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Equity and access for veteran's students in the California community colleges
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Equity and access for veteran's students in the California community colleges
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1
EQUITY AND ACCESS FOR VETERAN’S STUDENTS IN THE CALIFORNIA
COMMUNITY COLLEGES
by
Mercis Ramirez
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
December 2018
Copyright 2018 Mercis Ramirez
2
Dedication
I dedicate this dissertation to my family—my mom Yojani, for all of her support,
sacrifices, and always teaching me to be confident in my beliefs and to never give up on my
dreams. All of my achievements have been because of your support. I love you. To my beloved
husband Rey, because your love, acceptance, patience, and encouragement have seen us through
our first year of marriage and my last year of the dissertation. Thank you for giving me the
strength and support to complete this degree. I love you. To my sister Heydi, you have no idea
how instrumental you have been to my life’s choices and purpose. My desire to learn and
continue education came from my desire to become a good role model for you. I am extremely
proud of the young woman you have become: intelligent, passionate, and eager to accomplish
your own goals. Thank you for being my best friend and supporting me through this journey. I
love you.
-I am very thankful.
3
Acknowledgements
I first want to express deep gratitude to my committee, Dr. Green, Dr. Hinga, and Dr.
Lawler for all your incredible support and wisdom through this journey. I honestly could not
have asked for a better group to work with. Thank you for your motivation and guiding me to
write this dissertation. I am extremely grateful for your assistance and suggestions throughout
this dissertation.
I want to express the warmest thank you to my Trojan friends who became Trojan Family
throughout these three years. I am beyond honored to have met you and grateful to endured this
journey with you. Thank you for helping me survive all the stress from this year and motivating
me to finished. I know the universe has big plans for wonderful scholars like you.
I want to express the greatest acknowledgement to the Veterans’ Student Center at Los
Angeles Trade Technical College, especially to the veteran students. I could not have done this
without your support and kindness. Thank you for your service.
Finally, I want to acknowledge my four-legged baby Pebbles, who was by my side for
every word I wrote and patiently waiting for me to take her out for walks. To my cousins,
Julissa, Danny, and Elsa for loving me and believing in me, thank you. I am eager to see how
much you all accomplish, and I am extremely happy to be your biggest supporter and motivator.
Never stop learning! I love you all.
4
Table of Contents
Dedication 2
Acknowledgements 3
List of Tables 7
List of Figures 8
Abstract 9
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY 10
Statement of the Problem 12
Purpose of the study 13
Significance of the study 14
Limitations and Delimitations 14
Limitations 14
Definitions 15
Organization of Study 16
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 18
Purpose of the Chapter 18
Introduction 19
Theoretical Framework 20
Critical Race Theory (CRT) 20
Counter-Storytelling 21
History of the GI BILL 21
World War I (WWI) 22
World War II (WWII) 23
Men of color 24
Racism and the Military 24
Socioeconomic status and enlistment. 25
The GI Bill Today 26
Chapter 30: Montgomery GI Bill (MGIB) Program 26
Chapter 31: Vocational Rehabilitation Program 28
Chapter 33: Post-9/11 GI Bill 28
Chapter 35: Survivors’ & Dependents’ Educational Assistance (DEA) 29
Chapter 1606: Montgomery GI Bill Selected Reserve (MGIB-SR) 30
Chapter 1607: Reserve Education Assistance Program (REAP) 30
Challenges Faced by Veteran Students 30
Adjustment Challenges 31
Mental Health Challenges 32
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) 33
Traumatic Brain Injuries 34
Access to Resources 34
Relationship and Identity Challenges 36
Understanding lack of support services for veteran students 37
Nontraditional Students Access to Resources 40
Conceptual Framework 42
Equity and Access 42
Social and Culture Support 42
5
Schlossberg's Transition Theory 43
Four S’s. 45
Situation. 46
Self. 46
Support. 46
Strategies. 47
Moving in, moving through, and moving out. 47
Conclusion 48
CHAPTER THREE: METHODS 49
Overview of the Study of Methodology 50
Site Selection 51
Population and sample 52
Population 52
Sampling 53
Data Collection and Instrumentation Protocols 54
Access/Entry 54
Protocols 54
Process 54
Data Analysis 55
Credibility and Trustworthiness. 56
Ethics 57
Summary 57
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS 58
Introduction 58
Demographic Data 59
The Participants Counter-Stories 60
Miguel 60
Danny 62
Fred 63
John 64
James 65
Rick 66
Summary 67
Data Analysis 69
Social and Culture Support 69
Sense of belonging. 69
Helplessness. 70
The process of moving in, moving through, and moving out. 71
Expectations of race. 72
Transition. 72
Mental health disorder and substances. 73
Equity and Access 75
Campus resources. 76
GI Bill/financial hardship. 77
Conclusion 78
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION 80
6
Summary 80
Summary of Findings 81
Recommendations for Practice 83
Conclusions 84
Implications for Practice 85
References 87
Appendix A: Study Participation Request 96
Appendix B: Permission Letter to Interview Students in the VSC 97
Appendix C: Interview Protocol 98
Appendix D: Interview Protocol for Staff Member 101
7
List of Tables
Table 1. Chapter 33: Post 9/11 GI Bill Benefits 29
Table 2. Participant Demographics 59
Table 3. Race/Ethnicity Experiences 72
8
List of Figures
Figure 1. Concept model of theoretical framework. 44
Figure 2. Demonstrates the data analysis process for the research questions. 68
Figure 3. Research questions, themes, and sub-themes. 68
9
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to identify equity and access for veteran’s students in the
California Community Colleges and to explore programs and services embedded in the
campuses. Additionally, this study helped understand veteran students’ challenges and barriers
using counter narrative (Solorzano & Yosso, 2002). The researcher interviewed six veteran
students and one staff member from the Veterans’ Student Center at the community college, in
order to understand and hear their lived experiences and challenges faced. Participants were
selected through purposeful sampling (Creswell, 2014). These veteran students share very
intimidate portions of their experiences and challenges going in, through, and coming out of the
military. This study relied on critical race theory using three themes to guide the investigation of
equity and access for veteran students in help understanding veteran student transitions. The
researcher conducted in depth semi-structured interviews with each of the participants. All data
were analyzed using the constant comparative method in order to allow emerging themes to
develop through an inductive process (Corbin & Strauss, 1990). Findings from this study
established the experiences veteran students face with transitioning from military to
civilian/student culture, how their challenges have shaped their sense of belonging at their
institution, and experiences/challenges they faced with the GI Bill.
10
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Many institutions are being held responsible for student achievement focusing on raising
completion rates (Dowd, 2005; Hentschke & Wohlstetter, 2004). The education system in the
United States continues to have significant gaps with educational attainment along the
dimensions of race and income (Noguera, 2012). Scholars have identified certain groups for
disproportionate and underachievement (Noguera, 2012) and systemic racism producing racially
biased educational practices and policies (Feagin, 2014). Delgado and Stefancic (2017) argued
the importance of understanding the student populations for which these organizations were
created, informing systemic foundations, guiding policies, and missions school organizations
follow. Discrimination has surrounded the education system, causing an entrenchment of
discrimination on educational preparation and attainment for students of color (Maralani, 2007).
Students of color are not completing as many degrees in comparison to their White and Asian-
American peers. The majority of students of color are trying to survive and thrive academically
despite multiple encounters with racism or stereotyping, balancing work and class, or
overcoming difficult assignments in school (Steele, 1992).
Historically, the education system attributed negative characteristics to students of color
to separate groups (Steele, 1992). There have been many negative racial climates for students of
color, going back to the inception of segregation in schools and segregation in the military. The
key moments of Jim Crow not only affected schools but also wars involving the American
military. During the years of 1941 to 1945, most black soldiers who enlisted in the armed
services knew they had to serve in segregated units (PBS SOCAL, 2012). According to Schamel
and West (1992), black soldiers were assigned to segregated divisions and were given combat
support roles such as cooking, digging graves, and clearing mines. By the end of the Civil War,
11
roughly 179,000 black men served as soldiers in the United States Army and another 19,000
served in the Navy (Schamel & West, 1992).
Over time, there has been significant growth of veteran students entering community
college with the hopes of getting a college education and obtaining an associate's degree,
transferring to a 4-year college, or earning a certificate to start working. Research shows
institutions of higher education who fail to understand veteran student population are more than
likely to have unsuccessful experiences for both their institution and students (Brown & Gross,
2011). If veteran students do not sustain their educational benefit, they may lose eligibility of
receiving assistance from the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (Wilson et al., 2016). The
consequences of not achieving a 100% graduation rate of veteran students may be a decrease in
funding for veteran centers in the community colleges and declining graduation rates of veteran
students.
Furthermore, since 2013, there has been an estimate of over 1,000,000 veterans receiving
benefits for educational purposes (U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs [USDVA], 2015).
Research shows institutions of higher education that fail to understand veteran student
populations are more than likely to have unsuccessful experiences for both their institution and
students (Brown & Gross, 2011). Many institutions may claim to be military friendly; however,
they may not have the practices in place or understand the core needs of veteran students (Wilson
et al., 2016). According to Ambrose (2010), learning is increased when learners organize
knowledge influencing how they learn and applying what they know. Educators have to create
equitable learning environments, and must understand equity/inequity and justice/injustice to
prevent students from unsuccessfully completing school (Gorski & Swalwell, 2015). If
12
institutions of higher education moved towards applying theories and practices for learning, race
and unequal outcomes would be explored and issues would become visible (Bensimon, 2005).
Statement of the Problem
According to Cook and Kim (2009), 57% of postsecondary schools (including 4-year
institutions) currently provide services and programs for veteran students (e.g., veteran
counseling/academic services, financial aid advisor, veteran’s affair certifier, and veteran’s
resource center). In 1974, Servicemembers Opportunity College was established to create and
coordinate programs for military members and their families (Ford, Northrup, & Wiley,
2009). However, since 1974 only 1,900 community colleges have had aid with assistance for
veteran students and their families.
DiRamio, Ackerman, and Mitchell (2008) articulated there is not much information about
veteran students receiving services in higher education; with the data available, the lack of
services veteran students receive in higher education is unclear. Over time, researchers have
discussed the importance of supporting veteran students and assisting them with their transition
onto campus, which may increase successful graduation rates for veteran students. Since many
postsecondary schools do not offer support services to veteran students, they become
nontraditional students (DiRamio et al., 2008; Osborne, 2014).
A report from Osborne (2014), articulated the transition from a highly military culture to
a postsecondary environment could be overwhelming for veteran students who may encounter
variety of barriers during their transition in areas such as academic preparedness and confidence.
Social and Trends (2011) research shows 84% of post 9/11 veteran’s state, the public does not
understand the challenges faced by those in the military and their families. In fact, researchers
discuss many veterans do not feel comfortable socializing with civilians (DiRamio et al., 2008;
13
DiRamio, Ackerman, & Mitchell, 2009; Griffin & Gilbert, 2012; Rumann & Hamrick; 2009;
Social & Trends, 2011).
Purpose of the study
The purpose of this study is to identify equity and access for veteran students in the
California Community Colleges and to explore programs and services embedded in the
campuses. Moreover, through a critical race theory (CRT) lens the study will involve further
identifying challenges faced by veteran students as they transition from military culture to
student culture. There has been unequal distribution of opportunities for veteran students, which
has become engrained in the educational system today (DiRamio et al., 2008; Griffin & Gilbert,
2012).
Mcbain, Kim, Cook, and Snead (2012) reported institutions are deficient in training
faculty and staff members about military culture and the difficulties that surround veteran
students with their diverse experiences. Many veteran students have interacted with a diverse
military workforce spanning multiple socioeconomic levels and have served in various regions of
the United States of America (Hassan, Jackson, Lindsay, McCabe, & Sanders, 2010). There is a
need for institutions to minimize the challenges veteran students face while transitioning, which
has been a particular problem for many years (DiRamio et al., 2008; DiRamio et al., 2009;
Griffin & Gilbert, 2012; Rumann & Hamrick; 2009). Since this is an ongoing problem, the
following research questions frame this study:
RQ1. What are the challenges and barriers experienced by veteran students who
transition to a community college?
RQ2. How do the support services affect veteran students in the California
Community Colleges in terms of equity?
14
Significance of the study
There is a special population of students that face several challenges while attending
postsecondary schools. Amongst the special population are veteran students, who require critical
assistance with their transition into postsecondary school (Rumann & Hamrick, 2009). Many
veterans face a difficult transition to civilian life, ranging from readjustment issues, recovery
from physical and mental injuries, adapting to campus culture, and trouble relating to a younger
student population (Rumann, Rivera, & Hernandez, 2011). The experiences veteran students
face while in combat may have an effect on their transition from military life to civilian life
(Social & Trends, 2011).
Despite the increase number of veteran students on campus (Steele, Salcedo, &, Coley,
2010), there continues to be a lack of understanding regarding veteran students in the California
Community Colleges. Limited research has focused on the equity, access, and transitions
veteran students face in the California Community Colleges. Therefore, the purpose of this study
is to investigate the amount of support veterans students receive in school, access to resources,
and types of challenges veteran students face when attending California Community Colleges,
specifically in Los Angeles Community College (LATTC) located in Southern California. In
addition, this study will explore how veteran students learn to navigate the educational system in
order to complete a degree, transfer, and/or receive educational benefits through the U.S.
Department of Veterans Affairs.
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations
Limitations to this study can include that counter-story telling may not be the ideal way
to express their stories in, participants might have served in different military branches, and
15
participants might be different in age. There might also be limited time when hearing their
stories or when answering to the questions from the interview. Another limitation might be
holding back information because the participants might not feel comfortable revealing the full
story.
Delimitations
This study involved a selective sample of seven participants, six veteran students and one
staff member in a veteran’s center. The researcher only sampled veteran students, as well as one
staff member who had knowledge and experience working with veteran students in the
community college setting. All student participants were enrolled at Los Angeles Trade
Technical College (LATTC). Furthermore, all student veteran participants were in the military
at some point in their life.
Definitions
There are many key terms that guided this study and which are frequently used
throughout the study. The following definitions will provide an understanding of key terms in
this study:
• Critical race theory: This theory examines society, culture, and the intersectionality
of race, power, and law (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017)
• Equity: Refers to the principle of fairness. It is often used interchangeably with the
related principle of equality. Equity encompasses a wide variety of educational
models, programs, and strategies that may be considered fair, but not necessarily
equal (Edglossary, 2016).
16
• Inequity: Refers to biased or unfair policies, programs, practices, or situations that
contribute to a lack of equality in educational performance, results, and outcomes
(Edglossary, 2016).
• Nontraditional students: These are students categorized as delayed enrollment
(students who do not enter college right after high school), who attend part-time,
work full time while enrolled, considered financially independent, have dependents
other than a spouse, are single parents, and/or do not have a high school diploma
(completed GED; National Center for Education Statistics, n.d.)
• Racism: Involves a system of ignorance, exploitation, and power used to oppress
people based on their ethnicity, culture mannerism, and color (Manning, 1992).
• Veteran: Defined as a person who served in the active military, naval, or air service
and who was discharged or released under conditions other than dishonorable
(USDVA, 2015)
Organization of Study
This study used CRT as the main framework to help understand veteran student
transitions. Chapter One, introduced the overview of the study, presented the statement of the
problem, purpose of the study, significance of the study, limitations and delimitations, research
questions, and definitions. Chapter Two provides an overview of the conceptual framework and
research literature relevant to the study. Chapter Three provides a detailed description of the
research methodologies, sample selection, interview and observation protocols, data collection
process, and analysis and measures that will take place to ensure credibility/trustworthiness and
ethical procedures. Chapter Four focuses on presenting data findings. Chapter Five provides a
17
detailed discussion of the findings, implications for educators and practitioners, and
recommendations for further research.
18
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Purpose of the Chapter
The purpose of this literature review is to summarize the work of other researchers and
organize the history of veteran students who enroll in higher education. The review serves as a
broad net to understand veteran student issues and experiences through a CRT lens in which one
can uncover the unique nature of veteran populations, forms of oppression veterans may face,
and unjust experiences veteran students may encounter. There is a needed effort to serve all
student subpopulations in our colleges and universities (DiRamio et al., 2008), specifically
veteran students, to guide them through their transitional state of financial aid, student support,
and counseling services (Rumann et al., 2011; Persky & Oliver, 2011).
The U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (USDVA, 2015) describes veteran students as
students how are former members of the armed forces of the United States: Army, Navy, Air
Force, Marine Corps, Coast Guard, National Guard, or Reserves. Veteran students are a growing
population in postsecondary schools (Steele et al., 2010). According to Steele et al. (2010), there
were approximately 500,000 veteran students receiving educational benefits in the United States.
Over the years, more than 1 million veteran students have used their Post 9/11 GI Bill benefit to
pursue educational opportunities. The Post 9/11 GI Bill took effect on August 1, 2009, providing
tuition, book fees paid, and housing support for military members who served at least 90 days of
active service duty after September 10, 2001, or military members who were discharged with a
service-connected disability after 30 days (USDVA, 2015).
However, to be eligible for the Post 9/11 GI Bill, military members have to receive an
honorable discharge. Since 2009, the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs has provided
educational benefits to 773,000 veterans and their families, adding to more than 20 billion in
19
benefits (USDVA, 2015). The Post 9/11 GI Bill provides for graduate and undergraduate
degrees, vocational and technical training, flight training, correspondence training, licensing and
national testing programs, entrepreneurship training, and tutorial assistance.
When wars come to end, it is expected for institutions to encounter a significant increase
of veteran students on campus (O’Herrin, 2011). Since this is a continuous problem, the
following research questions help frame this study: How do the California Community Colleges
provide support services to veteran students? How do the support services affect veteran
students in the California Community Colleges in terms of equity?
The following literature review indicates the importance of identifying equity and access
for veteran students in the Community Colleges, with a focus on increasing access for veteran
students to complete an associate’s degree, certificate, and/or transfer to a 4-year institution. The
empirical research and theoretical concepts frame this literature review by illuminating the ways
in which veteran student’s equity and access affects their transition to the community college.
Introduction
The literature review for this study covers two primary theoretical theories: CRT and
Schlossberg’s transition theory. The following sections begin with an overview of CRT as it
relates to veteran student equity and access in the community college. The next section reviews
the history and principles of Schlossberg’s transition theory, and how it relates to this study. The
third section reviews the history of the GI Bill, the development of the GI Bill, its application to
veteran students, and its relevance for this dissertation. The fourth section describes the GI Bill
today and its application to veteran students in the community college. The fifth section reviews
challenges veteran students faced while attending higher education. The sixth section of this
chapter presents the conceptual model that guided this study, making use of both theoretical
20
frameworks, establishing the need to examine equity and access for veteran students in the
community college, and the significance of supporting veteran students through their transition
from military culture to student culture.
Theoretical Framework
This study uses CRT to understand access and equity for veteran students while looking
at a decolonized paradigm and understanding of their transition process by building upon
Schlossberg’s transition theory. CRT was chosen to apply to the inequity veteran students
receive in college due to race, based upon related literature. CRT was used to look at counter-
stories as a lens to demonstrate how veteran students create dialogue that critically illuminates
concepts, ideas, and experiences (Solórzano & Yosso, 2002).
Critical Race Theory (CRT)
Delgado and Stefancic (2017) described CRT as movement of scholars and activists
engaging in studying and transforming the relationship among race, racism, and power. Looking
at a decolonized perspective, it is not difficult to see the oppression, the brutality, and violence
among veterans of color. Researchers have noted CRT shows how issues of race and racism
intersect (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017; Solorzano & Ornelas, 2004; Yosso, 2005). In adopting
this approach, CRT researchers attempt to understand how victims of systematic racism are
affected by cultural perceptions of race and how they are able to represent themselves to counter
prejudice. CRT acknowledges racism exists in multiple explicit and implicit ways (Delgado &
Stefancic, 2017). CRT provides a framework to address issues such as equity and access and
draws from a broad race and ethnic relations literature based in education (Solorzano & Ornelas,
2004). Research has documented the existence and persistence of inequalities through the
educational system (Solorzano & Ornelas, 2004; Yosso, 2005).
21
Using CRT as a theoretical framework provides this study a racial perspective to shed
new light on veteran student’s equity and access to resources that is widely viewed as colorblind.
According to Delgado and Stefancic (2017), CRT demands a historical examination of the law
and welcomes the knowledge of people of color. Furthermore, critical race theorists have built
on experiences, perspectives, viewpoints, and the power of stories that individuals face and have
come to an understanding of how people see race (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017). Delgado and
Stefancic (2017) argued CRT allows for a broader understanding of institutional orders by
allowing an examination of the economic, historical, and societal contexts that affect racial and
ethnic minorities.
Counter-Storytelling
According to Huber (2008), counter-storytelling is the most widely used CRT method.
Delgado and Solórzano highlight that counter-stories can be used to “build community among
those at the margins of society by putting a human and familiar face to educational theory and
practice and challenge the perceived wisdom of those at society’s center” (as cited in Huber,
2008, p. 167). Moreover, using veteran student’s stories and counter-stories can provide veteran
students the opportunity to name their own reality (Ladson-Billings, 1998). Counter-storytelling
was used in this study as a critical lens of race, class, and the experiences of veteran students to
examine the concepts of equity in the community college and explore that racism existed in
having a segregated army.
History of the GI BILL
To understand the uniqueness of the GI Bill, one must look back from historical context
toward the GI Bill and from its ancestors to those contexts (Altschuler & Blumin, 2009).
According to Altschuler and Blumin (2009), one must look “closely at the bill in the stream of
22
attempts to deal with the specific question of what to do about veterans” (p. 12). The GI Bill has
gone through many revisions in the past 70 years, evolving in response to new challenges for
veterans and structuring changes in the larger society (Altschuler & Blumin, 2009; Tinoco,
2014). For example, after WWII, the government adjusted the GI Bill to meet the needs of
Korean veterans (VA History, n.d.). In 1952, the Korean GI Bill (known as the Veterans’
Readjustment Assistance Act) provided unemployment insurance, job placement, home loans,
and benefits similar to those offered WWII veterans (VA History, n.d.). According to VA
History (n.d.), the Korean GI Bill made several changes, including reducing educational benefits
and establishing new restrictions; restrictions included that tuition and fees were paid for 36
months of educational benefits, in contrast to the 48 months of education payment allowed by the
1944 law (Servicemen’s Readjustment Act).
Moreover, in 1966, more changes continued to arise as congress passed the Vietnam GI
Bill (previously known as, the Veterans’ Readjustment Benefit Act). VA History (n.d.)
articulated veterans were entitled to 1.5 months for each month of service of educational
assistance, if they had been on active duty for more than 180 consecutive days. In 1984, the GI
Bill went through another revision, introducing a new bill known as the Montgomery GI Bill
(VA History, n.d.). The Montgomery GI Bill offered service members a monthly stipend that
would cover tuition, fees, and living expenses as a full time student (VA History,
n.d.). According to VA History (n.d), out of all the bills that were offered, the Vietnam GI Bill
was the most popular amongst all, serving 76% of veterans who were eligible.
World War I (WWI)
During WWI, more than 4.7 million Americans served in the military (Altschuler &
Blumin, 2009). By the end of WWI, many veterans came home only to find their jobs replaced
23
by civilians. There was a high population of veterans who were injured during WWI, and thus
became disabled, and could not work in the same occupations they had prior to the war (Murray,
2008). As a result, this became a frustration for about twentieth thousand men from many parts
of the country who served in WWI. In 1932, WWI veterans decided to confront congress and
the Hoover administration by storming into the capitol in Washington, DC due to lack of
payments for military benefits (Altschuler & Blumin, 2009; Mettler, 2005; Murray, 2008).
Many feared the country could sink into abyss of another Great Depression if they did not act,
especially after the effects at the end of WWI.
World War II (WWII)
In the longer history of veterans’ benefits, there were significant innovations for policy
during WWII. On June 22, 1944, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Servicemen’s
Readjustment Act, also known as the GI Bill, providing generations of veterans an opportunity to
receive an education, loans for mortgage, and/or to start a business. According to Altschuler and
Blumin (2009), the readjustment act was available to all veterans who had been on active duty
during the war years for at least 90 days and had not been dishonorably discharged. Many
authors described the GI Bill as an opportunity for social mobility and democratizing of
American higher education (Altschuler & Blumin, 2009; Mettler, 2005; Murray, 2008). The
purpose for creating the GI Bill was to support returning veterans from World War II, so they
could be prosperous upon their return; most republicans, democrats, liberals, and conservatives
worked together to “construct one of the most inventive and far reaching pieces of social
legislation in United States history ” (Altschuler & Blumin, 2009, p. x). Returning veterans were
borrowing money for the “purchase of homes, farms, and equipment without the security of a
24
down payment” (Murray, 2008, p. 972). According to Murray (2008), approximately 5 million
veterans bought homes under the GI Bill.
Men of color
Having established the all-volunteer force era, Rostker articulated African Americans,
Hispanics, Asians, and Native Americans were all welcomed to volunteer for service in the
military as long as they qualified (as cited in Burk & Espinoza, 2012). Referring to the Selective
Service Act of 1940, Quarles and Nalty (1983) articulated Uncle Sam’s “black boys” registered
for the armed forces in high numbers. During the 1940s, in military history, black men believed
they had a greater opportunity to serve their country. Since the Selective Service Act prohibited
discrimination in the selection and training of men based on race and color, Quarles and Nalty
(1983) stated most black troops believed they would be treated equally and that our democratic
society would accept them as soldiers on equal terms. In 1945, as WWII ended, more than 1.1
million African American veterans returned to civilian life, “optimistic that their unselfish
sacrifice defending their country would be rewarded” (Woods, 2013, p. 392). Unfortunately, that
was not the case; many black veterans were denied of home loan provisions of the GI Bill
(Woods, 2013). In fact, due to government policies (i.e., Jim Crow laws) that kept African
Americans troops and families from having the opportunity to pursue an education, there was a
legacy of racism and cruelty towards black troops (Aragon, 2015; Burk & Espinoza, 2012;
Murray, 1971; Murray, 2008). Furthermore, black soldiers received cruelty from white civilians
and civilians in the military law enforcement (Aragon, 2015).
Racism and the Military
Stated earlier, since many African American men believed by registering for the draft
into the military they would receive equal treatment, approximately, 367,710 black men were
25
inducted (Murray, 1971). Quarles and Nalty (1983) stated as soon as soldiers were assembled,
most black men were faced with prejudice and racial discrimination. The military segregated
black troops forcing them to live in segregated facilities. Moreover, black troops were constantly
transferred from post to post to avoid mixing them with white troops (Quarles & Nalty, 1983).
Socioeconomic status and enlistment. Before the 1940s, Turner and Bound (2002)
stated the American culture believed a college education and home ownership was strictly for the
upper class. After WWII and implementation of the GI Bill, Olson argued approximately over
2.2 million veterans attended college under the GI Bill (as cited in Turner & Bound,
2002). When the military draft ended in 1973, the United Stated had an all-volunteer military.
Tinoco (2014) stated receiving benefits for education of one’s military obligations is one of the
major incentives to serve for many who enlist. For many years now, several studies have
suggested many individuals (especially disadvantaged minorities) took the opportunity to enlist
as a strategic economic, social mobility, and democratizing opportunity (Altschuler & Blumin,
2009; Kleykamp, 2006; Mettler, 2005; Murray, 2008; Tinoco, 2014; Turner & Bound,
2002). Mettler (2005) argued the GI Bill constructed modern America by “democratizing
opportunity and fueling economic growth” (as cited in Murray, 2008, p. 968).
Kleykamp (2006) stated after high school, many students fear taking on a great debt
hardship to finance a college education, specifically fearing the possibility of being unable to pay
back the large amount of loans. As a result, many students seek enlistment in the military as a
pathway to pay for college by using the GI Bill offered by the military (Kleykamp, 2006). The
educational benefits veterans receive offered by the military are not provided through any
civilian employer. Thus, veterans “earn money and develop additional skills during their service
and in some cases military training itself and be counted towards a college degree” (Kleykamp,
26
2006, p. 275). However, in a CRT perspective, universal programs such as the GI Bill, federal
housing supports, or even social security end up with gaps between whites and blacks (Delgado
& Stefancic, 2017). Hidden preferences and assumptions that constrain people of color lead to
white people being able to take advantage of the benefits more than black people.
The GI Bill Today
The California State Approving Agency for Veterans Education (CSAAVE), a unit
within CALVET, works under contract with U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs “based on laws
under title 38 of the U.S. Code” (p. 116). According to CALVET (2016), there is an estimate of
2 million veterans living in the state of California. CALVET goals are to ensure that California
veterans of every era and their families receive the state and federal benefits and services they
have earned and deserve because of honorable military service (CALVET, 2016). The CSAAVE
encourages eligible veterans and beneficiaries to use the GI Bill. There are several programs
eligible veterans can utilize through the GI Bill for approved education and training programs,
including apprenticeship, on the job training, college degree, certificate programs, flight training,
and correspondence courses (CALVET, 2016). According to CALVET (2016), each program
provides different benefits to eligible veterans and beneficiaries. The educational benefits
through the GI Bill are usually offered for a specific number of months.
Chapter 30: Montgomery GI Bill (MGIB) Program
Chapter 30 is the Montgomery GI Bill; it provides up to 36 months of education benefits
for individuals who are eligible. According to CALVET (2016), eligibility is for 10 years
following a veteran’s release from active duty. Chapter 30 benefits are used for degree and
certificate programs, flight training, apprenticeship/on the job training, and correspondence
courses. The individual monthly benefits payment is based on the type of training taken while in
27
service, length of service, and whether the department of defense put extra money in the
Veteran’s MGIB Fund (CALVET, 2016). Veterans who wish to gain Chapter 30 benefits must
have honorable discharge; a high school diploma, GED, or 12 hours of college credit; and meet
the requirements from one of the four categories described below:
• Category I: Entered active duty for the first time after June 30, 1985; paid
1,200 into the MGIB program; and continuously served for 3 years, or 2 years
of that is what the Veteran first enlisted for, or 2 years if the veteran entered
the Selected Reserve within a year of leaving active duty and served 4 years
(“2 by “4);
• Category II: Entered active duty before January 1, 1977; served at least 1 day
between October 19, 1984 and June 30, 1985 and stayed on active duty
through June 30, 1988 (or June 30, 1987 if the veteran entered the Selected
Reserve within 1 year of leaving active duty and served 4 years); and on
December 31, 1989, the veteran had entitlement left from Vietnam Era GI
Bill;
• Category III: Not eligible for MGIB under category I or II; on active duty on
September 30, 1990 and separated involuntarily after February 2, 1991; or
involuntary separated on or after November 30, 1993; or voluntarily separated
under either the Voluntary Separation Incentive or Special Separation Benefit
Program; before separation, had military pay reduced by 1,200;
• Category IV: On Active duty on October 9, 1996, had money remaining in a
VEAP account on that date, and elected MGIB by October 9, 1997; or entered
full-time National Guard duty under Title 32, U.S.C, between July 1, 1985
28
and November 29, 1989, and elected MGIB during the period of October 9,
1996, through July 8, 1997; had military pay reduced $100 a month for 12
months or made a 1,200 lump-sum contribution (CALVET, 2016, p. 127-
128).
Chapter 31: Vocational Rehabilitation Program
CALVET (2016) reported the Vocational Rehabilitation Program (VR&E) assists
veterans with service-connected disabilities, looking for jobs, and helps veterans keep suitable
jobs. Additionally, the VR&E provides services to veterans who are service connected with
severe disabilities and are unable to work, and VR&E provide services to improve the ability of
these veterans to live as independently as possible. Most of the time, the VR&E authorizes
veterans with school attendance for educational benefits if it is determined to assist the veteran
with preparation for re-entry or entry into the labor force (CALVET, 2016). According to
CALVET (2016), in order for a veteran to be eligible for Chapter 31, the U.S. Department of
Veterans Affairs must first award the veteran disability compensation, and the veteran must be
awaiting discharge from the service due to a disability.
Chapter 33: Post-9/11 GI Bill
According to CALVET (2016), the Post 9/11 GI Bill is the Veterans Educational
Assistance Act of 2008, also known as Chapter 33. The Post 9/11 GI Bill is an education benefit
program specifically for individuals who served on active duty on or after September 11, 2001.
Chapter 33 provides financial support for education and housing (CALVET, 2016). According
to the CALVET (2016), veterans are eligible for a percentage of tuition and housing benefits that
range from 40 to 100%. The percentage of the amount of benefits is based upon the length of
aggregate active service. Table 1 provides a detailed description of educational benefits.
29
Table 1
Chapter 33: Post 9/11 GI Bill Benefits
% of Benefits Months of Active Service
100 % 36 months of active duty service, or discharged for a service-
connected disability after 30 days of continuous service
90 % 30 total
80% 24 total
70 % 18 total
60 % 12 total
50 % 6 total
40 % 90 or more days
Note: description of the percentage of benefits ranges based on the total months of active service.
Furthermore, Chapter 33 offers the option to service members to transfer their GI Bill to their
spouse or children (CALVET, 2016).
Chapter 35: Survivors’ & Dependents’ Educational Assistance (DEA)
Chapter 35 provides education and training opportunities to dependents of veterans who
died while on active duty resulting of a service related condition or because veterans are
permanently disabled with a U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs rating of 100% (CALVET,
2016). According to CALVET (2016), veterans’ dependents are considered the son, daughter, or
spouse; the program (Chapter 35) offers their dependents up to 45 months of educational
benefits, which they can use for a degree and certificate programs, apprenticeship, and on the job
training. Furthermore, if veterans’ dependents need remedial courses, remedial, deficiency, and
refresher courses are approved through Chapter 35 educational benefits approves.
30
Chapter 1606: Montgomery GI Bill Selected Reserve (MGIB-SR)
This type of benefit is available to a veteran who is a member of the Selected Reserve.
Veterans who are members of the Selected Reserve may use Chapter 1606 for up to 36 months
on the following education: a degree or certificate program, independent study programs,
apprenticeship on the job training, and vocational flight training programs (CALVET, 2016).
Chapter 1607: Reserve Education Assistance Program (REAP)
Individuals who were eligible for chapter 1606 were members of the reserve components
called or ordered to active duty in response to war or national emergency declared by the
president or congress. According to the CALVET (2016), due to implementation of the National
Defense Authorization Act of 2016, REAP ended on November 15, 2015. REAP was replaced
by the Chapter 33 (Post 9/11 GI Bill). CALVET (2016) reports a couple of veterans who were
initially under REAP benefits will continue to remain eligible benefits until November 25, 2019.
Challenges Faced by Veteran Students
Many veteran students face difficult challenges when attending postsecondary schools,
such as adjustment to campus, mental health problems, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD),
traumatic brain injury, access to resources, and relationship and identity difficulties (DiRamio et
al. 2008; Hammond, 2015; Jones, 2014). Social and Trends (2011) points out in their research
study, veterans who mentioned they had a clear understanding of their missions while serving
experienced difficulties transitioning into civilian life, compared to those who did not fully
understood their duties or assignments. In education, CRT challenges the traditional claims of
the educational system and its institutions to objectivity, meritocracy, color blindness, gender
blindness, race and gender neutrality, and equal opportunity (Yosso, 2005). Scholars have
31
articulated that CRT has an overall commitment to social justice, equality, and the elimination of
racism (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017; Yosso, 2005)
Adjustment Challenges
DiRamio et al. (2008) conducted a study to learn about veteran students’ transition from
active duty to becoming a college student. Twenty-five veterans revealed that they faced
challenges from adjustment difficulties, relationship difficulties with peers and families, not
providing enough resources, and differences in level of maturity. In fact, Wurster, Rinaldi,
Woods, and Liu (2012) articulated the majority of veteran students are over the age of 24. Other
adjustment challenges veteran students encounter involves anger and stress from their time in
combat. Many veteran students have memories of war, of being constantly alert, of being afraid,
and of difficulty to manage situations (DiRamio et al., 2008). Consistent with DiRamio et al.
(2008), a study from Demers (2011) found veteran students try to reconnect with their family
members and friends and try to fit into civilian society. “There is a tension between their
yearning to be with people and their feelings of being understood” (Demers, 2011, p. 174).
According to Wurster et al. (2013), veteran students are more than likely to be married, have
dependents, and primarily financially dependent on their parents. Since veteran students have
more responsibility than most of their non-veteran peers, it becomes difficult for them to get
involved with extracurricular activities and become less engaged in campus community (Wurster
et al., 2013). Radford (2011) conducted a study where he found 33 % of military undergraduates
were married with children and 14% were single parents.
Furthermore, veteran students also grapple with adjusting to college as first generation
students (Radford, 2011; Wurster et al., 2013). Previous studies have indicated the majority of
veteran students arriving in college are first generation students (Radford, 2011; Wurster et al.,
32
2012). The National Center for Education Statistics defines first generation students as students
whose parent’s level of highest education is a high school diploma or less (as cited in Wurster et
al., 2013). Wurster et al. (2013) further discussed in 2010 that the National Survey of Student
Engagement (NSSE) found 66% of veteran students identified themselves as the first in their
families to attend college. Through fostering an understanding of veteran students through a
CRT lens, scholars have expanded the CRT education conversation into unexplored realms in
addition to serving as allies for students (Collins, Yelich Biniecki, & Polson, 2016; Delgado &
Solórzano, 1998). Collins et al. (2016) stated veteran students often receive microaggression
behaviors from non-veteran students due to their military culture.
Mental Health Challenges
Many individuals who serve in the military struggle with mental health challenges, which
include depression, anxiety, feeling emotionally overwhelmed, and experiencing suicidal
thoughts (DiRamio et al, 2008; Parks & Walker, 2014; Persky & Oliver, 2011; Social & Trends,
2011; Thurman et al., 1995). Parks and Walker (2014) stated the Department of Defense (DOD)
reported more than 349 veterans took their own life during the year of 2012. They further
explained that suicide rates within the veteran population have increased every year since 2004
(as cited in Faulson & Kripper, 2010). Additionally, some veterans who suffered from mental
health challenges suffered from military sexual assault while in military service (Hyan, Pavao, &
Kimerling, 2009; Kimerling et al., 2010).
According to CALVET (2016), the VA uses military sexual trauma (MST) as a term to
refer to sexual assault and/or sexual harassment occurring while in military service. Researchers
have explained that sexual assault in the military increased over the past 2 decades for men and
women (CALVET, 2016; Hyan et al., 2009; Kimerling et al., 2010). In some cases, veterans
33
(both men and women) who suffered MST while on active duty struggle with fear, anxiety,
embarrassment, or anger due to these experiences in the military. As cited in Hyan et al. (2009),
a sample reported by Street, Stafford, Mahan, and Hendricks in 2008 involving interviews with
veterans found 60% of women and 27.2% of men experienced repeated harassment at some point
during their military service. Furthermore, 13.1% of women and 1.6% of men reported sexual
assault while in the military (Hyan et al., 2009). Survivors of MST at times engaged in alcohol,
drug, or prescription drug abuse (CALVET, 2016; Hyan et al., 2009; Kimerling et al., 2010).
McGee and Stovall (2015) utilized the lens of CRT and challenged the construct of grit to
consider the extent to which students of color mental health concerns go undetected. McGee and
Stovall argued there are many connections with CRT and mental health in which scholars need
to incorporate praxis in order to address a fuller spectrum of racial worlds of students of color.
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
Persky and Oliver (2011) explored discussions with veteran participants to identify the
needs of veteran students from a community college; participants identified the critical need of
trained personnel in order to facilitate sensitivity to veterans with disorders such as post
traumatic stress Disorder (PTSD). Furthermore, Hammond (2015) conducted a study with 19
participants from two community colleges in Northwestern Massachusetts. His findings
demonstrate half of the participants struggled with PTSD, and identified the transition and
adaption as consistently difficult. Many struggle due to their attention span, having little
patience, and an inability to sit in class for long hours (DiRamio et al., 2008). In a study
conducted by Social and Trends (2011), 37% of veterans admitted to being diagnosed with
PTSD.
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These psychological and emotional problems mostly affect veterans who were in combat.
Research shows that 52% suffer from emotionally traumatic or distressing experiences while in
the military prior to 9/11 (Social & Trends, 2011). As previously noted, many veteran students
have flashback and nightmares reliving the moment from combat; however, these types of
experiences are seen more commonly with veterans who suffer from emotionally traumatic
experiences. Overall, research shows 16% of veteran students reported experiencing combat
related injured while serving in the military. Forty-seven percent reported knowing someone
killed while in the military (Social & Trends, 2011).
Traumatic Brain Injuries
Research shows traumatic brain injuries have become increasingly prevalent in returning
service members due to combat related issues (Parks & Walker, 2014). According to Park and
Walker (2014), in 2001 approximately 3.7% of soldiers returning from Afghanistan were
hospitalized for having a traumatic brain injury. Park and Walker (2014) further argued the
numbers increased significant to 56.6% by 2007. Traumatic brain injuries are associated with
“decreased levels of consciousness, amnesia, and other neurological abnormalities; skull
fracture; intracranial lesions; and it can lead to death” (Tanielian, Haycox, Schell, Marshall, et
al., 2008, p. 6).
Access to Resources
Furthermore, another stressor veteran students reported was military educational benefits,
in which the benefits did not provide enough resources to attend college full-time (DiRamio et
al., 2008). As such, many veteran students have the challenge of balancing work and school
(DiRamio et al., 2008; Livingston, Havice, Cawthon, & Fleming, 2011; Osborne, 2014).
Authors have addressed the problem veteran students face while transitioning to a postsecondary
35
setting (DiRamio et al., 2008; Rumann et al., 2011). Most veteran students experience
challenges while attending postsecondary school. Since more military members are able to
utilize educational benefits, it increases the number of veteran students in postsecondary school
and increases the number of veteran students facing challenges with transitioning to
postsecondary setting (DiRamio et al., 2008; Hammond, 2015; Jones, 2014; Steele et al., 2010).
Veteran students transitioning to college is a critical problem in the United States (Brown
& Gross, 2011; Cook & Kim, 2009; DiRamio et al., 2008; Livingston et al., 2011; O’Herrin,
2011; Osborne, 2014). There is not enough focus on programmatic solutions once veteran
students enter postsecondary school needing guidance for their transition from military to
civilian culture. Bensimon (2005) stated in order for institutions to bring change, individuals
must see the magnitude of the challenges students face and (Patton et al., 2016) the institutions
must interpret, so that they can take action on these challenges. Moreover, institutions that have
different diversity characteristics support learning outcomes and enhance student preparedness
for an increasingly diverse workforce and society (Bensimon, 2005).
According to Bensimon (2005), “individuals with a deficit cognitive frame may value
diversity and have positive attitudes toward increasing minority student participation in higher
education” (p. 102). Individuals who are diversity minded are aware of the demographics
differences. In contrast, individuals who have an equity cognitive frame tend to focus more on
the educational results or outcomes of students based on their ethnicity and race (Bensimon,
2005). In Persky and Oliver (2011), the participants (e.g., faculty, administrators, advisors, and
counselors) viewed veterans as the forgotten minority and explained that the way veteran
students are treated can result in equal opportunity issues.
36
Factors affecting veteran students’ transition such as not having supporting staff or
resources on campus have shown to place veteran students at higher risk of facing challenges in
their transition to postsecondary schools (Rumann et al., 2011). In addition, lack of resources in
college significantly increases challenges veteran students face in the process of attending school
(DiRamio et al., 2008). Sensitivity training should be provided to faculty, counselors, and
administrator to recognize, understand, prevent, and have resolutions to the unique challenges
veteran students face (Persky & Oliver, 2011). This problem is important to address because of
the increasing numbers of veteran students who will be accessing postsecondary education
opportunities due to additional funding from the Post 9/11 GI Bill (Steele et al., 2010).
Relationship and Identity Challenges
Osborne (2014) shows in his findings that veteran students define the military as a strict
and hierarchical institution, which contributed to their maturation level. The experiences they
had in the military made it challenging to connect to their younger peers, whom many veterans
from the study described as immature and “out of touch” with the world (Osborne, 2014, p. 5).
In addition, veteran students who have been in combat and attend community college go through
challenges of identity, which influence their experience in college and their overall persistence
(Hammond, 2015). Most veteran students go through different changes of transition, balancing
multiple aspects of their identity such as figuring out who they are as a civilian and where they
stand within their community and environment (Jones, 2014). Jones (2014) interviewed three
veteran students attending a university and found a small sample of veteran students having a
difficult time with the process of school, socializing with non-veteran students, balancing school
with work, and adjusting to the environment. “How individuals make meaning of the world they
occupy is vital understanding of social identity” (Patton et al., 2016, p. 235).
37
In the military, the identity of military members is filled with the values of duty, honor,
loyalty, and commitment to comrades, unit, and the nation (Collins, 1998). Demers (2011)
discussed that the “values are in conflict with more individualistic, liberty-based civic values,
which embrace materialism and excessive individualism” (p. 162). Hammond (2015) defines
identity as a set of meanings that define one based on individual experiences, roles one holds in
society, groups one belongs to, and or characteristics that makes oneself unique. Chickering
proposed seven vectors (vectors of development) to contribute to the formation of identity (as
cited in Patton et al., 2016). Most students move through vectors of development at different
rates, in which students may deal with issues from more than one vector at the same time.
Veteran students struggle with adaptation to society, in which Chickering’s theory takes into
account emotional, interpersonal, ethical, and intellectual aspects of development (Patton et al.,
2016).
Understanding lack of support services for veteran students
Researchers’ discussions on supporting veteran students highlight the importance of
postsecondary schools to develop effective support services to help veteran students transition
into campus (Brown & Gross, 2011; Cook & Kim, 2009; Ford et al., 2009). According to
Hermann, Raybeck, and Wilson (2008), many institutions have implemented specific programs
or a dependent veteran’s office to serve veterans effectively and ease the stressors associated
with transitioning to a higher education environment as a civilian. In addition, higher education
schools are encouraged to provide resources such as mental health staff, counselors, and personal
development classes that can assist veteran students challenges (Radford, 2009). The institutions
that offer services to veteran students have increased their importance on these services
throughout the years (Cook & Kim, 2009).
38
Institutions of higher education who fail to understand veteran student populations are
more than likely to have unsuccessful experiences for both the institution and students (Brown &
Gross, 2011). Many veteran students decide to conceal their identity of being known as a
veteran student, since they feel they can adjust to the campus and transition to the environment
comfortably (Brown & Gross, 2011; Cook & Kim, 2009; DiRamio et al., 2008; Livingston et al.,
2011; Osborne, 2014; Rumann & Hamrick, 2011). Campuses similar to Western California
University (WCU), who provide assistance for veteran student transition, have close to 400
veteran students enrolled on campus. The campuses usually provide a one-stop center where
students can get academic/psychological counseling, financial aid assistance, support groups, VA
benefit certifying official's assistance, and a place where veteran students can socialize with other
veteran students, making them feel comfortable in the environment (Brown & Gross, 2011).
Veteran students find having a one-stop veteran center as being the most helpful service that they
can receive at a postsecondary school (Persky & Oliver, 2011). In addition, campuses that are
military friendly also provide veteran students with the opportunity of receiving priority
registration, flexible enrollment deadlines, transfer credit policies that minimize loss of credit
and avoid duplication of courses, and acceptance of American Council on Education (ACE)
credit recommendations for learning experiences in the armed forces (Persky & Oliver, 2011).
Furthermore, fewer than half of institutions implement a specific program for veteran
students to provide training to faculty and staff designed to enhance understanding about military
culture and veterans’ unique transitional challenges (O’Herrin, 2011). Many veteran students
have common frustration such as the denial of academic credit for military training and
experiences that articulate to the content of their college courses (Hermann et al., 2008). Cook
and Kim (2009) conducted a survey to 723 institutions to determine the level of preparedness of
39
colleges and the assistance they provide to veteran students. In their survey, they discovered
57% of postsecondary schools currently provide services and programs for veteran students (e.g.,
veteran counseling/academic services, financial aid advisor, veteran’s affair certifier, and
veteran’s resource center). Cook and Kim found that veteran students were concerned with
resources and services that were currently available, including lack of flexibility of campus
programs and workshops, unpredictable deployment schedule in the armed forces, unaware of or
uncertain of evaluating military courses taken while in training, and the lack of strong guidance
and knowledgeable about the G.I bill educational benefits.
In 1974, the U.S. government established the Servicemembers Opportunity College to
create and coordinate programs for military members and their families (Ford et al.,
2009). However, since 1974, only 1,900 community colleges have provided assistance to
veteran students and their families. Ford et al. (2009) reported veteran students were taking
online courses. Specifically, more than 3.5 million students were taking at least one online
course. Since the lack of support, programs, and assistance towards their transition is
unavailable, many veteran students prefer to not enroll or attend classes on campus (Ford et al.,
2009).
As DiRamio et al. (2008) stated, there is minimal research on the experiences veteran
students face on campus and types of support programs veteran students seek to have while
transitioning to community college. Since many postsecondary schools do not offer support
services to veteran students, they become a subpopulation of nontraditional students, making
veteran students a marginalized group (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017; DiRamio et al., 2008;
DiRamio et al., 2009; Griffin & Gilbert, 2012; Rumann & Hamrick, 2011).
40
Nontraditional Students Access to Resources
Veteran students who enroll in higher education are a subpopulation of nontraditional
students; their access to educational opportunities is influenced by the institution’s ability to
offer a variety of services (Livingston et al., 2011; Osborne, 2014; Radford, 2011). Normally
they are older and bring credits they earned through college courses they completed in the
military or through American Council Education (ACE). While some veterans accept the
opportunity to immerse themselves in the traditional college experience, other veteran students
view postsecondary school as an obligation to enhance their opportunity of gainful employment
after military service (O’Herrin, 2011).
Many veteran students do not receive enough support on campus (Osborne, 2014).
Veteran students are unique since they receive financial benefits for their education, and many
military individuals have a profile of transferable credit earned while on active duty and from
their military experiences and education (Brown & Gross, 2011; O’Herrin, 2011). Osborne
(2014) conducted a study interviewing 14 veteran students. In the study, he found all veteran
students had difficulty getting assistance from campus personnel. The lack of resources and
understanding military culture within the campus creates several challenges to support veteran
students effectively. Osborne interviewed several individuals who had challenges in managing
their living conditions, such as adapting to close proximity to others in cramped places and
adapting to long and irregular work and class schedules.
Gurin, Gurin, Dey, and Hurtado (2002) stated having a diverse student body could be a
resource for students to engage with diverse peers, permitting higher education to achieve its
educational goals by having the essential tools. More specifically, Radford (2011) found a
majority of military students in postsecondary school were male (39%) and most of the veteran
41
students were married compared to their nonmilitary peers. Having a diverse social group
campus may ease the transition of veteran students (Persky & Oliver, 2011). However, Gurin et
al. (2002) stated having a diverse campus might not guarantee intergroup interactions amongst
students.
After months or years in war zones, veteran students face a new kind of isolation in
postsecondary school. The challenges cause social isolation and create feelings of oppression
within the community (Freire, 1993; Patton et al., 2016). Reynolds and Pope (1991) stated that
many individuals have multiple identities and are members of more than one oppressed group
throughout society and their community. Individuals can belong to group’s base of race,
ethnicity, age, gender, religion, sexual orientation, sexual identity, and background (Patton et al.,
2016). Veteran students not only go through their transition from military to civilian culture, but
they also have challenges of where to “fit in” (Osborne, 2014). Patton et al. (2016) discussed
how in education people should work with each other to have a deeper understanding of one’s
perspectives. Freire (1993) argued that too much education involves “banking,” in which the
educator makes deposits in the learner. In addition, Livingston et al. (2011) found that 15
participants who were interviewed from one institution were less likely to seek academic support
and more motivated to seek social support from their fellow veteran peers with whom they felt
more comfortable.
According to Bensimon (2005), individuals such as counselors, faculty members, staff,
and institutional leaders need to become equity minded to be able to understand the student’s
belief, expectations, and actions. Many institutions are deficient in training their faculty and
staff about veteran students’ challenges, leaving them helpless and providing inaccurate
perceptions about their wellbeing and services to the country (Osborne, 2013). However, there
42
are certain individuals who have a need to develop awareness, and for others, there is a need to
intensify self-awareness (Bensimon, 2005).
In addition, since veteran students are a subpopulation of nontraditional students, their
transition becomes a complicated process, not understanding how to cope with the change. As a
result, having limited access to educational opportunity causes veteran students to face difficult
challenges when attending postsecondary schools.
Conceptual Framework
This study relied on CRT using three themes to guide the investigation of equity and
access for veteran students in the California Community Colleges. In addition, the purpose of
the study was to explore the importance of focusing on increasing access for veteran students to
complete either an associate’s degree, certificate, and/or transfer to a 4-year institution by
examining programs and services embedded in the campuses. In order to examine the type of
resources and programs veteran students receive at the Veteran Student Center, key research
themes were identified prior to conducting the literature research.
Equity and Access
The primary research theme is focused on equity and access for veteran students. CRT
allows for the emphasis on college equity and access to resources and programs for veteran
students. Moreover, this theme focuses on the importance of developing programs and resources
that may support veteran students while attending Veteran Student Centers. The themes guide
the study to account for the availability of equity and access support for veteran students.
Social and Culture Support
CRT further guides this study by emphasizing social and cultural support veteran students
receive to understand the completion agenda for veteran students based on race. Ladson-Billings
43
and Tate (1995) argued race continues to be a significant factor in determining inequity in the
United States. The social and cultural support theme focuses aligning institutional attitudes,
values, and behavior regarding veteran students.
Schlossberg's Transition Theory
Schlossberg's transition theory guides this study with the assumption based on the
literature that veteran students do not have access to resources and are unaware of how to
navigate the college environment. Schlossberg's transition theory was chosen to apply to the
veteran student’s transition from military life to culture/civilian culture. Transition theory
provides an adaptable structure to apply to understand lifestyle change (Lynch, Chickering,
Schlossberg, 1989). Schlossberg’s transition theory focuses on veteran student transitions into
the community college (i.e., readjustments to campus culture, civilians, mental injuries, etc.)
through using the moving in, moving through, and moving out process. CRT will help guide this
theme focusing on the inequalities within the phase process (moving in, moving though, and
moving out) based on race. As stated earlier, research reveals many veteran students have a
difficult transition to civilian life after separation from military life (Rumann et al., 2011).
CRT and the three themes, Schlossberg’s transition theory, equity and access, and social
and culture support are key components for guiding this study to gain knowledge for community
colleges, provide programs and resources for veterans students, and help veteran students
succeed with their educational goals. These themes all focus on the importance of developing
programs and resources that affect veteran students while attending community college.
44
Figure 1. Concept model of theoretical framework.
There are many theories that could be used to guide this study and investigate this
cultural phenomenon, specifically how equity and access have been attributed to veteran
students, on making college accessible with an easy transition. However, both CRT and
Schlossberg’s transition theory allow equity and access for veteran students to be researched
through the different themes previously described, thus, allowing the research questions to be
fully analyzed and answered.
Lynch et al. (1989) noted using the transition framework could conceptualize any type of
group (i.e., adult learners, young or old, anxious, or self-confident). The transition framework
can assess where individuals are in the learning experience and what their resources are for
coping with it (Lynch et al., 1989). Lynch et al. (1989) noted the transition framework helps
students position in the transition process by assessing if the student is “moving into a situation,
moving through it, or moving on” (p. 14).
Critical
Race
Theory
Schlossberg's
Transition
Theory
Social
&
Culture
Support
Equity
&
Access
45
Building upon the work of Schlossberg (1995) and integrating the work of other scholars,
this theoretical framework can help explain veteran student transitions (DiRamio et al., 2008;
Patton et al., 2016). According to Patton et al., (2016) “transitions can lead to growth, but
decline is also a possible outcome, and many transitions may be viewed with ambivalence by the
individual experiencing them” (p. 216). Goodman, Schlossberg, and Anderson defined
transitions as events or non-events that result in change (as cited in Patton et al., 2016, p. 215).
More specifically, transitions alter the person’s roles, relationships, assumptions, and routines
(Patton et al., 2016). Furthermore, transitions motivate adult behavior; it is in the adult’s nature
to have a need to fit in, create meaning, and master new tasks leading to change and transitioning
(Schlossberg, 1995).
Goodman, Schlossberg, and Anderson noted to thoroughly understand the meaning that a
transition has for a particular person requires considering “type, context, and impact of the
transition” (as cited in Patton et al., 2016, p. 215). As cited in Patton et al. (2016), Goodman,
Schlossberg, and Anderson highlighted three types of transitions: (a) anticipated transition,
which a person can prepare for; (b) unanticipated transition, which are unpredictable; and (c)
nonevents, which are expected to occur but do not. Viewing Schlossberg’s transition theory
through a CRT lens enhances the capacity to manage key development issues during veteran
student transitions, including racism and forming a sense of community on campus. Lock,
Hurtado, Bowman, and Oseguera (2008) stated students of color experience challenges in
making a successful transition to college, perceiving a hostile racial climate.
Four S’s. As cited in Patton et al. (2016), Goodman, Schlossberg, and Anderson
described four major sets of factors that influence a person's ability to cope with a transition.
The four major sets of factors are situation, self, support, and strategies, to help individuals cope
46
with their transition by identifying potential resources or deficits (Patton et al., 2016;
Schlossberg, 1995).
Situation. When examining Situation, Patton et al. (2016) noted the following factors as
important for examining a person's situation: (a) trigger (i.e., factors that initiated the transition),
(b) timing (i.e., does the person judge the timing as positive or negative?), (c) control (i.e., what
the individual believes they have within his or her control), (d) role change, (i.e., viewed as gain
or loss, transition resulting in a change of a person's responsibility, duties, and positions), (e)
duration (i.e., the extent to which one perceived the change as permanent, temporary, or
uncertain), (f) similar experiences (i.e., the degree of previous transitions were similar to the
current transition), (g) concurrent stress (i.e., other sources of stressors currently present in the
transition), and (h) assessment (i.e., the degree of one’s positive or negative perception; who or
what is seen as responsible for the transition).
Self. Researchers have highlighted two categories for Self: (a) personal and
demographics characteristics (e.g., socioeconomic status, gender, age, stage of life, and stage of
health) and (b) psychological resources (e.g., ego development; outlook, in particular optimistic
and self-efficacy; commitment and values; and spirituality and resiliency (Patton et al., 2016;
Schlossberg et al., 1989; Schlossberg, 1995).
Support. Schlossberg (1995) noted the Support an individual receives during the
transitional period could be the most critical piece to success. According to Patton et al. (2016)
“support is composed into three facets: types, functions, and measurement” (p. 217). Goodman,
Schlossberg, and Anderson explained that “social support can be measured by identifying the
individual’s stable support, supports that are role dependent, and supports that are more likely to
change” (as cited by Patton et al., 2016, p. 217). Schlossberg (1995) classifies support as social
47
support, which includes intimate relationships, family units, network of friends, institutions, and
communities. Furthermore, support is also separated into four different functions: (a) affect, (b)
affirmation, (c) aid, and (d) honest feedback (Patton et al., 2016; Schlossberg, 1995).
Strategies. Patton et al. (2016) noted strategies are separated into three categories: “(a)
those that modify the behavior, (b) those that control the meaning of the problem, and (c) those
that aid in managing the stress in the aftermath” (p. 217). Goodman, Schlossberg, and Anderson
described four coping modes individuals can have when managing the different categories for
strategies. The four coping modes are information seeking, direct action, inhibition of action,
and intrapsychic behavior (as cited in Patton et. at., 2016).
Moving in, moving through, and moving out. DiRamio et al. (2008) examined the
potential transitional challenges veteran students face utilizing the moving in, moving through,
and moving out model. Transitions can be managed and understood, and if the individuals
understand the transition, they can be aided as they move through the process (DiRamio et al.,
2008; Patton et al., 2016). Schlossberg’s theory of transitions includes an examination of what
constitutes a transition, different forms of transitions, the transition process, and factors that
influence transitions (Patton et al., 2016). DiRamio et al. (2008) describes the moving in,
moving through, and moving out model the following ways:
• “‘Moving in’ process: the individual needs to ‘learn the ropes’ and become
familiar with the rules, regulations, norms, and expectations of the system”
(Diramio et al., 2008, p. 81).
• “‘Moving through’ process: a transition requires letting go of aspects of self,
letting go of former roles, and learning new roles (DiRamio et al., 2008, p.
83).
48
• “‘Moving Out’ process: individuals may experience grief during this process
(DiRamio et al., 2008, p. 85).
Furthermore, researchers have discussed that these transitions can lead to growth and
learning through the different transition stages, categorizing the thoughts and ideas veterans face
while moving towards civilian life (DiRamio et al., 2008; Patton et al., 2016; Schlossberg, 1995).
Conclusion
This study began with the assumption based on the literature that veteran students
struggle and face issues with social and cultural support, learning how to access equity and
access to resources, learning how to adapt to student culture, and navigating the community
college environment. All of these relationships are valuable as they build upon CRT and
Schlossberg's transition theory and aid in making sense of veteran students’ completion of an
associate's degree, certificate, and/or transfer. Acquiring rich data and deeper understanding of
veteran students’ transition from military to civilian culture and the experiences veterans students
have in the community college, practitioners can facilitate access and equity, resources for
veterans students, and increase support for all veterans students in the community college. This
will further enable veteran students to increase their access for social mobility.
49
CHAPTER THREE: METHODS
In the previous chapter, theoretical models of CRT and Schlossberg’s transition theory
were introduced and exemplified in prior literature. While both theories have been
independently validated, this study aims to examine the intersection of the two paradigms and
draw upon expert analysis techniques to learn about equity and access for veteran students and
about their transition experience in the community college system.
The purpose of this study was to identify equity and access for veteran’s students in the
California Community Colleges and to explore programs and services embedded in the
campuses. The following are the two research questions for this study:
RQ1. What are the challenges and barriers experienced by veteran students who
transition to a community college?
RQ2. How do the support services affect veteran students in the California
Community Colleges in terms of equity?
The methodology used in this study is consistent with the research questions and purpose
of the study. This qualitative study will follow a CRT design through a counter narrative lens to
examine this topic. Huber (2008) highlighted CRT as a commonly used theoretical perspective
to help researchers with identifying inequities and to understand what creates inequities.
Solórzano and Yosso further articulated the importance of developing critical race
methodologies, drawing from the forms of knowledge that exist in communities of color (as cited
in Huber, 2008). They further articulated that these methodologies utilize a CRT lens revealing
experiences with responses to racism, classism, sexism, and forms of oppression in education (as
cited in Huber, 2008).
50
Overview of the Study of Methodology
The questions explored in this study are dependent on the context, history, and current
situations, in which veteran students face challenges in community colleges. Hence, for the
purpose of this study, qualitative methods were used to understand how support services affect
veteran students in community college. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) described qualitative
research as the major aim to understand how people make sense of their experiences. Therefore,
counter-storytelling was used in this study as a critical lens of race, class, and the experiences of
veteran students to examine the concepts of equity in the community college.
According to Maxwell (2013), interviews are a primary source of data when using a
qualitative research approach. Therefore, this study was based upon interviews. The decision to
choose interviews was based on the research questions.
The interviews for this study are semi-structured. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) described
semi-structured interviews as having mix of more or less structured questions and requiring
specific information by the participants. According to Merriam and Tisdell (2016), interviewing
is necessary when the researcher cannot observe behavior, feelings, or how people interpret the
world around them. Moreover, the interview questions for this study were guided by a mix of
the six types of questions given by Patton (2015): (a) experience and behavior questions, (b)
opinion and values questions, (c) feeling questions, (d) knowledge questions, (e) sensory
questions, and (f) background/demographic questions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Utilizing
interviews helped to more deeply examine the Veterans’ Student Center (VSC) and answer the
research questions.
51
Site Selection
For the purpose of this study, veteran students were selected in order to answer the
research questions. This study examined the Veterans’ Student Center of Los Angeles Trade
Technical College (LATTC), a traditional community college in the city of Los Angeles
approximately two miles south of central business district. The mission of the VSC at LATTC is
“to provide a friendly environment to all veterans who served the military and their families”
(About LATTC, 2016). Following the guidelines for both state and federal regulations, the VSC
promotes success for Veteran students. The VSC provides the current information to extend
opportunities to assist Veterans’ with achieving their educational goals. The VSC environment
encourages, advocates, motivates, and promotes new and continuing veterans to reach a new
plateau in their transition to reconnection to civilian society as it relates to education and a
productive life (About LATTC, 2016). The VSC is located in the middle of the campus, in
Mariposa Hall. The VSC is student demographically 44% Hispanic, 35% African American,
10% White, 4% Asian, and 4% students who identify themselves as either unknown or
other. Currently the VSC has one Student Services Specialist who certifies and makes sure
veteran students receive their benefits. There are five student workers, two counselors, and a
financial aid advisor who comes in the center to assist the veteran students with any financial aid
problems.
The LATTC district collaborate efforts to ease the transition for veteran students as they
navigate through the campus system. Today, LATTC continues to demonstrate both its
motivation to meet the necessities of veteran students and an ability to establish resources
through the VSC (About LATTC, 2016). VSC is committed to ensuring veteran students
support; providing lounge, computer stations, one-on-one federal student aid (FAFSA),
52
educational/career counseling, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs educational benefits
assistance, mental health support, and housing support.
LATTC has an estimated of over 3,000 students. LATTC student population consists of
64.4% Hispanics, 25.4% African American, 7.1% White, 5.3% Asian, and 1.9% other. LATTC
is known for effectively incorporating leading-edge theories, proven educational practices,
hands-on experiences, and technology into its career-technical and professional programs, as
well as transfer pathways. Many graduates become community, business, and innovation
leaders. The community college provides associate in arts degrees, associate in science degrees,
and certificates of completion in selected programs. LATTC offers all academic courses
required for transfer to a 4-year college or university, as well as nearly 90 different occupational
programs, some of which can be completed in little as 1 year. The campus colors are violet and
gold, and the campus is well known as the beavers. LATTC provides students and the
community high-quality academic, technical, and professional educational opportunities that can
meet their career development and academic goals, foster a climate of lifelong learning, prepare
students to participate effectively in society, and generate economic development with the
campus educational, governmental, community, and business partners (About LATTC, 2016).
Population and sample
Population
Participants were purposefully invited to the study based on their military status. As
previously stated, the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (2015) describes veteran students as
former members of the armed forces of the United States: Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps,
Coast Guard, National Guard, or Reserves. All participants met the definition of the U.S
Department of Veterans Affairs, and the staff have experience working with veteran students.
53
Creswell (2014) described purposeful sampling as a method of identifying and selecting
individuals or groups of individuals that are experienced about the topic of interest. The veteran
students who were chosen met the criteria for the study.
There were six veteran student interviews and one staff member from the VSC at
LATTC. The participants involved in the research were chosen because of their background
(being a veteran student, and for the staff member, having experience working with veteran
students). The participants who were chosen were in the VSC at the time and were asked for
their consent to participate in the study. The VSC was chosen as the location to conduct the
interviews, since most of the veteran students use it as a place to hang out, study, and/or use the
resources that are available, and it was convenient since the researcher works in the center as a
counselor.
Sampling
Purposeful sampling was the research sampling method used in this study to obtain
responses, understand dominant themes, and help answer the research questions. Merriam and
Tisdell (2016) stated various writers (Creswell, 2014; Miles, Huberman, & Saldana, 2014;
Patton, 2015) have differentiated among different types of purposeful sampling. Due to time,
monetary resources, and location, convenience sampling was the sampling type chosen for this
study.
Interviews with veteran students in LATTC were used in this study. The college has a
veterans’ center that helps to serve veteran students, with several resources for veteran students
as they focused to complete a certificate, associate, and/or transfer degree. Interviews were done
with six candidates in the VSC for 45 minutes each. A significant amount of information was
gathered to answer the research questions.
54
Data Collection and Instrumentation Protocols
Access/Entry
The process for receiving approval for conducting this study was obtained by asking
written consent from the director of the veteran resource center and verbal consent from veteran
students. All participants were interviewed the same week. Not all of the participants were
provided with a consent form for interviews; however, they were provided with a brief summary
regarding the purposes of the study and how the information from the interviews would be
presented anonymously in the study, with no names being disclosed.
Protocols
In order to centralize the challenges and experiences veteran students face, the researcher
conducted in-depth, semi-structured interviews. The purpose of the semi-structure interviews
was to allow the open-ended format that did not assume responses from respondents (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Merriam and Tisdell (2016) stated that semi structured interviews allow the data
to reflect the participants meaning and understanding. The decision for the interview questions
was made based on the research questions and conceptual framework. The questions on the
protocol were a mix of qualitative questions. The prompts were designed to stimulate discussion
about the participant’s background, transition experiences, challenges, and values (See Appendix
C & D: Interview Protocol).
Process
The study required IRB approval. After approval was received from IRB, the interviews
took place at LATTC during the fall 2017 semester. The interviews were conducted at the VSC
located on the LATTC campus in California. The location was purposively selected for
convenience reasons. The interviews were conducted in the afternoon since most veteran
55
students and the staff members were in the center during that time. The interviews were about
30-45 minutes long with each participant; they were recorded and later transcribed.
Data Analysis
The data were analyzed using constant comparative method. In 1967, Glaser and Strauss
developed this method of data analysis as a means of creating grounded theory (as cited by,
Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). According to Merriam and Tisdell (2016), “grounded theory consists
of categories, properties, and hypotheses that are the conceptual links between and among the
categories and property” (p. 228). The simple strategy of the method is to do just what its name
implies, constantly compare. The researcher began with a particular incident from the
interviews, field notes, and/or observations and compared it with another incident in the same set
of data or in another set (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Corbin and Strauss (2015) suggested three
phases of coding to enable the development of grounded theory: (a) open coding, (b) axial
coding, and (c) selective coding. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) defined open coding, axial coding,
and selective coding as follows:
• “Open coding is what one does at the beginning of the data analysis, tagging
any unit of data that might be relevant to the study.
• Axial Coding is the process of relating categories and properties to each
other, refining the category scheme.
• Selective coding is defined as a core category in which propositions or
hypotheses are developed” (p.229).
After each interview, the audio recording was transferred to a computer and
transcribed. The interviews were all transcribed word by word into a word document. A
computer program was used to check for accuracy of the transcription. The transcripts were
56
anonymized to ensure participants confidentiality by providing pseudonym names of
participants. Once all transcriptions were verified, analysis of the data began, which involved
codifying themes and color-coding them. Using Merriam and Tisdell’s (2016) description, open
codes were developed to maintain participants’ ownership of their experiences and stories.
Maxwell (2013) noted that open coding may prompt the researcher to read the data several times
to identify constructs, themes, and make note of all segments of the data considered useful to
answering the research question. Moreover, labels were created throughout the data to
summarized themes and constructs that emerged (Maxwell, 2013). Moreover, next to each word
an example of the participant’s actual words was placed.
Furthermore, open coding was followed by the process of axial coding, as explained by
Merriam and Tisdell (2016). Using the Corbin and Strauss (2008) strategy for larger categories
of theme exploration, the themes were explored for relationships and meaning between codes.
Lastly, selective codes determined main themes that were found in the data (Corbin & Strauss,
2008; Maxwell, 2013).
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) described credibility as findings that are believable and
accurate. Reflexivity and peer reviews were used to ensure credibility in this study.
Additionally, personal biases that may have influenced the findings were set-aside for the
purposes of the analysis. Maxwell (2013) stated the goal of a qualitative study is to understand
and examine one's biases that may affect the results or the way one perceives findings. For the
purposes of this study, clarity throughout the process of data analysis and interpretations were
confirmed, to ensure biases did not redirect the data analysis elsewhere (Maxwell, 2013).
57
Ethics
Ethical considerations were addressed prior to collecting of the data. The purpose of the
study was explained to each participant. A verbatim consent was required to ensure each
participant would participate in the interview. In addition, confidentiality was ensured for each
of the participants. Moreover, in order to ensure that the data were recorded and data analysis
was done ethically, an accurate interpretation of the findings was provided.
Summary
This chapter has presented the methodology procedures for this study, explaining
sampling, instrumentation, data collection process, and analysis procedures that took place.
Chapter Four will involve presentation of the data. Chapter Five will include a discussion of the
findings, implications for practitioners, and recommendations for further research.
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CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
Introduction
The purpose of this study was to identify equity and access for veteran students in the
California Community Colleges and to explore programs and services embedded in the campuses
The first three chapters of this dissertation offered an introduction to the problem surrounding the
transitions of veteran students from military culture to student/civilian culture, a review of the
literature surrounding CRT, and the methodological design that was utilized for this study. This
chapter presents the findings that emerged from the data collected and analyzed using the
conceptual framework that was constructed for the purpose of this study.
There are three parts to this chapter: demographic data description for each of the veteran
student participants, an introduction of each participant’s military experience using pseudonyms
through counter-storytelling, and a final analysis of the general themes. The participants’
counter-stories are used to expose, analyze, challenge deeply entrenched narratives, and
characterize racial privilege. These veteran students share very intimate portions of their
experiences and challenges going in, through, and coming out of the military. The following
sections will present the data analysis through the participant’s responses for each research
question using themes and subthemes. Chapter Five follows this chapter, which includes a
discussion of the meaning of findings, their usefulness, implications for practitioners, and
recommendations for further research.
A qualitative study employing CRT methodology was conducted with data collected
from semi-structured interviews (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Pseudonyms for the staff
participant and student participants were created to ensure that all participants’ identities were
59
kept private. All findings presented serve to answer the following research questions for this
study:
RQ1. What are the challenges and barriers experienced by veteran Students who
transition to a community college?
RQ2. How do the support services affect veteran students in the Community College
system in terms of equity?
The data were used to answer the research questions, showing specific themes and
subthemes in relation to the veteran students’ experiences and challenges in their pursuit for an
associate’s degree, certificate, and/or transfer to a 4-year institution.
Demographic Data
The six student participants in this study were all attending LATTC to either receive a
certificate, associate's degree, and/or transfer to a 4-year college. One of the participants was a
staff member advocating and professionally assisting veteran students through their journey in
the community college. The six participants served in different branches in the military. The
years of service in the military of the participants ranged from 20 years of service in the military
to 3 years of serving. All six-student participants shared similar paths from military to
civilian/student culture. Table 2 details the demographic findings.
Table 2
Participant Demographics
Demographics Participants
Miguel Danny Fred John James Rick
Served 10-20
years
x
60
Table 2 (continued)
Served 3- 9
years
x x x x x
Age 35 31 35 33 43 28
Hispanics x x
White x x
Black x x
Joined Military
Age 17 - 21
x x x x x x
Branch Served Navy Marines Corp Army Air Force Navy Army
The Participants Counter-Stories
As described in the literature review, there are many reasons why young men decide to
join the military instead of attending college. The reasons derived from the literature are a
source of mobility for disadvantaged minorities, low socioeconomic status, offer of benefits and
GI benefits to fund for college, and steady employment (paycheck; Kleykamp, 2006). The
following counter-stories from the participant interviews shed light on their backgrounds and
joining the military. Pseudonyms were used to protect the identity of the research participants.
The counter-stories present the unique experiences of each student and show similarities across
the sample. The presentation of the findings of the study follows this section.
Miguel
Miguel is a 35 year old male, Chicano, born and raised in Los Angeles. Miguel joined
the Navy when he was 17 years of age. Before he decided to join the navy, he was not going to
pass his junior year in high school. Miguel stated, “I realized I was not going to pass my junior
61
year due to my attendance, and decided I wanted to do something with myself before it was too
late.”
Miguel felt the Navy was a good choice for him. He had his parents sign a waiver to
join the Navy. He served for 3 years and 8 months. Miguel discussed that while in the military
the only negative racial issue he experienced was favoritism. He felt he wanted to be a different
race (Filipino) in order to succeed and feel welcome within “their” community. Miguel noted
that in the military everyone knew “favoritism” was occurring within the Filipino community;
however, his command did nothing about the issue. Miguel, discussed he worked extremely
hard to be noticed and feel “welcomed” in the military. He further mentioned boot camp was
difficult, mostly emotionally and psychologically, because he missed his family and friends. His
experience with boot camp was psychologically daunting because he felt everyone was treated
like “idiots.”
After his service, Miguel stayed home for a couple of months trying to find out what to
do with his life. Miguel mentioned he felt lost and confused, not knowing what to do with his
life. After a couple of months, he received a job. During the time of his transition from the
military, he was an alcoholic and abusive person. He was in jail for a couple of months due to
being an abusive person. After jail time, Miguel mentioned he pulled himself together and
started looking for schools to attend. Miguel discussed looking for a community college that
would be military friendly to learn a vocational trade to start working. Due to the type of
discharge (Other than Honorable) Miguel had, he did not qualify for any GI Bill benefits.
Miguel has to works multiple jobs and receives financial aid to support himself. Miguel stated
that the VSC at the campus has provided him the greatest resources. Miguel is part of the
veterans club and participates in events that the Strength and Support Group provides. The
62
Strength and Support Group comes into the VSC twice a week and provides free therapy and
outside resources to the students.
Miguel further discussed being diagnosed with PTSD, anger management, and
depression. He mentioned, “I feel like I don’t want to do anything and tell the whole world to
fuck off.” Due to his PTSD, anger management, and depression, Miguel was homeless at one
point in his life after the military. He was using drugs and drinking a lot of alcohol. He is now
living in an apartment for low-income veterans. He mentioned it helps him a lot because he does
not pay too much for rent or bills, which allows him to focus on school.
Danny
Danny is a 31-year-old Hispanic male. He joined the military at the age of 18. The
reason he decided to join was because growing up all of his coaches and mentors were veterans
or in the reserves, which influenced him to join the military. Danny mentioned the military
taught him how to work as a team because their life was always in danger. He discussed when
he first entered boot camp he “hated it” because he was not used to the new lifestyle (i.e.,
following orders).
Danny mentioned he has always been fascinated with joining the military, and
when he received the chance, he took it. He served 8 years in the United States Marines
corp. After the 8 years, the Marine Corps found out he had served with a fraudulent
social security number. As a result, he served 6 years in the military prison. Danny
mentioned after serving his sentence he was provided with a military work permit,
which allows him to work to support his family. After military prison, going through his
transition, Danny started drinking alcohol and taking drugs excessively. He discussed
feeling out of place in the “civilian world.” At one point in Danny’s life after the
63
military, he found himself homeless, living from couch-to-couch at his friends’ homes.
Danny was diagnosed with PTSD, getting scared and paranoid every time he heard a
loud noise. Danny mentioned he had many difficulties when he first started school. He
dropped out of school multiple times due to his alcohol and drug addiction. He later
found help and attended therapy sessions, being able to stay in school and keep a job.
Danny explained that he does not qualify for any type of GI Bill, even though he
was honorably discharged. This is because he is considered an “immigrant.” Danny is
currently using the Dream Act to help pay for school. He mentioned he has no
resentment for being sent to military prison after serving in the Army. He is happy he is
almost done with school and about to transfer to a 4-year university. Danny stated,
I am glad we have a Veteran’s Center at LATTC because I am able to fellowship
with veterans, and we help each other out academically, give each other advice.
And if we are taking a class together we encourage one another, and we are there
to assist each other because we have similar qualities and we are in a brotherhood,
which is The United States Military.
Fred
Fred is a 35-year-old male. His racial and ethnic background is English, Irish, German,
and Scottish descent. Fred served 3 years in active duty and 5 years inactive ready reserves. He
joined the Army at the age of 21. Fred’s father was in the Air Force, and while he was in high
school, he was part of the ROTC. Fred mentioned, at a very young age he was encouraged to go
into the military and that is all he knew growing up. Fred mentioned he never experienced any
type of racial discrimination while in the military. He noted he already expected his experience
about boot camp/training to be “tough.” Fred discussed his transition from military to civilian
64
culture was not difficult. Fred stated, “I just jumped in and found that it really is not as difficult
as I thought it would be, I would tell myself that I can do anything that they through at me.”
Fred was diagnosed with PTSD and chronic depression. Through his transition and
diagnosis, his family has been supportive. He is also taking medication and sees a therapist
consistently. Fred mentioned he has never been homeless and has had a stable home. He started
school using the VRAP, which allowed him to pay for school, books, materials, and living
expenses of $1,500 a month. Since the VRAP only lasted 12 months, he now uses Chapter 31 to
pay for school, books, and living. He also uses financial aid for additional help. Fred discussed
not relating to his peers in class. He mentioned they are a lot younger and “think differently.”
Fred stated the VSC has provided the greatest support with his academic studies.
John
John is 33-year-old Irish male. He served in the Air force for 4 years. John discussed the
reason he joined the military was for better and new opportunities. He grew up in a small town
and wanted to get away to explore a wider world. He mentioned growing up in a small town
limited him from understanding different cultures. John mentioned the experience in the military
was positive. He explained, “Mainly positive, for the most part. Having come from a small
town, I had a limited understanding of different cultures. The military allowed me an
opportunity to explore a wider world.”
Thus, he decided to join the Air force at 21 years of age in the hope to explore the world.
John discussed never experiencing any racial discrimination difference when he joined the
military. He noted he never felt any discrimination toward him while in boot camp or after
discharge. After discharge, John found himself taking drugs to cope with his problems and
adjustment to civilian life. John was homeless for a couple of months. He later found a program
65
that helps veterans look for housing under the Veteran’s Affairs Supportive Housing Program.
This program helps veterans who are homeless find and sustain a permanent home.
John was using drugs after his discharge from the military. Once he received
support, he decided to start school and get a career. John discussed the first time he
attended community college was a very difficult transition because the college he first
attended did not have a veterans resource center to submit and process his paperwork for
the GI Bill. He had to submit all of his documents to the U.S. Department of Veterans
Affairs manually in order to receive educational benefits. He discussed, “there was no
easy process to begin the process.” John qualified and used the GI Bill: Chapter 30, Voc.
Rehab: Chapter 3, and is now using Chapter 33 plus financial aid. This allows him to pay
for school, books, materials, and living.
James
James, a 43-year-old Black male, joined the Navy at the age of 18. He served in the
Navy for 20 years. Although he revealed that his family has a long tradition of serving in the
military, his dad, brothers, uncles, and grandfather were in the military, James motivation for
joining the military was mixed. He felt it was expected for him to join the military too.
However, he mentioned he did not join the military due to having a long line of military family.
He joined for the benefits and to receive the GI Bill. James noted the military became part of his
world, and he served for 20 years.
James discussed being diagnosed with PTSD and traumatic brain injury. He
mentioned his transition was a very difficult one, having served for 20 years. James noted
he did not “get along” with civilians because he had “nothing in common.” He discussed,
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“They don't understand what we do. Civilians express their views differently from how I
express the world or other veterans express the world. Civilians don't understand.”
James mentioned since his transition from the military to civilian culture was
difficult he became homeless for couple of months. He knew he could reach out to his
family (dad and brothers) for support, but he did not want his family to find out what he
was going through. He also discussed taking drugs and drinking a lot of alcohol after his
discharge. Once his brothers found out what he was going through, his family decided to
do an intervention to support him and help him get back on his feet.
Starting school was one of the most challenging experiences, due to being older
than his peers. James mentioned that at times he feels uncomfortable talking to non-
veterans. He discussed, “It because of the age and because they are not veterans I don’t
feel we connect…there’s nothing we can talk about we can’t share stories.” James stated
he likes utilizing the VSC on campus because he gets to speak to the therapist and he also
feels welcome. James is using financial aid to pay for school. He discussed he let his GI
Bill educational benefits expire.
Rick
Rick is a 28-year-old Black male. He joined the military when he was 18 years of age.
He served in the Army for 7 years. Rick discussed the reason he joined the Army was because
he felt he wanted to be a part of something. Growing up he was in foster care going from home
to home. Once he turned 18, he made the decision to join the military in search for better
opportunities. Rick discussed the application process was not an easy one, due to his
background. He mentioned a psychiatrist had to evaluate him before joining the military. Rick
stated it took several months before he could get the approval to join the military. Once he
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joined, moving in was unexpected. Rick discussed in the beginning he experienced many racial
comments and felt discriminated against. He mentioned, “I had a white man telling me ‘I never
been in the same room with a black man before.’ That to me was unexpected.”
After some time, everyone in boot camp learned they needed to act as a unit, never
leaving a man behind. Rick mentioned, everyone was a different race, so they saw each other as
one. They became a family, and still to this day, he talks to many of them. Rick discussed his
transition from the military was extremely difficult. He had no family and became homeless. He
would take drugs and alcohol. He found help through the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs
supportive housing. Rick mentioned he cleaned himself up and received an apartment for low-
income veterans. He decided to begin school and is now in his final year. Rick mentioned he
does not receive GI Bill because it expired. He was unaware he qualified for educational
benefits and never got a chance to use them. He is only using financial aid and EOPs to pay for
school and books.
Summary
These counter-stories provide a glimpse into the lived experiences of veteran students.
All of these students have gone through some sort of trauma after the military, and have
experienced homelessness after the military. All these students experienced a difficult transition
from military culture to student/civilian culture. Where they differ is in their unique college life
experience and military experience. Each veteran student has found different levels of support,
different communities within campus that affect their trust and sense of belonging. Additionally,
each veteran student has a varied perception of the military experience, transition, and campus
culture. All of these variables affect the veteran students’ sense of belonging and transitions, and
therefore the effect of their success in the community college.
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RQ1: What are the challenges and barriers experienced by veteran students who
transition to a community college?
Social and Culture
Support
Sense of
Belonging
Helplessness
The Process of moving in,
moving through, and moving
out
Transition
Mental
Health
Disorder and
Expectations
RQ2: How do the support services affect veteran students in the Community College system
in terms of equity?
Main Theme:
Equity and Access
Campus Resource
GI Bill/Financial
Hardship
The next section presents the data analysis process—uncovering key concerns that
critical race theorists have presented over time (Delgado & Stefancic, 2007; Huber, 2008;
Solórzano & Yosso, 2002). Using the CRT framework and Schlossberg’s transition theory, (a)
equity and access and (b) social and culture support were key themes that guided the study to
answer the research questions.
Figure 2. Demonstrates the data analysis process for the research questions.
Figure 3. Research questions, themes, and sub-themes.
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Data Analysis
RQ1. What are the challenges and barriers experienced by veteran students who
transition to a community college?
Social and Culture Support
In response to the first research question, five key themes emerged. The five themes
pertaining to Question 1 that will be discussed are (a) sense of belonging, (b) helpessness, (c)
expectations, (d) transitions, and (e) mental health disorder and substance abuse. These themes
were selected, as they were commonly identified by all of the veteran student participants as
being tremendous moments that contributed to the shaping of their transition. Each of the five
themes will be discussed in order, in the following sections.
Sense of belonging. Many veteran students decide to leave and not pursue school
because they do not feel they belong in school. According to Griffin and Gilbert (2015), veteran
students tend to isolate themselves from their peers, both in class physically and intellectual. For
this reason, Albert, the staff member who works in the VSC, explained the community college
provides a “family oriented culture” for the veteran students. Albert stated:
The culture in the veteran resource center is a family oriented culture. Veterans
know when they walk in the center it is safe place. They know that they can let
their guard down and just be themselves. They also know that when they enter
the center they can expect top of the line customer service.
Danny discussed before coming in the VSC that he felt “lost.” He stated, “My fears were
myself, my drinking habits, my surroundings (construction on campus)…and the social aspects
of being around my peers.”
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All of the six veteran student participants discussed feeling safe, trusting, and seeing the
VSC as a second home to them. All of the six participants discussed being comfortable
interacting with fellow veteran students because they have more in common than with non-
veteran students. One veteran student in particular (Rick) discussed appreciating the VSC
because he felt he could relate better to his life experiences with other veteran students.
John discussed feeling uncomfortable at times when interacting with non-veterans. He
stated the reason was the following:
...as soon as they find out I'm a veteran student and served in the Army, many
classmates will ask me uncomfortable questions like “Have you killed any
people?” “How many people did you kill?” “Why did you join the military?” or
“Did you know anybody who died over there?....I don't like that shit.
Helplessness. All of the six veteran student participants described having common
feelings of helplessness and hopelessness during their transition to community college as a
student. Miguel in particular mentioned he was so used to the need for direction and discipline
that he obtained in the Navy following commands. John discussed having to find and do
everything (all paperwork for GI Bill) on his own because the first community college he
attended did not have a veteran center. John stated:
My initial experience with community college was a difficult transition because
the college I attended didn’t have a veteran center, and I had to submit my
documents to the VA manually to receive educational benefits. There was no
quick and easy process to begin the process.
Danny stated he felt helplessness with loud sounds he would hear on campus. Danny
discussed:
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I struggled a lot because during the time that I was attending school there was
construction going on and every time I heard a jack hammer I thought there were
gunshots or if I heard a loud bang I’d think it was an explosive device. This made
it really hard for me to focus and to stay in school consistently. I dropped out of a
community college about six times because of my paranoia and because I always
had something or someone to blame.
Danny later stated he never asked for help because of his ego. He discussed
finding help from a non-veteran student who he had as a classmate and approached him
with “words of wisdom.” Danny discussed:
I never asked for help but one day in class I had a hangover and Alma spoke to
me and she said, “mijo, Christ has a purpose with your life.” I thought she was
crazy but I continued to listen to her and she helped me overcome many obstacles.
The process of moving in, moving through, and moving out. Consistent with the work
of Livingston et al. (2011) and Osborne (2014), all of the six veteran students who participated in
this study mentioned the Moving in process in the military was a strict and hierarchical
environment that contributed to their “way of thinking.” All of the six participants mentioned
the Moving through transition from military to civilian culture was a challenge for them because
they felt they had to “readjust” to the new “civilian life.” All of the six participants stated at the
Moving out process they encountered having PTSD, anger management, and/or trauma from
combat. They also stated being involved with substances right after discharge, such as drugs and
or alcohol. There are three sub themes that shed light on the first research question:
expectations, transitions, and mental health disorder and substances.
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Expectations of race. Through the interviews, only four participants mentioned they
experienced negative experiences that prompted them to think about race while in the
military. Miguel discussed he felt he wanted to be a “Filipino” because, “...I experienced
favoritism. This occurred mostly within the Filipino community. It was known in our
command and nothing was really done about it. I sometimes felt like I had to be Filipino
in order to be able to succeed.” Table 3 details the participant’s negative experiences of
race while in the military boot camp due to their race/ethnicity by themes.
Table 3
Race/Ethnicity Experiences
Participants
Race/Ethnicity
Experiences
Themes
Miguel Danny Fred John James Rick
Favoritism with
other
Race/Ethnicities
x x
Color of the skin
(Racist)
x x x
Culture Shock x
One participant (John) discussed having “culture shock” while in boot camp. The
reason for this shock was that he was from a small town where only white folks lived. He
was never exposed to diversity until the first day he arrived at military boot camp.
Transition. All of the six veteran student participants mentioned they experienced a
difficult transition into society, family, and/or school. The reason for this is that, in the military
veteran students were used to “following commands” and were “highly trained for combat.”
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After separation from the military many veteran students mentioned they felt “lost” and did not
feel they “fit” in with society, family, old friends, and/or school. Four out of six participants
discussed challenges relating to their younger peers in school; they described their peers to be
“immature” and not knowing what the “world was like outside.” James in particular stated,
In the beginning, I hated when we had to do group projects in class, because the
majority of my peers in class are much younger than I am. I felt we had nothing
in common and saw how they express their views differently. Didn't like that,
they seem disrespectful. I guess I was just having a hard time adapting to society
and school.
John also stated feeling scared. He stated, “I had difficult time adapting to civilian life and I also
had difficulty adjusting to college.”
Many veteran student participants discussed trying to find where they stood as a person,
who they were, and exploring the ways they were identified. Four veteran student participants
experienced having a sense of identity while transitioning from military to civilian/student
culture. Fred discussed how leaving the military made him feel “less unique.” He stated he now
feels like a “normal person.” All of the veteran student participants mentioned it was “hard to
adapt to society” when separating from the military. It was not that veteran students did not want
to adapt or get along with civilians. Rather, the majority felt they expressed views differently
from non-veterans and had “little connections” with them.
Mental health disorder and substances. Many veteran students are faced with being
diagnosed with post traumatic stress disorder (PTST), anger issues, and/or trauma from combat.
Most veteran students have combat-related disability, which may complicate the transition to
college (Osborne, 2014). The majority of the veteran students who declared having PTSD in the
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interview discussed having issues in the past with physical health, alcohol abuse, drug abuse,
homelessness, and troubled family relationships.
The veteran students who participated in the interviewed discussed they were diagnosed
by the Veterans Affairs Mental Health Clinics/Hospitals with either PTSD, anger management,
and or depression. When asked, “Have you ever been diagnosed with a mental health condition?
If so, what type of mental health condition? How does it make you feel?” the six participants
responded as having PTSD, anger management, and or Depression. Rick said, “Kim, helps me
with my anger problems. I am able to talk to her openly and get my feelings out.” Kim is the
therapist who works in the VSC twice a week. Miguel stated, “I was diagnosed with PTSD plus
chronic depression. I have been with medication and programs like therapy but not in a program
right now. It makes me feel like shit.”
Moreover, four out of six veteran students discussed having traumatic flashbacks when in
particular places. For example, Fred stated having trauma when he hears “certain sounds or
trigger words” that remind him of his time in the military. The majority of veteran students
responded having a sort of distraction at times. In particular, Danny said, “Sometimes, my
attention span gets lost; I get distracted easy.” Four out of six veteran students reported utilizing
the services the VSC provides to help them deal with important issues regarding mental health
and/or other problems.
As articulated in the literature review, many veteran students try to cope with their
transition or PTSD by drinking heavily, using drugs, or smoking too much. Through the
interviews, all of the participants disclosed having a drinking and/or drug problem after the
military. They either took drugs and/or drank alcohol excessively, becoming a very abusive
person. John stated, “I used drugs to cope with my problems, at that time”
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Danny discussed:
I tried alcohol and drugs but that did not take my issues away but in one of my
classes I met a lady and her name is Alma. I spoke to Alma about my issues
every day after class and she started talking to me about church and Jesus Christ.
I then built a relationship with Christ and my get away was bible studies and
attending church, and I realized that I was at peace during the times that I was
attending these meeting so I stuck with it. And Alma is still part of my life. I
love her and appreciate her prayers and her patience for dealing with me. My
reminder was “love yourself and build your castle so you can be a role model.” It
took me some time but slowly I started to change my way, and I stopped my
drinking and started getting involved in church. And I decided to start school and
finish up.
Equity and Access
RQ2. How do the support services affect veteran students in the Community College
system in terms of equity?
This section addressed the second research question, shedding light to two key themes.
The two key themes that emerged from Equity and Access are (a) campus resources and (b) GI
Bill/Financial hardship. These themes allowed the researcher to explore various ways in which
each participant experienced equity and access. Through the interviews, all of the six
participants described feeling “disconnected” with other staff members outside of the VSC. To
find out about the resources and services the campuses provide, all the six participants articulated
going to the VSC for assistance.
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Campus resources. Community colleges provide a variety of services and resources to
their students including veterans. Campus services include advising, counseling, tutoring,
financial aid, library, etc. Blackwell-Starnes (2018) explained that veteran students may not
complete a certificate, degree, and/or transfer to a 4-year college because of the lack academic
guidance during registration, or simply they may lack an awareness of campus resources and
services available to help them succeed in their academic pursuits and ease transition. Many
veteran students might learn about these services but find staff and faculty members lack in
understanding the needs of veteran student populations (Blackwell-Starnes, 2018; Griffin &
Gilbert, 2012; Livingston et al., 2011; Osborne, 2014).
After interviewing Albert, the staff member who works in the VSC, he discussed many
services the center provides to the veterans students on campus. Albert stated,
The services that are offered to Veteran Students are as follows: academic
counseling, psychological counseling, financial aid, tutoring and processing GI
educational benefits. These services are rendered to veteran students as they
come into the center. The veteran student is greeted by staff that will identify
their area of need and then alert the School Certifying Official (SCO) to assist
them. When the student meets with the SCO, the student is asked for the required
documentation to correctly certify the student with the VA. The SCO will also
explain the various VA breakdowns to the student so that they will have a better
understanding.
Miguel confirms and stated, “This center has provided me with the greatest resources.
Being part of the veterans’ club and participating in events that strengthen and support what the
group does, I feel that I am part of something.” Indeed, having a campus that is veteran friendly
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and supports veterans through their transition makes it easier for them (Griffin & Gilbert, 2012;
Livingston et al., 2011; Osborne, 2014). Albert stated that the largest challenges they have
encountered in the center is the “technology gap.” Albert stated,
The veteran students served at LATTC are an older demographic. Many are not
familiar with technological vocabulary and uses. When assisting many of the
veteran students, I find that I have to walk them through the process step-by-step.
This step-by-step process may increase the time that is needed in assisting the
student, which effects aggregate productivity.
GI Bill/financial hardship. The majority of the veteran student participants cited
financial hardship as being a major challenge that placed additional pressure and stress on them,
in addition to their transition and academic demands. Miguel in particular stated,
I don’t receive any GI because of the type of discharge I had. It was difficult for
me because I wasn’t receiving that extra income like my buddies who are veterans
and are going to school. I pretty much have to work multiple jobs to support
myself.
Other research shows veteran students have family financial obligations; their main
objectives are to get a college degree, become productive professional, and care for their families
(Griffin & Gilbert, 2012; Griffin & Gilbert, 2015; Livingston et al., 2011; Osborne, 2014).
Miguel stated, “If I had GI, I wouldn’t be stressing out much about money or working multiple
jobs.” Albert discussed seeing multiple students with financial hardship and dropping out of
school because they were unable to receive any GI Bill to pay for their expenses. He further
stated,
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...There was a veteran student that I was working with who wanted to enter into
the barbering program. However, he was a reentering student. When we checked
his profile, he had an outstanding balance. He confided to me that he did not have
any resources to pay the balance. He just moved into an apartment after living in
his car for a period. I spoke with our schools business office and initially I was
met with resistance. I was told that I must follow protocol and that exceptions
could not be made. I refused to accept that, and dug further until I found a way.
The student ended up signing a promissory note, where he had to put 50% of the
balance down and then could pay the remainder at a later date. Today, that
veteran student is doing great in the barbering program.
Conversely, veteran students who qualify for the GI Bill and other resources did not
experience financial hardship. For example, John discussed the following:
The GI Bill has been crucial in allowing me to attend college and ensure that my
needs are met. After choosing to return to school in 2016, I had a much easier
transition using Chapter 33 and then Voc Rehab. These benefits have allowed me
to afford transferring to UCLA and pay the higher tuition rates.
Only two veteran student participants did not encounter any financial hardship when
transitioning to community college.
Conclusion
This chapter presented the findings from interviews with six veteran students and one
staff member from the VSC. From an in depth ethnographic analysis of the counter-stories of
these veteran students’ military life experiences, compelling themes emerged that helped to
explain how these students transition from military culture to student/civilian culture, as well as
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how their lives were changed and supported for persistence. In this chapter, the two research
questions were explored through the themes.
The majority of the veteran student’s responses to the interview questions represent a rote
understanding of the challenges they faced while transitioning as a student to LATTC. In
addition, their commitments, obligations, and responsibilities to their family tend to add even
more challenges to their already difficult educational journey. The findings of this study add to
and are in agreement with the literature review. Research conducted with veteran students
suggests that because of the challenges these students may experience in transitioning into the
college culture, community colleges should consider developing effective veteran student
services in order to best serve this student population (Brown et al 2011; Griffin & Gilbert, 2012;
Griffin & Gilbert, 2015; Livingston et al., 2011; Osborne, 2014). In Chapter Five, implications
of these findings, as well as limitations of the research and suggestions for further research are
presented.
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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION
Summary
The following section begins with a discussion of a summary of the findings for the
research questions. Next, there is a presentation of recommendations for practice, conclusions of
the study, and implications for practice. As stated in Chapter One, the number of veterans
students has grown rapidly, leading many veterans to enter community college with the hopes of
getting a college education and obtaining either an associate's degree, transfer to a 4-year college,
or certificate to start working (DiRamio et al., 2008; DiRamio et al., 2009; Griffin & Gilbert,
2012; Rumann & Hamrick; 2009; Social & Trends, 2011). Veteran students seek a veteran’s
center to ease their transition, seek a veteran friendly campus to further ease the transition, and
identify guidance to support their future in college. Therefore, institutions that fail to understand
veteran student populations are more than likely to have unsuccessful experiences for both their
institution and students (Brown & Gross, 2011). The transition from military culture to
community college could be overwhelming for veteran students who may encounter a variety of
barriers during their transition in areas such as academic preparedness and confidence (Osborne,
2014). There is a need for institutions to facilitate the challenges veteran students face while
transitioning, and this has been a particular problem for many years (DiRamio et al., 2008;
DiRamio et al., 2009; Griffin & Gilbert, 2012; Rumann & Hamrick; 2009).
Thus, the purpose of this study was to identify equity and access for veteran’s students in
the California Community Colleges and to examined programs and services embedded in the
campuses to increase access for veteran students to complete either an associate’s degree,
certificate, and/or transfer to a 4-year institution. In an effort to give voice to the nontraditional
student populations at California Community College, this study was centered on understanding
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the challenges and transitions of veteran students. The research questions guiding this study
were as follows:
RQ1. What are the challenges and barriers experienced by veteran students who
transition to a community college?
RQ 2. How do the support services affect veteran students in the Community
College system in terms of equity?
This qualitative study is grounded in critical race methodologies and analyzes the
experiences of veteran students’ transition from military to civilian/student culture through the
lens of counter narratives. The purpose of this study was to understand the challenges and
transitions veteran students face in the community college system. The purpose of this study did
not entail producing generalizable data, but rather an understanding of the unique experiences
veteran students face when transitioning to community college culture. Participants were
selected through purposeful sampling (Creswell, 2014). Each of the student participants were in
the military at one point in their life, and a staff member was interviewed who works with and
advocates for veteran students. The researcher conducted in depth semi-structured interviews
with each of the participants. Using Corbin and Strauss’ (1990) comparative data approach, all
data were analyzed in order to allow emerging themes to develop through an inductive process.
Summary of Findings
RQ1. What are the challenges and barriers experienced by veteran students who
transition to a community college?
Veteran students enrolled in community college face unique challenges compared with
those of traditional students (DiRamio et al., 2008; DiRamio et al., 2009; Griffin & Gilbert,
2012; Osborne, 2014; Rumann & Hamrick; 2009). The majority of the veteran student
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participants described in Chapter Four discussed having challenges when transitioning from
military culture to student culture. Veteran students’ experiences and perspectives in entering an
unstructured college setting can contribute towards having a difficult transition (Osborne, 2014;
Social & Trends, 2011). The primary finding of this research was that all of the veteran students
have experienced a difficult transition to community college—feeling lost, helpless, and
hopeless. The veteran student participants in this study identified as Black, Hispanic, and/or
White. They all experienced similar transition challenges, specifically being homeless at one
point, taking drugs and/or alcohol, and having PTSD. As described in the literature review, other
researchers have found veteran students struggle with depression, PTSD, alcohol, and drug abuse
(DiRamio et al, 2008; Parks & Walker, 2014; Persky & Oliver, 2011; Social & Trends, 2011).
RQ2. How do the support services affect veteran students in the Community College
system in terms of equity?
The majority of the veteran student participants in this study faced inequities through
receiving educational benefits for school. The primary finding for Research Question 2 was that
not all of the veteran student participants experienced a challenge with receiving support services
in the community college. In fact, the experiences from veteran students of color with receiving
support services (financially) are very different from their white counterparts. Rick stated, “I
don’t receive any GI Bill because I don’t qualify anymore, it expired, and never knew I could
qualify for GI Bill.” Persky (2010) stated many faculty, administrators, advisors, and counselors
view veteran students of color (Aragon, 2015) as the forgotten “minority.” Having equity and
access support on campus is an important part for a veteran student to have, when going through
their transition in community college and adapting to student culture (Griffin & Gilbert, 2012).
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The staff participant, working at the VSC, did mentioned LATTC works diligently to
provide equitable resources to all of their veteran students. Resources include academic
counseling, psychological counseling, financial aid, tutoring, computer lap, and processing GI
educational benefits. All of the veteran student participants mentioned these services have
provided them with the greatest help to continue and complete school. In fact, Fred stated, “The
veteran resource center has provided me with the greatest support. I am able to submit my
paperwork to the VA and have someone guide me through the process.” Griffin and Gilbert
(2012) showed that many veteran students felt like there is a lack of accountability at colleges,
and as a result have difficulty with their transitions, feeling frustrated when with the disconnect
between academic and military culture. They also explained many veteran students felt lost and
confused when trying to figure out where to complain and/or file concerns without an obvious
“chain of command” (Griffin & Gilbert, 2012).
Recommendations for Practice
The results of this study provided a detail perspective of the counter-stories veteran
students experience while transitioning from military to civilian/student culture. To continue
exploring increased graduation success of veteran students in community college, the researcher
recommends the following to be considered for future study:
1. Future research should focus on veteran students in homelessness and in alcohol
and/or drug abuse. One of the student veteran participants suggested, “Substance
abuse seems quite common amongst many of the Vets I have encountered, Perhaps
some questions pertaining to drug use as a coping mechanism could be useful in
future studies.”
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2. Future research should focus on women student veterans in community colleges.
Normally, when a person thinks about a veteran student, they most likely picture a
male veteran student. As the number of veteran students on college campus increases
(DiRamio et al., 2008; DiRamio et al., 2009; Griffin & Gilbert, 2012; Osborne, 2014;
Rumann & Hamrick; 2009), so does the number of women veterans on campus
(Conard & Armstrong, 2017).
3. There is a need to focus research on formerly incarcerated veteran students. Veteran
students not only encounter challenges through their transition from military to
civilian/student culture. Imagine now being a formerly incarcerated veteran student
and going through that transition as well. Formerly incarcerated veteran students
would have to adapt from a regimented life behind bars after the military to
classroom.
4. Future research should focus on immigrant veteran students. A veteran student
participant noted he joined the military with a fraudulent social security number
because he was an immigrant and really wanted to join the military. According to
Zong and Batalova (2016), immigrants have always served in the U.S. armed forces.
In the past, their presence was particularly high, representing half of all military
recruits by the 1840s and 20% of the 1.5 million service members in the Union Army
during the Civil War.
Conclusions
The research agrees with other studies (DiRamio et al., 2008; DiRamio et al., 2009;
Griffin & Gilbert, 2012; Osborne, 2014; & Rumann & Hamrick; 2009) in which veterans
students showed signs of grit and perseverance when getting the right guidance in their academic
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success after showing that their life experiences provided a unique perspective within the campus
community. This study demonstrated that veteran students have unique experiences and
encounter unique challenges related to transitioning from military to civilian/student culture that
may be significant but at times unrecognizable by the community college. The findings from
this study have implications to promote academic success and persistence for veteran students.
Implications for Practice
The significant findings associated with this study contribute to the scholarly literature by
identifying the major components of challenges veteran students face and practice for equity in
the community college. The following recommendations are presented to help ensure veteran
students are successfully completing a degree and/or transferring to a 4-year institute:
1. Collaborate with outside resources (community organization) to provide veterans
students with comprehensive services: For example, collaborating with Didi Hirsch
organization, which provides individuals who were in the military and their families
counseling and support through the Military Families are Resilient (MFAR) Program.
This program provides assessment and treatment, care management and linkage with
other support services, transportation assistance, family education, and health support.
Findings from this study suggest that community colleges may improve the quality of
transition experience and success for a veteran student through increasing support
services by collaborating with other community organizations. Veteran student
participants noted various instances in which they had a family to support, financial
hardship, alcohol and drug consumption, and homelessness.
2. Establish one point of contact for veteran students in the campus: Having a “One
stop Shop” meaning having all of the resources veteran student need in one center
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(i.e. VSC). Veteran students can see an academic counselor, see financial aid
information, and process GI Bill paperwork in one office, instead of moving around
office to office. Findings from this study suggest that the community college may
improve the quality of experience for veteran students if they take care of their
specific educational needs in one office. Participants from this study noted how
difficult and frustrating it was (for campus entry) for them to move around from
office to office just to get paperwork done. Having a single point of contact can help
veteran students with their complex needs.
3. Improving campus climate by educating faculty and staff about veteran specific
issues: Having a comprehensive understanding of the needs, challenges, and
experiences veteran students face may help with the transition to community college.
87
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96
Appendix A:
Study Participation Request
Thank you for meeting with me today. The purpose of this interview is to help answer the
research study “Equity and Access to veteran students in the California Community Colleges”
and learn about your understanding, experiences, and equity access in the campus.
Please know that my top priority is to ensure your confidentiality. I will ask you about recording
this interview before I start recording. You have the right to stop the interview and/or it’s
recording at any time or decline to answer any specific questions along the way.
The thoughts you share with me will not be shared with anyone unless de-identified by the IRB
protections. Furthermore, please know that interviews and data collected will not be linked to
your real name or affiliations.
The interview will proximately last about 30 to 45 minutes. Please know that I am absolutely
flexible to extend it as needed, if you feel that the thoughts you want to share requires more time
to complete.
I am very grateful for your time and willingness to meet and discuss the topic of equity and
access for veteran students in the California Community Colleges.
May I have your consent to record this interview?
I will be asking you several questions in regards to the Veteran’s Student Center located in
LATTC.
Do you have any questions or concerns before we begin?
Thank you,
Mercis Ramirez
97
Appendix B:
Permission Letter to Interview Students in the VSC
98
Appendix C:
Interview Protocol
INTRODUCTION
• Introduce myself
• Explain the purpose of the study and length of interview
• Ask for permission to audio record and explain confidentiality procedures
• Present information sheet
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
1. In your on words, how would you describe your racial and ethnic
background?
2. Tell me a little about yourself and how did first decide/made the decision to
join the military?
3. How old were you when you joined the military? Did you experience any
negative or positive experiences that prompted you to think about race or
racial identity while in the military? If so, can you describe the situation to
me? Who was present? And how did you feel?
4. How many years did you serve in the military?
5. What branch did you serve while in the military?
6. Looking back when you were in the process of applying for college, what
types of qualities and characteristics were you looking for? How did you
decide you wanted to come to this community college?
7. Did you experience difficulties as a veteran student when transitioning to
college?
99
8. What is your educational major and goal? What were the key factors for you
in selecting this major and goal?
9. Do you have any close friends on campus that are civilians?
10. Do you spend most of your time in the Veterans Student Center?
11. What has provided the greatest resources/sources of support for you within
the college environment?
12. Do you relate to other students on campus or students in your classrooms that
are not veterans?
13. Do you receive GI Bill benefits? If so, was it difficult for you to apply? Did
you encounter any barriers? Please explain the process, and how long it took
you to receive GI benefits?
14. Do you think the educational benefits of the GI Bill have impact your life
and/ or your family life?
15. What type of difficulties did you have while transitioning to the community
college as a veteran student?
16. Do you feel welcomed by LATTC’s campus community (departments,
offices, general student body)?
17. Do you have trouble concentrating/focusing in class? If so, please explain.
18. Do you have combat trauma? If so, are you getting treatment?
19. Have you ever been diagnosed with a mental health condition? If so, what
type of mental health condition? How does it make you feel?
20. Do you have a disability, if so, what type(s) of disability do you have?
21. Do you have a stable home?
100
22. Are you homeless, or have you ever been homeless?
101
Appendix D:
Interview Protocol for Staff Member
1. What services does Los Angeles Trade Technical College offer to veteran
students? And how do these services make a day-to-day basis?
2. What resources and strategies do veteran students utilize or employ to thrive
as they navigate their college transitions?
3. What challenges do you encounter when assisting veteran students?
4. What do you think is the biggest challenge for veteran students?
5. Tell me about a situation when you needed to advocate for a veteran
student?
6. Tell me about the culture in the center.
7. How do veteran students experience the transition into, through, and out of
the college environment?
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to identify equity and access for veteran’s students in the California Community Colleges and to explore programs and services embedded in the campuses. Additionally, this study helped understand veteran students’ challenges and barriers using counter narrative (Solorzano & Yosso, 2002). The researcher interviewed six veteran students and one staff member from the Veterans’ Student Center at the community college, in order to understand and hear their lived experiences and challenges faced. Participants were selected through purposeful sampling (Creswell, 2014). These veteran students share very intimidate portions of their experiences and challenges going in, through, and coming out of the military. This study relied on critical race theory using three themes to guide the investigation of equity and access for veteran students in help understanding veteran student transitions. The researcher conducted in depth semi-structured interviews with each of the participants. All data were analyzed using the constant comparative method in order to allow emerging themes to develop through an inductive process (Corbin & Strauss, 1990). Findings from this study established the experiences veteran students face with transitioning from military to civilian/student culture, how their challenges have shaped their sense of belonging at their institution, and experiences/challenges they faced with the GI Bill.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Ramirez, Mercis
(author)
Core Title
Equity and access for veteran's students in the California community colleges
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education (Leadership)
Publication Date
09/05/2018
Defense Date
05/09/2018
Publisher
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Tag
access for veterans,community college,equity,GI Bill,Military,OAI-PMH Harvest,veteran students,veterans
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Green, Alan (
committee chair
), Hinga, Briana (
committee member
), Lawler, Hannah (
committee member
)
Creator Email
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access for veterans
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