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The mentoring experience: a case study of a mentoring program for first-generation students transitioning to a postsecondary institution
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Content
Running head: MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
Copyright 2018 Michael Louis Cersosimo
1
The Mentoring Experience: A Case Study of a Mentoring Program for First-Generation Students
Transitioning to a Postsecondary Institution
by
Michael Louis Cersosimo
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2018
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
2
Dedication
I dedicate this dissertation to my late grandfather, James Nunn, who passed away during
my first semester in this doctoral program. My grandpa earned his GED when he was 46 years
old and considered it one of his greatest accomplishments. From a young age, he taught me the
value of education and the opportunities it provides. I miss him every day, and this is for him.
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
3
Acknowledgements
This dissertation would not have been possible without the support of many people who
have impacted my life in many ways. The first two people to recognize are my parents, Louis
and Melissa. They have been there for me through every success and failure. I would not be
where I am today without them. My sister, Lori, is the strongest woman I know. My niece,
Madeline, is only a year old, but has the biggest heart of anyone I have ever met. I also want to
thank the rest of my family for all their love over the years. As a first-generation student myself,
I am proud of who I am and where I came from.
Considering this is a dissertation on mentoring, I am lucky to have many mentors in my
life. I want to thank my dissertation committee, which was led by Dr. Patricia Tobey. Her
support, encouragement, and enthusiasm got me to the finish line. Dr. Michael Escalante joined
this journey late, but he was my first professor in this program. He taught me to be a better
leader. I do not know where I would be without Dr. Annette Hernandez, who convinced me to
do this program and has provided me with endless support. She is not only my boss and mentor
but also my friend. Thank you, Annette, for believing in me!
I have met a lot of incredible people on this journey as well. My fellow classmates from
the Tuesday night cohort helped me survive in my first year. Thanks for all the memories and
wine! Many thanks to the following people who also left their mark on me during this journey:
Dr. Wayne Combs, Vera Constanza, Dr. Patrick Crispen, Dr. Darin Earley, Edgar Hernandez,
Dr. Irene Oliver, Ashley Watterson, and Anais Zamora.
Lastly, I would like to thank the participants in this study. I literally could have not done
this without you!
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
4
Table of Contents
Dedication 2
Acknowledgements 3
List of Tables 6
List of Figures 7
Abstract 8
Chapter One: Overview of the Study 9
Background of the Problem 9
Statement of the Problem 11
Purpose of the Study 16
Significance of the Study 17
Limitations and Delimitations 18
Definition of Terms 18
Organization of the Study 19
Chapter Two: Literature Review 21
First-Generation Students in Postsecondary Institutions 21
Integration into the Institution 22
Cultural Mismatch 23
First-Generation Student Identity 24
Experiences in Postsecondary Institutions 25
Characteristics of First-Generation Students 26
Pressures of Being First Generation 27
Family and Background 28
Strategies for First-Generation Students 30
On-Campus Programming and Services 30
Employment and Family Obligations 31
Faculty and Staff 33
Support in the First Year for First-Generation Students 34
On-Campus Programming and Services 34
Family and Friends 35
First-Year Programs 36
Mentoring 37
Transition Theory 38
Theory Critique 41
Theory Implications 42
One-to-One Mentoring 44
Matching Mentors and Mentees 44
Mentoring in Postsecondary Institutions 45
Mentoring Programs for First-Year Students 45
Demographics in Mentoring Relationships 46
Outcomes for Mentoring Relationships 47
Conclusion 48
Chapter Three: Methodology 49
Rationale for Study Design 49
Sample and Population 50
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
5
Instrumentation 52
Data Collection 53
Interviews 54
Observations 55
Documents 57
Theoretical Framework 57
Data Analysis 57
Theoretical Framework 59
Role of the Researcher 60
Credibility and Trustworthiness 60
Ethics 61
Conclusion 62
Chapter Four: Results 63
Study Context 64
Findings 69
Connection of Shared Identity Matters 69
Relating to similar challenges 74
Opportunity to give back 78
Fostering a Positive Environment for Relationships to Develop 81
Instilling skills to succeed 85
Creating opportunities for students 87
Serving as a Guide at the Institution 89
The role of family dynamics 94
Structure of Program Impacts Experiences 98
Positive interactions with program staff 102
Changes on the horizon 104
Conclusion 106
Chapter Five: Discussion 108
Summary of the Findings 109
Connection of Shared Identity Matters 110
Fostering a Positive Environment for Relationships to Develop 111
Serving as a Guide at the Institution 112
Structure of Program Impacts Experiences 113
Implications for Practice 114
Recommendations for Future Research 115
Conclusion 116
References 118
Appendix A: Interview Protocol for Mentees 126
Appendix B: Interview Protocol for Mentors 129
Appendix C: Interview Protocol for Program Staff 132
Appendix D: Observation Protocol 135
Appendix E: Document Analysis Protocol 137
Appendix F: Theoretical Framework Alignment Matrix 139
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
6
List of Tables
Table 1: Research questions grid 53
Table 2: Profiles of participants 68
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
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List of Figures
Figure 1: First to the Future program structure 65
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
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Abstract
First-generation students face many challenges as they are the first in their family to attend a
postsecondary institution. One of these challenges is transitioning to the institution. The
purpose of this qualitative case study is to develop an understanding of contributions of faculty
and staff mentors in a one-to-one mentoring program for first-generation students at a
postsecondary institution. The study also focused on the perceptions of various stakeholders
regarding a one-to-one mentoring program for first-generation students at a postsecondary
institution. This study used Schlossberg’s transition theory for its theoretical framework by
utilizing the 4 S System of taking stock in situation, self, strategies, and support. This study
specifically focused on strategies and support. This study used purposeful sampling based on
criterion-based selection of mentees, mentors, and program staff. Interviews, observations, and
documents were triangulated to determine the findings. Analysis of the data revealed that
mentors positively contributed to their mentees’ transition by sharing the first-generation identity
with them, creating an environment for relationships to develop, and serving as a guide at the
institution. Another theme that emerged discussed how the mentoring program structure
impacted participants’ experiences. Findings of this study can provide a better understanding of
how institutions can support first-generation students during their transition by implementing a
similarly structured one-on-one mentoring program.
Keywords: first-generation students, transition, one-to-one mentoring, postsecondary institution
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
9
Chapter One: Overview of the Study
A traditional postsecondary education student no longer exists. Every year, millions of
students are attending postsecondary institutions. One demographic of students is the first in
their families to enroll in a postsecondary institution. These first-generation students represent a
diverse student population, and they come from many different backgrounds. Many
postsecondary institutions are focusing resources and programs on supporting this population.
This study explored how a mentoring program at a postsecondary institution contributes to first-
generation students transitioning to the institution.
Background of the Problem
“Although the ability to count first generation students is still lacking at most
postsecondary institutions in this country, no one disputes there are more of such students taking
classes than ever before” (Davis, 2010, p. 11). In 1989, 43.4% of all first-year students
transitioning to postsecondary institutions were first generation. Enrollment numbers were
projected to increase by 24.3% from 2000 to 2015 (Davis, 2010). These projections were not
due to families getting larger; rather, access to postsecondary institutions increased. Davis
(2010) asserted that this increase comprises people from many different backgrounds, and one of
these groups is first-generation students.
At the national level, enrollment diversity is continuing to evolve for postsecondary
institutions. The percentage distribution of U.S. residents enrolled in a postsecondary institution
in 2015 showed 57.6% (10.9 million) of these students being White, 14.1% (2.6 million) Black,
and 17.3% (3.2 million) Hispanic (National Center for Education Statistics, 2016). Projections
of future enrollment numbers in 2025 also show the numbers shifting to 53.3% (11.5 million) of
these students being White, 15.7% (3.4 million) Black, and 19.5% (4.2 million) Hispanic.
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
10
At the state level, there is more diversity, especially in the state of California. The
percentage distribution of U.S. residents enrolled in postsecondary institutions in California in
2015 showed 31.4% (800,376) of these students being White, 7.2% (183,406) Black, and 40.2%
(1.0 million) Hispanic (National Center for Education Statistics, 2015). Another statistic to
consider is the increase in first-time degree-seeking students in California, which has increased
from 246,128 students in 2000 to 392,472 in 2014.
At first glance, the number of first-generation students has been declining in recent years.
In 1971, 38.5% of first-time, full-time freshmen were first generation (Saenz, Hurtado, Barrera,
Wolf, & Yeung, 2007). In 2005, the percentage dropped to 15.9% of first-time, full-time
freshmen. In this same study, 86.8% of first-generation freshmen were students of ethnic
minorities. The proportion of non-college-educated White citizens has declined by 41.2% over a
30-year period (1975 to 2005). This same decline registers at 18.7% for Hispanic students and
34.1% for Black students. The rate of decline for White students who are first generation over
the last 30 years is 55.4%, compared to 37.8% percent among Hispanic students and 60.3% for
Black students.
As enrollment changes and increases at both national and state levels, institutions serve
increasingly diverse and different populations of students. An increase in access to
postsecondary education for everyone means there is a higher proportion of nontraditional
students (Davis, 2010). One population that emerges is first-generation students. These students
are the first in their family to attend a postsecondary institution (Nunez & Cuccaro-Alamin,
1998).
“First generation students are thus a population whose identity is largely hidden on our
college campuses” (Ward, Siegel, & Davenport, 2012, p. 3). Unless they self-identify, they
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
11
remain hidden at postsecondary institutions. However, many institutions are finding ways to
support these students from the moment they walk on campus (Davis, 2010; Ward et al., 2012).
Some institutions are even identifying first-generation students as a separate demographic
(Davis, 2010). Counting these students allows postsecondary institutions to better structure and
implement services for them as they transition to college, especially if there are limited resources
available. Davis (2010) argued that this strategy may become the norm as more first-generation
students enroll in postsecondary institutions.
Statement of the Problem
“Getting into college is one thing. It’s actually sticking it through that’s the hard part”
(Engle, Bermeo, & O’Brien, 2006, p. 27). First-generation students face academic, social,
financial, and family issues during this transition (Ward et al., 2012). Their transition into a
postsecondary institution is complex and confusing. After matriculating to postsecondary
institutions, first-generation students struggle more with transitioning to the institution compared
to continuing-generation students (Jenkins, Belanger, Connally, Boals, & Duron, 2013; Stephens,
Townsend, Markus, & Phillips, 2012).
First-generation students face academic acculturation challenges due to not having
academic skills and knowledge that postsecondary-educated parents provide continuing-
generation students (Jenkins et al., 2013). This leads first-generation students to experience
more frustration and failure due to lacking this cultural capital and not being able to acculturate
within the postsecondary institution. “Cultural capital is a culmination of cultural experiences
that are viewed as educational and social assets” (Jenkins et al., 2013, p. 138). The main
characteristic of first-generation students is their unfamiliarity with the culture of postsecondary
education (Davis, 2010). Examples include underestimating the amount of reading for a course
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
12
or even sharing a residence hall bathroom (Ward et al., 2012). This presents a cultural mismatch
when transitioning to a postsecondary institution (Stephens, Fryberg, Markus, Johnson, &
Covarrubias, 2012; Stephens, Townsend, et al., 2012).
Family and home life of first-generation students add an extra dynamic to this transition
(McCarron & Inkelas, 2006; Mehta, Newbold, & O’Rourke, 2011; Shields, 2002; Sy, Fong,
Carter, Boehme, & Alpert, 2011). First-generation students are more likely to work while
attending the institution (Mehta et al., 2011; Shields, 2002). Compared to continuing-generation
students, there is less parental support at home (Shields, 2002). First-generation students place
an importance on these external challenges (Bui, 2002), which may lead to frustration and lower
self-efficacy in their first year (Bui, 2002; Hartig & Steigerwald, 2007).
The first year of attending a postsecondary institution is critical for a first-generation
student (Davis, 2010; Ward et al., 2012). The transition causes stress for these students as they
shift from home culture to postsecondary culture (Davis, 2010). First-generation students are
four times more likely to drop out after the first year (Engle & Tinto, 2008). However, first-
generation students who feel connected to the postsecondary institution can produce positive
benefits during the transition (Ward et al., 2012). The first year is when first-generation students
learn about institutional norms, values, and behaviors. Providing resources for these students
ensures a smooth transition. One challenge is first-generation students do not seek out
information when making the transition (Davis, 2010). They isolate themselves and limit their
resources on campus.
To minimize first-generation students not getting involved on campus, postsecondary
institutions need to reach out to students early and often in the first year (Engle & Tinto, 2008;
Ward et al., 2012). Examples include early intervention programs such as bridge or orientation
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
13
programs, which acclimate students to the postsecondary institution and life as a student (Engle
& Tinto, 2008). Another example is residence hall orientation events or a scavenger hunt to
become acclimated to the campus (Ward et al., 2012). Additional strategies include advising,
tutoring, and mentoring by faculty, staff, and peers, which provides support for the duration of
time the student attends the institution.
Davis (2010) argued that first-generation students do not need an expert but rather a
guide when transitioning to a postsecondary institution. Continuing-generation students have
guides such as their parents, family, and even family friends. These students have people in their
lives who share experiences of being a student in a postsecondary education. First-generation
students have a different experience as they lack these guides to help them learn the culture of
attending a postsecondary institution. They lack the cultural capital as their parents did not
expose them to experiences, attitudes, and language of postsecondary education while growing
up (Ward et al., 2012).
When arriving on campus, guides can be hard to find, so institutions need to find ways to
supply them (Davis, 2010). To address this issue, postsecondary institutions across the country
have developed programs and initiatives to support first-generation students (Ward et al., 2012).
Examples include learning communities, host family programs, scholarship programs, career
exploration programs, and mentoring programs. These different programs cover a variety of
topics and subjects to support first-generation students while they are attending the institution.
One of the ways a guide may be provided to support first-generation students is through a
mentoring relationship (Davis, 2010). Becoming comfortable at a postsecondary institution may
be an ongoing and lengthy process. Building this mentoring relationship allows first-generation
students to hear stories and opinions from someone who can provide another prospective. Davis
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
14
(2010) further argued that postsecondary institutions should create mentoring programs
specifically designed for first-generation students with mentors from similar backgrounds.
Furthermore, these programs should include meetings, workshops, and trainings that address
first-generation specific issues and challenges.
The word mentor originated from a character in The Odyssey, Homer’s poem (Gough,
2008). Mentor is a friend of Odysseus who assists his family during the Trojan wars by helping
Odysseus’s son, Telemachus, mature into adulthood. The Oxford English Dictionary defines the
word “mentor” as an experienced and trusted advisor. Adding to this previous definition, a
mentor is an experienced person who serves as a role model and teacher who advises, counsels,
guides, and motivates a less experienced person to promote academic, personal, and professional
development (Anderson & Shannon, 1988; Gough, 2008). Furthermore, a mentor acts as a guide
who helps the mentee set and understand goals as well as pursue them successfully (Zachary,
2009).
A mentoring relationship can be complex. Ones that are based on a traditional model of
wisdom transferred from the master to the apprentice are not successful (Zachary, 2012).
Mentors and mentees need to work together to achieve specific and mutually agreed-upon goals.
It begins with respect, responsibility, and reliability by both the mentor and mentee (Jones &
Goble, 2012). A mentoring relationship is also a learning experience for both parties (Jones &
Goble, 2012; Zachary, 2012). A successful mentoring relationship will lead students to have
more success in a postsecondary institution, greater motivation, and stronger aspirations for
advanced study (Campbell & Campbell, 2007). If there is a positive experience, student success
increases through mentoring programs.
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
15
In formal mentoring programs, personal and professional interests of the mentee and the
expertise and background of the mentor determine the matching (Bell & Treleaven, 2011;
Putsche, Storrs, Lewis, & Haylett, 2008). This facilitation happens through a pool of both
mentors and mentees, matched by the program. This process takes time to find the right
mentoring relationship as it minimizes both awkwardness and the likelihood of program attrition.
Mentees may also experience a less judgmental relationship with their mentor compared to
formal relationships with professors and academic advisors (Putsche et al., 2008). A mentoring
relationship early in a student’s postsecondary experience is important and beneficial to create
this positive view.
At the beginning of the mentoring relationship, the mentor and mentee should establish
processes of their relationship (Jones & Goble, 2012). Examples include understanding personal
motivation, developing communication skills, and goal setting (Jones & Goble, 2012; Putsche et
al., 2008). The first meeting is a good time for the mentor and mentee to discuss a common
purpose (Putsche et al., 2008). This sets the tone for the personal nature of one-to-one mentoring
relationships, which build to trust (Bell & Treleaven, 2011; Jones & Goble, 2012).
A mentee can gain a lot from a mentor in academic, personal, and professional domains
(Bell & Treleaven, 2011; Eby, Allen, Evans, Ng, & DuBois, 2008; Putsche et al., 2008). A
mentee may experience positive outcomes, which include: (a) career progression; (b) networking
skills; (c) improved time management; and (d) engagement in research (Bell & Treleaven, 2011;
Eby et al., 2008; Putsche et al., 2008). Furthermore, mentees may achieve greater success as
their mentor may assist in opportunities for internships and graduate school (Putsche et al.,
2008). Eby, Allen, Evans, Ng, and DuBois (2008) found that their study on mentoring supported
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
16
previous research, which includes mentees experiencing favorable behavioral, attitudinal,
interpersonal, motivational, and career outcomes.
Mentors need to be aware that there are multiple types of mentoring, which can be both
personal and professional (Alvarez, Blume, Cervantes, & Thomas, 2009). A mentor takes on a
number of roles during his or her relationship with a mentee, which include: (a) establishing a
relationship built on mutual respect; (b) being a positive role model to the mentee; (c) providing
personal and professional support through good and bad times; and (d) working with the mentee
on setting and reaching goals (Alvarez et al., 2009; Gough, 2008). Mentors also benefit from the
reward of assisting someone (Bell & Treleaven, 2011).
Mentored students performed better academically at the end of their first year of
postsecondary education (Campbell & Campbell, 2007). Furthermore, mentored students had a
higher retention and graduation rates. One goal of mentoring programs is to help first-generation
students adjust to a postsecondary institution (Hu & Ma, 2010). A positive mentoring
relationship positively affects persistence of first-generation students and their transition to
postsecondary institutions.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this qualitative case study was to develop an understanding of
contributions of faculty and staff mentors in a one-to-one mentoring program for first-generation
students at a postsecondary institution. It also focused on the perceptions of various stakeholders
regarding a one-to-one mentoring program for first-generation students at a postsecondary
institution. This study aims to understand the experiences of first-generation students
transitioning to a postsecondary institution who were participating in the mentoring program.
The following questions guided this research study:
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
17
1. How do faculty and staff mentors in a one-to-one mentoring program for first-generation
students contribute to the transition of first-generation students to a postsecondary
institution?
2. How do first-generation students perceive faculty and staff mentors in a one-to-one
mentoring program dedicated to serving first-generation students in playing a role in their
transition to a postsecondary institution?
3. What role does a one-to-one mentoring program dedicated to serving first-generation
students play in their transition to a postsecondary institution?
Significance of the Study
“Creating nonfaculty mentor programs on campuses is very much in fashion these days in
student affairs circles, and mentor programs can be very valuable for sure” (Davis, 2010, p. 200).
Postsecondary institutions and their practitioners are looking for ways to support first-generation
students. This is a population that is not going away, and they have their own unique set of
challenges during the transition to a postsecondary institution. This study aimed to explore how
one-to-one mentoring plays a role and contributes to this transition. Different mentoring models
exist in higher education such as one-to-one mentoring and group mentoring. Within one-to-one
mentoring, there is faculty mentoring and peer mentoring.
This study focused on a one-to-one mentoring program, where the mentors were also
first-generation students themselves. The structure of this mentoring program is not as common
and provides a different context due to the identity of mentor also being a first-generation
student. This model explores the idea that first-generation students relate more to people with
similar backgrounds (Stephens, Hamedani, & Destin, 2014). The results from this study may
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
18
prove that more postsecondary institutions should implement a similar model to support first-
generation students during their transition.
Limitations and Delimitations
A case study immediately presents a limitation for the study, as it is unique to its setting
and participants of the analyzed case (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Case studies are bounded by
time and activity, which makes the data collection limited (Creswell, 2014). This process
occurred over a period of a few months. The site selected for this study was a private, four-year
postsecondary institution in a large urban, metropolis in the western United States. This site was
specifically selected due to its mentoring program for first-generation students. The students
enrolled in the program self-identify, so it created a limited pool of prospective participants. The
students also needed to be in at least their second year at the institution, so this further limited the
sample pool. One last condition of the sampling included that the mentoring relationship started
at least six months before the study, which allowed the mentor and mentee to establish a
relationship.
The results and recommendations from this study may not be applicable to other first-
generation students in different postsecondary institutions. It might be difficult to apply the
findings to a large, private postsecondary institution or a public postsecondary institution. It
might also be difficult to apply the findings to another similarly sized, private postsecondary
institution. I addressed these threats through both the triangulation of the data collection and
trustworthiness of the data analysis, which is discussed in detail in the methodology chapter.
Definition of Terms
The following definitions of terms provide an understanding of common language used
throughout this dissertation.
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
19
First Generation – Students whose parents’ highest level of education is a high school
diploma or less (Nunez & Cuccaro-Alamin, 1998).
Continuing Generation – Students whose parents have some postsecondary experience.
In cases when a student has parents with different education levels, the maximum education level
of either parent determines the student’s categorization (Nunez & Cuccaro-Alamin, 1998).
Mentoring – A collaborative learning relationship between two individuals who share
mutual responsibility and accountability for helping a mentee work towards mutually defined
goals (Zachary, 2005).
Mentor – An experienced person who advises, counsels, guides, and motivates a less
experienced person to promote academic, personal, and professional development. A mentor
acts as a guide to the mentee to help define and understand their goals in the learning relationship
(Anderson & Shannon, 1988; Gough, 2008; Zachary, 2009).
Mentee – The recipient of the mentoring in the learning relationship who sets academic,
personal, and professional goals (Anderson & Shannon, 1988; Gough, 2008; Zachary, 2012).
Organization of the Study
This study provides an in-depth analysis of a one-to-one mentoring program at a
postsecondary institution for first-generation students. This chapter provides an overview of the
study, including the background to the problem, its purpose, and its significance to the field of
higher education. Chapter 2 presents a review of the literature relevant to the study, which helps
better understand first-generation students, mentoring, and transition theory. Chapter 3 contains
the methodology used in this qualitative case study. It includes the sampling and site selection as
well as the rationale for data collection and analysis. Chapter 4 presents the findings through a
detailed analysis on key themes that emerged. Chapter 5 provides a synthesis of the findings
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
20
from the case study, implications for practice, and possible future research as well as concluding
thoughts on this topic.
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
21
Chapter Two: Literature Review
The previous chapter illustrates the need for a study on the importance of one-to-one
mentoring relationships for first-generation students when transitioning to postsecondary
institutions. This chapter presents a review of the literature viewed through a framework using
Schlossberg’s transition theory by analyzing the 4 S System of situation, self, strategies, and
support. This study and literature review focuses on strategies and support. A critique and
implications of the theory are discussed as well. This chapter also presents a review of literature
of one-to-one mentoring for students in postsecondary institutions.
First-Generation Students in Postsecondary Institutions
Attending a postsecondary institution is different for every student, and each student’s
situation varies (Chickering & Schlossberg, 2002). For this reason, first-generation students are
going to have a different situation than continuing-generation students. Furthermore, first-
generation students will have different situations compared to each other. How a student
assesses a transition determines how he or she copes during the transition. In relation to an
institutional setting, first-generation students need to determine why they are attending the
postsecondary institution and their personal state when arriving at the institution.
Chickering and Schlossberg (2002) asserted that each student’s situation is also
constantly changing, so it is necessary for students to reassess the situation with each change.
Postsecondary institutions need to take into consideration these challenges of first-generation
students. Some may view the situation as positive, negative, or neutral. To respond to these
challenges, institutions need to make an effort to address the needs of first-generation students
when transitioning to a postsecondary institution.
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
22
Integration into the Institution
Attending a postsecondary institution is an unknown transition for first-generation
students. One way to address this is to understand how they integrate into the institution.
Woosley and Shepler (2011) conducted a study of 3,581 first-generation students at a medium-
sized public postsecondary institution and also looked at the integration of these students into the
institution. Their findings revealed how institutions can assist first-generation students
transitioning to their new role as students and revealed a correlation between commitment and
environment as well as involvement and environment. One limitation of this study is that the
sample is only from one institution and all participants were living on campus, so it neglects to
address the needs of first-generation students who live off campus.
Woosley and Shepler’s (2011) findings address the importance of campus environment
and its role on student persistence. Postsecondary institutions need to create an environment that
accepts first-generation students and promotes their academic performance. This may look like
residential communities, spaces to increase peer interaction, and programming specific to the
first-generation population (Woosley & Shepler, 2011). Cross-campus collaboration may also be
an institutional strategy to implement some of these practices. Sharing a common interest may
be helpful if first-generation students need to cope.
Many first-generation students do not live in a structured program on campus, or some
choose to live off-campus. In one study, first to second-year persistence between first-generation
students and continuing generation students at a four-year postsecondary institution were
compared using the Beginning Postsecondary Study Longitudinal Survey (Lohfink & Paulsen,
2005). This survey compared the two populations. Lohfink and Paulsen (2005) found that
76.5% of first-generation students persisted from their first to second year. Furthermore, first-
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
23
generation students who chose an institution where they could live at home were 18.3% more
likely to persist.
Lohfink and Paulsen (2005) also found that involvement in both structured academic and
social activities only affected positive persistence for continuing-generation students. This
relates to first-generation students having work and family commitments and institutions not
structuring these activities for first-generation students. Another result of this study was that
participation in these activities is a way to integrate students into the institution. Academic
activities based on faculty and student interactions had a positive effect on persistence.
Cultural Mismatch
Part of the struggle for first-generation students may be a cultural mismatch when
transitioning to postsecondary institutions (Stephens, Fryberg, et al., 2012; Stephens, Townsend,
et al., 2012). In one study, 1528 students at a private university participated in a longitudinal
study comparing the effects of social class of first-generation and continuing-generation students
(Stephens, Fryberg, et al., 2012). First-generation students were more motivated by
interdependent motives such as helping their family after finishing postsecondary education,
bringing honor to their family, and showing that people with their background can do well.
Independent motives such as becoming an independent thinker, exploring new interests, and
exploring their potential in many domains provided more motivation for continuing-generation
students.
These results showed that social class influences reasons for attending a postsecondary
institution and that first-generation students transition to the institution with interdependent
norms, which may conflict with a postsecondary institution’s primary focus on independence.
Furthermore, motives of interdependence negatively predicted grades at the end of the first year.
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
24
Stephens, Fryberg, Markus, Johnson, and Covarrubias (2012) assessed postsecondary culture to
further support this study by conducting a survey of senior administration from the top 50
national postsecondary institutions. The results showed that 84% of administrators characterized
the postsecondary culture as more independent than interdependent.
One way to close this gap is to introduce interdependent norms into a postsecondary
institution. A study of 82 students in their first year explored the cultural mismatch of first-
generation students by examining how it affects biological functioning (Stephens, Townsend, et
al., 2012). In the study, students read a letter that discussed the institution’s culture based on
either independent or interdependent norms. After reading the letter, the students gave a speech
about their postsecondary goals. The level of cortisol measured their emotional response. First-
generation students performed better if they read the letter that represented the postsecondary
culture in interdependent norms compared to independent norms. To further understand this
cultural mismatch, it is important to understand first-generation students and their identity when
transitioning to a postsecondary institution. Postsecondary institutions need to expand their ideas
and practices to incorporate more interdependent norms (Stephens, Fryberg, et al., 2012;
Stephens, Townsend, et al., 2012).
First-Generation Student Identity
When understanding first-generation students in a postsecondary institution, it is
important to know the personal characteristics they bring to the transition (Chickering &
Schlossberg, 2002). Some students enter this transition as optimists, and others enter as
pessimists. Chickering and Schlossberg (2002) discussed how students who are optimistic tend
to experience less depression and achieve more in school. The challenge is that many transitions
are both good and bad, so a student’s explanatory style is important during the transition. It
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
25
dictates whether the transition is successful. The way a first-generation student chooses to cope
when faced with adversity is another factor.
First-generation students need to take stock in themselves by utilizing their knowledge
and competencies they already have (Chickering & Schlossberg, 2002). This allows students to
become more aware, make better decisions, and be more confident to in what they want to
achieve when transitioning to the postsecondary institution. First-generation students need to
find ways to maximize their experience, but to do this, they must use themselves as a resource.
Experiences in Postsecondary Institutions
First-generation students experience postsecondary institutions differently compared to
continuing-generation students. This relates to how they develop in their first year related to
their self-efficacy and academics (Pascarella, Pierson, Wolniak, & Terenzini, 2004; Ramos-
Sanchez & Nichols, 2007). A longitudinal study of 18 postsecondary institutions from across the
country looked at first-generation student experiences and outcomes (Pascarella et al., 2004).
Pascarella, Pierson, Wolniak, and Terenzini (2004) found that first-generation students
completed fewer credit hours and worked more hours per week. They were also less likely to
live on campus, which resulted in them having lower levels of extracurricular involvement. This
may put them at a developmental disadvantage, yet first-generation students did not see these
disadvantages in postsecondary outcomes. There was little difference between first-generation
and continuing-generation students in second- and third-year coursework in writing, reading, and
critical thinking. Another finding from this study was that first-generation students benefit most
from extracurricular involvement and peer interaction even though they are less likely to
participate. This places an importance on increasing first-generation students’ involvement after
matriculation.
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
26
Characteristics of First-Generation Students
A study of 192 first-year students at a private liberal arts postsecondary institution looked
at self-efficacy between first-generation and continuing-generation students in relation to two
academic outcomes of academic performance and postsecondary adjustment (Ramos-Sanchez &
Nichols, 2007). Results from the study supported the conclusion that first-generation students
underperform academically compared to continuing-generation students. First-generation
students also have a lower level of self-efficacy. Ramos-Sanchez and Nichols (2007) found that
self-efficacy at the beginning of the year predicted postsecondary adjustment. This is important
for first-generation students during the transition to the postsecondary institution. Furthermore,
the study revealed that first-generation students’ level of self-efficacy did not change during the
first year regardless of how students performed academically.
The background characteristics of first-generation students is one step to understanding
them, especially why they are attending postsecondary institutions and their subsequent
experiences after the transition. The family dynamic is one area of focus for these students (Bui,
2002; Hartig & Steigerwald, 2007; Longwell-Grice, Adsitt, Mullins, & Serrata, 2016). In a study
by Bui (2002), 64 first-generation students completed a questionnaire to address both reasons for
attending the institution and their first-year experiences. First-generation students were more
likely be ethnic minority students, come from a lower socioeconomic background, speak a
language other than English at home, and score lower on the SAT compared to continuing-
generation students. Furthermore, first-generation students placed a higher importance on
attending a postsecondary institution in areas such as gaining respect, bringing honor to their
family, and helping their family out financially after graduation. Bui found that first-generation
students did compare to continuing-generation students for other reasons related to family such
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
27
as their parents wanting them to obtain a postsecondary education or their siblings were going to
a postsecondary institution.
The study also highlighted differences in first-year experiences, as first-generation
students felt less prepared, were afraid of failing, spent more time studying, and worried about
financial aid (Bui, 2002). First-generation students and continuing-generation students scored
comparably when asked if they enjoyed being a student and made friends in their first year.
Bui’s (2002) study showed that first-generation students put a great deal of importance on
external challenges and issues and experienced lower self-efficacy compared to continuing-
generation students. However, these pressures did not deter first-generation students from their
overall enjoyment at the institution.
Pressures of Being First Generation
The internal and external pressures of first-generation students are further seen in two
qualitative studies in which students tackled personal and academic challenges (Hartig &
Steigerwald, 2007; Longwell-Grice et al., 2016). These external pressures, traced back to
family, are seen in the case study of an 18-year-old, first-generation student at a large, state
postsecondary institution (Hartig & Steigerwald, 2007). The first-generation student had
feelings of being different, anger, and depression. Additionally, the student was overwhelmed
by the size of the institution, worried about financial aid, and felt ashamed to be around other
students, who felt more comfortable. There was also a feeling of guilt as the student discussed
how he spent $500 dollars on books and his father had the same jacket for 20 years. His parents
also missed him and wished he still lived at home. At the same time, the student was doing well
academically and enjoyed his classes. The student even found a faculty mentor who helped him
both academically and professionally. Hartig and Steigerwald (2007) emphasized in their study
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
28
the complexity of the transition for one first-generation student, who was dealing with a
transition on many different levels, including cultural, emotional, familial, and financial. One
limitation of this study was that the case study only included one student in their analysis.
Another example of internal and external pressures was seen in another qualitative study,
where 14 first-generation students from three different private institutions were interviewed and
observed regarding their experiences (Longwell-Grice et al., 2016). Three themes emerged from
the study. The first theme was a cultural dislocation, feeling lost, and marginalized. The second
theme was students demonstrating resilience as they faced the complexities of their
postsecondary experience. The third theme was managing their family relationships while their
identity evolved into a first-generation student.
Family and Background
To further explore the complexities of this transition, another study over a two-year
period looked at the experiences of first-generation students across several different campuses
(Orbe, 2004). The focus group based its discussions on the general question of “What is it like to
be a first-generation college student?” (Orbe, 2004, p. 135). Follow-up questions included
asking first-generation students to describe their transition and discuss the most difficult part of
the transition. A few themes emerged from the study related to saliency of the first-generation
identity and how that identity enacts relationally to family and classmates.
Orbe (2004) found the results varied on the saliency of the first-generation status.
Students from ethnic minority backgrounds, lower socioeconomic statuses, and nontraditional
females tended to have a high saliency to this identity with some revealing they thought about
this status every day. These students were motivated to be successful due to their status.
Students with variable saliency of their first-generation status were more likely to be White, have
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
29
middle to high-socioeconomic status, and be traditionally aged. Traditionally aged White male
students were the only first-generation population who considered their first-generation status as
nonsalient.
Orbe (2004) also looked at the first-generation identity both at home and at the
institution. Some of the findings included how students received special attention when they are
at home, such as special meals, shopping trips, and extra attention from relatives. The
communities for these students also gave special attention such as recognition in church and
neighbors asking about them. One student described how the neighborhood looked up to him, as
he was only one of the people to make it out. However, other first-generation students described
how they downplayed their status at home due to people feeling jealous or threatened. People
viewed it negatively.
At home, the saliency of their status was heightened, but on campus, first-generation
status was less salient, and many students did not discuss their status with others due to its
negative stigma. First-generation students also expressed frustration with continuing-generation
students not understanding them. This study also showed the complexities of the first-generation
identity. A first-generation student’s transition to a postsecondary institution relates to their
situational context, which means their experience varied based on their situation. One
conclusion from this study was that lack of community made it difficult for these students to
relate to each other’s experiences in a postsecondary institution.
Being first generation is more than a label for some students. In a study of 147 first-year
students, first-generation and continuing-generation students’ adjustment related to social class
were compared (Stephens et al., 2014). Students attended a panel where seniors would discuss
how they adjusted and found success in a postsecondary institution. Students attended either a
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
30
panel where the seniors discussed how their background mattered or one where seniors did not
discuss this their background. At the end of the year, students completed a survey.
Two themes emerged from this study, which were people’s different backgrounds matter
and people with backgrounds like mine can be successful. Stephens, Hamedani, and Destin
(2014) also found that first-generation students who attended the panel with the seniors
discussing their backgrounds had higher GPAs, sought out resources on campus, and
experienced less stress. One of the students responded, “I feel like I’m in the right place because
students from backgrounds like mine understand the stresses I have” (Stephens et al., 2014, p. 5).
This study highlighted the importance on showing first-generation students that they can
effectively transition to a postsecondary institution and be successful. This concept is further
explored when looking at different strategies a postsecondary institution can utilize during this
transition.
Strategies for First-Generation Students
Developing effective strategies for first-generation students is another important element
of the transition. This can be a stressful time for them. To help cope with this transition, first-
generation students use different strategies (Chickering & Schlossberg, 2002). Some strategies
for this transition may be problem-focused, which alters the transition, or emotion-focused,
which regulates feelings during the transition. Chickering and Schlossberg (2002) discussed that
there is no perfect strategy and flexibility is imperative. This applies to first-generation students
when transitioning to postsecondary institutions.
On-Campus Programming and Services
During the transition, institutions need to explore ways to support first-generation
students through programming and services on campus (Jenkins et al., 2013; Mehta et al., 2011).
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
31
In a study of 1,647 students from a large state postsecondary institution, first-generation and
continuing-generation students participated in a study that measured social support, post-
traumatic stress disorder symptoms, depression symptoms, and life satisfaction (Jenkins et al.,
2013). Jenkins, Belanger, Connally, Boals, and Durón (2013) found that first-generation
students had less support from their family, experienced more post-traumatic stress disorder
symptoms, and reported less life satisfaction. However, they did not experience stronger
depression symptoms.
This study also found gender differences, such as first-generation females doing worse
when measuring psychological well-being after transitioning to the postsecondary institution.
However, first-generation males were doing better compared to continuing-generation males.
One explanation for why women had more stress may be due to women having additional stress
burdens such as financial duress, employment, or family responsibilities. Regarding the males,
one explanation may be that attending a postsecondary institution is an achievement that they
have worked hard for, and first-generation students take pride in attending a postsecondary
institution. This study showed a need for mental health services as well as a need to address
academic acculturation stress, including alienation, feeling different, and not belonging.
Employment and Family Obligations
Employment and family obligations are two areas of focus for first-generation students
during the transition (Mehta et al., 2011; Shields, 2002). In one study of 452 students, Mehta
Newbold, and O’Rourke (2011) compared the differences of first-generation and continuing-
generation students by measuring a number of different domains such as family, finances,
academics, social activities, on-campus activities, work, stress, and coping strategies. First-
generation students worked more, relied on their parents less to help pay for their tuition, and
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
32
used grants and loans to pay for their tuition. This resulted in them having higher levels of stress
from their finances. First-generation students also reported lower levels of social and on-campus
involvement as well as lower GPAs.
Regarding strategies for dealing with stress, first-generation students were more likely to
ask for time off from work and put things in a broader perspective. This was unlike continuing-
generation students, who were more likely to engage in social activities such as going to a bar or
a social event. Mehta et al. (2011) found that first-generation students were less likely to use
social coping strategies. First-generation students deal with stress differently when compared to
continuing-generation students. This study showed the many differences between the two
populations, which further supports that strategies must be developed to work specifically with
the first-generation population. This study proposed programming for these students upon
matriculation to a postsecondary institution.
Shields (2002) studied first-generation and continuing-generation students regarding
adapting to the postsecondary institution and managing stress. This study used a questionnaire,
interviews, and focus groups. First-generation students were more likely to discuss learning how
to manage time and cited having to work as an obstacle to overcome as a student. In addition,
first-generation students identified strategies for dealing with stress such as recreation and
working harder. This differed from continuing-generation students, who were more likely to
seek support from family and friends. Furthermore, first-generation students did not have their
families to rely on for assistance. Many of these students discussed a hands-off approach by
their family regarding their postsecondary education.
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
33
Faculty and Staff
Interaction between first-generation students and faculty and staff is another strategy to
consider (Soria & Stebleton, 2012; Swecker, Fifolt, & Searby, 2013). In another study, Soria
and Stebleton (2012) measured differences in academic engagement and retention between first-
generation and continuing-generation students. The study surveyed 1,864 students in a large,
public postsecondary institution in their first year. First-generation students had lower academic
engagement and lower retention compared to continuing-generation students. Furthermore, first-
generation students had fewer interactions with faculty and contributions to class discussions,
and they brought up fewer ideas and asked fewer questions during classes. This is another study
that stresses the importance of developing strategies for working with first-generation students.
One way to do this is to increase interactions between faculty and students.
In addition to faculty and student interactions, the role of staff cannot be ignored.
Interactions between staff and students are also important when working with first-generation
students. In a study of 363 first-generation students, Swecker et al. (2013) investigated the
relationship between retention and the number of meetings with an academic advisor. The study
found that the number of advising meetings was a significant predictor of retention.
Furthermore, for every face-to-face advising session, the percentage of the student’s retention
increases by 13 percent. The mean number of advising sessions per student for the academic
year was 3.4 meetings. This is another beneficial interaction between first-generation students
and faculty or staff. This is especially key during the first year when transitioning to a
postsecondary institution. There also needs to be institutional support to allow academic
advisors the time to properly support these students. To go a step further, the support for first-
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
34
generation students cannot be underestimated to help them successfully transition to a
postsecondary institution.
Support in the First Year for First-Generation Students
First-generation students need support during the transition to postsecondary institutions.
This is essential to handling stress during the transition (Chickering & Schlossberg, 2002).
Personal, professional, and academic relationships are types of support. Chickering and
Schlossberg (2002) discussed how support can be multidimensional, as it comes from many
sources in many different forms. The goal is to have more positive than negative support during
the transition.
On-Campus Programming and Services
Some postsecondary institutions have implemented different programs to ease this
transition. One example is a living-learning program, which are residential communities with a
specific focus on academic or non-academic themes. In a study that included 33 four-year
institutions, 1,335 first-generation students participated in the National Study of Living-Learning
Programs (Inkelas, Daver, Vogt, & Leonard, 2007). First-generation students who participated
in a living-learning program showed a more successful academic and social transition compared
to first-generation students who were living in a traditional residence hall rather than a living-
learning program. This included their course-related faculty interaction and usage of co-
curricular residence hall resources such as peer counselors and social activities. These findings
conclude that a living-learning community is one example of a way for an institution to create a
positive transition.
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
35
Family and Friends
Family and peer support is another type of support for first-generation students. In a
longitudinal study of 100 ethnic minority, first-generation students, lack of peer support was a
negative predictor of postsecondary adjustment (Dennis, Phinney, & Chuateco, 2005). This
study assessed both peer support and family support. Dennis, Phinney, and Chuateco (2005)
found that peer support was a stronger predictor of grades and adjustment than family support.
First-generation students shared that peer support was helpful when dealing with academic
challenges, yet these students lacked this support. First-generation students who are
experiencing academic or adjustment issues may feel a need for someone to provide support
through study groups, peer mentoring, or other programs that deal with these challenges.
Parental support affects academic, personal, and professional aspirations for first-
generation students (McCarron & Inkelas, 2006; Sy et al., 2011). Sy, Fong, Carter, Boehme, and
Alpert (2011) compared first-generation and continuing-generation female students in terms of
parental support, student stress, and the relationship between the two in relation to the transition
to a postsecondary institution. Regarding parental support, the study analyzed both emotional
and informational support. Parents understanding their child’s postsecondary experiences
defined emotional support. The assistance parents provide with postsecondary decisions and
preparations for attending the institution defined informational support. Stress covered items
such as school, family, and work.
Sy et al. (2011) found that first-generation students had lower emotional and
informational parental support compared to continuing-generation students. Both first-
generation and continuing-generation students also reported lower stress levels if they received
more emotional and informational support from their parents. This is another study where
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
36
families of first-generation students had difficulty relating to their experiences and provided less
support during the transition.
In another study on parental involvement, McCarron and Inkelas (2006) examined if
parental involvement had influence on educational aspirations for first-generation students
compared to continuing-generation students. To assess this influence, they conducted a
longitudinal study of 1,879 students beginning in 1988, when these students were attending
eighth grade, and concluding in 2000, which was eight years after their high school graduation.
Results from this study showed that there was a positive relationship between parental
involvement and educational aspirations. Items measured in the study included how often first-
generation students discussed with their parents going to a postsecondary institution, SAT/ACT
preparation, school courses, and help with homework. Students with greater parental
involvement aspired to earn advanced degrees, including a doctorate.
However, results from McCarron and Inkelas’s (2006) longitudinal study showed that
only 29.5% of first-generation students had attained a bachelor’s degree by its conclusion even
though 40.2% of these students aspired to earn a bachelor’s degree when asked as high school
sophomores. Continuing-generation students also fell short of their educational aspirations, as
66% of these students fell short of their original aspirations. McCarron and Inkelas (2006)
concluded that this study might suggest that first-generation students lack support when they
transition to a postsecondary institution and they are not receiving support while in high school
to prepare for this next step.
First-Year Programs
There are many different programs postsecondary institutions have implemented to
support first-generation students. Many institutions design these programs for first-generation
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
37
students in their first year. One example is a support group for first-generation freshmen residing
on campus, on which Folger, Carter, and Chase conducted a study (2004). Students participated
based on answers from a questionnaire, which covered topics such as academic motivation,
social motivation, general coping, lack of family support, lack of academic confidence, and ease
of transition. For this study, Folger et al. asked 53 students to participate in the program.
Six different groups met for six weeks in the fall semester. Staff and student co-
facilitators ran meetings where topics discussed ranged from academics, relationships, and
adjustment. The results of the program saw students increase their on-campus involvement, seek
out resources on campus, and develop mentoring relationships with staff. Furthermore, first-
generation students in the program reported higher GPAs and retention rates than first-generation
students in the control group.
Mentoring
Mentoring programs are another example of a way to support first-generation students
(Hu & Ma, 2010; Zalaquett & Lopez, 2007). Hu and Ma (2010) studied 452 participants in a
mentoring program for students that began in high school and supported them to attend a
postsecondary institution. A longitudinal study conducted two years after high school graduation
looked at their persistence and the role mentoring played in their lives as they transitioned to an
institution. Persistence positively related to students who turned to their mentor for support and
encouragement. A few findings were relevant to first-generation students in this study. First-
generation students were less likely to meet with their mentor and turn to their mentor for
support. As Hu and Ma noted in their study, the purpose of the program is to support these
students, but they are less likely to be involved, which creates a challenge for supporting them.
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
38
There are some positive experiences of supporting first-generation students through
mentoring. In a study of 13 Latino students, the importance of mentoring was studied after
students transitioned to a postsecondary institution (Zalaquett & Lopez, 2007). In the study, 10
of the participants were first generation. Zalaquett and Lopez (2007) found that mentoring
positively affected students. Mentoring relationships discussed in the study included family
members, faculty, and staff. Students received informal types of mentoring, where they received
advice and moral support. Furthermore, mentors served as guides to help the students transition
to the postsecondary institution. Latino students also shared that family provided mentorship by
providing moral support even if they were not familiar with postsecondary education. This study
is one example where mentoring relationships provide first-generation students with support
when making this transition.
Transition Theory
As noted in the previous sections, first-generation students transitioning to postsecondary
institutions present a series of challenges. For this reason, this study utilized Schlossberg’s
transition as the theoretical framework. “Grounded in the adult development literature,
Schlossberg’s theory of transition includes an examination of what constitutes a transition,
different forms of transitions, the transition process, and factors that influence transitions”
(Patton, Renn, Guido, Quaye, Evans, & Forney, 2016, p. 37). Anderson, Goodman, and
Schlossberg (2012) defined a transition as “any event or nonevent that results in changed
relationships, routines, assumptions, and roles” (p. 39).
Understanding any transition for an individual requires four areas, including the type of
transition, perspective of the individual, context of the transition, and impact of the transition
(Anderson, Goodman, & Schlossberg, 2012). There are different types of transitions in this
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
39
model, including anticipated transitions, unanticipated transitions, and non-events (Patton et al.,
2016). The difference between anticipated and unanticipated transitions is that one is expected
and the other is not. Furthermore, a non-event can be classified in four categories: personal
(related to the individual); ripple (related to someone close to the individual); resultant (caused
by an event); and delayed (caused by an event that may happen in the future). Patton et al.
(2016) explained that a non-event is an event that should take place but does not occur for
whatever reason.
If a change does not have much significance to the person, then this is not considered a
transition in Schlossberg’s model (Patton et al., 2016). This theory relies on context to the
individual. Impact is another important factor, as it produces stress for the individual during the
transition. As a way to cope with this stress, the 4 S System of transition is referenced. “The 4 S
System provides a way to identify the potential resources someone possesses to cope with the
transition” (Anderson et al., 2012, p. 38). The 4 S System refers to situation, self, support, and
strategies (Anderson et al., 2012; Chickering & Schlossberg, 2002; Patton et al., 2016). Each
individual deals with transition differently depending on these four areas (Anderson et al., 2012).
When using the resources provided by the 4 S System, Anderson et al. (2012) explained
that where the individual is related to the transition needs to be considered. This includes
moving in, moving through, and moving out. First-generation students entering postsecondary
institutions are in the moving-in phase. The success of the transition depends on the resources in
the 4 S System (Patton et al., 2016). First-generation students need to take stock in each resource
(Chickering & Schlossberg, 2002).
When the examining the situation, the individual considers a number of factors, including
timing, control, and duration (Patton et al., 2016). An individual may be experiencing a
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
40
transition, but the timing is off. The transition may be out of his or her control. The transition
may be permanent or temporary. This resource allows the individual to assess the situation and
gain a better understanding of the transition. It may be viewed as positive, negative, or neutral
(Anderson et al., 2012). All these factors may contribute to first-generation students
transitioning to the postsecondary institution as it relates to life at home, work, and other family
dynamics.
When the individual examines self, there are two categories of personal and demographic
characteristics and psychological resources (Patton et al., 2016). Personal and demographics are
the way the individual views life. The individual considers a number of demographic categories.
For first-generation students, this may be where they consider their status as a first-generation
student. Psychological resources refer to areas such as outlook, optimism, and self-efficacy
(Patton et al., 2016). Considering that first-generation students are the first in their families to
attend a postsecondary institution, they may lack psychological resources due to their perception
of attending the institution.
Strategies comprise three categories: modification, control, and aid (Patton et al., 2016).
During the transition, this involves an individual trying to change the situation or manage the
stress. Anderson et al. (2012) argued that having successful strategies may not equal successful
outcomes during the transition. First-generation students may use strategies to transition to the
postsecondary institution, but if they do not persist or graduate, then, one could argue, they did
not have a successful transition.
There are four types of support in transition theory: intimate relationships, family units,
network of friends, and institutions/communities (Patton et al., 2016). “Affect, affirmation, aid,
and honest feedback serve as functions of support” (Patton et al., 2016, p. 39). First-generation
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
41
students may see different types of support when enrolled at the postsecondary institution. This
may include family, faculty, staff, mentors, and peers who provide the necessary support during
the transition.
Theory Critique
The following critique of transition theory determines how suitable the theory is to this
study. Transition theory may be grounded in adult development literature, but it can be applied
to any individual (Patton et al., 2016). This includes students enrolled in a postsecondary
institution, specifically first-generation students. McEwan (2005) provided a framework to
critique this theory in a postsecondary setting. Transition theory is considered a theoretical
application when categorizing theories about postsecondary students. “Theoretical applications
consider ways in which students’ development and their environments come together to affect
their college experiences” (McEwan, 2005, p. 13).
Any theory cannot be accepted and practiced without challenging it (McEwan, 2005).
For this reason, McEwan (2005) listed six different ways in which practitioners can challenge
and examine theories. The first four considerations involve the worldview, underlying
assumptions, social constructs, and how the person is viewed within the theory. Transition
theory is grounded in adult development literature and evolved over time (Patton et al., 2016). It
applies to any individual in any setting experiencing a transition. Chickering and Schlossberg
(2002) wrote an entire book about transition theory in a postsecondary setting where all the
phases of the transition are covered. Furthermore, Anderson et al. (2012) discussed the theory in
detail by applying it in multiple contexts, such as individual transitions, relationship transitions,
and work transitions. Transition theory is an inclusive theory that allows flexibility for
practitioners.
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
42
The last two considerations are critical theory and deconstructing the theory. Transition
theory has a foundation of conceptual frameworks that have been developed and qualitative data
that has been collected over years of research (Chickering & Schlossberg, 2002). To better
understand and develop transition theory, Schlossberg collected qualitative data (Anderson et al.,
2012; Chickering & Schlossberg, 2002). These case studies reveal a theory where the
participants are not merely a number. Transition theory holds up well when considering these
challenges and provides a viable option for practitioners in a postsecondary institution.
Theory Implications
As evidenced in the above sections, transition theory applies to students who are
transitioning to a postsecondary institution. Transition theory provides a framework for
practitioners (Anderson et al., 2012). Not only are transitions unique for each student, but also
each student is different. Chickering and Schlossberg (2002) said, “Entering college involves
letting go of the way you were and creating an identity” (p. 5). The transition to postsecondary
institutions begins not at when a student enrolls in the institution, but at high school graduation
or the decision to go to school.
Chickering and Schlossberg (2002) analyzed the transition to a postsecondary institution
by discussing the three phases of moving in, moving through, and moving out in their book,
Getting the Most Out of College. Related to the first year of this transition, the moving-in phase
focuses on this part of the transition. The 4 S System is utilized to better understand this change.
Students need to take stock of all their resources to assess their strengths and weaknesses during
the transition to a postsecondary institution.
The 4 S System relies on a few assumptions (Chickering & Schlossberg, 2002). One is
that many factors play a role in the transition. These include the aforementioned situation, self,
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strategies, and support. Not only does every student have resources and deficits during the
transition, but they change over time. Students also need to be aware that deficits can turn into
resources. For a first-generation student, they may lack certain resources and have more deficits
than continuing-generation students at the beginning of the transition, but this is far from
permanent for them.
Chickering and Schlossberg (2002) used narratives of different students to better
understand the transition to a postsecondary institution. The narratives showed how students
take stock in their situation, self, strategies, and support. In addition, exercises were provided
throughout their book for higher education practitioners when working with students during a
transition. If students examined themselves through the 4 S System, then they would be able to
take stock in their current mix of resources to determine how well prepared they are for the
transition to a postsecondary institution. Furthermore, assessing resources would help determine
if the change will be both positive and possible. “You can use this process all through college—
in fact, all through life” (Chickering & Schlossberg, 2002, p. 46).
The applications from this book are transferable to first-generation students. The
narratives provided in the book are from students with many different, diverse backgrounds.
Chickering and Schlossberg (2002) wrote, “Taking stock is the first step to changing” (p. 63).
As discussed in the literature above, first-generation students have different resources and
deficits during the transition to postsecondary institutions. Utilizing transition theory provides a
framework where these students can address their resources and deficits to make the transition a
successful one not only in the moving-in phase, but also the moving-through and moving-out
phases.
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One-to-One Mentoring
Mentoring in varied forms has existed for centuries. However, formal mentoring
programs started to become popular in the 1970s, especially in the corporate world (Zachary,
2005). One-to-one mentoring is the most common model of mentoring (Zachary, 2009). It
involves a mentor and mentee, where the mentor helps the mentee achieve specific goals. In this
relationship, the mentor can be a peer or a person with specific experience or expertise. The
relationship can also be formal or informal. Zachary (2012) asserted, “Mentoring at its very core
is a learning relationship” (p. xv). As noted in the previous section, mentoring relationships have
been implemented with first-generation students attending postsecondary institutions. In this
section, other studies in postsecondary institutions are discussed to see how one-to-one
mentoring is implemented in postsecondary institutions.
Matching Mentors and Mentees
Before a mentoring relationship can begin, the mentor and mentee need to be matched.
Finding the right match may determine the success of any mentoring relationship (Bell &
Treleaven, 2011). In one study, Bell and Treleaven (2011) looked at this matching process
through a mentoring program of students and faculty over a three-year period. Four themes
emerged from this study: awkwardness of the selection process, the role of program staff,
personal connection between mentor and mentee, and established mentoring relationships had
positive experiences.
To better understand these themes, Bell and Treleaven (2011) explained the rationale. In
the first year of the mentoring program, prospective mentees needed to reach out to prospective
mentors, but it was an intimidating experience, and some chose not to participate. This changed
in year two, and there was more support from program staff to facilitate these matches. Once the
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relationship was established, the mentees shared positive experiences in the program, especially
related to their academic success. Bell and Treleaven (2011) concluded that mentoring is a
personal experience and it begins with the matching. Without the personal connection, it may
not be a successful for either party.
Mentoring in Postsecondary Institutions
Postsecondary institutions strive to develop effective mentoring programs and,
ultimately, effective mentoring relationships (Jones & Gable, 2012). Jones and Gable (2012)
performed focus groups with participants in a mentoring program for students with intellectual
disabilities at a large, public, postsecondary institution. One of the themes that emerged was
socializing and enjoying each other’s company to create shared experiences. If the mentoring
relationship focused strictly on academics, then the mentee lost interest in the mentoring
relationship. This study shed light on the mentor and mentee building a relationship on a
personal level.
Mentoring Programs for First-Year Students
Mentoring programs for first-year students are one way institutions implement these
programs (D’Abate, 2009; Walker & Taub, 2001). Two studies explored the meaning of these
first-year mentoring programs as well as satisfaction with them. D’Abate (2009) surveyed 41
faculty and peer mentors regarding the meaning of mentoring in a first-year experience. The
faculty mentors defined mentoring as more academic and professional rather than personal.
Examples included teaching, advising, providing feedback, and academic goal setting. There
was more discrepancy related to personal domains such as socializing, befriending, and
supporting compared to academic and professional domains. The faculty suggested some of
these functions were better suited for peer mentors. The findings from the peer mentors were
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mixed related to befriending and supporting students. Furthermore, the peer mentors placed a
high value on similar functions that faculty mentors chose. One conclusion from this study is to
clearly define each mentor’s role to better support mentees.
As mentoring roles continue to be defined in first-year mentoring programs, Walker and
Taub (2001) looked at the satisfaction of 29 mentoring relationships with one of these first-year
programs. They compared the mentoring relationships with students placed in a group
mentoring relationship. Their findings showed no difference in satisfaction between the two
styles of mentoring, one-to-one and group mentoring. Another finding from this study was that
students who met more frequently with their mentor or group reported higher satisfaction with
the program.
Demographics in Mentoring Relationships
As postsecondary institutions attempt to promote these personal connections,
demographic factors such as race and ethnicity may be used as a factor in mentoring
relationships (Alvarez et al., 2009; Bordes & Arredondo, 2005; Campbell & Campbell, 2007).
In a case study, Alvarez, Blume, Cervantes, and Thomas (2009) investigated if race, ethnicity,
and culture matter in mentoring relationships related to students of color. The study focused on
areas of the mentoring relationship, including culture and academia, shared/assumed existential
posture, racial discrimination, race and ethnic self-awareness, and relationship and process. One
of the participants in the case study specifically chose to enroll in a postsecondary institution
with a diverse student body, and she developed an informal mentoring relationship with one of
her professors. When she was quiet in class or absent, the professor reached out to the student to
ensure she was getting support to continue her studies. Alvarez et al. discussed how mentors
needed to understand the culture of their students to have a successful relationship.
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In another study, which looked at mentoring first-year Latino students, Bordes and
Arredondo (2005) examined the relationship between mentoring and perceptions related to
comfort of the postsecondary environment. The study found that Latino students with mentors
experienced greater cultural congruity and more positive perceptions of the postsecondary
environment compared to Latino students without a mentor. However, findings showed that
Latino students who had a mentor who was also Latino did not have higher levels of cultural
congruity or more positive perceptions of the postsecondary environment in their first year. This
contradicts another study by Campbell and Campbell (2007), which also looked at matching
mentor and mentees by ethnicity.
When mentors and mentees shared the same ethnicity, mentees experienced more units
completed, higher GPAs, higher graduation rates, and a higher percentage of students pursuing
graduate school (Campbell & Campbell, 2007). For this study, Campbell and Campbell (2007)
studied a mentoring program at a large university consisting of 339 students that began in their
first year. A computer rather than a person matched students based on academic interest. At the
end of the first year, mentored students had higher retention rates. The dropout rate in the first
year was 14.5% for mentored students compared to 26.3% for non-mentored students.
Outcomes for Mentoring Relationships
Over the years, there have been thousands of articles on mentoring. Eby et al. (2008)
reviewed mentoring research and examined the outcomes related to academic, personal, and
professional outcomes. During the initial search, the results yielded 15,131 articles. Eby et al.
(2008) conducted a meta-analysis of 116 of these articles. The analysis revealed outcomes that
are more positive for students within academic domains compared to personal domains.
However, there is a favorable direction for all these outcomes for mentees. One limitation of
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these findings is regarding the small sample size (n=116), and another is that the researchers
reviewed previous research rather than conducting their own study.
Conclusion
This review of literature provides a greater understanding of first-generation students and
one-to-one mentoring. As evidenced by the literature, first-generation students deal with many
unique challenges both during the transition to the postsecondary institution and at home. While
these challenges may seem difficult to overcome, the literature has suggested that there are
effective ways to support this transition. One example is one-to-one mentoring, which may
provide an effective model for first-generation students. Schlossberg’s transition theory
provided a theoretical framework to guide this study and further explore this possibility. In
Chapter 3, the methodology of this study is discussed in detail.
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Chapter Three: Methodology
First-generation students face academic, social, financial, and family issues during
transition to a postsecondary institution (Ward et al., 2012). First-generation students do not
need an expert but rather a guide when transitioning to a postsecondary institution (Davis, 2010).
One of the ways a guide may be provided is through a mentoring relationship. The purpose of
this qualitative case study was to develop an understanding of contributions of faculty and staff
mentors in a one-to-one mentoring program for first-generation students. This study used
Schlossberg’s transition theory as the theoretical framework to answer the three research
questions stated in Chapter 1:
1. How do faculty and staff mentors in a one-to-one mentoring program for first-generation
students contribute to the transition of first-generation students to a postsecondary
institution?
2. How do first-generation students perceive faculty and staff mentors in a one-to-one
mentoring program dedicated to serving first-generation students in playing a role in their
transition to a postsecondary institution?
3. What role does a one-to-one mentoring program dedicated to serving first-generation
students play in their transition to a postsecondary institution?
The following sections explains the rationale behind decisions made by me for this case study to
answer these questions. The research design and methods used for the data collection and data
analysis are analyzed in the next section.
Rationale for Study Design
Qualitative research focuses on three main characteristics: naturalistic, descriptive, and
focused on meaning and explanation (McEwan & McEwan, 2003). “Qualitative researchers are
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constantly focused on explaining and interpreting what they observe, hear, and read” (McEwan
& McEwan, 2003, p. 78). Understanding is a key word in qualitative research (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). To understand the research questions, this case study utilized interviews,
observations, and documents. A case study was the type of qualitative research for this study.
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) defined a case study as “an intensive, holistic description and
analysis of a single, bounded unit” (p. 232-233).
One of the goals of qualitative research is understanding the meaning (Maxwell, 2013).
One way to do this is through multiple qualitative data collection methods. It allows the
researcher to gain information from different aspects. Using triangulation helps the researcher
gain a better understanding of the research questions, reduce biases, and increase validity of the
study. In this case study, the interviews provided details of different student experiences of
being part of the mentoring program. Interviews provided data of past events that are impossible
to recreate (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The observations showed how students had some of
these experiences with their mentor as part of the program. Observations provided context,
behaviors, and reference points that were discussed in interviews (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
The documents provided a context of the program overview, its implementation, and
sustainability. This provided a data source that does not interfere with the participants or change
the setting (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Sample and Population
Purposeful sampling was used for this case study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The
selection was based on criteria that were most important for the study. One type of purposeful
sampling is criterion-based selection, which uses attributes that are important to the study.
Furthermore, the sample was chosen as I determined that this sample presented the best
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opportunity to learn about the problem. It also reflected the purpose of the study and provided
information rich data.
Lennon University (LU) is a pseudonym for a private, liberal arts, four-year,
postsecondary institution with a religious affiliation. The campus is located in a large, urban
metropolis in the western United States. It offers undergraduate, graduate, and doctoral
programs. The current enrollment is roughly 6,000 undergraduates, and approximately 800 of
them identify as first-generation students. The ethnicity of students is 44.4% White/Non-
Hispanic, 20.7% Hispanic/Latino, 10.9% Asian, 6.3% African American, and 7.7% Multi-race.
First to the Future (FTF) is a pseudonym for a program that serves first-generation
students at LU. It offers an umbrella of programs for first-generation students. These include a
scholars program, writing workshops, a student-run journal, job shadowing, and a mentoring
program. It is important to note that not every first-generation student at LU participates in FTF.
Furthermore, it is important to note that not every student involved in FTF chooses to be part of
the mentoring program. Students vary in their level of involvement with the different programs
offered by FTF. Ultimately, participation is voluntary. First to the Future focuses on four
domains in their mission: transition, networking and community building, academic discourse,
and cultural capital.
First to the Future implemented the mentoring program at LU for first-generation
students in 2010. There are currently roughly 800 first-generation students at LU, and 218 of
them participate in different programs offered by FTF. Currently, there are 78 pairings in the
mentoring program. The mentoring program pairs first-generation students at LU with faculty
and staff mentors who were first-generation students themselves. After they are matched, the
student and mentor keep their mentoring relationship for the duration of the student’s time at the
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
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postsecondary institution. This program was selected for the case study as LU is one of the few
institutions that has implemented a mentoring program for first-generation students. It also is
unique as the mentors are faculty and staff who were first-generation students themselves.
The sampling achieved one of the goals of purposeful selection, achieving the typicality
of the setting (Maxwell, 2013). All of the participants of the interviews and observations were at
least second-year, first-generation students currently enrolled in the FTF mentoring program. In
addition to the mentors and mentees, program staff were also interviewed to discuss the design
and implementation of the mentoring program. This is necessary to answer the research
questions listed previously. A random sampling would not have been effective in this case
study.
Instrumentation
For any qualitative study, the researcher is the instrument (Maxwell, 2013). Interview,
observation, and document analysis protocols were created for this case study. Examples of
these protocols can be found in the appendices. Table 1 indicates how each data collection
method addressed each research question for this study.
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Table 1
Research Questions Grid
Research Question Interviews Observations Document Analysis
1. How do faculty and staff mentors
in a one-to-one mentoring program
for first-generation students
contribute to the transition of first-
generation students to a
postsecondary institution?
X X X
2. How do first-generation students
perceive faculty and staff mentors
in a one-to-one mentoring program
dedicated to serving first-
generation students in playing a
role in their transition to a
postsecondary institution?
X X
3. What role does a one-to-one
mentoring program dedicated to
serving first-generation students
play in their transition to a
postsecondary institution?
X X X
Data Collection
After receiving approval from my institution’s Institutional Review Board, I reached out
to the FTF program coordinator to describe the study and determine next steps regarding data
collection. All data collection took place during the fall semester of the 2017-2018 academic
year. The scheduling of the interviews and observations was determined after consulting with
the program coordinator. Document analysis was conducted intermittently during the semester.
A number of considerations were reviewed before the data collection began. For the
interviews and observations, first-generation students who had any relationship with me were not
interviewed. These students may be directly or indirectly related to my position at the
institution. This was to minimize any biases, which are in more detail later in this chapter. Due
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
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to the research questions, all first-year students were excluded; since it was their first semester at
the institution, they would not be able to discuss their transition.
Interviews
For the interviews, I consulted with the program coordinator to gain access to participants
in FTF. I emailed all first-generation students in the mentoring program who were at least
second-year students and had a mentor in their first year to gauge interest. Furthermore, these
students must have been matched with their mentor for at least six months to allow the mentoring
relationship to develop. A similar process was used for the mentors. An email was sent to all
mentors in the program with at least one mentee who was at least a second-year student and had
been mentored in their first year. These mentors must have been in a mentoring relationship
with their mentee for at least six months.
The initial email sent to both the mentees and mentors explained the purpose of the case
study and provided basic details of the interview such as logistics and length. Two follow-up
emails were sent to ensure there were enough participants for the study. Due to low response
rates, the program coordinator assisted with communication by sending a follow-up email as
well. The target number of mentees and mentors to interview was five. These numbers were
determined to reach saturation. Creswell (2014) discussed that four to five cases is suggested for
case studies. Once confirmed, all interviews took place in private at the offices of FTF.
The third set of interviews conducted were with the program staff of the FTF program.
The current structure of the program consists of a director, program coordinator, and
administrative coordinator. The director oversaw a number of programs within the academic
resource center, including FTF. The program coordinator oversaw the day-to-day operations of
FTF and, subsequently, the mentoring program. The administrative coordinator provided
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
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administrative support for FTF and, subsequently, the mentoring program. Out of these three
individuals, only the program coordinator was interviewed. In addition to the program
coordinator, an interview was also conducted with one of the founders of FTF to provide
historical context.
A semi-structured interview method was used in the case study. This allowed flexibility
when conducting the interviews (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This allowed for follow-up
questions or opportunities to clarify responses from the participants. For the interviews, the
literature review and transition theory guided the questions of each interview protocol. There
were three separate interview protocols as the mentees, mentors, and program staff have different
questions related to the mentoring program. All three protocols are included in the appendices.
Interviews were conducted in person. An hour was blocked off for each interview to
allow ample time. This gave enough time at the beginning and end of the interview for
housekeeping and to leave extra time in case there were any issues. All interviews were
recorded on a smart phone after the interview protocol was read. I worked around the schedules
of the participants. Interviews took place in either offices of the mentors or a common space at
FTF for students.
After all the interviews were completed, I had them transcribed by a professional
transcription service. This service abided to the privacy and confidentially of all the participants.
After all the interviews were transcribed, the transcriptions were emailed to me for safe storage
for the data analysis.
Observations
For the observations, I observed three mentoring relationships of the different interview
participants. I communicated with both the mentees and mentors to coordinate observations.
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
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Similar criteria were used for observations, which included the mentees are at least second-year
students and the mentoring relationship was at least six months old.
The initial email to mentees and mentors explained the purpose of the case study and
provided basic details of the observation such as logistics and length. Two follow-up emails
were sent to ensure there were enough participants for the study. Once confirmed, all
observations took place at the setting where the mentor and mentee were meeting, which in all
three cases was the mentor’s office. I planned to conduct three observations.
I assumed the role of observer as participant for the observations as my activities were
known during the observation (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). I observed mentoring relationships, so
both the mentor and mentee knew of my presence in the room. I did not participate in any of the
observation sessions. The protocol captured the setup of the room and any materials used. The
remainder of the protocol consisted of a notes section to collect data during the observation. I
looked at behavior related to strategies and support as well as the mentee’s transition during the
observation. Furthermore, I noted the interaction between the mentor and mentee throughout the
observation. This was to understand the mentoring relationship. Each observation lasted the
duration of the meeting between the mentor and mentee, which was roughly an hour.
After all the observations were completed, I had the observations transcribed by a
professional transcription service. This service abided to the privacy and confidentially of all the
participants. After all the observations were transcribed, the transcriptions were emailed to me
for safe storage for the data analysis.
In addition to observing mentoring relationships, I observed two FTF events on campus
to see how mentors and mentees interacted with one another in a group setting. Lennon
University hosted a first-generation awareness week in the fall semester, so I observed two
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
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activities during this week. The first was a panel of mentors and mentees discussing their
experiences in the program. The second was a luncheon with mentors and mentees that included
both mentors and mentees talking in front of the group about their experiences in the program. I
used the same observation protocol for these activities, but neither of them was audio recorded.
Documents
For the documents, I discussed with the program coordinator what program
documentation and data was available to review. Documents are ready-made sources of data that
are accessible either at the site or online (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). For this study, documents
analyzed included annual reports, donor reports, mentor applications, mentee applications,
referral guides, and checklists. Content and documents on the FTF website were also reviewed
in relation to the case study. Documents directly or indirectly related to the FTF mentoring
program were considered, but some of the documents available were discarded due to irrelevance
to the study. During the document collection, I considered the authenticity and accuracy of the
documents to determine their usefulness to the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Theoretical Framework
Schlossberg’s transition theory provides a context for the research questions and
methodology of the study. During data collection, the interviews, observations, and documents
were based on the 4 S System. All three phases of data collection focused on two areas of the 4
S System: strategies and support. Furthermore, interview questions were specifically developed
to address these two areas.
Data Analysis
A number of qualitative strategies are explained in detail in this section. These include a
rationale of the interview, observation, and document analysis, all of which guided the findings.
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
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The process of coding is also explained. When beginning the data analysis, all the data collected
needs to be organized so the researcher can analyze the data together and not become
overwhelmed (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). To maximize the data analysis process, I analyzed the
data during its collection.
The six steps outlined by Creswell (2014) guided the data analysis. These steps provide a
foundation for the analysis when creating themes. The first three steps include organizing and
preparing the data, reading all the data, and coding the data. The next step is where the
descriptions from the coding of the data create the themes for the narrative. The fifth step looks
at how these descriptions and themes are represented. For this analysis, the themes are discussed
with interconnecting themes. The final of the six steps is the interpretation of the data, which is
discussed in Chapter 4. This study uses transition theory as its theoretical framework, so the
discussion is guided by this framework in the analysis.
In addition of Creswell’s six steps, a few analytic tools were used to analyze the
interviews, observation, and documents data. The two tools that guided this analysis the most
were the use of questioning and making comparisons (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). The use of
questioning was the first analytic tool used for the analysis. Corbin and Strauss (2008) wrote
that this helps the researcher start thinking about the data. For this reason, it seemed like the
most appropriate tool with which to start. It also helped me understand the data from the
participants’ perspective (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Furthermore, it helped to point me in the
right direction as to what to look for during the analysis. This was utilized for both the
interviews and observations, especially during the initial coding.
A constant comparison approach was used under the making comparisons tool (Corbin &
Strauss, 2008; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Regarding constant comparison, Corbin and Strauss
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
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(2008) wrote, “This type of comparison is essential to all analysis because it allows the
researcher to differentiate one category/theme from another and to identify properties and
dimensions specific to that category/theme” (p. 73). Constant comparison allowed me to
compare different interview and observation data collected throughout the study. It was
especially helpful during the coding process. For example, any time “strategies” or “support”
was coded, I compared it to other incidents that were already coded as “strategies” or “support.”
Drawing upon personal experience was another analytic tool used for the analysis. This
was used due to the researcher’s position within LU. Corbin and Strauss (2008) explained that
this is not to create bias or impose the researcher’s experiences upon the data. “Rather, we want
to use our experiences to bring up other possibilities of meaning” (Corbin & Strauss, 2008, p.
80). This was used with the all the data, as the researcher has served as a mentor in FTF.
These analytic tools were predominately used to create the three phases of coding as
developed by Corbin and Strauss (2008): open, axial, and selective (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Each coding process built upon another. Open coding allowed me to code any unit of data that
may be relevant to the study. Axial coding looked at codes that were similar or related to each
other. Selective coding created categories and eventually propositions, which led to the
assertions of the study.
Theoretical Framework
Similar to the data collection, Schlossberg’s transition theory provided the theoretical
framework for the data analysis. During the coding, the 4 S System guided the three phases of
coding. This process helped develop themes that emerged from the data related to strategies and
support.
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Role of the Researcher
My reflexivity was seriously considered to minimize both personal and professional
biases as well as my relationship to the study (Creswell, 2014; Merriam & Tisdell 2016). I was a
first-generation student. Also, I am an employee at LU who has served in numerous roles over
the last six years at the institution. During this time, I never worked directly with FTF.
I have a strong connection to mentoring and mentoring programs. As a mentor in FTF, I
had my own perspective on the mentoring program. To minimize this, I agreed to not participate
in any FTF activities or programs for the duration of this study. While in a completely different
setting and not connected to LU, I did continue to serve as a mentor in a nonprofit program. This
should have no effect on the study as it is in a completely different context.
I acknowledged these biases and how they may influence my analysis of the data I
collected. However, I remained committed to the qualitative research process and threats to
validity. I also have a counseling background from my graduate studies, so I used this expertise
to create an objective standpoint for the duration of the case study.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Qualitative research can never be completely objective, but there are ways to increase the
credibility and trustworthiness of the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). A few different tactics
were used to ensure the credibility and trustworthiness of the findings, including researcher
effects and triangulation (Miles, Huberman, & Saldana, 2014). This minimizes the bias of the
findings, especially my personal bias, as I have been employed by LU. The first tactic I used
was checking for researcher effects, which looks at the effects of the case on the researcher. This
was important due to my prior relationship with First to the Future. One way this was addressed
was by making intentions clear and not inflating the potential problem.
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Another tactic I used was triangulation, which looks at different measures being used to
confirm the findings (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Miles et al., 2014). Interviews, observations,
and documents were analyzed for this study. Triangulation increases internal validity of the
study by using multiple sources of data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Using triangulation reduces
the risk of chance association or systematic biases due to one method (Maxwell, 2013).
The last tactic used was weighting the evidence (Miles et al., 2014). This applied to both
the interviews and observations, where each mentoring relationship was unique considering
some mentors and mentees had met with each other a few times and others had only met one
time. Each mentoring relationship was structured differently. This explains why the data was
not very rich in areas such as how goals were met or how the mentoring relationship impacted
the student’s transition.
Ethics
The ethics of this study was extremely important as it directly related to the credibility
and trustworthiness of the research. As explained in the preceding section, triangulation was
used to confirm the findings that emerged (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The institution’s identity
remained anonymous throughout the duration of the case study. During the data collection, the
interview and observation protocol explained confidentiality, and all participants had their
identities protected during the collection, analysis, and findings by the use of pseudonyms. All
data will be stored in secure, password-protected devices, external hard drives, and cloud drives.
Only I have access to all the data collected. Data will also be checked on a regular basis to
ensure no one other than me has accessed the sensitive content.
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Conclusion
Chapter 3 addressed the methodology of this case study. The rationale for a qualitative
study was discussed. I presented the sample and population, instrumentation, data collection,
and data analysis for the study. Triangulation and the role of the researcher were also addressed
in relation to the validity of the study. In Chapter 4, the findings from the data collection and
analysis are discussed.
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Chapter Four: Results
This study was designed to develop an understanding of faculty and staff mentors’
contributions in a one-to-one mentoring program for first-generation students. It focused on
first-generation students transitioning to a postsecondary institution using Schlossberg’s
transition theory as a framework, specifically the strategies and support areas of the 4 S System.
While this framework guided the study’s design, its findings extended beyond strategies and
support of the 4 S System. From the findings emerged practices that mentors contributed to their
mentees’ transition beyond strategies and support.
Chapter 4 addresses the following research questions stated in Chapter 1 through
interviews, observations, and document analysis:
1. How do faculty and staff mentors in a one-to-one mentoring program for first-generation
students contribute to the transition of first-generation students to a postsecondary
institution?
2. How do first-generation students perceive faculty and staff mentors in a one-to-one
mentoring program dedicated to serving first-generation students in playing a role in their
transition to a postsecondary institution?
3. What role does a one-to-one mentoring program dedicated to serving first-generation
students play in their transition to a postsecondary institution?
This chapter is divided into two parts. The first provides context for the findings through a
description and background of the First to the Future (FTF) program, including how the program
is structured and operates. Understanding this context provides a foundation for how the themes
in the findings emerged. The themes that emerged from the data analysis follow in the second
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part of this chapter. The four themes are summarized and connected to Schlossberg’s transition
theory.
Study Context
The mission of FTF is focused on four areas: transition, networking and community
building, academic discourse, and cultural capital. These four areas guide the work of the
program. For this study, the transition area was the focus. According to its mission, FTF
believes the transition is an essential component to academic success. Furthermore, FTF offers
outreach programs to foster community and aid the transition to the postsecondary institution.
First to the Future started in 2010 from an idea of a staff member of LU. One of the co-
founders of the program, Martha, said, “When I first got there in 2010, there was very little to no
sort of outward or intentional programming around first-generation identity, which is one of the
reasons why I started the program.” She further clarified that a student at the institution was
really the driving force behind its inception. Martha recounted:
I created the program in fall 2010, so I was fairly new. I started at LU in March 2010,
and I guess that I had just met an undergraduate student who would say how much she
enjoyed being there, but she wished there was something more for first-gen students, and
so I mean that wasn’t my charge at all, but that’s definitely my passion.
This idea from Martha and one of her students came to fruition initially as a one-to-one
mentoring program for first-generation students. Martha shared, “Our original intention was to
be a mentoring program between undergrad students and faculty and staff. It’s obviously grown
into much more than that, but that was its original intention.”
Today FTF is an umbrella of programs for first-generation students, including the
mentoring program, a scholars program for incoming freshmen, a student-run journal, and
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international trips. Figure 1 shows a diagram of how the program is structured. The staff of
FTF, a program coordinator and an administrative coordinator, oversee all of its programs. Their
focus is not only mentoring programs but also other programs under the FTF umbrella.
Figure 1. First to the Future program structure.
In the 2015-2016 academic year, Lennon University (LU) had 816 first-generation
students on campus. First to the Future supported 217 first-generation students across its
different programs. While there are 115 faculty and staff mentors who volunteer, the mentoring
program currently supports 77 mentoring pairings. Everyone who participates is first generation.
Martha explained, “You are making a community, then why not have students understand and
know that whoever is their mentor also was first generation, so it really is part of the first-
generation family.”
A big part of the first-generation community at LU is the mentors themselves. The
current program coordinator, Lucy, discussed their role:
I would say the first strength is just the mentors themselves. I think because we’re
unique in that we only have first-gen mentors or mentors who self-identify as being first
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generation. We always say that even with our students, there’s just this intrinsic sense of
giving back to the community in whatever way that means, whether it’s large or small.
Mentors come from all across campus, and Lucy maintains these relationships by keeping an
open line of communication even if she is unable to meet them in person. Mentors in the
program range from senior administration to entry-level staff in both academic and student
affairs. Currently there are 115 mentors. She explained:
I would say that I know and have met probably 60 to 70 percent of them. Some of them
have just been over email, and some of them have been a little bit more. We just haven’t
been able to actually see each other. Some mentors I have great relationships with, but I
think that also is because of just my social capital that I came into the program with
because of working on campus and being a student. Even for mentors that I maybe for
the first time have met, it’s been great to obviously put a face to a name and then to hear
how much they appreciate it. I do get emails about that all the time. I appreciate the fact
that you have a program like this that are supporting first-gen students. I never had
anything, and this would have been great when I was in school.
A similar approach is used for the mentees as well. Mentees can join the mentoring
program at any time, and applications are received on a rolling basis. Lucy discussed:
They can join at any time, any major. We even have had more interest from our graduate
students to receive mentorship or to even be mentors themselves. Yeah, they can sign up
at any point. We've definitely had juniors and seniors join last minute just because they
maybe want to feel like maybe they want to take advantage of one of the resources that
we have, or they just have heard about us and they just want to feel like they want to be a
part of the community. But they can join at any time.
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Lucy further discussed how it still can be a challenge to identify students and let first-generation
students know the program exists. The program focuses on a number of ways to make their
presence known on campus. She recounted:
Through collaborations, through email communication, through word of mouth is really
how we get a lot of students. I would say this year, I would say the word of mouth has
probably been the one thing that I’ve noticed that we've gotten a lot of students because
of and First Gen Awareness Week.
Once students join the program, the matching process begins. Both mentees and mentors
complete an application with a list of questions such as personal and professional interests.
These forms are submitted to the FTF office for review. Lucy explained this process in more
detail:
Once we get both of those applications, we start to look at those things. Who is really
interested in having somebody in their major? Who is a mentor that would actually
prefer not to have somebody that’s in their college because maybe they meet with their
students already, and starting to just piece things together and playing different scenarios
of “will these two work together?” Sometimes they are paired based on interests but also
based on my experience with the student and with the mentor. If I know the mentor
really well and I know the student really well, it’s worked out where I could say, “I think
this mentor would be really great for this student maybe because of their personality style
or maybe just because of the things that a student has shared with me about what they’re
looking for at LU. Does the student maybe need to be a little bit more nurtured, so do I
have really great mentors who I know are very nurturing people?”
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Once this process is completed, the mentoring relationship begins. The FTF program
coordinator emails both the mentor and the mentee with contact information, and they are
expected to meet. Mentors and mentees also receive agreements, which outline expectations of
their respective roles.
As detailed in Table 2, profiles of participants in the mentoring program provide a
prospective on their experiences related to the mentee’s transition to the institution. Eight years
after Martha co-founded the program, it is still running. As she recalled, “My initial plan was a
mentoring program for 25 people, and then in blew up into another thing, which is amazing, it
just shows you my vision was limited at the time.”
Table 2
Profiles of Participants
Participant Role Background
Eleanor Mentor Staff
Julia Mentor Faculty
Paul Mentor Staff
Penny Mentor Staff
Rita Mentor Faculty
Loretta Mentee Sophomore
Michelle Mentee Sophomore
Molly Mentee Junior
Pam Mentee Sophomore
Rose Mentee Sophomore
Lucy Staff Member Program Coordinator
Martha Staff Member Co-Founder
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Findings
A recent FTF annual report referenced the mentoring program as a highlight program.
The report stated, “The students know they have a community that understands their experience
and will support them as they navigate through the resources, curriculum, policies, and program
at LU.” According to the report, “These mentoring relationships can facilitate academic and
professional development, as well as personal and spiritual growth.” The following sections
explore the research findings in more detail by theme and category according to the research
questions.
Connection of Shared Identity Matters
The first theme involves the shared identity of both the mentor and mentee being first
generation. One of the key components in the mentoring program is how both the mentors and
mentees identify as first generation. Both the mentors and mentees spoke fondly of their shared
identity. Penny explained:
I’ve learned that a lot of the same things that my student might be experiencing, those are
things that don’t necessarily go away for myself as a first-gen graduate. And I say
graduate because I graduated, I got through college, but we talk about imposter
syndrome. We talk about our place in society as a first generation.... We’re both women
of color, and we’re both from the same cultural background. Looking at what that means
for us and our career trajectories. We’re both going towards a research-based career, and
a lot of the things that she experiences are things that I still am continuing to experience.
I think what I’ve learned is that it’s okay to reflect on that and to not feel guilty for
having those feelings in spite of not. I graduate already; I should have it all together. But
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I think that acceptance of those feelings is still okay. I think that’s what I learned as well
as how to be okay with finding mentors for myself as I continue to grow as an individual.
Penny’s mentee, Pam, reciprocated these feelings. She shared:
Knowing that I have that connection with her, but also knowing that she has a connection
with me has really helped me out. She’s fully human, as humans we make mistakes
along the way, and she’s been able to overcome them. Her being accepted to a doctoral
program is very amazing because the higher you go, the more challenging it becomes,
and she’s been able to overcome all those obstacles. I do want to one day receive my
doctoral degree. That’s pretty much what I’ve always wanted since I’ve been young.
Knowing that she’s been doing that and accomplishing that, for me, it’s very motivating.
This shared identity established an immediate relationship between Penny and Pam. Their
shared background, which extended beyond their first-generation identify, allowed them to build
a strong mentoring relationship from their very first meeting.
Penny and Pam’s shared background also opened doors for them to have a rapport from
their initial meeting. Penny recounted:
I believe that we developed a really close connection because she disclosed to me during
our very first meeting that she had the scholarship that she did, and I said, “Oh, I do
too....” It’s kind of like belonging to a club. We’re part of this elite club because we
have this. Helping her really understand what that meant, and she knew what that meant,
and I knew what that meant. Because we shared that, that essentially threw all of the
other getting-to-know-you stuff out the window because it felt like we had been family
for years already. We didn’t need to talk about the weather to get to know each other.
We just kind of went straight to really the very deep and personal things for what it
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means to be a first-generation college student, and what does it mean to be a woman of
color on this campus? Where not very many people look like you.
The mentoring relationship got off to a strong start when Pam found out that her mentor was
very similar to her in ways beyond just first-generation identity.
Other participants discussed the importance of a shared first-generation identity and what
it means to the institution. Julia discussed:
I like its emphasis on student success. I like that students from under-represented
backgrounds have access to the leadership on campus where they’re at, this faculty or key
administrators, or staff, professional staff throughout the university. They have this
access that they might not ordinarily understand they have. Then when they discover
these mentors are themselves first generation, I think this light comes on in the student.
Julia elaborated on how having this shared identity played a role even outside the institution.
Her first-generation identity played a role on a more global scale as well as for her family. Julia
explained:
I helped change the statistics for women in higher education, for people of color in higher
education. It means that the legacy of my family is now different as a result of my going
to college. I had two older sisters who got married at the domestic thing, but as a result
of my going to college, as older adults, they went back, and they went to college. It
changed the academic legacy of my family. I was the first in my family, that we know
of, to go to college and then for the record shoot it out, so it changed a lot, including me
personally.
Eleanor shared a similar sentiment. She responded, “First gen to me means resilient because you
had to do something that you didn’t necessarily have support with.” These examples show how
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important being first generation was to participants in the program. This identity was a source of
pride for them, and the strategic decision at the program’s inception to build on this identity
made it unique for both the mentors and mentees.
Rather than viewing their first-generation status as a weakness, the mentors used it as a
way to empower to their mentees. When asked how her first-generation identity makes her feel,
Julia shared:
Very proud. It doesn’t always come up in every environment that I’m in, but when it is
appropriate and as often as I can to celebrate their success stories, I will try to do it. And
I’m very proud to be associated with the first-gen movement, first-gen programs,
especially on the academic side of it, and as in terms of higher education, that encourages
students that not only earn their undergraduate degree but to go further and to start to use
it to serve.
This translates to the mentees as they look up to the mentors. As these mentees navigate through
their transition at the institution, this shared identity matters to them. Loretta explained:
Yeah, it’s nice seeing that she’s first-generation because then I see her as someone like
me, like, “Oh, she was able to do what she wanted and get to where she wanted to be.” It
gives me inspiration to actually pursue my dreams and not let anything stop me from
actually pursuing my dreams. If people tell me I can’t pursue it, I'm just like, “This
person did, so why can't I?”
Not only does first-generation identity matter, but it also shows the mentees that they have
someone who has been in their shoes before them. Their mentor is someone who was like them
and became a success. Molly shared:
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For me it’s more inspiring, because it’s the fact that she has this higher-level role at a
university. She is a Black woman, and she is a first-generation college student. If she
was able to navigate her spaces and get things done as well as, like, without having that
support from her family because they don't really know about how to navigate those
things, then anyone who is first gen can do it as well. It’s just like, when someone is in
the same state as you, you become more personable with them. She’s able to understand
where I’m coming from when it comes to certain things, and she’s also cognizant of cities
and neighborhoods, so she understands what I had to face growing up and she’s able to
help me with that. Whereas someone who wasn’t first-gen wouldn’t understand what it’s
like to be a first-generation college student here, and not knowing how to navigate spaces
or not knowing cultural competency or not knowing…. You don’t have that cultural
capital to navigate. Her knowing those things and having to be able to point at those and
help me through that since my first year of college was very beneficial.
The mentors know this as well, which puts them in a position to support their mentee. They have
an unspoken understanding of some of the challenges these students face when they transition to
the institution.
One of the mentors, Paul, shared, “I’m very empathetic to that because that’s where I
come from. So that’s why as soon as I meet any First to the Future student, I’m really quick to
share that, to share my humble beginnings, to share that I come from a working-class
background.” Other mentors reflected as well on their past experiences. They remembered their
time as first-generation students and were not afraid to share details. Julia explained:
Reflection of my own experience is confirmation to the student that I am here, and you
could ask me anything. Because I also was first gen and I also didn’t have parents that
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know about the college experience…. I was going blind, did not know anything about
anything and had to learn the hard way.
Sharing this identity is not always as effective, as Michelle did not have the same
connection related to shared identity. She developed a close relationship with her mentor, but
while they are both first generation, they have different backgrounds, and this was not of high
importance to her. Michelle explained, “For that case, I don’t really relate to her because she
was telling me that her parents are not her real parents…. She was adopted, so I didn’t relate to
it. And also, she is from here, whereas I’m not from here. Background wise, not really.”
The mentors were honest about difficulties they experienced when they were students but
explained how it should only be viewed as a small obstacle to overcome. Two of the mentors
interviewed were pursuing doctorates, and all of them had earned advanced degrees. When I
visited their offices, which was also where they met with their mentees, many of them had hung
framed diplomas for these accomplishments on their walls.
Relating to similar challenges. The accomplishments of the mentors had been
challenging to reach, and the mentors discussed in detail how they overcame these challenges
with their mentees. One example of this was seen during the First-Generation Awareness Week
hosted by FTF. They hosted a panel of both mentors and mentees to discuss their experiences at
the institution. One of the mentees shared that hearing her mentor’s struggles made her realize
that she could be successful. This panel had very open and honest dialogue between participants.
This sentiment emerged in interviews with both mentors and mentees. A few of the
mentors who participated in the study were also alumni of LU. Rita recalled her experience
transitioning to the institution. She recounted:
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I was first generation myself, and I was low income as well. I remember kind of coming
to this place and thinking how different it was. I had nothing kind of in mind, what this
would be. I remember the challenges of going through here not having family members
that had knowledge of what this was going to be or could be like. I always wanted to
help people who are coming through like I was. When I heard they were organizing this
First to the Future program, I was all excited because I knew that these things, I was
aware that some of these things existed on other campuses, so I was glad to see it
happening here.
Paul was another mentor who was also an alumnus of LU. He discussed the culture of LU in
more detail. Regarding his transition, he recounted:
I just thought that maybe like a student’s experience at a large institution, where from
what I understand, it’s like you show up, and “All right. Good luck to you. You’re on
your own.” LU doesn't have that kind of culture, right? It was really rough. Again, I
thought that I had to read every single word before the next class meeting. So oftentimes,
that meant being awake until four in the morning. The classic first-gen experience, being
awake until four in the morning. My dad would come home from working a graveyard
shift at four in the morning and pop his head into my bedroom and see that I was still
reading and say like, “Mijo, why are you still awake? Go to sleep.” It's like, “I can’t. I
need to finish this reading before the next class meeting.” It was very, very rough.
These preceding examples show the difficulty of transitioning to a postsecondary institution for
the mentors. Their experiences provide context to their mentees’ own transition to the
institution.
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Mentors who attended institutions other than LU still related to the challenges of their
mentees. Julia shared her experience when she a student: “My transition was difficult,
uninformed and filled with mistakes. I had to learn to go and ask questions and when you are
taught to be a very independent person.” Penny also had a difficult transition as a student. She
recounted:
During that time, I decided to go to the best school I could go to locally because my mom
was ill at the time, and so I decided to stay because of that. I also had to balance my role
within my family as well as my role as a student, and I didn’t know how to do that. I also
didn’t know how to manage my time because I had so much more free time in terms of
my classes …. I also thought that because I had done so well throughout high school that
college would be easy, and although I understood what was being talked about in my
classes, I didn’t necessarily always get the best of grades my first term. That really hit
my ego, and it hurt me a lot.
Looking back on her time as a student, Penny tried to use her experiences when working with her
mentee. She explained:
I’m able to then self-disclose a lot of my experiences, and I’m able to share and relate to
my mentee in that way. Then I’m able to share about how I navigated those situations
and go through what my thinking process was as well as talk about the supports that I
didn’t have and helping them recognize that they have these supports. It’s kind of like
hindsight is 20/20. Letting my mentee know, “Hindsight is 20/20. Please, this was my
experience. Don’t do the same thing.”
Sharing these experiences with the mentees was a strategy that the mentors used when working
with their mentees. Michelle explained, “Where with her telling me more like genuine stories
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about how her school was like helps me a lot to get me a little more space to like, not fail, but
like, to mess up a little bit.”
Rose shared similar thoughts when asked about her mentor. She explained:
I can’t say she went through everything I’m going through, but first-generation students
have similar experiences, so that meant a lot for me because at first, I thought I was the
only one feeling this way, and I was the only one going through this, and everybody else
has it easy, but when you find someone who can relate to your situation, it makes it a lot
easier. And you realize they did it, so I can too.
Hearing these stories also helped the mentees when they are struggling academically.
Pam discussed how she was struggling in one of her courses in her first year. She recounted:
When I’m like, “I’m struggling with this class,” she’s like, “Yes, it's a really hard class. I
took one similar to that topic when I was in my undergrad.” She would talk to me about
how sometimes it was difficult for her, and just knowing that we have a connection where
we connect between a certain type of struggle is very important.
Pam’s mentor, Penny, further explained why she thought this was important to discuss
with her mentee. Penny explained:
I think that maybe a challenge that I’ve experienced is maybe checking my own emotions
during our meetings, where if my student will be feeling a certain way or will have
questions that I don’t know the answer to, and being okay with saying, “I’m still figuring
it out, too.” Because my mentee sees me as someone who has so much more experience
and so much more knowledge and as someone that she would like to be one day, but
being okay with saying that “I can still be a mentor to this person even though I don’t
have it all figured out.” I do have a lot of the skills to be able to push her toward her
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success, but I don’t have all the answers all the time, and that’s sometimes frustrating for
me. I think that’s just a part of being who I am, and discovering who I am, and helping
her discover who she is.
Mentors may not have all the answers but sharing these experiences with their mentees is a way
to provide support during the transition. These examples show the difficulty of the transition and
its complexity.
Paul discussed the reward of being a mentor for him. Years after his own graduation at
LU, he still attends commencement every year. For him it symbolizes a successful transition.
Paul explained:
Hands-down, the best moment, the best experience that I have here at LU is graduation
day. It’s when you know that as a matter of fact, the First to the Future students, they
made it. Mission accomplished. That they made it to graduation day. When you see
those students walk across the stage, you can’t put it into words the feeling that you get
when you know that you had a little bit to do to contribute towards that student’s journey
through LU. And it’s great to know that it’s a community effort. It’s not just me. It’s a
network of other First to the Future mentors. And people actually care to make sure that
that student makes it through that LU hurdle and gets to graduation day.
Reaching commencement presents challenges for each student, but the mentors play a role in this
journey. They play a role in their mentees’ successes and failures.
Opportunity to give back. The mentors shared that they feel a need to give back as
first-generation students, and FTF provided them an avenue for it. They are able to provide
support and strategies for students that they did not have themselves when they were students.
Paul explained, “Another thing that I enjoy doing is just making sure that no student falls
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through the cracks.” This mentality is shared by other mentors in the program. Eleanor
explained:
I think in general it’s a great program because I was a first-gen student myself and I
didn’t have this kind of support or know about all the resources available at the
university, and I would’ve liked to have had that. I also have a counseling background,
so I think it’s in my nature to want to help other students, so they can succeed in the
program.
Penny shared similar thoughts as she discussed how she also wanted to share resources,
and she noted that mentoring allows her to do that for a student. Penny explained:
What I like about mentoring is that I get to share my training and the skills that I have
within higher education. I specifically work with students on helping them develop study
skills, and helping them develop learning strategies, and helping them with time
management. A lot of these very concrete skills that a lot of first-generation college
students don’t necessarily come in with. They come in with different funds of
knowledge, but this hidden curriculum that I’m aware of now being a first-generation
college graduate that I wasn’t aware of when I was a freshman.
Being able to share these skills is a meaningful experience for the mentors in the program. It is
an emotional experience for them. Both Penny and Rita became emotional when looking back at
their postsecondary experiences and how they were able to now pass on the resources and
knowledge to their mentees. Rita shared, “I had a chance to contact such wonderful people in
my life, who didn’t make an issue about who I was, made all the difference in the world for me.
As I said, it’s those kinds of contexts that kind of affect the kinds of things I do for students now.
So yeah, it’s pretty deep for me.”
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The mentoring program provided a more official avenue for the mentors to support these
students. As faculty and staff, they work with students in a variety of settings, but the one-to-one
structure provided them a more intimate opportunity to give back. Rita wanted to make a
difference when she returned to her alma mater. She explained:
I never forgot. I never wanted to be a professional that kind of got this nice degree and
just sort of rode off into the sunset. I would want to keep in mind, I wanted to help
people coming after me. First to the Future for me is kind of an avenue for doing that.
This idea creates a pay-it-forward mindset and helps mentors to not forget where they came
from. Otherwise, all of their hard work and accomplishments did not have the same meaning.
Paul explained:
It means that you have a responsibility. To me, it gives me a great sense of responsibility
that I need to pay it forward. Someway, somehow, I made it over my obstacles when I
was a first-gen student, and I made it through, quote unquote, to the point that somehow,
I even have a master’s degree. It’s like I don’t know how many people have gone
through a crisis and finish the bachelors and finish the Masters. That’s nice and all, but
then so what? I think that then the next point is to help others get over that hurdle as
well. That’s always been my approach. It’s like, I know where I come from. I know
what I’ve accomplished.... It’s a sense of responsibility that I believe others should feel
to then accomplish what you accomplish, and then turn back and help the community
accomplish the same thing.
The community developed by FTF over the last eight years shows a group of mentors who are
committed to student success. They take the role of a mentor seriously and not for granted with
the hope of developing the next generation of successful first-generation students.
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Fostering a Positive Environment for Relationships to Develop
The second theme involves creating an environment for the mentoring relationship to
develop. Building a strong mentoring relationship is a focal point for the mentors and mentees in
the program. How these relationships developed varied, but the mentees shared how they
became comfortable rather quickly. One example was that during the panel for First-Generation
Awareness Week, there was a very supportive environment in the room. The students cheered
during certain responses, and there was a lot of laughter despite the occasional difficult topic. It
was a safe space. This may be attributed to when the mentors and mentees first met. Loretta
shared her first impressions of meeting her mentor. She recounted:
The first time we met, it was kind of awkward because I’ve seen her around, but I’ve
never really talked to her, so it was a lot of breaking the ice. But then after that, I feel
like our meetings were a lot more relaxed.
Rose first met her mentor during a difficult time in her first year but described an instant
connection. She recounted:
When I met with her in the spring, I had just gone to my first week of SPS, and the first
time I met her told her, “I’m going to SPS.” People don't really disclose that, but like, I
said something about her just made me feel like I could trust her. It’s like when you
disclose something to someone that’s something serious or sensitive, not that the other
person has to, but she also shared things with me that she maybe didn’t have to share with
me. But it made me feel a lot better. She offered her support. She was sharing her
wisdom with me and telling me everybody else through this, and it’s going to happen
again. But now you know how to deal with it.
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The preceding examples show the mentors created a space for the mentees to become
comfortable. Michelle shared how she was nervous when she first met Rita, but that feeling
subsided during their first meeting. She said, “I think as soon as we started talking about our
interests, we started to get comfortable with each other.”
This comfortability may be attributed to how the mentors lower their guard when meeting
with their mentees. Rita explained, “I try to give her space to share what she was seeing or
feeling.” She added that she has a reputation for students discussing sensitive issues with her.
She explained:
It’s not uncommon for students to share that with me. They share all kinds of things with
me. Stuff in their families. I’ve had people in this office telling me that their family
member was shot in the gang shooting. They’re getting foreclosed on in their house.
They’re worried about where they’re going to live. Things they would be embarrassed to
tell other people, they’ll tell me because, I guess, I seem safe. And I can relate. I lived in
a garage for part of my growing up. I lived in a car for part of my growing up. Not very
long, necessarily, but I didn’t have health insurance for most of my life until I came to
LU, basically as an undergrad. I’m not shy about sharing those details with people. I
think because I’m willing to do that, I think word gets out to people. Students talk among
themselves.
When Michelle was asked about her relationship with Rita, she reaffirmed the above
statement. Rita is a faculty member, but Michelle was not intimidated by her compared to other
faculty members. This resulted in her having a strong relationship with her mentor. Michelle
shared:
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I like it because she doesn’t act like an authority when we’re talking. She acts more like
a really close, like maybe a friend, or like someone who is like very supportive of what
I’m doing. Yeah, I don't know. She’s really open, so I’m really open to her. And we
have a lot of things in common other than academics. We talk a lot about personal
things.
This was a recurring theme during the interviews with both the mentors and mentees. The
mentors were someone on campus with whom the mentees can discuss anything. The mentees
felt that they could share personal information and not be judged. Pam shared, “It was just pretty
much giving me an open space to go in and sometimes, if I ever needed to cry, I would cry. If I
just needed someone to hear me out, she would just definitely hear me out.”
During the first year, mentors and mentees addressed transition more directly. The
mentors made it key topic when meeting with their mentees. Julia explained:
That probably was the lead question when the student was a freshman because transition
is key, that’s getting determined whether or not they stay, whether or not they feel that
they can stay, and stay strong. Not just being here, but being here and doing well.
Transition is really an important area, so I would say, every meeting I would start off
with, “How does it feel to be a student here? How are you doing?”
As Julia noted, mentors made an effort to check in on their mentees throughout the
semester to see how they were doing. They may have asked a simple question about how their
day was going. Eleanor recounted:
I typically ask her how everything’s going depending on the time of year; if it’s
midterms, how that’s going, what her plans are for break, if she’s going to do any study
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abroad programs.... Just checking in in general for her well-being, if there’s any way I
could support her.
When mentees were experiencing more challenging times, the mentors were also not
afraid to ask more difficult questions as well. Molly revealed how Julia was able to be very
candid with her if necessary. She recounted:
She will just be, like, “Okay. What's going on? I know you’re not having the greatest
time because you’re not talking about it all the time, so what’s going on?” I’ll just tell
her, like, this is what’s happening. For me, it was difficult to ask for help from people
because my mom raised me not to ask for help. Not that I shouldn’t ask for help, but
shed just like, “Be independent. You can get everything yourself” type thing. When it
came to asking for help, it was very difficult to cross that border into finally asking for, “I
need help with this.” But once I did it, she helped me, and now I’m very quick to ask for
help.
These conversations were able to happen due to the rapport established in the first few meetings.
They created an environment where serious and fun meetings can take place at any given time
based on needs of the mentees.
As the relationships developed, friendships emerged as well. Molly has a lot of respect
for Julia. She said, “It’s like a friendship, but it still has that professional aspect to it because she
is older. There’s that respect there.”
Rose agreed when asked about her mentor. She stated, “I would say she’s a mentor but
she’s also a friend. And a confidant because I feel like I can trust her with things that I probably
wouldn’t just tell anybody.” These perspectives did not differ for the mentors either.
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The mentors view the mentees as friends as well. Penny explained, “I’d say that we’re
very good friends. When I think of myself as a mentor, I don’t really necessarily think of myself
as being above her or this person that is here to impart this knowledge and wisdom.” Yet, the
knowledge and wisdom were making a difference for the mentees.
Instilling skills to succeed. During the first year, the mentors spent time not only
building relationships with their mentees but also instilling skills to cope with transition. When
looking back on their first year and where they are now, both the mentors and mentees saw a
difference in how they approached challenges. Molly shared:
Her just giving me that support was all the fuel that I needed to get through it, because if I
didn’t have that, I probably would have been, gave up. There wasn’t much that I can say
that it’s like drastically changed because I’m still the same person. It was just two years
ago. I’m still the same person, it’s just that I’m more cognizant of I’m going to face
some things in life, and I’m not afraid to face them now.
Molly, who was a junior at the time of the study, described her first year as difficult. Her
mentoring relationship with Julia had evolved since her first year. She asked for help less and
focused her questions more on accomplishing her goals. She explained:
I was asking for help all the time. Now, I don’t really need help. Not that I don’t need
help, but I’m just not, I’m able to face things on my own without having to complain
about it or ask for reassurance about anything. Now, it’s more of just, like, “Let's get
things done. Let’s get to business.”
This showed growth in the mentees after their transition and how they were able to focus on
other areas of their lives.
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During one observation, Penny and Pam reflected on Penny’s first year. Penny reminded
Pam about her challenges in her freshman year and how far along she has come. Penny stated to
Pam, “You have your strategies and you have your resources. Last semester you messaged me
an email that you didn’t want to come back to school. That you didn’t want to come back
because you were scared for your exams. I want to congratulate you because you’re not like that
this time.”
Pam and Penny met once a week during Pam’s freshman year. Penny explained her
rationale. She recounted:
She really gained a lot of confidence and self-efficacy in being able to approach her
academics because of the work that we did and skill building. And then as she set goals
to pursue experiences over the summer, she surprised herself that she was able to actually
do some of these things, where she was able to then come back a stronger person this
second year.
When looking back at these meetings, Pam explained how Penny played a role in her transition.
She said, “Knowing her as an individual has been able to overcome all those obstacles and
knowing that this is what I want to do and I’m not going to let anyone get in the way of it. I
know I have this potential to achieve it. It’s something that she has provided me, and I admire
that from her.”
The mentors recounted how a number of factors played a role in a successful transition
for their mentees such as determination, grit, self-efficacy, and confidence. They now see
students who are playing active roles on campus by participating in clubs and even taking
student leadership roles at LU.
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Even mentors who described their mentees’ transition as not difficult still provided
support at different times. Sometimes, it was simple words of encouragement. Eleanor
explained, “I think the support I’ve given her, because she’s not that needy, is encouragement,
just knowing that I’m here for you if you need to talk and encouraging her and congratulating her
when she does excel on her scholarship and that kind of support.”
The mentors providing these words of approval meant a lot to the mentees. Pam shared
how she shared her goals and aspirations with her mentor. Her mentor encouraged her to keep
going and work towards her goals. She said, “I learned that even if you are scared of something,
I feel like you should still go for it. And at least you get to say, ‘I tried my best’ or ‘I did it,’
instead of being, ‘Oh, what if?’ I learned to be courageous.” This courage may lead to other
successes for the mentees.
Creating opportunities for students. Developing a relationship with their mentor
allowed the mentee to grow both personally and professionally. Michelle referenced that during
her last meeting with Rita, they were looking for summer programs for her to apply to soon. She
shared, “She opens up doors for me. She finds opportunities for me. I don’t know if you
remember last time when she was looking for me for summer programs that I can apply to,
which I wouldn’t know about. She’s a good resource.”
During their meeting, Rita and Michelle spent a portion of time discussing this topic.
Rita explained to Michelle how her major would potentially put her at a competitive advantage.
She said, “Well, if you apply to med school and you have this math background, you know, and
you spent the summer doing research in math? You think many med school applicants are going
have that?”
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Study Abroad was another opportunity that mentors exposed mentees to at LU. Molly
shared how she had never been out of the country and wanted to go abroad. She said, “I have
never been out of the country, ever in my life, so we’re trying to get that going. This summer, I
plan on going to Ghana through a Study Abroad program, so she’s been helping me with that.”
The mentors reflected on their own past experiences to provide some of these
opportunities. For example, if they had not studied abroad, then they encouraged their mentees
to apply. Eleanor explained:
My experience, I think, influenced my mentoring in ways, like, I try to provide the
support that I didn’t have or make suggestions. I didn’t have, for example, the study
abroad experience. I really wanted to, but I couldn't afford it, and they didn’t offer
financial aid for study abroad back then, so I wasn’t able to do it.... I think I’ve
encouraged my students, all of the mentees I’ve had, to do a study abroad experience. It
doesn’t have to be a full semester. It could be a summer or a spring break thing, like
service learning, and also to get involved in the student organizations and clubs.
Loretta discussed how travelling abroad became a recent topic of conversation during one of her
meetings with Eleanor. Not only did she get more excited about the trip, but Eleanor encouraged
her in other areas as well. Loretta explained, “I feel like more than anything she kind of started
increasing my interest in actually pursuing the Asian business. Then after I had my conversation
with her, I actually decided to add the Asian and Pacific Studies double major.”
Exploring academic interests opened up doors for other students as well. As Michelle
prepared for a possible summer internship, she was also starting to do her own research. She
explained:
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I like that it connected me to someone who is not part of my major. I’m a math major,
but then I’m interested in pre-med. What happened is, it’s hard for me to coordinate what
courses I need so that I can finish in four years, both the math major and pre-med. And
pre-med here is not a major, so that makes it hard for me to plan everything. And also, to
connect with professors who are in sciences because I’m taking more math courses than
sciences courses. I think if it wasn’t for the mentoring program, I don’t think I would
have started research so early in my college years.
These opportunities extend outside the classroom for some of the mentees. Molly is now
a mentor in a few different programs at LU. Her mentor, Julia, discussed how it was special to
see Molly take the next step in her development. Julia shared:
She’s now a mentor. We have a mentor program within our college, she’s a mentor for
that. She’s a mentor for two other programs. My role becomes less vocal, less infant and
more side by side over time, and that’s always my goal. I might start out in the fun, but
my goal is always serving that student next to me, and then, I really do have a real friend
for me, and then themselves, they will become mentors themselves.
As the mentors and mentees grew closer and knew each other better, these opportunities
presented themselves. Rose explained how in her first year with her mentor they were still
getting to know each other. Now in their second year, she shared, “Now it’s like, ‘How can I
help you more in other aspects?’ Now that my main focus is not my personal life, it’s more like
connections, jobs, school, and personal stuff.”
Serving as a Guide at the Institution
The third theme involves the mentors serving as a guide for the student at the institution.
First-generation students do have the traditional support that non-first-generation students may
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have. As the first in their family to attend a postsecondary institution, the mentors essentially
become guides for the mentees. They provided support and strategies to navigate the intricacies
of LU. Molly shared, “She was very important. I don’t think I could have done it without her,
without this program, and without the friends that I had here. I probably wouldn’t have been
able to navigate my first year at all.”
The mentees recalled that their first year was different than what they expected. Loretta
recounted:
I learned that it’s normal to go through a lot of emotional pain in the sense that being
away from home, and then at the same time realizing that your world just changes
drastically once you get into college. I didn’t necessarily think it would be a problem
until I actually got to college, but now I know what it’s like. Oh, it’s something now that
I know is different, and whenever I have problems, I always try to address them.
To address these concerns Eleanor tried to point Loretta in the right direction when she was
experiencing them. Eleanor said, “I looked at it as the perspective of what I was lacking and that
I wanted to be that support for her and guiding her to the resources available.”
The mentors provided support to their mentees by using their social capital at the
institution. They were aware of the different resources on campus that their mentees could use.
Rita stated, “I try to put them in the direction of those resources that I know are out there.” She
even took it a step further and helped destigmatize asking for help. She added:
The thought of putting yourself out there to seek those services is kind of like you’re
looked down upon as being deficient or something, or embarrassment to the family. I
know these things are operative in some cases. But when I need to refer out or point
students like, “You should probably go here,” and stuff like that, I’ll pull up something
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on screen and show them and stuff like that. Because I know that probably some of them
have never been encouraged to do that. And if they did, maybe they got grief for it.
Other mentors share similar strategies when referring services to their mentees. Penny shared:
I definitely refer to other campus offices if a student has a specific question and I know
that there’s someone more equipped to help my mentee with that. Then, I will definitely
refer, and I will always make a personalized connection. I’ll use my network of people
that I know to do that. I will encourage my student to be social and develop friendships
and help them navigate friendships and sometimes difficult conversations that might need
to happen with also dealing with family. Communicating what it means to be a college
student for their family, who might not understand, I’ll kind of do.
Some of these resources may even be campus events that may provide free giveaways. Rita said,
“When there’s campus events or there’s free giveaways for food or other things, she goes to that
stuff. I try to hook her up with textbooks that I get kind of for free, and things like that.”
In addition to the resources the mentors provide, they also help the mentees navigate their
time at LU in other ways. Julia recalled a time that she brought Molly as her guest to an event on
campus. She recalled, “I took her to a particular event. She was my guest at the event. It was on
campus, but I said be my guest and let’s meet here, let’s have tea, and let’s go to the event.
Sometimes it’s hand holding, and sometimes just giving them a flyer.” At this particular event,
Julia introduced Molly to two other students with similar interests.
The mentors made themselves available for the mentees to discuss any challenges they
may have in their first year. Julia explained:
Challenges might appear as consistency, getting a student who may not have had the
opportunities to develop the discipline that’s going to be necessary for a successful
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experience here at LU. Helping students with rigor and understanding that just because
you don’t understand the first week of class or just because you don’t feel as if one
particular subject you’re mastering, that’s not a reason to give up on college, or that’s not
a reason to not go to class. Some of the challenges are helping students with resilience
issues. Many of our students are quite resilient, and that’s how they got here, but once
here, once they either transfer in or they’re accepted as a freshman, a private university
with really rigorous general ed system and core requirements takes them, sometimes,
outside of their comfort zone.
One way to address these challenges is to set personal and academic goals. Julia added, “One of
the things in the personal area and in the academic area is goal setting, planning. I’m a big
proponent of the graduation plan.”
Penny worked on goals with Pam in her first year, and it had a positive impact on her
success. She recounted:
We talk about goals. We set weekly goals as well as monthly goals for them, and those
goals could be personal goals. We talk about self-care, stress management, anxiety. We
talk about relationships with peers and colleagues as well as with other campus partners.
We talk about how to navigate difficult situations or just understanding campus policies,
what those mean and how they’re impacting the student. The student will bring up a
question about a specific program they’re involved with and the requirements for that
program, and exceptions to certain rules or exceptions to certain classes they can register
for. We talk about major exploration and career exploration as well as internship
opportunities and professional development opportunities as well. We also talk about
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family. How the student is engaging with their family, and what they’ve done socially.
If they’ve done anything fun lately.
The mentees agree that setting goals is helpful for them. This includes making sure their goals
are being met. Molly shared:
We discuss how the classes are going, if my grades are all right, what are some of the
things that I face on campus as far as micro-aggressions go, being a person of color, since
she’s also a woman of color. Also, just like career goals, making sure everything’s all
right as far as my financial stability. She’s really just making sure things are in line so
that I can be successful. She’s making sure I’m able to graduate and get that degree, and
I have a plan afterwards.
Academic exploration is another way mentors provide support for their mentees. Rita
described how she helped Michelle understand her career options in the science field. She
recounted:
Once they become aware of the way science really is, their horizons expand. And I know
that’s happened for her, as well. I think she’s more open to different ideas, perhaps, than
she was before. Sometimes, some students broaden their horizons, and sometimes, they
come back to where they started. But at least they do it from a place of knowledge.
The mentors put their mentees in a position to succeed by sharing as much as they know about
any subject. Pam shared how her mentor, who is not directly involved in the sciences, still
provided support for her to explore her options in her major. She explained:
I’m trying to figure out what can I use my biology degree for and what are things that I’m
interested, as well, and how I can combine those two things. I’m trying to reach out and
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think out of the box. She’s helping me with career options and who I can reach out. She
also suggested for me to go to a conference.
The mentors may not have been experts in every area of the institution, but they made the
best of the situation. This made a difference for the mentees. Pam provided rationale for
continuing to meet Penny on a weekly basis. She shared:
I could have definitely ended the mentoring program at that point if I wanted to, but
because I still wanted to keep that relationship with her, I would still meet with her even
though I didn’t really need the guidance at that moment currently. You never know when
I might need her help, and I still want to keep her around and things like that.
That guidance had a lot of value for the program’s mentees.
The role of family dynamics. As first-generation students, the mentees did not have
families that shared the same experiences they did at a postsecondary institution. They may have
been unable to rely on their families for guidance and support. First-generation students are not
from a single ethnicity or socioeconomic status, so their only shared identity is their first-
generation status. Their family background provides a context to their experiences related to
their transition. This also highlights the role of their mentor serving as a guide at the institution.
Their financial situation was another focus for a few of the mentees. This was a burden
for them, as they were unsure if they could attend LU due to its cost. Michelle grew up in a
single-parent household, and her mom asked if she needed any money.
This experience was not shared by all the mentees, as some of them receive scholarships.
Rose received a full scholarship, but her family still supported her financially to buy books if
necessary. She said, “Since I am on a full ride, that the financial burden is lifted from them,
thankfully. But they do still help from time to time.”
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Loretta discussed support from her family, which was more extensive than the other
mentees. She shared initially how her family was nervous about the cost of tuition, but her
family still wanted her to attend LU. She recounted, “I feel like he [Loretta’s father] didn’t make
me feel guilty about choosing this school at all. He was going to support whatever I was going
to do.”
Their families made an effort to support the mentees in other ways as well. Pam
discussed how her family drove to LU to pick her up if she wanted to go home or drove to LU if
she forgot something. Her family was supportive, but she added that they discussed some
concerns when she chose to attend LU. She recounted:
They actually let me think on my own. They weren’t really trying to force me on what
school to go to or anything like that. They were just, “All you need to do is get into a
school, and if that’s the school you want, we’ll talk about how we can support you
financially.” But they did, one of the things they mentioned to me, “Just remember if you
do go far, you’re not going to see us often.”
Loretta shared another example of her family being supportive. She explained how her family
was there if she was having a hard time and needed to talk. She recounted:
I guess whenever I have a hard time, I always call them, and then they just kind of talk
me through things. In a way, they just provide emotional support, and then, they kind of
give me a break from all the school stress. I tell them about the things that I’m doing
here, and then they’re just kind of like, “Oh, that’s cool.” Then they also told me I don’t
have to tell them my grades or anything because it’s all on me. They don’t expect
anything from me, and I feel like that relieves a lot of stress for myself.
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These preceding examples show mentees with a strong family support system. This was
not the case for all the mentees. Molly and Rose shared experiences of little family support.
Rose shared challenges she had when applying to LU and how much support she received from
her family. She recounted:
Zero. My mom didn’t even know what my college essay was about. I wrote about my
situation at home here in the United States because it was like not the best environment,
but even despite that, I tried my best at school, and I spent most of my day at school
because I didn’t want to be home.
Molly discussed not only her challenges when applying to LU but also the challenges she still
faced as a student. When applying to college, she had to do everything herself. She recounted:
Little to none. My mom did not help with any of the applications. She didn’t have any
knowledge of how that even works because she barely graduated high school. She also
wasn’t very supportive of it because of the fact that she didn’t think that that was
something that I could achieve because people from our city don’t usually go to private
universities or make it out of the city in that way. She was like, “Don’t get your hopes up
high because it may not be something that you can achieve.” She was not supportive at
all.
When asked if that support has changed since she is now a student, Molly shared:
Still none. It’s more of they don’t know how to navigate that. I’ll come home, and I’ll
talk about college and all the things that I’m learning, and they don’t really understand it
because they don’t have that same educational level to carry on these conversations that
I’d like to have about society. It’s more of just like, they see me as, like, “Oh, she’s at
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college now. She’s doing so much.” Like, I think that I’m too good now, so it’s
interesting.
The mentees experiences with their families provided opportunities for their mentors to
address some of the concerns shared by the mentees. They looked to their mentors to provide
support that their families could not provide simply due to not being as familiar with attending a
postsecondary institution. Molly explained, “I trusted her words more. Not that I didn’t trust my
mom, but this was like, mom was going to say things, and I just don’t listen sometimes.” When
she was experiencing challenges during her first year, Molly recalled how her mentor reassured
her. She recounted:
Just her telling me, like, “It gets better,” was helpful because I didn't have my mom to tell
me it gets better. My mom was just like, “I told you.” You know? But with her having
already navigated the space alone, being first gen, her reassurance really did help me get
through it. Second semester was the most difficult for me as far as the first year went.
The first semester was easier, which is shocking. But second semester was difficult.
Pam views her mentor as an unofficial member of her family. She described her mentor
as another mother for her. She explained:
She was like my second mom. Even though I had my mom back home when I would go,
motivating me, she would be here on campus motivating me, and she would ask daily,
“How did you do on this test? If you don’t feel like you did well, what can we do to
improve it? What can we do better on the next exam? When is your next exam? Let’s
start planning ahead for that.” She was really a guidance for me and helped me out a lot
through that.
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Due to the complexities of the role of family, the role of the mentor has extra significance for the
mentees. They looked to them for guidance when their family was unable to provide the support
they needed. This led the mentors to play an integral role in the transition as the mentee leaves
home and enrolls at the postsecondary institution.
Structure of Program Impacts Experiences
The fourth theme involves the importance of the program structure and how it addresses
transition. The structure of the program was not the same for every participant. The program’s
size led to logistical challenges in streamlining its implementation. After mentors and mentees
were matched, the program office periodically checked in with them. There were also events
throughout the academic year. In fall semester, First-Generation Awareness Week took place,
including mixers for mentors and mentees. However, this week of programming was not just for
the mentoring program. It was for all programs under the FTF umbrella.
One event for the mentoring program during this week was the mentoring appreciation
lunch. At this event, mostly mentors attend without their mentees, but the mentees are also
invited. When observing this event, only a few mentees attended. There was an opportunity to
thank the mentors with certificates of appreciation. The mentees who did attend the event
discussed their experiences with their mentors. These events highlighted that only a subset of the
mentors and mentees participate in this programming. It was unclear if this was due to
deliberately choosing not to attend or being unaware.
While the program office made an effort to support the mentors and mentees, there was
only so much oversight that could be done. Lucy explained:
From an administrative end, I would like to offer more resources to mentors. I recognize
that every mentor is coming with a different set of experiences. We have some mentors
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that have maybe been around and have been working for higher education for a very long
time and have had experience actually mentoring students, and then we have mentors
who are brand new to higher education with very little experience, but maybe they had a
mentor themselves, and so they are in a way trying to give back.
These administrative challenges put more of the responsibility on the mentors during the
meetings. Penny explained, “There’s a lot of freedom in the role as a mentor, which I think is
nice because we get to develop our own organic relationship with our mentees. However, I feel
like there could be something maybe at the beginning of the year that can break the ice a little bit
more.” Some mentors choose a recurring approach of meeting every couple weeks or once a
month, but others approach it more on an as-needed basis.
Ultimately, the mentors and mentees were responsible for meeting. During the three
observations, all three meetings varied in structure and content. While all three mentoring
relationships consisted of mentors and mentees with the same criteria, they were unique in style
and substance. Julia used a more structured approach when meeting with Molly. Before the
meeting, she printed out a checklist of items she wished to discuss. During the meeting, the two
had a conversation that was guided by these talking points.
Penny did not use a checklist during her meeting, but she and Pam have recurring
meetings. It felt more structured due to this. Penny also had Pam use a planner to plan her week
to make sure she stayed on track with her academics and social life. Rita and Michelle had the
least amount of structure, but they still had a conversation that covered Michelle’s social life as
well as her plans to have a summer internship. Each meeting was arguably effective in its own
way, but there were no ways to assess its effectiveness. Penny explained, “The mentors aren’t
really told how to engage with their mentees. We’re given the freedom to do so, but we are
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prompted to attend certain events, or we are given some kind of guidelines as to how often we
should meet.”
One way to address this was to provide more support for the mentors by having more
experienced mentors share strategies, resources, and knowledge. Lucy looked for ways to
address these challenges. She explained:
I understand that everybody comes in at different levels, but at least providing that space
or those online resources where people at various levels of their mentorship experience
can go to and look for. I would love to get even seasoned mentors to maybe also be
accessible to our newer mentors who are maybe struggling with their students and maybe
having some challenging conversation that they’ve never really had to deal with or
encounter because I feel like they’re great people to have those conversations with
because obviously they’re seasoned, and so they’ve been through this possibly before.
This is one way to alleviate some of the concerns of the mentors, so they can work more
effectively with their mentees on different issues and challenges the mentees may face,
especially during transition. Julia shared, “I think in the very beginning of the program, it was
less structured, and as the program developed and became quite organized, and based on data
and research, then those strong suggestions to talk about transition or leave space for that in the
conversation.”
The lack of structure has its pros and cons as it allows flexibility, but it may not be
effective for everyone in the program, especially for mentors and mentees who do not meet or
are unable to develop a relationship. Eleanor explained, “I’ve seen improvement over the years,
for example, now there’s more accountability. We have a form to fill out, and they remind us to
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fill it out, which is nice because we get busy in our lives and work schedules. I think that
accountability is helpful.”
Another unintentional result from this lack of structure is relationships ending without
notice. Paul shared how his latest match did not work out as the student no longer
communicated with him. He never heard from the FTF program office about this and did not
know if the mentee is even still a student at LU. He shared:
What I keep on thinking about in the back of my mind is Richard. Richard’s the student
who I’m supposed to be paired with right now, but I have no idea what happened to him.
I honestly have a strong feeling that he’s not at LU anymore. And if he’s not, I wish the
First to the Future Program would’ve told me about it.
This freedom and lack of accountability can lead to confusion for some of the participants
in the program regarding roles and responsibilities. The idea of how to begin the mentoring
relationship is also unclear at times. Penny explained:
I do think that the way that mentees are assigned are.... After a mentee is assigned, it’s
kind of expected that the mentor just kind of reach out to the mentee or the mentee to
reach out to the mentor. In other programs that I’ve seen, they sometimes have a mixer,
like a meet and greet or something like that that I think can really set the momentum for
having it be this formalized experience of, “Okay, this is my mentor.”
Clarifying this initial phase is helpful for both the mentors and the mentees. Paul shared:
I know that the program recently made an effort to clarify expectations between a mentor
and a mentee. That’s good. That’s a recent feature. I think that was a good move.... As
far as I’m aware, there wasn’t really an emphasis on that during the first few years that
the program was in place.
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Recently, the program has provided more resources to share with mentors and mentees to help.
One of these forms, “A Checklist for Beginning to Cultivate a Positive Mentor-Mentee
Relationship,” discusses structure, objectives of the relationship, communication, and setting
goals. Another document shares ideas for meetings and topics to discuss to allow the mentoring
relationship to develop. These resources may be helpful for both mentors and mentees to
reference, especially as they begin their mentoring relationship.
Positive interactions with program staff. Despite some of these challenges, the
mentors and mentees remained positive about their interactions with the program and program
staff. During the mentor appreciation lunch during First-Generation Awareness Week, the
mentors who participated in the program since its inception were honored by Lucy with a
certificate of appreciation. Most of the mentors in attendance who received this honor embraced
Lucy. During another panel of mentors and mentees on another night during First-Generation
Awareness Week, there was a sense of community among the participants regardless of
mentoring relationships. Many of the participants knew each other and felt like a family. Lucy
shared:
We have a variety of programming and events that happen throughout the year. First Gen
Awareness Week is one of them where we have the panel. We have just like community
time and community celebration. I’m always accessible to students, so I have students
that will email me or stop by and just say, “I’m struggling,” or “I have these questions.
Who can I talk to?” I think it’s great that they know that they can come to us because if
they do know where to go, maybe they don't feel comfortable, so oftentimes, they are,
again, referred to by their peers to come talk to somebody in the First to the Future
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program, to come talk to me or reach out to me. I do get a lot of those students, and then
I’m able to refer them out and connect them with those people.
There is a concerted effort from Lucy to develop these relationships with the participants. She
cared about the mentees, got to know them, and provided them the necessary support and
resources to successfully transition to the institution, especially when the mentees were
struggling academically. Lucy explained, “I’m always thinking about, again, how can I
encourage them through my conversations with them to think about how they can be empowered
to use the resources that they have, so their mentors, their peer mentors, their faculty.”
The mentees described the program as a family. Pam shared, “Sincerely, honestly, it’s
just a family. You need to feel comfortable in order to open up, in order to be successful in a
college environment.”
This familial feeling is common for the participants. Rose added, “Well, the whole First
to the Future program itself has been my home away from home even though home is only 10
minutes away.”
This does not go unnoticed by the co-founder of the program either. Martha shared her
perspective on this aspect of the program. She no longer works at LU, but she still thinks fondly
of what she created. She explained:
I think that, and I still talk about it a lot, to describe it as an example of the kind of a first-
gen program that has generate a lot of, I guess, student pride, like I can’t think of another
program where students are just so gung ho and excited out, like you know, it’s amazing.
I don't know, what do you call it? Struck lightning or what not, so I mean it’s definitely
like a very communal environment, students really support one another, and I see this
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
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even after they graduate, you know, just kind of hanging out, a lot of people met their
best friends through First to the Future, or you know, definitely strong colleagues.
These positive interactions with the program and program staff were another layer of support for
the participants in the program. While the program lacks administrative support in certain areas,
this is an area of strength for the program. For mentees, they know they can rely on the program
for support and guidance when necessary.
Changes on the horizon. After joining the FTF staff a year and a half ago, Lucy is
already thinking towards the future. She shared:
I think now that I’m here and have dedicated time to focus on these things and as we
continue to grow, we can start to think a little bit deeper about how to track these things
so that we can specifically tie them to all of our learning outcomes and really have a very
comprehensive, holistic, evidence-based program.
Over the last academic year, there have been a number of changes in the program. This started
with the mission statement, which was in the process of being rewritten during this study. Lucy
explained, “We’ve actually been doing work to revamp our mission statement and the things that
we do to more strategically align with our programs and what we’re trying to accomplish.” She
planned to add areas on postgraduate success and institutional transformation.
Another area of focus is assessment. Lucy explained, “We do collect a lot of
information, but to be honest, right now we're not doing that much with all the information. It’s
something that we’re looking to do and looking to really focus on in the summer and years to
come.” She added, “I would say anecdotally the program has done really well and the students
have expressed that they have enjoyed the program, but now we’re at a point where we’re ready
to really look at how we’ve done that.”
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Assessment also holds the program more accountable. This includes both the mentors
and mentees. Another goal is to bring more structure to the program. Lucy explained:
I really tried to focus on bringing a little bit more structure to the program. I would I say
it was a lot more organic prior to me coming in. There was a little bit of structure, I
would say, in terms of tracking who the mentors and mentees were, but not much beyond
that. I think another strength is just that we have continued to develop structure and
develop clear expectations or ways that we could provide more resources to mentors. It’s
been a learning and growing process, but I think that that's helped a lot of people feel
more comfortable and knowing that they need to do and feeling supported and feeling
like they can reach out to me or to the program if there is an issue with a student and that
it will be taken care of. Having a point person, I think is also really great.
Introducing more structure to the program allowed the mentors and mentees to have better
communication with the program. First to the Future introduced a monthly check-in form over
the last academic year as well, which was rolled out during this study’s data collection. It allows
the mentors and mentees to share updates on their mentoring relationship. Lucy shared:
We created essentially an online application that both mentees and mentors need to
submit. This came out of me doing focus groups with mentors to learn a little bit more
about their experience and seeing where they have challenges, seeing where they have
successes. I’m just trying to think about how we could essentially improve the program.
How some of these changes will affect the program remains to be seen, but there is a
commitment from FTF to improve its operations. Lucy shared, “I would describe the mentoring
program as one that has a lot of potential. I do think that there is definitely some work to do on
our end that we can do to better improve it.”
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The long-term goal for FTF is to have it play a larger role at LU. More faculty, staff, and
students are aware of the program and want to learn more about it. The mentoring program may
have benefits for the overall goals of the LU as well. Lucy explained, “I think any program that
can add to the retention, to the graduation, to overall success of students is something that LU
and the senior-level administration is going to be interested in.”
One last goal for the mentoring program for Lucy is expanding the program and how
mentorship is viewed at LU. Lucy shared:
I would really like to see mentorship become almost like a culture. I think one thing that
we’ve also been discussing is how to get more students involved in the mentor program.
I think especially a lot of these first-year students don’t really know what mentorship
means and how mentorship can help them. What I’d love to see is us mentors, current
mentees really talking more about what their mentorship has meant to them and how it’s
added to their experience as an undergrad student.
This is potentially a great way for first-generation students to discover the benefits of a
mentoring relationship and how it could impact their transition. This preceding statement
reaffirms that First to the Future is committed to serving the first-generation student population
at LU.
Conclusion
This chapter presented the study context, participant profiles, program structure, and
findings. Four themes emerged from interviews, observations, and documents. The data was
presented through Schlossberg’s transition theory as a framework, specifically the strategies and
support areas of the 4 S System. The themes examined how the mentors and mentoring program
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contributed to students’ transition to the postsecondary institution. The findings also revealed
how the mentees perceived the mentors in the program.
Findings of this study revealed that mentors contribute to their mentees’ transition in a
number of ways. The mentees may have a difficult transition, but the mentors played an integral
role in making it successful. A sense of community was developed by the participants over their
shared identity. The mentors felt an obligation to give back and guide their mentees in any way
possible. In doing so, not only was a successful transition created, but also the mentees were put
in a position to succeed beyond the transition.
The themes that emerged in this chapter are discussed in Chapter 5, which also provides
implications for practice, recommendations for future research, and a conclusion.
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Chapter Five: Discussion
Postsecondary institution enrollment continues to be diverse, and first-generation students
play a role in diversity. An increase in access equals higher proportions of nontraditional
students (Davis, 2010). First-generation students emerged as one of these groups. Transition to
a postsecondary institution is important for all students, but this study specifically looked at
transition for first-generation students. Postsecondary institutions need to consider how to make
their transition a success.
The literature highlighted the role of first-generation students at postsecondary
institutions. Understanding their identity helped provide context for the study. These students
need strategies and support from a number of areas to transition successfully to an institution.
Mentoring is one way this can done.
The research interest of this study was how one-to-one mentoring contributed to the
transition of first-generation students. The purpose of this qualitative case study was to develop
an understanding of contributions of faculty and staff mentors in a one-to-one mentoring
program for first-generation students at a postsecondary institution. It also focused on the
perceptions of various stakeholders regarding a one-to-one mentoring program for first-
generation students at a postsecondary institution.
Schlossberg’s transition theory guided this study. Part of transition theory looks at the 4
S System of taking stock in self, situation, strategies, and support. For this study, I decided to
focus on strategies and support, as these two areas would address the purpose of the study best.
During the analysis, the findings provided a much deeper understanding of this specific
mentoring program and how it impacted participants’ transition outside of strictly strategies and
support. A qualitative case study was used to gather data through interviews, observations, and
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documents. This data was triangulated in previous chapter, where themes that emerged were
discussed. The themes addressed the following research questions:
1. How do faculty and staff mentors in a one-to-one mentoring program for first-generation
students contribute to the transition of first-generation students to a postsecondary
institution?
2. How do first-generation students perceive faculty and staff mentors in a one-to-one
mentoring program dedicated to serving first-generation students in playing a role in their
transition to a postsecondary institution?
3. What role does a one-to-one mentoring program dedicated to serving first-generation
students play in their transition to a postsecondary institution?
Summary of the Findings
Transition theory guided and informed my findings, but not every theme fit into the 4 S
System due to the structure and operation of the program. This study focused specifically on
which strategies and support the mentors used to contribute to the transition of the mentees. The
findings from the previous chapter focused on four themes with subthemes. The four major
themes that emerged were the following:
• Connection of Shared Identity Matters;
• Fostering a Positive Environment for Relationships to Develop;
• Serving as a Guide at the Institution; and
• Structure of Program Impacts Experiences.
The findings show positive contributions of the mentors in the program. Some of the
contributions may not be directly related to strategies and support, but the mentors played an
integral part of the mentees’ transition in a number of ways. The perceptions of the mentors by
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the mentees were positive as well. The mentees not only respect their mentors, but many of
them also consider their mentors as a friend on campus. First to the Future (FTF) was considered
an important part of the mentees’ time at the institution.
Connection of Shared Identity Matters
The first theme focused on the shared identity of both the mentor and mentee being first
generation. This was the first theme since this shared identity was a focal point in the findings
and emerged in the other themes as well. The shared first-generation identity is also the key
aspect of the mentoring program. Stephens et al. (2014) highlighted the importance of a shared
identity. In their study, two themes emerged: people’s different backgrounds matter and people
with backgrounds like mine can be successful (Stephens et al., 2014). This study reaffirmed
these themes as being important to first-generation students. Both the mentors and mentees
explained that they were able to relate to each other due to their shared first-generation identity.
This resulted in positive outcomes for both the mentor and mentee participants in the study.
In many ways, their shared identity was a strategy for the mentors as they approached the
mentoring relationship because they already understood the challenges of the mentees. The
mentors related to similar challenges when they were students transitioning to their institutions.
This was a very personal relationship for them, and they used these past experiences when
meeting with their mentees. This created one of the subthemes of how mentoring is an
opportunity to give back to the students, the institution, and higher education in general. There
was an intrinsic need to be a mentor. The mentors shared feelings of empowerment, resiliency,
and responsibility to fellow first-generation students. These feelings translated to the mentees as
well. In many ways, the shared identity of being first generation is the driving force of the
mentoring program for the participants.
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Fostering a Positive Environment for Relationships to Develop
The second theme focused creating an environment for the mentoring relationship to
develop. Woosley and Shephard (2011) argued that institutions need to create an environment
that accepts first-generation students and implements programs specifically for first-generation
students. Four of the mentees in the study were sophomores who had been paired with mentors
during their freshmen year, which meant that they had been working with their mentor for less
than a year, yet there were no signs that the mentees felt uncomfortable or did not find value in
their mentoring relationship. Furthermore, a few of the mentees discussed how they felt
comfortable during their first meeting with their mentor. In many cases, the mentors and
mentees chose to meet on a regular basis such as once a month or even once a week. This was a
deliberate choice made by the participants.
In addition to shared identity, part of the reason these relationships developed so quickly
was due to the mentors being comfortable sharing personal information and stories with their
mentees. They also were okay with just listening and being supportive. The mentors created a
safe space in which this could happen. Another effect of these mentoring relationships was that
friendships emerged between the mentors and mentees. This revealed a personal aspect for the
participants and potential for closeness. Both the mentors and mentees described the mentoring
relationship as a friendship. This contrasted with D’Abate (2009), who found that faculty
mentors defined mentoring as more academic and professional rather than personal. This study
found that mentoring relationships were more personal for the participants.
Due to creating strong relationships, the mentees found more confidence both inside and
outside the classroom, which were two of the subthemes. Their mentors shared opportunities
with them to help them grow personally, academically, and professionally. They were not only
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more involved on campus but also participated in off-campus activities such as study abroad and
internships, and they even became mentors to other students at the institution. Pascarella et al.
(2004) discussed how first-generation students were less likely to be involved on campus.
Lohfink and Paulsen (2005) found that structured academic and social activities only affected
positive persistence for continuing-generation students. This study’s findings contrasted with
both of these earlier studies, as they revealed that first-generation students were living on campus
and involved in a number of activities at their institution.
Serving as a Guide at the Institution
The third theme focused on the mentor serving as a guide for the mentee. This theme
followed the assertion from Davis (2010) that first-generation students need a guide at institution
due to not having traditional support from someone who was already familiar with the
postsecondary experience such as their parents. The mentees discussed the role their mentors
played in their first year at the institution since it was more difficult than they imagined. These
findings were supported by the literature, which discussed the internal and external pressures of
being a first-generation student such as cultural dislocation and feeling lost (Hartig &
Steigerwald, 2007; Longwell-Grice et al., 2007).
The mentors served an important role in their mentees’ first year. They provided
resources and referrals when necessary. They also related what worked for them during their
transition by sharing personal experiences. Another strategy they discussed was setting goals,
which helped mentees focus on specific areas during transition. This supports the importance of
setting mutually agreed-upon goals that are integral part of the mentoring relationship (Jones &
Goble, 2012).
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Having the mentors as a guide was beneficial for the mentees due to varying experiences
with their family. Orbe (2004) discussed the saliency of the first-generation identity. This was a
struggle for the students in the study as well. The level of support from family varied between
participants. One mentee discussed how her family played no role, but others discussed how
their families tried to provide support financially or even just drop off food. Without this
consistent support from family, the mentees shared how their mentors tried to fill in the gaps
when necessary. The mentees did not share the struggle of working to support their studies due
to a few of the participants receiving scholarships to attend the institution. This contrasted with
some of the research, which discussed the stress of employment and financial obligations (Mehta
et al., 2011).
Structure of Program Impacts Experiences
The fourth theme focused on the structure of the program and how it impacts experiences
for the participants. Bell and Treleavan (2011) discussed the importance of matching and role of
the program staff. First to the Future lacks administrative support to reach its full potential, but it
still hosts events and provides resources for mentees. When both a panel and luncheon were
observed, it was clear that the program had created a community.
The biggest challenge for the program is lack of accountability for the participants. Hu
and Ma (2010) found that first-generation students were less likely to be involved in mentoring
even though persistence positively related to students who participated. Without accountability,
it was more difficult to ensure the mentors and mentees stay involved. A lot of the responsibility
for when to meet and what to discuss was on the mentors and mentees. This created different
structured meetings when the mentors and mentees were observed. Walker and Taub (2011)
discussed the importance of meeting and how mentees who met more frequently with their
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mentor reported higher satisfaction. This was not as conclusive in this study, but all the
mentoring relationships observed met on a regular basis. The First to the Future program
attempted to alleviate some of these issues by creating a good rapport with participants. The
program coordinator made an effort to get to know everyone in the program and offer support to
both mentors and mentees.
The program was also going through some changes, but at the time of this study, it was
too early to know how effective they will be. The changes included more accountability for the
mentors and mentees. In addition, FTF was collecting more data that could directly address
challenges first-generation students faced at the institution, including transition.
Implications for Practice
The results of this study can inform institutions on providing support for first-generation
students transitioning to a postsecondary institution. The FTF mentoring program has been
effective at LU at contributing to first-generation student success at the institution beyond
transition. Postsecondary institutions are looking for ways to support first-generation students,
and this mentoring model is a way for them to implement programming for them. This type of
mentoring program may also encourage participation by first-generation students, as it invites
them to become part of a larger first-generation community.
The unique feature of this mentoring program was that faculty and staff mentors were
also first-generation students. Not every postsecondary institution may have faculty and staff
who can serve in this role. Postsecondary institutions may also feel that this requirement
excludes a population of willing faculty and staff mentors. Some of these concerns may prove to
be a challenge for institutional support to start a similar program, yet the shared identity was a
recurring theme in the findings as it was highly valued by participants. The shared identity was
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important to both the mentors and mentees in the program at LU. This aspect should not be
overlooked by other prospective mentoring programs for first-generation students.
First to the Future started as a small mentoring program and evolved over time. Not only
is institutional support imperative, but administrative support cannot be undervalued. The FTF
mentoring program is successful with only two dedicated program staff, but this was not without
challenges. Postsecondary institutions looking to implement a mentoring program should start
small and slowly build their services for first-generation students. This will allow the program to
focus on the details such as matching, collecting data, developing strategies for the mentors, and
providing better support to participants in the program.
The mentoring program not only positively contributed to the transition of first-
generation students at Lennon University but also showed positive contributions beyond the
transition. Mentees were having success after their first year at the institution and still wanted to
be part of the program. This showed that the mentoring program for first-generation students can
have positive outcomes in a number of areas both inside and outside the classroom at a
postsecondary institution.
Recommendations for Future Research
This case study looked at one mentoring program at a postsecondary institution for first-
generation students. The findings revealed positive results, but more research must be done.
More attention needs to be focused on programs and services for first-generation students
regarding their transition. One consideration may be a comparative study between mentored and
non-mentored first-generation students to see how much mentoring matters in relation to the
transition.
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A case study for first-generation students in the mentoring program who did not
successfully transition would explore the complexities of the transition in more detail. This
study may help better understand other factors in the transition and ways to support these
students. This study may also show that other programming is needed to support first-generation
students or that the mentoring program may want to focus more specifically on the transition of
these students.
A comparative study of two different first-generation mentoring programs will help better
understand the strengths and weaknesses of each program. Another factor to consider would be
if one program had mentors who were first generation and the other program had mentors who
were continuing generation. The program at LU is unique in that mentors are required to be first
generation, but that may not mean that mentors who are continuing generation would not be
effective.
A longitudinal study of mentors and mentees in the program starting in freshmen year
and ending in senior year may show the effectiveness of the mentoring relationship on both
participants. Being able to collect data during freshman year could be very valuable to
understanding the transition. Following students through their time at their postsecondary
institution could show the benefits of mentoring on academic, personal, and professional growth.
Conclusion
Transition to a postsecondary institution can be challenging for any student, but first-
generation students face a greater unknown. They are trailblazers as they are the first in their
family to attend college. There are many ways to support first-generation students when they
transition to a postsecondary institution. One-to-one mentoring is one way. This study does not
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argue that one-to-one mentoring is the best way, but it showed positive outcomes related to this
type of program for first-generation students.
When done effectively, one-to-one mentoring can be a powerful experience for both the
mentor and mentee. This was true with FTF. This study showed the importance of mentoring
first-generation students. Furthermore, it showed the strength and resiliency of the first-
generation community.
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MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
126
Appendix A
Interview Protocol for Mentees
Hello, my name is Mike Cersosimo, I am a doctoral candidate with a higher education
administration concentration at the USC Rossier School of Education. My dissertation is looking
at how a mentoring program for first-generation college students contributes to their transition to
a postsecondary institution. This interview is part of the study. As someone who can provide a
meaningful perspective to this study, I would like to discuss with you your experiences related to
this program.
Before we begin the interview, I want to go over a few things with you. This interview is
confidential and will only be used for the study. I will use a pseudonym when analyzing the
interview for my study. Confidentiality will only be broken if you disclose anything that reveals
harm to yourself or others. With your permission, we will be recording this interview. Please
know that we can stop the recording at any time. In addition, we can stop the interview at any
time and if you are uncomfortable with any question, we can skip the question.
This interview should last roughly an hour. Do you have any questions before we begin?
If not, do I have permission to start recording and begin the interview?
Questions:
1. What were your views of going to college when you were in high school?
2. Discuss your process on selecting to attend this institution.
3. What role did your family play in this process?
a. What type of support did they provide when making the decision?
b. What type of support do they provide now that you are a student?
4. How did you become involved in this program as a mentee?
5. How often do you meet with your mentor?
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
127
6. What do you discuss when meeting with your mentor?
7. Have you discussed setting goals with your mentor?
a. If yes, what academic, personal, and professional goals have you discussed?
i. What strategies have you used?
b. If no, why not?
8. How would you describe your relationship with your mentor?
9. What have you learned from your mentor?
10. How comfortable are you talking with your mentor?
11. What does it mean to you that your mentor was also a first-generation student?
12. What does this mentoring program mean to you?
a. What do you like about it?
b. What do you dislike about it?
13. Discuss your first year in a postsecondary institution as a first-generation student.
a. How did your family support you?
b. How did your mentor support you?
i. Academically? Personally? Professionally?
c. How did the FTF mentoring program support you?
14. Discuss challenges you have experienced in your first year as a first-generation
student?
a. What has been easy?
b. What has been difficult?
15. How often did you discuss these challenges with your mentor?
16. How comfortable did you feel discussing any of these topics with your mentor?
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
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17. What did you learn about yourself when looking back at your first year?
a. What role did your mentor play in this?
18. How has your mentoring relationship changed since your first year?
19. Overall, how would you describe your mentoring relationship?
20. What does being a first-generation student mean to you?
21. Is there something I have not asked you that would help me better understand your
experience as a mentee in this program?
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
129
Appendix B
Interview Protocol for Mentors
Hello, my name is Mike Cersosimo, I am a doctoral candidate with a higher education
administration concentration at the USC Rossier School of Education. My dissertation is looking
at how a mentoring program for first-generation college students contributes to their transition to
a postsecondary institution. This interview is part of the study. As someone who can provide a
meaningful perspective to this study, I would like to discuss with you your experiences related to
this program.
Before we begin the interview, I want to go over a few things with you. This interview is
confidential and will only be used for the study. I will use a pseudonym when analyzing the
interview for my study. Confidentiality will only be broken if you disclose anything that reveals
harm to yourself or others. With your permission, we will be recording this interview. Please
know that we can stop the recording at any time. In addition, we can stop the interview at any
time and if you are uncomfortable with any question, we can skip the question.
This interview should last roughly an hour. Do you have any questions before we begin?
If not, do I have permission to start recording and begin the interview?
Questions:
1. How did you become involved in this program as a mentor?
2. How long have you been mentoring in this program?
a. How long have you been mentoring your mentee?
3. What do you like about mentoring in this program?
a. What are some areas of improvement?
4. How often do you meet with your mentee?
5. What do you discuss when meeting with your mentee?
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
130
6. Have you discussed setting goals with your mentee?
a. If yes, what academic, personal, and professional goals have you discussed?
i. What strategies have you used?
b. If no, why not?
7. What have you learned from your mentee?
8. Discuss challenges you have experienced while mentoring your student.
9. How would you describe your mentee’s transition to this postsecondary institution?
10. How often did you discuss your mentee’s transition to this postsecondary institution
when you met?
11. What did your mentee discuss with you related to their transition to the postsecondary
institution?
12. What types of support did you provide during this time?
a. If you did not provide support, why not?
13. How comfortable did you feel discussing your mentee’s transition to the institution
during your meetings?
14. How has your mentee changed since their first year?
15. How has your mentoring relationship changed since your mentee’s first year?
16. What do you feel are some of the biggest challenges first-generation students face during
their transition to a postsecondary institution?
a. How do these challenges play a role in how you approach your mentoring
relationship as a mentor?
17. What do you see as the main factors that determine whether a first-generation student
successfully transitions to a postsecondary institution?
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
131
a. How do these factors play a role in how you approach your mentoring
relationship as a mentor?
18. Discuss your transition to a postsecondary institution as a first-generation student?
19. How have your experiences as a first-generation student yourself played a role in your
mentoring relationship?
20. Overall, how would you describe your mentoring relationship with your mentee?
21. What does being a first-generation student yourself mean to you?
22. Is there something I have not asked you that would help me better understand your
experience as a mentor in this program?
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
132
Appendix C
Interview Protocol for Program Staff
Hello, my name is Mike Cersosimo, I am a doctoral candidate with a higher education
administration concentration at the USC Rossier School of Education. My dissertation is looking
at how a mentoring program for first-generation college students contributes to their transition to
a postsecondary institution. This interview is part of the study. As someone who can provide a
meaningful perspective to this study, I would like to discuss with you your experiences related to
this program.
Before we begin the interview, I want to go over a few things with you. This interview is
confidential and will only be used for the study. I will use a pseudonym when analyzing the
interview for my study. Confidentiality will only be broken if you disclose anything that reveals
harm to yourself or others. With your permission, we will be recording this interview. Please
know that we can stop the recording at any time. In addition, we can stop the interview at any
time and if you are uncomfortable with any question, we can skip the question.
This interview should last roughly an hour. Do you have any questions before we begin?
If not, do I have permission to start recording and begin the interview?
Questions:
1. How would you describe first-generation students’ presence on this campus?
2. What do you think this program means to the institution?
a. Is there institutional commitment from leadership?
i. If yes, what does it look like?
ii. If no, why not?
3. How did you become involved in this program as a staff member?
a. How long have you been working with this program?
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
133
4. What are some strengths of this program?
a. What are some areas of improvement?
5. How are mentors and mentees matched?
6. Describe your relationship with the mentors in the program?
7. Describe your relationship with the mentees in the program?
8. What are the biggest challenges mentors and mentees discuss with you related to their
mentoring relationship?
9. What types of support does this program provide first-generation students during the
first year?
a. Does the support change after the first year?
10. According to the program’s mission statement, there are four areas the program
focuses on: (a) transition, (b) networking and community building, (c) academic
discourse, and (d) cultural capital. How are the learning outcomes of the program
measured?
11. In what ways does the mentoring program support first-generation students transition
into the institution?
a. How does it support them academically?
b. How does it support them personally?
c. How does it support them professionally?
12. What do you feel are some of the biggest challenges first-generation students face
during their transition to a postsecondary institution?
a. How do these challenges play a role in how you administer the program?
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
134
13. What do you see as the main factors that determine whether a first-generation student
successfully transitions to a postsecondary institution?
a. How do these factors play a role in how you administer the program?
14. Overall, how would you describe the mentoring program?
15. What is your long-term vision for this program?
16. What does being a first-generation student mean to you?
17. Is there something I have not asked you that would help me better understand your
experience as a staff member in this program?
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
135
Appendix D
Observation Protocol
Date of Observation:
Location:
Time:
Physical Space (Describe and Draw):
Participants (Include Roles):
Demographics (Age, Race/Ethnicity, Gender, Physical Attributes):
Purpose of Meeting:
Items Used During Meeting:
Narrative:
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
136
Time
Stamp:
Notes:
Memo:
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
137
Appendix E
Document Analysis Protocol
Date of Analysis:
Date of Document:
Type of Document:
Author(s) of Document:
Recipient(s) or Audience of Document:
Purpose of Document:
Important Information about document related to the research question(s):
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
138
How does this document help answer the research question(s)?:
MENTORING FIRST-GENERATION STUDENTS
139
Appendix F
Theoretical Framework Alignment Matrix
Research Questions Theoretical Framework Data Instrument Question
How do faculty and staff
mentors in a one-to-one
mentoring program for
first-generation students
contribute to the transition
of first-generation
students to a
postsecondary institution?
Transition Theory
(Anderson, Goodman, &
Schlossberg, 2012;
Chickering &
Schlossberg, 2008)
Mentee Interview Questions 4-21
Mentor Interview Questions 1-22
Program Staff Questions 4-14, 17
Observations
Documents
How do first-generation
students perceive faculty
and staff mentors in a
one- to-one mentoring
program dedicated to
serving first-generation
students in playing a role
in their transition to a
postsecondary institution?
Transition Theory
(Anderson, Goodman, &
Schlossberg, 2012;
Chickering &
Schlossberg, 2008)
Mentee Interview Questions 4-21
Documents
What role does a one-to-
one mentoring program
dedicated to serving first-
generation students play
in their transition to a
postsecondary institution?
Transition Theory
(Anderson, Goodman, &
Schlossberg, 2012;
Chickering &
Schlossberg, 2008)
Mentee Interview Questions 4-15
Mentor Interview Questions 1-22
Program Staff Questions 4-14, 17
Observations
Documents
Background/Demographic
Questions
Mentee Interview Questions 1-4, 20-
21
Mentor Interview Questions 1-3, 18-
19, 21-22
Program Staff Questions 1-3, 5, 10,
15-17
Documents
Abstract (if available)
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Cersosimo, Michael Louis
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The mentoring experience: a case study of a mentoring program for first-generation students transitioning to a postsecondary institution
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Rossier School of Education
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Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education (Leadership)
Publication Date
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