learning occurs when the student comprehends what is taught and
can apply the acquired knowledge into the classroom. The goal of knowledge-based
learning consists not only of applying what is learned but to also analyze information by
recognizing the relationships and organization of information. In turn, the learner should be
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 58

able to synthesize, evaluate, and apply what is learned in the classroom after reviewing the
professional development course. The second is the affective domain, which is referred to
as emotive and is based on the emotions, attitudes, and feelings of the learner who
participate in the training. The third concept is the psychomotor domain which refers to
action-based learning.
Prior Knowledge, Learning Characteristics and Generative Strategies

Understanding that the curriculum model is geared toward learners who have prior
knowledge, generative strategies (Smith & Ragan, 2005) will be used because the learners
possess general and specific prior knowledge as described in Chapter Three. Generative
strategies are the ways in which learners engage with learning content and are able to transfer
what is learned by creating their own distinctive way of retaining the lesson by constructing
their own educational goals and organization of learned content (Smith & Ragan, 2005). The
goal of incorporating prior learning to using generative strategies will also allow the learner
to possess well-developed cognitive abilities where they are able to obtain, grasp, and
disseminate information based on what they learn. By using cognitive strategies, learners
will utilize information they obtained by creating learning activities within their classroom
based on their newly acquired knowledge. Understanding how to use prior knowledge to
retain newly learned material is a major component of the learner ’s characteristics and
attributes.
Cognitive Load Theory

Cognitive load theory is effectively applied when learners can comprehend and retain
what is learned without overloading the learner ’s mental capacity to process new information
(Sweller, 1988). Learners will be presented with lessons and activities that are familiar to
them based on their prior knowledge and will gradually be introduced to new information to
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 59

eventually increase their knowledge by incorporating both knowledge sets. By utilizing prior
knowledge, learners will use what is intrinsically inherent to each learner while the
extraneous activity would be the materials or instruction that is presented to the learner.
Additionally, germane cognitive load will allow learners to apply what is learned to direct
activities to enhancing learning.
Description of Specific Learning Activities

The following seven guidelines describe guided experiential learning (GEL, Clark,
2005) and will be used as the overall approach to the professional development program:
● Learning objective: Once the learner completes the professional development
training, the learner will be able to create and apply analogies and learning
standards to teach STEM utilizing sports. In addition to applying sports related
analogies to teach STEM, the learner will have a broader understanding of
analogies by teaching students how to create their own analogies to understand
complex subject matter.
● Reason: After the learners complete the professional development program they may
consider, “Why the learning is important to them as educators? ” “What value does it
hold for the learner, their job, mission, team and their students, and “What risks will
the learner avoid if participating in the professional development program? ”
Regarding the goal of the program, the learner should consider why the learning is
important and may be valuable to the learner, their job, and colleagues and to add to
their student ’s ability to think critically by creating analogies to understand complex
subjects.
● Overview: the instructional strategies that learners execute by utilizing prior
knowledge, reflecting, and sharing what they have learned, processed and
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 60

synthesized information and implemented what is learned by applying the newly
acquired knowledge (see Figure 1):
● Concepts, processes and principles: The learners will apply prior knowledge used
to teach various subjects including STEM. The purpose of the program is to
broaden the learners’ skill set to use sports analogies to increase situational interest
to teach STEM subjects. The tasks that learners will perform during their
professional development program will be the same strategy that the learners will
use to create lesson plans based on NGSS frameworks.
● Demonstration of procedure: Learners will utilize prior knowledge while
incorporating newly acquired knowledge to create analogies using sports concepts to
teach STEM. Learners can also create a job aid using the seven NGSS concepts to
create a lesson plan that incorporates sports analogies based on the learner ’s and
their students ’ interest to teach STEM. The purpose of the job aid is to assist
learners in apply what they have learned in the professional development program to
create lesson plans using analogies that are unique to the learner ’s students and the
sports activities offered by the learner ’s school.

CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 61

Figure A. Overview of Instructional Strategies

● Practice and procedure: To provide consistency and continuity within the
professional development program, learners will be provided with activities that are
familiar and easy for the learner to answer based on their prior knowledge while
introducing new knowledge in order to acclimate new material into the lesson.
● Review, practice, and give feedback: After learning to create analogies based on real-
life scenarios, learners will utilize prior knowledge and newly-acquired knowledge
gained through the professional development program to create a lesson plan using
sports analogies. The learner will also utilize NGSS frameworks to serve as a job aid
once the professional development program has concluded. Learners will share their
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 62

lesson plans with their peers within their learning communities and will discuss how
the lesson will be incorporated in classrooms to teach STEM. Learners will also
demonstrate how they have achieved and completed their learning goals based on the
completion of the lesson plan with their administrators.
Overview of the Course and Units

The sequence of this 4-unit course will follow the steps of the cognitive task analysis.

1. What is an analogy?

2. How to create situational interest in STEM using analogies

3. How to use sports analogies as situational interest to teach STEM subjects

4. How to teach students to use SCAMPER for learning any complex topic.

Unit 1

Terminal learning objective. Given the learners ’ experience teaching STEM,
teachers will be provided with an overview of different types of analogies, how analogies
can be utilized to increase problem solving skills and how analogies can be used to increase
motivation within students by using real-life scenarios to show the relationships between
activities that are of interest to students and STEM related subjects.
Learning activities. Know what an analogy is and the difference between an
analogy and a metaphor:
● Know the components of an analogy

● Know what a source is

● Know what a target is

CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 63

Table 1

Scope and Sequence

Curriculum Outcomes
I= Introduced
R= Reinforced
M= Mastered

Unit of Study

1 2 3 4
1. What is an analogy? Define what an analogy is and how analogies
can be used in the classroom to teach STEM and increase critical
thinking.
I R R M
2. How to create situational interest in STEM using analogies. Assess how
situational interest can be used in the classroom to foster intrinsic
interest in STEM subjects.

I R R M
3. How to use sports analogies as situational interest to teach STEM
subjects. Evaluate how seasonal sports can be used to create
lesson plans using sports analogies.

I R M
4. Learners will teach students how to use sports analogies to learn STEM
as an example of how analogies can be created for any subject to transfer
their own interests, knowledge, and skills to another context by creating,
diagnosing at a higher level to enhance problem solving skills using
SCAMPER. Deliver what is learned into the classroom, as learners will
use the SCAMPER model to teach students how to create analogies to
increase critical thinking and to understand STEM subjects.
I R R M

● Know types of analogies

● Know how to use analogies to teach different types of knowledge

● Know why analogies are a powerful learning tool

Learning assessment. Learners will construct analogies based on their interests.

Unit 2

Terminal learning objective. Understanding analogies are powerful tools to
increase problem-solving skills, learners will create strategies to increase situational
interest by using catch and hold techniques per a rubric that assesses learners ’ ability to
identify and appropriate situational interests to create STEM analogies.
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 64

Learning activities. Understand how to increase situational interest within the
classroom:
● Know what the strategies are for creating situational interest

● Be able to understand

● How to use situational interest in the classroom

● Be able to use sports as situation interest in the classroom

Learning assessment. The learner will be asked to define triggered, maintained, and
situational interest after reviewing the videos within the unit.
Unit 3

Terminal learning objective. Given the grade level content and standards, learners
will match one or more of the NGSS guidelines and sports analogies to create lesson plans
for STEM subjects to increase situational interests using catch and hold techniques.
Learning activities. The learner will create a lesson plan using NGSS and sports
analogies:
● Know what sports are in season

● Know how to create an analogy

● Know the components of a simplified lesson plan
Learning assessment. The learner will be quizzed by selecting the most appropriate
sports analogy for the STEM subject that is being taught.
Unit 4

Terminal learning objective. Learners will teach students how to use analogies to
learn STEM and problem solve in any subject. As a result, students can transfer their
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 65

knowledge and skills to another context by creating, diagnosing at a higher level to enhance
problem solving skills.
Learning activities. The learner will create a lesson plan using NGSS and sports
analogies:
● Know how to create specific analogies for any subject

● Know how to use SCAMPER and various critical thinking activities to teach
students how to create analogies
Learning assessment. The learner will view videos of various critical thinking
activities, which includes SCAMPER. At the conclusion of the videos, learners will answer
the questions in the learning activity.
Delivery Media Selection
Clark, Yates, Early, and Moulton (2010) suggested that when determining media
selections for the professional development, it is imperative to consider three sections of
the media design which include sensory, conditions, and feedback.
Key Considerations in Choosing Media

Course media selection plan. The curriculum design was created to enable learners
to view the professional development program at their leisure and complete the course at
their own pace. The course was designed to complement learning environments where
teachers share with their peers within their schools when creating lesson plans or share
creative ideas to increase student engagement and learning. Understanding that media is a
medium that is used to deliver the instruction design, the curriculum will be administered on
an online platform as a computer- based tutorial. Clark et al. (2010) suggested that when
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 66

determining media selections for professional development, it is imperative to consider three
sections of the media design which include sensory, conditions, and feedback.
1. Authenticity. Authenticity of the learning platform consists of incorporating
real-life experiences where learners can utilize prior knowledge while gaining
new skills and knowledge through instruction (Clark et al., 2010).
2. Immediate feedback. Immediate feedback which is referred to as synchronous
assessment to discuss and address any questions, challenges, or clarity on what is
being taught (Clark et al., 2010). Immediate feedback should be provided
consistently throughout the duration of the instruction to ensure the learner
comprehends what is being taught and can eventually transfer what is learned into
various contexts.
3. Sensory requirements. Sensory requirements refer to visual and aural senses but
also includes touch, taste, and smell in some instances to learn (Clark et al., 2010).
However, for the purpose of the professional development program, there are no
specific sensory requirements required.
Media Selection Plan

1. Instructional Delivery Options: Table 2 summarizes the inclusion of four
options: in person, online and synchronous, online blended synchronous and
asynchronous, and completely asynchronous.

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Table 2

Instructional Delivery Options

Instructional
Delivery Options

Synchronous
(Live)
Instructor
onsite

Synchronous
(Live) Instructor on
Online Platform
Mix of
Synchronous
Instructor with
Asynchronous
Computer-based
Tutorial

Asynchronous
Computer- based
Tutorial on
Online Platform
Authenticity:
Can both a distance
(online or blended)
and a classroom
(face-to- face)
platform simulate all
of the necessary
conditions in the job
setting where the
learner will apply
their skills and
knowledge?
Yes Yes Yes Yes
Immediate
Feedback:
Can both platforms
provide the required
immediate
(synchronous) and
delayed
(asynchronous)
information and
corrective feedback
needed to
achieve learning
objectives?
Yes Yes Yes Yes
Special Sensory
Requirements:
Can both platforms
provide the
necessary sensory
mode information
(visual, aural,
kinesthetic,
olfactory, and
tactile) required to
achieve all learning
objectives?
Not Applicable
for this course,
as there are no
special sensory
requirements.
Not Applicable for
this course, as
there are no special
sensory
requirements.
Not Applicable for
this course, as there
are no special
sensory
requirements.
Not Applicable
for this course,
as there are no
special sensory
requirements.

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2. Delivery Costs: Table 3 summarizes the tangible and intangible costs for all
media options

Table 3

Cost for all Media Options

Cost for
Media
Options

Instructor
Onsite

Synchronous (Live)
Instructor on Online
Platform
Mix of Live
Instructor with
Computer-based
Tutorial on Online
Platform
Asynchronous
Computer- based
Tutorial on
Online Platform
Number and
location of
learners
Instructors within
schools or visiting
organizations
(depending on the size
of the group will be
contingent on the
number of Instructors.
For groups over 1-15
individuals would
require 1 Instructor,
while 15-30 would
require 2 Instructors and
the number would
increase based on the
number of learners and
the setting).

Instructors on the
platform Limited to
about 20.
Instructors on the
platform Limited
to about 20.
Instructors on the
platform –
prerecorded -
unlimited access
Total Costs
($-$$$$)
$$$$ $$ $$ $
Total
itemized
costs*
(design,
delivery,
materials,
etc.)
Computer/web-based
(internet connection
required).

Computer software.

Instruction led.
Computer/web-based
(internet connection
required).

Computer software.
Teleconferencing.
Computer/web-
based (internet
connection
required).

Computer software.
Computer/web-
based (internet
connection
required).

Computer
software.
Space or conference
center/room to
conduct training.
Distance broadcasting. Teleconferencing
Distance
broadcasting.

Instruction led. Instruction led.

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Table 3 (Cont ’d.)

Cost for
Media
Options

Instructor
Onsite

Synchronous (Live)
Instructor on Online
Platform
Mix of Live
Instructor with
Computer-based
Tutorial on Online
Platform
Asynchronous
Computer- based
Tutorial on
Online Platform
Value-Added Low Desirability; too Low Desirability; too Medium High
Costs and/or costly, may not be costly, may not be Desirability; Desirability; cost
Stakeholder efficient but may be efficient but may be increased value effective as it
Desirability coordinated to use for coordinated to use for for direct face-to- relates to design,
(Low, corporate meetings or corporate meetings or face interfacing delivery, and
Medium, or special events; may special events; may however the mediation.
High) be timely to be timely to coordination is

coordinate and coordinate and based on the

complex based on the complex based on the coordination of

number of number of meeting times

participants and participants and and scheduling.

Instructors needed for Instructors needed for

the meeting.

the meeting.
Divide the
cost by the
number of
learners**
Divided by 10
students = no less
than approximately
$50 per student per
day of onsite
instruction.
There are marginal
variable costs.
There are marginal
variable costs.
There are
negligible costs.
*Include as part of the table or as a narrative.
**Include the “discount ” for the value-added desirability

General Instructional Platform Selection

Based on the analysis above, the delivery media will be an asynchronous computer-
based tutorial on an online platform. This delivery mode provides the widest access with the
lowest cost as it relates to the design and delivery of the professional development program.
The online professional development program consists of pre-recorded videos, which
includes narration and online learning checks, which consists of quizzes at the end of each
unit to reinforce a transfer of knowledge.
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Specific Media Choices

The benefits of the instructional delivery options (Table 2) reflect how the
professional development program can be used. However, the professional development
program is designed as an online course, which consists of pre-recorded narration, pre-
recorded videos, and online checks of learning consisting of quizzes.
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CHAPTER FIVE: IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION PLAN

According to Smith and Ragan (2005), implementing a professional development
program consists of diffusion or the process of making the innovation available to
stakeholders. Smith and Ragan (2005) also suggested that in addition to diffusion, project
management is also a vital component to the delivery of the professional development
program. Project management as it relates to the implementation of a curriculum model is
the synthesis of a diverse skillset and consists of a group of tools, individuals, and systems
within an organization. In addition to the implementation and management of the
professional development program, the evaluation of the curriculum program is essential to
measure the effectiveness of the program.
Implementation of the Course

The implementation process of the curriculum design will occur using the six stages
of the adoption of the innovation. According to Smith and Ragan (2015), the six stages
consist of (1) awareness, (2) interest, (3) evaluation, (4) trial, (5) adoption, and
(6) integration.
In the awareness stage, the curriculum developer will provide exposure to the
innovation so that organizations or stakeholders that may benefit from the innovation are
aware that the curriculum model exists. Once there is awareness, the second stage consists
of gaining interest in the professional development program and providing information
about the innovation as requested by stakeholders. The third stage consists of the researcher
evaluating the program by conducting a mental trial to determine if the curriculum design is
worth delivering and implementing within the marketplace.
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Once there is a determination that the innovation is acceptable, the fourth stage will
be implementation which consists of conducting a small trial launch to evaluate if the
curriculum model is effective. During the trial, the curriculum developer will request trial
users to provide feedback by requesting users to complete surveys to determine if the
curriculum model was useful and effective. If the innovation was not satisfactory, the
designer will make the appropriate adjustments before moving into stage five. If the
innovation is satisfactory and users found the curriculum model useful, the designer will
move into the fifth stage, which is the adoption stage. In this stage, the innovation will be
fully used and implemented based on the post-trial evaluation conducted during the trial
stage. In the sixth and final stage, the curriculum design will be integrated into schools or
organizations as a routine professional development program.
Implementation of the Evaluation
Plan Curriculum Purpose, Need and Expectations
The purpose of the curriculum model is to introduce educators to the use of sports
analogies to increase fourth-grade STEM interest. The goal of using analogies within the
classroom is to increase situational interest and student engagement as it relates to teaching
STEM. The problem that is being addressed is based on evidence which suggests students
begin to lose interest in STEM as early as the fourth grade.
Evaluation Framework

The evaluation framework is based on the Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick New World
Model (2016). This New World Model is different from the previous Kirkpatrick model as
the new model prescribes the planning stage beginning at the following levels: Level Four,
reaction, Level Three, behavior, Level Two, learning, and Level One, reaction. However, in
the implementation stage, the levels are reversed where the levels are implemented from One
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to Level Four. Level One measures the reaction of learners and the belief that the instruction
was relevant to their jobs. In the second Level, learning refers to the acquisition of
knowledge, skills, confidence, and the commitment to consistently utilize the tools learned
within the professional development program within their classrooms. In Level Three,
behavior consists of participants applying what they have learned in the classroom while
Level Four, results, determines if the targeted outcomes are achieved as a result of the
professional development program and the support is received by school administrators to
utilize the tools provided in the training.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators

Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) suggested that results are the targeted outcomes
that occur after learning has occurred and reinforcement of what was learned is transferred
to the workplace. Internal, short-term observation and measurement measures if the
desired outcome has been achieved when educators incorporate sports analogies into their
lesson plans to teach STEM and using sports props, videos, or real-life scenarios to increase
situational interest in STEM.
According to Kirkpatrick and Kirpatrick (2016), lead indicators also represent the
external influences such as the public, parents, and the press while internal indicators refers
to processes, tools, and systems that are in place to achieve the desired outcome internally.
Table 4 shows the indicators, metrics, and methods for external and internal outcomes.

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Table 4

Indicators, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes

Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)

External Outcomes

Increase visibility of
programs to professional
sports organizations.
Number of sports organizations who
invest in STEM curriculum using sports
analogies; show increase of student
engagement in various schools after the
professional development program has
been implemented.
Monthly reports of test scores of
participating schools will be analyzed.
Due to confidentiality, the information
will provide a general overview of the
increase in student achievement.
Additionally, the anonymous surveys
that participants complete at the end of
the survey will be shared with
organizations that show interest in the
professional development program. In
addition to submitting the monthly
progress report, teachers will incorporate
the sports analogies and SCAMPER in
their weekly lesson plans.
Increase visibility of
professional development
program to school districts
outside of LAUSD to include
private schools.
Number of organizations that are
interested in increasing STEM education
and interest in their schools.
Monthly reports of test scores of
participating schools will be analyzed.
Due to confidentiality, the information
will provide a general overview of the
increase in student achievement.
Additionally, the anonymous surveys
that participants complete at the end of
the survey will be shared with
organizations that show interest in the
professional development program. In
addition to submitting the monthly
progress report, teachers will incorporate
the of sports analogies SCAMPER in
their weekly lesson plans.
Reduce the perception by the
media or news outlets that
STEM instruction is
declining by showing schools
are thriving after
implementing the
professional development
program.
Number of news reports and community
complaints as it relates to lack or
substandard STEM instruction in
schools.
Monthly reports of test scores of
participating schools will be analyzed.
Due to confidentiality, the information
will provide a general overview of the
increase in student achievement.
Additionally, the anonymous surveys
that participants complete at the end of
the survey will be shared with
organizations that show interest in the
professional development program. In
addition to submitting the monthly
progress report, teachers will incorporate
the sports analogies and SCAMPER in
their weekly lesson
plans.
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Table 4 (Cont ’d).

Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)

Internal Outcomes

Increase STEM scores by
incorporating sports
analogies into weekly
lesson plans.
Number of students whose grades have
increased after sports analogies were
incorporated into teachers ’ weekly lesson
plans
School records and teachers ’ notes
provided to principal ’s office.
Increase in critical thinking
skills by students due to
teachers teaching students
how to create analogies
using SCAMPER.
Number of students who show an
increase in grades and test scores in
other subjects after incorporating
SCAMPER into the lesson plan.
School records and teachers ’ notes
provided to principal ’s office.
Increase student engagement
and situational interest
within the classroom in
STEM.
Number of students who were
struggling to learn STEM that are
showing improvement after sports
analogies have been incorporated into
the lesson plan.
School records and teacher ’s notes
provided to principal ’s office.
Increase use of SCAMPER
in complex subjects other
than STEM.
Number of students who struggled in
other subjects but show an
improvement after SCAMPER has
been introduced into the lesson plan.
School records and teachers ’ notes
provided to principal ’s office.
Increase use of SCAMPER
to assist students in
developing learning cues in
increased reading
comprehension.
Number of students showing
improvement by making connections
and developing appropriate learning
cues in reading comprehension after
using the SCAMPER model.
School records and teachers ’ notes
provided to principal ’s office.

Level 3: Behavior

Critical behaviors. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) contended that critical
behaviors are specific tasks that are consistently performed by the learner which has the
largest influence on desired outcomes. Critical behaviors are vital as they are identified as
the essential tasks that influence organizational success and desired outcomes. After
completing the professional development program, if the learner can find creative, engaging,
and fun ways for students to learn STEM using sports analogies as an additional learning
tool that is consistently used within the classroom, the professional development program
was successful.
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Moreover, when an educator has transferred what they have learned and incorporated
their individual style of teaching where the newly acquired knowledge becomes a natural
part of their pedagogy, the professional development program has met the desired outcomes.
Additionally, if an educator finds enjoyment in using the creativity required to ignite the
imagination of their students where they find satisfaction when they recognize their students
are excited and engaged to learn STEM, this is also an indication that the professional
development program was successful. Table 5 shows the critical behaviors or consistent
behaviors that are routinely performed on the job after completing the professional
development program. Table 5 shows the critical behaviors, metrics, methods, and timing for
the evaluation.

Table 5

Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation

Critical
Behavior

Metric(s)

Method(s)

Timing
Teachers use
SCAMPER to teach
students how to create
analogies.
Number of teachers
using SCAMPER in
various subjects.
Number of teachers who
participated in the
professional development
program that are using
analogies routinely to
teach STEM.
Lesson plans and teacher
notes are reviewed and
approved by principal ’s
office.
Every week
Teachers identify
complex subjects
where SCAMPER
can be used to
understand a
challenging subject.
Number and names of
subjects where
SCAMPER was used.
Number of teachers who
participated in the
professional development
program that are using
SCAMPER routinely.

Lesson plans and teacher
notes are reviewed and
approved by principal ’s
office.
Every week
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Table 5 (Cont ’d.)
Critical
Behavior

Metric(s)

Method(s)

Timing
STEM subjects are
taught.
Number of lesson plans
containing sports
analogies. Number of
teachers who participated
in the professional
development program
that are using analogies
routinely to teach STEM.

Teachers guide
students and provide
feedback and positive
reinforcements as the
students use the
SCAMPER model to
develop learning cues
and make connections
using analogies.
Number of students
whose grades increased
in various subjects when
SCAMPER was used.
Number of teachers who
participated in the
professional
development program
that are using
SCAMPER routinely.

Lesson plans and teacher
notes are reviewed and
approved by principal ’s
office.
Every week
Teachers will use
SCAMPER to assist
students with issues
with reading
comprehension to
understand how to
develop and recognize
cues to make
connections with what
is familiar and what
they are attempting to
learn.
Number of students who
show an increase in
reading comprehension
scores after SCAMPER
has been incorporated
into the professional
development program.
Number of teachers who
participated in the
professional
development program
that are using
SCAMPER routinely.
Lesson plans and teacher
notes are reviewed and
approved by principal ’s
office.
Every week

Required drivers. According to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016), required drivers are
processes that reinforce, monitor, motivate, and reward performance of critical behaviors. Some
examples of required drivers are appreciation and recognition of stellar performance, job aids,
constructive feedback, evaluations, mentoring, goal setting, observation, and coaching. It is also
important to note that learning does not end after the professional development program
concludes. After participating in the professional development program, newly acquired skills
are reinforced by learners consistently using what they learned within the classroom.
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When an educator can apply what is learned within their classrooms, they are
intrinsically motivated to seek desirable outcomes leaving the learner with a sense of
empowerment and accountability. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) also suggested that
there is an increase in optimal performance when and educator takes personal responsibility
for their efforts, are personally motivated to succeed and receives external support from
administrators and peers. Table 6 shows the required drivers to support critical behaviors.

Table 6

Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors

Method(s)

Timing
Critical Behaviors
Supported
1, 2, 3 Etc.
Reinforcing

Teachers will refer to the videos guides,
the materials provided in the curriculum
model such as the educator ’s portion of
Mattel Speedometry, and Chevron STEM
Zone to reinforce what was learned in the
professional development program. The
curriculum model specifically
incorporated this into the professional
development program to continue the
learning process.

Ongoing/As needed
1, 2, 3
Physical education teacher provides a list
of the most popular physical
education activities that students engage
in during PE.
Monthly staff meeting.
2, 3
Physical education teacher provides a list
of the most popular physical
education activities that students engage
in during PE.

Monthly staff meeting.
2,3
Teachers meet with PE teacher, after-
school activities coordinator, and recess
attendant to gain an understanding of
students ’ favorite sports or
extracurricular activities.
Ongoing
1,2,3

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Table 6 (Cont ’d)

Method(s)

Timing
Critical Behaviors
Supported
1, 2, 3 Etc.
Teachers meet with their peers within
their learning communities and
supervisors to share creative ways they
used sports to teach STEM and the
reactions of their students.
Understanding other fourth-grade
teachers are reviewing the professional
development programs, they can
encourage one another and share ideas.
Monthly staff meeting
1,2,3
Teachers ’ creativity in using sports in
the classroom is published in the
school ’s newsletter to encourage other
teachers who are not using the tools of
the program that the program is
producing positive results in the
classroom.
Quarterly
1,2,3
Rewarding
Principal publicly recognizes the
creativity, engagement, and excitement
of students as teachers highlight what
their students have learned and the sports
activities used to teach STEM.
Monthly staff meeting
1,2,3
Monitoring

The principal will conduct unannounced
observational monitoring to review how
teachers are incorporating sports analogies
and SCAMPER into lessons.
Ongoing
1,2,3
The teacher will monitor the progress of
the teacher, student grades and if the
teacher is incorporating analogies into
the weekly lesson plan.

Ongoing
1,2,3

Organizational support. Understanding that educators and school administrators have
limited time during the school day, the required driver package will complement the tasks that
currently exist within the learner ’s school. To ensure educators do not lose the momentum of
transferring the knowledge gained within the professional development program, the curriculum
was designed to incorporate what was learned into the classroom. In unit three of the lesson
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 80

plan, educators are instructed to incorporate the use of sports analogies into their lesson plans
when providing STEM instruction. By doing so, the teacher is incorporating what they have
learned into their weekly lessons. Understanding that school administrators review and approve
lesson plans, the principal could verify that the instructor is incorporating what they have learned
in the professional development program.
Additionally, school administrators can support the efforts and recognize the
creativity of teachers and their students during weekly staff meetings. Understanding that the
professional development program fosters creativity and critical thinking skills, school
administrators can create a contest for the class that has the most creative, and innovative
sports analogy used to understand a complex STEM problem. Moreover, school
administration can also select the student that used the SCAMPER model to create an
inventive way to use the model to create an analogy to solve a problem.
The winning classroom could then showcase the analogy for the entire school to
view. Additionally, the teacher can be featured in the school ’s newsletter where they can
share the process they used to create the winning analogy. Alternatively, the student who
used SCAMPER to create their winning analogy can also share their process. In each
instance, the teacher nor school administrators were required to add an additional task to hold
educators accountable because the required drivers are a part of the normal activities and
routine of the school and the newly acquired knowledge was designed to be implemented
into the classroom once the learner completed the professional development program.
Level 2: Learning

Learning goals. The goal of this professional development program is to increase
teachers ’ conceptual and procedural knowledge using sports analogies to promote student
interest in STEM concepts. Teachers will demonstrate their knowledge by creating lesson
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plans by applying what is learned in the professional development program and transferring
that knowledge into the classroom.
Components of learning evaluation. According to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick
(2016), components of the learning evaluation consists of Level 1, reaction, Level 2, learning
and Level 3, behavior. Reaction, which is the first level of the evaluation, consists of the
level of the learner ’s perspective regarding the professional development program to
determine if the curriculum model was engaging, favorable to the learner and relevant to how
the educator performs their job. The second level is learning. In this level, the evaluation
will determine if the learner has acquired the desired learning outcomes, which consist of the
knowledge, confidence, skills, attitude, and commitment to the willingness to transfer what
they have learned into the classroom. Table 7 shows the evaluation of the components of
learning for the program.
Level 1: Reaction

In Table 8, Components to Measure Reactions to the Program, consists of
engagement, program relevance, and customer satisfaction. During the reaction phase of the
evaluation, the curriculum designer will determine if the professional development program
was successful or if improvement to the design was required. Once the learner has
completed the online course, an anonymous survey will be provided for the learner to share
their feedback regarding the program. The online learning module will also incorporate an
internal timing system where the designer can track how long the learner spent on each
lesson. Although the online course is not timed, this will provide the designer with
additional information regarding the course to see if there is a pattern where learners spend
more or less time on a specific lesson. This feature will be an internal feature that will not be
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disclosed to the learner and is for tracking purposes only. Table 8 shows the components to
measure reactions to the program.

Table 7

Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program

Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it. ”

Knowledge test/check by taking quizzes at the end of each lesson.
Learners will also create a mock lesson plan to incorporate sports
analogies into lessons and SCAMPER to teach how to create
analogies to increase critical thinking skills.
Mid unit and at the end of the unit.
Discussion with peers in learning communities. During Professional Learning
Community (PLC) meetings.
Teachers make connections by viewing video within the professional
development program of other teachers receiving instruction through
the teacher-training portion of Speedometry that is featured in the
curriculum model.
Educators can refer to videos within the
professional development program to
review the information or utilize the
additional professional development
resources offered in the professional
development program.
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now. ”
Teachers will create lesson plans during the professional development
program so they are able to conceptualize that they can incorporate
sports analogies into their lessons. The creation of mock lesson plans
was incorporated into the lesson for this reason to show educators that
the material can be integrated routinely into their
lesson plans.
In lesson three and four.
SCAMPER videos which provide instruction on how to introduce
SCAMPER into the classroom was incorporated so educators can
have a tool to use so they can apply what they have learned in the
classroom. Additionally, a video specific to fourth-grade teachers
was incorporated into the lesson plan that the learner can use within
the classroom.
In lesson four.
Videos of teachers interacting with their students who are applying
the same principles taught in the professional development program
was incorporated to show learners of other teachers who used the
model and witnessed positive results.
In lesson three.
When learners can successfully complete the learning activity at the
end of the lesson, this reinforces the teacher understands what is
being taught which builds confidence in the teacher ’s ability to apply
what is being learned through the program.
At the end of each lesson.
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Table 7 (Cont ’d.)
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile. ”
The videos which depict students who are excited about learning
STEM by using sports analogies or subjects that are of interest to
students reinforces the belief that the learner will find value in the
professional development program based on the reaction to the
students who are excited about what they are learning. To see the
excitement on the faces of students may motivate educators that
In lesson three and four.
implementation may be worthwhile based on the reaction of the
students.

For teachers who have struggled to find a way to make STEM
enjoyable, learners who participate in the professional development
program may find the tools offered in the professional development
program as helpful. Additionally, because the program provides
additional resources such as SCAMPER to assist students to
understand additional subjects, educators may be inclined to believe
the professional development is worthwhile.
Through the duration of the professional
development program.
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job. ”
By creating a mock lesson plan, learners will understand that they can
incorporate what is being taught in the professional development
program and does not require additional preparation or steps because
the professional development program compliments the educator ’s
current routine.
Lesson three.
The videos which depict students who are excited about learning
STEM by using sports analogies or subjects that are of interest to
students reinforces the belief that the learner will find value in the
professional development program based on the reaction to the
students who are excited about what they are learning. To see the
excitement on the faces of students may motivate educators that
implementation may be worthwhile based on the reaction of the
students.
Lesson three and four.
Commitment “I will do it on the job. ”
The learner will continue to incorporate sports analogies into the
lessons to teach STEM until it becomes a routine practice.
Additionally, using the video resources provided in the professional
development program, the learner could also use SCAMPER to teach
students how to create analogies using the video simulations.
Throughout the lesson.

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Table 8

Components to Measure Reactions to the Program

Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
A survey will be provided at the end of each lesson to determine the
effectiveness of the lesson. At the end of the professional development
program, a more comprehensive survey will be provided which allows
learners to confirm if the program was engaging, relevant, and was the
learner satisfied.
After each unit.
Relevance
A survey will be provided at the end of each lesson to determine the
effectiveness of the lesson. At the end of the professional development
program, a more comprehensive survey will be provided which allows
learners to confirm if the program was engaging, relevant, and was the
learner satisfied.
After each unit.
Customer Satisfaction
A survey will be provided at the end of each lesson to determine the
effectiveness of the lesson. At the end of the professional development
program, a more comprehensive survey will be provided which allows
learners to confirm if the program was engaging, relevant, and was the
learner satisfied.
After each unit.

Evaluation Tools

Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) suggested using technology that is designed to
track learning data from various devices. While the professional development program is in
use, Google Analytics will measure how long the learner views a specific section and will
collect data to improve the professional development program. At the conclusion of the
professional development program, each learner will be prompted to complete an evaluation
of the effectiveness of the curriculum model.
Immediately following the program implementation. The evaluation tool that will
be used is a survey that was created by SmartSurvey.com. The survey is an anonymous
evaluation that will be provided at the end of the survey to provide users with the opportunity
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to provide feedback and to share their thoughts about the effectiveness of the professional
development program. The survey can be found in Appendix A.
Delayed for a period after the program implementation. A month after
educators complete the professional development program, they will receive an email,
which will prompt the learner to complete a survey. The survey will ask the learner if they
are using the tools they learned in the professional development program. In addition to the
learner receiving a survey, the principal, lead teacher who mentors teachers and
administrators who work directly with teachers to increase STEM pedagogy, will receive a
survey requesting information on how they are supporting the educator and ensuring the
tools provided in the professional development program are routinely used within the
classroom. The survey can be found in Appendix B.
Conclusion of the Curriculum Design

Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) has played an integral
part in shaping and influencing the development of societies globally (National Research
Council, NRC, 2012, p. 16). Pantoya, Aguirre-Munoz, and Hunt (2015) suggested, the
problem of practice is the loss of interest in STEM in the fourth grade and as early as grades
0-3. The disinterest in STEM is due to the lack of instructional processes, which fails to
capture and hold students ’ attention during STEM instruction within the fourth grade
(Rogers, 2016). The purpose of the curriculum is to create a professional development
course to introduce the use of sports analogies to teach STEM. In response to the perceived
need to engage students in active learning by using analogies, this professional development
program is designed to introduce teachers to creative ways to use analogies within the
classroom to foster critical thinking skills.
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 86

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Appendix A
Survey: Post Professional Development Completion

1. Was the content of the professional development program useful?
○ Strongly Disagree
○ Disagree
○ Neutral
○ Agree
○ Strongly Agree

2. Would you use the videos as resources within your classroom?
○ Strongly Disagree
○ Disagree
○ Neutral
○ Agree
○ Strongly Agree

3. Did the narrator provide a clear explanation of the content displayed in each slide?
○ Strongly Disagree
○ Disagree
○ Neutral
○ Agree
○ Strongly Agree

4. Did the narrator make a smooth transition from one slide to the next slide?
○ Strongly Disagree
○ Disagree
○ Neutral
○ Agree
○ Strongly Agree

5. Will you incorporate sports analogies into your lesson plans to teach STEM?
○ Strongly Disagree
○ Disagree
○ Neutral
○ Agree
○ Strongly Agree

CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 100

6. If you answered no, please explain why you will not use sports analogies in your lesson
plans to teach STEM. *

7. Will you use the SCAMPER model to teach your students how to create analogies?
○ Strongly Disagree
○ Disagree
○ Neutral
○ Agree
○ Strongly Agree

8. If you answered no, you will not use the SCAMPER model to teach analogies, please
explain why the SCAMPER model will not be used. *

9. In what ways can you use SCAMPER in the classroom that was not presented
in the professional development program?

10. Please provide feedback on how we can improve the professional development or
share your comments below.

CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 101

Appendix B
Survey: One Month Post Professional Development Completion
1. Are you incorporating sports analogies into your weekly lesson plans?
○ Strongly Disagree
○ Disagree
○ Neutral
○ Agree
○ Strongly Agree

If you answered no, please explain why not.

2. Are you using the videos provided in the professional development program in the
classroom?
○ Strongly Disagree
○ Disagree
○ Neutral
○ Agree
○ Strongly Agree

3. Are you using the Mattel Speedometry teacher resources to gain additional knowledge?
○ Strongly Disagree
○ Disagree
○ Neutral
○ Agree
○ Strongly Agree

4. Does your school require you to apply what you have learned in your lesson plans?
○ Strongly Disagree
○ Disagree
○ Neutral
○ Agree
○ Strongly Agree

CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 102

5. Have you identified a sports topic that your students enjoy that you are using to teach
STEM?
○ Strongly Disagree
○ Disagree
○ Neutral
○ Agree
○ Strongly Agree

6. Have you use the SCAMPER model to teach your students how to create analogies?
○ Strongly Disagree
○ Disagree
○ Neutral
○ Agree
○ Strongly Agree

7. If you answered no, you will not use the SCAMPER model to teach analogies, please
explain why the SCAMPER model will not be used.

8. In what ways are you using SCAMPER in the classroom that was not presented
in the professional development program?

CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 103

Appendix C
Curriculum to Increase Fourth Grade Stem Interest –
Course Overview, Lesson Plan, and Instructor ’s Guide

Duration:
Lesson
Materials

Learner Characteristic Accommodations

Facilitator ’s Notes

This is an online course. Feedback and discussions will occur in the learner ’s community learning centers within
their schools. Although the focus of the professional development program is sports analogies, the training will
also provide a robust overview of how analogies can be used to creatively ignite the imagination of students
within the classroom to enhance problem solving and critical thinking skills. It is also important to consider that,
analogies can be used in subjects other than STEM where fourth-grade students experience the greatest
challenges in subjects such as reading comprehension. It is also essential that the narrator inform learners that
they do not need to be versed in sports subjects to use analogies to understand STEM or other subjects.
However, sports were selected for the training because of the activities that fourth-grade students engage in on
the playground or within physical education classes where educators can find an abundance of sports analogies
that relate to sports and physical activities.
Moreover, learners are not required to possess any specialized knowledge to use analogies as a learning tool
within the classroom. However, the curriculum model does compliment the Next Generation Science Standards
(NGSS) that are currently used with fourth-grade classrooms. The training was constructed to complement the
creation of weekly lesson plans where educators can immediately use what was learned in the classroom
immediately upon the completion of the training. The purpose of the training is to introduce analogies as a
powerful learning tool that can be modified and creatively used in the individual educator ’s learning
environment. Once the learners understand how analogies can be used within the classroom, educators will
transfer what they have learned by introducing SCAMPER to students to create their own analogies based on
their individual interests.
Learners will take the course online. The course will provide digital readings for text to speech conversion and
screen zooming. Accommodations for learners with disabilities will be 503 compliant to ensure all learners will
be able to participate in the lesson.
Presentation tools: videos, images, slides, handouts, computer or mobile device, internet or Wi-Fi access.
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 104

Instructional Activities

Instructional
Sequence

Time
(mins)

Description of the Learning
Activity

Instructor
Action/Decision
(Supplantive)
Learner
Action/
Decision
(Generative)
Introduction 1 Learners will be introduced to different
types of analogies, how to create an
analogy, how analogies are used to
teach complex problems and how to
create specific analogies to teach a
specific subject matter. Within this
lesson, learners will identify how to
create sports analogies to teach STEM.
Moreover, the lesson will also provide
learners with the opportunity to think
critically by identifying sports activities
that are a part of their school ’s current
sports curriculum program through
physical education
courses or after-school seasonal sports.

Narrator will introduce
learners to the four lessons
of the professional
development program and
provide an overview of the
course goal, purpose, and
will outline the content
that will be taught in each
lesson.
Learners will be
introduced to
the lessons.
Learners will
listen and watch
the videos that
accompany each
lesson.
The training also provides learners
with the autonomy to use analogies to
understand various subjects such as
reading comprehension and writing
composition to identify relationships
based on what is familiar to students
based on their interests to understand
concepts and subjects that are
unfamiliar or challenging to students.

Course Goal 1 The goal of the course is to introduce The narrator will provide Learners will

sports analogies into the classroom to an overview of each watch videos in

teach STEM subjects. Once the lesson and specify the each lesson and

learner understands how analogies can goals and the desired take notes

be used to teach STEM, the outcomes of the course. during the

professional development program The narrator will also instruction. At

will discuss how SCAMPER can be guide the learner through the conclusion

used for students to construct their the lessons by providing of the training,

own analogies. In addition to sports feedback regarding video the videos can

analogies, throughout the training, content and course be used as a

learners will be encouraged to use information for each learning tool for

analogies to assess what subjects lesson. The narrator will teachers once

students are struggling in and how inform learners that no they complete

analogies can be used to teach and specialized training is the course.

explain difficult concepts. required and will Additionally,

Recognizing fourth-grade students compliment NGSS learners should

struggle in developing learning cues in standards in order for take notes on

reading comprehension especially in learners to transfer what what they find

STEM and technical literature, reading is learned in the training relevant as it

comprehension and writing into the classroom. The relates to their

comprehension is also discussed in narrator will also classroom.

lesson one. The lesson does not limit emphasize and encourage Learners will

learners to using analogies only for learners to be creative and also be asked to

STEM concepts but can be used to innovative when participate in
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understand any literary text where constructing analogies. the learning

students are experiencing difficulties. The narrator will also activity at the

reinforce that sports is conclusion of

only one topic and STEM each lesson.

is only one subject that

can be used to create

analogies. However,

learners have the

autonomy to create

analogies for any subject

where students

experience challenges

related to comprehension.

Purpose for 1 Motivate learners by encouraging The narrator will Learners will
the Course

the use of analogies in the classroom introduce each lesson and consider the

to teach complex subjects such as discuss the content of the purpose and the

STEM to increase student videos. Because the ultimate goal of

engagement while catching and videos act as instructional the course is for

holding the attention of students by guides, the narrator will educators to

creating sports analogies and current review and discuss how transfer what

sports activities that students are each video is relevant to they have

currently participating to understand the
correlation of STEM and sports.
the STEM education and
the use of analogies and
learned into the
classroom by

Although the lesson teaches learners
how to use analogies to comprehend
STEM concepts using sports analogies,
the purpose of the course is to teach
students to think independently to learn
to create analogies on their own to
understand complex subjects.
SCAMPER in the
classroom. In addition to
STEM, learners will be
encouraged to use
analogies in various
subjects such as reading
and writing
comprehension.
However, learners are not
limited to using analogies
for the subjects discussed
in the training.
creating lesson
plans that will
incorporate
sports analogies
and SCAMPER
into their
lessons.
Learners will
also recognize
that they have
the autonomy to
construct
analogies for
any subject.
Course
Overview
1 The purpose of the training is to
introduce teachers to the use of
analogies in the classroom which can
be used as powerful learning tools to
increase critical thinking skills and
situational interest in the classroom by
using topics such as sports or any topic
which interest students to identify the
relationships between what is familiar
and what they are seeking to learn as it
relates to learning complex subjects
such as STEM. Once learners
introduce analogies in the classroom,
the training will also teach learners how
to use SCAMPER to teach students
how to create their own analogies.
Narrator will provide a
brief introduction at the
beginning of each lesson.
Each video presentation
will provide an overview
of each topic for each
lesson. After each video,
the narrator will discuss
the relevance to the lesson
by highlighting what was
taught and connecting it to
the next lesson.
Learners will
review the
information
provided in
each lesson, and
will share their
thoughts and
questions within
their learning
communities.

Learners will
also use the
resources
provided in the
professional
development
program such as
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videos to
transfer what
they have
learned into the
classroom.
Learners can
also use the
teacher resource
videos provided
by Chevron
STEM ZONE
and Mattel ’s
Speedometry
that are
provided in the
training.
Total Time 4
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Appendix D
Lesson One: What is an Analogy? Lesson Plan and Instructor ’s Guide

Unit Duration: 18.5 minutes

Introduction: This is the first unit in the four-unit course on how to use sports analogies to
increase STEM pedagogy in the fourth grade. The purpose of this unit is to introduce
fourth- grade teachers to what analogies are and how they can be used to teach students how
to navigate through scientific content using real-life sports analogies to teach STEM.
Although sports analogies and STEM are the focus of the professional development training,
educators will be encouraged to use analogies in all subjects that may be challenging for
fourth-grade students.

Recognizing that there is a decline in reading comprehension which many fourth-grade
students experience, the lesson will encourage teachers to use analogies to assist with
reading comprehension and writing composition. The lesson will also establish that no
specialized training is required in transferring what was taught into the classroom.
Consequently, the training was developed to compliment NGSS standards and can be
implemented into weekly lesson plans upon completion of the training.

Learning Objective(s)
Terminal Objective: Given the learners ’ experience teaching STEM, teachers will be provided with an overview of
different types of analogies, how analogies can be used to increase problem solving skills, and how analogies can
be used to increase motivation within students by using real-life scenarios and student interests to show the
relationships between activities that are of interest of students and STEM related subjects.
Enabling Objective(s):
● Know what an analogy is and the different types of analogies
● Know the components of an analogy
● Know what a source is
● Know what a target is
● Should this be blank or removed?
● Know how to use analogies to teach different types of knowledge
● Know why analogies are powerful learning tools

Lesson Materials

Access to computer with internet for learning platform
Note taking guide and materials – includes handout with key words and procedural steps Handout:
Questions for consideration
Video: Tutoring scenario Presentation slides
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Learner Characteristic Accommodations

Facilitator ’s Notes

Instructional Activities
Instructional
Sequence
Time (mins) Description of the
Learning Activity
Instructor
Action/Decision
(Supplantive)
Learner
Action/
Decision
(Generative)
Gain
Attention
3 Have you ever considered
yourself a gardener and your
students your garden?

The lesson will begin with a
pre-recorded video using an
analogy of teachers as
gardeners and students as a
garden. Using the garden
analogy, the learner can see
the different facets of what
teachers experience within
their classrooms as it relates
to diversity and how harvest
comes forth when students
learn.
The narrator will begin by
welcoming learners to the
professional development
program by providing a
brief overview of the
training, the purpose of the
training and what will be
discussed in lesson one.
Learners listen
and watch the
video and think
about the
relationships and
connections in
the video.
Learning
Objectives
1 Lesson objectives are
presented in writing and
orally (the professional
development slides can also
be printed) .

Short video of pre-filmed
videos will provide learners
with an overview of what an
analogy is, the different types
of analogies (metaphor and
similes), a video of how
analogies have been used as a
cognitive learning tool to
make connections to learn new
concepts, how to construct and
map analogies by identifying
the target and source, and the
last video consists of a video
that learners can use within the
Instructor states the
reason/objectives for the
training and will discuss
how gaining the tools
provided in the training will
increase critical thinking
skills, situational interest
and student engagement in
STEM using analogies.
Learners will
watch the video
and narrator
states the
objectives.
This is an online course. The presentation will be facilitated using a narrator to provide a brief overview of each
video or slide. However, most of the training is conducted using visual presentations in the form of videos of
instructions or in class scenarios. Feedback will be provided through the learner ’s teacher peer community with
other educators who will take the course.
Learners will take the course online. The course will provide digital readings for text to speech conversion and
screen zooming. Accommodations for learners with disabilities will be 503 compliant to ensure all learners will
be able to participate in the lesson.
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 109

classroom to introduce
students to analogies.

Learners will be encouraged
to use analogies to teach
STEM and any other subjects
that may be challenging to
students. The lesson will
provide videos that can be

used within the classroom
after the lesson. Learners will
also be instructed to create
their own analogy.

Reasons for
Learning
- Benefits
- Risks
1 Benefits: being able to use
analogies to assist students
make connections using prior
knowledge to acquire new
knowledge.

Risks: by not using
analogies, educators risk
students being unable to
develop learning cues or
make connections required
for critical thinking skills.
Narrator discusses the
reason for learning and
after the video will use
the garden analogy to
state that all students are
different, learn
differently, and have
different experiences.
The narrator will
emphasize the importance
of using analogies as a
powerful learning tool.
Learners will
listen and watch
the videos. The
benefit: learners
will have videos
they can use
immediately
after viewing
lesson one to
introduce
analogies to
students. The
risk: teachers
will not use
analogies which
may impact the
ability for
students to
develop critical
thinking skills.
Overview
- Prior
Knowledge
- New
Knowledge
- Learning
Strategies

(What you
already
know...what
you are going
to learn...and
how you are
going to learn
it.)
1 Prior knowledge consists of
the relationships the learners
have with their students and
the ability to engage students
in the learning process. The
new knowledge, or learning
strategies, consist of the use
of metaphors, analogies, and
hypothetical scenarios in
which teachers can apply to
assist students to increase
problem solving and critical
thinking skills.
Narrator will explain and
describe how to construct
an analogy by identifying
the target, source, and
mapping strategies using
analogies, metaphors, and
similes.
Learner will listen
and watch the
video presentation
and will use the
handout for lesson
one to consider
the questions
while viewing the
lesson.
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Prerequisite
Knowledge
1 Although learners may be
familiar with what an analogy
is, this may be a review for
some. However, for the
professional development
program, an overview of
analogies provided a
foundation to understand the
content in future lessons.
Narrator presents
information by providing a
brief overview of each
video to discuss its
relevance of each video
and how analogies can be
constructed and used as a
learning tool.
Learner will listen
and watch the
presentation and
take notes if
necessary.
Learning
Guidance
- Lecture
- Demo.
1 The videos are ordered and
presented to gain the learner ’s
interest, provide historical
background of how analogies
have been used for cognitive
development and learning,
introduction to different types
of analogies, an overview of
the components of analogies,
and a video that teachers can
use within the classroom to
introduce the concept to
students.
The narrator will use audio
and video to provide
instruction or an overview
of the lesson in each
video.
The learner will
watch the video
demonstrations
and instruction
provided. The
learner will take
notes as needed.
Practice and 1 Practice occurs by the learner The narrator will direct Learners will
Feedback

being able to construct their the learner to discuss their reflect on what

own analogies and use what answers posed during the they have

they have learned within the training and in their learned and will

classroom by using the video handouts with their peers answer the

presentation that introduces within their learning question at the

students to analogies as a communities. The end of the

guide. Understanding that narrator will direct the lesson and will

this is an online course, the learner to answer the answer the

learners will discuss what question at the end of the question

they have learned with their lesson before beginning provided in the

peers within their learning the next unit. learning

communities. The training

activity. The

will be relevant to the

learner will

learner ’s peers because they

reflect on what

will be taking the course as

they have

well.

learned and

share their

thoughts and

feedback within

their learning

communities.
Authentic 1 The videos provide scenarios Narrator reads and Learners will
Assessment

and instructions where discusses the question at answer the

analogies are used. The the end of lesson one and question at the

assessment occurs by asking provides and overview of end of the

the learner to construct an what was learned in the lesson using the

analogy based on the lesson. information

information provided in the

they learned in

lesson.

lesson one.
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Retention 1 Once the learner completes The narrator will reinforce The learner will
and Transfer

all lessons in the professional the ability to use the watch the

development program, school videos in the lesson as a videos and will

administrators will conduct a learning tool within the reflect on the

performance observation and classroom to introduce questions in

will confirm if learners are students to analogies. At handout for

applying what they have the end of the lesson, the lesson one and

learned in the training into the narrator will also instruct the question at

classroom by using the videos the learner to reflect on the end of the

in the training as a guide and the questions asked at the training.

the educational resource end of the lesson and the

provided which can be used questions posed in the

in the classroom immediately lesson handout.

after viewing the lesson

Big Ideas 1 Review the takeaways of The instructor will discuss The learner will

lesson one by providing a how learners can listen and watch

brief overview of what was introduce analogies to the presentation.

discussed in the lesson. their class and will The learner will

Connect the importance of recommend that learners also reflect on
procedural knowledge and
how the new knowledge will
be transferred into the
classroom.
begin to make connections
and think of scenarios
where learners may be able
to create analogies to
explain a difficult subject
within the classroom.
the information
that was learned
and will answer
the questions at
the end of the
lesson and in the
lesson
handout.
Advance 1 The information in lesson one The narrator will briefly The learner will
Organizer for

is a foundation for the recap what was learned in reflect on what
the Next Unit

remaining lessons as each lesson one and will was learned in

lesson will build on another provide an introduction of lesson one and

by providing information that what will be taught in will review their

will prepare the learner for lesson two by making the notes before

the next lesson. At the end of connection of the beginning the

each lesson, the narrator will importance of interest next lesson.

highlight the key points of the when formulating

lesson and will end by analogies.

connecting what was taught

in the current lesson with

what will be discussed in the

next lesson.

Total Time 18.5 minutes

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Appendix E
Lesson One: Handout

Lesson One Overview

Lesson one provides an overview of analogies, the components of analogies, different types
of analogies, and how they can be used creatively within the classroom as a powerful tool
to increase critical thinking and teach STEM subjects. The following highlights key points
of lesson one:
Reflection Questions for Lesson One

1. Recognizing analogies can be used to teach various subjects besides STEM,
consider other challenging subjects where analogies can be used to explain difficult
concepts.

2. Analogies are not only powerful learning tools but require the educator and student
to use their imaginations to formulate analogies. Although the professional development
uses sports as a topic to understand STEM concepts, after viewing lesson one, think of
creative ways to create analogies that can be incorporated into your lesson plans?
Real-World Application

The professional development program provides videos and materials that can be
used upon the completion of the professional development program. To ensure the training
is practical and the knowledge gleaned from the training can be transferred into the
classroom, the videos and materials featured in the professional development program will
be listed in the designated handout for each individual lesson.

Analogical Reasoning - Mapping Sources & Targets Chart

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Types of Analogies Chart

Source: https://english.tutorvista.com/vocabulary/analogies.html.

Using Analogies to Develop Learning Cues to Improve Writing and
Reading Comprehension

● Comprehension & response – analogies can be used to create various learning
strategies using various text to develop vocabulary competency to improve reading
comprehension.

● Improving grammar – using similes, metaphor, and various analogies, figures of
speech can assist students in learning the mechanics of writing comprehension.

● Developing learning cues – recognizing students may have difficulties making
connections to what they are reading; analogies can be used to assist students understand
relationships or connections in literature.

● Written communication – the use of analogies gives educators the ability to
assist students to communicate and formulate ideas using creative writing using metaphors
or similes.

● Increasing conventional language – analogies also allow teachers to introduce
students to the conventional use of language to effectively communicate ideas orally. The
use of analogies also assists in increasing the diversity in the use of vocabulary and oral
expressions.

Videos Featured in Lesson One

● What is an analogy? Analogy Example: Teachers are Like
Gardeners - https://youtu.be/YNDgCzpFcSo
● How analogies shape our thoughts - https://youtu.be/twwd_LLVmDM
● Every metaphor and simile has an analogy inside -
https://youtu.be/bbXR43hMSV8

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● How to introduce analogies to your students - https://youtu.be/bbXR43hMSV8
● Using popular cartoon characters to introduce similes and metaphors to
students - https://youtu.be/uoSBVNUO2LU
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 115

Appendix F
Lesson One: PowerPoint Storyboard

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Source: https://english.tutorvista.com/vocabulary/analogies.html.
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Appendix G
Lesson Two: How to Increase Situational Interest in STEM
and Complex Subjects using Analogies - Lesson Plan and Instructor ’s Guide

Unit Duration: 17 minutes

Introduction: This is the second lesson in the four-lesson course on how to use sports
analogies to increase STEM pedagogy and to formulate various analogies to teach complex
subjects within the fourth grade. The purpose of this lesson is to teach learners how to
increase situational interest in the classroom using analogies. The lesson will also define
situational interest, how to recognize situational interest, and the cognitive behaviors that
occur when situational interest occurs. The lesson will also discuss the educator ’s role to
promote learning by motivating and engaging students. Similar to lesson one which
provided an informational overview of the definition of analogies, types of analogies, and
how analogies are powerful learning tools, lesson two is also an informational overview of
situational interest in the classroom and its impact on learning outcomes. Lesson two will
also discuss how situational interest is the foundation in ensuring analogies are effective
when used to teach complex subjects.

Learning Objective(s)
Terminal Objective: Given the learners ’ experience with their students, learners may understand what motivates a
student to learn and why. Lesson two will define the difference between personal and situational interests, how
situational interest increases student ’s ability to engage in the learning process if they are interested in what they
are learning, and will provide examples of how situational interests occurs within the classroom and how
analogies can be used to increase situational interests. The lesson will also discuss how topics such as sports can be
used to motivate students to learn. Although sports is only one topic, it is essential for learners to recognize other
topics can be used to create analogies to ignite students ’ interest.

Enabling Objective(s):
● Know what the strategies are for creating situational interest.
● Be able to understand how to use situational interest in the classroom.
● Be able to use sports as situation interest in the classroom.
Lesson Materials

Learner Characteristic Accommodations

Access to computer with internet for learning platform Note taking guide and materials featured in lesson two
Handout: Questions for consideration
Video: Tutoring scenario Presentation slides
Learners will take the course outline. The course will provide digital readings for text to speech conversion and
screen zooming. Accommodations for learners with disabilities will be 503 compliant to enture all learners will
be able to participate in the lesson.
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 142

Facilitator ’s Notes

Instructional Activities
Instructional
Sequence
Time (mins) Description of the
Learning Activity
Instructor
Action/Decision
(Supplantive)
Learner Action/
Decision
(Generative)
Gain
Attention
2 The narrator will ask the
learner to think back at a time
in their lives when they took a
class and the thought of
attending the class brought up
bad feelings because the class
was so incredibly boring but
you had to take the course?
Now think of a time in your
class where your students
gave you that glassy eyed
look you used to have in your
class. You know what was
lacking? Situational interest.

The lesson will begin with a
definition of situational
interest.
The narrator will briefly
provide an overview of
lesson one and will begin
lesson two by asking the
question in the “gain
attention ” section.
Learners listen and
watch the video
and should
contemplate their
educational
pathways where
they were forced to
attend a class that
was so incredibly
boring it was like
torture.
The learner will
then reflect on a
time when their
students may have
felt the same about
a lesson the learner
was
teaching.
Learning
Objectives
3 Lesson objectives are
presented in writing and
orally (the professional
development slides can also
be printed)

Short video of pre-filmed
videos which provide learners
with an overview of what
occurs cognitively when
situational interest is ignited
in the brain, the lesson will
Narrator states the
reason/objectives for
lesson two and how lesson
one relates to lesson two.
The narrator will discuss
how gaining the tools
provided in the training
will increase critical
thinking skills, situational
interest, and student
engagement in STEM
using analogies.
Learners watch the
video and narrator
states the
objectives.
This is an online course. The presentation will be facilitated using a narrator to provide a brief overview of each
video or slide. However, the majority of the training is conducted using visual presentations in the form of
videos of instructions or in-class scenarios. Feedback will be provided through the learner ’s teacher peer
community with other educators who will take the course.
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 143

also discuss motivation,
student engagement, and how
situational interest is key to
student engagement. The
lesson emphasizes that
student interest is based on
what students want to learn
not what they are made to
learn. If there is an interest in
sports or other topics, learners
should use these topics to
teach by making connections
to subjects such as STEM.

Reasons for
Learning
- Benefits
- Risks
4 Benefits: being able to gain
interest by introducing topics
students are interested in
learning by make connections
using prior knowledge/
interests to acquire new
knowledge.

Risks: by not engaging
students in the education
process, educators risk
students being disengaged in
the learning process.
Narrator discusses the
reason for learning, define
situational interest, how
situational interest can be
introduced into the
classroom, and at the
conclusion of the lesson a
video will describe how
allowing students to
engage in the learning
process is empowering
students to take
ownership in their
learning.
Learners will
listen and will
watch the videos.
The benefit:
learners will have
videos they can
use immediately
after viewing
lesson two.
The risk: teachers
who do not engage
students in the
learning process
run the risk of
students who are
disengaged where
they resent coming
to class because
they view the class
as a waste
of time.
Overview
- Prior
Knowledge
- New
Knowledge
- Learning
Strategies

(What you
already know .
. . what you
are going to
learn . . . and
how you are
going to learn
it.)
1 Prior knowledge consists of
the relationships the learners
have with their students and
the ability to engage students
in the learning process. The
new knowledge or learning
strategies consists of the
engaging students based on
their interests.
Narrator will explain the
importance of situational
interest within the
classroom and will use the
videos to discuss the
cognitive processes that
occur when students are
motivated. Recognizing
that learners know their
students ’ personalities and
interest, the narrator will
reinforce the value of
knowing and using
student interest in the
learning process.
Learner will listen
and watch the video
presentation and
will use the handout
for lesson two to
consider the
questions while
viewing the lesson.
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Prerequisite
Knowledge
1 Although learners may be
familiar with what interests
their students, the lesson
provides a deeper recollection
of situational interests and
how using student interest can
greatly impact their
engagement in the learning
process.
Narrator presents
information by providing
a brief overview of each
video to discuss its
relevance of each video
and the importance of
increasing situational
interest in the classroom.
Learner listens and
watches the video
presentations and
takes notes if
necessary.
Learning
Guidance
- Lecture
- Demo
1 The videos for lesson two
provide an overview of
situational interest, how to
recognize situational interest in
the classroom, and the
cognitive processes that occur
when situational interest is
engaged based on topics that
are introduced in the learning
process that are of interest to
the student.
The narrator will use
audio and video to
provide instruction or an
overview of the lesson in
each video.
The learner will
watch the video
demonstrations
and instruction
provided. The
learner will take
notes as needed.
Practice and 1 Practice occurs by the learner The narrator will direct Learners will
Feedback

being able to identify interest the learner to discuss their reflect on what

and activities that excite answers posed during the they have

students about the lesson that training and in their learned and will

is being taught. Recognizing handouts with their peers answer the

that this is an online course, within their learning question at the

the learners will discuss what communities. The end of the

they have learned with their narrator will direct the lesson and will

peers within their learning learner to answer the share their

communities. The training question at the end of the thoughts and

will be relevant to the lesson before beginning feedback within

learner ’s peers because they the next unit. their learning

will be taking the course as

communities.

well.

Authentic 1 The videos provide training Narrator reads and Learners will
Assessment

on how to recognize, foster, discusses the question at answer the

and engage students using the end of lesson two and question at the

situational interests. The provides and overview of end of the

assessment occurs by asking what was learned in the lesson using the

the learner to construct an lesson. information

analogy based on the

they learned in

information provided in the

lesson two.

lesson

Retention 1 Once the learner completes The narrator will reinforce The learner will
and Transfer

all lessons in the professional the ability to use the watch the

development program, school videos in the lesson as a videos and will

administrators will conduct a learning tool within the reflect on the

performance observation. classroom to introduce questions in the

The learner will also share students to subjects such handout for

ideas with their peers in their as STEM using topics lesson two and

learning communities. they enjoy such as sports the question at

to increase situational the end of the

interests. At the end of training. The

the lesson, the narrator learner will also

will also instruct the share ideas with

learner to reflect on the their peers in
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questions asked at the end their learning

of the lesson and the communities.

questions posed in the

lesson handout.

Big Ideas 1 Review the takeaways of The instructor will discuss The learner will

lesson two by providing a how learners can engage listen and watch

brief overview of what was their class by using topics the presentation.

discussed in the lesson. of interest to students to The learner will

Connect the importance of increase situational also reflect on

procedural knowledge and interest. By doing so, the information

how the new knowledge will students will be more that was learned

be transferred into the willing to engage in the and will answer

classroom. learning process. the questions at
the end of the lesson
and in
the lesson
handout.
Advance
Organizer for
the Next Unit
1 The information in lesson two
is a foundation for providing
learners with the ability to
engage students by using
topics that are of interest to
students.
The narrator will briefly
recap what was learned in
lesson two and will
provide an introduction of
what will be taught in
lesson three.
The learner will
reflect on what was
learned in lesson two
and will review their
notes before
beginning the
next lesson.
Total Time 17

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Appendix H
Lesson Two: Handout

Lesson Two Overview

Lesson two provides an overview of how analogies makes the connection between subjects,
while increasing situational interest to teach subjects students find difficult comprehending
such as STEM.

Questions for Consideration

1. How do you engage students in the classroom when teaching a subject students
may not enjoy learning?

2. What creative ways that were not discussed in lesson two would you increase
situational interests within the classroom?

Real-World Application

The professional development program provides videos and materials that can be used upon
the completion of the professional development program. To ensure the training is practical and the
knowledge gleaned from the training can be transferred into the classroom, the videos and materials
featured in the professional development program will be listed in the designated handout for each
individual lesson.

Situational Interest

What is situational interest?
Situational interest is defined as temporary interests that occur spontaneously which are
influenced by task instruction or engaging text (Schraw, Flowerday & Lehman, 2001).

What makes situational interest different than other interests?

• Unlike personal interest which is less spontaneous and is based on the
students ’ personal value system, situational interest catches and holds interest.

• However, educators have better control over igniting situational interests
than personal interest because teachers lead students through the activities and the
learning process while personal interests vary.

• The upcoming video in the next slide will explain cognitive activities
and how learning increases if a student ’s interests are engaged.
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Videos Featured in Lesson Two

What does situational interest look like? - https://youtu.be/JawhTCCbVZM

Motivating and engaging students - https://youtu.be/2abLlPF7o60

The role of teachers to promote effective pedagogy - https://youtu.be/twwd_LLVmDM

Making the shift from student engagement to empowerment - https://youtu.be/BYBJQ5rIFjA

Learning to empower and engage students through active learning strategies to increase
student interests - https://youtu.be/Tp2nqf4A-XE
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Appendix I
Lesson Two: PowerPoint Storyboard

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Appendix J
Lesson Three: How to use Sports
Analogies to Foster Situational
Interest to Teach Stem - Lesson Plan
and Instructor ’s Guide

Unit Duration: 7 minutes

Introduction: This is the third lesson in the four-lesson course on how to use sports
analogies to increase STEM pedagogy in the fourth grade. The purpose of this lesson is to
teach learners how to increase situational interest in the classroom using sports analogies.
The lesson will also discuss sports examples that are available through physical education
courses, activities students play during recess, after-school programs or professional sports
examples where analogies can be created.

Learning Objective(s)
Terminal Objective: Given the grade-level content and standards, learners will match one or more of the NGSS
guidelines and sports analogies to create lesson plans for STEM subjects to increase situational interests using
catch and hold techniques.
Enabling Objective(s):
● Know what sports are in season
● Know how to create an analogy
● Know the components of a simplified lesson plan

Lesson Materials

Learner Characteristic Accommodations

Facilitator ’s Notes

This is an online course. The presentation will be facilitated using a narrator to provide a brief overview of each
video or slide. However, the majority of the training is conducted using visual presentations in the form of
videos of instructions or in class scenarios. Feedback will be provided through the learner ’s teacher peer
community with other educators who will take the course.
Learners will take the course online. The course will provide digital readings for text to speech conversion and
screen zooming. Accommodations for learners with disabilities will be 503 compliant to ensure all learners will
be able to participate in the lesson.
Access to computer with internet for learning platform
Note taking guide and materials – includes handout with key words and procedural steps Handout:
Questions for consideration
Video: Tutoring scenario Presentation slides
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Instructional Activities
Instructional
Sequence
Time (mins) Description of the
Learning Activity
Instructor
Action/Decision
(Supplantive)
Learner
Action/
Decision
(Generative)
Gain
Attention
30 seconds Think of your favorite sport or
a physical activity you enjoy.
Now think of how you would
use what you enjoy teaching
someone a subject they do not
enjoy. Could you do it?
The narrator will briefly
provide an overview of
lesson one and two. The
narrator will begin lesson
three by asking the question
in the “gain attention ”
section.
Learners listen
and watch the
video and will
think about their
favorite
physical activity
and use the
activity to teach
a subject that
may not be
interesting to
the student.
Learning
Objectives
1 Lesson objectives are
presented in writing and
orally (the professional
development slides can also
be printed).

Short video of pre-filmed
videos, which provides
learners with an overview of
how analogies can be used to
teach STEM subjects. The
lesson will also incorporate
ways seasonal sports, sports
equipment, the history of
sports equipment and the
Olympic games can be used to
create sports analogies to
teach STEM. The lesson also
features students presenting
their findings at the Chevron
STEM Zone conference that
can be used in the classroom.
Additionally, students can use
the videos available through
Chevron.
Narrator states the
reason/objectives for lesson
three. The narrator will
discuss how gaining the
tools provided in the training
will increase critical
thinking skills, situational
interest and student
engagement in STEM using
sports analogies.
Learners watch
the video and
narrator states
the objectives.
Reasons for
Learning
- Benefits
- Risks
30 seconds Benefits: being able to gain
interest by introducing sports
topics students are interested
in learning by making
connections using prior
knowledge/interests to
acquire new knowledge.

Risks: by not engaging
students in the education
process, educators risk
Narrator discusses how
using topics such as sports
can increase students ’
interest in STEM subjects.
Learners will
listen and will
watch the
videos. The
benefit:
learners will
have videos
they can use
immediately
after viewing
lesson three.
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- students being disengaged in
the learning process.
The risk:
teachers who do
not engage
students in the
learning process
run the risk of
students who
are disengaged
and where they
resent coming
to class because
they view the
class as a waste
of time if they
are learning
about topics do
not interest
them.
Overview
- Prior
Knowledge
- New
Knowledge
- Learning
Strategies

(What you
already know
. . . what you
are going to
learn . . . and
how you are
going to learn
it.)
30 seconds Prior knowledge consists of
the relationships the learners
have with their students and
the ability to engage students
in the learning process. The
new knowledge or learning
strategies consist of engaging
students based on their
interests. Learners will also
use current sports interest or
activities that students
participate in in PE classes or
at recess to use as a topic to
create an analogy to teach
STEM.
Narrator will explain the
importance of situational
interest within the
classroom and how sports
analogies can engage
students to participate in the
learning process.
Understanding that learners
know their students ’
personalities and interest,
the narrator will reinforce
the value of knowing and
using student interest in the
learning process.
Learner will
listen and watch
the video
presentation and
will use the
handout for
lesson three to
consider the
questions while
viewing the
lesson.
Prerequisite 30 seconds Although learners may be Narrator presents Learner listens,
Knowledge

familiar with what interests information by providing watches the

their students, the lesson a brief overview of each video

provides a deeper video to discuss its presentations,

understanding of situational relevance of each video and takes notes

interests and how using and the importance of if necessary.

student interest can greatly increasing situational

impact their engagement in interest in the classroom

the learning process by using using sports analogies.

topics such as sports to catch

and hold the attention of

students because the learner is

using a subject that is of

interest to the student to teach

STEM.

Learning 1 The videos for lesson three The narrator will use The learner will
Guidance

provide an overview of audio and video to watch the video
- Lecture

situational interest, how to provide instruction or an demonstrations
- Demo

recognize situational interest overview of the lesson in and instruction

in the classroom, and using each video. provided. The
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Sports analogies. The videos
will provide learners with
sports-related activities that can
engage students in the learning
process to learn STEM.
learner will take
notes as needed.
Practice and
Feedback
1 Practice occurs by the learner
being able to identify interest
and activities that excite
The narrator will direct the
learner to discuss their
answers posed during the
Learners will
reflect on what
they have
students about the lesson that training and in their learned and will
is being taught. The learner handouts with their peers answer the
will use sports analogies to within their learning question at the
create a mock lesson plan communities. The end of the
where the learner is narrator will direct the lesson. The
incorporating what they learner to answer the learners will
learned into the lesson plan. question at the end of the reflect on what
The learner will be able to use lesson before beginning they have
the lesson plan as a job aid. the next unit. The learned and
Understanding that this is an narrator will also instruct share their
online course, the learners learners to create a mock thoughts and
will discuss what they have lesson plan using a sports feedback within
learned with their peers analogy by one of the their learning
within their learning sports topics used in the communities.
communities. The training lesson based on NGSS The learner will
will be relevant to the concepts. create a mock
learner ’s peers because they

lesson plan
will be taking the course as

using sports
well.

analogies using

NGSS
guidelines.
Authentic 1 The videos provide training Narrator reads and Learners will
Assessment

on how to recognize, foster, discusses the question at answer the

and engage students using the end of lesson three question at the

situational interests using and provides an overview end of the

sports analogies. The of what was learned in the lesson three.

assessment occurs by asking lesson. The narrator will

the learner to construct a instruct learners to create

sports analogy based on the a mock lesson plan using

information provided in the sports analogies and

lesson and create a lesson NGSS concepts.

plan based on NGSS

guidelines.

Retention 1 Once the learner completes The narrator will reinforce The learner will
and Transfer

all lessons in the professional the ability to use the watch the

development program, school videos in the lesson as a videos and will

administrators will conduct a learning tool within the reflect on the

performance observation. classroom to introduce questions in

The learner will also share students to subjects such handout for

ideas with their peers in their as STEM using topics lesson three and

learning communities. they enjoy such as sports the question at

to increase situational the end of the

interests. At the end of training and will

the lesson, the narrator create a mock

will also instruct the lesson plan

learner to reflect on the using sports

questions asked at the end analogies and
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 175

of the lesson and the the NGSS

questions posed in the concepts. The

lesson handout and by learner will also

creating a mock lesson share ideas with

plan. their peers in

their learning

communities.
Big Ideas 30 seconds Review the takeaways of
lesson three by providing a
The instructor will discuss
how learners can engage
The learner will
listen and watch
brief overview of what was their class by using topics the presentation.
discussed in the lesson. of interest to students to The learner will
Connect the importance of increase situational also reflect on
procedural knowledge and interest. By doing so, the information
how the new knowledge will students will be more that was learned
be transferred into the willing to engage in the and will answer
classroom. learning process. the questions at

the end of the

lesson and in

the lesson

handout and

will create the

lesson plan

using NGSS
concepts.
Advance 30 seconds The information in lesson The narrator will briefly The learner will
Organizer for

three is a foundation for recap what was learned in reflect on what
the Next Unit

providing learners with the lesson three and will was learned in

ability to engage students by provide an introduction of lesson three and

using sports topics that are of what will be taught in will review their

interest to students to teach lesson four. notes before

STEM.

beginning the

next lesson.
Total Time 7

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Appendix K
Lesson Three: Handout

Lesson Three Overview

Lesson three provides and overview of how to write an analogy which will be used to teach a
STEM subject, how sports analogies can be used to teach STEM, and how NGSS standards
can be used to create lesson plans which incorporate sports analogies. Although lesson one
encouraged teachers to use analogies for various subjects, lesson three will use a specific
topic to explain a specific subject.

Questions for Consideration

1. In what ways have you built excitement or captured the interest when teaching a
lesson? How did you maximize this excitement to teach your targeted lesson?

2. How can identifying the relationships between what interests students and what
you are seeking to teach increase situational interests using relevant analogies?

3. Consider a time when your students seemed bored or disengaged when you were
teaching a lesson; now consider a time when your students were fully engaged in a
lesson. Compare the two scenarios and identify what occurred in each instance to
cause both reactions?

4. What real-life scenarios have influenced your classroom collectively? Think of a
world event, something that is occurring within your school or community that has
gripped the attention of your students, how can these life events be formed into
analogies to increase critical thinking?

Real-World Application

The professional development program provides videos and materials that can be used upon
the completion of the professional development program. To ensure the training is practical and the
knowledge gleaned from the training can be transferred into the classroom, the videos and materials
featured in the professional development program will be listed in the designated handout for each
individual lesson.

Videos Featured in Lesson Three

How to write an analogy using a STEM example
“bandwidth ” - https://youtu.be/TFkl_SoThnY
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Using a soccer ball analogy to show the relationship between air pressure & STEM -
https://youtu.be/6vffMoA_Fvg

Using analogies from the Olympic Games to show the relationship to
STEM - https://youtu.be/xhwVrw3P0ZA
NBC Learn Olympic Games - http://www.nbclearn.com/science-of-the-olympic-winter-
games

Kids discover how STEM influences the sports they love - Chevron STEM
Zone - http://www.chevronstemzone.com/

Mattel ’s Hot Wheels Speedometry - Math and Science curriculum STEM lesson plans
and activities - http://onestore.hotwheels.com/en-us/explore/speedometry/index.html

Sports History to Create Analogies

Source: https://goo.gl/images/TAL2nQ
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NGSS Fourth Grade Science and Technology Framework
NGSS Lead States. (2013). Next generation science standards: For states, by states. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

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Appendix L
Lesson Three: PowerPoint Storyboard

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NGSS Lead States. (2013). Next generation science standards: For states, by states. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
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Appendix M
Lesson Four: How to Teach Students to Construct Analogies to
Enhance Problem-Solving Skills using Scamper and Critical
Thinking Activities - Lesson Plan and Instructor ’s Guide

Unit Duration: 22 minutes

Introduction: This is the fourth and final lesson; learners should be able to create
analogies, identify topics such as sports to increase situational interest, and create mock
lesson plans using NGSS standards. In this lesson, learners will transfer the knowledge that
they have gained by using the SCAMPER model and various critical thinking activities to
teach students how to create analogies based on their interests.

Learning Objective(s)
Terminal Objective: Given learners have knowledge of how to create mock lesson plans using sports analogies to
teach STEM, in this lesson, learners will learn how to use the SCAMPER model and various critical thinking
techniques to teach students how to create their own analogies using topics that are of interest to the student. As
a result, students can transfer their knowledge and skills to another context by creating, diagnosing at a higher
level to enhance problem solving skills, by using analogies as a learning tool.
Enabling Objective(s):
● Know how to create specific analogies for any subject.
● Know how to use SCAMPER and various critical thinking techniques to teach students how to create
analogies.

Lesson Materials

Learner Characteristic Accommodations

Facilitator ’s Notes

Access to computer with internet for learning platform
Note taking guide and materials – includes handout with key words and procedural steps Handout:
Questions for consideration
Video: Tutoring scenario Presentation slides
Learners will take the course online. The course will provide digital readings for text to speech conversion
and screen zooming. Accommodations for learners with disabilities will be 503 compliant to ensure all
learners will be able to participate in the lesson.

This is an online course. The presentation will be facilitated using a narrator to provide a brief overview of
each video or slide. However, the majority of the training is conducted using visual presentations in the
form of videos of instructions or in class scenarios. Feedback will be provided through the learner ’s teacher
peer community with other educators who will take the course.

CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 205

Instructional Activities
Instructional
Sequence
Time (mins) Description of the
Learning Activity
Instructor
Action/Decision
(Supplantive)
Learner
Action/
Decision
(Generative)
Gain
Attention
2 If you could give your
students a gift that would
last a lifetime, wouldn ’t you
want to give them the gift of
being able to have the skill
set to think through
challenging subjects with a
tool that increases their
critical thinking skills?
The narrator will briefly
provide an overview of the
previous lessons. The
narrator will begin lesson
four by asking the question
in the “gain attention ”
section.
Learners listen
and watch the
video and will
think about what
they have learned
throughout the
trainings and how
they can transfer
what they have
learned to their
students.
Learning
Objectives
11 Short video of pre-filmed
videos that provides
learners with an overview
of SCAMPER and how
SCAMPER can be used to
create analogies to teach
complex subjects. The
lesson will also incorporate
videos from Chevron STEM
Zone and Mattel
Speedometry and a video
specifically used to
introduce SCAMPER and
analogies to fourth-grade
students. Additionally,
students can use the videos
available through Chevron.
In addition to the video
resources, learners will also
be introduced to Sarah
Perry ’s book “If ” which
was created using the
SCAMPER model.
Narrator states the
reason/objectives for lesson
four. The narrator will
discuss how gaining the
tools provided in the
training will increase
critical thinking skills in
students by using the
SCAMPER model and
various critical thinking
activities. The narrator will
discuss the critical thinking
learning models by
featuring videos that
learners can use
immediately within the
classroom immediately
upon the conclusion of the
training.
Learners watch
the video and
narrator states the
objectives.
Reasons for
Learning
- Benefits
- Risks
1 Benefits: being able to gain
interest by introducing
students with the ability to
use SCAMPER and critical
thinking techniques to
create analogies to foster
creativity, independent
thinking, and the
development of critical
thinking skills.
Narrator discusses how
using SCAMPER to teach
students how to create
analogies based on their
interests.
Learners will
listen and watch
the videos. The
benefit: learners
will have videos
they can use
immediately after
viewing lesson
four.
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Risks: by not engaging
students in the education
process, educators risk
students not being able to
develop educational cues
by recognizing the
connections between
topics that interest students
compared to what they are
attempting to learn.
The risk: teachers
who do not engage
students in the
learning process
run the risk of
students who are
disengaged where
they resent coming
to class because
they view the class
as a waste of time if
they are learning
about topics that do
not interest them.
Overview
- Prior
Knowledge
- New
Knowledge
- Learning
Strategies

(What you
already know .
. . what you
are going to
learn . . . and
how you are
going to learn
it.)
1 Prior knowledge consists of
the relationships the
learners have with their
students and the ability to
engage students in the
learning process. The new
knowledge or learning
strategies consists of
engaging students based on
their interests. Learners
will also use SCAMPER to
teach students how to
create their own analogies
based on their interests.
Narrator will explain the
importance of SCAMPER
and the use of critical
thinking activities to
increase situational interest
and imagination to create
analogies to solve complex
problems. Recognizing
educators know their
students ’ personalities and
interest, the narrator will
reinforce the value of
knowing and using student
interest in the learning
process.
Learner will listen
and watch the
video presentation
and will use the
handout for lesson
four to consider the
questions while
viewing the lesson.
Prerequisite 1 Although learners may be Narrator presents Learner listens,
Knowledge

familiar with what interests information by providing watches the

their students, the lesson a brief overview at the video

provides a deeper analysis of end of each video to presentations,

situational interests and how discuss its relevance of and takes notes

using student interest can and the importance of if necessary.

greatly influence their using SCAMPER and

engagement in the learning critical thinking activities

process by using topics to to teach students how to

gain students ’ in using create their own

subjects that are of interest to analogies.

the student to teach STEM.

Learning 1 The videos for lesson four The narrator will use The learner will
Guidance

provides an overview of audio and video to watch the video
- Lecture

SCAMPER and critical provide instruction or an demonstrations
- Demo

thinking activities. The overview of the lesson in and instruction

lesson will also provide each video. provided. The

videos that learners can use

learner will take

immediately upon the

notes as needed.

conclusion of the training to

introduce students on how to

create analogies. The lesson

also provides a teacher

tutorial provided by Mattel ’s

CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 207

Speedometry and encourages

learners to use the resources

within the handout and videos

as a staple within their

classroom to introduce new
and creative ways to
teach STEM or various
subjects.

Practice and 1 Practice occurs by the learner The narrator will direct Learners will
Feedback

being able to transfer what the learner to discuss their reflect on what

they learned by using the answers posed during the they have

SCAMPER and critical training and in their learned and will

thinking models to teach handouts with their peers answer the

students how to create within their learning question at the

analogies. The learner will
be
communities. end of the

able to use videos and the

lesson. The

handout that accompanies this

learner will

lesson as job aids.

reflect on what

Understanding that this is an

they have

online course, the learners

learned and

will discuss what they have

share their

learned with their peers

thoughts and

within their learning

feedback within

communities. The training

their learning

will be relevant to the

communities.

learner ’s peers because they

will be taking the course as

well.

Authentic 1 The videos provide training Narrator will discuss how Learners will
Assessment

on how to recognize, foster, SCAMPER and the answer the

and engage students to critical thinking activities questions in the

increase situational interests foster creativity by using lesson four

using SCAMPER and various student ’s imagination. handout.

critical thinking techniques to The narrator reinforces

create analogies. The the importance of

assessment occurs by asking transferring what was

the learner to transfer what learned in the professional

they have learned into the development program into

classroom by teaching the classroom.

students how to create

analogies.

Retention 1 Once the learner completes The narrator will reinforce The learner will
and Transfer

all lessons in the professional the ability to use the watch the

development program, school videos in the lesson as a videos, will

administrators will conduct a learning tool within the reflect on the

performance observation. classroom to introduce questions in

The learner will also share students to subjects such handout for

ideas with their peers in their as STEM using topics lesson four and

learning communities. they enjoy such as sports the questions at

to increase situational the end of the

interests. At the end of training, and

the lesson, the narrator will

will also instruct the contemplate

learner to reflect on how how SCAMPER
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 208

they will incorporate
SCAMPER and various
critical thinking activities
into weekly lesson plans.
and critical
thinking activities
will be introduced
into the weekly

lesson plan.

The learner will
also share ideas
with their peers in
their learning
communities.
Big Ideas 1 Review the takeaways of The narrator will discuss The learner will

lesson four by providing a how learners can engage listen and watch

brief overview of what was their class by using topics the presentation.

discussed in the lesson. of interest to students to The learner will

Connect the importance of increase situational also reflect on

procedural knowledge and interest by using the information

how the new knowledge will SCAMPER to create that was learned

be transferred into the analogies. By doing so, in the training.

classroom by igniting students will be more

student ’s ’ creativity and willing to engage in the

imagination to increase learning process.

critical thinking and

situational interests.

Advance 1 The lesson concludes by The narrator will briefly The learner will
Organizer for

recapping the information recap what was learned in reflect on what
the Next Unit

learned in lesson four and the training and will was learned in

will ask learners to complete reinforce the importance the training and

the anonymous survey. of using the videos and will use the

handouts as a job aid as videos as job

well as the resources aids. Learners

provided throughout the will also use the

training which can be resources

used in the classroom available

immediately. The through

narrator will also Chevron ’s

encourage learners to STEM Zone

apply the principles used and Mattel ’s

in the training in the Speedometry

creation of the learner ’s for creative

weekly lesson plans. ideas on how to

Narrator will thank incorporate

learners for their creative and fun

participation and ask lessons into the

learners to complete a classroom.

brief survey at the end of

the lesson.

Total Time 22

CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 209

Appendix N
Lesson Four: Handout

Unit Overview

Lesson Four will discuss strategies on how learners can use the SCAMPER model and other
methods to teach students how to construct their own analogies to understand complex
subjects.
Questions for Consideration

1. Were you familiar with SCAMPER before this training? If so, how have you
used SCAMPER in the past within your classroom?
2. If you had an opportunity to provide your students with a tool that would help them
think critically, how do you think this would impact students and how could this
knowledge be used throughout their lifetimes?
3. What real-life scenarios, current news event, or activity within your community
can be used as an example to create analogies using SCAMPER?
4. Provide a general scenario for all students, and then ask students to create an
analogy that is personal to the student using SCAMPER.

Real-World Application

How to introduce SCAMPER to fourth-grade students - https://youtu.be/aCc0uVRqHoA

SCAMPER activity using various topics - https://youtu.be/xsRspC-WYqw

Sarah Perry ’s children ’s book “If ” - https://youtu.be/3CYvErwgpVs

The 5E Model - https://youtu.be/xhwVrw3P0ZA

The teacher ’s guide and introduction to the 5E Model - https://youtu.be/vOnLs8Weg0M
CURRICULUM TO INCREASE FOURTH GRADE STEM INTEREST 210

Appendix O
Lesson Four: PowerPoint Storyboard

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Abstract (if available)

Abstract In 2015, the Programme for International Assessment found a substantial academic decline in US schools compared to their global counterparts with the slump being most prevalent in the fourth grade. The purpose of this curriculum is to address the loss of interest in STEM and reading comprehension in the fourth grade by providing a professional development program to prepare teachers to increase situational interest in STEM subjects by incorporating analogies into the fourth-grade curriculum. Applying social cognitive and constructivism theories as theoretical approaches, the curriculum consists of a four-unit online course. While completing the course, educators will confer with their peers within their individual learning communities and will be encouraged to use the tools provided in the training in their classroom. Upon the completion of the program, educators will also be able to teach students how to create analogies by providing students with the tools to think critically when attempting to comprehend complex subjects. The summative evaluation will consist of teachers incorporating the use of analogies within weekly lesson plans and using the resources provided in the professional development program. It is important to engage fourth-grade students to increase critical thinking skills and interest in STEM subjects to educate the next generation of students to compete academically within the global marketplace.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Bell, Katherina Belinda Nanzka (author)

Core Title Curriculum model to increase fourth grade STEM interests using sports analogies

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 07/25/2018

Defense Date 03/22/2018

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag analogies,behavioral engagement,cognitive load theory,constructivism,fourth grade slump,Motivation,OAI-PMH Harvest,SCAMPER,self efficacy,situational interest,social cognitive theory,Sports,STEM

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Yates, Kenneth Anthony (committee chair)

Creator Email katherinabellusc@gmail.com,kbell@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-28915

Unique identifier UC11671690

Identifier etd-BellKather-6458.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-28915 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-BellKather-6458.pdf

Dmrecord 28915

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Bell, Katherina Belinda Nanzka

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA