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Rethinking Hispanic attrition rates at U.S. post-secondary institutions: an evaluation study conducted at Latino private college
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Rethinking Hispanic attrition rates at U.S. post-secondary institutions: an evaluation study conducted at Latino private college
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Running head: RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION RATES 1
Rethinking Hispanic Attrition Rates at U.S. Post-secondary Institutions: An Evaluation Study
Conducted at Latino Private College.
by
Daniel E. Ruarte
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2018
Copyright 2018 Ruarte E. Daniel
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 2
Dedication
It is with gratitude and a humble heart, that I celebrate this accomplishment. First, I want
to give all the glory to God, without Him I would definitely not be here. I also want to dedicate
this work to my wife Yadira, without your support and encouragement it would have been
impossible to complete the degree. Thank you Love! Likewise, to my awesome children, David
and Sarah, who I hope to inspire and influence through this achievement. And lastly, my parents
Jose and Elba Ruarte who in their limited education, due to their upbringing circumstances, have
given me the tools to fight for my dreams. You taught me discipline, endurance, work ethics,
and a fighting spirit to reach my goals. Today, I am the first one in my family to acquire a
doctoral degree and I know how proud they are; Gracias “viejo”, gracias “mami” los quiero
mucho, estoy muy agradecido por todo lo que ustedes han hecho en mi vida (English translation:
Thank you “dad” thank you “mom” I love you and I am very grateful for everything you have
done in my life).
Danny
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 3
Acknowledgements
Rethinking Hispanic attrition rates began during my first doctoral class at USC Rossier.
It emerged out of my own personal journey as a Hispanic student trying to overcome success
barriers and persist to graduation. There were great people involved in making this journey
possible and I want to thank those who where by my side during this process:
Dr. Eugenia Mora-Flores, my dissertation advisor for the past few years, I appreciate
your support and guidance. You have been an example of professionalism and a role model for
me as a Latino trying to complete a doctoral degree. Just “trust the process” I can still hear you.
Thank you!
Dr. Eric Canny, who not only accepted the challenge to be part of my dissertation
committee, but also helped me with my literature review. Thank you for reading my chapter two
and providing very helpful feedback. You encouraged me to keep writing and try to do better
every time. Thanks!
Dr. Angela Hasan, thank you for being part of my committee and helping with my
proposal and final defense. It was a pleasure to meet you. Thank you!
Dr. Sarah Lillo, your teaching and support during two of my inquiry classes impacted my
life and the course of my dissertation. You have a real passion for excellence in higher education
and taught us how to do sound research.
I also want to recognize all the faculty and staff at USC Rossier School of Education for
their tremendous work in the elaboration, implementation, and continual support of the Ed.D in
Organizational Change and Leadership. I have been enriched with immense skills and insights
from you by participating in this program. Go Rossier!
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 4
I would also like to acknowledge some individuals that have impacted my life in a more
personal level such as family, friends, and mentors:
Dr. Enrique Zone and Dr. Miguel Darino, who encouraged me to understand the value of
utilizing my brain to think critically. You inspired me to fall in love with learning, teaching, and
developing leaders. I continue to learn from you everyday. Thanks!
Daniel and Monica Prieto, you helped my family emigrate from Argentina and God used
you to impact my life and develop me as a very young leader. I will always remember your
influence especially during my first few years in the U.S. Thanks!
Monica, Patricia, Claudia, Marcos, and Martin, my awesome brothers and sisters, you are
all very special to me. I love you!
Finally, thank you to all my friends who love and support who I am and what I do. You
know who you are! Thank you!
Sincerely,
Daniel Ruarte
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 5
Abstract
This research focused on addressing high attrition rate of Latino students at U.S. post-
secondary institutions. National data reports that Hispanics hold the lowest degree completion
rate (16%) of post-secondary degrees (NCES, 2015). The study was guided by Clark and Estes
(2008) analytic framework, which required the validation of knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences that could potentially be barriers to reach organizational goals. A
qualitative case study approach with an emphasis on evaluation was done at a small private
college that transitioned from being a predominantly White institution to become a certified
Hispanic Serving Institution with more than 25% Latino enrollment in 2014 and almost 50% in
2017. The implications of the case study to the educational community are immense, first,
institutions need to treat each individual with much value and respect, each student that is
enrolled and paying tuition deserves the highest quality in educational practice. Thus, higher
education institutions must assess performance and provide the highest level of training and
professional development in areas that need improvement. Second, even with the many different
responsibilities and distractions administrators and institutions have on a daily basis, in order to
increase student retention (or to improve in any other area), institutions must cultivate a healthy
sense of urgency and eagerness to participate in the change process. Moreover, a strategic model
of Hispanic retention emerged from the research and it is presented in the discussion section in
Chapter Five.
(College student success, Underrepresented student support services, Hispanic student
retention, Retention strategies, Retention models, Student attrition, College persistence)
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 6
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication ............................................................................................................................2
Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................3
Abstract ................................................................................................................................5
Table of Contents .................................................................................................................6
List of Tables .....................................................................................................................12
List of Figures ....................................................................................................................13
Chapter One: Introduction .................................................................................................14
Introduction of the Problem of Practice .................................................................14
Organizational Context and Mission .....................................................................15
Organizational Goal ...............................................................................................16
Related Literature ...................................................................................................17
Importance of the Evaluation .................................................................................19
Description of Stakeholder Groups ........................................................................19
Stakeholders’ Performance Goals ..........................................................................20
Stakeholder Group for the Study ...........................................................................21
Purpose of the Project and Questions ....................................................................22
Introduction to the Methodological Framework ....................................................22
Definitions..............................................................................................................23
Organization of the Project ....................................................................................24
Chapter Two: Literature Review .......................................................................................26
Hispanic Attrition Rate in U.S. Post-secondary Institutions ..................................26
Demographic Landscape in Higher Education ..........................................26
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 7
Diversity Aspects ...........................................................................27
Population Aspects .........................................................................28
Trends on Hispanic Student Enrollment and Degree Completion .............28
Brief Background on Hispanic Serving Institutions ..................................30
Institutional Best Practices to Reduce and Improve Hispanic Attrition ................31
New Strategies for Hispanic Student Success ...........................................34
New Strategies for Hispanic Student Retention .........................................36
Proven Institutional Practices that Positively Impact Hispanic Attrition ..38
Leadership support .........................................................................38
Mentoring programs .......................................................................40
Institutional learning and equity initiatives ....................................41
Clark & Estes’ Analytical Framework to Increase Organizational Performance ..43
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences ...................43
Knowledge and Skill Influences ................................................................44
Knowledge types ............................................................................45
Motivational Influences .............................................................................49
Self-Efficacy theory of motivation ................................................50
Goal orientation theory of motivation ............................................51
Organizational Influences ..........................................................................54
Theory on assessing organizational culture ...................................54
Conclusion .............................................................................................................61
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 8
Chapter Three: Methodology .............................................................................................64
Conceptual Framework: Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation and the
Organizational Context ..........................................................................................65
Applying KMO Framework to LPC ..........................................................66
Assumed knowledge and skill influences ......................................67
Assumed Motivational influences ..................................................67
Assumed Organizational influences ..............................................68
Methodological Approach .....................................................................................68
Participating Stakeholders .....................................................................................69
Focus Group Sampling Criteria and Rationale at LPC ..............................70
Individual Interviews Sampling Criteria and Rationale at LPC ................71
Qualitative Data Collection and Instrumentation ..................................................72
Interviews ...................................................................................................73
Documents .................................................................................................74
Data Analysis .........................................................................................................74
Open and Axial Coding .............................................................................75
Identifying and Selecting Themes .............................................................75
Presenting Findings ................................................................................................76
Credibility and Trustworthiness .............................................................................76
Ethics ......................................................................................................................77
Limitations and Delimitations ................................................................................79
Chapter Four: Findings ......................................................................................................82
Participating Stakeholders .....................................................................................83
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 9
Findings .................................................................................................................84
Knowledge Assumptions .......................................................................................85
Hispanic Trends in Education .....................................................................85
Specific Retention Strategies for Latinos ...................................................86
Reflective Practice ......................................................................................88
Motivational Assumptions ......................................................................................90
Confidence in Impact ..................................................................................91
Goals for Success ........................................................................................92
Organizational Assumptions ..................................................................................95
Cultural models ...........................................................................................95
Diversity value ...............................................................................96
Institutional awareness and improvement ......................................97
Cultural settings ........................................................................................98
Urgency ..........................................................................................99
Document Analysis ..............................................................................................100
Conclusion ...........................................................................................................101
Chapter Five: Recommendations and Implementation ....................................................104
Discussion ............................................................................................................105
Value and influence of accrediting bodies ...............................................105
Towards a more strategic model of Hispanic retention ...........................106
Students ........................................................................................107
Institutions ...................................................................................108
Administrators/Faculty ................................................................108
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 10
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences ..............................109
Knowledge Recommendations ................................................................111
Specific Retention Strategies for Latinos ....................................114
Motivational Recommendations ..............................................................115
Organizational Recommendations ...........................................................107
Urgency ........................................................................................120
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan ..................................................121
Implementation and Evaluation Framework ............................................122
Organizational Purpose, Need, and Expectations .....................................123
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators ...................................................124
Level 3: Behaviors and Required Drivers ................................................125
Level 2: Learning and Program Evaluation .............................................128
Level 1: Reaction and Assessment ..........................................................132
Evaluation Tools ......................................................................................133
Data Analysis and Reporting ...................................................................134
Summary ..................................................................................................135
Strength and Weaknesses of the Approach ..........................................................137
Limitations and Delimitations ..............................................................................138
Future Research ...................................................................................................139
Conclusion ...........................................................................................................140
References ........................................................................................................................144
Appendix A: LPC’s Student Demographic Data 2007/2016 ...........................................159
Appendix B: LPC’s Desegregated Retention Data 2013/2016 ........................................160
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 11
Appendix C: Interview Protocol for One-on-One Interviews ..........................................161
Appendix D: Interview Protocol for Focus Group ..........................................................164
Appendix E: Informed Consent .......................................................................................166
Appendix F: Level 1 and 2 Online Module Survey .........................................................169
Appendix G: Level 1 and 2 Group Session Facilitator’s Protocol ...................................171
Appendix H: Level 1, 2, 3, and 4 Performance Survey ...................................................176
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 12
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Stakeholders’ Performance Goals ........................................................................20
Table 2: Enrollment Trends in U.S. Higher Education by 2023 ........................................29
Table 3: Comparative Degree Completion Trends in Post-Secondary Education .............30
Table 4: Knowledge Influences, Types, and Assessments for Knowledge Gap Analysis 48
Table 5: Motivational Influences and Assessments for Motivation Gap Analysis ............53
Table 6: Organizational Influences and Assessments for Organization Gap Analysis .....61
Table 7: Demographics of Participating Stakeholder ........................................................83
Table 8: Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Findings ......................................104
Table 9: Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations .............................112
Table 10: Summary of Motivational Influences and Recommendations .........................116
Table 11: Summary of Organizational Influences and Recommendations .....................118
Table 12: Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes ..........124
Table 13: Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation .................126
Table 14: Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors ..............................................127
Table 15: Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program ..........................131
Table 16: Components to Measure Reactions to the Program .........................................132
Table 17: Data Analysis and Reporting Dashboard for Level 4 Results .........................135
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 13
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Tinto’s Model of Student Retention ...................................................................32
Figure 2. Bean’s Model of Student Attrition .....................................................................33
Figure 3: Clark and Estes (2008) KMO Analytic Framework at LPC ..............................66
Figure 4: Strategic Model of Hispanic Retention ............................................................107
Figure 5: Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) Evaluation Model ....................................121
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 14
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Introduction of the Problem of Practice
It is an unfortunate reality that the attrition rate of Hispanics in four-year post-secondary
institutions is higher than any other ethnic group in the United States. For the purpose of this
research, the term Hispanic and Latino will be used interchangeably throughout the study.
According to Wagner (2015), in recent years, Latinos have been the focus of attention in
education due to their record-breaking enrollment rates. Unfortunately, the National Center for
Educational Statistics (NCES), the most trusted source of information when it comes to
education in the United States, reported that Hispanics hold the lowest attainment rate (16%) of
post-secondary degrees (NCES, 2015). And scholars have noted that despite high enrollment
rates, Hispanics continue to struggle in completing their degrees (Rueda, 2011; Ortiz, Valerio &
Lopez, 2012; Page, 2013; Calderon, 2014; Wagner, 2015; Contreras & Contreras, 2015).
The Latino population has represented the fastest growing minority in the United States
for decades (Rodriguez, 2008; Bordas, 2013; Salas, Aragon, Alandejani & Timpson, 2014;
Samuel & Scott, 2014). The 2010 census data reported Latino population figures of about 50
million living in the United States, and the bureau of labor suggested Latinos are projected to be
a large segment of the future labor force of America (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011; U.S. Bureau of
Labor, 2012). Rueda (2011) proposes the increase in the Latino population should be an appeal
for practitioners, experts, and higher education institutions to help close the achievement gap for
this minority. Equity in education for underrepresented students including Hispanic-Americans
is a significant and noble task to address.
Latinos are struggling to achieve their educational goals and this is preventing them from
the many benefits of higher education. For example, benefits such as, greater civic integration,
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 15
creative innovation, and higher income (Blomquist, Coomes, Jepsen, Koford & Troske, 2014),
and others such as the fact that education has been associated with lower crime rates and reduced
need for government aid (Swail, Redd, & Perna, 2003). This confirms that high Hispanic
attrition in post-secondary education is a problem that deserves rethinking and reevaluating, an
issue that needs attention because it affects the students and the nation as well.
Organizational Context and Mission
For this evaluation study, a four-year post-secondary institution under the pseudonym of
Latino Private College (LPC) was selected. The college is relatively small, about 700 enrolled
students, and seeks to successfully serve students from all demographic backgrounds. In recent
years, the college experienced a substantial increase in Latino enrollment. This rapid shift in
student body led to the attainment of Hispanic Serving Institution (HSI) certification in 2014.
Hispanic Serving Institution classification is gained when an institution has reached more than
25% of Latino student enrollment (Santiago, 2008).
During the 2008-2009 school year, LPC’s student body was 73% White, 13.6% Hispanic,
and the rest was composed of other minorities. On the other hand, in the 2015-2016 school year,
only 49% of the students were White, and 29.2% Hispanic (APPENDIX A). The college is
currently accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC) and exists for
the transformational development of students into leaders. At the outset of this research, LPC
had been struggling with the retention and success of Latino students and was willing to
cooperate with the study in order to evaluate possible causes and solutions. The college
functions under the direction of the president and a board of trustees. The president has a
cabinet, the administrative leadership team, composed of vice-presidents, deans, and directors.
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 16
These leaders work with faculty, full-time staff, and part-time staff to properly run the day-to-
day and long-term college activities.
Organizational Goal
The 2014-2015 Hispanic retention rate at LPC was 47% and it has straggled behind
White student population ranging between 8% to 17%, in the past three years (see Appendix B).
Latino Private College’s goal was to improve and maintain its Latino retention rate to 75% or
higher by fall of 2020. One component of this goal included LPC’s desire to better serve its
growing number of Hispanic-American students. An evaluation study was conducted to identify
knowledge, motivation, and organizational performance gaps and to present possible solutions
that could increase Latino retention and success, with the goal of degree completion.
Additionally, through this study, LPC entered a comprehensive gap analysis evaluation of its
culture, systems, and programs, which promoted positive awareness of diversity initiatives and
best practices related to Hispanic students.
According to Bensimon (2005), before any real change and success can happen,
institutions must enter a metacognitive self-assessment process. The author suggested this
process could bring institutional awareness to their current realities, proper and thoughtful
interpretation of their equity data, and effective research-based motivation to move into action.
The research itself facilitated an objective opportunity for this metacognitive process to go
forward and resulted in a robust self-evaluation for administrators and the institution. This
process could significantly affect LPC’s performance related to Latino student retention and
promote the development of recommendations and solutions that could potentially help lower
attrition rate for Latino students.
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 17
In LPC’s 2014-2019 plans and strategies, LPC administrators had already demonstrated a
desire and understanding of the need to improve retention and graduation. In the document, they
added the development of a written retention plan for the entire student population, and more
significantly to this research, they decided to perform an institutional study on the effects of their
increased student diversity to their student support services. One of the key administrators
provided the researcher with a copy of the retention plan, background information about the
college’s desire to improve Latino attrition rate, and graduation/demographic data. The goal was
to reach equity in student outcomes for Latinos by closing the retention gap for this minority.
Related Literature
Several research studies on reducing Hispanic attrition rates have considered and
presented strategies for student success (Tovar, 2015; Hayes, Blake, Darensbourg & Castillo,
2015; Rothstein, 2015; Bensimon, Harris & Rueda, 2007). In their research, Hayes, Blake,
Darensbourg, and Castillo (2015) attributed low success rate of Latino students to parents and
peers lack of engagement. They referenced this theory as the deficit perspective where low-
income and minority parents and peers do not see much value in encouraging their children to be
educated. In contrast, Tovar (2015) presented a different perspective where instructors,
counselors, and student support programs are key influencers of success or failure. Tovar’s
study concluded, by stating the importance of faculty and staff serving as role models that could
connect, encourage, and lead Latino students to success.
Bensimon, Harris and Rueda (2007) proposed a connection between institutional learning
and a positive impact on minority student’s educational outcomes. Utilizing tools to analyze
data, begin conversations about the benefits of equity and diversity, and promote collaborative
discussions regarding potential solutions were a few institutional learning techniques they
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 18
proposed, that could help identify gaps in knowledge and best practices. Their research
demonstrated the critical role higher education institutions play at providing solutions to student
success and equity. Asserting that institutions must become data-driven, equity minded, and
improvement agents to successfully help minority students.
Research in higher education equity shows that to successfully improve Latino
completion rates, which help lower attrition, there is a need for new accountability (Harris &
Bensimon, 2007). It is not enough to know that the gap exists. Institutions must first understand
the benefits of diversity and equity to successfully develop, implement, and monitor new
initiatives. The success of all Americans, including Latinos, is something that educational
institutions must be prepared to be accountable for, and continuous improvement should be their
goal (Coner & Ravobsky, 2011; Hammond, Wilhoit & Pittenger, 2014; Hammond & Snyder,
2015).
Higher education institutions benefit from self-evaluating their equity mindedness. The
Center for Urban Education at USC Rossier, promotes a self-assessment tool called the Equity
Scorecard (ES). Institutions use the Equity Scorecard to measure performance, increase equity
mindedness, promote reflective practice on institutional data, and encourage healthy diversity
and equity efforts that are grounded on data, research, and outcomes. The process begins with
the development of a team, task force or committee, composed of top level and lower level
administrators, faculty, and staff. These expert practitioners will then enter metacognitive
discussions of current realities and possible research-based solutions regarding the institution’s
equity and performance gap(s) related to underrepresented students. Improvement goals are
developed and processes are established that will impact the institution’s performance
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 19
(Bensimon, Polkinghorne, Bauman & Vallejo, 2004; Bensimon, 2005; Bensimon, Harris &
Rueda, 2007).
Importance of the Evaluation
The Hispanic population continues to increase and college enrollment for this minority
has rapidly escalated during the past decades (Wagner, 2015). Unfortunately, Latino post-
secondary attrition continues to be on the rise (Ortiz, Valerio & Lopez, 2012). This has led
educational leaders and institutions to research, evaluate, and find possible solutions to close the
achievement gap for minorities (Rueda 2011; Bensimon, Harris & Rueda, 2007; Samuel & Scott,
2014; Contreras & Contreras, 2015; Bensimon, 2005).
A novel and honorable reason to lower Hispanic attrition is equity in educational
outcomes (Bensimon, Harris & Rueda, 2007). Addressing low educational outcomes of
Hispanics in college and universities underlines the multi-ethnic and equitable purpose of
education in the United States. This was a founding principle for postsecondary education as
Bloom, Hartley and Rosovsky (2006) remind us of the reason why college was established in the
first place “…to promote ‘equal opportunity to differing individuals and groups,’ and to enable
citizens to understand their responsibilities as members of a free society…” (pp. 295-296). The
concept of “equal opportunity” or equity in higher education is the basis for the American dream,
the dream fostered by a nation that strives to care for all of its citizens regardless of their ethnic
or socio-economic background.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
Three main stakeholders will directly contribute to and benefit from the achievement of
the organization’s goal respecting Latino students. These are college administrators, faculty, and
Latino students. The first group of stakeholders are LPC administrators. In this study,
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 20
administrators are those who work at LPC as full time administrative staff or faculty who hold
administrative responsibilities and/or are part of retention committees or student success task
forces.
The second stakeholder group is faculty members with no administrative function.
College faculty, include part-time professors, instructors, and adjuncts. Research shows that
faculty has a profound influence on student attrition (Pascarella, 1980; Lamport, 1993). And the
last stakeholder group is LPC’s Latino student body. Santiago and Andrade (2010) proposed
higher education institutions have the privilege and responsibility of educating the future
Hispanic-Americans leaders of the United States. For this reason, closing the achievement gap
for this stakeholder group is fundamental for any organization that wants to position itself for the
future, as Latino population and their enrollment rate in college continues to increase.
Stakeholders’ Performance Goals
Table 1
Stakeholders’ Performance Goals
Organizational Mission
Latino Private College exists for the transformational development of students into leaders and
one of its immediate goals is to better serve its growing Latino student body.
Organizational Goal
By Fall of 2020, Latino Private College (LPC) will improve and maintain its Latino retention rate
to 75% or higher.
Administrators Goal
By Spring of 2019, LPC’s
administrators will embrace
and understand the importance
of improving enrollment,
retention, success, and
completion rates for minority
students specifically Latinos
Faculty Goal
By Fall of 2020, all Faculty
members will demonstrate
100% genuine acceptance and
understanding of diversity and
equity efforts by undergoing a
Latino Students Goal
By Fall 2020, 100% of LPC’s
freshmen students of Hispanic
heritage enter a First-Year
Mentoring Seminar (FYMS), a
two-hour student of color
orientation workshop that will
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 21
by engaging in a collaborative
diversity initiative that could
potentially help increase
Latino student retention.
Administrators will engage in
metacognitive practices
(Krathwolh, 2002) through a
series of sessions that will
promote institutional learning,
self-reflection, self-evaluation,
and assessment. This will lead
to conversations related to
“equity mindedness”, Latino
student outcomes, and
brainstorming possible
solutions that could reduce
LPC’s Latino attrition rate (as
presented by Bensimon, 2005).
professional development
workshop with research-based
strategies that will lead to
Latino student retention.
Faculty will take an
assessment test and post-test to
measure reaction, learning,
behavior and results of new
knowledge (as presented by
Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick,
2007).
provide important information
related to diversity initiatives,
faculty and peer mentoring
opportunities, and persistence
strategies that will equip them
to succeed in completing their
education.
Latino students will benefit
from the impact of a first-year
seminar (see Padgett, Keup &
Pascarella, 2013), and the
ongoing support of access to
faculty and peer mentoring
(see Santiago, McNair, Finley,
Duhig, McCambly, Gonzales
& Brown, 2014).
Note. Administrators were the key stakeholders for the study. However, a complete Gap Analysis as presented in
Clark & Estes (2008) book would require further analysis of Faculty (part-time and full-time), and Latino students.
Stakeholder Group for the Study
Stakeholders are key to institutional success at any four-year college, these include
students, parents, administrators, faculty, and support staff. After taking into consideration
LPC’s goal for their Latino students, administrators were chosen by the researcher as the primary
stakeholder of focus. An evaluation study was conducted to effectively assess the needs of
administrators to reach LPC’s goal of improving and maintaining its Latino retention rate to 75%
or higher by fall of 2020. Administrators have an important role in addressing college attrition
because they directly manage and oversee diversity efforts, retention initiatives, and institutional
change. Moreover, administrative positions also have access to institutional data and the
necessary influence to promote and implement new programs and services (Adserias, Charleston
& Jackson, 2017; Kezar, Eckel, Contreras-McGavin & Quaye, 2008). Thus, administrators were
asked to participate in the data gathering procedures.
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 22
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to evaluate the degree to which LPC was working
towards achieving its goal of improving and maintaining its Latino retention rate to 75% or
higher. The analysis focused on knowledge, motivation and organizational influences related to
achieving this organizational goal. While a complete performance evaluation would focus on all
LPC stakeholders, for practical purposes and time limitations the stakeholder to be focused on in
this analysis are LPC administrators.
As such, the questions that guide this study are the following:
1. What is the knowledge and motivation of administrators at LPC that contribute to the
goal of raising and maintaining the retention rate of Latinos to 75% or higher by fall
of 2020?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context, and the
administrator’s knowledge and motivation about the institution’s culture, systems,
and programs that are geared towards Latino success?
3. What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources for improving and maintaining the retention
rate of Latino students to 75% or higher by the fall of 2020?
Introduction to the Methodological Framework
This project employed a qualitative case study approach to data gathering and analysis,
which will be explained in more detail in Chapter Three. The stakeholder’s current performance
was assessed applying Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis of knowledge and skill, motivational,
and organizational needs to reach the goal. Gap analysis was the conceptual framework used to
structure the research. The qualitative data gathering was conducted through one focus group,
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 23
interviews, and document examination. It was then interpreted through content analysis, which
is also explained in the methodology chapter. Nonetheless, additional details on data analysis
and the presentation of research findings will be explained in Chapter Four. Finally, for the
validated findings, research-based recommendations and solutions were also included in Chapter
Five.
Definitions
Student Retention: Students continue to study from one year to another and persist in their
program of choice (Mbuva, 2011).
Student Success: Students excel in achieving their educational goals (Mbuva, 2011).
Student Attrition: The percentage of students who drop out of post-secondary institutions after
they enrolled (Tinto, 1975).
Desegregated Data: This is institutional information about the student’s enrollment, retention,
graduation, and other additional elements presented by target populations (Bensimon & Malcom,
2012).
Hispanic Serving Institution: A certification given by the department of education to four-year
post-secondary institutions that reached 25% or more in Hispanic student enrollment (Gastic &
Nieto, 2010).
Equity in Education: All students from different demographics and socio-economic status have
equal opportunities, services, and representation in access, retention, completion, outcomes, and
other factors (Malcom-Piqueux, Bensimon, Suro, Fischer, Bartle, Loudenback & Rivas, 2012).
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 24
Equality in Education: All students from different demographics and socio-economic status are
given or getting the exact same results or outcomes no matter how they perform (Malcom-
Piqueux, et al., 2012).
Organization of the Project
The project was organized into five chapters. Chapter One provides the reader with an
introduction to the problem of practice, relevance of the study, and concepts or terminology
commonly found in discussion related to the importance of lowering Hispanic attrition rates in
post-secondary institutions in the United States. Furthermore, it includes the background of the
organization chosen for the study, the organization’s mission, goals and stakeholders as well as
the review of the analysis framework. Chapter Two provides a review of current literature
surrounding the scope of the study. Topics such as demographic trends in post-secondary
education, Hispanic trends in enrollment and degree completion, a background of Hispanic
Serving Institutions. It also includes strategies to increase Hispanic retention and success and
proven institutional best practices to reduce Hispanic attrition. Chapter Two also includes a
description of Clark and Estes (2008) analytical framework to assess performance gaps in
addition to knowledge, motivation, and organization influences related to improving Latino
educational outcomes. Chapter Three is the methodological section and presents the knowledge,
motivation and organizational elements that were examined as well as methodology used. It also
provides the criteria for selection of participants and the processes of data collection and analysis
that were implemented. In Chapter Four, the data and results are analyzed, described, and
reported. Moreover, the findings and validation of the KMO influences are presented. Lastly,
Chapter Five provides the recommendations and solutions for practice, which were based on the
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 25
validated assumptions, the data, and literature. It also presents a solution for the
recommendations, and an implementation and evaluation plan.
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 26
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
The review of the literature focused on Hispanic attrition in the U.S. and new strategies
that could improve institutional performance regarding this issue. It begins with an overview of
changing demographical trends in education, future population figures and its impact on
Hispanic enrollment at colleges and universities. The review then examined current research on
institutional best practices specifically related to reducing Hispanic student attrition. These
include strategies to increase retention, promote student success, and research-proven
institutional practices. Finally, a review of Clark and Estes (2008) gap analytic framework,
centering on knowledge, motivation, and organizational (KMO) influences and the implications
for reducing post-secondary attrition rates for Hispanic students.
Hispanic Attrition Rate in U.S. Post-secondary Institutions
This section of the literature review contains a statistical and empirical foundation to the
subject of Hispanic attrition in higher education. First, a background of the current and expected
demographic landscape is presented, which includes the elements of diversity and population.
Then, it begins to narrow the focus on Hispanics by reporting enrollment and degree completion
trends. Finally, there is a brief background on Hispanic Serving Institutions (HSI) in order to
have a full understanding of what it means to be an HSI institution.
Demographic Landscape in Higher Education
Statistics show a shift in the demographic landscape of the post-secondary student body
in the United States. In the history of post-secondary education, between 1976 and 2014
Hispanics were the fastest growing student population in the United States. The numbers show a
13% increase of Latino students, compared to 5% increase of Asian/Pacific Islander, 4% increase
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 27
of African American, 0.1% increase of Native American/Alaskan and a 26% decrease of White
students (NCES, 2016).
Another fact that needs to be considered when thinking about higher education’s
demographic landscape is the future college population. Condition of Education 2016, the latest
report on demographic characteristics of enrollment at elementary and secondary schools,
showed that from 2003 to 2013 Hispanic students increased from 19% to 25%, in contrast to a
decrease of Black students from 17% to 16%, and of White students from 59% to 50% of total
elementary and secondary population. Furthermore, the report calculates that patterns are
projected to continue in the same path for future generations (NCES, 2016a). These reports from
the U.S. Department of Education paint a clear picture of the current demographic changes in
higher education. It also highlights two specific aspects for this study: diversity and population
data.
Diversity aspects. Increased campus diversity in U.S. colleges and universities reveals a
need for institutions and their administrative leadership to evaluate efforts to intentionally serve
minority students with excellence, respect, and professionalism (Wilson, 2015; Maruyama,
Moreno, Gudeman & Marin, 2000). In his work, Wilson (2015) suggested that the changing
demographics in education means continual and incremental diversity in post-secondary
classrooms. He calls for institutions to be strategic and purposeful as it relates to inclusion of
diversity in their present and future efforts. For instance, the implementation of specific support
programs for students of color, retention strategies that would work for a diverse student body,
and attention to completion rates and minority outcomes. In a similar note, in Does Diversity
Make a Difference? Maruyama et al. (2000) shed light into historical elements of diversity
aspects, claiming that the conversation on diversity in the United States began 150 years ago, but
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 28
is perceived as still a relatively new issue that surfaced in the mid to late 1960s in the post-
secondary education arena.
Population aspects. U.S. population figures and projections show a strong emphasis on
the present as well as future diverse population. Data shows an increase of the Hispanic-
America population by 2060 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010; 2015; Núñez, Sparks & Hernández,
2011). According to a recent projection from the U.S. Census Bureau (2015), by the end of
2060, one in two Americans will belong to a minority group, and a historical majority-minority
crossover is expected by 2044. These numbers suggest that a multiethnic society with
individuals of more than one race will be the fastest growing population from 2014 to 2060. A
comparative analysis of the 2000 and the 2010 national census revealed that the demographic
landscape in the U.S. is a very important issue. This analysis found that United States is an
ethnically diverse nation, and Hispanics are the fastest growing demographic group with 50% of
the population growth during this period attributed to Latinos (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010).
Current and projected population data will continue to influence the demographic landscape of
educational institutions. Hispanic enrollment numbers will continue to increase and institutions
will have to adjust to new realities and respond to the data to properly serve this minority. The
remainder of this review of literature narrows its focus to the Hispanic student population.
Trends on Hispanic Student Enrollment and Degree Completion
Evidence shows a substantial increase in Hispanic post-secondary enrollment during the
past two decades, which will continue in the future and recent statistics also confirm degree
completion is on the rise (NCES, 1996; 2016; 2016a; 2016b; U.S. Census Bureau, 2015). Post-
secondary enrollment trends are heavily influenced by changes in population and demographics.
For example, Hispanic enrollment of students ages 18-24 increased by 10% from 2004-2014 and
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 29
the overall percentage of Latino enrollment in U.S. institutions increased from 4% in 1976 to
17% in 2014 (NCES, 2016). The total U.S. student enrollment in post-secondary institutions is
projected to increase 15% and enrollment projections (disaggregated by ethnicity) in higher
education for the next five years are clearly shown in Table 2 below. This table was done based
on a report by the NCES called Projections of Education Statistics to 2023 (NCES, 2016b).
Table 2
Enrollment Trends in U.S. Higher Education by 2023
Furthermore, trends on degree completion are another important aspect that needs to be
taken into consideration. Institutions report their enrollment and completion numbers on a yearly
basis to the department of education and reports are created to assess the effectiveness and needs
of education in the United States. For example, a comparative look at the disaggregated post-
secondary degree completion data from 1993-1994 and 2013-2014 school year, provides great
insight into overall Hispanic graduation trends, distinctively of retention numbers and degrees
granted to Latinos during these periods (NCES, 1996; 2016). In the following Table 3, it is clear
that there was a slight 7% increase on degree completion for Hispanics but a disparity between
Whites and all other ethnicities. The large numbers of White students completing their degrees
is admirable, but it shows that despite the large increase in enrollment of Latinos, there is a
degree completion gap that needs to be addressed.
Ethnicity (race)
Hispanic-American
African-American
Two or more races
Asian/Pacific Islander
White
Native-American
Enrollment increase projected by 2023
34%
25%
14%
11%
7%
1%
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 30
Table 3
Comparative Degree Completion Trends in Post-Secondary Education
The trends in Hispanic enrollment and attainment do provide a picture of educational
efforts and the need to close the attrition gap for this segment of the population. For example,
from 1988 to 2015 the gap for Latinos continued to increase compared to other groups. This is
due to the continual population growth of this minority; thus Hispanics are still one of the least
educated minorities in the U.S. (U.S. Census Bureau, 2016). One byproduct of enrollment trends
or the high enrollment of Latinos has been the development or transition of some institutions
from predominantly White to Hispanic Serving Institution (HSI). This next section explains the
meaning of HSI and their value in serving Hispanic students.
Brief background on Hispanic serving institutions
It is important to understand the purpose of Hispanic Serving Institutions (HSIs) and the
reason for its existence. Hispanic Serving Institutions (HSIs) are those who have at least 25% of
Latino student enrollment. According to the research, these institutions play an important part in
reducing Latino attrition rates and for this reason, it is imperative for each to become experts at
helping Hispanic students reach their educational goals (Santiago & Andrade, 2010; Santiago,
Taylor & Galdeano, 2016; Page, 2013; Santiago, 2008).
Ethnicity (race)
White
African-American
Hispanic-American
Asian/Pacific Islander
Others
Degree Completion in
1993-1994
1,679,944 (78%)
153,357 (8%)
95,495 (4%)
91,607 (4%)
115,061 (6%)
Degree Completion in
2013-2014
2,375,031 (62%)
426,911 (11%)
436,112 (12%)
245,744 (6%)
321,435 (9%)
Total Degrees Awarded 2,135,464 (100%) 3,805,233 (100%)
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 31
Santiago and Andrade (2010) explained how HSIs are relatively new since they came
into existence a few decades ago in the 1980s and were officially recognized in 1992. The idea
of naming and recognizing these institutions was due to a desire to serve Latino students better,
provide opportunities, and willingness to adapt and learn new strategies and models that could
help underrepresented Latino students succeed academically. In their study, they presented the
positive efforts of the best HSIs in the nation. First, increase in enrollment led these institutions
to increase efforts to better serve Latino students. Second, these colleges and universities
purposely use institutional data in their decision-making process regarding Latino students,
hiring practices, administrative agendas, and staff development. Third, was the overall
disposition of the employees is to promote a unified message that embraces diversity. Fourth,
presidential or top leadership was also a key element for successful improvement efforts. Fifth,
these institutions encouraged innovation, exploration, and experimentation of new strategies and
practices. Finally, one of the most important aspects was an overall vision to serve and help
Latinos succeed.
In the report, From capacity to success: HSIs, Title V, and Latino students, Santiago,
Taylor and Galdeano (2016) concluded by identifying a clear relationship between HSI’s
institutional capacity and the success of Latino students, a linkage between institutions that care
to invest and those who do not. The following section will focus on current research strategies
and tools that could help reduce Hispanic attrition as well as increase graduation and success
rates for Latinos.
Institutional Best Practices to Reduce and Improve Hispanic Attrition
Presenting a brief definition of student attrition leads to the seminal work of Tinto (1975)
model of student retention (Figure 1) and Bean (1985) model of student attrition (Figure 2),
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 32
which are cited by most researchers on student persistence, retention, and success. Their
research provides a simple but elaborate definition of student attrition and foundational schemas
that paint a picture of how each of them perceived and conceptualized student attrition
(Pascarella & Terenzini, 1980; 1983; Andres & Carpenter, 1997; Arbona & Nora, 2007; Angulo-
Ruiz & Pergelova, 2013; Salinas & Llanes, 2003).
Figure 1. Tinto’s Model of Student Retention
Tinto (1975) proposed that student attrition has to do with the percentage of students who
dropout of a college or university. He claimed a fundamental need to properly define dropout to
perform sound retention research. According to Tinto, properly defining attrition begins by
differentiating between the multiple types of dropout categories. He presented four categories of
attrition. First is voluntary dropout, defined by the student deciding to leave school and his/her
educational goals. Second is academic dropout, defined by the student being dismissed due to
poor performance and low-grade levels. Third is permanent dropout, determined when the
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 33
student declines to continue in school due to personal reasons. Fourth is transfer dropout,
defined by the student’s ability to transfer to another institution for sincere academic reasons.
According to Tinto the model demonstrates the students educational process as they
interact with the social and academic aspects of the institution. During this dynamics, students
modify their goals and commitments to ultimately make personal choices about persistence or
drop out. On the other hand, Bean (see Figure 2), emphasizes the importance of three external
factors (academic, social-psychological, and environmental) and their impact on three internal
factors (grades, institutional fit, and commitment) that ultimately could lead to the student’s drop
out decision.
Figure 2. Bean’s Model of Student Attrition
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 34
Bean (1985) simplified this definition by stating in his research that dropout rate is
equivalent to attrition rate. Per this definition, dropout would be measured by the number of
students who returned the following school year to campus except those students who had
graduated or were a confirmed transfer to another institution. Attrition is the percentage of
students dropping out or leaving an institution prior to completing their degrees. In other words,
those students that enrolled in a program but do not graduate. Now that attrition has been
conceptualized, a review of literature on institutional best practices to reduce and improve
Hispanic attrition rate will follow.
New Strategies for Hispanic Student Success
Tovar (2015) suggested that student success could mean academic persistence, grade
improvement or degree completion. On the other hand, Santiago et al., (2014) defined Latino
student success by an increase in completion rates, increased retention rates, academic
improvement, increased pass rates, decrease withdrawal rates, or improvement in writing skills.
Nevertheless, to reduce attrition or dropout rates for Hispanics, institutional leaders and
practitioners must explore and implement the most current body of literature on strategies for
student success (Rodríguez & Oseguera, 2015; Calderon, 2014; Vega & Martinez, 2012).
Rodríguez and Oseguera (2015) presented a theory for Latino student success that
focuses on organizational culture by seeking a culture of possibilities rather than failures. In this
line of thought, the authors presented the following seven principles called “Latina/o Student
Success Across the Educational Pipeline: An Institutional Culture Approach” (p.133). It begins
by an effort to foster meaningful relationships between the students and those who represent the
institution. Second, the institution must gain the trust of the students by promoting an authentic
culture of dialoguing about diversity, ethnic, and multicultural issues. Third, institutions must
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 35
create a culture that cares, listens, and responds to student’s voices. Fourth, is to empower and
encourage potential Latino intellectuals and research scholars, to see them for what they can be.
Fifth, is to establish a culture of recognition. Sixth, is to develop a culture of organizational
learning in matters pertaining to the support of marginalized and minority students. Seventh, is
to initiate a culture of organizational improvement and excellence.
Another model for Latino student success, was offered by Calderon (2014) in her study
on collective impact models. She suggested that institutions interested in Latino student success
should begin a process of establishing a common agenda, making sure the organization is
working in unison to accomplish greater equitable results, or to improve performance. Calderon
then recommended institutions develop a shared accountability system by utilizing data to
measure performance that could potentially increase individual and organizational capacity.
Subsequently, it is necessary to coordinate reinforcing activities by assembling or identifying
multiple teams who work in different areas, but at the same time support collectively the
organization’s goals. Calderon states it is important to promote a continual communication
strategy, more explicitly, goals need to be shared and championed. Finally, institutions should
make an effort to network with supporting organizations that could provide assistance, as
reaching some goals may require the institution to develop alliances with other organizations.
Similarly, Vega and Martinez (2012) presented a strategy to improve Latino student
success that emphasizes accountability and effective change. They introduced a Latino
scorecard that could potentially promote awareness, accountability, and organizational change.
In their research, the Latino scorecard was used at multiple four-year public institutions in Texas
to measure six different areas of effectiveness and to evaluate institutional performance in
relation to these areas. The six areas that were measured at each college included: resources,
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 36
effectiveness, diversity, equity, affordability, and access. Through their research, Vega and
Martinez were able to evaluate, measure, and highlight specific areas that needed improvement
as well as areas of present strengths. Overall, the Latino scorecard was a successful tool to
gather important data and measure progress. Student success theories, principles, models, or
strategies are part of the general research on student attrition. Retention strategies likewise
continue to be a widely research topic for institutions and practitioners who want to help Latinos
and other minorities.
New Strategies for Hispanic Student Retention
There is an array of literature on student retention, largely based on work by Tinto and
Bean. Recent studies show a different perspective on retention efforts for minorities at post-
secondary institutions. These retention strategies could be applied to reduce attrition rates for
Hispanic students (Miller & Bell, 2016; Gonzalez & Morrison, 2016; Griffin, Muniz & Smith,
2016).
Gonzalez and Morrison (2016) challenged the retention strategies of Tinto and Bean for
their lack of emphasis on context and culture. As Tinto (1975) and Bean (1985) models suggest
that social integration and efforts from institutions to engage their students are pivotal to prevent
drop out. Thus Gonzales and Morrison argued that Latinos should not have to let go of their
cultural roots in order to persist in their educational goals. Instead, they suggest institutions
should acknowledge and celebrate Hispanic students efforts to become bilingual and their
multiculturalism or ability to live in two cultures at the same time. The retention model
presented by Gonzalez and Morrison is one where the element of culture and context is
connected to improvement of Latino retention.
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 37
On a study of fourteen diversity officers working to improve retention for minorities,
Griffin, Muniz and Smith (2016) discovered how diversity officers in these schools mainly
utilized three effective strategies for minority retention. The first strategy is personalized support
by providing avenues and processes with individual support in mind. This support was usually
in aspects of social integration, encouragement, and advocacy for students of color. The second
strategy is mentoring programs, specifically student-faculty mentoring opportunities. Diversity
officers were personally involved in creating these opportunities for mentoring relationships
between students of color and faculty, assisting with communication and fostering opportunities
for cohesion. The third strategy is to build community by promoting the formation of ethnic
groups or student interest groups outside of the normal academic schedule. This focused on
organizing strategic activities like retreats, luncheons, workshops, cultural events, social events,
and recognition awards emphasizing community within the students of color.
Miller and Bell (2016) were able to integrate analytics, technology, and organizational
data in order to predict educational outcomes. These tools coupled with a communication
strategy, comprise their model of student retention. They asserted that in this age of technology,
educational institutions must have their focus and attention on gathering, analyzing, and
interpreting institutional data to help increase retention. The first step is for institutions to collect
quantitative data on student progress. Then, the data is analyzed and monitored for risk factors
in student academic progress. Lastly, specific communication procedures are implemented in
order to help identify at-risk students. According to the authors, institutions should commit and
invest in these technology and processes to be able to increase student retention. In their study,
identifying at-risk students ahead of time and communicating with them effectively had great
impact on retention.
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 38
Student success and retention strategies, constructs, models, and theories cannot by
themselves bring about real change. Proper implementation, monitoring, and improvement
efforts are needed for successful results. Institutions committed to Latino student retention and
success will need to make strategic investments in organizational change, which could translate
those principles into successful results. The following are proven retention and success
strategies and practices that work for Latino students.
Proven Institutional Practices that Positively Impact Hispanic Attrition
Leadership support. The literature highlights the influence of institutional leadership on
diversity and how it affects campus climate, admissions, and perceptions on success (Kezar,
Eckel, Contreras-McGavin & Quaye, 2008; Wilson, 2015; Griffin, Muniz & Espinosa, 2012;
Ward & Zarate, 2015; Hurtado & Ponjuan, 2005). Kezar et al., (2008) conducted a study on the
importance of college and university leaders advancing campus diversity. Utilizing the Bolman
and Deal (1991) multi-lens framework, and how it could illustrate the role of college and
university presidents or top leaders, when it comes to positive change. Kezar et al., used the
symbolic image of a web metaphor to represent top leadership in educational institutions, due to
the unique leadership elements of higher education (see Kezar, 2001). Then Kezar et al.,
presented three key findings for top leadership with six interrelated strategic actions they should
consider. The first finding was that executive leaders must understand how strategies on
diversity efforts are developed in a non-linear way. Effective strategies are implemented and
positive results achieved when leadership works collaboratively, networking, and strategizing at
different levels to implement the most effective diversity initiative at the proper time. The
second finding was that an interrelation between six web-nodes must be in effect simultaneously
by college and university leaders: (1) their involvement in human resources and strategic pro-
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 39
diversity hiring, (2) the role of top leaders as mentors to a diversity team and faculty of color, (3)
the involvement and empowerment of curriculum or pedagogies for diverse students’ success,
(4) the leadership’s support of student affairs and staff regarding strategic diversity initiatives
and programs, (5) assessing students of color, listening to them, and working to serve them
better, (6) the final is the ability of the leader to obtain support from external networks and
internal boards. The third research finding was the executive leader’s crucial role on human
resource initiatives, which demonstrated to be one of the most effective tools that could lead to
increased support for diversity efforts.
On the same note, Wilson (2015) concurs with Kezar, Eckel, Contreras-McGavin and
Quaye (2008) on the importance of executive leadership to increase support on diversity, equity,
and inclusion. However, Wilson focused his research on the key element of strategic planning to
promote and increase diversity. Suggesting that college and university leaders who are in favor
and willing to serve students of color, should work in conjunction with their teams to make
notable execution of decisions that promote diversity and could deliver better results in relation
to the retention and success of students of color.
Hurtado, Milem, Clayton-Pederson and Allen (1999) asserted that institutional leadership
plays a major role at implementing any kind of change. Their report on campus climate
confirmed that campus climate initiatives are directly connected to the future vision of the
institution and its leaders. Moreover, multiple studies confirmed how diversity efforts to
promote minority enrollment, success, and retention are more often than not, strategic initiatives
supported and implemented by college and university leadership (Hurtado, Milem, Clayton-
Pederson & Allen, 1999; Griffin, Muniz & Espinosa, 2012; Ward & Zarate, 2015; Hurtado &
Ponjuan 2005). The support of top leadership is fundamental for successful diversity efforts in
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 40
U.S. institutions. However, there are other research-based institutional influences that could
open the door to campus diversity and Hispanic persistence.
Mentoring programs. Research studies highlight the successful implementation of
student services in the form of peer and faculty mentoring, aimed at retaining, encouraging, and
supporting Latino students (Rios-Ellis, Rascón, Galvez, Inzunza-Franco, Bellamy, & Torres,
2015; Salas, Aragon, Alandejani & Timpson, 2014; Castellanos, Gloria, Besson & Harvey, 2016;
Wagner, 2015). Rios-Ellis et al. (2015) examined the development, implementation, benefits,
and success of a mentoring program for Latinos at California State University, Long Beach
(CSULB). They discovered that peer and faculty mentoring are highly effective at building
relationships and a diverse team of faculty and staff is an added element of success with Latinos.
The college Latino strategy, Mi Casa: Mi Universidad (My Home: My University) focused on
four aspects: student advising, faculty development, institutional research capacity, and creating
additional programs or services for Latino students in need of assistance. One of the peer-
mentoring program for Latinos at CSULB is called Promotores de Educación (Promoters of
Education) and was proven to be successful at helping Latino students. The program gives
opportunities to a limited number of high performing students to work with low performing
students in a peer-mentoring relationship. These two programs have been fundamental to reach
CSULB’s retention and success goals for their Hispanic students.
In addition, Castellanos, Gloria, Besson and Harvey (2016) in their work Mentoring
Matters: Racial Ethnic Minority Undergraduates’ Cultural Fit, Mentorship, and College and
Life Satisfaction, identified student perceptions of a mentoring program and how it influenced
their academic progress. They identified that Latino students who participated in the mentoring
program felt a greater sense of belonging, experienced greater satisfaction, and perceived to be
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 41
more cared and appreciated by the institution. Another important finding related to persistence,
was the notion of respect. Students felt a sense of respect by faculty members who made them
feel important as human beings. Finally, the study highlighted the vital importance of
diversifying faculty to promote role models that could identify, mentor, and inspire students of
color, through which students could perceive their mentor as an inspiration for their educational
goals. In short, institutions committed to the development of the next generations of Hispanic-
American leaders, must have a clear understanding of proven best practices that have positively
affected student’s academic progress and persistence. Yet another important aspect is
familiarizing and utilizing institutional data to learn about the current reality and set goals for
equity and improvement.
Institutional learning and equity initiatives. Equity must not be confused with equality.
Equality is associated with everyone getting equal results where as equity has to do with the idea
of promoting equal opportunities and representation in leadership, access, retention, completion,
and outcomes (Malcom-Piqueux, Bensimon, Suro, Fischer, Bartle, Loudenback & Rivas, 2012).
According to Bensimon (2005; 2007) addressing equity in outcomes for traditionally
underrepresented students is an excellent way to reduce Hispanic attrition. Suggesting there are
clear benefits in utilizing assessment and performance measurement tools to improve
organizational awareness and effectiveness. For this reason, the equity scorecard was developed
as an organizational assessment, learning, and improvement tool that could facilitate positive
institutional change for minority and underrepresented students (Bensimon, 2005; 2007; Harris
& Bensimon, 2007; Bauman, Bustillos, Bensimon, Brown II & Bartee, 2005; Robinson-
Armstrong, King, Killoran, Ward & Fissinger, 2009; Bensimon, Harris & Rueda, 2007).
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 42
Harris and Bensimon (2007) presented The equity scorecard: A collaborative approach
to assess and respond to Racial/Ethnic disparities in student outcomes, where the authors
suggested the need for educational institutions to learn from the data on student outcomes and
use it to make informed and knowledgeable decisions. The equity scorecard was designed like
other scorecards for business (Kaplan & Norton, 1992) and higher education (O’Neil, Bensimon,
Diamond, & Moore, 1999) with the aim of promoting institutional learning, organizational
change, equity in student outcomes, and accountability. The equity scorecard is an assessment
and accountability tool that helps institutions analyze their data desegregated by race and
ethnicity, assess outcome inequities, set performance goals, and become an accountability tool
for improvement.
The equity scorecard is an instrument to build internal capacity that could benefit
students of color. It begins by engaging a small team of college or university practitioners in the
change and improvement process. The team gets together specifically to create the
measurements of the scorecard in four perspectives: academic pathways, retention and
persistence, transfer readiness, and excellence. After this step, the team engages in self-
reflection by analyzing disaggregated student outcome data, looking for gaps in performance and
equity, and then completes the design of the equity scorecard with goals or indicators of success.
The final step is to share the findings with key stakeholders that could facilitate comprehensive
organizational change.
Robinson-Armstrong, King, Killoran, Ward and Fissinger (2009) reviewed the
implementation of the equity scorecard at their institution and concluded that it demonstrated
positive benefits such as increased equity outcomes in student persistence, transfer, and degree
completion. For example, their Latino retention rate increased from 60.7% in 2002 to 72.8% in
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 43
2006 and the Latino representation in the honor’s program also grew from 6.8% in 2003 to
10.66% in 2006. Thus, providing the college with performance measures and positive results for
their Latino students. Next, a review of the literature related to Clark and Estes gap analysis,
which is a framework that focuses on performance goals, knowledge, motivation, and
organizational gaps, and improving results.
Clark & Estes’ Analytical Framework to Increase Organizational Performance
The gap analysis conceptual framework can serve as a guide to evaluate current levels of
performance considering specific organizational goals. The gap(s) between current performance
and desired goals are assessed in view of three performance barriers, which are the stakeholder’s
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences (KMO) (Clark & Estes, 2008). According
to research, there are four different types of knowledge factual, conceptual, procedural, and
metacognitive (Krathwohl, 2002; Anderson et al., 2001; Meyer, 2011; Rueda, 2011). There are
elements of motivation in performance such as attribution, utility value, self-efficacy, and goal
orientation (Anderman & Anderman, 2009; Wainer, 1986; Pintrich, 2003; Meyer, 2011; Rueda,
2011; Yough & Anderman, 2006). Finally, an evaluation of organizational culture, cultural
processes, cultural settings, models, and systems such as policies, practices, and structure
(Rueda, 2011; Clark & Estes, 2008; Schein, 2010).
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
The KMO elements in Clark and Estes (2008) are the methodological framework for this
study. This framework helped analyze administrator’s knowledge and skill, motivational, and
LPC’s organizational influences that may directly impact the goal to improve and maintain its
Latino retention rate to 75% or higher by fall of 2020. The knowledge and skills section will
focused on declarative, procedural, and metacognitive aspects. Secondly, the motivation focus
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 44
included the aspects of self-efficacy, and goal orientation that could lead to increased
performance. Finally, the assumed organizational influences of cultural models, and settings
were addressed. Each of these assumed stakeholder KMO influences on performance were then
examined through the methodology discussed in Chapter Three.
Knowledge and Skill Influences
Extensive research on closing the gap in Latino educational achievement emphasizes the
importance of developing proper knowledge and skills in order to increase institutional
performance. The research is calling higher education institutions to become learning
organizations that promote balance equitable outcomes and continued improvement (Bensimon,
2005; Bensimon, Harris & Rueda, 2007; Bensimon & Harris, 2007; Rueda 2011).
According to experts in gap analysis (Clark & Estes, 2008), to close performance gaps
organizations must enter into a continual knowledge and skill development. This process will
help them learn cutting edge best practices, acquire skills to face future challenges, and increase
overall performance. Similarly, most performance problems in education could be linked to
institutional learning or knowledge gaps that ultimately affect the organization and its
stakeholders (Rueda, 2011).
The following analysis of knowledge influences at Latino Private College (LPC) could
potentially highlight elements to improve Latino student outcomes. Bauman, Bustillos,
Bensimon, Brown and Bartee (2005) asserted how valuable it is for today’s educational entities
to embrace institutional learning as a model for educational leadership. They proposed that it
would not only help colleges and universities raise awareness on current gaps, but it could also
promote a collaborative approach to finding possible solutions. This means that becoming a
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 45
learning institution is not a title, label, motto or slogan but a commitment to research,
assessment, and improvement.
Knowledge types. Researchers agree there are four different types of knowledge factual,
procedural, conceptual, and metacognitive (Krathwohl, 2002; Anderson et al., 2001; Meyer,
2011; Rueda, 2011). Factual knowledge has to do with elements such as statistics, information,
or trends organizations should know or learn. Procedural are the step-by-step processes, specific
methods, theories, strategies, and skills of how a task is accomplished. Conceptual are the
rational formation of ideas, thoughts, mental pictures, or frameworks that could lead to the
understanding of a larger learning element or system. Metacognitive are reflective learning
practices that promote internal information processes, self-awareness, cognition, and/or skills to
improve cognition. The knowledge influences that the research at LPC focused on were factual
(also called declarative), procedural, and metacognitive knowledge.
Knowledge of important factual data. Administrators at LPC may need to be
knowledgeable of facts, figures, and statistics on diversity and demographic trends that would
lead to organizational improvement. Rueda (2011) suggested that factual knowledge has to do
with information, facts, data, and details that could help the organization in its performance. In
this study, it refers to how LPC could benefit by staying up to date with important statistical data
regarding Hispanic population, the demographics around their physical location, the
demographics of their student population and the trends in education in order to prepare for the
future.
In his article, Wilson (2015) explained how important it is for higher education
institutions to pay close attention to population and diversity figures. He specifically links it to
future implications due to the demographic changes. For example, he emphasized how college
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 46
and universities are re-shaping their strategic plans, their minority inclusiveness, and their
diversity efforts due to the growing number of students of color entering freshmen year. In
recent years LPC has transitioned from being a predominantly White college to a more diverse
institution where Latino enrollment continues to increase. Factual data could help the institution
set specific goals to reduce attrition rate and increases Latino educational outcomes.
Knowledge of effective procedures. Administrators at LPC may need to be
knowledgeable of effective procedures related to strategies, programs, or services that are proven
to work for Latino students, and would lead to organizational improvement in Latino enrollment,
retention, and completion. According to Rueda (2011) procedural knowledge has to do with
specific skills, techniques, methodologies, strategies, and programs that could help achieve a
strategic performance improvement task. In a report, Santiago and Andrade (2010) suggested
that those institutions enrolling a large percentage of Latino students must be willing and eager
to learn new skills and acquire new knowledge that would better serve this particular population.
For example, being aware of the enrollment data, engaging in data driven decision making, a
strong minority support from faculty, staff, and administrators, diversity efforts from top
leadership, experimenting, innovating, adopting new strategies for improvement, and an honest
passion for student success.
Another study by Wagner (2015) explores the idea of awareness by assessing dropout
concepts that may affect Hispanic students. The research showed how Tinto’s (1975) and
Bean’s (1990) conceptual schemas, or models, for student attrition were originally used on
schools with a large percentage of underrepresented students. Wagner’s models, aspire to reduce
Hispanic attrition rates. Some of these include, a solid support/coaching/mentoring service that
promotes achievement. The organization of learning communities within the student body, for
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 47
peer-to-peer cohesiveness, and lastly, develop faculty-student mentoring relationship that would
support student success. It is through this kind of knowledge and skill development that
institutions can identify the latest nuances in educational excellence that could reduce Latino
attrition rates.
Knowledge of effective metacognition. Administrators at LPC may need to be
knowledgeable of effective metacognitive practices such as self-reflection, self-awareness,
learnability, and mindedness when it comes to reducing Hispanic attrition rates. These practices
could lead to organizational improvement. Metacognition refers to high levels of cognition,
internal self-awareness, and reflective practice of the way knowledge is processed and/or ways in
which learning can be improved or regulated (Baker, 2009; Rueda, 2011; Meyer, 2011). In her
article, Bensimon (2005) discusses at length the cognitive processes of individuals and
institutions as they evaluate equity and diversity in higher education, suggesting that to close the
gap on Latino student outcome, institutions, especially Hispanic Serving Institutions (HSI) must
develop a cognitive frame of equity-mindedness. This frame is built on a process of institutional
self-reflection on current desegregated enrollment, retention, and graduation data. This process,
if successfully achieved, could help the institution reach new levels of success for
underrepresented students.
Contreras and Contreras (2015) presented another self-reflection paradigm. They believe
that institutional knowledge and skill investment in Hispanic Serving Institutions must be
strategic and clear from the school leadership in order to produce equitable results. The
researchers were looking at the way HSI’s success is currently measured and suggested
adjustments must be made in order to better serve Latino students. Today, Hispanic Serving
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 48
Institutions are known and measured by the high enrollment of Hispanic students; Nonetheless,
Latinos continue to struggle to reach their educational goals.
Table 4 below shows the organizational mission, organizational goal, and additional
information pertaining to knowledge influences, knowledge types, and knowledge influence
assessments. The three knowledge influences chosen factual, procedural, and metacognitive.
These were assessed through face-to-face interviews and a focus group with LPC administrators.
This process was useful to gather data that revealed the current state of knowledge at LPC.
Table 4
Knowledge Influences, Types, and Assessments for Knowledge Gap Analysis
Organizational Mission
Latino Private College exists for the transformational development of students into leaders and
one of its immediate goals is to better serve its growing Latino student body.
Organizational Global Goal
By fall of 2020, Latino Private College (LPC) will improve and maintain its Latino retention rate
to 75% or higher.
Stakeholder Goal
By Spring of 2019, LPC’s administrators will embrace and understand the importance of
improving retention, success, and completion rates for minority students specifically Latinos by
engaging in a collaborative diversity initiative that could potentially help increase Latino student
retention.
Knowledge Influence
Knowledge Type
Knowledge Influence Assessment
Administrators from LPC may need
to know demographics, statistics,
figures, trends, data, and
information that could help them
make informed decisions on
diversity and Hispanic initiatives.
They may also need to know what
is already in place to support Latino
students.
Factual
(Declarative)
Interviews - Focus group and
face-to-face interviews with a
group of administrators asking
them questions about factual
knowledge regarding Latinos in
higher education, enrollment
trends, projections, and data that
could affect their institution.
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 49
Administrators from LPC may need
to know how to implement specific
student programs or services for
Latinos and incorporate Faculty
development on pedagogies to
improve Latino student success.
Procedural
Interviews - Focus group and
face-to-face interviews with a
group of administrators asking
them about their knowledge and
current implementation if any, of
successful student programs that
support Latinos and faculty
pedagogies that could improve
Latino student performance.
Administrators from LPC may need
to know how to reflect on the
institutions effectiveness on Latino
success, retention, and completion
rates. (e.g. self-reflection,
learnability, mindedness)
Metacognitive
Interviews - Focus group and
face-to-face interviews with a
group of administrators asking
them to reflect on the perceived
strengths and challenges of LPC
regarding Latino students.
Motivational Influences
Motivation theory of learning has to do with the internal processes that positively impact
an organization or individual external performance (Clark & Estes, 2008; Pintrich & Schunk,
1996). In academic settings, motivation greatly impacts learning, as students, colleges and
universities choose to invest time and effort in learning activities (Meyer, 2011). As such, active
choice, persistence, and effort are the key elements to assess the level of an institution or
individual motivation to improve their performance (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011; Schunk,
Meece & Pintrich, 2012). There is a large body of research literature on motivation and here are
some of the most significant theories that could be relevant to performance improvement at LPC;
attribution (Pintrich, 2003; Anderman & Anderman, 2006), emotions (Pekrun, 2011; Lord &
Kanfer, 2002), interest (Shraw & Lehman, 2009), self-efficacy (Pajares, 2006; Banduda, 1997),
expectancy value (Atkinson, 1957; Eccles, 2006), and goal orientation (Wigfield & Cambria,
2010; Yough & Anderman, 2006; Pintrich, 2003) to name a few.
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 50
The current literature on the role Hispanic Serving Institutions play in Latino student
retention, point to motivational influences for student success as well as for institutional learning
and improvement (Marwick, 2004; Perrakis & Hagedorn, 2010; Gooden & Martin, 2014;
Bensimon, 2007). Closing the gap on Latino performance at LPC may require a shift in
motivational influences. In the following sections a discussion about self-efficacy and goal
orientation theory takes place, as these two motivation theories have been identified as potential
motivation influencers at LPC.
Self-Efficacy theory of motivation. Self-efficacy is the level of ones confidence in the
capabilities to perform well (Bandura, 1997). Elements such as desire to succeed in a particular
area and feeling able to achieve goals are fundamental aspects of this theory (Bandura, 1991;
Pajares, 2006; Meyer, 2011). For example, this theory suggests that motivational levels of a
student, could elevate if the student believes she/he is able to fulfill the requirements of an essay,
project, course, or program. For this study, the institution would take the place of a student, the
subject or task would be to reduce Hispanic attrition rates, and self-efficacy is the motivational
theory needed to believe that something could be done in order to close the gap on Latino
educational outcomes.
Self-efficacy effects on reducing Hispanic attrition rate. Self-efficacy could positively
impact the success of learning institutions. When institutions such as LPC believe that despite
the national average on Hispanic high attrition rate, they can still help them succeed, the
institution will not give up until it has tried all avenues that could bring positive change. For
example, Rueda (2011) suggested that when institutions, administrators, professors, and students
believe that failure is not the only option, there is hope. Believing that failure can be influenced
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 51
by controllable elements such as choice, effort, investment, and persistence will make a lasting
impact.
In their research intervention at Loyola Marymount University (LMU), Bauman et al.
(2005) participated in the implementation of The Equity Scorecard to help the school level the
inequalities in educational outcomes for underrepresented minorities. After contextualizing the
framework of the scorecard, they decided to measure the data on the following four areas; first,
access by race and ethnicity; second, excellence in educational achievement/performance by race
and ethnicity; third, institutional receptivity by diversity levels; and fourth, retention by race and
ethnicity. The intervention was successful, and Bauman et al. noted that one of the reasons for
the success was their motivation and belief in diversity improvement. The entire university from
president to administrators and staff were confident in their efforts and ability to close the
inequality gap(s) at LMU.
Goal orientation theory of motivation. Research in motivational theories, describes
goals as essential elements for student success. Goal orientation has two dimensions
performance-goals and mastery-goals (Pintrich, 2003; Rueda, 2011, Meyer, 2011). The focus of
performance goals is to measure up, compete, or personal achievement. In contrast, the aim of
mastery goals is to understand, learn, and personal improvement (Pintrich, 2003). For example,
this theory suggests that the motivational levels of a student raise and they increase their efforts
when they have goals, especially if their goal is to master their subject (Meyer, 2011). For this
study, LPC would take the place of a student and the goal would be to reduce Hispanic attrition
rates. Goal orientation is the motivational theory needed to set strategic goals and initiatives that
would support and invest on Latino educational outcomes.
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 52
Goal orientation effects on reducing Hispanic attrition rate. Applying goal orientation
theory to institutional learning would most definitely promote positive improvement (Yough &
Anderman, 2006). In this case, LPC becomes the “student” who wants to master the data and the
research in order to improve and help Latinos succeed in their educational objectives.
A research conducted by Perrakis and Hagedorn (2010) showed a lack of consistency and
understanding of the goal(s) of a Hispanic Serving Institution (HSI). There was confusion on
administrators and faculty on the mission and goals of the institution. Nevertheless, their study
provided a foundation for the main purpose of those institutions that really care for their Latino
students, which is to excel at helping them complete their degrees rather than focusing mainly on
enrollment. Hispanic Serving Institutions were created to lead the way in the subject of Latino
success, to “bridge the gaps in the Latino educational process” (pp.809-810).
According to Rueda (2011) goals are objectives one wants to reach. In order for
institutions to improve, they must have improvement goals (Yough & Anderman, 2006), which
means, LPC should pursue the task of learning and improvement if indeed their goal is to master
the subject, which in this case is lowering Latino attrition rates.
Table 5 below provides us with two of the organization’s assumed motivational
influences. These influences are self-efficacy and goal orientation, which were assessed through
face-to-face interviews and a focus group with LPC administrators. This process was useful to
gather data that revealed the current motivation of administrators related to Latino student
retention at LPC.
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 53
Table 5
Motivational Influences and Assessments for Motivation Gap Analysis
Organizational Mission
Latino Private College exists for the transformational development of students into leaders and
one of its immediate goals is to better serve its growing Latino student body.
Organizational Global Goal
By fall of 2020, Latino Private College (LPC) will improve and maintain its Latino retention rate
to 75% or higher.
Stakeholder Goal
By Spring of 2019, LPC’s administrators will embrace and understand the importance of
improving retention, success, and completion rates for minority students specifically Latinos by
engaging in a collaborative diversity initiative that could potentially help increase Latino student
retention.
Assumed Motivation Influences
Motivational Influence Assessment
Self Efficacy- LPC administrators may need to
understand the importance of institutional self-
efficacy and be confident in their ability to
successfully implement tools and best practices to
close the inequality gaps and reduce Hispanic
student attrition.
Interview- Focus group and face-to-face
interviews with a group of administrators
asking them the following open-ended
questions: To what degree do you feel
confident about reducing Hispanic attrition
rates at LPC? Do you think LPC is fully able
to level student outcomes across
demographics?
Goal Orientation- LPC administrators may need
to understand the importance of mastery goal
orientation (Yough & Anderman, 2006) and how
goals are connected to increased performance,
thus goals related to Latino retention and success
could promote positive results.
Step 1) Document Analysis- Does LPC have
improvement of its Latino success, retention,
completion rate in their strategic goals,
website, etc.?
Step 2) Interview- Focus group and face-to-
face interviews with a group of
administrators asking them the following
open-ended questions: What is LPC’s current
goal(s) for their Latino students? Is there a
plan to lead and support initiatives that
would increase Latino retention, success and
outcome equity?
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 54
Organizational Influences
Clark and Estes (2008) and Rueda (2011) proposed that one of the major obstacles to
improvement and change in organizations is its own culture. Organizational culture can be
defined as who the organization really is, and not what it portrays to be. It is not the slogan or
motto, but the way things get done internally, the way things are handle, the way people behave,
what it really stands for, what values and appreciates, and what cherishes and rewards.
According to organizational culture expert, Edgar Schein (2010) culture is an abstract
concept that could be formally defined as elements of problem-solving or functioning behavior
that have been somewhat effective at producing positive results and now it is believed to be the
right way to behave or perform such task. These behavioral elements then, are consciously or
unconsciously passed to others in order for them to act, do, and behave in the same manner.
Culture can be very difficult to alter and sometimes detrimental to organizational change.
However, most authors when describing organizational culture suggest practitioners, leaders, and
managers should carefully assess organizational culture, before initializing any kind of venture
(Rueda, 2011; Bolman & Deal, 2013; Clark & Estes, 2008).
Higher education institutions such as LPC would benefit from evaluating their culture
and identifying possible organizational influences that could cause performance gaps in Latino
student outcomes. The first step into organizational change at LPC or any other institution
should be to understand and evaluate the current culture. For this process, Gallimore and
Goldenberg (2001) and Rueda (2011) presented cultural models and settings as a way to make
sense of the multi-dimensions and complexities of culture.
Theory on assessing organizational culture. Proper analysis of organizational culture
requires an understanding of cultural models and cultural settings theory. Cultural models are
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 55
those unseen elements a person or institution implies or does, such as the way they use data,
react to change, utilize resources, conduct business, or leads the organization. These models are
almost unnoticed, natural, and normal to the way day-to-day life gets done in the organization.
On the other hand, cultural settings are more visible elements, such as the places where activities
happen, official goals, strategies, meetings, classrooms, boardrooms, policies, structures,
processes, rules, regulations, faculty, staff and administrator’s offices, events, and more (Rueda,
2011; Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001).
Utilizing the lens of cultural models and settings theory, the next step is to find an
assessment model to interpret and discover the sincere nuances of a particular organization’s
culture. Schein (2010) in his book Organizational Culture and Leadership, outlines a six-
question survey to decipher or assess an organization from the outside: (1) visit and observe; (2)
identify artifacts and processes that puzzle you; (3) ask insiders why things are done that way;
(4) identify espoused values that appeal to you, and ask how they are implemented in the
organization; (5) look for inconsistencies, and ask about them; and (6) figure out from all you
have heard what deeper assumptions actually determine the behavior you observed. Schein
believes that culture, is best assessed by interacting, questioning, and digging deeper through
detail observation.
Another theory for assessing organizational culture was presented by Bolman and Deal
(2013) as the four-frame model. The theory is based on four areas or frames. First, the structural
element, in this frame the organization resembles a factory or machine. The organization’s
principal focus of attention is hierarchy, goals, policies, technology, and environment. The
leadership image is social architecture, and the organization’s challenge is to attune the structure
to the task, the technology, and the environment. Second, the human resources frame, where the
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 56
organization is compared to a family whose main focus are the needs, skills, and relationships
between members. The image of leadership is empowerment, and the organization’s challenge is
the alignment of organization and human needs. Third, the political frame, where the
organization is seen as a jungle, with its focus in power, conflict, competition, and politics. The
leadership picture is advocacy and political savvy, and the organization’s challenge is to develop
a particular agenda and recruit power base of supporters. Finally, the fourth frame is the
symbolic frame, in which the organization mirrors a carnival, temple or theater, and its primary
focus is the culture, meaning, metaphor, ritual, ceremony, stories, and heroes. The image of
leadership is inspiration, and the organization’s challenge is to instill faith, beauty, and meaning.
Assessing how the organization operates through these frames could lead to a greater
understanding of how things get done and its overall culture.
Organizational culture at LPC related to their value of diversity in order to improve
retention, success, and equity for their Latino students. Assessing the organizational culture at
LPC in relation to its value of diversity is an important cultural model to analyze. If the
institution values diversity, their goals, support, and efforts to improve retention, success, and
equity for the Latino student population would be evident and clear. Institutions speak clearly
about what they value, clear communication strategies and specific diversity goals to improve
Latino outcomes at LPC would fall into the category of cultural models. These are aspects that
promote and reaffirm the institution’s commitment to continual improvement and a sincere
desire to celebrate and welcome diversity on campus. Organizational communication strategies
and specific diversity goals must be aligned with the expected outcome and processes of the
institution in order to produce the intended results (Clark & Estes, 2008; Berger, 2014; Cogner,
1991; Gilley A. Gilley J. & Mcmillan, 2009).
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 57
Clear communication and diversity goals. Cogner (1991) illustrated the value of clear
communication and goals as the element of the future for successful leaders and organizations.
The idea of having a vision, mission, and goals is an important aspect for institutions, however,
expressing those in a powerful, continual, and persuasive way is even more important to achieve
greater results. For Cogner, transformational leaders or institutions need to become experts at
framing appealing goals by utilizing positive cultural and social values. This way the institution
or leader will be able to successfully communicate those goals with meaningful and valued
illustrations. When communicating these goals, it is important that the goals are in alignment
with the organization’s mission and beliefs, proper metaphors or analogies are being used, and
institutional stories that emphasize the value of these goals are shared. It is also necessary to
communicate these goals continually and provably repeat some of the same elements in different
ocations. Another fundamental aspect of good communication is to evaluate or assess the way
those goals are being communicated by asking for feedback, making adjustments, and showing
real emotional passion when communicating these goals. If LPC is serious about reducing
Hispanic student attrition rates, clear strategic goals must be crafted and a compelling
communication strategy should be included with elements of continual reinforcement.
Organizational culture at LPC related to their belief in the impact of institutional
awareness and improvement of Hispanic student outcomes and to support Latino student
retention and success. Assessing the organizational culture at LPC in relation to institutional
awareness, its systems to measure performance, learnability, and desire of better outcomes for
the Latino student population could be useful in the quest to reduce Latino attrition rates.
Organizational learning, assessment, and institutional awareness that leads to improvement
measures at LPC would fall into the category of cultural models because those aspects symbolize
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 58
the way of doing things within the institution. It also reveals if it really believes in improvement
and support of their Latino students, which represents a culture of excellence, willingness to
learn, and a way to keep track of positive progress. Organizational learning, awareness, and
improvement measures are important elements or factors to overcome performance gaps in
organizations, including educational institutions (Rueda, 2011; Henry, 1996; Langley, Moen,
Nolan M., Nolan W., Norman & Provost, 2009; Grubb & Badway, 2005; Schwandt &
Marquardt, 2000; Senge, 1990; Darling-Hammond, 2014).
Institutional learnability and improvement. Grubb and Badway (2005) explained how
colleges usually have two ways of conducting business, one is through external compliance and
the other way is through internal accountability. The former refers to the notion of doing what is
required by external agencies and the latter is an internal measure or assessment of progress that
builds internal capacity to produce better results. The authors presented a model to establish an
institutional awareness or accountability system that could lead to improvement. The model
included the establishment of a faculty and administrator’s committee, an institutional learning
and assessment process, and an implementation strategy. For LPC to improve Latino student
outcomes, a culture of learning, awareness, and improvement approach that could lead to
development, implementation, and, monitoring success strategies, could be fundamental.
Organizational culture at LPC related to the urgency on implementing and measuring
programs and services that could better serve its Latino students. Assessing the organizational
culture at LPC in relation to its pressing desire for institutional change prompted by the
demographic shift in its Latino student body, could be useful in the quest to reduce Latino
attrition rates. The need to cultivate a sense of urgency that could lead to strong leadership and
organizational change at LPC would fall into the category of cultural settings because it involves
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 59
developing, planning, and implementing new strategies, programs, and services that could help
improve its service to Latinos and reduce attrition. There is literature on organizational change
that points to the discovery of new and more adequate ways to begin change processes, reach
goals, close gaps, update systems, increase capacity and more (Kezar, 2001; Schein, 2010; Clark
& Estes, 2008; Moran & Brightman, 2000; Schneider, Brief & Guzzo, 1996; Kotter, 2007).
Organizational change and leadership. Kezar’s (2001) research in organizational change
was academically contextualized to post-secondary educational institutions. In her work, she
identified thirteen images of organizational culture which can be helpful to understand how
educational institutions function and why: (1) interdependent organizations, (2) relatively
independent of environment, (3) unique culture of the academy, (4) institutional status, (5)
values-driven, (6) multiple power and authority structures, (7) loosely coupled system, (8)
organized anarchical decision-making, (9) professional and administrative values, (10) shared
governance, (11) employee commitment and tenure, (12) goal ambiguity, and (13) image and
success.
After explaining these images, she proceeded to present six models of organizational
change for education. First, the evolutionary model, which includes elements such as adaptive
university structures, differentiation and accretion, loose coupling, homeostasis, strategic
planning, competing forces, differential impact of environmental factors, resource dependency
and intentional transformation, moderating forces to the external environment, and responsive
and entrepreneurial institutions. Second, the teleological model, with elements like mission and
objectives, vision, strategic planning, focus on leadership, incentives, interrelationship between
change strategies, narrower efficiency and cost emphasis, limited success in facilitating change.
Third, the life cycle model, which has to do with an emphasis on the current life cycle of the
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 60
organization and their willingness and readiness for change. Fourth, the dialectical model, with
factors like interest groups and power, persuasion and influence, coalition-building, informal
processes, persistence, mediation, and preventing action. Fifth, the social cognition model,
which include single-loop and double-loop learning, mental models, constructed interactions,
learning organizations, metaphors and language, sensemaking, image, and institutional
isomorphism, imitation, and emulation. And lastly, the cultural models, which emphasize
institutional history and traditions, symbolism, institutional culture, deep transformation and
paradigm shifts, irrationality and ambiguity, and a culture of change. A sense of urgency that
could lead to organizational change and strong leadership to focus on improving LPC’s programs
and services to Latino students could be essential to improve Latino student outcomes at LPC.
Understanding the present culture and identifying the right elements that are needed to begin a
transformational change process is something to consider for LPC to be more effective in serving
its students needs.
Table 6 below provides us with three of the assumed organizational influences. These
influences are related to the organization’s cultural models and settings, which were assessed
through face-to-face interviews and a focus group with LPC administrators. This process was
useful to gather data that gave insight into LPC’s organizational culture.
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 61
Table 6
Organizational Influences and Assessments for Organizational Gap Analysis
Organizational Mission
Latino Private College exists for the transformational development of students into leaders and
one of its immediate goals is to better serve its growing Latino student body.
Organizational Global Goal
By fall of 2020, Latino Private College (LPC) will improve and maintain its Latino retention rate
to 75% or higher.
Stakeholder Goal
By Spring of 2019, LPC’s administrators will embrace and understand the importance of
improving retention, success, and completion rates for minority students specifically Latinos by
engaging in a collaborative diversity initiative that could potentially help increase Latino student
retention.
Assumed Organizational Influences Organizational Influence Assessment
Cultural Models- LPC may need to value
diversity in order to improve retention,
success, and equity for their Latino students.
Document Analysis:
Does LPC have goals related to its Latino
students in their strategic goals brochure, website,
etc.
Interviews and Focus group:
Interviews and a focus group with a group of
administrators asking them questions related to
the institution’s goals and communication to
improve retention, success, and equity for their
Latino students.
Cultural Models- LPC may need to believe
in the impact of institutional awareness and
improvement to positively affect Hispanic
student outcomes and to support Latino
student retention and success.
Interviews and Focus group:
Interviews and a focus group with a group of
administrators asking them questions related to
current improvement measures or accountability
systems that would improve Latino outcomes.
Cultural Settings- LPC may need to have a
sense of urgency that could lead them to
develop, implement, and monitor new
programs and services that could better
serve its Latino students.
Interviews and Focus group:
Interviews and a focus group with a group of
administrators asking them questions related to
institutional change that could improve Latino
retention and success.
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 62
Conclusion
The study strategically evaluated aspects of knowledge and skill, motivation, and
organization that could be barriers to better performance and limit institutional improvement at
Latino Private College (LPC). The organizational goal established for this study had to do with
lowering Latino student attrition by increasing retention, success, and equity in outcomes. The
desire was to increase and maintain its Latino retention rate to 75% or higher by fall of 2020.
The review of the general literature on the subject brought light into different aspects such as
important information regarding Hispanics trends in higher education (NCES, 2016; Santiago &
Andrade, 2010), research-based strategies to reduce Hispanic attrition (Gonzalez & Morrison,
2016; Griffin, Muniz & Smith, 2016), and research-proven institutional practices that directly
affect Latino persistence (Kezar et al., 2008; Hurtado & Ponjuan, 2005; Bensimon, 2005; 2007;
Harris & Bensimon, 2007).
Following or after the general literature, the review shifted to the Clark and Estes (2008)
gap analysis of knowledge and skills, motivational, and organizational influences. The literature
relevant to knowledge and skills showed the need for factual, procedural, and metacognitive
knowledge in order for LPC to improve Latino student attrition (Krathwolh, 2002; Rueda, 2011;
Wagner, 2015; Bensimon, 2005), the literature relevant to motivational influences demonstrated
the need for institutional self-efficacy and goal orientation (Bandura, 1991; 1997; Meyer, 2011;
Bensimon, 2007; Yough & Anderman, 2006), and lastly, the literature relevant to organizational
factors highlighted the need for assessing organizational models and settings at LPC like, their
goals or lack there of regarding Latino support and success, their culture related to organizational
change and leadership, and their culture as it pertains to institutional awareness, performance
measures, learnability, and improvement (Schein, 2010; Bolman & Deal, 2013; Clark & Estes,
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 63
2008; Darling-Hammond, 2014; Kezar, 2001). These were the assumed KMO influences or
needs the research assessed in order to either prove or disprove their validity. The KMO
validation process was done by analyzing the data collected from LPC administrators and was
presented in the findings sections (see chapter four). The following section is Chapter Three, the
methodology chapter. It contains the research approach, sampling strategy, conceptual
framework, data gathering process, and analysis framework that were used for the study.
Additionally, it includes the needed tools used to validate the assumed KMO influences that
needed to be addressed in order to increase Hispanic student retention at LPC.
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 64
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
In this chapter I will provide a brief review of the purpose and the guiding questions of
the study. Then I will present a detailed explanation of the conceptual framework chosen for the
research and how it connects to KMO influences at LPC. After that, there will be a description
of the methodological approach, the sampling criteria and rationale that were selected, followed
by the tools that were used for data collection. The final section includes other important
elements such as data analysis, credibility and trustworthiness, ethics, and lastly, limitations and
delimitations.
This study aimed to trigger rethinking and re-evaluating in the subject of Hispanic
student attrition in the United States. I conducted an evaluation study at a small college that
went through a very significant demographic change in the past few decades, which included
high enrollment numbers of Latinos. This institution finally became a Hispanic Serving
Institution a couple of years ago, which means that more than 25% of their enrollment is of
Latino heritage. However, in their data there is an evident gap in Latino student performance
compared to other students. Utilizing Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis, I focused on
knowledge, motivation and organizational influences related to achieving the organizational
goal. LPC’s goal is to improve and maintain its Latino retention rate to 75% or higher by fall of
2020.
These were the guiding questions for the study:
1. What is the knowledge and motivation of administrators at LPC that contribute to the
goal of raising and maintaining the retention rate of Latinos at 75% or higher by fall
of 2020?
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 65
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context, and the
administrator’s knowledge and motivation about the institution’s culture, systems,
and programs that are geared towards Latino success?
3. What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources for improving and maintaining the retention
rates of Latino students at 75% or higher by the fall of 2020?
Conceptual Framework: Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation and the
Organizational Context
A conceptual framework provides a roadmap or a picture per se, of the direction and
understanding of the research study. According to Maxwell (2013), a conceptual framework is
an illustration of the different concepts, theories, and assumptions that will drive and support a
research. This study intended to evaluate possible knowledge, motivation, and organizational
(KMO) influences that could potentially cause low retention and high Hispanic attrition at LPC.
These KMO influences are part of a comprehensive gap analysis assessment as presented by
Clark and Estes (2008). The aim of this research was not only to identify potential influences,
but through inquiry of the general literature on the subject and data collection, major themes and
connections be drawn that could validate or deny the assumed KMO influences. Thus making
Clark and Estes (2008) KMO analytic framework the centerpiece of the study.
The researcher focused on administrators from within LPC to identify and assess factual
knowledge (statistics, new trends, future trends on Latino students); procedural knowledge (best
practices and strategies for Latino success); and metacognitive knowledge (assessment,
evaluation, and improvement). Furthermore, the study aimed and evaluated possible
motivational influences (self-efficacy and goal orientation) and analyzed LPC’s Organizational
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 66
culture through cultural models (change, improvement, and institutional awareness) and cultural
settings (retention, success, and equity goals), in order to validate or deny the assumed KMO
influences.
The following graph (Figure 3) is a visual representation of the research’s conceptual
framework and it shows how the gap analysis will interact at Latino Private College (LPC);
Figure 3. Clark and Estes (2008) KMO Analytic Framework at LPC
Applying KMO Analytic Framework at LPC
Applying the KMO Framework to LPC
The goal of Latino Private College was to raise and maintain the retention rate of Latinos
at 75% or higher by fall of 2020. In order to reach this goal, there are three main components
Organizational Goal: By spring of 2020, Latino Private College (LPC) will raise the
retention rate of Latinos to 75% or higher.
Administrators
- Knowledge of demographic trends in higher
education.
- Knowledge of best practices and strategies
related to Hispanic student retention.
- Knowledge of reflective and rethinking models
regarding Hispanic attrition.
- Self-efficacy related to Latino student retention
and success.
- Goal orientation motivation as it pertains to
increasing Latino retention and reducing attrition.
Organizational Influences- Cultural Settings and Models
- Institutional aim related to retention, success, and equity.
- Institutional aim related to institutional awareness and improvement.
- Institutional aim related to urgency, change, and adjustments
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 67
that were analyzed: administrator’s assumed knowledge and skill influences, motivational
influences, and lastly LPC’s assumed organizational influences.
Assumed knowledge and skill influences. For the purposes of this study, the focus was
placed on three knowledge types. First, the administrator’s factual knowledge of demographic
trends in post-secondary education. The idea was to understand if they had the knowledge and
skill needed for sudden demographic shifts or new educational trends in the United States.
Latino Private College had been undergoing a student body demographic shift and it seemed
important that it be up to date with the current stance and information related to these changes.
The second assumed knowledge influence was administrator’s procedural knowledge regarding
best practices or strategies that could potentially reduce Hispanic student attrition. Have they
been trained? Do they know what kind of research-proven practices or retention strategies work
best or are most effective with Latino students? Lastly, I wanted to evaluate administrator’s
metacognitive knowledge as it relates to rethinking and reflecting on possible improvements or
solutions to lower Latino attrition rate. Have they been reflecting during planning meetings
about this reality? Have they been thinking about this issue?
Assumed Motivational Influences. The two motivation theories that were analyzed
through this study were self-efficacy and goal orientation. The self-efficacy level LPC
administrators had in relation to their confidence in helping underrepresented students succeed
and close the achievement gap. How confident are they in their efforts to help Latino students
achieve their goals? The second assumed motivational cause was LPC’s goal orientation as it
relates to Hispanics. Their commitments to support, promote, and establish goals that could lead
Latino persistence and success. Do they demonstrate positive support and leadership in efforts to
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 68
increase Hispanic retention, success, and outcome equity? What are their goals related to
diversity and Latino success?
Assumed Organizational Influences. Organizational culture plays an important role in
the change process, assessing cultural settings and models is important if the college or
university wants to understand its current realities as it pertains to their quality and excellence to
serve a diverse student population and specifically their Latino students. Through the study I
was able gather data to evaluate LPC’s institutional perceptions on retention, success, and equity
measures. Additionally, the research evaluated the institution’s willingness to improve and be
aware of needs for change. Organizational systems that could help LPC further pursue
excellence in serving Latino students were also assessed. Finally, research included the
institutional culture when it comes to being ready for change and adjustments, such as the level
of urgency to develop, implement, and monitor appropriate retention strategies for a diverse
demographic. How is LPC promoting healthy diversity and equity on campus? Are they offering
additional student support targeted for Latinos and other ethnicities?
Methodological Approach
For the purpose of this study a qualitative case study approach with an emphasis on
evaluation has been chosen. According to Merriam (2009) in qualitative case studies, the
researcher must engage in a two-stage sampling process. First, the case to be studied must be
chosen (e.g. organization, group) and then, additional sampling must be done for those
participating in the study.
The data was gathered at Latino Private College (LPC). Latino Private College is a small
private college located in Southern California. In the last twenty years, LPC went from being a
predominantly White institution to become a certified Hispanic Serving Institution with more
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 69
than 25% Latino enrollment in 2014. Purposeful selection (Creswell, 2014) and Typical-case
sampling (LeCompte & Preissle, 1993; Patton, 1987; 1990; Johnson & Christensen, 2015) were
utilized at the time of selection of this site for the case study.
In qualitative research, one of the most reliable sampling strategies is purposive
sampling. This strategy has been named differently by other authors, such as, criterion-based
selection (LeCompte & Preissle, 1993), and purposeful sampling (Patton, 1987; 1990).
However, for this study, I chose to use purposive sampling (Merriam, 2009; Merriam & Tisdell,
2016; Johnson & Christensen, 2015), and it refers to the process of constructing a set of
exclusive characteristics for the sample participants of the study. These participants must be
purposeful in nature because of key information they may bring to the research. For these
reasons, the study utilized criterion based purposive sampling to select the site and the
participants.
Participating Stakeholders
Administrators of Latino Private College (LPC) were the participating stakeholders of
focus for the study. Administrators were chosen because of their unique position within the
institution and their ability to promote organizational change (Adserias, Charleston & Jackson,
2017; Kezar, Eckel, Contreras-McGavin & Quaye, 2008). For this research in particular, the
sample participants could include full time staff administrators and/or faculty who hold
administrative responsibilities such as, membership in committees or taskforces that are directly
related to student support, retention initiatives, success, or multicultural programs and services.
Pseudonyms were used to protect identity and new names were chosen. A key for names was
created for the record and securely stored with all data collection items.
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 70
The data collection methods used were one focus group of 8 participants and 6 individual
interviews for a total 14 administrators, which was a good sample due to the size of the college.
The reason these individuals were selected was because the researcher believes the data that was
to be gathered from interviewing them, would potentially be information rich and pertinent to the
study of KMO influences. According to the research literature, interviews are the most
appropriate for qualitative studies due to its interpretative essence (Merriam, 2009). Qualitative
studies are more interested on the information of the participants, the way they see or understand
their place in the environment they live in (Merriam and Tisdell, 2016). These qualitative data
gathering tools helped me evaluate and interpret how things work and why they work in that
particular way (Merriam, 2009).
Focus Group Sampling Criteria and Rationale at LPC
Criterion one. Focus group participants must be higher education administrators.
Criterion two. Focus group participants must be part or full-time employees at LPC
Criterion three. Focus group participants could be faculty or staff who hold
administrative responsibilities and are directly involved in student support, retention, success, or
multicultural programs.
Focus group sampling strategy and rationale at LPC. Purposive homogeneous sampling
selection (LeCompte & Preissle, 1993; Patton, 1987; 1990; Johnson & Christensen, 2015) was
used to select participants for the focus group sessions. The size of the group will be no less than
5 and no more than 8 individuals (8 participated) who meet the sampling criteria, smaller groups
are recommended for better depth in the responses (Krueger & Casey, 2009). The group may
include part time or full-time employees of LPC such as faculty who hold administrative
responsibilities, administrators, and or staff who are directly involved in student support,
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 71
retention, success, or multicultural programs. The group could also include members of
committees or taskforces dedicated to retention or student success initiatives. This group could
be fundamental for the research study because the information they possess may help validate or
deny the knowledge and skill, motivational, and organizational influences presented in the
conceptual framework. More specifically, the focus group may bring light to the knowledge and
skill and motivational aspects (Clark & Estes, 2008), as the group engages in robust discussions
to evaluate data and reflect on Hispanic attrition at LPC.
Individual Interviews Sampling Criteria and Rationale at LPC
Criterion one. Interview participants must be present administrators at LPC.
Criterion two. Interview participants must be high influence administrators such as
college president, Vice Presidents, Senior Directors, Deans or other administrators who play an
important role in student retention and success at LPC.
Criterion three. Interview participants are current employees who work full-time at
LPC.
Individual interviews sampling strategy and rationale at LPC. Initially the case study
was going to be based on two focus group sessions. However, due to the emergent design of
qualitative studies, after careful consideration, the researcher decided to add six individual
interviews. The addition of these interviews with influential individuals was important to the
depth of information and validity of the study. These individuals were able to provide
information that helped assess specific KMO influences within the leadership of LPC.
Purposive maximum variation strategy (Johnson & Christensen, 2015) was utilized for the
sampling. The selection criteria for these participants required they be high influence
administrators such as the college President, Vice Presidents, Senior Directors, Deans or other
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 72
administrators who played an important role in student retention and success at LPC. These
face-to-face interviews took place before and after the focus group was done. Appointments
were made via email and inform consent was also sent and received electronically. These
interviews were important to the study due to the extra element of inquiry they added to the
research. These participants were information rich individuals (Merriam, 2009) that provided
critical information related to past, present, and future of LPC related to Hispanic students as
well as aspects of organizational culture. The information from these interviews was
fundamental for the validation process of KMO influences, because of their close experience
with the demographic change at LPC and their knowledge of internal systems and processes the
information was valuable for KMO analysis.
Qualitative Data Collection and Instrumentation
A qualitative methodological approach has been chosen for the research in the form of a
single case study at LPC (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Qualitative research
derives from concepts and practices of anthropologists and sociologists, meaning that a
qualitative researcher is inclined to go into the place of study to explore, observe, and/or
experience, current realities, culture and context (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; McEwan &
McEwan, 2003). This is sometimes referred to as “multi-dimensional” in nature and a kind of
“psychological immersion” as the researcher conducts observations, interviews, and/or focus
groups (Brewerton & Millward, 2001, p.12). Moreover, the criteria for choosing this method
was a desire to understand the current organizational context, the culture, and the internal
cognitive processes of top leadership at LPC (Creswell, 2014). Understanding how LPC’s
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences played a part in their interaction with the
Hispanic student population. Additionally, interpreting administrator’s thinking and feelings
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 73
regarding helping underrepresented students succeed and their views on supporting those
students of low socio-economics, not only enroll in college, but more importantly succeed at
completing their degrees.
Interviews
This qualitative study gathered data from 6 individual interviews and one focus group
interaction. The individual interviews and the focus group were formal in nature because of the
kind of participants selected for the study (as presented by Krueger & Casey, 2009). Six college
administrators were interviewed face-to-face and a group of 8 executive and middle-level
administrators were part of a focus group held at LPC.
The interviews and the focus group were conducted as semi-structured interviews, which
according to Merriam and Tisdell (2016), are more flexible in terms of the questions but at the
same time there is a list of previously prepared questions or what is called a protocol that needs
to be done. The researcher developed and utilized two interview protocols, one for the
individual interviews (APPENDIX A) and another similar but shorter version for the focus group
(APPENDIX B). The focus group protocol was more descriptive and experiential than the one
for the interview, thus the data collected was different. The protocols also followed the
conceptual framework of KMO influences presented in this chapter. For this reason, most of the
questions were aimed at assessing administrator’s knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences related to Latino student attrition at LPC. For example; question number two of the
one-on-one interview protocol, “What might be some of the strengths and weaknesses regarding
Hispanic student services at LPC?” was directly connected to the study’s conceptual framework
knowledge influences. Another example from the focus group protocol could be question
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 74
number four, “What does helping underrepresented students succeed means to LPC?” which was
directly addressing LPC’s motivational influences in the conceptual framework.
Documents
Data gathering through documents is one of the three most common sources in qualitative
research (Maxwell, 2013). It was important for this research to gather public and private records
such as the college’s demographic and retention data. The researcher also originally planned to
gather document and visual materials (Creswell, 2014) for example, information from the
Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) of the United States Department of
Education. Other sources of documents that were investigated were LPC’s public website, other
printed material, important documents and committee minutes that were relevant to the study.
Some of the documents that were gathered came from the organization’s website, and also by
email. During interviews when valuable information was presented by citing organizational
documents, I directly asked participants if they could forward me a copy of that document. This
proved to be an effective tool to gather relevant documents. These documents helped in the
validation process of KMO influences, documents also helped triangulate administrator’s
responses during interviews and the focus group regarding organizational influences. These data
was analyzed and presented during the findings section in Chapter Four.
Data Analysis
Bogdan and Biklen (2007) define data analysis as “the process of systematically
searching and arranging the interview transcripts, field notes, and other materials that you
accumulate to enable you to come up with findings” (p.159). They believe this process includes
interpretation and analysis the first one has to do with looking at the data through the lens of the
study’s literature review, concepts, and theories in order to organize ideas according to the study,
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 75
either in a positive or negative way. The latter is related to the structured arrangement of data,
the coding of the data, the emergence of patterns and themes.
For this research data analysis followed the previously mentioned principles. Data
analysis began during data collection, as I would write analytic memos after each interview.
According to Miles, Huberman, and Saldaña (2014) analytic memos are important tools for
qualitative researchers. They help as a reflective mechanism to make sense of data, make
connections to the study, and keep account of ethical or validity concerns. Through this process,
I documented my thoughts, concerns, and initial analysis and conclusions about the data in
relation to my conceptual framework and research questions. Once I left the field, interviews
were transcribed and then coded in two phases:
Open and Axial Coding
In the first phase of analysis, I used open and analytic coding (Corbin & Strauss, 2008;
Corbin & Strauss, 2015; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) looking for empirical codes and applying
priori codes from the conceptual framework. I read through the entire transcript with careful
detail, annotating in the margins any questions, connections between the transcripts, connections
to the framework or the literature review, important ideas, similarities, differences, in vivo codes,
etc. During this phase I developed a codebook, where I wrote down all open codes and
conceptual codes from different data sources.
Identifying and Selecting Themes
In the second phase of data analysis, utilizing the code-book and the analysis in phase-
one, I began to develop categories to group data from different sources. I identified pattern
codes and themes that emerge in relation to the conceptual framework and study questions
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p.203). I also analyzed the documents for evidence consistent with
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 76
the concepts in the conceptual framework. This phase was to organize the data in a way that
made sense and was consistent with the quality and validity of the research. The conceptual a
priori framework of knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences was used as the lens
to which information was interpreted. Then it began to take form and findings were ready to be
presented.
Presenting the findings
For the findings section, my aim was to present data using a “thematic approach”
(Glesne, 2011) and focus on making connections, validating, and invalidating a priori elements
within the study’s conceptual framework. Before presenting my findings, my goal was to
properly analyze all the data from face-to-face interviews, the focus group, and the other
collected documents. For purposes of “internal validity” (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016), the writing
of the findings section is presented with strong evidence from raw data of interviews, focus
group, and documents. The codes and themes on the findings section, surfaced during data
analysis by making connections between data, and identifying patterns, commonalities, and
differences (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007).
Credibility and Trustworthiness
According to Maxwell (2013) the two major barriers to valid qualitative research are the
researcher bias and participant reactivity. In other words, the background, frame of mind, and
ideas of the researcher about the topic of study and the way participants and their organization
react to the presence of the researcher and the influence of the research. It is of outmost
importance to reduce these two threats in order to increase the study’s credibility and
trustworthiness.
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 77
Some of the possible researcher bias was the fact that the researcher is a Hispanic-
American who grew up in a low socio-economic condition and is passionate about helping these
students succeed. However, the researcher was conscious of this and tried to maximize his
awareness of possible bias in order to reduce it by utilizing reflective memos. In other words,
bias was reduced and reflected upon by keeping a log and writing down personal reflections
memos about the choices and decisions that were being made during the data collection and data
analysis (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). On the other hand, it is not possible to completely control
the reactivity of participants or their organizations, but it is necessary to understand this element
and possibly counter act its effects. The following are some of the strategies that were
implemented to increase credibility and trustworthiness, triangulation and professional check
(Maxwell, 2013; Creswell, 2014).
First, triangulation was utilized, which is the term used to describe the use of more than
two sources of data collection. The data was gathered through the six individual interviews, one
focus group, and documents. The researcher was careful not to select data that reflected his ideas
about the study and relied on raw data that was collected as the source of credible information.
Then, the research was carefully evaluated and presented to a faculty committee at the University
of Southern California and was subject to strict objectivity and compliance to University
standards for proper research.
Ethics
A major role of the researcher was to clearly articulate how ethical considerations such as
confidentiality, informed consent, access, purpose, etc., are necessary for sound academic
research and the importance of conducting the research with these consideration in mind
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). For this study, the researcher conducted an evaluation study
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 78
utilizing Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis of knowledge, motivation and organizational
causes in organizational performance as it relates to Hispanic student attrition at Latino Private
College (LPC). The research involved gathering and recording data from a focus group, six
face-to-face interviews, and document analysis.
Some ethical considerations included the safety and security of those who willingly
participated in the study. Rubin and Rubin (2012) suggested that an element of respect for those
being interviewed must be present if the researcher is to conduct him or herself ethically. This
process begins by utilizing inform consent, which is a written authorization which comes with an
explanation of the study, making sure the participants have a clear understanding of the nature
and purpose of the research, reassuring confidentiality, their authority to leave the interview with
no repercussions just as they voluntarily joined and if the information they provide could
potentially impact their careers (Krueger & Casey, 2009). I protected the confidentiality in my
study by keeping those involved in the research anonymous, protecting the recorded data by
securely storing it and committing to destroying it three years after the study is published.
Additionally, during the reporting of findings and presentation of recommendations, I used
pseudonyms for their name and their position.
Other aspects related to ethics have to do with the researcher and the relationship of the
researcher to the organization and those being interviewed (Merriam, 2009). The researcher was
a graduate student of Hispanic heritage. Nevertheless, the study must be trustworthy and
objective, the researcher must work towards an ethical understanding of how he sees the world
and how LPC administrators see the world regarding knowledge, motivation, and organizational
aspects that affect Latino student retention, outcome equity, and success. This is because to
some degree, the researcher comes as a friend (Glesne, 2011) and this can also bring ethical
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 79
dilemmas. In this case, because I came as a friend, I had to make sure the study reflected
professionalism and was based on the literature and the data and not on my own opinion. I could
also had utilized my friendship as a way of obtaining rich relevant data that could help validate
or deny the KMO influences. The research was aimed at providing solutions to problems of
practice related to Hispanic students, which was something LPC could find helpful to address.
As part of the ethics of this study, the research underwent considerations through USC’s
Institutional Review Board (IBR). A legal entity ordained by the federal government to make
sure research is conducted with propriety and in an ethical manner (Rubin & Rubin, 2012). The
participants were asked to participate voluntarily and were walked through informed consent
procedures and explanations (APPENDIX E). No information was used to harm or affect
participants; the research was conducted in an objective nature with maximum respect of the
organization and its stakeholders. The interviews focused on understanding KMO influences at
LPC through the lenses of those participating. However, information such as the recordings and
transcriptions were kept secure in the researcher’s computer, which has a password that no one
else knows. Their names were kept anonymous through the use of pseudonyms and no use of
titles of positions was presented. It was the intention of the researcher to bring no harm to the
participants or the institution. The research was done solely to assess performance, set
organizational goals, identify gaps, validate KMO influences, make recommendations, and
present possible best practices or solutions to increase performance and reach the organization’s
Hispanic retention goal.
Limitations and Delimitations
One of the limitations of the study was the limited time and resources to assess and
evaluate all stakeholders involved in the problem of practice. For example: the researcher did
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 80
not engage with the Latino students or any other student at LPC. Incorporating students’
perceptions could have given the research a deeper understanding of their view of KMO
influences and also serve as a more elevated form of triangulation by verifying data between
stakeholders. Another stakeholder that would have been interesting to include was faculty with
no administrative responsibility. These stakeholders at LPC are also important and could have
given the study an understanding of the current strategies and pedagogies being used that could
affect positively or negatively Latino students and utilize the data to find common themes. One
additional limitation of the study was the difficulty to generalize the findings. Even though the
problem of practice is real and most information on the literature review could potentially be
generalizable, the actual findings may only be appropriate to LPC or to a similar college with
identical background and stature.
The major delimitations of this study were the choosing of administrators as the
stakeholder of focus and the methodology and instrumentation that was chosen. A qualitative
case study was selected for the research because of a belief in being purposeful and useful to
gather rich qualitative information. At the beginning of the doctoral program we were presented
with this concept of a dissertation in practice. If we want to change the world we may need to
take a macro problem of practice and begin by affecting the micro by influencing the local
institutions. It seemed appropriate to the researcher to conduct a micro evaluation study that
could potentially influence the subject. Furthermore, administrators were chosen because as
previously mentioned, administrators can have a great influence in the change processes of
higher education institutions. Administrators are also information rich regarding retention
processes, diversity initiatives, and institutional performance. They hold information that many
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 81
students may not be able to provide. Overall, the research was solid and was treated with
outmost respect and in an ethical manner.
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 82
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
This study evaluated undergraduate Hispanic student attrition at a private college in the
United States. The case study of Latino Private College (LPC) included interviews with six
influential administrators, a focus group of eight, and document review. Driven by the gap
analysis framework (Clark and Estes), the stakeholder knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences were assessed in relation to LPC’s goal of improving the retention rate
of Latino students to 75% or higher by fall of 2020.
This was filtered by three guiding questions for the study;
1. What is the knowledge and motivation of administrators at LPC that contribute to the
goal of raising and maintaining the retention rate of Latinos at 75% or higher by fall
of 2020?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context, and the
administrator’s knowledge and motivation about the institution’s culture, systems,
and programs that are geared towards Latino success?
3. What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources for improving and maintaining the retention
rate of Latino students at 75% or higher by the fall of 2020?
The first guiding question was addressed by the knowledge and motivation findings and
the second one by the organizational findings, in conjunction with the prior acknowledgment of
knowledge and motivation findings. The third guiding question is answered in Chapter Five,
which specifically focuses on the recommendations for organizational practice and the potential
solution. This Chapter focuses on presenting the findings that emerged after data collection and
analysis.
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 83
Participating Stakeholders
The data collection was fundamental to the credibility of the study. Communication with
the institution took place about one year before actual data collection. There were six interviews
with participating stakeholders and one focus group of eight participants with a mix of mid-level
and executive administrators, which gave the study a robust perspective and understanding of
LPC. Executive administrators in this particular study are those at the top level of the
organization, Latino Private College has a team called the Administrative Council, which
includes the president, two vice presidents, one dean. The demographics of the group is depicted
in Table 7, which shows a group predominantly of top executives, with a slightly greater male
representation, and mostly white. There was no variation between responses from the different
level of administrators besides that executives seemed to be more aware of the big picture, or the
college as a whole and mid-level were more focused on their own areas of expertise. However,
the information will be presented for all participants as a whole because as a group they all
seemed to be informed on the current Hispanic realities of the college.
Table 7
Demographics of participating stakeholders
The gender and demographics of the participants are somewhat representative of the
overall faculty representation. The faculty and administrators at Latino Private College are
mostly White, however, gender has been more equitable in recent years and more women are in
leadership positions. Moreover, part of the findings addresses the recent shift in Hispanic faculty
Gender Ethnicity Level
Male
64%
Female
36%
White
86%
Hispanic
14%
Executive
71%
Mid-level
29%
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 84
and leadership representation, which is something they are working on. The names of the
administrators have been changed and switched for pseudonyms, new names were chosen and a
participant’s name key was made for my personal record. The results section will be presented
with careful reflection upon the participant’s anonymity. The following are the official findings
the research produced.
Findings
The findings were directly drawn from the data that was collected and analyzed.
Including the six individual interviews, one focus group, and documents such as the minutes of
the enrollment and retention and student success committee (ERSS), the 2014 comprehensive
retention plan, and a more extensive analysis at the end of the 2015 western association of
schools and colleges (WASC) letter to LPC. From these data, patterns, commonalities, and
emergent elements were coded and most of the coding was done following the conceptual
framework, which was specifically tied to the research’s questions. In the following sections, I
will first explain how the transcripts and documents were processed through the lens of Clark
and Estes KMO assumptions. Latino Private College administrators were interviewed to
evaluate knowledge, motivation, and organizational assumptions. In the area of knowledge
administrators were asked about factual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge. In
motivational aspects, administrators answer questions related to their confidence or self-efficacy
and goal orientation. Furthermore, organizational assumptions were focused on LPC’s
organizational culture. And two additional organizational themes surfaced during the interviews
and are added to the emergent themes section. At the end of the chapter conclusions and
implications are discussed. The following are the KMO findings that emerged from the analysis
of the data.
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 85
Knowledge Assumptions
Knowledge findings are important to the study because they bring light to the first
research question, which specifically asks for the knowledge of administrators that contribute to
reaching the proposed organizational goal. According to Clark and Estes (2008), increasing or
enhancing knowledge aspects could directly impact organizational performance because
individuals must have the necessary knowledge and skill in order to know how to reach goals.
They further suggest that increasing knowledge will be beneficial to the organization’s future, as
the future may have new challenges that could require problem-solving skills in specific areas.
The knowledge section of the research is organized by the following themes, (1) Hispanic trends
in higher education, (2) retention strategies for Latinos, and (3) reflective practice. The data is
presented and organized around these themes to capture the knowledge factors influencing the
organizational goal.
Hispanic Trends in Higher Education
The first knowledge finding was that most administrators at LPC were very
knowledgeable about demographic shifts in higher education in the United States. During the
interviews, 9 of the 14 administrators made comments regarding the demographic shift in
population and the reflection in college enrollment. Rueda (2011) believes factual knowledge
needed to solve educational problems has to do with information, facts, data, and details that
could help the organization improve its performance. LPC administrators did know specific
facts about Hispanics and how that impacts the institution.
When asked about Latino demographic trends in higher education in relation to the
demographic shift in enrollment at LPC, Susan said “…the big data would suggest that’s the only
student population that is growing right now… other populations are shrinking that population is
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 86
growing it can certainly help we are so close to LA.” Kim also noted “a much larger percentage
of our students started to come from local areas, … from what I read in Higher Ed that… It just
reflects the ethnicity of southern California.” David also said, “we have a demographic shift in
the state of California, increase of non-white students enrolling in college…” These are some
examples but most participants spoke about the Hispanic population growth in Los Angeles and
how that trend has been influencing LPC’s enrollment demographics for the past decade. Some
even said how this shifted them into a Hispanic Serving Institution in 2014 and even mentioned
the 2016/2017 Hispanic enrollment numbers had surpassed 50% of the total student body.
Specific Retention Strategies for Latinos
The second knowledge finding was that LPC administrators were knowledgeable of
general retention strategies but had limited knowledge of strategic retention strategies that are
specifically designed for Hispanic students. In the context of this research, general retention
strategies are those strategies that apply to all students regardless of demographic or
socioeconomic status, on the other hand, specific retention strategies for Hispanics students are
those which are culturally relevant and proven to work for Latino students. Administrators were
asked about specific retention strategies for Latinos at LPC and 10 out of 14 had some
knowledge of general retention strategies but where not able to point out specific retention
strategies exclusively for Latinos at LPC. In their view, the general strategies also address
Latinos and underrepresented students and thus there is no need of specific strategies at this time.
As administrators where participating in the interviews, it became evident they have
strong procedural knowledge of general retention strategies. For example, Bob said, “we
engaged a strategic retention plan three years ago, that included purchased of software, new
intervention programs, and adding new majors. Mark added, “we have implemented an early-
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 87
alert systems, that has an algorithm that can help us identify at-risk students... we are doing
things in terms of like this first generation pilot to try to help students transition. We have
developed an academic resource center…those help, those aren’t just completely for Hispanics
but help in general.” David stated, “we implemented a couple of years ago a retention program
called Mapworks that everyone is networked into.” However, when asked of specific retention
strategies that LPC is using exclusively for Latinos, they seemed to overly rely on the general
strategies and their impact on the overall retention, which for them include all demographics.
For example, Susan, one of the executives said, “I think, for strategies. I think were we struggle
with is really determining what strategies are most appropriate. What are the unique needs of our
Hispanic students that are distinct from other types of retention strategies?” She also
acknowledge there is no strategy specific for Hispanic students in place at this time “We don’t
have a strategy right now specifically to reduce Hispanic/ Latino attrition rates. We have a
comprehensive retention plan that addresses all students.” Kim concurred stating “we have done
a little of addressing it at the specific level for this or that group of students but really in many
ways what we are doing right now is trying to address it for all students.” John asserted, “short
answer no…as far as I know there is nothing in place specifically for Latinos”
Rueda (2011) believes that procedural knowledge to solve educational problems has to do
with “how to” learning of specific skills, techniques, methodologies, strategies, and programs
that could help achieve a strategic performance improvement task. Additionally, experts on
Hispanic Serving Institutions recommend that those expecting to enroll large numbers of Latino
students should be continuously be learning new knowledge and skills that would better serve the
Hispanics as well as other ethnic groups on campus (Santiago & Andrade, 2010). In addition,
there seems to be a relationship between the knowledge of strategies for Hispanic student success
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 88
and high Hispanic attrition (Rodríguez & Oseguera, 2015; Calderon, 2014; Vega & Martinez,
2012). Further discussion and recommendations for this validated knowledge cause will be
given in chapter five.
Reflective Practice
Administrators at LPC are practicing metacognitive principles on diversity and Hispanic
retention. The one-on-one and focus group participants made comments regarding reflecting on
the job, and 11 out of the 14 were very specific about individual reflective practice and as a team.
Rueda (2011), Mayer (2011), and Baker (2009), presented the importance of metacognitive
knowledge in solving educational problems. These researchers believe that it has to do with high
levels of cognition, internal self-awareness of the way knowledge is processed, and ways in
which learning can be improve or regulated. Administrators at LPC seemed reflective of
diversity and Hispanic retention issues either individually or as a team. One example of what
reflective practice would look like for this study derives from Dr. Bensimon (2007), an expert
helping college and universities with diversity and underrepresented student achievement, she
discusses at length the cognitive processes of individuals and institutions as they address
diversity issues. Suggested that institutions, especially those serving large numbers of Hispanic
students must develop a cognitive frame she called “equity-mindedness” to close the gap on
underachieving student outcome. Bensimon stated this cognitive frame could only be built out
of a metacognitive process where school administrators get together to reflect on institutional
enrollment and retention data (Bensimon, 2007).
Even thought, there were no direct questions about metacognitive practice in the
interview protocols. The following are a few instances where administrators demonstrated
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 89
reflective practice that emerged from the participant’s responses. For example, David made
reflective comments during one of the questions,
I think an outside perspective is important for us to get a mirror back of how we are,
where we can grow, what we are doing well…I think for me I want to know that, that
change is going to always be on our mind, that we would be able to continue to grow and
self-assess, and be humble enough to look at our institution and say what are we missing?
What are our blind spots?
Another important reflection was presented by Susan when she said,
The LPC of tomorrow is going to have to look different than the LPC of today, the
traditional residential, these are the only times you have classes available, primarily
taught in English, by primarily White professors, those are things that are going to have
to change, If we don’t begin the change they will continue to leave.
This last reflection comes from Mark as he was responding about Hispanic retention and
performance issues, he said, “We actually want to create an academic resource center that is
dedicated towards that end. And actually I want to see it as bit more of a multicultural resource
center... I have a number of ideas of how I want it to be.” When Mark makes those last
statements clearly shows he has been reflecting and thinking about potential ideas he would like
to implement.
In a similar note, which corroborates with the idea of self-awareness and reflective
practice, 8 out of 14 participants on individual interviews and the focus group mentioned how
LPC has been reflecting with the entire faculty and staff in some readings that deal with diversity
issues on campus. Administrators were given books to read as part of an effort to understand
diversity issues, for instance, during the focus group, Peter said “…the past two years, his office,
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 90
has been giving us books for us to read and we have discussed them.” John stated, “our faculty
reading for this year… both of the books had to do with diversity within education” and Mark
also mentioned this, “in the last two years, we have been doing faculty readings about diversity.”
For the past few years, administrators have spent time discussing, thinking, and reflecting on
diversity and Hispanic retention.
The knowledge assumptions were assessed through the research and administrators were
found to be knowledgeable of factual data related to Hispanic trends in higher education, and
also demonstrated positive use of metacognitive principles to address diversity and Latino
retention. However, the data also showed administrator’s knowledge shortfalls related to
strategic retention strategies proven to work for Latino students. Thus, further recommendations
are given in Chapter five. The following findings section discusses the assessment of
motivational aspects.
Motivational Assumptions
Motivational findings are valuable because they help understand the motivational aspects
at LPC that may bring answers to the research questions. Clark and Estes (2008) included the
motivational component to their framework as one of the main pillars to achieve organizational
goals and increase performance. In their view, it is a largely ignored aspect in organizations.
Suggesting that sometimes, individuals and organizations possess high levels of knowledge and
skill but they lack the motivation needed to deliver greater results. The motivation section of the
research is organized by the following themes, (1) confident in impact: administrators were
confident they could help underrepresented students succeed, and (2) goals for success:
administrators had goals that could help underrepresented students succeed. The following are
the motivation themes with data to support the findings.
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 91
Confidence in Impact
The first motivation finding was that most administrators who participated in the study
were confident they could and wanted to help underrepresented students succeed. During the
interviews, 12 out of the 14 administrators expressed a personal belief in their ability to help
underrepresented student succeed. Bandura (1997) and Pajares (2006) believe that self-efficacy
has tremendous impact on individual and educational performance. Mayer (2011) noted that
self-efficacious people emphasize the idea of possibilities rather than barriers. And Rueda
(2011) presented this theory as a tool to solve educational problems, a tool that has to do with the
levels in which institutions, administrators, and professors believe that failure is not an option for
their students.
When asked about their role in helping Hispanic students succeed, administrators were
very confident in their ability to help these students, some referred to their positions as influential
to the strategic plan and to potential organizational change that could directly impact Hispanic
student initiatives. For example, David said, “my role is very connected to helping to contribute
to the strategic plan and strategic initiatives. So, I get to see what’s going on, on campus, and
then present key initiatives and make recommendations for the strategic plan” Esther noted, “my
role as an executive, is that I am in numerous committees, to try to identify the appropriate
initiatives and strategies that could lead to a stronger success rates” Mark said, “I have an
incredibly important role, because my job is to help each one of those departments understand
their role is significant.” Additionally, during the focus group there was an open-ended
discussion about what it meant to help underrepresented students succeed and some of the
responses were very conducive to self-efficacious thinking. For instance, Martha said, “we have
the ability to know the student’s stories and were they are coming from, so that when you help
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 92
them succeed…there is such a sense of accomplishment…I know their story, I know where they
are from, and you want to help them more” Sarah added, “what motivates us towards making
sure underrepresented students succeed is within our mission…It’s within our mission to make
sure we help them succeed.” According to Bensimon (2007) the achievement gap for
underrepresented students is not inevitable and suggests that it is possible for Latino students
from low-income colleges to succeed. However, in her view, institutions and their teams play a
very important role in making this a reality. They need to embrace and reaffirm their
commitment to the Latino student population and confidence in successfully pursue better
outcomes. The administrators were confident to help underrepresented students as they plan and
perform their jobs. Thus, this assumed motivational aspect is not validated by the research.
Aspects that are not validated in this research do not need further recommendations for practice.
It means that administrators are applying the principles.
Goals for Success
The second motivation finding was that most administrators at LPC had goals to help
underrepresented students succeed. When asked about goals for their Latino student during the 6
one-on-one interviews, there were three goals that continued to repeat amongst participants.
First, 4 out of 6 made comments about the goal of celebrating and welcoming diversity on
campus. Second, 6 out of 6 spoke about their goal of a diverse faculty team and how they have
been making hiring adjustments in order to be more inclusive of minorities. Finally, 4 out of 6
mentioned the goal of a Chief Diversity Officer that could provide executive leadership
representation for diverse populations. Dweck (1986) and Pintrich (2003) noted the value of
goals in educational settings. Yough and Anderman (2006) wrote about motivation and the role
of goal orientation for greater educational outcomes.
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 93
A welcoming multicultural campus that celebrates diversity. LPC administrators
expressed their desire to see LPC as a welcoming multicultural campus that celebrate diversity
and serve well the entire student body. For instance, Bob said “...part of the diversity discussion
is how do we celebrate and honor all the cultures that are part of our campus…” David talked
about a newly added position (diversity coordinator) to help LPC become more welcoming to
diverse populations. And Susan stated, “I think, one of the things that we are now attempting to
is creating a space where Hispanic students are welcome and celebrated.” Gonzalez and
Morrison (2016) suggest the idea of a model that celebrates diversity and culture will go further
in helping Latinos succeed rather than one in which institutions try to ignore the background and
culture of its students.
Diverse faculty representation. LPC administrators expressed their desire to see LPC as
a diverse community not only in their student body but also in their faculty representation. Mark
stated, “One of the strategic goals as an institution is to be more reflective of the diversity of our
community.” In order to reach this goal, different participants mentioned recent initiatives in
hiring practices. Kim said, “we continue to develop initiatives, some have to do with hiring
practices, so that we can develop a staff that would better reflect our student body.” David also
stated, “another thing that we do that I thing is really important, as an initiative of the college is
diversifying our faculty, we have been diversifying for the last several years.” And Bob added,
“…diversifying…the faculty and the staff, its very important, and most of our faculty, new hires;
in the last three years have been people of color.” Castellanos, Gloria, Besson, and Harvey
(2016), pointed out the vital importance of diversifying faculty to promote role models that
students could identify with and who can inspire students of color.
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 94
Executive leadership representation. LPC administrators expressed their desire to see
LPC as a diverse community not only in their student body and faculty representation but also in
their executive leadership representation. Bob said, “we really need a cabinet level chief
diversity officer, to me is ridiculous to think that we could have a multicultural campus, and
nobody who is keeping an eye on that.” Kim also mentioned the need of a voice at the highest
level “we do not have higher-level administrators. So there is the desire, but that voice may be
lacking at that highest level.” David concurred, “I think we need a chief diversity officer…I
think we need something higher than a coordinator, someone that is at the table that budget
supports, so that students feel that they have a voice at the table… I think it would speak
volumes.” According to Adserias, Charleston and Jackson (2017) executive leadership have a
pivotal role in promoting diversity on the institution’s campus, culture, admissions, retention,
and student success. Moreover, Griffin, Muniz and Smith (2016) study, showed the work CDO
do at their institutions, they filter all diversity efforts through these individuals. Additionally,
diversity officers were personally involved in creating mentoring relationships between students
of color and faculty. And they also assisted with communication, and fostered opportunities for
unity and cohesion.
The motivation assumptions were assessed through the research and administrators were
found to be highly motivated as they are confident on the positive impact they have and could
have on Latino retention and success. Additionally, they demonstrated a positive attitude
towards reflecting and developing goals to help underrepresented students. The three goals that
surfaced the most were (1) to foster a welcoming multicultural campus that celebrates diversity,
(2) increase diverse faculty representation, and (3) increase executive leadership representation.
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 95
These motivational influences are needed to promote positive results in educational outcomes for
Latinos. The following findings section discusses the assessment of organizational aspects.
Organizational Assumptions
Organizational findings answer the second guiding question of the study, which speaks of
organizational culture, context, systems, and programs that are geared towards Latino success.
Clark and Estes (2008) noted that in some cases, knowledge and motivation are not an issue but
rather context and culture. In these instances organizational barriers are the cause of poor
performance or lack of improvement. In their KMO framework, identifying and analyzing
organizational assumptions is a necessary step in order to develop efficiency and effectiveness in
organizations. According to Rueda (2011) to properly analyze organizational assumptions at
educational institutions one should evaluate cultural models and cultural settings, suggesting that
it could help understand behavior, culture, and context correctly. Schein (2010) proposes that
culture derives from problem-solving behavior that organizations implement, which produced
positive results, then these behaviors are institutionalize as the right way to behave or perform
such task and passed on to others. Organizational culture is what the organization really is
internally not what it may seem to be externally. The organizational section of the research found
that, (1) LPC values diversity and wants to increase Hispanic student retention, (2) LPC believes
in awareness and improvement to better serve Latinos, and (3) LPC lacks urgency to implement
and monitor programs specific for Latinos. The organizational findings are organized by Cultural
influences, each influence presents themes that were discovered in the data.
Cultural Models
In assessing organizational culture at LPC, this study sought to validate some cultural
models. Rueda (2011) suggests cultural models could be unseen elements consciously or
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 96
unconsciously driving the behavior of individuals and organizations, the way they interact with
data, their reaction to change, how they confront difficult situations, the models used to conduct
business, the unspoken leadership styles chosen, etc. As administrators were being interviewed
they described how LPC operates, which helped identify the following two cultural models.
First, diversity value: LPC values diversity and wants to increase Hispanic student retention and
second, awareness and improvement: LPC believes in awareness and improvement to better
serve Latinos. The following are the two themes with data to support the finding.
Diversity value. The first cultural model was that LPC seems to values diversity and
wants to help Hispanic student. From the participants, 14 out of 14 made positive comments
regarding diversity on campus. For example, one of the things that surfaced during the data
analysis, which is directly related to organizational culture, is this idea of making sure Hispanics
have a voice. For this, the institution organized and established Multicultural Student Union
(MSU) to help “listen the student’s voice” and also reestablished the Diversity Committee (DC)
for staff and faculty to “process, reflect, and speak out” about diversity issues. For instance, one
administrator said, “the development of the multicultural student union, for students to have a
voice, and a place where they can go and talk, and that group is also doing more things, trying to
create community opportunities hang out together to talk about race and culture and have
dialogues” Another administrator also spoke about the Multicultural Student Union and the
Diversity Committee, “we have a multicultural student union that was founded only like two
years ago… we have the diversity committee working on the inside and we kind of, we are
working together…” On the same note another comment from a participant, “so, that audit was
really important to us to point out the things that in many cases we knew but to have somebody
from the outside sit down and say yeah this needs to be addressed, and they were very helpful,
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 97
and that launched a diversity task force that has created a diversity statement…we also
established a multicultural student union.” And another administrator added,
So, right now a lot of the work on diversity is focused on establishing diversity statement
and more of the philosophical how do we view diversity?...developing the larger picture.
We have established the Multicultural Student Union, which I think is an important step
for the students, to figure out how to engage them more, how to have them engage in the
diversity conversation more.
During data analysis, at first glance, it seemed to be more like a cultural settings, however,
analyzing beneath the surface, the finding showed to be more of an aspect of cultural models.
The MSU and the DC are an extension of how decisions are made at LPC. Even though the
MSU and the DC can not execute change at LPC, they are the voice of potential change and
administrators referred to these two as the places to openly discuss ideas and have a voice.
Rodríguez and Oseguera (2015) suggested a culture that fosters healthy and meaningful
relationships between students of color and organizational leaders is fundamental for student and
institutional success. Adding that open dialogue creates trust, and is conductive to informed and
sensitive decision-making. Their study also pointed out how this culture values the student and
honors their culture and context.
Institutional awareness and improvement. The second cultural model was that LPC
believes in institutional awareness and improvement to better serve Latinos. During the
interviews, 8 out of 14 participants made statements regarding the importance of improvement
and awareness in this area. For example, one administrator said, “I think there is a high degree
of concern and sensitivity to the population. A desire to understand how we can serve and care
for those students more effectively.” Another participant added, “there are things LPC needs to
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 98
change, areas where we need to recognize we have the prevailing model of education. We have
largely cater to the dominant ethnicity for far too long and we may need to be willing to make
adjustments.” And another administrator said, “our student population on campus is about 40%
Hispanic…we need to have a learning environment that is conducive for that community.”
Grubb and Badway (2005) argued that college and universities who are committed to their
students should focus on internal accountability rather than external compliance. Those
institutions focused on merely external accountability will only fix things in order to show they
comply whereas those focused on internal accountability will constantly evaluate and improve
their processes. On this same note, Harris and Bensimon (2007) developed the equity scorecard,
which derived from other scorecards used for businesses; this tool was specifically designed for
culturally diverse institutions looking to for accountability and better performance. It increases
internal accountability, organizational capacity, and helps colleges be aware of their current
performance and also keep an attitude of continual improvement.
Cultural Settings
In assessing organizational culture at LPC, the research sought to validate cultural
settings. Rueda (2011) presents cultural settings as directly related to cultural models, however,
the difference is that cultural settings are visible and palpable elements, things like places,
classrooms, programs, policies, structures, rules, regulations, strategic initiatives, and those
things that promote organizational culture or enactment of cultural shifts. As administrators
were being interviewed they described how LPC operates, which helped identify the following
cultural setting, (1) Urgency: LPC lacks urgency to implement and monitor programs specific for
Latinos. The following is the theme with data to support the finding.
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 99
Urgency. LPC lacks a sense of urgency to develop, implement, and monitor specific
initiatives, programs, and services that could positively affect Latinos student retention.
According to administrators, as an institution, LPC has been culturally inclined to pilot new
programs and services to improve Hispanic student retention. However, during the interviews
respondents seemed to be lacking a sense of urgency to focus on retention strategies specifically
crafted for underrepresented students. From the 6 participants all 6 spoke about programs and
services for Latinos but 4 also made comments that disregard the efforts to urgently pursue
strategic initiatives that could increase LPC’s Hispanic retention rate.
Administrators expressed how LPC is currently focusing on overall retention programs
and services that could help their entire student body rather than strategic demographic
appropriate programs or services. For example, one administrator commented “many of our
initiatives are not geared toward any specific ethnicity.” Another administrator said, “we are
working on kind of the big overarching retention efforts…and hopefully it’ll impact both our
dominant category students and our ethnic minorities.” And again, another administrator stated,
“part of our retention plan was to develop goals specifically for all our diverse populations. So
we haven’t gotten down to that granular level were we are beginning to develop goals at the
granular level for each of our different diverse populations.” Rios-Ellis et al. (2015) conducted a
study at California State University, Long Beach (CSULB), where they implemented Mi Casa:
Mi Universidad (My Home: My University) as part of a set of strategic initiatives to increase
Hispanic student retention and graduation rates. According to their report, these programs were
very effective tools to help underrepresented student succeed at CSULB.
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Document Analysis
Analyzing documents from LPC, and connecting them to some of the most repeated
commonalities during the interviews, brought to light two emergent findings. Emergent findings
are beneficial because the essence of qualitative research is interpretative, emergent, and flexible
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Themes are organizational aspect and will help answer the second
guiding question of the study. Clark and Estes (2008) asserted that by collecting data from
individuals and their organization it is normal to identify those elements that could help improve
or that could become a barrier to effective and efficient performance. This section of the
research analyzed the “WASC letter to LPC on March 6
th
of 2015.” The following are the
organizational findings with supporting data from the research.
WASC Letter to LPC on March 6
th
of 2015
Analyzing the letter sent by the accrediting agency to LPC was important due to the
impact of these events in the past and present of LPC. It evidently appears that LPC has become
more effective and efficient in a few different aspects of organizational performance due to the
process they underwent during a 2012 accrediting resolution done by the Western Association of
Schools and Colleges. LPC’s accrediting agency WASC had evaluated institutional performance
in all aspects and had found flaws that needed attention. After a few different attempts at getting
things in line with the agency’s request, WASC issued an official “probation” status to LPC,
which lead the way to major change through out the institution. The letter explains the reasons
for probation status, the areas that needed compliance, and some of the actions that LPC took in
order to improve. One main area of focus was retention and in 2014, LPC developed a
comprehensive retention plan, another area was strategic planning and LPC also developed a
strategic planning process with a 2014-2019 strategic plan.
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 101
This probation status from WASC clearly mobilized and influenced the entire
administrative team, the faculty, and staff at LPC. It also called for major change and to alter
some aspects of organizational culture, of how business was done at LPC. Retention became a
major focus as well as strategic planning and implementation. The impact of this reason in the
lives of administrators was still very present during the interviews. This apparently caused LPC
to become more effective and efficient in a couple different organizational aspects. I have coded
those aspects as follows, (1) planning and implementation: LPC became more effective in
aspects of strategic planning and implementation, and (2) goals and organizational change: LPC
became more effective in aspects of goal setting and organizational change. The following are
the two themes that emerged from the document analysis and the data.
Planning and implementation. LPC became more effective in aspects of strategic
planning and implementation. Administrators at LPC shared their experiences with the WASC
situation and how it contrived them to develop better strategic planning processes and alignment
with budget and implementation. From the 6 one-on-one interviews all 6 made comments on
this subject, for instance one administrator said, “I think we have been growing in our
sophistication regarding institutional planning, specifically strategic planning, WASC our
regional creditor became very, very, concern about it, in 2012/2013.” Another administrator
noted, “we were in trouble with our accreditor, and were placed on probation, we had to make
decisions about what we were going to do as an institution, and a key part of that was developing
a strategic plan that would get us there.” One more participant added, “I think, in the last three to
four years we have finally figure out how to do strategic planning well, and have embraced the
process and it really does drive much of what the college is doing.” And one more example was,
“so, everything flows from our strategic plan, who we hire, how we organize, where our budget
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 102
is allocated all is connected to strategic planning,…we take our strategic plan very seriously,
because that plan is connected to everything that we do across campus.” Wilson (2015) focuses
on the influence of leadership specifically effective strategic planning that could support and
promote diversity efforts and initiatives. When college and universities have strong strategic
planning processes coupled with leadership that supports diversity there is better performance
and support.
Goals and organizational change. LPC became more effective in aspects of goal setting
and organizational change. Administrators at LPC shared their experiences with the WASC
situation and how it contrived them to develop strategic goals and to drive real organizational
change. From the 6 interviews 5 made comments on this area, for example, one administrator
said, “I think we have done a lot of things really well. I have seen us mobilize in the last five
years like no other institution. You know our WASC report, our WASC evaluators gave us
commendations, several…but one was on (our president’s) transformational leadership, the
responsiveness of faculty and staff, the mobilization, to our board of trustees for rolling up their
sleeves and participating in change…” Another commented, “we came up with a better process, I
think, for dealing with change and even dealing with things that come up outside of our plans.”
And another administrator said, “I believe we have clearly established organizational goals
within our mission, vision, and value statements as well as within our strategic plan. So, I think
the goals are there, I think, there is a pretty good clarity what those goals are, particular among
the administration at the executive level.” Cogner (1991) and Moran and Brightman (2000)
suggested the use of goals, assessment measures, and effective communication of those goals as
fundamental for the success of any organization. On the other hand, Kezar’s (2001) identified
organizational change as a cultural aspect in organizations that are deeply tied to institutional
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 103
history, mission, traditions, and symbolism. She found that these types of institutions are
difficult to change unless there is a combination of deep transformation, paradigm shifts, and
culture of change. The organizational findings are valuable because they bring light to the way
LPC operates and functions.
Conclusion
Reporting the findings for the case study at Latino Private College resulted in interesting
findings. On the one hand, 6 of the 8 assumed barriers to reach the organization’s goal were not
validated. However, the gap analysis was needed to discover the 2 barriers that do need to be
addressed in order to improve performance and increase Latino student retention to 75 and
higher by 2021. Additionally, by analyzing a document (the WASC letter to LPC of 2015),
important elements surfaced that reveal why the college has been improving in various areas,
including student retention, during the past five years.
In the following chapter, research-based recommendations will be presented for each of
the two performance barriers that were validated. The first barrier that was validated was a
knowledge cause about (specific retention strategies for Latinos), which has to do with
procedural knowledge and how administrators seemed to be knowledgeable of general retention
procedures but had limited knowledge of strategic retention procedures that are specifically
designed for Hispanic students. The second barrier was an organizational cause related to
(urgency) a cultural setting at LPC. This one has to do with how interview participants seemed
to be lacking a sense of urgency to focus on retention strategies specifically crafted for
underrepresented students. Chapter five will also include an evaluation package based on the
well know Kirkpatrick 4 Levels of Evaluation model (1994), which will be explained in more
detailed in that section.
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 104
CHAPTER FIVE: RECOMMENDATIONS
This chapter includes research-based recommendations to reach LPC’s Hispanic retention
goal proposed for the study. The findings in chapter four were fundamental to the validation
process of Clark and Estes (2008) analytic framework. The gap analysis framework used for the
study required the validation of knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that could
potentially be barriers to reach organizational goals. There were 8 assumed performance
barriers, and Table 8 below shows the three knowledge findings, two motivational findings, and
three organizational findings. There are two findings that have an asterisk, which represents
validated assumptions that will have further recommendations in this Chapter. All of the KMO
influences are needed in order to successfully increase Hispanic student retention.
Table 8
Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Findings
Knowledge Findings
Motivation Findings
Organizational Findings
1) Hispanic trends in higher
education.
2) Specific retention
strategies for Latinos*
3) Reflective practice.
1) Confidence in impact
2) Goals for success
1) Diversity value
2) Institutional awareness and
improvement
3) Urgency*
After careful analysis, two assumed causes were validated and require proper
recommendations, following a brief discussion of the findings the recommendation are
presented. The two validated barriers were the second knowledge influence, “specific retention
strategies for Latinos”, and the third organizational influence, “urgency.” Additionally, the final
section of chapter five has an implementation and evaluation plan based on The New World
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 105
Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The model provides a structured process
to implement, monitor, and assess the effectiveness of the proposed program that will address the
recommendations, and impact the organization’s goal.
Discussion
In this section I want to take the reader beyond the scope of this study. There are two
very important elements that can highly contribute to the educational community. I call these
two elements, emergent findings, because they emanate from my personal conclusions regarding
the study in conjunction with the advise and encouragement of my dissertation committee. The
first one applies to all educational institutions, weather they work with traditionally
underrepresented students or not. It is the value and influence of accrediting bodies in
organizational change and performance improvement. The second element is an attempt to put
together a more strategic retention model for Latino students. It is for those institutions that are
seeing a large percentage of Latino enrollment and want to utilize a more contextualize approach
to increase retention of Hispanic students.
Value and influence of accrediting bodies
Learning from administrators about LPC was very interesting, for example many of them
began to share about a previous situation with the institution’s accrediting agency (see document
analysis section in chapter four). In 2012 they were placed on “probation” by the WASC
association and through the research it was evident that this situation completely changed the
course of Latino Private College. As administrators responded to different questions related to
organizational change processes and organizational culture the 2012 turning point kept emerging.
It became clear that this situation unconsciously impacted knowledge and skill, motivation, and
organizational aspects at LPC. Nevertheless, despite the difficult time, the external
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 106
accountability of WASC helped them become stronger, strategic, and more effective as an
institution.
Accrediting agencies such WASC are those associations that validate the quality and
excellence of an institution. These agencies are there to protect students, their families, and the
general public by working as an external auditing organization. I found that educational
institutions are influenced and move to improvement and action when confronted by external
accountability. However, this not only illustrates the value of accrediting agencies but it raises
the value of those colleges and universities that work really hard to maintain good standing. On
the other hand, as institutions and leaders balance priorities, it is very important to be careful not
to loose sight of excellence and improvement when accrediting visits are over, but to continue
with an emphasis on internal accountability and urgency that increases institutional capacity and
performance.
Towards a more strategic model of Hispanic retention
Reflecting upon the findings section, I was able to recognize the two findings that
required additional recommendations had to do with LPC being more strategic and specific in
their efforts to increase retention of Hispanic students. During the interviews, administrators
were asked for specific retention strategies exclusively targeting Latinos, but they were not able
to pinpoint retention strategies, frameworks or models that are proven to work with Hispanic
students. Instead, some of them referred to how Hispanics are benefitting also from their general
retention initiatives. On the positive side, LPC has been performing well in the other six KMO
influences,
1. they know of current Hispanic trends in higher education,
2. they are utilizing reflective practice principles in diversity and retention,
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 107
3. they are confident in their ability to help Latinos succeed,
4. they have present and future goals to better position LPC as a diverse institution,
5. they value diversity,
6. and they believe in the impact of institutional awareness and improvement on
Hispanic student outcomes.
Institutions that are committed to better serve Latino students should have a framework,
model, or strategy for its Hispanic student population. The model presented in Figure 4 below,
emerged from the study and includes all stakeholders as well as the institution.
Figure 4. Strategic Model of Hispanic Student Retention
Students. In this model, the cycle begins and concludes with students. Students are the
individuals that make the first enrollment decision, as they chose to apply to the institution they
feel more inclined to attend. This is based on their educational goals, cultural background,
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 108
college readiness, and socio-economic status. On the other hand, in their educational journeys,
students also end up choosing either to partially persist (from one year to the next, from one
institution to the next), endure to degree completion or make an unplanned transfer and in many
cases drop out of school.
Institution. Institutions also play an important role in the model, as they need to foster a
sense of urgency when it comes to retention of Latinos that could influence the entire
organization. In addition institutions that have open access need to balance their fluid admission
criteria with more robust support programs for students that are not as prepare to succeed in
college. This includes the development, implementation, and monitoring of strategic retention
initiatives. Institutions should also have clear retention goals for their Hispanic students,
promote institutional awareness and continual improvement, and also cultivate a welcoming
campus culture for diverse populations and the cultural conditions to foster better outcomes.
Lastly, institutional leadership must be supportive and engaged.
Administrators/Faculty. An additional key element besides the role of institutions,
which is not included in traditional retention models, is the effect of administrators/faculty on
student’s educational journey. For a more strategic approach to retention of underrepresented
students, administrators/faculty should focus on developing knowledge and skill in the following
areas (a) cultural intelligence, (b) socioeconomic understanding, (c) knowledge of effective
retention strategies for diverse populations, (d) knowledge of current trends and statistics, (e)
effective pedagogies for diverse students, and (f) reflective practice. Nonetheless, knowledge
alone is not sufficient in order to increase performance administrators/faculty should develop
sincere motivation. For example; (a) confidence they can impact Hispanic retention, (b) personal
goals to impact Hispanic retention, and (c) show evidence of active support.
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 109
This model addresses all stakeholders and I believe it could be applied to institutions of
any size. Moreover, the first element on the value of accrediting agencies also applies to the
greater educational community. Now that I have discussed important elements that emerged
from the research findings, the next section will focus once again on providing recommendations
to the two validated KMO influences at LPC.
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences
Following a successful analysis of KMO assumptions at Latino Private College (LPC),
utilizing Clark and Estes (2008) analytic framework, the following two recommendations for
practice are presented in order to increase performance and reach institutional goals for Latino
students:
• Knowledge recommendation: Provide demographic specific and culturally relevant
training to administrators/faculty that promotes transfer, develops mastery, and
encourages peer learning and accountability related to specific programs or services for
Latinos.
• Organizational recommendation: Cultivate a culture that continuously develops,
implements, and monitors strategic programs and services to improve Latino student
retention.
A program is proposed as part of the implementation process to address these two
recommendations. The program includes seven learning goals for administrators/Faculty:
1. Recognize specific retention strategies that are proven to be effective for Latino
students.
2. Understand the needs of Hispanic students in regards to college persistence.
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 110
3. Demonstrate awareness of current conditions and trends on Hispanic student
retention, persistence, and graduation.
4. Monitor current initiatives for Hispanics to assess college effectiveness and potential
improvement.
5. Reflect upon the importance of helping Hispanic students succeed.
6. Value the opportunity to help Latino students reach their academic goals.
7. Develop passion and urgency that could move them to action on improving Hispanic
retention.
The program will explore proven retention strategies that are effective and specific to help Latino
students succeed and a range of parallel topics related to the learning goals. If successful, it
should increase knowledge, skill, and motivation to help Latino students succeed. The program
will be done on an annual basis with a blended format, two online modules and two group
reflective and creative sessions. The program will include two practical exercises (a) meeting
face-to-face for an interview-type session with an at-risk Hispanic student and (b) phone or email
contact with Latino alumnus to inquire on their reasons for success. The time commitment for
the program will be 6 hours for the two modules, 4 hours for the two group-reflective sessions,
15-30 minutes for the email or phone conversation, and 1 hour for the student interview (a total
of 11.5 hours).
The two recommendations for practice should be addressed with proper implementation
of the training program. Nevertheless, to ensure effectiveness of the program, it is connected to
the organizations mission and goals. For this reason, The New World Kirkpatrick Model of
training evaluation was added to this section. The Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) model will
assess four levels of training, which include level 4 results, level 3 behaviors, level 2 learning,
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 111
and level 1 reaction. Level 4 results will assess one external outcome and six internal outcomes
that should derive from the training. These internal and external outcomes “leading indicators”
are the expected results from the training. For example; increase the retention rate of Latino
students is the external outcome and increase knowledge about retention procedures that are
effective and specific for Latinos and increase urgency to help their Latino student body are both
internal outcomes. Level 3 behaviors will assess three “critical behaviors” to reach results (1)
administrators must demonstrate proficiency on effective and specific retention strategies,
programs, and services for Latino students, (2) administrators should utilize reflective practice on
retention and diversity issues at LPC, and (3) LPC’s Hispanic retention goals must become
urgent in the priority list of administrators. One additional element of level 3 is the inclusion of
“require drivers” to help achieve those behaviors, these are divided in four areas, (a) reinforce,
(b) encourage, (c) reward, and (d) monitor. For a detail list of the drivers please look at the
respective level 3 section. Level 2 learning through a series of surveys and observations will
assess the aspect of learning during the program and transfer of learning after the program it will
focus on participant’s knowledge, attitude, confidence, and commitment. Finally, level 1
reaction will assess the participant’s level of engagement in the program, the relevance of the
program to their work and the actual organizational goals, and their level of satisfaction with the
program. The following pages describe in more detail the information briefly presented in this
overview.
Knowledge Recommendations
Introduction. The data collection has been completed for this project. The knowledge
influences in Table 9 include all assumed knowledge influences and additional information for
the influences that were validated. Administrator’s knowledge influences needed to achieve and
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 112
maintain this study’s Hispanic retention goal for LPC, were validated or not validated based on a
priori data analysis of conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge. The data was
collected during one-on-one interviews, a focus group interview, and supported by institutional
documents, and the literature review. Clark and Estes (2008) gap analytic framework was used
for the study and the knowledge elements of Karthwohl (2002) were included.
As indicated in Table 9, administrator’s procedural knowledge was validated and it is a
high priority to address this knowledge influence in order to achieve LPC’s Hispanic retention
goal. Table 9 also shows the recommendations for this influence based on theoretical principles.
Assumed factual and metacognitive knowledge were not validated during data analysis and
findings writing, thus, recommendations will not be made in this chapter because they are not a
priority at this time.
Table 9
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Knowledge
Influence
Validated?
Yes or No
Priority
Yes,
No
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Administrators from
LPC may need to
know demographics,
statistics, figures,
trends, data, and
information that could
help them make
informed decisions on
diversity and
Hispanic initiatives.
They may also need
to know what is
already in place to
support Latino
No
Yes
(LPC should continue to
foster and improve this
knowledge influence)
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 113
students. (F).
Administrators from
LPC may need to
know how to
implement student
specific programs or
services for Latinos
and incorporate
Faculty development
on pedagogies to
improve Latino
student success (P).
Yes
Yes
To develop
mastery,
individuals must
acquire
component
skills, practice
integrating them,
and know when
to apply what
they have
learned (Schraw
& McCrudden,
Hartley, 2006).
Facilitating
transfer
promotes
learning (Mayer,
2011).
Provide demographic
specific and culturally
relevant training to
administrators/faculty that
promotes transfer, develops
mastery, and encourages
peer learning and
accountability related to
specific retention strategies,
programs or services for
Latinos.
Administrators from
LPC may need to
know how to reflect
on the institutions
effectiveness on
Latino success,
retention, and
completion rates. (e.g.
self-reflection,
learnability,
mindedness) (M).
No
Yes
(LPC should continue to
foster and improve this
knowledge influence)
Note. The knowledge type for each influence is listed using these abbreviations: (F) Factual;
(P)rocedural; (M)etacognitive.
Hispanic trends in higher education. Overall, administrators have a clear
understanding of the current Hispanic trends in higher education, especially in Southern
California. Rueda (2011) wrote about factual knowledge needed to solve educational problems
and claimed it has to do with information, facts, data, and details that could help the organization
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 114
improve its performance. It was assumed at the beginning of the research that administrator’s
were in need of factual knowledge related to Hispanic trends in education, and that this
knowledge could help improve Hispanic retention. Nevertheless, it was proved otherwise and it
is encouraged that Latino Private College should continue to instruct their staff on Hispanic
trends. No further recommendation is given for this assumed influence.
Specific retention strategies for Latinos. LPC needs to provide demographic specific
and culturally relevant training to administrators/faculty that would increase their knowledge
related to specific retention strategies, programs, and services for Latinos. According to Schraw,
McCrudden and Hartley (2006), to develop mastery, individuals must acquire component skills,
practice integrating them, and know when to apply what they have learned. Through this
proposed training, administrators should master content related to retention, programs, and
services that have been proven to effectively serve Hispanic students and it should also motivate
them to integrate the new knowledge into practice. The data analysis found that LPC
administrators have a an understanding of general retention procedures but lack knowledge
related to understanding of specific retention strategies, programs, and services strategically
crafted for Latino students. The recommendation is to provide demographic specific and
culturally relevant training to administrators/faculty that promotes transfer, develops mastery,
and encourages peer learning and accountability related to specific programs or services for
Latinos (as shown in Table 9).
Rodríguez and Oseguera (2015), suggested that in order to increase underrepresented
student success, practitioners must learn, know, and understand the precise tools that effectively
work for them. Furthermore, Rueda (2011) describes an increase in procedural knowledge for
educational professionals as the “how-to” learning of specific skills, techniques, methodologies,
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 115
and information that could help achieve a strategic task. LPC’s task is to increase retention for
Latinos, thus making procedural training a valuable aspect on this endeavor. Administrators at
LPC should receive proper training that emphasizes research-based strategies that increase
practitioner’s procedural knowledge. In order to reach LPC’s goal to increase Hispanic retention
to 75% or higher, administrators must acquire proper procedural knowledge on proven strategies
that could increase Latino retention.
Reflective practice. Overall, administrators showed clear signs of individual and group
reflective thinking regarding diversity, Hispanic retention, and performance issues. Research
shows the value of metacognitive knowledge in solving educational problems. Where
metacognitive reflection has to do with high levels of cognition, internal self-awareness of the
way knowledge is processed, and ways in which learning can be improve or regulated (Rueda,
2011; Mayer, 2011; Baker, 2009; Bensimon, 2005). It was assumed at the beginning of the
research that administrator’s were in need of metacognitive knowledge in order to improve
Hispanic retention. Nevertheless, it was proved otherwise and it is encouraged that Latino
Private College should continue to foster an environment of individual and group reflection on
diversity issues that could help their Latino students. No further recommendation is given for
this assumed influence.
Motivation Recommendations
Introduction. The data collection has been completed for this project. The motivation
influences in Table 10 include all assumed motivational influences and additional information
for the influences that were validated. Administrator’s motivation influences needed to achieve
and maintain this study’s Hispanic retention goal for LPC, were validated or not validated based
on a priori data analysis of self-efficacy and goal-orientation motivation. The data was collected
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 116
during one-on-one interviews, a focus group interview, and supported by institutional
documents, and the literature review. Clark and Estes (2008) gap analytic framework was used
for the study. As indicated in Table 10, administrator’s self-efficacy and goal-orientation were
not validated, and at this point are not a priority to reach the study’s organizational goal, thus no
recommendations are provided in this chapter.
Table 10
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Motivation Influence
Validated?
Yes or No
Priority
Yes,
No
Principle
and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
LPC administrators may need to
understand the importance of
institutional self-efficacy and be
confident in their ability to
successfully implement tools and
best practices to close the
inequality gaps and reduce
Hispanic student attrition.
No
Yes
(LPC should
continue to foster
and improve this
motivational
influence)
LPC administrators may need to
understand the importance of
mastery goal orientation (Yough
& Anderman, 2006) and how
goals are connected to increased
performance, thus goals related to
Latino retention and success could
promote positive results.
No
Yes
(LPC should
continue to foster
and improve this
motivational
influence)
Self-Efficacy motivation (confidence in impact). Overall, the administrators who were
part of the study were confident they could help underrepresented students succeed. Bandura
(1997) and Pajares (2006) believe that self-efficacy has tremendous impact on individual and
educational performance. Moreover, Mayer (2011) noted that self-efficacious people emphasize
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 117
the idea of possibilities rather than barriers. It was assumed at the beginning of the research that
administrator’s were in need of this type of motivation in order to improve Hispanic retention.
Nevertheless, it was proved otherwise and it is encouraged that Latino Private College should
continue to be positively confident and willing to do what needs to be done to help their Latino
students. No further recommendation is given for this assumed influence.
Goal-Orientation motivation (goals for success). Overall, the administrators who were
part of the study had Goals to Help Underrepresented Students Succeed. Pintrich (2003) and
Yough and Anderman (2006) believe goals as a powerful motivational tool to improve
educational outcomes. Three goals that were most repeated between participants were, (1) a
desire for a welcoming multicultural campus that embraces diversity, (2) diverse faculty
representation, and (3) executive leadership representation. It was assumed at the beginning of
the research that administrator’s were in need of goals in order to improve Hispanic retention.
Nevertheless, it was proved otherwise and it is encouraged that Latino Private College should
continue to pursue reaching these goals and willing to do what needs to be done to help their
Latino students. No further recommendation is given for this assumed influence.
Organization Recommendations
Introduction. The data collection has been completed for this project. The
organizational influences in Table 11 include all assumed organizational influences and
additional information for the influences that were validated. Latino Private College’s assumed
organizational influences were validated or not validated based on a priori data analysis of
cultural models and settings. The data was collected during one-on-one interviews, a focus
group interview, and supported by institutional documents, and the literature review. Clark and
Estes (2008) gap analytic framework was used for the study and aspects of cultural models and
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 118
settings from (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001) were included in this section. As indicated in
Table 11, one aspect of cultural setting from LPC was validated it is a high priority to address
this organizational influence in order to achieve LPC’s Hispanic retention goal. Table 11 also
shows the recommendations for this influence based on theoretical principles. Two additional
aspects of cultural models from LPC were not validated during data analysis and findings
writing, thus, recommendations will not be made in this chapter because they are not a priority at
this time.
Table 11
Summary of Organizational Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Motivation
Influence
Validated?
Yes or No
Priority
Yes,
No
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Cultural Model- LPC
may need to value
diversity in order to
improve retention,
success, and equity for
their Latino students.
No
Yes
(LPC should continue
to foster and improve
this organizational
influence)
Cultural Models- LPC
may need to believe in
the impact of
institutional awareness
and improvement to
positively affect
Hispanic student
outcomes and to
support Latino student
retention and success.
No
Yes
(LPC should continue
to foster and improve
this organizational
influence)
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 119
Cultural Settings- LPC
may need to have a
sense of urgency that
could lead them to
develop, implement,
and monitor new
programs and services
that could better serve
its Latino students.
Yes
Yes
Effective
organizations
have strategic
goals that could
be measured and
monitored. (Clark
& Estes, 2008)
Cultivate a culture
compelled to develop,
implement, and
monitors strategic
programs and services
to improve Latino
student retention.
Cultural models (diversity value). Institutional culture related to their value of
diversity. Overall, as an institution, LPC seems to value diversity and wants to help Hispanic
student. Rueda (2011) suggests cultural models are unseen elements consciously or
unconsciously driving the behavior of individuals and organizations. For the past five years,
Latino Private College has been very active trying to understand their role in serving Latino
students. They developed the Multicultural Student Union and reestablished the Diversity
Committee in order to promote dialogue on campus. However, it was assumed at the beginning
of the research that LPC needed to value diversity in order to improve Hispanic retention.
Nevertheless, LPC has been actively working on diversity issues, it is encouraged that Latino
Private College should continue to work in valuing diversity on campus, which in turn can help
their Latino students. No further recommendation is given for this assumed influence.
Cultural models (institutional awareness and improvement). Institutional culture
related to beliefs of institutional awareness and improvement to better serve Latinos. Overall, as
an institution, LPC seems to believe in institutional awareness and improvement to better serve
Latinos. Grubb and Badway (2005) argued that college and universities who are committed to
their students should focus on internal accountability rather than external compliance. Those
institutions focused on merely external accountability will only fix things in order to show they
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 120
comply whereas those focused on internal accountability will constantly evaluate and improve
their processes. For the past five years, Latino Private College has been very aware of their need
for better ways to serve their Latino students. It was assumed at the beginning of the research
that LPC needed greater awareness in order to improve Hispanic retention. Nevertheless, LPC
has been actively working on retention issues and Hispanic student programs, it is encouraged
that Latino Private College should continue to work to increase awareness in aspects that could
affect their Latino students. No further recommendation is given for this assumed influence.
Cultural settings (urgency). Institutional culture related to a sense of urgency for
development, implementation, and assessment of specific initiatives, programs, and services that
could positively affect Latino student retention. Latino Private College administrators need to
be compelled to develop, implement, and monitor retention strategies that would specifically
serve their Latino student body. Clark and Estes (2008) pointed out that effective organizations
are strategic in terms of goals and when those goals could be measure and monitored.
Administrators will have to cultivate a culture compelled to develop strategic and specific
programs and services fitted to serve their Hispanic student body. These should be measurable
and properly monitored in order to be improved or adjusted. Furthermore, this recommendation
should increase LPC’s effectiveness as it relates to Hispanic student retention and graduation.
Rueda (2011) pointed out the importance of assessing organizational culture in order to
increase performance in educational institutions. He described cultural settings as visible
elements such as places, classrooms, programs, policies, structures, rules, regulations, strategic
initiatives, and things that enact culture at an institution. Clark and Estes (2008) proposed
effective change efforts use evidence-based strategic solutions and adapt them, where necessary,
to the organization’s culture and context. Cultural change at Latino Private College should be
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 121
strategic to cultural settings and include evidence-based solutions that could be monitored.
Kotter (2007) claims effective change begins by deliberately working towards a sense of urgency
for the needed or wanted change. Administrators at LPC must begin to foster a sense of urgency
in order to promote change and to work towards monitoring initiatives.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
According to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) the new world Kirkpatrick model is the
newly redesigned Kirkpatrick’s training and evaluation model (see figure 5), a widely known and
used approach to assess the effectiveness of training programs. Developed originally by
professor Don Kirkpatrick in the fifties, the new world Kirkpatrick model could be a powerful
tool to increase performance. Don’s four words, reaction, learning, behavior, and results have
stood the test of time but the new model adds some key elements that improve the model’s
effectiveness.
Figure 5. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) Program Evaluation Model
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 122
Results, is level four in the model and it has to do with reaching desired outcomes or
goals. Once proper knowledge and skill has been acquired, it should be attached to the
organization’s desired outcomes. This could be done in the new model by paying close attention
to leading indicators, which are elements that could be easily observed and inform the
organization of progress towards goals. Leading indicators are fundamental for this level and
must be carefully thought of and noticed. Behavior is level three in the model and it has to do
with how the learned knowledge and skill is being put in practice. This level is also related to
processes and systems that could help modify behavior through the use of required drivers that
help monitor, reinforce, encourage, and reward positive performance. Level three is evaluated
through the lens of critical behaviors, which are the most significant behaviors that impact the
desired goal or outcome. Learning, is level two in the model and it has to do with effectiveness
in providing the proper knowledge and skill needed to achieve the desired outcomes. It also
includes attitude, confidence, and commitment to reaching the goals. This level seems basic but
it is highly sophisticated because providing this type of training should be planned according to
the desired outcomes and it should not be a one time training even but rather an ongoing teaching
and coaching experience. Reaction is level one in the model and it has to do with the satisfaction
with the training or development program. This is about the relevancy of the training to reach
the intended goals or desired outcomes. It is about measuring the level of satisfaction about and
engagement in training but most importantly the relevance of the training to the participants and
the organization (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
The new Kirkpatrick model is valuable because it forces the implementation team or
individual to focus on the desired goals or outcomes. Focusing on goals will usually promote
accountability and increase the performance of participants. Additionally, the section on level
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 123
three (see Figure 5) has a circle representing a continuous emphasis on adjusting and monitoring
the behaviors in order to achieve greater results. The use of incentives promotes the motivational
aspect to the model, which could be useful in cases where the knowledge and skill may not be
lacking but rather the motivation to perform.
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations
The goal of LPC is to improve and maintain its Latino retention rate to 75% or higher by
fall of 2020. The goal for LPC’s administrators is to embrace and understand the importance of
improving retention, success, and completion rates for underrepresented students specifically
Latinos by engaging in a collaborative diversity initiative that could potentially help develop an
equity scorecard by spring of 2019. Administrators play a critical role in the organization’s
retention efforts for Latino students because of their direct involvement on strategic planning and
the direction of the institution. According to Adserias, Charleston, and Jackson (2017), college
and university leadership have access to the data and influence that could promote and
implement new programs and services to help underrepresented students achieve greater
results. This study examined the knowledge, motivational, and organizational barriers that may
affect administrators’ abilities to embrace the value of improving retention, success, and
completion rates for underrepresented students specially Latinos. The proposed solution is to
provide training and one-on-one support. The proposed solutions for internal outcomes will
allow administrators to: (1) increase knowledge about retention procedures that are effective and
specific for Latinos, (2) increase understanding on how to effectively help Latino students
succeed, (3) increase urgency to help their Latino student body, (4) increase accountability and
assessment of Latino specific initiatives and goals, (5) improve awareness of current conditions
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 124
regarding Latino student retention. The proposed solution for external outcomes is to increase
the retention rate of Latino students.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Leading indicators in level four of the new world Kirkpatrick model are specific
measures that could be observed and monitored, which could inform the organization of progress
towards its goals (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). In Table 12 there is a clear picture of the
internal and external goals or outcomes that LPC is striving towards, and the respective metrics
and methods of evaluation. The recommended training and support should help administrators
reach their internal goals, which in turn will help LPC reach its external outcome.
Table 12
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s)
Method(s)
External Outcomes
1) Increase the retention
rate of Latino students.
Collect and assess institutional data
annually on Hispanic students
retention rates at LPC.
Compare yearly reports to
LPC’s Hispanic retention
goals.
Internal Outcomes
2) Increase knowledge
about retention strategies
that are effective and
specific for Latinos.
Collect and assess monthly data
(during semester) on
administrator’s knowledge of
effective retention procedures for
Latino students.
Compare monthly reports to
verify the effectiveness of
training and make necessary
adjustments.
3) Increase
understanding on how to
effectively help Latino
students succeed.
Collect and assess monthly data
(during semester) on administrators
perceived understanding of Latino
success strategies.
Compare monthly reports to
verify the effectiveness of
training and make necessary
adjustments.
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 125
4) Increase urgency to
help their Latino student
body.
Collect and assess monthly data
(during semester) on administrators
perceived sense of urgency about
helping underrepresented students
succeed.
Compare monthly reports to
verify the effectiveness of
training and make necessary
adjustments.
5) Increase
accountability and
assessment of Latino
specific initiatives and
goals.
Collect and assess monthly data
(during semester) on current
initiatives to reach Latino retention
goals.
Compare monthly reports to
verify the effectiveness of
implemented initiatives and
recommend necessary
adjustments.
6) Improve awareness of
current conditions
regarding Latino student
retention.
Collect and assess monthly data
(during semester) on current
condition regarding LPC’s
achievement of Latino retention
goal.
Compare monthly reports to
verify the effectiveness of
LPC at reaching its Latino
retention goal and recommend
necessary adjustments.
Level 3: Behavior
Critical behaviors. The stakeholders of focus are administrators at LPC. In order for
administrators to reach the desired outcomes, level three of the new world Kirkpatrick calls for
the identification of critical behaviors, which are the most significant behaviors that impact the
performance to reach the desired outcome (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The first critical
behavior is administrators must demonstrate proficiency on effective and specific retention
strategies for Latino students. The second critical behavior is administrators should utilize
reflective practice on retention and diversity issues at LPC. The third critical behavior is that for
administrators LPC’s Hispanic retention goals must become urgent in the priority list. In Table
13, the specific metrics, methods, and timing for each outcome behaviors are presented.
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 126
Table 13
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical Behavior Metric(s)
Method(s)
Timing
1. Administrators must
demonstrate proficiency on
effective and specific
retention strategies,
programs, and services for
Latino students.
2. Administrators should
utilize reflective practice
on retention and diversity
issues at LPC.
3. LPC’s Hispanic
retention goals must
become urgent in the
priority list of
administrators.
Number of
times effective
strategies are
mentioned in
the survey.
Number of
times reflective
practice took
place during a
60-day period.
Number of
times action was
taken in order to
improve Latino
retention.
Monthly
assessment (during
semester) survey of
specific strategies
for Latino student
retention.
Monthly
assessment (during
semester) survey of
reflective practice.
Monthly
assessment (during
semester) survey of
actionable
behaviors.
Monthly survey (during
semester) for the first
year. Quarterly after
implementation as long as
goals are not being
reached.
Monthly survey (during
semester) for the first
year. Quarterly after
implementation as long as
goals are not being
reached.
Monthly survey (during
semester) for the first
year. Quarterly after
implementation as long as
goals are not being
reached.
Required drivers. According to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016), level three of the
new world Kirkpatrick model also includes processes and systems that could help modify
behavior through the use of required drivers that help monitor, reinforce, encourage, and reward
positive performance. Administrator require the support of Latino Private College as an
institution in order to provide those processes and systems that could monitor, reinforce,
encourage and reward their efforts towards reaching the desired outcomes. In Table 14 these
required drivers are recommended to support critical behaviors of administrators and includes the
timing for each driver.
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 127
Table 14
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing
Critical
Behaviors
Supported
1, 2, 3 Etc.
Reinforcing
Provide training on retention strategies that are effective and
specific for Latino students.
Provide follow up meetings to discuss proven retention
strategies and how can they be adopted and implemented at
LPC.
Periodically meet with at-risk Latino students to understand the
student’s reasons and perspectives on the college retention
programs and services
Promote awareness and a strategic action plan to help at-risk
students.
Annually
Ongoing
Ongoing
Ongoing
1
1
2, 3
2, 3
Encouraging
Promote campus-wide motivation/awareness about the value of
helping students succeed.
Highlight specific success stories about retention of Latino
students.
Semi-
Annual
Ongoing
3
3
Rewarding
Contact graduating Latino students and inquire about how LPC
helped them succeed. Publicly recognize those elements that
those students repeatedly mention.
Publicly recognize those administrators who make an effort to
care, contact, and support at-risk Latino students.
Semi-
Annual
Semi-
Annual
2, 3
3
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 128
Monitoring
Establish a monthly meeting to analyze retention numbers, talk
about specific at-risk students that need help, and look at ways
to achieve the retention goals of LPC.
Establish an annual meeting to evaluate and assess the retention
rates of students and LPC’s retention goals.
Monthly
Annually
2, 3
2, 3
Organizational support. Latino Private College should provide additional support in
order to implement the required drivers properly. First, these divers must be taken into account
in LPC’s strategic plan. Required time should be considered for each participant, responsible
personnel should be assigned to keep all these in motion. The organizational goal to increase
Latino student retention must be a priority for LPC before it could be a priority for
administrators, faculty, and even students. The elements for reinforcing, encouraging,
rewarding, and monitoring should be constantly assessed and feedback should be provided
during selected organizational meetings.
Level 2: Learning
Learning goals. After successful completion of recommended solutions administrators
at LPC will be able to:
1. Recognize specific retention strategies that are proven to be effective for Latino
students. (D, P)
2. Understand the needs of Hispanic students in regards to college persistence. (D)
3. Demonstrate awareness of current conditions and trends on Hispanic student
retention, persistence, and graduation. (D)
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 129
4. Monitor current initiatives for Hispanics to assess college effectiveness and potential
improvement. (P)
5. Reflect upon the importance of helping Hispanic students succeed. (M)
6. Value the opportunity to help Latino students reach their academic goals. (Value)
7. Develop passion and urgency that could move them to action on improving Hispanic
retention. (Value)
Program. The learning goals listed above will be achieve through the development and
implementation of a training program that will explore proven retention strategies that are
effective and specific to help Latino students succeed. Additionally, administrators at LPC will
learn a range of parallel topics related to the learning goals. The entire training will increase
knowledge and skill and motivation of participants to help Latino students succeed. Since
administrators stay in their positions for more than 5 years the program will be done annually.
The training is blended, with two online learning modules and two additional group reflective
sessions. It will also include practical exercises such (1) meeting face-to-face for an interview-
type session with at-risk Hispanic students to understand the student’s reasons and perspectives
on the college retention programs and services, and (2) phone or email contact with Latino
alumnus to inquire about how LPC helped them succeed. The time commitment for the program
will be 6 hours for the two modules, 4 hours for the two group-reflective sessions, 15-30 minutes
for the email or phone conversation, and 1 hour for the student interview (11.5 hours).
The online modules will provide the content specific information and additional
directions for the more practical and reflective aspects of the program. It will include the
following material, (1) understanding Hispanic culture and the needs of Latinos to persist in
college, (2) current conditions and trends on Hispanic student retention, persistence, and
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 130
graduation, (3) the importance of assessing current performance of Hispanic retention efforts and
setting improvement goals, (4) the value in helping Hispanic students succeed, (5) the need for
passion and urgency in order to act on improving Hispanic retention. There will be lecture
videos, discussion forums, academic articles, and two short writing assignments to reflect on the
content.
The interview with a current at-risk Latino student and the phone or email contact with an
alumnus of Hispanic descent will provide an additional aspect to the learning experience. The
information from these interactions will help bring a fresh perspective (feedback) from the
voices of the students on key elements of success or failure. The data will be gathered and
processed in order to better understand Latino students and their particular culture and needs. On
the other hand, during the live group sessions, participants will share their learning experience
from the field and the modules, process the information together, and possibly develop new ideas
for programs and services or improvement of current programs and services.
Evaluation of the Components of learning. The evaluation of knowledge, skills,
attitude, confidence, and commitment of participants is central for an effective level two
(learning), in the New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). If
administrators are to help reach the organization’s Hispanic retention goal, then they must apply
what is learned during the training. Evaluating these learning components will help training
personnel assess the effectiveness of the program. A successful program will increase the
declarative and procedural knowledge of administrators regarding the subjects being taught.
Administrators should also see value in the program and it must increment their commitment and
confidence to apply what is being learned. As such, Table 15 lists the evaluation methods and
timing for these learning components.
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 131
Table 15
Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program.
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”
Knowledge checks using multiple-choice during online
modules.
Knowledge checks through discussion during group
sessions.
In the online modules during and
after course content sections.
Periodically during the group
sessions and documented via
observation notes.
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”
Retrospective pre- and post-test assessment survey
asking participants about their level of proficiency
before and after the training.
Quality of the feedback from peers during group
sessions.
After the online learning modules.
During the group sessions
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Pre- and Post-test assessment survey to determine if the
value has increased to help Hispanic students succeed.
Facilitator’s observation of participants’ statements and
actions demonstrating that they see the benefit of what
they are learning.
At the end of the training program.
During the online learning modules
and group sessions.
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”
Survey items using scaled items
At the end of the training program.
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 132
Discussions following practice and feedback.
Retrospective pre- and post-test assessment item.
During the group sessions.
At the end of the training program.
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”
Develop new ideas to improve Latino retention or to
improve current programs and services.
Ask participants to write down and share how they will
implement what they have learned.
Retrospective pre- and post-test assessment item.
During the group sessions.
During the group sessions.
At the end of the training program.
Level 1: Reaction
This level has to do with the value of assessing training participant’s level of
engagement, their perception of training relevancy to reach the organizations goals, and the
overall effectiveness of the training. For this reason, Table 16 lists the reactions of the
participants to the learning event in aspects of favorability, engagement, and relevancy.
Table 16
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program.
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
Data analytics in the learning management
system
Completion of online modules and lessons
Completion of field assignments
Ongoing during online portion of the course.
Ongoing during online portion of the course.
Ongoing in between online portion and
group sessions of the program.
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 133
Observation by instructor/facilitator
Attendance
Program evaluation survey (response rate)
During the group sessions.
During the online learning modules and
group sessions.
At the end of the training program.
Relevance
Observation by instructor/facilitator
Program evaluation survey
Ongoing during online portion of the course.
At the end of the training program.
Customer Satisfaction
Observation by instructor/facilitator
Program evaluation survey
Ongoing during online portion of the course.
At the end of the training program.
Evaluation Tools
Immediately following the program implementation. Engagement in the two modules
will be monitored using the activity analytics tool in the learning management system (LMS).
The activity analytics tool will collect data about the start, duration, and completion of modules
by those participating. The LMS will also administer a survey (Appendix F) after each module
requesting the participant to indicate the relevance of the material and their overall satisfaction
with the content and delivery of the online modules. In addition, during the group sessions, to
evaluate Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) level 1 reaction (engagement, relevance, and
satisfaction), the facilitator will make formal observations (Appendix G). On the other hand, to
evaluate Level 2 open-ended questions will be included at the end of the surveys (see also
Appendix F) this to assess participant’s understanding of what is being presented. During the
group sessions, Level 2 will also use group discussions and reporting out on the topics seen in
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 134
the training modules to gauge participant understanding of the material, facilitator will make
annotations of pertinent comments during his/her observations (see also Appendix G).
Delayed for a period after the program implementation. Approximately 60-90 days
after the implementation of the training LPC will administer a survey (Appendix H) containing
open and scaled items using the blended evaluation approach to measure, from the participant’s
perspective, satisfaction, and relevance of the training program (Level 1), the extent to which
participants are able to increase in commitment, confidence, and confidence regarding the
content of the training and transfer of the content to their jobs (Level 2), the extent to which
participants are able to apply the content of the training to LPC’s retention efforts for Latino
students (Level 3), and the extent to which they are able to develop, implement, and monitor
retention strategies, programs, and services that could help reach LPC’s Hispanic retention goal
of 75% or higher (Level 4).
Data Analysis and Reporting
The Level 4 goal for administrators is measured by their involvement in the development,
implementation, and monitoring of retention strategies, programs, and services that could help
reach LPC’s Hispanic retention goal of 75% or higher. Administrators must have proper
knowledge and skills about Latino culture and values. They must also know proven strategies,
programs, and services that specifically work to retain higher numbers of Latino students. In
terms of motivation, administrators must understand the value of helping Latino students succeed
in college and they must also be willing to invest of their time to develop and support initiatives
that could lower Hispanic attrition at LPC.
The training program recommended in this research in conjunction with institutional data
on each semester’s disaggregated retention rates should help with data analysis and reporting.
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 135
Each semester, LPC will compile student retention data desegregated by ethnicity. Furthermore,
the training program facilitator should also compile data from the surveys and group sessions to
be analyzed by LPC’s retention committee. Annually, LPC will make a comprehensive analysis
of program effectiveness by looking at desegregated graduation rates and comparing it with
previous years to see if there has been an increase in Latino graduation rates. To monitor the
progress and hold the participants accountable the following dashboard Table 17 will report the
data on these measures. Similar dashboards to monitor Levels 1, 2, and 3 for should be created
by the program facilitator.
Table 17
Data Analysis and Reporting Dashboard for Level 4 Results.
Dashboard Goal Fall 2019
Totals
Spring 2020
Totals
2019-2020
Annual Totals
Administrators are
knowledgeable about proven
retention strategies, programs,
and services for Latinos.
100% XX XX XX
Administrators are engaged
and participating in Hispanic
retention efforts.
90% XX XX XX
Administrators understand the
value of helping Latinos
succeed.
90% XX XX XX
Hispanic Student 1st-2nd Year
Retention Rate.
75% XX XX XX
Hispanic Student 4-Year
Graduation Rates.
75% XX XX XX
Summary
The Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) New World Kirkpatrick Model was utilized for
the implementation and evaluation plan of the research’s recommendations. The model is
comprised of four levels of training and evaluation, which begins with reaction, learning,
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 136
behavior, and results (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The four levels increase the
effectiveness of the training program by helping make sure administrators at LPC have the
required knowledge, motivation, and organizational support to develop, implement, and monitor
retention strategies, programs, and services to reach Latino retention goals. The New World
Kirkpatrick Model starts by establishing level 4 (results), this ensures the program is focused on
individual and organizational goals, thus “leading indicators” were developed, with program
outcomes, metrics, and methods to assess and monitor performance. The second step was level 3
(behaviors) where “critical behaviors” that would help administrators reach the organization’s
goal were identified these also had metrics, methods, and timing for proper assessment and
“required drivers” that would reinforce, encourage, reward, and monitor the successful
implementation of critical behaviors. Next, level 2 (learning) was develop, which consist of 7
learning outcomes for administrators, a detail description of the training program, and the
participants evaluation of knowledge, attitude, commitment, and confidence on the training
program. The last component of Kirkpatrick’s model is level 1 (reaction) and it has to do with
the tools used to assess administrator’s engagement, relevance of the material, and
administrator’s satisfaction with the training program. A well crafted implementation and
evaluation plan is needed to increase performance and make sure the training programs are
effective and are helping the organization reach their goals. Furthermore, connecting training to
performance helps elevate the value of training programs (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Once the program is implemented it needs to be constantly evaluated to see if its being
successful at reaching the desired outcomes, this process begins with the question “does the level
of…meet expectations?” then it moves to data analysis “why or why not?” and finally “If so,
Why?” (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). For levels 1 and 2, facilitators should be evaluating
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 137
as they are implementing by assessing the level of interaction during the training, if it is not
meeting expectations, if it is not then they should do a “pulse check” which is a pause to ask
participants open ended questions to find out the reason why the training is not being as effective
and possibly make informed adjustments. For levels 3 and 4, facilitators should evaluate the
success of the program by monitoring participant’s performance on leading indicators and
critical behaviors. If performance is low and those behaviors are not being practiced then a
consulting intervention should be planned as a post-training plan in order to communicate the
needed performance to reach institutional Hispanic retention goals (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick,
2016).
After the first cycle of training program implementation a concise final report will be
crafted to evaluate the effectiveness of the training program. The final report should be brief,
include graphics, and presented in person if possible. It should also include the organizational
goal and purpose of the program, the methods utilized, a short introduction of level 4 and 3
expectations and outcomes, followed by the challenges and adjustments made during
implementation to increase effectiveness, and finalized with recommendations for further
improvement. The entire report is based on the organization’s mission and goals (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach
The approach utilized for this research was Clark and Estes (2008) analytic framework.
Assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational barriers were assessed to undergo a data-
driven validation process to help confirm the need for recommendations. In this case study, the
analytic framework seemed to be appropriate because it helped focus the research’s attention to
specific areas, the lack or need of knowledge and skill to successfully perform a task, the value
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 138
of motivation to increase performance and productivity, and the assessment of organizational
culture that could move the institution in the right direction to reach its target goal.
On the other hand, the Clark and Estes (2008) framework limits the study almost
exclusively to KMO influences that are pre-assumed by the researcher. However, if the
individual conducting the research only focuses on a set of proposed barriers but the organization
has additional barriers it could be difficult to include those later on in the study. Additionally,
the framework in its original form requires an analysis of all stakeholders involved but
unfortunately, due to different reasons such as time constrains and financial limitations only one
stakeholder was selected, interviewed, and analyzed. The framework seems to be somewhat
effective for educational institutions because it focuses on a new paradigm, which requires
educational institutions to measure current performance, set objectives and goals, analyze the gap
between current performance and desired goals, and finally, make reasonable recommendations
to increase performance and close the gap.
Limitations and Delimitations
Six one-on-one interviews were conducted and one focus group with eight participants.
The focus group gathered valuable data, however, one-on-one interviews were more robust and
strategic to the research’s purpose. Twelve one-on-one interviews would of given more relevant
and usable data. Even though consent forms for voluntary participation were sent to individuals,
there is a high provability that administrators may have felt forced to participate because of the
size of the institution and the executive decision from the college’s president to allow this
research. The interview protocols were design specifically for the research, however, during the
interviews, some of the questions were found to be useless and the data being collected not
relevant for the research. Moreover, the order of the questions had to be switched due to the
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 139
flow of the interviews. Additionally, as this research addresses Hispanic retention over a period
of time, ideally implementation of solutions and assessment would require further review and
produce longitudinal data to further validate results, make appropriate adjustments, and assess
initiatives designed to increase Latino retention at LPC.
Selection of LPC for the case study was largely due to researcher convenience as an
alumni and the willingness of LPC leadership to allow a recent graduate do academic research.
The inherent bias of being an alumnus at LPC may have influenced the data analysis and
interpretation of findings for the validation process of KMO assumptions. Nevertheless, the
researcher was aware of this before entering analysis and careful reflection memos were written
to process the information and try to make fair analysis of the data. The social context during the
data collection might had affected participants reaction due to the fact that during my data
collection there was a nation-wide concern about the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals
(DACA), which has to do with immigrant students, many of Hispanic descent, that received
provisional legal status to study and work in the U.S. However, it is hard to measure the impact
level of such social period. The culture and context of LPC also limits the generalizability of the
findings and recommendations to its main campus and current context. Some of the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational aspects may be applicable to similar colleges, but a custom KMO
analysis should be performed that fits other organization’s goals and context.
Future Research
Rethinking Hispanic student attrition is a case study focused on a single organization and
the organizational goal set for the research. Nevertheless, one area of further study should be
how other organizations are doing in terms of their Latino retention efforts. Benchmarking
against similar institutions could help compare and contrast the differences between them and
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 140
identify what is effective or not on a broader field. This is important because the generalizability
of the study is affected and additional claims could be made. Another aspect that should be
study is that a comprehensive gap analysis has to evaluate all stakeholders, in this case, the time
constrain only allowed to assess administrators, however, students, faculty, and staff could
participate of Clark and Estes (2008) in order to understand all perspectives and needs.
In the recommendations section a training program was proposed for implementation,
however, further research for program development should be taken into account. The program
includes the creation of two online modules with content that may include elements from this
research but will require additional resources. The material used should be proven to be
effective and relevant to achieve the program’s learning goals.
Conclusion
This research focused on addressing high attrition rate of Latino students at U.S. post-
secondary institutions. National data reports that Hispanics hold the lowest degree completion
rate (16%) of post-secondary degrees (NCES, 2015). Research shows that despite high
enrollment of Hispanic students the retention and graduation rates are low (Rueda, 2011; Ortiz,
Valerio & Lopez, 2012; Page, 2013; Calderon, 2014; Wagner, 2015; Contreras & Contreras,
2015). In recent decades, the U.S demographic has shifted and Hispanics have been the fastest
growing minority, especially in major urban areas of the country. Thus, educational experts and
institutions are looking for ways to properly serve this segment of the population (Rodriguez,
2008; Bordas, 2013; Salas, Aragon, Alandejani & Timpson, 2014; Samuel & Scott, 2014). I
concur with one expert in particular, who suggested, that the increase population of Latino
students in our schools should be an appeal for practitioners, experts, and higher education
institutions to help close the achievement gap for this minority (Rueda, 2011).
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 141
The study was guided by Clark and Estes (2008) analytic framework where the
organization and selected stakeholder’s performance was analyzed in knowledge and skill,
motivational, and organizational (KMO) aspects. The were three knowledge findings, first that
administrators at LPC proved to be knowlegable of current trends in higher education related to
Latino students and Hispanic demographics. The second finding was that even though
administrators were knowledgeable of relevant retention strategies, programs, and services they
were not as knowledgeable when it came to specific retention initiatives that are proven and
more exclusively targeted to the Latino student demographic. Thus, a recommendation was
presented for this second knowledge finding. Lastly, administrators also appear to be reflective
practitioners when it comes to retention and diversity issues at LPC. Additionally, two
motivational aspects were assessed and both were very positive. First, administrators seemed to
be motivated and self-efficacious that they could help Latino students succeed in achieving their
education. Second, they had personal and organizational goals to support Latino student
retention and a more diverse community. Some of those goals were for example a desire to have
Hispanic faculty representation, executive representation, and a more welcoming campus culture
for all demographics. The final area that was assessed was the organization, which includes LPC
culture. The three organizational aspects were first LPC’s value of diversity and according to
administrator’s comments it seemed that as an organization LPC values diversity and have a
desire to be more strategic in this endeavor. In the last three years they have developed the
Multicultural Student Union and re-establish the Diversity Committee in order to better serve
diverse populations. The second finding was that as an organization LPC seemed to believe in
accountability and improvement in order to better serve their Latino students. LPC no only
reports to the accrediting agency but it also has retention goals and committees that oversee and
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 142
monitor their retention performance and make recommendations. The third finding was that
LPC as an organization did not seemed to have an urgency to develop, implement, and monitor
specific retention strategies, programs, and services that could highly increase Hispanic student
retention. Thus, a second recommendation was presented for this last organizational finding.
The implications of the case study are immense to the institutional community because it
brought to light some key fundamentals when trying to resolve educational problems related to
underrepresented minorities in the United States:
• Strategic Knowledge of Best Practices- First, we need to treat each individual with much
value and respect, each student that is enrolled and paying tuition deserves the highest
quality in educational practice. Thus, higher education institutions must assess
performance and provide the highest level of training and professional development in
areas that need improvement.
• A sense of urgency conductive to change. Second, even with the many different
responsibilities and distractions administrators and institutions have on a daily basis, in
order to increase student retention (or to improve in any other area), they have to cultivate
a healthy sense of urgency and eagerness to participate in the change process.
These principles and the implications of this study can move beyond this case study to the
greater educational community as well as be transferred to medium and large institutions with a
desire to improve Latino student retention in the U.S.
I want to conclude with five transformational principles from an expert in solving
educational challenges for underrepresented students. She believes that in order to improve
educational outcomes for underrepresented students, including Latinos, requires a commitment
from academics and professionals to (1) want to do good for students, (2) participate in the
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 143
change process, (3) understand the responsibility institutions have in solving this problem and
the need for remediation of institutional cultures, practices, and structures, (4) make a fair
assessment of their institution through inquiry, research, and data driven analysis, and lastly, (5)
recognize that practitioners and institutions have a powerful role in helping students succeed
(Bensimon, 2012, pp. 7-9).
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 144
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APPENDIX A
LPC’s Student Demographic Data 2007/2016
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APPENDIX B
LPC’s Desegregated Retention Data 2013/2016
2013/14 2014/15 2015/16
TUG FTF Year 1 to 2 59.6% 55.2% 65.8%
TUG FTF Hispanic Year 1 to Year 2 54.6% 44.4% 59.0%
TUG FTF Minority Year 1 to Year 2 50.0% 47.8% 59.6%
TUG FTF White Year 1 to Year 2 67.9% 60.0% 79.2%
IPEDS FTFT retention Year 1 to Year 2 63% 51% 63%
IPEDS FTFT Hispanic Year 1 to Year 2 62.5% 46.7% 55.9%
IPEDS FTFT Minority Year 1 to Year 2 55.6% 47.4% 57.8%
IPEDS FTFT White Year 1 to Year 2 68.0% 53.9% 75.0%
WSCUC Peer IPEDS FTFT Year 1 to 2 74.9% 74.0% TBD
ABHE Peer IPEDS FTFT Year 1 to 2 71.1% 67.9% TBD
TUG Transfer Year 1 to 2 55.9% 76.3% 73.6%
TUG Transfer Hispanic Year 1 to Year 2 57.1% 73.7% 75.0%
TUG Transfer Minority Year 1 to Year 2 53.9% 73.3% 75.0%
TUG Transfer White Year 1 to Year 2 57.1% 79.3% 70..6%
TUG All New Student Year 1 to 2 58.1% 65.8% 69.0%
TUG All New Hispanic Year 1 to 2 55.6% 59.5% 65.1%
TUG All New Minority Year 1 to 2 51.4% 62.3% 65.9%
TUG All New White Year 1 to 2 63.3% 68.8% 75.6%
TUG Continuing Student Retention 66.5% 55.7% 63.4%
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 161
APPENDIX C
Interview Protocol (One-on-one Interviews)
Introduction
I want to thank you for your willingness to participate in this study. Your contribution
and participation will not only help me complete the research but will help me learn from your.
Thank you. I want to remind you that you are free to leave at any point during the interview and
you can also choose not to answer any of my questions. At this time I will begin recording.
I will start and give a brief explanation and background of the study. Then, Let’s begin
with an introductory question;
1) Can you briefly introduce yourself? (e.g. name, ethnicity, and role at LPC.)
Procedural and Factual Knowledge Questions
2) What are some of the retention processes for Latino students at LPC? (Factual)
3) How do you feel about LPC’s retention process as it relates to Latino students?
4) Are there any student services available to help underrepresented students succeed? (Factual)
5) What might be some of the strengths and weaknesses regarding Hispanic student services at
LPC?
6) As you may know, LPC has become more diverse in the last two decades. Which includes a
major increase in its Latino student body. Why do you think this shift occurred? (Factual)
Self-Efficacy Motivation Questions
7) What would you think are some of the factors that could make some Latino students drop out
of college?
8) What would you think are some of the factors that could make some Latino students persist in
college?
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 162
9) What does helping underrepresented students succeed means to LPC or to you?
10) How do you see your role in supporting the retention needs of Latino students here at LPC?
At this point we are almost half way through the session, I will remind the participant that
I am recording every word he/she says and that she/he is free to leave the interview at any time,
reemphasizing that the participation is voluntary. Then, I will move to the next question.
Goal Orientation Motivation Questions
11) What is your opinion about organizational goals?
a) Performance improvement?
b) Strategic Planning?
12) Can you tell me about some of the goals LPC has, if any, for their Latino students?
Organizational Culture Questions
13) How do you feel the organizational culture at LPC addresses the needs of the Latino
students?
14) How do Latino students feel at LPC campus?
15) Could you walk me through the usual response to organizational change at LPC?
16) Could you explain LPC’s approach, if any, as it relates to reducing Latino attrition rate?
17) What do you think about accountability systems as it relates to student retention?
18) What are your recommendations in order to improve LPC’s Hispanic retention rate?
Closing Question
19) Is there anything you would like to add?
Thank your very much for taking the time to be part of this interview. I will transcribe
this interview and will give you a copy to corroborate that I am not changing your words and for
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 163
member checking. I would ask if you could please send me an email confirming that the
transcription is reliable. (I will also give them a small gift card as a token of appreciation for
their time and willingness to participate.)
Thanks again!
Daniel Ruarte
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 164
APPENDIX D
Interview Protocol (Focus Group)
Introduction
I want to thank you for your willingness to participate in this study. Your contribution
and participation will not only help me complete the research but will help me learn from your.
Thank you. I want to remind you that you are free to leave at any point during the session and
you can also choose not to answer any of my questions. At this time I will begin recording.
I will start and give a brief explanation and background of the study. Then, Let’s begin
with an introductory question that we can all respond to;
1) Can you briefly introduce yourself? (e.g. name, ethnicity, and role at LPC.)
2) I’d like for us to collectively imagine what it would look like to have the ideal retention
process for Hispanic students from enrollment to graduation. Let’s talk through different phases
and pool ideas for what this could look like.
3) If you have had strategic planning or problem-solving meetings within the past couple of
years. What were some of the steps that were taken in those meetings in order to reach a
decision?
4) What does helping underrepresented students succeed means to LPC?
At this point we are almost half way through the session, I will remind them that I am
recording every word they say and that they are free to leave the room if they don’t want to
participate any longer reemphasizing that the participation is voluntary. Then, I will move to the
next question.
5) Could you explain LPC’s approach, if any, as it relates to reducing Latino attrition rate?
6) Could you walk me through the usual response to organizational change at LPC?
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 165
7) What are your recommendations in order to improve LPC’s Hispanic retention rate?
8) Is there anything you would like to add?
Thank your very much for taking the time to be part of this focus group. I will transcribe
this session and will give you copies to corroborate that I am not changing your words and for
member checking. I would ask if you could please send me an email confirming that the
transcription is reliable. I will also give them a small gift card as a token of appreciation for their
time and willingness to participate.
Thanks again!
Daniel Ruarte
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 166
APPENDIX E
Informed Consent
University of Southern California, Rossier School of Education
INFORMED CONSENT NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
Rethinking Hispanic Attrition Rates at U.S. Post-secondary Institutions: An Evaluation Study
Conducted at Latino Private College.
You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Daniel Ruarte, a doctoral
student and Dr. Eugenia Mora-Flores, Professor and faculty advisor at the University of Southern
California, because you are an administrator at Latino Private College (Pseudonym). Your
participation is voluntary. You should read the information below, and ask questions about
anything you do not understand, before deciding whether to participate. Please take as much time
as you need to read the consent form. You may also decide to discuss participation with your
family or friends. If you decide to participate, you will be asked to sign this form. You will be
given a copy of this form.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this project is to evaluate the degree to which LPC is achieving the goal
of improving and maintaining its Latino retention rate at 75% and above. The analysis will focus
on knowledge, motivation and organizational influences related to achieving the organizational
goals. While a complete performance evaluation would focus on all LPC stakeholders, for
practical purposes the stakeholder to be focused on in this analysis are LPC administrators.
STUDY PROCEDURES
If you volunteer to participate in this study, you will be asked to be part of a focus group
interview or individual face-to-face interview in which there will be a set of twelve to fifteen
carefully crafted questions. These questions underwent peer-review, proposal committee and
IRB approval process in order to make sure that you, the participant, would be protected. The
questions will be related to your institution and the work that has been done with the
underrepresented Latino students. It is an evaluation study that will seek to understand and assess
knowledge and skill, motivation, and organizational causes of performance at LPC regarding
Hispanic student attrition.
The interview session will last an average of 60 minutes and the focus group sessions will last
about 90 to 120 minutes at the most. The sessions will be recorder for proper transcription and
the names will be kept anonymous. Participation is voluntary if you do not wish to participate or
be recorded please feel free to opt out.
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 167
POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO PARTICIPANTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
This is a dissertation in practice and there might be potential benefits of participation in the
study. The study aims at triggering rethinking and reevaluating Hispanic student attrition. The
study aims to potentially understand how to better serve Latino students. The findings and results
may be beneficial to participants and their organization.
CONFIDENTIALITY
We will keep your records for this study confidential as far as permitted by law. However, if we
are required to do so by law, we will disclose confidential information about you. The members
of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects Protection
Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies to
protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
The data will be stored in the researcher’s computer protected with a passcode. The data will
only be shown to the dissertation committee and the participants will be kept anonymous by
using pseudonyms. After the dissertation is complete, the recordings will be stored in a flash
drive and placed in a locked safe at the researcher’s home. The researcher will keep the
recordings and transcriptions for the three years required by law, then it will be deleted or
destroyed.
PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
Your participation is voluntary. Your refusal to participate will involve no penalty or loss of
benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. You may withdraw your consent at any time and
discontinue participation without penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or
remedies because of your participation in this research study.
INVESTIGATOR’S CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact Daniel
Ruarte (researcher) at 562-879-7845, ruarte@usc.edu or Dr. Eugenia Mora-Flores (Dissertation
Chair) at 213-821-2727, moraflor@rossier.usc.edu.
RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT – IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research participant or the
research in general and are unable to contact the research team, or if you want to talk to someone
independent of the research team, please contact the University Park Institutional Review Board
(UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or
upirb@usc.edu
SIGNATURE OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 168
I have read the information provided above. I have been given a chance to ask questions. My
questions have been answered to my satisfaction, and I agree to participate in this study. I have
been given a copy of this form.
AUDIO RECORDING
□ I agree to be audio-recorded during the interview/focus group.
□ I do not want to be audio-recorded during the interview/focus group.
Name of Participant
Signature of Participant Date
SIGNATURE OF INVESTIGATOR
This Consent Form explains clearly the requirements, benefits, and rights of the participants. I
have provided my phone number and email address in order to make myself available to answer
any questions. I believe that by signing this document he/she understands the information
described in this document and freely consents to participate.
Name of Person Obtaining Consent
Signature of Person Obtaining Consent Date
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 169
APPENDIX F
Level 1 and 2 Online Module Survey
Context: This is a survey that will be administered right after completing the online training
module. The survey is a blended evaluation that will measure level 1 (engagement, relevance,
and satisfaction) and level 2 (declarative, procedural, attitude, confidence, and commitment).
For each of the questions below, circle the response that best characterized how you feel about
the statement:
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Agree
1. The training module was interesting.
2. During training we discussed how to
apply what was learned.
3. I would recommend this program to
others.
4. I believe it will be worthwhile for me to
invest time and effort in helping Latino
students succeed.
5. The online material and activities have
given me the confidence to apply what
I learned when I return to my job.
6. I am committed to applying what I
learned during this online module.
7. I found that having a conversation with
an at-risk Hispanic student, as part of
the online module, was valuable to
understand and learn from their
perspective.
8. I really liked the training.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Please provide feedback for the following questions (your response is very valuable):
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 170
1. What part of the training (If any) did you find irrelevant to help you increase Latino
student retention?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. What were some of the major concepts, strategies or models you learned during this
module?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Are you better prepared to serve Latino students succeed in their educational goals?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 171
APPENDIX G
Level 1 and 2 Group Session Facilitator’s Protocol
Context: This is a protocol facilitators will use during and after the group sessions in order to
assess level 1 (engagement, relevance, and satisfaction) and level 2 (declarative, procedural,
attitude, confidence, and commitment).
Level 2 Learning
1) Declarative- Knowledge checks through discussion during group sessions (Periodically
during the group sessions and documented via observation notes).
Make observations and notes during the group session following these questions:
Do participants seem to know (master) the content from the online modules?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Are they knowledgeable of specific retention strategies, programs, and services that could
help Latino students succeed?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 172
2) Procedural - Quality of the feedback from peers during group sessions (During the group
sessions).
Make observations and notes during the group session following these questions:
How technical were the discussions during the group sessions? (Give specific examples).
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
What is the overall feedback during the group session?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3) Attitude- Facilitator’s observation of participants’ statements and actions demonstrating that
they see the benefit of what they are learning (During the online learning modules and group
sessions).
Make observations and notes during the group session of participants’ statements and actions
that demonstrate they see the benefit of what they are learning (Specific Examples):
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 173
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4) Confidence- Discussions following practice and feedback (During the group sessions).
Make observations and notes during the group session of participants’ level of confidence about
Hispanic retention strategies, programs, or services (Give specific examples):
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5) Commitment- a) Develop new ideas to improve Latino retention or to improve current
programs and services, and b) Ask participants to write down and share how they will implement
what they have learned (During the group sessions).
Context: One of the goals of the group sessions is to promote “Transfer” from training to
practice. For this reason participants are to come together to develop new ideas that could help
improve Latino retention.
Make observations and take notes on new ideas and plans that emerged from the group session
(Give specific examples):
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 174
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Make observations and take notes on how participants are planning to implement what they have
learned during the training program (Give specific examples):
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Level 1 Reaction
6) Engagement
Who came to the group session?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
7) Relevance
Ask participants if the content of the modules and the group session was helpful and relevant to
their goals for Latino student retention?
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 175
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
8) Satisfaction
Ask participants if they would recommend this training to other people? Then ask why? (Give
specific examples)
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Any additional Notes or Observations
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 176
APPENDIX H
Level 1, 2, 3, and 4 Performance Survey
Context: This is a Blended Evaluation survey for the delayed assessment of Level 4 (Results),
Level 3 (Behavior), Level 2 (Learning), and Level 1 (Reaction). The delayed time should
between 60 and 90 days after training and implementation. Parts of this survey were adapted
from the Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) blended evaluation section.
Matrix for assessment:
Level 4 (Results)- The extent to which participants were able to develop, implement, and
monitor retention strategies, programs, and services that could help reach LPC’s Hispanic
retention goal of 75% or higher.
Level 3 (Behavior)- The extent to which participants were able to apply the content of
the training to LPC’s retention efforts for Latino students.
Level 2 (Learning)- The extent to which participants increased in knowledge,
commitment, and confidence regarding the content of the training and transfer to their
jobs.
Level 1 (Reaction)- The participant’s perspective, satisfaction, and relevance of the
training program.
Level 4 (Results)
Please provide feedback for the following questions:
1. What early signs of success have you noticed from your efforts in helping Latino
students?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Can you give an example of a positive outcome you experienced after the training?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. What impact is this program having on the organization as a whole?
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 177
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
For each of the questions below, circle the response that best characterized how you feel about
the statement.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Agree
1. I am already seeing positive results
from the training.
2. My efforts have contributed to the
goals of LPC.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Level 3 (Behavior)
Please provide feedback for the following questions:
1. What are some of the specific strategies, programs, or services that help improve Latino
retention?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Do you find yourself thinking or reflecting on retention and diversity?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Do you feel a sense of urgency to help underrepresented student’s succeed?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
For each of the questions below, circle the response that best characterized how you feel about
the statement.
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 178
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Agree
1. I have applied on the job what I learned
in the training.
2. I have had follow up meetings to
discuss proven retention strategies and
how can they be adopted and
implemented at LPC.
3. I was able to meet with an at-risk
Hispanic student to understand the
student’s reasons and perspectives on
the college retention programs and
services.
4. We have schedule an annual meeting to
evaluate and assess the retention rates
of students and LPC’s retention goals.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Level 2 (Learning)
For each of the questions below, circle the response that best characterized how you feel about
the statement.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Agree
1. I am more able to recognize specific
retention strategies that are proven to be
effective for Latino students. from the
training.
2. I am more able to understand the needs
of Hispanic students in regards to
college persistence.
3. I have a deeper awareness of current
conditions and trends on Hispanic
student retention, persistence, and
graduation
4. I believe it is important to monitor
current initiatives for Hispanics to
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 179
assess college effectiveness and
potential improvement.
5. I am more reflective upon the
importance of helping Hispanic
students succeed.
6. I value more the opportunity to help
Latino students reach their academic
goals.
7. I have developed a renewed passion
and urgency to act on improving
Hispanic retention.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Level 1 (Reaction)
Please provide feedback for the following questions:
1. What information from the training has been the most relevant in order to help Latino
students? (Please give an example)
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. What information (if any) from the training has NOT been the most relevant in order to
help Latino students? (Please be specific so we can improve)
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Looking back, what would you change or add to this program?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
For each of the questions below, circle the response that best characterized how you feel about
the statement.
RETHIKING HISPANIC ATTRITION 180
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Agree
1. Looking back, this program was good
use of my time.
2. The information I learned was useful
and applicable.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Abstract (if available)
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Ruarte, Daniel E.
(author)
Core Title
Rethinking Hispanic attrition rates at U.S. post-secondary institutions: an evaluation study conducted at Latino private college
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)
Publication Date
08/01/2018
Defense Date
04/16/2018
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
college persistence,college student success,Hispanic student retention,OAI-PMH Harvest,retention models,retention strategies,student attrition,underrepresented student support services
Format
application/pdf
(imt)
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Mora-Flores, Eugenia (
committee chair
), Canny, Eric (
committee member
), Hasan, Angela (
committee member
)
Creator Email
druarte@gmail.com,ruarte@usc.edu
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-47269
Unique identifier
UC11671710
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Document Type
Dissertation
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Ruarte, Daniel E.
Type
texts
Source
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(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
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Repository Name
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Repository Location
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Tags
college persistence
college student success
Hispanic student retention
retention models
retention strategies
student attrition
underrepresented student support services