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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Expectancy value theory and African American student motivation

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Expectancy value theory and African American student motivation

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Content 1

Expectancy Value Theory and African American Student Motivation

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2018 Mickey Mitchell-Caston
2

Acknowledgements
Thank you everyone for your patience.
I would first like to thank my husband Clarence for his continued support and
encouragement throughout this process. You have never once complained or discouraged me.
Your support has made this achievement possible. My boys Jackson and Austin, I love you and I
hope that you have learned perseverance and tenacity along with me throughout this process.
Finally, I would like to thank my committee Dr. Hirabyashi, Dr. Seli, and Dr. Filer. Your guidance
and patience have been greatly appreciated.

3

Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine African-American students’ perceptions of
their parents’ and guardians’ attitudes towards education and academic achievement at two
urban school districts in Southern California. African-American students and parents responded
to statements about their personal values and expectations about education, as well as
students’ perceptions of their parents’ and guardians’ beliefs toward education. The surveys’
results shed light on the complex relationships between messages students hear and beliefs
they deemed were held by parents and guardians, and their effects on student expectation and
aspirations.
Forty-nine high school students and parents responded to questions about their
academic communication with one another, aspirations, expectations and aspirations.
Students and parents responded to Likert-scale survey items and short answer queries.
Conclusions found that students’ beliefs about their primary caregivers’ beliefs have a great
influence on their own values, expectations, and aspirations.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements 2
Abstract 3
Table of Contents 4
List of Tables and Figures 6
Chapter 1: Introduction of Problem 7
Background of the Problem 8
Theoretical Framework 11
Expectancy Value Theory 11
Statement of the Problem 12
Purpose of the Study 14
Significance of the Study 14
Limitations 15
Definition of Terms 16
Chapter 2: Literature Review 17
Expectancy Value Theory and African American Student Motivation 17
African American Student Achievement 19
Historical, Structural, and Cultural Effects of Education
on African Americans 19
Motivational Research and African American Students 25
Expectancy Value Theory 28
Student Performance and Expectancy Value Theory 29
Parenting 33
Parental Beliefs and Influences 33
Parental Involvement 34
Parental Influences in Promoting African American Students’
Academic Achievement 38
The Relationship Between Parental Influences and Academic
Achievement for African American Students 38
Students’ achievement beliefs: A Mediator Between Parental
Influences and Academic Achievement 42
Summary 45
Chapter 3: Methodology 46
Research Design 47
Surveys 47
Participants 47
Instrumentation 53
Demographic Variables 53
Measures 54
Student Questionnaire 54
Parent Questionnaire 56
Data Collection Procedures 58
Plan of Analysis 59
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Chapter 4: Results 63
Preliminary Analyses 64
Intercorrelations 64
Research Question 1 66
Student Responses 68
Parent Responses 68
Short Answer Response: Additional Ways Parents
Communicate their Expectations. 69
Research Question 2 74
Research Question 3 82
Summary 90
Chapter 5: Discussion 92
Recommendations for Practice 96
Future Research 99
Limitations 101
Conclusion 103
References 104
Appendix A- Student Questionnaire 114
Student Demographic Survey 115
Student Questionnaire 116
Appendix B- Parent Questionnaire 118
Parental Demographic Data Sheet 119
Scale of Educational Aspirations and Expectations for Adolescents
(SEAEA) 125
Appendix C-Frequencies for Scale of Educational Aspirations and
Expectations for Adolescents (SEAEA) 126
Appendix D-IRB Forms 130
Invitation to Participate in Research 133
Informed Consent for Non-Medical Research Adults 135
Informed Consent for Non-Medical Research for Youth 138

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List of Tables and Figures
Table or Figure page
Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of Students 49
Table 2. Demographic Characteristics of Parents 52
Table 3. Research variables and operationalized concepts per Research Question 62
Table 4. Means, Standard Deviation, and Inter Correlations between
Demographic Variables
65
Figure 1. Strategies of communication 67
Table 5. List any additional ways your parents communicate their educational
expectations to you.
70
Table 6. Additional ways you communicate your educational expectations
to your child.
72
Table 7. Regression Results of Perceptions of parents’ expectations (AFQ) 75
Table 8. How important is education to your family? How do you know? 77
Table 9. How do you think your parents view on education affect you? 80
Table 10. Do you believe that what you do at home attributes to your child’s
success in school? If so in what ways?
85
Table 11. What forms of support do you provide for your child regarding
academic achievement?
88

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Chapter 1
Introduction of the Problem
A critical issue facing schools today is the academic achievement of African American
students. The disparity of academic achievement between African American students and
other ethnic groups, including the troublesome outcomes related to minority student’s
progress has been well documented (Darensbourg & Blake, 2013; Cokley, 2002, 2003; Jeynes,
2005). It has been found that standardized test scores of African American students continue
to lag behind that of other groups sometimes by as much as two grade levels (Steele, 1992). A
number of research studies have been conducted focused on explaining the causes contributing
to the academic achievement gap, (Cokley, 2002; Morgan & Mehta, 2004; Steele, 1992), while
others aim to discover ways to eliminate it (Yan, 1999). Various theories researching the
educational achievement gap include low teacher expectations, stereotype threat (Cookley,
2002; Steele, 1997), parental expectations (Davis-Kean, 2005; Taylor, Clayton & Rowley, 2004),
family background (Orr, 2003), academic motivational theory (Kaplan & Maehr, 1999), and
student expectations of themselves, motivation, and achievement value (Graham, 1994; Kaplan
& Maehr, 1999).
The intent of this research study is to examine how parental influences contribute to
students’ value for and expectancy for success in education. It will ascertain how students’
perceptions of their parents’ expectations, values, and aspirations affect their own expectations
for academic success and in turn their achievement. Furthermore, this study will examine
empirical research regarding motivation and achievement, how they interact and effect African
American students, and specifically how expectancy value theory can be used as a method to
better understand the motivation of African American students.
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Background of the Problem
Over the past 50 years the United States has witnessed considerable educational gains, yet for
African American students the success has not been as promising. The National Assessment of
Educational Progress (NAEP) shows a discernible and persistent discrepancy in educational
achievement among student groups (Pirte, 2014). The overall percentage of young adults ages
25 through 29 who have completed high school rose from 53 to 86 (NAEP, 2009). However,
between 1950 and 2005, the percentage of White adults to graduate from high school
increased from 56 to 93, while the percentage of African American adults to complete high
school rose from 24 to 86. An examination of most academic indices across subgroups reveals
that African American students underperform in comparison to their peers from other racial
groups. According to the National Assessment of Educational Progress (2009, 2016), African
American students score lower on all assessments, reading, writing, and math proficiency
indices in 4
th
and 8
th
grade despite the gains in national achievement. While the gap in
achievement scores narrowed in the areas of both reading and math for students in grades 4
and 8, there was no measurable difference between the 1990 and 2013 White-Black
achievement gap (NAEP, 2016). In addition, while all students seem to benefit from gains in
achievement, a substantial achievement gap persists.
The underperformance of African American students in relation to Caucasian students
has become a well-documented pervasive problem in American public education (Bailey &
Boykin, 2001; Howard & Reynolds, 2008; Taylor & Graham, 2007). African American students
overall have proven to have lower standardized test scores, lower GPAs, and higher dropout
rates than their peers (Schunk, Pintrich, Meece, 2008; Taylor & Graham, 2007). Although
various conjectures have been given to try to explain the reasoning for this occurrence,
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researchers have yet to solve the crisis of persistent underachievement. The knowledge and
achievement gap is of particular concern in grades kindergarten through 12
th
grade because of
its effects on college attendance, job placement, potential earnings, and levels of savings
(Fordman & Ogbu, 1986).
There are a variety of theories and variables explaining the causes of this gap in
achievement: including family factors (parenting and parenting involvement), cultural factors,
environmental factors, motivational and socio-cognitive factors. In the sociological literature,
researchers have argued that perceived barriers to opportunity may partly explain why some
ethnic minority youth come to devalue the importance of effort and trying hard in school.
Fordman and Ogbu, (1986) posit that African American low school performance is an adaptive
response to their limited social and economic opportunities in adult life. They hypothesize that
because Black Americans have traditionally been provided with substandard schooling (i.e. laws
against education for African Americans during slavery, segregation, desegregation, separate
but equal doctrine, and subpar schools) and low job ceilings, that they developed “survival
strategies” and other coping mechanism. Fordman and Ogbu (1986) advocate that some
African American students adopt an oppositional peer culture in which high achievement and
effort are devalued because such attributes are associated with “acting white”. This belief can
then become an antecedent of alienation from school and students then begin looking for
other avenues to experience success outside of school.
In their theory of expectancy-value, Eccles et al. (1983) and Wigfield and Eccles (2002)
give some support to this hypothesis. Eccles et al. (1983) supposed that in the achievement
domain children may begin to attach greater value to activities in which they do well and that
lowering the value attached to difficult activities is likely to be an effective way to maintain a
10

positive global sense of self efficacy and self-esteem. Wigfield and Eccles (2002) wrote that in
order for lower achieving students to protect their self-esteem, they are likely to disidentify
with academic achievement, leading to both a lowering of the value they attach to academic
achievement and a detachment of their self-esteem from positive and negative academic
experiences alike.
In the area of parenting, parental expectations and beliefs play a major role in students’
expectations for themselves. Parental influences and practices have been found to positively
motivate African American students to achieve academically (Pressley, Raphael, Gallagher, &
DiBella, 2004). The support parents furnish by encouraging their children to perform well in
school has been found to matter greatly for African American adolescents (Kerpelman, Eryigit &
Stephens, 2007).
Parents are children’s primary socializers and parental expectations for their children’s’
educational attainment are an important shaper of children’s own expectations. Parents’
expectations for their children’s eventual educational attainment have been shown to relate to
both the child’s current and later achievement (Halle, Kurtz-Costes, & Mohoney, 1997).
According to the expectancy-value model of achievement motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002),
the beliefs of important socializers (parents, teachers) impact youths’ own expectations for
success. Because of this it can be assumed that the values parents place on educational
achievement and future educational outcomes affects students’ own achievement and
outcomes.

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Theoretical Framework
Expectancy Value Theory
The theoretical framework for this study is grounded in Eccles and Wigfield (1983)
expectancy value theory model. The theory states that an individual’s choice, persistence, and
performance can be explained by their ability beliefs about how well they will do on the activity
and the extent to which they value the activity (Eccles et al., 1983, Wigfield & Eccles, 1992).
Expectancy value theory can be used to explain people’s choice of achievement task,
persistence on the task, vigor in carrying out the task, and performance (Eccles and Wigfield,
2005). According to this model the two most important predictors of choice behaviors or task
are an individual’s expectancies for success and subjective task values (Eccles et al, 1983).
Children’s achievement performance, persistence, and choice of achievement tasks are most
directly predicted by their expectancies for success on those tasks and the subjective value they
attach to success on those tasks (Berndt & Miller, 1990).
Eccles and Wigfield (1983, 2002) defined different components of achievement values:
attainment value or importance, intrinsic value, utility value or usefulness of the task, and cost.
Attainment value was defined as the importance of doing well on a task. Intrinsic value is the
enjoyment gained from doing a task. Utility value is the usefulness for a task or how a
particular task fits an individual’s future goals. Cost refers to the choice of engaging in one task,
limiting access to another activity or the amount of effort needed to complete a task.
Expectancy-value theory is a lens that can be used in order to understand student motivation
and underachievement. Expectancy-value theory can be very useful and functional in the
education setting.
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Statement of the Problem
African American students’ underperformance in comparison to their peers from other
ethnic groups is a reason for concern (Bailey & Boykin, 2001; Howard & Reynolds, 2008; Taylor
& Graham, 2007). While racial differences in test scores have narrowed over the past few
decades, a sizable gap remains (Morgan & Mehta, 2004; NAEP, 2007). For decades’ African
American students have had higher dropout rates, higher suspension and expulsion rates, lower
test scores, lower GPAs, and lower graduation rates than their White counter parts (Graham,
1994; Kaplan, A. & Maehr, 1999; Reynolds & Howard,2008; Schunk, Pintrich, Meece, 2008;
Taylor & Graham, 2007). From the zero-tolerance literature, we know that African American
students are also more likely to be suspended and expelled and become involved in the juvenile
justice system which both lead to poorer school attendance (Taylor & Graham, 2007) when
compared to White students. Steel (1997) found that although African American students can
begin school at the same level of achievement as White students once they enter middle school
some students may have fallen behind their peers by as much as two grade levels.
The problems associated with African American student achievement are well known.
Various studies have been conducted in an aim to explore the achievement gap between Black
and White students (Mandara, J., Varner, F., Greene, N. & Richman, S., 2009; Orr, 2003). Yet
the question remains of why this gap persists. With the variety of research dedicated to looking
at this issue the questions of why this gap remains continues to be unresolved by educators.
Some scholars have chosen to look at the motivation of African American students (Graham,
1994; Kaplan & Maehr, 1999) in order to shed light on the persistent under achievement of
African American students.
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There is no shortage of studies examining factors associated with academic
achievement among minority students, and the causes of academic underachievement within
this group (Pitre, 2014; Archer-Banks, & Behar-Horenstein, 2008; Howard, & Reynalds, 2008;
Mandara, Varner, Greene, & Richman, 2009; Taylor & Graham, 2007), yet few studies have
specifically examined factors that contribute to performance, persistence, or task choice
related to motivation or expectancy value theory specifically in regard to African American
students. Eccles and Wigfield have researched expectancy value theory in the educational
settings much of their research included a small number of minority students they have not
focused on African American students specifically.
The role parents play in motivating their children is crucial to the development of
students’ academic success. Parental influences, practices, and expectations have been shown
to have a strong relationship to students’ achievement. Research regarding parental
expectations has highlighted parental aspirations and expectations as crucial factors in student
academic achievement (Halle, Kurtz-Costes, & Mohoney, 1997). The importance of
understanding how parents communicate their academic expectations to students and
individual students’ perceptions of those expectations is important in learning more about the
role of the family in closing the achievement gap. Research on this topic has been limited to
the extent to which researchers have investigated the concepts of parental aspirations and
expectations for educational attainment, as well as the process through which these beliefs are
communicated to students (Jacob, 2010).
African American parents’ expectations for their children’s future attainment have been
found to be related to adolescents’ self-expectation (Trusty, 2002; Wood et al., 2007) and
achievement scores (Gill & Reynolds, 1999). Learning how African American parents
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communicate their expectations for their children’s educational attainment is important to
examine the impact parental expectations have on their children in relation to expectancy value
theory.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to analyze African American parental expectations and how
those expectations and practices are communicated and influence African American student
achievement. It will look at the relationship between achievement, motivation and
achievement related work habits and factors pertaining to African American students’ academic
motivation through the lens of expectancy value theory. The overarching query is how
expectancy value theory applies to the motivation and academic achievement of African
American students. The specific research questions that guided this study are:
1. What are the ways in which African American students and parents feel expectancies for
success are communicated?
2. Do African American students’ perceptions of parental influences on motivation affect
students’ expectancy for success and future aspirations.
3. Do parental expectations, values, and aspirations predict African American student
expectancies for success and future educational plans?
These research questions created a foundation for the next chapter which contains the
theoretical framework of the study. In chapter two, Eccles and Wigfield (2002) expectancy value
theory and the role of parents in motivation and achievement will be discussed.
Significance of the Study
Improving academic achievement for all students is imperative regardless of race. Given
the influence that a student’s motivation has on academic achievement, it is important to gain a
15

better understanding of factors associated with motivation to achieve, specifically among
minority populations such as African American students, due to the persistent achievement
gap. Creating ways for all students to achieve at high levels is vital to the future of the nation.
In addition, the examination of parental influence on student motivation, expectations, and
achievement is vital because it is a factor that is closely associated with student success. Given
the influence that a student’s motivation has on their achievement, it is imperative that this gap
in research be addressed.
The knowledge gained from better understanding how expectancy value theory relates
to African American students can be valuable. The information can assist educators in better
understanding and educating African American students. It can theoretically lead to improved
instructional strategies, curriculum, and policies that use instructional and motivational models
more in line with students’ academic needs. Furthermore, outcomes of this research can help
to better prepare educational practitioners in motivating and educating all students and better
understand the families influence on a student’s education-ultimately contributing to improved
levels of achievement among African American students. The purpose of this research is to
help to create productive solutions and add to the literature in an aim to further the discussion
toward motivational theory and African American student success.
Limitations
This study provides the perspective and insight of students and families from two large
urban school districts. While expectancy value theory provided a basis for analysis on students’
motivation there are influences outside of the theory that contribute to the students’ education
motivation and success. As with most studies this research represents these particular families’
experiences and may not represent the larger population. Additional research analyzing how
16

African American students view education, how they are interpreting the messages of their
parents, and how parents are communicating their expectations is necessary to further
understand how to close the achievement gap.
Definition of Terms
For the purpose of this study, the following terms used extensively throughout this
study are operationally defined as specified below.
Expectancy-value theory. Eccles et al. (1983) describes expectancy-value theory as a function
of individuals’ expectancy for success (beliefs about one’s ability to succeed at a task) and
achievement values (the reasons one would engage in the task).
Achievement gap. Achievement gap is a consistent difference in scores on student
achievement tests between certain groups of children and children in other groups. Data has
document a strong association between poverty and students' lack of academic success as
measured by achievement tests. And while poverty is not unique to any ethnicity, it does exist
in disproportionate rates among African Americans and Hispanics, and among English learners.
The reasons behind the achievement gap are multifaceted. They do to some degree stem from
factors that children bring with them to school. However, other factors that contribute to the
gap stem from students' school experiences (Ed Source Electronic Dictionary, 2010).
Underachievement. Underachievement is defined as a discrepancy between some expected
level of achievement and a student’s actual performance on one or more designated indices
(Ford & Harris, 1992).

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Chapter 2
Literature Review
Expectancy Value Theory and African American Student Motivation
Poor academic achievement among African American students in relation to students
of other racial and ethnic backgrounds has become a well-documented, pervasive problem in
American public education (Pitre, 2014; Bailey & Boykin, 2001; Howard & Reynolds, 2008;
Taylor & Graham, 2007). African American students overall have proven to have lower
standardized test scores, lower GPAs, and higher dropout rates than their peers (Jeynes, 2005;
Schunk, Pintrich, Meece, 2008; Taylor & Graham, 2007). There is increasing attention being
paid to the factors contributing to the success and hindrance of academic achievement among
African American students. Theories applied to address the question of why this problem
persists are varied. These theories include cultural beliefs and family influences, (Fordman &
Ogbu, 1986; Kaplan & Maehr, 1999), expectations, participation, cultural factors, and
motivational factors (Graham, 1994).
One of the most persistent debates in education over the last four decades has been
on how to close the achievement gap between White and minority students (Jeynes, 2005).
While racial differences in test scores have narrowed over the past few decades, a sizable gap
remains (Morgan & Mehta, 2004). Not only does the gap between ethnic minorities and White
students exist during elementary school, there is evidence that it increases as students enter
middle and high school (Taylor & Graham, 2007). Steele (1997) found that there is actual
evidence that disadvantaged minority students achieve poorer outcomes at every level even
given the same preparation and education.
18

In examining African American students’ achievement, it is necessary to look at the
factors that negatively and positively affect students’ educational attainment. Parental
influences, practices and expectations, have been shown to have a strong relationship to
student achievement. According to expectancy value theory, expectations and values are
shaped by important socializers (i.e., teachers, parents, and peers) as well as children’s
perceptions of important socializers’ beliefs and expectations. In addition to linking
expectations and values with achievement-related behaviors, the expectancy-value theory
provides a model to explain how children’s achievement related expectations and values
develop. In an aim to further understand parental influences on African American students,
and how their influence and expectations affect student success, this review of literature will
examine African American achievement, parental practices, expectations, and beliefs and
expectancy- value theory.
This chapter begins with an examination of empirical research regarding African
American student achievement. It will look at various theories regarding academic
achievement of African Americans students. This chapter will then review research regarding
the expectancy value theory followed by a look at research concerning the influence of parents
on students’ expectancy for success, values toward education, and achievement in school.

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African American Student Achievement
Educational outcomes for African Americans are at a crisis state. Racial disparities in
academic achievement begin early in life and have been found to predate children’s school
enrollment. African American students begin school behind many of their White counterparts
with the gap only widening as their education continues (Matthews, Kizzie, Rowley, & Cortina,
2010; Steele, 1997). Once they enter kindergarten African American children have lower mean
achievement scale scores in both reading and mathematics and the achievement gaps only
widens by the end of 3
rd
grade (U.S. Department of Education, 2015).
Historical, Structural, and Cultural Effects of Education on African Americans
Historically education has been seen as a means to upward mobility for many African
Americans (Ford & Harris, 1992). The American achievement ideology (or work ethic) contends
that success ensues with effort and hard work, regardless of a person’s race. While many
African American students endorse this achievement ideology or work ethic it can be said that
they do not behave in a way that supports the theory, and place low amounts of effort into
school work (Harris & Ford, 1992). Ford and Harris (1996) assert that Black students’ attitude
toward school and achievement significantly influence their achievement behaviors and
motivation. While the notion of African American youth devaluing education effort has had
popular appeal, there is relatively little empirical evidence of this as factual (Taylor & Graham,
1997). Even fewer studies have actually addressed what African American students do value in
relation to achievement.
Theoretical and conceptual frameworks have affirmed that the achievement of African
American students has been shaped greatly by socio-historical experiences, both at an
individual and structural level (Cooper & Smalls, 2010). Variation in motivation to achieve,
20

expectations for success, and educational effort and practice, have had an effect on African
American student achievement, high school graduation rates, and college attendance.
Fordham and Ogbu (1986) posit that African American’s low school performance is an adaptive
response to their limited social and economic opportunities in adult life. They hypothesize that
because Black Americans have traditionally been provided with substandard schooling (i.e. laws
against education for African Americans during slavery, segregation, desegregation, separate
but equal doctrine, and subpar schools) and low job ceilings, educational pursuits may seem
futile. To deal with this frustration, African Americans have developed what Fordham and
Ogbu, (1986) termed “survival strategies” and other coping mechanism. Several theoretical
models have been developed aiming to explain African American students’ seemingly low value
for academic achievement, and endeavor to elucidate the low academic performance of African
American students.
Stereotype threat. Steele (1997) examined how the cultural stereotypes related to
Black intellectual inferiority affected the academic performance of highly capable Black
students. He hypothesized that this stereotype is a part of the fund of knowledge in all African
American students. His experimental data demonstrated that cueing about race prior to
engaging in a task facilitated lower achievement in higher-achieving African American students
than in students who did not receive such cues. Steele (1997) argued that stereotype threat
inhibited academic performance by African American students because these students were
reluctant to engage in intellectual challenges for fear of validating the stereotype by trying and
failing; rather, their anxiety unconsciously led them to disengage, and disengagement
undermined performance (Mickelson, 2003).
21

Steele (1997) argued that all students experience anxiety in school. However, students
who are members of a minority group that carries negative stereotypes relating to academic
achievement experience additional anxiety and as a self-protective measure the students
sometimes lessen their identification with academics. Steele’s (1997) concept of stereotype
threat happens in groups who have consistent negative stereotypes regarding their progress.
For example, when African Americans are faced with studies such as the bell curve which claims
that they are genetically inferior, or when women are repeatedly told that they are inferior to
men in math or sciences, they internalize the stereotypes and it begins to affect their progress.
Steele (1997) argued that the relatively poor performance of Black students at all
socioeconomic levels in school was partly due to stereotype threat that for a number of
students was the reason for persistent underachievement and eventual disidentification.
Disidentification. Steele (1997) furthered the model of stereotype threat by introducing
the concept of disidentification, which is defined as a protective process in which the
motivation to achieve declines as the formation over self-worth separates from performance in
school. Cokley (2002) defined it as the lack of significant relation between a student’s view of
their academic ability in comparison to peers and the student’s academic outcomes.
Disidentification directly lowers motivation and a student’s performance expectations, further
depressing future academic achievement (Morgan & Mehta, 2004). Initially all students start
school identifying positively with academics, however negative experiences with school and
negative societal messages of African Americans give them the perception that school is not a
positive place (Cokley, 2002). The longer students are in school the less likely they begin to
identify with academics (Cokley, 2002). When African American students do not see the
academic domain as supporting their self-concept, they seek channels besides academics
22

(Steele, 1997). This phenomenon fits Eccles et al. (1983) theory that in the achievement
domain children may begin to attach greater value to activities in which they do well and that
lowering the value attached to difficult activities is likely to be an effective way to maintain a
positive global sense of self efficacy and self-esteem. Wigfield and Eccles (2002) wrote that in
order for these students to protect their self-esteem, they were likely to disidentify with
academic achievement, leading to both a lowering of the value they attached to academic
achievement and a detachment of their self-esteem from positive and negative academic
experiences alike.
Oppositional culture. Signathia Fordham and John Ogbu (1986) theorized that African
Americans engage in an oppositional culture and that many involuntary minorities, such as
African Americans, perceived fewer occupational opportunities, and a social stigma regarding
academic success. Oppositional culture explanation reasoned that African American school
failure was caused by students’ negative feelings toward school stemming from Black people
being denied full access to socioeconomic mobility in the United States, which in turn caused
them to reject publicly espoused routes to prosperity, thereby engaging in an opposition
identity (Kerpelman, et. al 2007).
Fordham and Ogbu (1986) reported that some African American students
underachieved in order to avoid being ostracized by peers and others. The ostricazation he
determined was because academic achievement was looked upon by some as “acting White,”
or rejecting their African American community (Ford & Harris, 1992). Additionally, Ogbu (1987)
mentions that when a student is accused of “acting White” they risk social sanctions a cost of
not being loyal to their racial group. He believed that underachievement was more likely to
occur when the values, norms, and attitudes of members of the African American community
23

were inconsistent with school culture. This could lead to some students sabotaging their
chances to succeed in school, which in turn sabotaged their opportunities of success in life.
Several researchers examined Ogbu’s concept of acting white to understand the role it
plays on African American students’ achievement. Peterson-Lewin and Bratton (2004)
presented a qualitative study that attempted to uncover the racial ideologies of a sample of 64
African American adolescents. The students were asked to define “acting Black.” The interview
data yielded five categories: aesthetic/stylistic (fashion, style, or leisure), dispositional (motives,
values, or intentions), impressionistic (overall image projected), and academic/scholastic. In
describing academic behavior associated with being black students said things such as “Not
going to class,” “Not doing school work,” “Acting street-smart instead of school smart” as
representations of being Black.
Taylor and Graham (2007) conducted a study where 2
nd
, 4
th
and 7
th
grade students were
asked to nominate a student who they most admired and wanted to be like. At the elementary
level girls and boys chose same-gender higher achievers however, by the 7
th
grade African
American and Latino boys were more likely to nominate low achieving students, suggesting less
value of academic achievement than other peer and gender groups. These students readily
associated being an African American or Latino adolescent boy with low-achievement and
socially deviant behavior.
Although insightful, Taylor and Graham (2007) failed to establish whether or not this
admiration for lower achieving boys in middle school was exclusive to African American and
Latino boys. It is also unknown whether or not this preference was demonstrated for boys
among other ethnic groups or among African Americans and Latinos students of all
socioeconomic levels. The rationale of why these students were deemed admirable requires
24

further study. Taylor and Graham (2007) determined that students readily associated being
African American or Latino with low-achievement. In another study conducted by Graham,
Taylor, and Hudley (1998) they considered that the conclusion may not be that African
American and Latino students did not admire high achievement in other students, but that the
students may differ in the achievement characteristics they valued and that the admired
students may possess other qualities that students found admirable.
Conversely to theories that aim to explain African American underachievement, other
theorists suggest that there are factors that positively affect the achievement of African
American students and that African American socio historical legacy does not have to be a
detriment to student success (Cokley, 2003; Cross & Vandiver, 2001; Rodgers, 2008). Ford and
Harris (1992) proposed that there was a relationship between racial identity and academic
achievement among African Americans. Rogers (2008) positioned that positive associations
with racial identity could be used as a buffer against negative effects of racism, and a positive
racial ideology was related to optimistic school attitudes, behavior, and self-esteem.
To better understand the role positive associations with radical identity plays in
students’ achievement a discussion of the Cross model of racial identity (2008) is needed. The
Cross model of racial identity examines the degree to which young people move from being
incognizant of their race to having a positive sense of their own and others’ race and ethnicity.
His theory of Nigrescence consists of three stages: preencounter, immersion/emmersion, and
internalization. The preencounter stage represents the least developed form of racial identity
and internalization the most highly developed form of racial identity development, where the
individual embraces and accepts others cultural identity while still being connected to their
African American heritage. In addition to the three stages, the theory includes eight types of
25

identity outlined by Cross and Vandiver (2001), from the least psychologically healthy to the
most are assimilation, miseducation, racial self-hatred, anti-White, intense Black involvement,
nationalist, biculturalist, and multiculturalist (Cross & Vandiver, 2001).
The Nigrescence theory suggests that students with the development of higher forms of
Black identity performed better in school and had higher grade point averages (Ford & Harris,
1992; Rodgers, 2008). Rodgers (2008) hypothesized that considering a student who views
academic achievement as a characteristic of Blackness, will not view academic achievement as
assimilationist or “acting white”, but simply as a quality of being an African American student.
In a study of 20 high-achieving African American high school students, Ward (1990) found that
the students’ academic motivation was positively correlated to their connection to a positive
view of their Black culture. Thus, placing a high value on the positive aspects of their Black
culture supported their own constructive views of their individual identity.
Motivational Research and African American Students
Motivation factors of African American students have been thought to be as important
to understanding achievement as traditional cognitive justifications have been (Graham, 1994).
In contrast to the models giving causes of students not valuing high academic achievement,
consistent findings in contemporary motivational scholarship on African Americans are that
students report high self-efficacy, positive views of education, and high educational aspirations
after high school (Cokley, 2003; Freeman, Gutman, & Midgley, 2002; Graham, 1994; Stevenson,
Chen & Utal, 1990). In a much-cited study, Graham (1994) analyzed a number of studies
regarding African American motivation. She found that much of the research displayed a
similar finding that African American students maintain positive optimistic attitudes regardless
26

of past academic performance. She also found that African American students had a higher
academic self-concept than White students even when their academic achievement was lower.
In studies using mostly White student participants (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Schunk et al,
2008) expectancies were found to be strongly related to achievement. These studies
ascertained that among those participants, students’ expectancy for success were the strongest
predictors of grades in math and English and were better predictors of later grades than
previous grades (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Schunk et al., 2008). These findings were in
opposition to Graham’s (1994) findings regarding Black students, suggesting that the
generalization that competence perceptions and actual achievement being closely linked may
not be true for African Americans and that African Americans make a weaker relation between
the two (Schunk et al., 2008). Graham (1994) suggested the following explanations for this
variation: (1) Black and White children may use different social comparison groups to compare
their abilities to and (2) Black children may make a weaker relationship between grades and
ability to protect their self-esteem. However, neither of these ideas has been researched.
Perhaps looking into these areas of research would be beneficial. Further exploration of
motivational theory which specifically looks at African American achievement can be a very
important component in learning more about student achievement.
Darensbourg and Blake (2013) conducted a study which examined the relationship
among achievement values (i.e., task values), behavioral engagement, and achievement in a
sample of African American students in late elementary school to identify the academic
processes that influence the achievement of African American students who struggle
academically. They hypothesized that achievement values would predict student behavioral
engagement and that this engagement, in turn, would correlate with increases in academic
27

achievement in reading or math. They further hypothesized that the relationship between
achievement values and achievement would be mediated by behavioral engagement across a
three-wave sample. It was proposed that reciprocal effects between engagement and
achievement would exist and that similar relationships between these variables would be found
across years.
They found that the relationship between engagement and achievement was significant
for math achievement in later elementary school, whereas the relationship between
engagement and reading achievement approached significance. They discovered that there
was a reciprocal effect between behavioral engagement in math and prior math achievement
which may have influenced student behaviors. They further reasoned that the reading results
approaching significance suggested that engagement was an important factor in reading
achievement, but possibly not the primary factor. They proposed that the students’ level of
behavioral engagement alone might not be sufficient to increase their academic attainment in
reading if they did not possess basic reading literacy skills. However, students who were
presented with academic challenges, but were behaviorally engaged could succeed
academically in subsequent years.
In summary, the proceeding discussion attempted to review some of the historical and
social aspects affecting African American achievement. It was found that although there are a
number of barriers to achievement, these barriers do not have to destroy students’ likelihood
of academic success. Theories attempting to explain students’ academic motivation found that
student motivation could be partially explained by looking at cultural and socio-historical
experience both at an individual and structural level. These experiences are believed to shape
students’ beliefs, efforts, expectancies, and outcomes in school.
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Expectancy Value Theory
Expectancy value theory is one contemporary theory that can be used as a lens to view
African American student motivation. Individual’s expectancies for success and the value they
have for succeeding are vital determinants of their motivation to perform different
achievement tasks, and their choices of which task to pursue. Expectancies and values are
important because they directly influence performance, persistence, and task choice (Eccles &
Wigfield, 2002). Students’ motivation to achieve in school is directly affected by their
expectancies for success and by the value they attach to that success in academics (Berndt &
Miller, 1990).
Learning more about how expectancy-value influences education is imperative because
students with positive expectancies of success are more likely to perform better, learn more,
and engage in adaptive manners on academic task by exerting more effort, persisting longer,
and demonstrating more cognitive engagement (Schunk et al., 2008). This section reviews
research on motivation, expectancies, and values and how they interact. More specifically, it
will review the expectancy value theory based on John Atkinson’s 1964 and Eccles and
Wigfield’s (2002) current expectancy value model, how they have been adapted in education,
and how it can be relevant to African American student success. Although Eccles and Wigfield
are at the forefront of current work on the expectancy-value model, their work on motivation
has not focused specifically on ethnic minority youth and the cultural forces shaping the school
experiences of youth of color (Taylor & Graham, 2007).
Over the years, various definitions of expectancy value theory have been adapted.
Eccles et al. (1983) conceptualized a motivation model that describes two major determinants
of achievement behavior: expectancy for success and subjective task value, in their equation
29

motivation is defined as expectancy for success plus value for a task. Eccles et al. (1983)
describes expectancy-value theory as a function of individuals’ expectancy for success (beliefs
about one’s ability to succeed at a task) and achievement values (the reasons one would
engage in the task).
Expectancy for success is generally defined as one’s belief about the self and their
perception of their likelihood for success. Cox and Whaley (2004) described expectancy for
success as “beliefs about the self, of what individual’s view as their probability for success at a
specific task” (p. 104). In 2002, Eccles and Wigfield defined it as individuals’ evaluations and
beliefs about the ability of their competence in different areas. Placing this in an academic
arena, the definition of expectancy for success embodies academic self-concept (beliefs about
the self) and task-specific self-efficacy (what individuals view as the probability for success at a
specific task) (Harris & Ford, 1992).
Eccles et al. (1983) suggested that children’s achievement performance, persistence,
and choice of achievement task are directly predicted by their expectancies for success on
those tasks and the subjective value they attach to achievement on those tasks. Children’s
expectancies and values themselves are most determined by other achievement related beliefs,
including achievement goals and self-schema, and their task specific beliefs. It also entails
children’s interpretations of their past performance, their attitudes and expectations of the
important people’s in their lives (such as parents and teachers), and various contextual and
cultural influences.
Student Performance and Expectancy Value Theory
Taylor and Graham (2007) remind us that values are concerned with the perceived
30

importance, attractiveness, and usefulness of achievement-related activities. Values are more
rooted in cultural experiences that serve as the foundation for the appeal and utility of
achievement-related activities. By following this logic, one can infer that values can be rooted
in cultural experiences and are responsive to societal influences, thus possibly supporting
future hypothesis exploring the relationship between African American students and African
American culture, the value of education, and ongoing underperformance.
To further illustrate this point, Berndt and Miller (1990) conducted a study of 153 seventh
graders on the academic relationship between expectancies and values. Similar to Eccles et al
(1983) they determined that student success is more strongly related to expectancies for
success than task value. And that student’ achievement expectancies and
achievement values are closely related.
Task value. An important aspect of expectancy-value is the student’s value for the task
they are performing or task value. Feather (1988) extended and integrated Atkinson’s original
expectancy-value model and Rokeach’s (1979) conceptualization on values. Rokeach (1979)
defined values as core conceptions of the desirable within every individual and society. Feather
(1988) further stated that values were a set of stable, general beliefs about what is desirable
and proposes that these beliefs emerge from both societies’ norms and the individual’s core
psychological needs and sense of self. Individuals’ values influence the attractiveness of
different goals and the motivation to attain them. Expectancy of success and perceptions of
value are mediating factors in one’s willingness to persevere toward a goal (Eccles & Wigfield,
2002).
Eccles et al. (1983) described task value as being comprised of four components: utility
value, interest (intrinsic) value, cost, and attainment value. These four components influence
31

choice, persistence, and achievement (Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008). Eccles et al. (1983)
proposed that a student’s competency beliefs and achievement values are based on their
perception of task difficulty. The resulting effect of high expectancy and low value is, according
to the model, lower motivation for academic achievement, compared to students who exhibit
high levels of both, expectancy for success and task value. According to the theory students are
motivated to accomplish a goal if they value that goal and they believe that it is attainable
(Eccles & Wigfield, 2002).
Interest. One area of task value includes motivation or interest. Referring to motivation
as extrinsic denotes students’ perception of a goal or goals as worthwhile because it provides
social valuation or reward. Intrinsic motivation results when the task itself is interesting and
rewarding, or if the outcome is valued either because of immediate interest or as a means to a
future goal (Ames, 1992). Eccles (1983) postulated intrinsic value as the enjoyment that the
individual gets from performing the activity or the interest the individual shows towards a
concept. Students tend to exert more effort, resulting in positive outcomes, when they are
intrinsically motivated. Extrinsic motivation tends to be short lived and dissipates when the
threat or reward is removed. In addition, research found that the presence of extrinsic rewards
may actually undermine motivation, largely because of the focus on performance (Stipek,
1996). Even if a goal is valued, students' motivation will be determined by whether they
believe that goal to be attainable. Students need to believe that they can achieve the goal
given their perceived abilities. They also need to believe that they can influence their progress
toward that goal through their own motivation and effort, often called self-efficacy. This goes
hand in hand with students’ beliefs in a goals utility value, which is related to how well the task
is linked to current or future goals.
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Cost. Cost relates to the negative aspects of expectancy value model. Cost refers to
how the decision to engage in one activity limits access to other activities (Wigfield & Eccles,
2000). Cost can include performance anxiety and fear of failure or success, making choices with
unknown outcomes, and a weighing of the amount of effort needed to be successful at the task
are seen as the cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A central theory regarding students in relation to
cost is the motive to succeed or avoid failure. This is called an approach avoidance situation.
Need achievement theory is an expectancy value model in which motivation is a function of the
strength of the motive, the expectancy for success, and the incentive value placed on success or
failure. This can be seen as a cost. Need achievement is formed early in life and results from
parent child interactions.
Attainment value. The fourth component of expectancy value theory is called
attainment value or importance. Attainment value is the importance of doing well on a task
linked to a person’s identity and self-schema (Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008). The individual
defines what is important to them and attains friendships, rewards, academic achievement,
athletic skill, etc. based on the individual’s perceived value or importance.
While Eccles and Wigfields’ work on motivation has proven to be important, it has not focused
specifically on ethnic minority youth and the cultural forces shaping the school experiences of
youth of color (Taylor & Graham, 2007). Schunck et al. (2008) writes that there are two general
issues often addressed in relation to minority research and motivation: First, are there ethnic
group differences in the mean level of self-perceptions of ability and values or other
motivational variables? Second, do motivational variables operate in the same fashion for
minority group students as they do for other learners, or do we need different models of
motivation for different ethnic groups? Graham (1994) on the other hand suggests that rather
33

than formulate a different psychology of minority students’ achievement, more minority
students should be included in future motivation research and samples should include a range
of socioeconomic levels and minority groups.
In summary, for decades educators have aimed to solve the issue pertaining to
underachievement among African American students. Despite years of research in the areas of
motivation, family structure, educational leadership, government policies, and race theory, the
discrepancy remains. Expectancy-value theory is a lens that can be used in order to understand
African American student motivation and underachievement. Expectancy-value theory can be
very useful and functional in the education setting. More research needs to be done in this
area to better understand their needs and how expectancy-value and motivational theory in
general can be used to assist African American students in school.
Parenting
Since the general belief in society is that parents are children’s first teachers and play a
critical role in their child’s education experiences, more and more researchers and educators
are turning to the family in search for solutions to the dilemma of African American student
underachievement (Yan, 1999; Wu & Qi, 2006; Hines & Holcomb-McCoy, 2013). The influence
parents have on their children’s academic success has been acknowledged by researchers,
policy makers, and educators (Brown et al, 2009; Clark, 1983; Taylor, Rowley, & Clayton, 2004).
Parental Beliefs and Influences
According to the expectancy-value model of achievement motivation (Eccles & Wigfield,
2002), the beliefs of important socializers impact youths’ own expectations for success. Parents
and families are children’s primary socializers, and parental expectations for their children’s
educational attainment are an important shaper of children’s own expectations. Parents filter
34

cultural and psychological beliefs and pass them on to their children. In addition to these
cultural and psychological beliefs the transmission of values, beliefs and attitudes about school
are transmitted directly to students from parents. Taylor et al. (2004) indicated that how
parents think about school translates into specific behaviors and has found that there is a
relationship between parental beliefs about children’s academic achievement and their
subsequent success in school. Wu and Qi (2006) determined that the most powerful predictor
of academic achievement in elementary school was parental belief in performance and parent
expectations of their children’s highest educational attainment.
Parental Involvement
Parental involvement has been strongly associated with academic achievement and has
been found to lessen the achievement gap between economically disadvantaged and
middleclass children (Drummond & Stipek, 2004). Researchers and educators have found that
parental involvement can improve student achievement and has been considered a means to
success for African American students (Drummond & Stipek, 2004; Davis-Keans, 2005; Hill,
2001; Yan, 1999). In order to increase academic performance and graduation rates for African
American students, attention has become increasingly focused on parental involvement in
schools (Yan, 1999).
Although there is a plethora of literature lauding the advantages of parental
involvement, an operational definition of exactly what parental involvement means differs
across studies (Abdul-Adil & Farmer, 2006; Fan, 2001; Howard & Reynolds, 2008). A divergence
appears when determining the definition of the term “parental involvement” in the literature,
and how it looks in various households, school environments, and income groups (Drummond
& Stipek, 2004). Clark (1983) asserted that parent involvement comprised of distinctive parent
35

child interaction, such as helping students with homework, expressing their expectations of
school performance, and creating emotionally supportive learning environments at home.
Abdul-Adil and Farmer (2006) created an inclusive notion of parental involvement which
consisted of any parental attitudes, behaviors, styles, or activities that occur within or outside
the school setting to support children's academic and/or behavioral success in their currently
enrolled school.
Howard and Reynolds (2008) position that part of the difficulty of conceptualizing
parent involvement through a social capital lens is the idea that the social capital utilized by
middle class parents is frequently congruent with values and norms of White families and
communities. They go on to state that parents and families applying different forms of capital
(various minority and income groups) or who do not follow the prescribed model to advocate
on behalf of their children are viewed through a deficit lens and believed to be in need of
transformation in order to meet the acceptable idea of parent behavior or to “acculturate”.
This might indicate that studies that define parental involvement as school activity participation
only, may not be looking through a broad enough lens when investigating parent participation.
When researching parental involvement, Wu and Qi (2006) found only limited positive effects
of school-based involvement. In addition, when race and class are considered in the analysis, a
monolithic view of African Americans is often presented, and rarely are upper and middle class
African American families addressed when researching African American families (Howard &
Reynolds, 2008).
Parental involvement in the context of schooling is not the only form of involvement
parents can participate in. Family and parent-adolescent relationships prove to be one of the
most important relationships in children’s lives even when compared to the growing influences
36

of peers during that time (Kerpelman et al., 2007). Parental influence has been found to
positively extrinsically motivate African American students to perform well in school (Pressley,
Raphael, Gallagher, & DiBella 2004). In addition, parental support for achieving academic goals
matters for African American children, with parents playing an important role in encouraging
adolescents to excel (Kerpelman et al., 2007).

Socioeconomic status. Social class and socioeconomic status have a strong influence on
African American parental involvement and participation in their children’s school experiences
(Archer-Banks & Behar-Horenstein, 2008). Research indicates that there are differences in
parents’ academic beliefs about their children based on family income. Drummond and Stipek
(2004) found that the significance of parental support was important when discussing
economically disadvantaged and middle-class student progress. Children of lower income
parents have been found to perform lower on average than children of higher income levels.
These parents tended to be less involved in their children’s’ schooling, and overall have greater
dissatisfaction from teachers and administrators regarding their involvement (Drummond &
Stipek, 2004). Although the research shows that low income parents are less involved in their
children’s schooling they have been found to value education as much as higher income
parents (Drummond & Stipek, 2004).
Social capital. In addition to income, Yan (1999) found that social capital was highly
correlated to educational expectancy. Yan (1999) wrote that parents of successful African
American students held higher educational expectations than parents of non-successful African
American students. According to Yan (1999) direct parent school involvement was not as
important as other factors like, frequent dialogue with their children regarding their academic
achievement.
37

Yan (1999) conducted a study that examined the unique characteristics of social capital
held by successful African American students compared to less-successful African American
students and successful White students. Measurements used to determine social capital were
family background, parent-teen interaction, parent-school interactions, interactions with other
parents, and family norms. The study concluded that all variables of social capital were
positively related to family income, meaning that the higher the level of income, the higher the
social capital for all groups. Family income had the strongest relationship with education
expectations. When expanding the definition of social capital and parent participation Yan
(1999) found that African American parents on average regardless of income and education
demonstrated higher or equal levels of parental involvement than White parents. The study
also found “as expected” (Yan, 1999) that African American families with higher levels of
parental education and income exhibited higher levels of parental contact with schools and
more parent-child discussions at home.
Social class and socioeconomic status also has a strong influence on African American
parental involvement and participation in their children’s school experiences (Archer-Banks &
Behar-Horenstein, 2008). According to Mandara et al. (2009) the higher the socio-economic
status of parents, the more likely they were using parenting practices associated with academic
achievement, such as having a school-oriented home environment, using positive
reinforcement, and allowing students greater opportunities at decision making. Children from
higher socioeconomic status scored higher on standardized achievement test, were more likely
to finish high school, and were more likely to attend college than less advantaged students
(Halle, Kurtz-Costes, & Mahoney, 1997).

38

Parental Influences in Promoting African American Students’ Academic Achievement
The Relationship Between Parental Influences and Academic Achievement for African
American Students
Parental influence has been found to positively extrinsically motivate African American
students to achieve academically (Pressley, Raphael, Gallagher, & DiBella 2004). Furthermore,
it has been found that parental support for achieving academic goals matter greatly for African
American children, with parents playing an important role in encouraging adolescents to
perform well in school (Kerpelman, Eryigit, Stephens, 2007). Through cross racial comparisons
researchers have been able to identify factors believed to contribute to African American
children’s academic failures. These factors include socioeconomic status, family structure,
parental involvement, parental expectations and beliefs, parental control, and parenting styles
(Wu & Qi, 2006).
In addition to the research examining the academic failure of African American
students, many have examined factors which contribute to higher achievement among African
American students. Parents of high achieving African American students have been found to
engage in various strategies to ensure their children’s success. Gutman and Mcloyd (2005)
found that parents of successful African American students offer additional work at home,
provide tutoring and closely monitor their children’s homework. They maintain an active
relationship with school personnel, hold high expectations for children, and ensure that their
children are engaged in community and religious activities.
However, realistic expectations are important for parents to interact with their children
in a way that will assist in achievement. In comparison to Caucasian students, parents of African
American elementary school children were more likely to believe that their children were doing
39

well in school and would continue to do so even when achievement outcomes proved otherwise
(Halle et al., 1997). Such optimistic beliefs regardless of actual evidence of performance could
inadvertently result in parents' placing fewer demands on children or less scrutiny of their child’s
daily progress in school or out-of-school academic activities (e.g., homework, various projects) or
in less scrutiny of children's day-to-day progress in school (Yan,
1999).
Gill and Reynolds (1999) examined both parent reported expectations for their child’s
educational attainment, as well as children’s perceived parental expectations for their
achievement. While parent reported expectations for educational attainment was a significant
predictor of math and reading achievement, children’s perceptions of their parents’
expectations for their achievement proved to have a very meaningful role in their sixth-grade
math and reading achievement. Children’s perceptions of expectations had a strong and
statistically significant impact on both math and reading achievement, with effect sized of .28
and .33 respectively. Students who reported higher parental expectations to do well in school
received higher scores on both reading and math standardized tests.
In two large-scale studies, both Alexander and Entwisle (1988) and Stevenson, Chen,
and Uttal (1990) found that parents of African American elementary school children, relative to
their White counterparts, were more likely to believe that their children were doing well in
school and would continue to do well, even when achievement outcomes indicated the
contrary. In Stevenson, Chen, and Uttal’s (1990) research they found that 63% of African
American parents of elementary aged children in their sample, believed that their children
would attend college despite national statistics to the contrary. These beliefs matched their
children’s beliefs pertaining to high expectations regardless of past performance. The
40

researchers speculated that minority school’s overall low performance may allow parents to
overestimate their child’s academic competency. Many minority groups are often less
advanced in terms of years in school completed and performance on academic achievement
test (Ogbu, 1987) which may possibly have some bearing on parents’ expectations for their
children.
Another factor that played an important role on whether African American parents had
greater contact with their children’s schools and engaged in more parent child discussions
about school with their children was the parent education level. Davis-Kean (2005) concluded
that African American parents’ education influenced their child’s motivation indirectly through
its impact on parents’ achievement beliefs and home behaviors. African American parent’s
years of schooling and family income positively influence the types of literacy-related material
and behavior in the home as well as the relationship between parents and children.
In a study conducted by Noack, (2004) it was determined that parent education could influence
children’s education in a number of ways including: (a) the transmission of cognitive
competencies, (b) increased opportunities, and (c) the transmission of parental beliefs and
attitude concerning the value and utility of education. Noack (2004) also stated that parents’
views on school and education could affect children’s views either directly or indirectly as
parents engaged in cultural or educational activities observed by their children. To illustrate
parents could engage in activities such as reading, going to museums, or learning a language to
convey their appreciation of education. Joint family activities offer experiences to children and
opportunities to enjoy educational pursuits as well.
In a review of studies focused on high achieving students and parenting practices, Halle
et al. (1997) found that mothers with higher education had higher expectations for their
41

children’s academic achievement and that these expectations were related to their children’s
subsequent achievement in math and reading. He also found that these beliefs and
expectations predicted higher amounts of achievement related behavior by mothers in the
home which affected the attitudes and behavior of children. Clark (1983) found that parents of
high achieving African American students have been demonstrated to engage in close parent
child interactions. They created emotionally supportive home environments, engaged in
frequent and meaningful dialogue with their children, helped them with homework and
communicated clear and consistent behavioral limits. Clark (1983) also found that these
positive parent student interactions could mitigate the effects of poverty and other challenges
placed on low income children that affected their success in school.
Cultural and academic socialization. Academic socialization includes a variety of
parental beliefs and behaviors that influence children’s school-related development (Taylor et
al., 2004). Academic-related socialization practices may be viewed as a way of facilitating
children’s’ positive views of themselves and greater engagement in school. In order to promote
optimal academic outcomes, parents must employ a range of academic-specific socialization
practices. Adolescents’ reports of their parent’s academic socialization were shown to
positively related to their academic competence and engagement in school and helped them
develop a more optimal academic adjustment. (Cooper & Smalls, 2010).
For African American parents, there is a need not only to communicate universal
messages regarding academics, but also culturally distinct message to their children. In
addition to giving children the ability to cope socially and academically, African American
parents prepare their children to cope with their racial/ethnic status in society (Cooper &
Smalls, 2010). This communication is called racial socialization, which is defined as the process
42

by which messages are transmitted or communicated inter- and intragenerationally regarding
the significance and meaning of race and ethnicity (Coopers & Smalls, 2010). Coopers and
Smalls (2010) found that although the method of communication was found to vary among
households many parents reported socializing their children regarding race and culture. Racial
socialization allows parents to connect their children to their culture and history.
Coopers and Smalls (2010) looked at racial socializing and parenting practices and found
that there is a positive association between parents’ promotion of racial/cultural heritage and
adolescent educational outcomes. Cooper and Smalls (2010) maintain that racial socialization
can mitigate the effects of racial discrimination and that socializing practices that parents
employ continue to be consequential to the academic adjustment of African American
adolescents. For African American parents, academic related socialization practices may be
viewed as a way of facilitating positive self-views and greater school engagement in their
children. They also found that educational encouragement from parents was more strongly
associated with classroom engagement and academic self-esteem than was academic
involvement for African American adolescents.
Students’ Achievement Beliefs: A Mediator Between Parental Influences and Student
Academic Achievement
How African American youth view themselves in the academic domain has implications
for their overall performance (Cooper & Small, 2010). Kerpelman et al. (2007) examined the
associations between African Americans adolescents’ future education orientation, selfefficacy,
ethnic identity, and perceptions of parental support for achievement. They used a sample of
374 students enrolled in a rural high school in the southeast. They found that selfefficacy,
ethnic identity, and perceived maternal support for achievement influenced students’ current
43

academic achievement. However, parental support showed only a modest association with
future education orientation when self-efficacy, ethnic identity and parental support variables
were considered together. They wrote that students’ own educational beliefs matter. This
supports the idea that as students reach adolescence there is a stronger relationship between
adolescents’ own educational expectations and goals as opposed to parental goals. They also
found that males did not hold as strong beliefs for their future education orientation as females
did and that males tended to rely less on current grades as a determinant of their
future education orientation.
Wood et al. (2007) aimed to analyze the reasons for the gender gap among African
American male and female students. African American boys have been found to be more likely
than girls to have experienced prior academic difficulties, including placement into special
education classes, school suspension, grade retention, and poor academic performance (Ford &
Harris, 1992; Taylor & Graham, 2007; Wood et. al, 2007). Wood et al. (2007) postulated that
these adverse school experiences were harmful to boys’ academic self-beliefs and motivation,
thereby leading to lower expectations for future attainment among boys. According to Eccles
and Wigfield (2002) students’ perceptions and endorsements of racial and gender stereotypes
may shape youths’ perceptions of their own potential for academic success. This supported
Wood et al (2007) research that concluded that teachers and parents held lower expectations
for African American boys than girls, and that African American boys were often unsure of
whether or not they would attend college. They found that although African American students
held high expectations for themselves early on, they became increasing pessimistic over time,
and that the expectations of both males and females decreased with age.
Ford and Harris (1996) examined the aspirations and achievement behaviors of gifted high
44

achieving and regular education African American early adolescents, as well as their attitudes
and perceptions towards school, achievement, societal variables, and parental achievement
orientation. They reported that the students held high achievement ideologies and valued
school success; they reported not working to their potential. The regular education students
reported more than the other two groups negative peer pressure in the form of teasing and
physical confrontations when they achieved academically. Although students and parents’
beliefs about student performance was very positive in elementary school there seemed to
have been a change once students reached middle and high school (Stevenson, Chen, & Uttal,
1990). Students’ motivation to achieve and beliefs about their performance begin to wane as
factors beyond family and parental influences begin to affect them.
Summary
While there has been a great deal of research regarding parental influences on
education, little is known about how parents specifically socialize their children in regard to
school-related behaviors (Taylor, Rowley, & Clayton, 2004), motivation, and academic
achievement. In addition, the research on closing the achievement gap and the reason it
persists has been less comprehensive regarding family factors that may account for the
achievement gap and the role parents’ play in general academic achievement (Mandara,
Varner, Greene, & Richman, 2009). Furthermore, not enough is known about the socialization
practices of African American parents and how they communicate both universal and cultural
messages to their children (Coopers & Smalls, 2010).
The examination of parental beliefs and expectations on students’ academic outcomes
should offer greater insight to students’ academic outcomes and success. Further research on
African American motivation and achievement should focus on parental beliefs about their
45

child’s abilities and how these beliefs get communicated to their children (Graham, 1994).
Future studies conducted within a motivational framework should systematically examine the
sources of African American parents' beliefs about their children's abilities and prospects,
whether and how these beliefs get communicated to the child, and how they get played out in
parenting practices that have the potential to either undermine or enhance achievement.

46

Chapter 3
Methodology
The purpose of this quantitative study was to analyze the relationship between African
American students’ perceptions of their parents’ beliefs and their own academic motivation
through the lens of expectancy value theory. It further looked at African American parents’
academic values, expectations, and aspirations of their high school students and how they are
communicated to their children. The overarching query is how expectancy value theory and
parenting relate to the motivation and academic achievement of African American students.
The specific research questions that will guide this study are:
1. What are the ways African American students and parents feel expectancies for success
are communicated?
2. Do African American students’ perceptions of parental influences affect students'
expectancies for success and future aspirations?
3. Do parental expectations, values, and aspirations predict African American student
expectancies for success and future aspirations?
This chapter will present the methodology the researcher used to conduct the current
research including the rational for the research design, information about the participants
including criteria, instrumentation, data collection, and data analysis. Demographic
information and survey items were used to answer the research questions. Short answer
questions were included to gain a more in-depth analysis of African American families’ and
students’ expectations and values for education. This study will be used to add to the research
pertaining to the achievement gap between African American and other student groups.
47

Research Design
This study was a largely quantitative design which included open ended items in the
form of short answer questions. This allows for both generalization of findings and a deeper
insight into the experiences of the participants.
Surveys
Data for this investigation was gathered through the administration of a survey which
could be completed and returned through U.S. mail or an online survey that included the
request for demographic information and three measures: Academic Factors Questionnaire
(AFQ), Expectancy Value Scale (EVS), Scale of Educational Aspirations and Expectations for
Adolescents (SEAEA).
Student surveys, Expectancy Value Scale (EVS) and Academic Factors Questionnaire
(AFQ), consisted of five demographic questions and 22 questions regarding students’ values,
and expectations, future aspirations and perceived parental aspirations. The survey also
included two short answer questions that allowed students to write a brief response to share
their ideas more clearly. The parent survey entitled Scale of Educational Aspirations and
Expectations for Adolescents (SEAEA) consisted of five demographic questions and 27 questions
regarding their aspirations, values and expectations for their children. The parent survey
further included three short answer questions for parents to answer. Respondents were not
required to answer all questions.
Participants
The population of this study consists of African American high school students and their
parents. Participants were recruited from high schools from two of the largest southern
California school districts. High schools were selected that consisted of at least a 15% African
48

American student population and that granted permission to participate from districts and
school administration. The researcher obtained the participants by contacting the school
districts’ department of research to request permission and assistance in the research. The
researcher obtained additional visibility and possibly participants by visiting the districts’
African American parenting group and school site parent meetings to explain the study and
invite participation.
Participates were invited based on the following criteria: 1) enrolled in grades 9, 10, 11,
or 12 during the academic school year or had a child enrolled during the school year and 2)
identified themselves as African American on school demographic and enrollment forms. All
participants including parents and students were asked to complete a survey pertaining to their
expectations, aspirations, values, and parenting practices. Surveys were coded by numbers.
Population. Demographic information was obtained from survey data. The participants
of this study consisted of paired, 49 parents/guardians and 49 students. Three hundred forty-
one surveys were distributed, 49 completed student and parent packets were returned. Table 1
summarizes demographic data of student respondents. All students (62% female, 38% male)
were of African American descent. The majority (65%) of student participants were either
freshmen or sophomore. Students’ mean Grade Point Average was 2.87. The average age was
15 years old. Over half (52%) reported living in a two-parent home. Thirty-four percent
reported living in a single parent home. Seven percent reported living with extended family or
splitting their time between both parents respectively, and 5% reported other living
arrangements. Students performed slightly above average with a mean GPA of 2.87 (Table 1).

49

Table 1
Demographic Characteristics of Students

Demographic Characteristic M SD
Age

15 1.6
Average GPA

2.87 0.89

N %

Gender 49

Male 19 38

Female

30 62

Family Structure 46

Two parents 23 52

Single parent 15 32

Extended family 3 6

Part time mother/father 3 6

other

2 4

Current Year in school 43

Freshman 13 30

Sophomore 15 35

Junior 9 21

Senior

6 14

Students’ aspirations 47

Less than high school 1 2

Graduate from high school 4 8

Technical or vocational school 2 4

Graduate from a two-year college 2 4

Graduate from a four-year college 18 39

Complete graduate degree/M.A. 7 15

Law/Ph.D./M.D

13 27

50

Students’ perceptions 45

Less than high school 1 2

Graduate from high school 4 8

Technical or vocational school 2 4

Graduate from a two-year college 3 7

Graduate from a four-year college 20 45

Complete graduate degree/M.A. 5 11

Law/Ph.D./ M.D. 10 23

Regarding parent participants’ relationship to the child, seventy-four percent (35) of
the African American participants were mothers. Twelve percent (6) participants were fathers
and the remaining 14% of participants were neither mother or father (4% grandparent, 2%
other relative, 4% guardian, 4% other) (Table 2).
Table 2 presents household income of parent participants including number and
percentage. Of the families that provided household information, family income fell between
$10,000 and $100,000. The median annual income of participating families was between
$61,000 and $70,000 per year, (standard deviation 2.95) which was higher than the median
African American household income in Los Angeles county of $41,675 (U.S. Census Bureau,
www.census.gov.). The largest group of reported incomes for participants exceeded $100,000
(31%). Of those families completing the survey, households were primarily two-parent
households (63% of parents were married and living together). Seventeen percent were
divorced or separated and the remaining 21% were widowed or single, never married.
Regarding parents’ highest education level, all parent participants were at least high
school graduates. Twenty-five percent of participating family members had a master’s degree.
51

Twenty-seven percent reported holding a four-year college degree, and eight percent a junior
college degree. Followed by 25% reported having attended some college and 8% high school
graduates. Participants also reported that the majority of their spouses or partners, 30%
attended some college. Twenty percent hold a Bachelor’s degree. Twenty-four percent of
spouses or partners were high school graduates. Parents/guardians who completed the survey,
exhibited higher education levels than their spouse/partners. The mean level of
parent/guardian participants was a junior college degree, median was a college degree, and the
standard deviation was 1.81. The mean and median level of education for spouses or partners
was some college, the standard deviation was 2.14.

52

Table 2
Demographic characteristics of Parents

Demographic characteristic number %

Relationship to child 49
Mother 35 73%
Father 6 12%
Grandparent 2 4%
Other relative 1 2%
Guardian 2 4%
Other 2 4%
Annual household income level 48
10,000-20,000 2 4%
21,000-30,000 3 6%
31,000-40,000 4 8%
41,000-50,000 5 10%
51,000-60,000 2 4%
61,000-70,000 8 17%
71,000-80,000 1 2%
81,000-90,000 6 13%
91,000-100,000 2 4%
Over $100,000 15 31%

Marital Status 49
Married 31 63
Married, but Separated 1 2
Divorced 7 14
Widowed 2 4
Single, Never Married 8 17

Parent Education Parent/Guardian Spouse/Partner
49 43
Less than high school 0 0% 0 0%
Some high school 0 0% 1 2%
High school grad 4 8% 11 24%
GED 1 2% 1 30%
Some college 12 25% 14 7%
Associates degree 4 8% 2 4%
Bachelor’s degree 14 27% 8 20%
53

Master’s degree 13 25% 4 9%
Doctoral degree 1 2% 1 2%

Parent expectations for child’s high school performance
47
Far below average 0 0%
Below average 0 0%
Average 8 17%
Above average 39 83%

Parent aspirations for child’s future educational attainment
49
Less than high school 0 0%
Graduate from high school 1 2%
Technical or vocational school 3 6%
Graduate from a two-year college 6 13%
Graduate from a four-year college 19 38%
Complete graduate degree 20 41%

Instrumentation
Measures looked at students’ and parents’ views on various aspects of motivation and
expectations, how they are communicated from parents to students, and students’ perceptions
of parental expectations, values, and aspirations.
Demographic variables
An inventory of demographic information including socioeconomic factors was used to
gain statistical information about participants’ social and economic background. Students were
asked to provide information about their background and current family structure. They were
further asked to indicate their gender, age, year in school, Grade Point Average (GPA) from the
previous academic year, expectations for future educational attainment, and perception of
their parents’ expectations for future educational attainment (Appendix A).
54

Parents were asked to complete a demographic survey. Participants were asked to
provide general information on their socioeconomic status including marital status, education,
family income. Socioeconomic status has been an established correlate of parents’ and youths’
expectations of youth’s future attainment (Davis-Kean, 2005; Wood, 2007). This dissertation
measured socioeconomic status by asking household income, family structure, marital status,
and parental education attainment. Parents were also asked to share their expected
educational level for their high school student (Appendix B).

Measures
Student Questionnaires
Strategies of communication. Students and parents were asked to share their
parents’ strategies of communications, which required them to select strategies used by
parents to communicate expectations and aspirations (Jacob, 2010). Respondents were
allowed to choose from 12 strategies and asked to select all that apply. Students and
parents were additionally asked to list any additional strategies used to communicate and
the frequency of communication.
Expectancy-Value scale (EVS). The expectancy-value measure composes the first
five questions of the student questionnaire designed to gauge student’s expectancy for
success. The expectancy-value scale included in this study is a modified version of the
Expectancy-Value instrument used by Eccles, Wigfield, Harold, and Blumefed (1993), and
Wigfield and Eccles (2000). These measures have been applied to measure a variety of
subject areas, including mathematics, reading, sports, and instrumental music.
Questions for this study were designed to fit a 7 point-likert scale, ranging from strongly
disagree to strongly agree. Sample items include “I expect to do well this semester?” “I
55

feel that I will do better than other students in completing tasks that will lead to a high
school diploma?” (Expectancy Value for Success, Eccles, Wigfield et al., 1983) (Appendix
A).
Perceptions of family influences.
Academic factors questionnaire (AFQ). An adaptation of Laura’s (2007)
Academic Factors Questionnaire (AFQ) was used to measure students’ perceptions of
parental influences on motivation. The original academic factor questionnaire focused
on four factors: parenting, education, meaning of success, and religion. According to
Laura (2007, 2009) survey items regarding parenting were directed to capture the
interactions that took place within the family environment that supported or suppressed
the academic achievement of students. The second factor, education, was intended to
capture and record how participants valued and viewed education personally.
Questions regarding religion aimed to capture the degree to which participants valued
their faith as an academic support and saw religion as important to their academic
success. For the purposes of this dissertation, 11 questions focused on the subscale
parenting/family were used. Responses were measured on a Likert-type scale, with
response options ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). The Chronbac
Alpha for the Academic Factor Questionnaire subscale family, was .856. For
this study the Chronbac Alpha for family was .561 (Appendix B).
Aspirations for future educational attainment and perception of parental
aspirations. Adolescents’ expectations for future educational attainment and aspirations
were measured using a parallel question for students and parents: “How far do you think
you will actually go in school?” and “How far do you expect your child will actually go in
school?”: 1 = less than high school, 2 = graduate from high school, 3 = post high school
56

vocational or technical training, 4 = some college/associate’s degree, 5 = graduate from a
4-year college, 6 =complete a master’s degree, teaching credential, or other professional
degree, 7 = complete law degree, M.D., or Ph.D. This and other similar single-item
measures have been used widely to assess adolescents’ educational expectations (Gill &
Reynolds, 1999; Wood, 2009).
In order to further explore students’ perceptions of their parents’ aspirations,
students were asked to respond to the question “How far do you think your parents/family
expect you to go in school?” (Cheng & Starks, 2002). It has been found that African
American parents’ expectations for their children’s future attainment are related to
adolescents’ self-expectations (Trusty, 2002; Wood et al., 2007) and achievement scores
(Gill & Reynolds, 1999).
Short answer questions. Short answer questions were included to give further
clarification into students’ perceptions of family. Questions include “How do you think that
your parents’ views of education affect your decisions or beliefs?” and “How important is
education to your family? How do you know?”
Parent Questionnaires
Strategies of communication. Parents were asked to complete parallel questions to
students assessing their strategies of communication. This survey asked parents to identify
different strategies used to express their educational aspirations and expectations.
Respondents were asked to choose from 12 strategies and allowed to select all that apply.
Students and parents were offered the option to list any additional strategies used to
communicate, that were not listed. Participants were further asked to share how often
strategies were communicated.
57

Scale of Educational Aspirations and Expectations for Adolescents (SEAEA). Questions
regarding parents’ expectations, aspirations and values for the educational attainment of their
child was measured using an adaptation of the Scale of Educational Aspirations and
Expectations for Adolescents. The scale was developed by Monica Jacob (2010) and was
created to measure the realistic expectations parents hold for their child’s educational
attainment and reflect both expectations and aspirations. The original scale uses 29 items on a
four-point scale ranging from strongly disagrees to strongly agree. The scale was designed to
determine whether aspirations could be differentiated through survey items. The subscales of
the SEAEA include expectations and valuing of education; stability of expectations and
aspirations; congruency for higher education; preparation for educational attainment. Scale
reliability for the SEAEA was (α=.84), and reliability for each of the four factors was: α=.90,
α=.84, α=.90, α=.76, respectively. Appendix B
Aspirations for future educational attainment. In order to share future aspirations,
parents were asked to complete a question asking how far they aspired for their child to go in
school by answering the questions, “How far do you expect your child will actually go in
school?”
Short answer responses. Parents were asked to respond to short answer questions to
give further explanation, “Do you believe that what you do at home attributes to your child’s
success in school? If so in what ways?” and “What forms of support do you provide for your
child regarding academic achievement?”.
Educational expectations. Educational expectations were measured by 19 items on the
SEAEA which measured parents’ current academic expectations of their children and the
strategies of communication survey. Subscales of the SEAEA were included.
58

Aspirations. Aspirations are defined by what the participant hopes to attain or achieve.
Designed to measure students and parents’ expectations for the future. Aspirations were
measured by the one item survey question, “How far do you think you will go in school?” for
students and “How far do you think your child will go in school?” for parents.
Value. Feather (1988) defined values were a set of stable, general beliefs about what is
desirable. Five questions from the AFQ was uses to capture student values.
Data Collection Procedures
The researcher received IRB approval from the participating school districts and the
University of Southern California. After receiving permission from the school districts’ a written
invitation was sent by US mail to African American high school students and their parents
enrolled in southern California high schools. Participants were given a questionnaire booklet
with a pre-assigned ID number. Participants were also given the option to complete the survey
on line. Parents and students were assigned corresponding ID numbers in order to match
subjects from the same family. Only ID numbers were used in the data file to identify
participants, names were not used. Student participants were expected to complete the
questionnaire individually and return it in a postage paid preaddressed envelope or on line.
Parents were asked to return their questionnaire in a separate postage paid envelope or on
line. The packet contained a cover letter explaining the purpose of the research and
instruments. Participants were asked to complete a questionnaire containing demographic
information and questions related to their expectancies and values. Only survey booklets
completed from corresponding parents and students were included in the study.
This study took place at two large urban southern California school districts. The school
59

districts’ departments of research were contacted for approval to conduct the study. Following
approval, high school principals were contacted and invited to participate. Once principal
approval was granted surveys were given to principals who distributed surveys to students.
Students were then directed to take the survey package home in order to obtain parental
consent. Students and parents were also given the option of completing the surveys online.
The first wave of data resulted in only 4 (3 mothers, 1 grandmother) returned and
completed surveys. The researcher attended coffee with the principal in order to invite parent
participants. In addition to the meeting, the school’s community worker randomly selected 10
students from each grade level, 9th, 10th, 11th, and 12th and called parents informing them
that they have been invited to participate in a doctoral research study. Ten percent of the 40
students invited returned the questionnaire. The small data sample was partially due to data
collection beginning a week before a holiday break.
The second wave of data collection took place that following fall and permission was
granted by three high school principals. School A distributed 150 surveys, school B distributed
66 surveys and school C distributed 60 surveys. The researcher also presented at the school
district’s African American parent committee where 25 surveys were distributed. In total 341
surveys were distributed and 49 were returned. The return rate was 14%. Data was analyzed
using SPSS version 15.0 for statistical comparison. Means and standard deviation were
obtained through Survey Monkey.
Plan of Analysis
All quantitative data was coded and analyzed using SPSS program. Means and standard
deviation of demographic variables were conducted, including household income, parent
education, and students’ GPA. Descriptive analyses and Pearson Correlations Coefficients were
60

conducted to provide informational intercorrelations between variables. Linear regression
analysis were conducted to measure the predictive relationship between students’ perceptions
and expectancy value, and parental influence and students’ expectancy value and respondents’
aspirations. Students’ and parental expectations survey answers were used to determine if
parental aspirations for future education attainment predict students’ own educational
aspirations using the one-item survey question, “How far do you think you will actually go in
school?/How far do you think your child will actually go in school?”. A t-test was used to
analyze the differences in students’ aspirations and parent aspirations. The results of the
analysis conducted are presented in the following chapter. Statistical significance was reported
at the p < .05 level for each analysis conducted. Table 3 outlines the method of analysis in
conjunction with each measure for each corresponding variable – per research question. The
results of each analysis conducted is presented in the following chapter.
Research question one asked: What are the ways in which African American students
and parents feel expectancies for success are communicated? Frequencies were conducted
from student and parent responses for the strategies of communication section of the survey.
Open-ended responses to the survey question asking students and parents to list how often
expectancies were communicated and any additional strategies used to communicate their
expectations were coded and organized.
Research question two asked: Do African American students’ perceptions of parental
influences predict student expectancies for success and future aspirations. Data was gathered
from questions from the Expectancy Value Scale (EVS) and the academic factors questionnaire
(AFQ) (Appendix A). A linear regression analysis was conducted to examine the predictive
relationship between students’ perceptions of parental influences, their own expectancy for
61

success, and their future educational plans. A t-test was conducted to view mean differences
between students’ perceptions of parental aspirations and their own. A linear regression was
conducted between students’ perceptions of parental aspirations and their own. In order to
offer further clarification to students’ perceptions of their parents’ values and expectations
students were asked to respond to the short answer question.
Research question three asked: Do parental expectations, values, and aspirations predict
African American students’ expectancies for success and future aspirations? To determine the
relationship between students’ expectancies for success, and parental expectations and
aspirations a linear regression analysis was conducted between the Expectancy Value Scale
(EVS) and Scale of Educational Aspirations and Expectations for Adolescents (SEAEA). A t-test
was conducted between parents’ aspirations and students’ aspirations. A linear regression
analysis was conducted between parents’ aspirations and students’ aspiration to assess the
predictive relationship. Short answer responses were included to offer insight into parental
values, expectations, and aspirations.

62

Table 3
Research variables and operationalized concepts per Research Question
RQ 1: What are the ways in which African American students and parents feel expectancies for success are communicated?
Operationalized
Strategies of communications survey (parent and student questionnaires)
Short answer responses (parent and student questionnaires)
RQ 2: Do African American students’ perceptions of parental influences on motivation (measured by the AFQ) predict student
expectancies for success (EVS) and future aspirations (1-item Q).
Variables Operationalized
Dependent Variables Student Questionnaire
Expectancies for success Expectancy Value Scale (EVS), Survey Item #s 1-5
Future Aspirations One item survey question

Independent Variable Student Questionnaire
Perception of parental influence Academic Factors Questionnaire (AFQ), Survey Item #s 6-16
Short answer responses
Perceptions of parental future aspirations One item survey question

RQ 3: Do parental expectations, values, and aspirations (as measured by the SEAEA and 1-item Q) predict African American
students’ expectancies for success (measured by the EVS) and future aspirations (1-item Q)?
Variable Operationalized
Dependent Variables Student Questionnaire
Expectancies for success Expectancy Value Scale (EVS), Survey Item #s 1-5
Future Aspirations One item survey question

Independent Variables Operationalized
Parental influences Parent questionnaire
Scale of educational aspirations and expectations for adolescents (SEAEA)
subscales survey item #s
expectations and valuing of education: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 10, 11, 16, 17, 22, 23
stability of expectations and aspirations: 6,7, 13, 21 congruency for higher
education: 9, 12, 14, 15
preparation for educational attainment: 19, 20
Short answer responses
Parental aspirations One item survey question

63

Chapter 4
Results
The purpose of this quantitative study was to analyze the relationship between African
American students’ perceptions of their parents’ beliefs and their own academic motivation
through the lens of expectancy value theory. It further looked at African American parents’
academic values, expectations, and aspirations of their high school students and how they are
communicated to their children. The overarching query was how expectancy value theory and
parenting relate to the motivation and academic achievement of African American students.
This chapter presents an in-depth analysis of this quantitative study. Prior to addressing
the research questions, preliminary analysis were conducted including statistical
analysis of data. This chapter presents the results of each of these analyses.
Results will be presented according to the research question. This includes: descriptive
statistics of the sample, a summary of the responses collected through the parent and student
questionnaires, and final analysis of the data.
The data analysis of the questionnaires among parents and students provided answers
to the following research questions of this study:
1. What are the ways in which African American students and parents feel expectancies for
success are communicated?
2. Do African American students’ perceptions of parental influences affect student’s
expectancies for success and future aspirations?
3. Do parental expectations, values, and aspirations predict African American student
expectancies for success and future aspirations?

64

Preliminary Analyses
The following section presents the results of the preliminary analysis.
Intercorrelations
Table 4 presents the preliminary analysis of the means, standard deviations, and
correlations of demographic variables, and Expectancy value and Academic factors. Grade
point average correlated to student aspirations (r=.416, p ≤ .05), indicating that higher GPAs
were associated with higher student aspirations. Grade point average corresponded negatively
to family structure (r=-.548, p≤ .05), indicating that students living in homes with two parents or
single parents exhibited higher grade point averages than those living in with others or splitting
their time between two parents. Grade point average correlated negatively to grade in school
(r=-.548, p≤.05). Grade point average positively correlated to Expectancy value (r=.392, p≤
.001). Parent education corresponded to parent income (r=.528, p≤.05). Student aspirations
correlated to parent aspirations (r= .670, p≤ .05). Student perceptions of their parents’
aspirations correlated significantly to student’s aspirations (r=.583, p≤.000) and parents’
aspirations (r=.936, p≤.000).
Expectancy value and Academic factors were significantly correlated to one another
(r=472, p≤ .001) and both negatively correlated to family structure (r=-.449, p≤ .05) and
(r=-.354, p≤.05).

67
Table 4
Means, Standard Deviation, and Inter Correlations between Demographic Variables
Measure Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1.GPA 2.87 .89 -.151 -.172 .416** .149 -.546** .628 -.081 .043 .218 .519 .392*
2.Gender 1.6 .46 -.095 .110 -.119 .161 -.044 .052 -.034 -.048 -.171 -.322*
3.Age 15 1.6 .037 .513** -.067 -.026 -.166 -.233 -.009 -.316 -.015
4.Student aspirations 5.1 1.6 .015 -.251 .670** .171 .148 .583** -.027 -.011
5.Grade 10 1.1 -.074 -.055 -.121 -.116 .046 .126 .559
6.Family structure 1.7 .99 -.401 -.161 -.259 -.145 -.449** -.354*
7.Parent aspirations 4.8 1.7 .290 .062 .939** .246 .180
8.Parent education 6.7 2.1 .528** .180 .104 .043
9.Income 6.0 2.9

-.106 -.057 -.093
10. Student perceptions 4.8 1.5

.162 .156
11. AFQ 4.7 .72

.472**
12. EVS 5.6 1.3

Note: gender (1=male, 2=female), student expectations (1=less than high school, 2=graduate from high school, 3=tech or vocational school, 4=AA/two year college, 5=BA/BS 4
year college, 6=MA,MBA master’s degree, 7=PhD, JD, MD) , family structure (1=two parents, 2=single parent, 3=extended family, 4=one parent part time/other parent part time ,
5=other), parent expectations (1=less than high school, 2=graduate from high school, 3=technical/vocational school, 4=AA/two year college, 5=BA/BS four year college,
6=MA/MBA, credential,7=PhD, JD, MD), parent education (1=less than high school, 2=some high school, 3=high school graduate, 4=GED, 5=tech/vocational school, 6=Some
college, 7=AA two year college graduate, 8=BA/BS four year college graduate, 9=MA master’s degree, 10=PhD/MD/JD), income (1=$10,000-$20,000, 2=$21,000-$30,000,
3=$31,000-$40,000, 4=$41,000-$50,000, 5=$51,000-$60,000, 6=$61,000-$70,000, 7=$71,000-$80,000, 8=$81,000-$90,000, 9=$91,000-$100,000, 10=over $100,000) *p≤
0.05, **p≤.0.01
66

Research Question 1
Research question one asked, What are the ways in which African American students and
parents feel expectancies for success are communicated? Students and parents were given a
parallel question, requiring them to select strategies used by parents to communicate their
expectations and aspirations (Appendix A, Appendix B). Respondents were asked to choose
from 12 strategies and allowed to select all that applied. Figure 1 gives student and parent
responses to how they feel parents communicated their aspirations for future educational
attainment. In addition, students and parents were asked to list any additional strategies used
to communicate, that were not listed (Appendix B). Participants were further asked how often
strategies are communicated. Their responses were coded and organized.

Figure 1
68

Student Responses
Students were asked to share how their parents communicate their educational
expectations to them through the question, “How do your parents communicate their
educational expectations to you?” Survey respondents were asked to mark all that apply. The
highest rated strategies of communication are as follows. Seventy-two percent of students
reported that their parents encouraged them to set high goals for themselves. Sixty-four
percent of students reported that their parents talk about college using when statements (e.g.
“When you go to college…”). Fifty-nine percent reported that their parents link their interest to
a college major. Half of students (51%) reported that their parents are involved in their school
activities. Forty-four percent of students reported that their parents communicated their
expectations to them on a daily or weekly basis. Eleven percent reported that their parents
communicate their expectations monthly.
Parent Responses
Parents were given a parallel question which asked how they communicated their
educational expectations to their children. Survey participants were asked to mark all answers
that apply for this question. The majority of parents (93%) reported that they encourage their
child to set high goals for themselves. The second most commonly chosen strategy (83%)
reported was parents talking to their child about college by using the phrase “When you go to
college…” Seventy percent linked their child’s interest to their future and sixty-two percent
reported linking their child’s interest to a major. Sixty-six percent of parents reported talking to
their child about taking college preparatory classes, while over half (55%), reported that they
encourage their child to look at college websites. Sixty percent reported taking their child on
college visits. Conversely, 17% of parents reported waiting for their child to initiate
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conversations about their educational future. One parent reported that they have no
communication about their educational expectations with their child. When asked how often
they communicated their expectations to their children 28% said daily. That was followed by
weekly and monthly at 26% each.
Short Answer Responses: Additional ways parents communicate their expectations
Students responses. Students were asked to list any additional ways their parents
communicate their educational expectations. Eighteen students responded to this question.
Results were read through and clustered by topic. Clusters were given descriptive names and
categorized. Analysis resulted in the following topics verbal communication, sharing past
experiences, academic support, encouragement, mandates, reminding, love, do not
communicate. Selected responses are listed in table 5.
Verbal communication was a common reply (5 students). Most students who responded
wrote that their parents talk to them in order to share their expectations. Key words such as
“tell”, “talk”, “share”, and communicate were used to categorize verbal communication.
Examples responses are, “They tell me how important it is and how much I am going to need
my education in the world.” “Talking to me about bad grades.”
Five students felt that their parents encouraged them by offering them academic
support. They shared that their parents offered various forms of academic support to help
them in their daily academic life. Examples include discussing grades and providing school
supplies. Key words used to categorize academic support were grades, scholarships, help,
tutor, supplies. Responses included, “My family strongly encourages me to study at home and
support me by buying school supplies and everything that I need.”
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Another category was mandates (2 students). One interesting finding was that students
reported feeling that in their families they were required to attend college, and that choosing
not to attend, was not an option in their families. Key words were “mandatory”, “tell”, and
“requirement”. Further responses categorized as other include sharing past experiences (1)
reminding (1), offering love (1), and not communicating at all (1). Sample responses are listed
in Table 5.
Table 5
List any additional ways your parents communicate their educational expectations to you.

Verbal Communication 5 talking to me
By communicating with me the importance of college.
Open communication, my parents value my opinion and
listen to me before expressing their own opinion. It’s my
own decision which university I will attend.
Academic Support 5 My parents talk to me all the time. They talk
to me about my grades, career, and my
future. They also will find tutors if I am
struggling in class.
They help me find scholarships.
My family strongly encourages me to study
at home and support me by buying school
supplies and everything that I need.
Encouragement 2 Encourage me to make friends with peers.
They encourage me to do the right thing and make good
choices. Make sure the career I choose in life will make
me most successful.
Mandates 2 My mom tells me college is mandatory and not going isn’t
an option.
College is not a choice in my parents’ eyes. It’s a
requirement. I would be disowned if I didn’t go.
Category

number

Responses

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Sharing past experiences 1 They tell me about their experiences which helps

Other 1 Constant reminder
1 Love
1 They don’t

*some responses may fit into more than one category
Parent responses. Parents were asked to list any additional ways they communicate
their educational expectations to their children. Twenty parents responded to this follow up
question. Results were read through and clustered by topic. Clusters were given descriptive
names and categorized. Categories included sharing past experiences, relating education to
money, academic support, and other. Sample responses are listed on Table 6.
The most common response was parents sharing past experiences (11 students). Key
words used to categorize sharing past experiences were, “past”, “college”, “experiences”,
“educational experiences”, “college experiences”. The responses showed that many parents
discuss their own experiences in college with their children in order to communicate their
expectations and aspirations. Example, “Share my educational experiences with them.”
Three parents reported communicating their expectations by offering academic
support, examples include providing tutoring and college prep classes. Key words used to
categorize were “prep classes”, “tutoring”, “college”, “school work”.
Other findings were that parents relate education to money. Key words used to
categorize relating education to money were “financial”, “job”, “prosperous”. Two parents fell
into this category and reported attempting to connect getting a good job and financial stability
to higher education. One parent wrote, “We correlate financial success with educational
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success.” Four responses were categorized under other include leading by example, listening,
and daily communication.
Sample responses are included in Table 6.
Table 6
Additional ways you communicate your educational expectations to your child.

category number responses

Sharing past experiences 11 I just talk to my child about my experiences in college.
Discuss my college experiences. Established an educational plan
Talk about my own past education and asking questions about my child’s
perception of what their college days might be like.
Talk about my own past education and asking questions about my child’s
perceptions of what their college days might hold.
I share my experiences, explaining to my child that I should
have done more with my own education.
Academic support 3
He takes SAT and ACT Prep classes
Participation and support of school activities. In challenging subjects, I sit in
during tutoring sessions. We discuss current school work and grades daily.
Help find college applications
Relating education to money 2
We correlate financial success with educational success. If they like nice things
we remind them that it takes a good job that requires education.

By pointing out other youth who have a received a higher education and how
they are now living a very prosperous life.
Other 4 leading by example

One must have the ability to listen
All items listed above and we talk daily about school and higher education.
Prayer and literature

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In summary, parents indicated that they believe the role they play in supporting
achievement among their children is important. However, parents’ and students’ perceptions
of parental communication strategies were different. One interesting finding was that on
average, parents reported communicating their educational expectations to their children,
using a greater number of strategies than their children did. Although, students reported
parents using fewer strategies, overall, they reported parents expressing their expectations
more frequently than parents reported. For example, sixty-five percent of parents reported
talking to their child about college preparatory classes whereas, only thirty-eight percent of
students reported the same. One of the widest gaps came in reporting parents linking current
interest to students’ future endeavors. Seventy-percent of parents reported that they link their
child’s interest to their future however, only 33% of students reported similarly. The majority
of parents (93%) reported that they encourage their child to set high goals for themselves.
Seventy-two percent of students reported the same. Parents and students were also in
disagreement on the question “Do not communicate”. Two percent of parents marked that
they do not communicate expectations and 8% of students reported their parents not
communicating with them.
These outcomes were further explored in short answer responses. Eighteen students
and 20 parents responded to help expand the understanding of how parents’ expectations and
aspirations are communicated. Students reported that parents communicated their
educational expectations by talking to them and discussing their expectations with them.
Students also reported their parents used open communication and discussing grades with
them. In addition, students believed that parents provided academic and emotional
encouragement. This included students writing that their parents encouraged them to make
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friends and to do the right thing. Some responses indicated that students felt that college was
a requirement/mandate in their families, one student replied, “College is not a choice in my
parents’ eyes. It’s a requirement. I would be disowned if I didn’t go.”
Parents reported sharing their own educational experiences with their children. These
experiences included both regrets and general college experiences. They reported working to
offer academic support as well as using money as a motivator. Both groups reported parents
providing academic support and discussing their expectations with them. Similarly, parents and
students both gave responses that were indicative of college being important to their families.
Research Question 2
Research question two asked, Do African American students’ perceptions of parental
influences on motivation affect students’ expectancy for success and future aspirations. This
section presents quantitative analysis of data gathered from the Expectancy Value Scale and
Academic Factors Questionnaire followed by short answer responses to the survey items
(Appendix A). A regression analysis was conducted to examine the predictive relationship
between students’ perceptions of parental influences, expectancy for success, and future
aspirations. A paired sample t-test was conducted to analyze the differences in mean scores of
students’ future aspirations and their perceptions of their parents’ aspirations. Short answer
questions were included to give greater insight into students’ perceptions of parents, “How do
you think that your parents’ views of education affect your decisions or beliefs?” and “How
important is education to your family? How do you know?”
In the preliminary analysis of the data presented at the beginning of this section, there
was a strong significant correlation found between students’ perceptions of their parental
influences and their expectancies for success. A linear regression was calculated to ascertain
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the extent to which students’ perceptions of their parents’ influences (AFQ) could predict
students’ expectancies for success (EVS). A positive relationship was found between the
students’ perception of their parents’ influences (AFQ) and students’ expectancies for success
(EVS), R
2
=.472, R
2
adj=.206, p <.001). The entire model accounted for 22% of variance in student
expectancy for success. The model was appropriate for predicting the outcome variable F(1,
46)=13.158, p <.001). Students’ Expectancy Value was equal to 1.508+.883. Expectancy Value
(EVS) increased .883 for each increase in student perceptions (AFQ). This means that students
who view their parents as being supportive of their education and believe that it was a priority,
were likely to value education and perceived themselves as being able to be successful in
school.
A linear regression was conducted to examine the relationship between students’
aspirations and their perceptions of their parents’ influences (AFQ). Results indicated that
student aspirations were not predicted by the students’ perceptions of parental influences
(AFQ). The regression analysis showed, R
2
=.027, R
2
adj=-.023, F(1, 42)=.031, p≤ .862. The entire
model accounted for 0% of the variance. Students’ aspirations were equal to 5.438+-.064 (See
Table 7).

Table 7
Regression Results of Perceptions of parents’ expectations (AFQ)

Dependent Variables B SE B β
EVS .883 .243 .001
Future Aspirations -.064 .363 -.027

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Students’ aspirations and their perceptions of their parents’ aspirations were strongly
correlated during the preliminary analysis, .583** p<.000. The regression analysis results
displayed, R
2
=.340, F (1, 43) =22.164 p=.000. This shows that students perceptions of their
parents’ aspirations were a strong predictor of their own. A paired-sample t-test was
conducted in order to compare the mean scores of students’ perceptions of their parents’
future aspirations and students’ aspirations for themselves. There was not a statistically
significant difference in scores for students’ perceptions of their parents’ future educational
aspirations (M=4.88, SD=1.58) and their own aspirations (M=5.13, SD= 1.71); t (44) = 1.08, p=
<.283 (two-tailed). The magnitude of the differences in the means (mean difference =.24, with
a 95% confidence interval ranging from -.209 to .698.
Short answer responses. Short answer questions were included to provide greater insight into
students’ perception of their parents’ expectations and values. Students were asked, “How
important is education to your family? How do you know?” Forty-one students responded to
this question. Responses were clustered and categorized. Responses were categorized as very
important, somewhat important, not important, and unknown. The majority of students (31)
reported that education was very important to their families. Students who reported that
education was very important to their families gave more in depth responses to the follow up
question, “How do you know?”, in comparison to students who responded that education was
somewhat important (5), not important (2), or unknown (1).
Thirty-one students responded that education was very important to their family.
When responding to how they knew, students reported that they knew through the various
discussions and communication offered from their parents. Students also responded that their
parents enrolled them in college prep courses. Students additionally reported that their
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families attributed education to finding a good job. Sample responses include, “Education is
very important to my family. It is so important that I’m not allowed to watch t.v. during the
week day. If I do it’s because I finished my homework, but I only get to watch 30 min. to an
hour.” “It I very important to my family and I know because they always encourage me to do
my best.” “Very, my mom is in school now, I know she wants the best for me.” One student
expressed, “My family has discussed the importance of a good, solid education as long as I can
remember. Getting an education is not a choice it’s a must.” Other responses were somewhat
important, not important, and unknown. Sample responses are listed on Table 8.
Table 8
How important is education to your family? How do you know?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Category/concept number Responses

Very Important 31 It is very important and they want me to graduate high
school and go to college.
My family has been very vocal about the importance of
succeeding in high school, and college. Many of my family
members ask about my grades and my plans after high
school.
My parent’s views on education impact my time
management and the effort I put into my school work
3 members currently have college degrees
Education is very important. My mother is currently
working on her Masters in Finance and my father, has a
B.A. in Engineering. I know because I attended two of my
mother’s graduations and my father’s graduation in 2012
and my mother walked that stage twice in 2014 and May
of this year. And she is currently working on her
graduate studies. So, someone is always doing homework
or having a course discussion. It’s fun and we all compare
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notes. My family have discussed the importance a good
solid education as long as I can remember. Getting an
education is not a choice it’s a must.
Somewhat important 5 It’s kind of important because they tell me.
Somewhat important
A little
Maybe a little
They sometimes say it is important
Not important 2 not very
They don’t
Unknown 1 I don’t know no one has finished college they’ve started
but never finished.

Students were further asked, “How do you think that your parents’ views of education
affect your decisions or beliefs?” Thirty-five students responded to this question. Responses
were clustered and categorized, according to students’ expression of how their parents’ views
of education affected their decisions or beliefs. Response were grouped, and the following
categories emerged, the desire to please family members, the desire for success, very little or
not at all, and pressure from their family/not wanting to disappoint their families.
Eighteen students expressed that they wanted to please their families and felt
encouraged to perform well. Key words used to categorize the desire to please family members
were well, support, encourage, influence, and listen. Examples include, “Their views on
education make me want to get an education.” My parents think I should do well at least try to
earn a B or above.
Five students expressed a desire for success. Key words used to categorize responses
were success and goals. Examples include “I want to succeed in life.” “My parents’ views on
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education helped me realize even more the importance of having a good education and the
importance of setting goals.”
Seven students’ responses were categorized as very little/not at all. These respondents
held the belief that they are autonomous or unaffected by their families and that their parents’
views did not affect their decisions or beliefs. Key words or phrases “They don’t”, “Some”, and
“Never”.
One interesting finding was that students were concerned with disappointing their
families. Five students shared that their parents affected them negatively. Key words used to
categorize students feeling pressure from family members/not wanting to disappoint, include
push, disappoint, pressure, and fail. Examples include “It makes it hard to want to go because
of the pressure”, “If I fail, they will be disappointed.” Sample responses are listed in Table 9.

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Table 9
How do you think your parents view on education affect you?

Category/Concept number Responses

Desire to please family members 18 Their views on education make me want to get an
education
It affects me because it makes me feel like I’m doing a
great job and helps me do good decisions
My parents have raised me, constantly using the phrase
“success starts with a great education.” They truly believe
that having an education will get me far and it constantly
makes me want to strive for that success they
continuously tell me about. Their view influence me to
want to get an education.
My parents’ views of education make me think about my
future. Since I care about what my parents think, I know
that I have to work to achieve my goals. Listening to my
parents talk about the importance of education makes me
value a good education. I believe education is a good thing
to have.
Desire for success 5 They want me to go to college and get good grades,
education etc. It encourages me to want to go to college
and be successful.
They always tell me the right thing in my education.
My parent’s views on education help me realize even more
the importance of having a good education. And the
importance of setting goals.
It makes me want to succeed
I want to succeed in life
My parents believe that if you get a good education you
will get a good life and because of this I try to do well in
school in order to have a good life/
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Very little/Not at all 7 a little
They influence some
I don’t think they affect me at all, I understand what they
say and mean, but I am my own person with my own
beliefs and my own thoughts.
It doesn’t. I know I need some type of education to make it
in this land. They have been successful without college,
but have taken classes and other educational avenues to
advance their career.
Feeling pressure from family members/Not wanting to disappoint Personally I think that she should chill. She pushes me so
5 hard for education but doesn’t help me much with
anything.
My mother makes me want to move far away because she
puts too much pressure on me.
I sometimes feel like I disappoint them.
It makes it hard to want to go because of the pressure. If I
fail, they will be disappointed.

Research question two addressed students’ perceptions of their parents’ influences on
their current and future educational motivation. A linear regression analysis was conducted to
examine the relationship between students’ expectancies for current academic success and
their perceptions of family influences and expectations. Results from the regression analysis
showed that students’ expectancies for success were predicted by their perceptions of family
influences and expectations. A linear regression did not show a predictive relationship between
the students’ perception of parental influences and students’ future aspirations. However,
student’s perceptions of parents’ future aspirations were found to be a predictor of students’
future aspirations for educational attainment.
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In summary students’ expectancy value, but not future aspirations were predicted by
students’ perceptions of their parents’ influence on motivation. The regression analysis
identified academic factors and perceptions measures as significant predictors of students’
expectations for current academic success. Qualitative analysis as well as short answer
responses demonstrated that students held an accurate view of their parents’ expectations and
held similar expectations of themselves. Overall, students are aware of their parents’ goals and
expectations for their future and as a result, construct similar goals for themselves. They
expressed that their parents were very vocal in informing them of the importance of continuing
their education beyond high school. The implications of these results will be discussed in the
next chapter.
Research Question 3
The third research question asked, Do parental expectations, values, and aspirations
predict African American students’ expectancies for success and future aspirations? A
regression analysis was carried out to examine the predictive validity of parental expectations,
values and aspirations (measured by the SEAEA) on students’ expectations for success
(measured by the EVS) and aspirations. In order to better understand the relationship between
students’ and parents’ future educational aspirations, (using the one item question “How far do
you think you will go in school? /How far do you expect your child to go in school?”), mean
scores for students’ and parent aspirations were used, and a paired sample t-test performed.
Parents were additionally asked to respond to a short answer questions regarding educational
expectations and values, “Do you believe that what you do at home attributes to your child’s
success in school? If so in what ways?” and “What forms of support do you provide for your
child regarding academic achievement?”
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A linear regression was conducted to examine the relationship between parental
expectations, values, and aspirations on students’ expectancies for success. Results indicated
that parents’ influences according to the SEAEA made no statistically significant impact on
students’ expectancies, R
2
=.316, R
2
adj=.072, (F (1, 32) =3.557, p= .068. The model showed that
parental expectations, values, and aspirations accounted for 10% of the variance on students’
expectancies for success. None of the subscales for the SEAEA (Expectations and Valuing of
Education, Preparation for Educational Attainment, Stability of Expectations and Aspirations,
Congruency for High Educational Attainment) were predictors of students’ expectancies for
success.
The linear regression indicated that student aspirations were not predicted by parental
expectations, values, or aspirations according to the SEAEA, R
2
=.268, R
2
adj=.040, F(1, 29)=2.249,
p<.145. Parent expectations related to the SEAEA overall model accounted for 7% of the
variance. Regarding the subscales of the SEAEA (Expectations and Valuing of Education,
Preparation for Educational Attainment, Stability of Expectations and Aspirations, Congruency
for High Educational Attainment), the linear regression analysis showed that the subscales did
not predict student aspirations.
Parent and student surveys were given parallel questions asking how far they thought the
student would actually go in school. The preliminary analysis showed that there was a strong
significant correlation between students’ aspirations and parents’ aspirations .670**. A linear
regression indicated that parental aspirations were a predictor of student aspirations, R
2
=.648,
R
2
adj=.406, F(1, 42)=30.413, p=.000. A paired sample t test was performed to look at differences
in mean scores of parent educational aspirations and student aspirations. There was no
significant difference found among the mean scores of parent aspirations (M=4.8, SD=1.7), and
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student aspirations (M =5.2, SD =1.6), t (1.639) = 43, p=<109 (two-tailed). The mean difference
was .34 with a 95% confidence interval ranging from 1.61 through 1.768.
Short answer responses. Parents were asked to write a short answer response to the
question “Do you believe that what you do at home attributes to your child’s success in school?
If so in what ways?”. Forty-three parents responded to this question. Most parents responded
yes, (39) or felt that they affected them positively. One parent wrote “My views on education
inspire (encourage) my children’s beliefs and decisions.” Other parents echoed this sentiment;
another wrote “I think that my views on education largely affect my child’s decisions, beliefs,
and give her confidence to carry out her vision for the future.” Very few parents (4) responded
no or felt that their own views did not affect their children greatly. One parent who felt this
way wrote, “They don’t really affect him. He has his own mind regarding things.” Another
wrote “They don’t affect her decision.” Selected responses are listed on Table 10.

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Table 10
Do you believe that what you do at home attributes to your child’s success in school? If so in what ways?

Category number response

Yes 39 Yes, because education is important in our household.

Yes. Our daughter knows that we care how she does. I
believe that when a parent shows that they care, the child
cares that they are meeting expectations of their parents.
Yes, I do. We have always stated that school is a priority,
and that is evident in our household. Children have to
study first, and there are no televisions in the bedrooms.
We also check schoolloop regularly, so we are aware of
their daily progress….
Yes, I attend college as well, so my child sees this. Yes.
Consistently support all of her educational and other
endeavors. Expose her to successful and ambitious people.
I do believe, however some kids are just determined to go
their own way.
Absolutely. Your child models your behavior. Whether you
choose to accept it or not, you are a role model. I think so
because we make sure homework is done, we ask if they
need help, get a tutor if needed so they know we value
that and it is their main goal. We also get grades from
their school so we keep up with their academics and can
stay on top of them when things are falling behind or not
too far.
We believe in a daily debriefing. We have associated each
days’ worth to one new learned item. Thus, we seek to
find out what was new thing was learned that day. We
believe this gives him a daily purpose and thirst. We
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constantly relate real world situations to school activities
the ability to learn.
I absolutely believe our routine, activates, and constant
encouragement is a key factor in my child's success at
school.
No 4 No

No
They don’t affect her decisions.
They don’t really affect him. He has his own mind
regarding things.

Parents also responded to the question, “What forms of support do you provide for your
child regarding academic achievement?” Forty-four parents responded to this question.
Responses were clustered and categorized, according to parents’ responses of the types of
academic support provided. Response were grouped, and the following categories emerged,
tutoring, school participation, study help/environment, emotional support, monetary
rewards/gifts, homework assistance, variety, other.
Six parents provided tutoring as a form of academic support. Key words to determine
this category were tutoring and SAT/ACT Prep. Examples from parents include “Take her to SAT
testing and encourage her to study.”
Seven parents’ responses were categorized as school participation. Key words used to
describe school participation were volunteer, parent meetings, school activities, participate.
One parent shared, “Attend school activities regularly attend educational workshops and parent
meetings. Have him attend parent/student meetings with me.”
Seven parents’ responses were categorized as study help/environment. These parents
responded that they helped their children study or offered a supportive environment to study.
Key words used to describe study help/environment were study, help, and environment. A
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parent responded, “To assume academic success for my child we provide a comfortable study
environment, tutoring, materials and computer access.”
Six parents shared that they provided emotional support to their child to aid in academic
achievement. Key words used to categorize the responses were moral, support, emotional,
praise, and encouragement. One parent explained, “I’m there to listen offer advice direction. I
can’t really do the work she does so I give direction on getting help. I give verbal praise,”
Monetary rewards/gifts were shared by 5 parents. Key words used to define this
category was money, reward, gift, monetarily, and financial. Examples of parents’ responses
include, “I support my child his academic achievement by buying some games that he likes as I
can” and “Rewards, such as money.”
Seven parents responded that they offer homework assistance as a way to support their
child academically. Key words used to categorize responses under homework assistance were
homework, support, and assignments. Examples statements include, “I offer help my son with
his homework if needed and review it before he turns it in. I usually quiz him in several subjects
before his test.”
Seven parent responses were categorized under variety. These were responses that fell
into a number of categories or those that were not specific. Example response categorized
under variety are, “Travel, school tours, camps, tutorial motivation guess speakers, church, arts
and crafts, yoga, dance and much more…” Another example is, “I am 100% involved and
supportive.” One parent response was categorized under other. Sample quotes are included in
Table 11.

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Table 11
What forms of support do you provide for your child regarding academic achievement?

Category number responses

Tutoring 6 Tutoring library check all homework stay on top of school
projects
Tutoring and Counseling
Help as much as I can, find tutors for subject matter
Take her to SAT testing and encourage her to study Expose
my child to tutors, SAT/ACT Prep, clubs that expose them
to volunteering, museums. Active in church
School participation 7 Attend school activities regularly attend educational
workshops and parent meetings. Have him attend
parent/student meetings with me.
I assist my child when needed and stay in perfect
communication with her teachers.
Study help/environment 5 Study help, checking in with how classes are going,
communicating, modeling communication with teachers
and then encouraging, and supporting the child as she
does so for herself
Supplies, books, visits to museums, extra curriculum
activities, provide a place to study
To assume academic success for my child we provide a
comfortable study environment, tutoring, materials and
computer access.
Emotional support 6 Provide a stable environment and values and expectations
of attending college
Moral support
I’m there to listen offer advice direction. I can’t really do
the work she does so I give direction on getting help

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Monetary rewards/gifts 5 Incentives. Lots of praise. As long as they are up doing
homework. I am right by their side available to assist
support my child his academic achievement by buying
some games that he likes as I can.
My husband rewards A’s on the report cards monetarily.
Financial and emotional
Rewards, such as money.
Homework assistance 7 I offer help my son with his homework if needed and
review it before he turns it in. I usually quiz him in several
subjects before his test.
I provide assistance with their assignments, provide a
quiet setting area to study, share personal experiences
regarding education, and engage in constant dialogue
about grade, homework, and classroom assignments
Finding resources that help them if I am not able to I help
him study, have him read his stories to me and work out
problems with school work. We also discuss his day at
school, what he did, learned and talked about, every night
Variety 7 Make sure she has what she needs to do her best, whether
it’s materials, study group time, trips to the library, etc.
We are totally supportive of my son’s interest and will help
out in any way to help him succeed.
Just support him in anyway I can.
Other 1 Being an entrepreneur with a bachelor’s of art a bachelor’s
of science, and several technical trades, I stress the fact of
multiple streams of income. Not having to get bored

*some responses fall into more than one category

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Determining whether a relationship exist between parental expectations and student
expectations was the goal of this research study. Based on the data from the questionnaires,
there was no statistically significant predictive relationship found between parents’
expectations, values, and aspirations according to the responses to the Scale of Educational
Aspirations and Expectations for Success and students’ expectancies for success according to
their responses to Expectancy Value Scale. There was, however, a significantly predictive
relationship found between parents’ future educational aspirations and students’ expectations
for their future.
Short answer responses illustrated students and parents’ views and beliefs. Parents
were asked, “Do you believe that what you do at home attributes to your child’s success in
school? If so in what ways?” Parents responded overwhelmingly that they do believe that what
they do attributes to their child’s success in school. Parents wrote about the part they play in
attributing to their child’s academic success and as their role as a role model. Parents
additionally shared various forms of academic support to their children. One parent succinctly
defined the findings of this study by replying, “I believe that when a parent shows that they
care, the child cares that they are meeting expectations of their parents.”
Summary
The purpose of this study was to determine how expectancy value theory and parenting
relate to the motivation and academic achievement of African American students. Research
question one asked: “What are the ways in which African American students and parents feel
expectancies for success are communicated? “. The quantitative results suggested that parents’
and students’ perceptions of parental communication strategies were incongruent. On
average, parents reported communicating their educational expectations to their children,
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using a greater number of strategies than their children did. Students reported parents using
fewer strategies, but they also reported their parents expressing their expectations more
frequently than parents did. Short answer responses demonstrated that parents and students
reported parents providing academic support and discussing their expectations with them.
Similarly, parents and students both gave responses that were indicative of college being
important to their families.
Research question two explored students’ perceptions of their parents’ expectations,
based on their interactions with them. It asked: “Do students’ perceptions of parental
influences affect students' expectancy values and future aspirations? “Quantitative analysis
found that students’ perceptions of parental expectations and values were significantly
correlated meaning that students’ perceptions do affect their academic motivation. This
perception influenced students’ expectation to attend college, but did not correlate to grade
point average.
Research question three asked: “Do parental expectations, values, and aspirations
predict African American student expectancies for success and future aspirations? There was a
significant relationship found between parents’ future educational expectations and students’
expectations for their future. Parental expectations, values, and aspirations were not found to
influence students expectancies for success. In short answer responses, students responded
that they were aware of their parents’ goals and beliefs. This in turn caused students to
construct similar goals for themselves. In short answer responses, students expressed that
their parents were very vocal in informing them of the importance of continuing their education
beyond high school. Parents shared that they were cognizant of the need to express their
academic beliefs to their children and that they make it a point to do this.
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Chapter 5
Discussion
This chapter will provide a summary and analysis of findings. It will include a summary
of the results, the limitations of the study, and suggestions for future research in the area of
African American students and expectancy value theory, finally the implications for research.
The purpose of this quantitative study was to analyze the relationship between African
American students’ perceptions of their parents’ beliefs and their own academic motivation
through the lens of expectancy value theory. It further looked at African American parents’
academic values, expectations, and aspirations of their high school students and how they are
communicated to their children. The overarching query was how expectancy value theory and
parenting relate to the motivation and academic achievement of African American students,
based on the research questions. The specific questions answered in this study were:
1. What are the ways in which African American students and parents feel expectations for
success are communicated are communicated?
2. Do students’ perceptions of parental influences affect students' expectancies for success
and future aspirations?
3. Do parental expectations, values, and aspirations predict African American student
expectancies for success and future aspirations?
A large body of previous research has demonstrated the importance of parental and
students’ expectations on adolescents’ academic achievement. This study adds to the research,
given the purpose of this quantitative study was to investigate the relationship between African
American students’ perceptions of their parents (academic expectation, aspirations, and values)
and academic motivation through the lens of expectancy value theory.
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The ethnic achievement gap has been significantly reduced over the past few
generations (Mandara, Varner, Greene, and Richman, 2009) however, the gap still remains, and
academic researchers are interested in determining why. The first research question asked,
What are the ways African American students and parents feel expectations for success are
communicated? The SEAEA and demographic data gave initial information to what parental
expectations and aspirations were. All parents reported that they hoped their children would
pursue their education beyond high school (100%). The majority of parents reported that they
thought that their child would achieve an advanced degree (70%). Parents also reported that
they have not changed their expectations over the years due to time or their child’s past
achievement. Although parents held high unchanging expectations for their child, on average
parents reported that they were unsure of whether or not their adolescents held the same
academic goals for themselves as they held for them.
The first research question looked at the frequency at which parents communicated
their expectations as well as their chosen method of communication. Only one parent reported
that they do not communicate their expectations for academic success to their children at all.
The majority of parents reported communicating their expectations to their children multiple
times a month. Most parents shared multiple ways that they communicate their educational
expectations to their children. The most frequently chosen method by students and parents of
communicating expectations was encouraging students to set high goals for themselves.
Parents also provided additional ways they express their expectations.
When comparing parent and student strategies used to communicate educational
expectations, students reported parents’ use of various communication strategies much less
than parents reported using them. This indicated that parents and students have different
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ideas of communication practices in their homes. However, 44% of students reported that their
parents share their expectations and aspiration with them on a daily or weekly basis. Perhaps
parents being more explicit with their methods and purpose would be beneficial to students’
understanding of parents’ educational expectations.
Several themes emerged from parents’ and students’ short answer responses which
asked them to list any additional ways they share their expectations. One theme that emerged
was parents talking about expectations and their own experiences in higher education. Over
eighty percent of parent respondents reported at least attending some college, which allows
them the social capital to share their own experiences with education within and beyond high
school. Parents also reported offering financial rewards for good grades and providing
materials necessary for school and relating education to higher income.
Similar to previous research, parents were optimistic about their children’s education
and were found to have positive expectations for their children. This finding supports the
general consistent long-standing result that African American parents hold high expectations
regardless of the students’ educational outcomes. Most parents reported that their
expectations for their child have not changed over the years due to either time or previous
grades.
This study did not support the theory that adolescents’ expectations assist in the
formation and change of parents’ expectations. Findings about the formation and effects of
parents’ expectations proved to be inconsistent with expectancy-value theory (Wigfield and
Eccles 2002). It did not support the notion that students’ previous achievement affects parents’
expectations, which in turn affect students’ expectations. According to Zhang et. al (2011) with
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respect to ethnic differences, the effects of adolescents’ expectations were weakest on parents’
expectations among African Americans as compared to other ethnic groups.
The second question asked, Do students’ perceptions of parental influences affect
students’ motivation for expectancies for success and future aspirations? Overall students held
positive perceptions of their parents’ expectations and values. A positive correlation was
found between students’ perceived academic parental expectations and students’ own
academic expectations. Results of the linear regression analysis indicated that students’
perception of parental expectations was predictive of students’ expectancy values. Research
findings further indicated significant positive relationships between adolescents’ future
academic aspirations and perceived parental aspirations, and the messages that parents relay
to their adolescents regarding the importance of education for future success (Gutman and
Midgley 2000; Kirpelman et al. 2007). In addition, these results support Eccles and Wigfield’s
(Eccles et al., 1983; Wigfield & Eccles, 2000) expectancy-value theory by providing evidence
that children’s perceptions of parents’ beliefs and attitudes are factored into their expectancies
for future educational success and the extent to which they believe that education will be
useful to them in the future. Responses to the questionnaires found that students who
perceived their parents or guardians as supporting their education and believing in them
academically saw themselves as being a successful student and believed that they had the tools
to be successful in high school.
The short answer responses showed that students personal analysis of parents’
messages were subject to the interpretations of the student. For example, some students
reported feeling pressure to the point of not wanting to attend college for fear of disappointing
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their families. Other students felt motivated by their parents’ encouragement and wanted to
please them.
The third research question examined the relationship between parental expectations,
values, and aspirations and African American students’ expectancies for success and aspirations.
Overall research findings indicated that parents and students held similar aspirations for the
adolescents’ education beyond high school. It also found that parents’ expectations were
predictors of students’ future education plans. However, parents’ expectations and aspirations
were not found to correlate to student’s academic achievement regarding their current GPA.
Parental expectations and aspirations were also not found to predict students’ expectancy
values. Given this finding, it can be postulated that something outside of the family is
influencing high school students’ goals and academic progress. Seyfried and Chung (2002),
explained that African American parent expectations that are equal to European American
parent expectations will not have the same effect on later GPA for African American students.
They hypothesize that the effects of parent expectation may be diminished by real life
experiences. Zhang and colleagues (2011) argued that both adolescents’ and their parents’
expectations made independent contributions to later adolescents’ academic achievement.
Meaning that social factors, outside of the family, with varying levels of influence play a critical
role in adolescent development and achievement.
Recommendations for Practice

Findings from this research may have implications for practice for students, parents, and
educators. For educators, there is a need to develop data-based intervention strategies to
improve academic achievement that is culturally relevant and grounded in social context for
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African American families. Educators must continue to encourage parent participation.
Schools servicing African American students can develop and implement programs that
promote school success by focusing on parenting and parent child relationships. Students may
benefit from interventions focused on parental expectations, values, and behaviors that
promote achievement motivation.
The study found that parents and students shared in their aspirations for education
beyond high school. However, current academic achievement and expectancies were not as
strongly influenced by parental influences. African American parents may also benefit from
interventions designed to empower them in the schooling process and communicating
expectations that influence children’s academic achievement.
While this study was aimed at benefiting educational practices, details were revealed
that parents can adopt to further impact student achievement. Parents have an important role
to play in their children’s education and this has implications for student outcomes. This study
shows that parents believe that they are important players in their child’s academic success. It
found that most parents expected their children to receive a 2 or 4-year degree. For African
American families, most parents expected their children to perform above grade level when
many of them were not. Many African American parents are not fully aware of how dramatic
the achievement gap is in general or at their specific school site. Providing parents with
information and tools to help their children reach proficiency is needed in order to help
students succeed.
While overall students were clear about their parents’ aspirations for them to pursue
their education beyond high school, this study showed that students and parents may not view
communication regarding values, and current expectations the same. This study showed that
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parents may have believed they were clearly expressing their values, and expectations for
education, however, the students were not interpreting it that way.
Suggestions for parents include- being explicit about academic goals. Expressing to
students explicitly academic expectations for their current grade as well as future aspirations
will help close the communication barrier. Children’s perceptions of their parents’ and
guardians’ attitudes towards education and academic achievement dramatically shifts when
their primary caregivers’ words aligned with behaviors that reflected high scholastic
expectations. Consequently, children translated their parents’ and guardians’ high expectations
and interest in their education into greater participation in the classroom, increased efforts in
the completion of assigned work and, ultimately, improved academic achievement (Conner,
2011).
Parents can also become more knowledgeable about their child’s interest. For example,
one of the largest discrepancies between parents and students regarding strategies of
communication was in linking their children’s future to their interest. Seventy percent of
parents reported linking their children’s interest to their future. However only 33% of students
reported the same. This indicates that parent may not be as aware of their children’s interest
as they believe they are. This puts them at a disadvantage when trying to discuss majors and
careers with their child as well as trying to place them into programs that can prepare them for
the future.
Results revealed that parents share their past experiences in school both memories and
regrets to express their values, expectations, and aspirations and that students are well aware
of this form of communication from parents. This has implications for first generation college
students. Parents who have negative or fewer experiences with school may not be able to
99

expand upon higher education goals. When looking at social capital (Yen, 1999) families with
higher social capital engage in greater participation in schools and more parent-child centered
conversations at home. Parents who have not had college experiences or do not have as
m+3any positive experiences regarding schooling my wish to use extended family or church and
community members as an educational resource. Additionally, parents can create and
participate in organizations that encourage academic achievement amongst students.
Implementation of these suggestions may lead to greater communication of
expectations and higher student outcomes.
Future Research
Graham (1997) suggested that research of African American students should be guided
by sound psychological theory. Researchers must continue to identify the contexts in which
certain motivational constructs may be better predictors of academic outcomes as well as the
unique role that each construct plays in the general development of academic values and
expectations of success.
This study found that there was a need for further research in the area of motivation
and parental and student expectations and academic achievement. Perhaps looking at these
same factors of student expectations and parent communication, between high achievers and
low achievers would yield interesting findings. Focusing on parental expectations in the
elementary and early education years is important to student’s educational experience. Parent
beliefs and expectations have been found to be an even stronger influence of African American
student achievement than parent involvement (Wu & Qi 2006). Although much research has
been conducted on parental involvement, further research should be done on African American
100

parents’ values toward education and parents’ behavior which promotes high academic
achievement in the home.
Furthermore, in depth qualitative research which attempts to further understand
students’ perceptions of parental expectations and influences could further add to the
understanding of parental influences and student perceptions. In addition, research focusing
on the reciprocal relationship between parent expectations, student outcomes and how
students’ academic outcomes affect parent expectations, would help to better understand how
parents and students influence one another. Different approaches to parent expectations and
student outcomes should be studied. Studies of parenting among members of various ethnic
groups should take into consideration the relevance of historical influences and beliefs
regarding child rearing (Murry, et al., 2009).
It is recommended that in future studies quantitative research use a larger sample size.
This would allow for multiple regression analysis to be ran which can lead to a deeper
understanding of the data. Qualitative research is also needed to develop a richer
understanding of motivational factors of African American students and the specific role
parents play in fostering their success. It is also suggested that this study be conducted with
younger students. Early intervention may be extremely advantageous in improving and
sustaining high academic expectations for students and parents. A longitudinal study tracking
motivational factors in early elementary school, tracking how motivation may change
throughout a student’s K-12 education and how those factors affect their future trajectory
should be performed.
According to Murry et al. (2009) little is known about the link between African American
parents’ educational expectations, parenting practices, and youth development. As stated in
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chapter two, academic socialization, including parental expectations for and involvement in
children’s education, has been found to be in important predictor of school achievement.
Parental expectations for achievement have been found to predict children’s school
performance (Halle, Kurtz-Costes & Mahoney, 1997). For example, parental expectations for
future educational attainment, was related to children’s current school achievement (Halle et
al., 1997). However, this dissertation showed that parental expectations were not a predictor
of current school achievement. In depth research related to parent behaviors in relation to
achievement as opposed to parent expectations and beliefs may be a better approach.
Limitations
Although this investigation contributes to the existing body of literature on expectancy
value theory and African American families, the present study has limitations to consider when
attempting to generalize the findings. Of the 341 surveys distributed to students 49 were
completed and returned to the researcher, a response rate of 14%. This study is also limited by
the demographics which can affect its generalizability and transferability. Data was collected
from two large urban school districts in Southern California. Therefore, the findings may not be
reliable if generalized beyond students enrolled in similar school sites. The small sample size
also prevented the ability to run a multiple regression analysis, which would have allowed for
richer analysis of the data.
Beyond demographics students’ and parents’ responses may have been skewed by a
decision to present themselves in a certain manner. Questions which inquired about
expectations, perceptions of expectations, motivation, and expectancy value may not be an
accurate reflection of students’ and parents’ actual beliefs and respondents may have marked
answers that they believed the researcher expected or wanted. Another limitation is that the
102

study relied on self-reported data from single informants. The study did not verify students’
grades; therefore, the self-reporting of Grade point averages may be unreliable. Grade point
averages were only reported for one school year. Future studies may include a verification of
student GPA’s.
Another limitation is that this study was voluntary. The high school students who chose
to participate also had to obtain a signature from a parent or guardian. Parents had to fill out
their own questionnaire in order for families to return a completed packet. Only those families
(students and parent/guardians) who were motivated to complete the survey could be included
in this study. It is possible that parents and students who were already motivated and
interested in education, or had the time, completed and submitted parent and student surveys,
thus giving a possibly skewed result. By sharing the beliefs of those parents who are more
involved in their high school students’ education and possibly gaining the survey results from
students who already perceive their parents’ interest in their education to be high, results may
have been affected.
Finally, this study was limited in its instrumentation. An adaptation of Laura’s (2007),
which was updated in 2009, Academic Factors Questionnaire was used to measure students’
perceptions of parental influences on motivation. The original academic factor questionnaire
focused on four factors: parenting, education, meaning of success, and religion. This
dissertation focused only on parenting/family. According to Laura survey items regarding
parenting were directed to capture and record the interactions that took place within the family
environment that supported or suppressed the academic achievement of students. This
modified version of the study used a seven-point Likert scale and was done with a small sample
size which may have affected reliability.
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A more comprehensive set of measures can account for the significance finding
between parents’ expectations and students’ expectancy values. The achievement gap
between African American students and other groups is due to a number of factors beyond
parental expectations (Mandara, Varner, Greene & Richman, 2009); including disidentification
(Steele, 1997; Ogbu, 1987), oppositional culture (Ogbu, 1987), peer influences (Fordham &
Ogbu, 1986). One way to help reduce the current achievement gap is through academically
oriented parenting interventions (Mandara, Varner, Greene & Richman, 2009).
Conclusion
Parental influence on their children’s academic achievement is imperative to student
success. The relationship between students, parents, and schools is a delicate association that
can lead to academic success or failure for students. This study found that parents both
explicitly and implicitly share their expectations, however students may not always be aware
when they were sharing expectations with them. The study also found that in general students
are aware of their parents, expectations and aim to meet those expectations.

104

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114

APPENDIX A
Student Questionnaire
115

Student Demographic Survey
1. Age_______
2. Sex
a. male b. female
3. Family Structure: Do you live with (please choose one)
a. Two parents
b. Single parent
c. Extended family
d. One parent part of the time, and another part of the time
e. Other________________

4. Current year in school
a. Freshman c. Junior
b. Sophomore d. Senior

5. Please indicate your GPA from the last school year ______________

6. How far do you think you actually will go in school?
a. less than high school
b. graduate from high school
c. post high school technical or vocational training/some college
d. graduate from a business college or a two- year college with associates degree e.
graduate from a 4-year college
f. get a masters’ degree or a teaching credential
g. get a law degree, a Ph. D., or a medical doctor’s degree

7. How far do you think your parents/family expect you to go in school?
a. less than high school
b. graduate from high school
c. post high school technical or vocational training/some college
d. graduate from a business college or a two- year college with associates degree e.
graduate from a 4-year college
f. get a masters’ degree or a teaching credential
g. get a law degree, a Ph. D., or a medical doctor’s degree

116

Student Questionnaire
Instructions: Please read each statement carefully. Use the scale below and choose the number
that matches how much you agree or disagree with each statement. For example, if you
strongly agree with a statement, circle number “7”.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Strongly Moderately Disagree Unsure Agree Moderately Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree

Expectancy for Success
1. I expect to do well this semester. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2. I feel that I will do better than other students in
completing tasks that lead to a high school diploma. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3. Doing well in school is important to me. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
4. I value the importance of education. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
5. Compared to other students, I expect to do well this
semester. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Perceptions of family influences and expectations/Academic Factors Questionnaire
6. My family sees success as getting a good education. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
7. My family is an important part of my academic success. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8. My parents help me succeed academically. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
9. My parents do not support my education. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
10. I don’t know if my parents support my education.
11. It is challenging to do well academically when I am at home. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
12. Earning and maintaining above average grades is
important to my family. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
13. My parents discuss the importance of education with me. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
14. My parents constantly emphasize education at home. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
15. My parents do support my education. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
16. Members of my family consider me a good student? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
17. How well have your parent(s) influenced your plans for after high school?
(1)Not at all (2)A little (3)A great deal

117

How do your parents communicate their educational expectations to you? (Mark all that
apply.)
a. Talk to you about taking college preparatory classes
b. Encourage you to set high goals for yourself
c. Encourage you to look at college websites
d. Talk to you about saving money for college
e. Take you on college visits
f. Talk about college using “when” statements (e.g., “When you go to college…”)
g. Get involved in your school activities
h. Link your current education to their future
i. Link your interest to college majors
j. Connect their school grades to college admission
k. Wait for you to initiate conversations about your educational future
l. Do not communicate

Please list any additional ways your parents communicate their educational expectations to
you.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

How often do they communicate their educational expectations to you? (Mark one)
a. One to two times a year
b. Several times a year
c. Monthly
d. Weekly
e. Daily
f. Do not communicate

Short answer questions
1. How do you think that your parents’ views of education affect your decisions or beliefs?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

2. How important is education to your family? How do you know?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

118

APPENDIX B
Parent Questionnaire

119

Parental Demographic Data Sheet

General Information Form: Please answer the following questions. The term “target child”
refers to your son or daughter who participated in our project.

1. What is your relationship to the target child?
a. Mother d. Other relative (SPECIFY ___________________)
b. Father e. Guardian (SPECIFY _______________________ )
c. Grandparent (SPECIFY________) f. Other (SPECIFY ____________________ )

2. Which of these bests describes your marital status?
a. Married (and living together)
b. Married, but separated
c. Divorced
d. Widowed
e. Single, Never Married
3. How far did you go in school?
a. Less than high school
b. Some high school
c. High school graduate
d. GED
e. Some technical school
f. Some college
g. Junior College Degree (AA, AS)
h. College Graduate (BA, BS)
i. Master’s Degree
j. Doctoral Degree (Ph.D., MD, JD etc.)

4. How far did your spouse or partner go in school?
a. Less than high school
b. Some high school
c. High school graduate
d. GED
e. Some technical school
f. Some college
g. Junior College Degree (AA, AS)
h. College Graduate (BA, BS)
i. Master’s Degree
j. Doctoral Degree (Ph.D., MD, JD, etc.)

120

5. How would you describe your annual household income?
a. $10,000 through $20,000
b. $21,000 through $30,000
c. $31,000 through $40,000
d. $41,000 through $50,000
e. $51,000 through $60,000
f. $61,000 through $70,000
g. $71,000 through $80,000
h. $81,000 through $90,000
i. $91,000 through $100,000
j. Over $100,000
6. How well do you expect your child to perform in high school?
a. far below average c. average
b. below average d. above average

7. How far do you think your child will actually go in school?
a. will not complete high school
b. graduate from high school
c. complete technical or vocational training/ some college
d. graduate from a two-year college (AA, AS)
e. graduate from a 4-year college (BA, BS)
f. complete graduate degree (MBA, MA, JD, PhD, MD, EdD)

121

Scale of Educational Aspirations and Expectations for Adolescents (SEAEA) Based on dissertation of
Monica Jacobs (2010)

Please respond to the following questions regarding your high school student.
The term college in these questions refers to
Community and Technical Colleges, as well as Public and Private Universities. To
what extent do you agree or disagree with the following statements?

Instructions: Please read each statement carefully. Use the scale below and choose the number
that matches how much you agree or disagree with each statement. For example, if you
strongly agree with a statement, circle number “7”.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Strongly Moderately Disagree Unsure Agree Moderately Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree

1. I hope my child will continue his/her education after high school. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

2. My child is aware of my ideal educational dreams for him/her. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

3. In a perfect world, my child would graduate from college. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

4. I have great ambitions for my child’s education. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

5. I have a goal in mind for how much education I would like for my
child to achieve. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6. My hopes and dreams for my child’s education have changed as
he/she got older. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

7. Over the years, my ideal hopes and dreams for my child’s education
have changed due to his/her academic performance
school. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

8. I would love for my child to graduate from college. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

9. I dream of my child obtaining an advanced degree (MA, JD, MD,
PhD). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
122

10. As things stand now, I realistically expect my child to continue
his/her education after high school. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
11. My child is aware of my educational expectations for him/her. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

12. It is a realistic goal for my child to graduate from college. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

13. My expectations for my child’s education have changed as
he/she got older. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

14. I think it is likely that my child will obtain an advanced degree
(MA, JD, MD, PhD). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

15. I believe that a college education is important for my child’s future. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

To what extent do you agree or disagree with the following statements?
16. It is most important that my child is learning regardless of the 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
grades he/she gets.

17. My child holds the same educational goals for his/herself as I
hold for him/her. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

18. It is not likely that my child will continue his/her education after
high school. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

19. I believe that the educational goals I hold for my child will
influence his/her own educational goals. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

20. I have told my child that I expect him/her to go to college after
high school. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

21. Over the years, my realistic expectations for my child’s
education have changed due to his/her academic success in
school. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

123

22. I regularly talk to my child about his/her educational plans for
after high school. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

23. I encourage my child to take classes that will challenge him/her. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

How do you communicate your educational expectations to your child? (Mark all that apply.)
a. Talk to child about taking college preparatory classes
b. Encourage child to set high goals for his/herself
c. Encourage child to look at college websites
d. Talk to child about saving money for college
e. Take child on college visits
f. Talk about college using “when” statements (e.g., “When you go to college…”)
g. Get involved in child’s school activities
h. Link child’s current education to their future
i. Link child’s interest to college majors
j. Connect their school grades to college admission
k. Wait for the child to initiate conversations about their educational future
l. Do not communicate

Please list any additional ways you communicate your educational expectations to your
child.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

How often do you communicate your educational expectations to your child? (Mark one)
a. One to two times a year
b. Several times a year
c. Monthly
d. Weekly
e. Daily
f. Do not communicate

Open ended question
1. How do you think that your views on education affect your child’s decisions or beliefs?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

124

2. Do you believe that what you do at home attributes to your child’s success in school? If so,
in what ways?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

3. What forms of support do you provide for your child regarding academic achievement?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

125

APPENDIX C
Frequency for scale of Aspirations and Expectations for Adolescents

126

Appendix C
Frequencies for Scale of Educational Aspirations and Expectations for Adolescents (SEAEA)

variable strongly moderately disagree unsure agree moderately strongly M(SD)
disagree disagree agree agree

1.I hope my child will
continue his/her
0% 0% 0% 0% 11% 2% 87% 6.7(0.63)
education after high school.

2. My child is aware of
my ideal educational
dreams for him/her.

0% 0% 0 % 6% 11 % 4% 79% 6.5(0.92)
3.In a perfect world, my
child would graduate
from college.

2% 0% 2% 0% 6% 7% 83% 6.5(1.13)
4.I have great ambitions for
my child’s education.

0% 0% 0% 2% 11% 9% 78% 6.6(0.76)
5.My hopes and dreams for
my child’s education have
30% 9% 17% 21% 6% 4% 13% 3.3(2.0)
changed as he/she has gotten
older.

127

variable strongly moderately disagree unsure agree moderately strongly M(SD)
disagree disagree agree agree

6.Over the years, my ideal hopes 36% 15% 23% 9% 6% 2% 9% 2.7(1.8)
and dreams for my child’s education
have changed due to his/her academic
performance in school.

7.I would love for my child to 0% 2% 0% 0%
graduate from college.

6% 6% 85% 6.7(0.8)
8.I dream of my child obtaining 0% 2% 9% 2%
an advanced degree
(MA, JD,MD, PhD).

11% 21% 55% 6.0(1.3)
9.As things stand now, I 0% 0% 0% 2%
realistically expect my child to
continue his/her education after
high school.

11% 11% 2% 85% 6.7(0.7)
10.My child is aware of my 0% 0% 0% 4%
educational expectations for him/her.

11% 0% 85% 6.6(0.8)
11.It is a realistic goal for my 2% 0% 4% 0%
child to graduate from college.

11% 6% 75% 6.4(1.2)
12.My expectations for my 38% 9% 19% 4%
child’s education have
changed as he/she got older.
9% 9% 13% 3.1(2.1)
128

variable strongly moderately disagree unsure agree moderately strongly M(SD)
disagree disagree agree agree

13.I think it is likely that my child 2% 0% 13% 15% 4% 21% 46% 5.6(1.6)
will obtain an advanced degree
(MA, JD, MD, PhD).

14.I believe that a college 0% 0% 0% 0% 11% 9% 80% 6.6(0.6)
education is important for
my child’s future.

15.I believe that the educational 0% 0% 11% 6% 26% 57% 0% 5.3(0.9)
goals I hold for my child will
influence his/her own educational goals.

16.I have told my child that I 0% 0% 2% 11% 7% 78% 0% 5.5(1.0)
expect him/her to go to college
after high school.

129

variable

strongly moderately disagree unsure agree moderately strongly M(SD) disagree
disagree agree agree

17.Over the years, my realistic 36% 15% 15% 15% 9% 11% 0% 2.7(1.7)
expectations for my child’s
education have changed due
to his/her academic success in
school.

18.I regularly talk to my child 2% 4% 0% 9% 13% 72% 0% 5.4(1.6)
about his/her educational plans
after high school.

19.I encourage my child to take
classes that will challenge him/her. 2% 4% 4% 15% 21% 53% 0% 5.0(1.2)
expectations and valuing of education: 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 9, 10, 11, 14
stability of expectations and aspirations: 5, 6, 12, 16 congruency
for higher education: 8, 13
preparation for educational attainment: 15, 18, 19

130

APPENDIX D
IRB Forms Invitation to participate in research

131

Dear parents,

My name is Mickey Mitchell-Caston and I am a doctoral student in the
Department of Education at the University of Southern California. Currently I’m
conducting research about expectancies and values toward academic achievement. The
purpose of the research is to examine parental influences contribute to their children’s
academic success, value, and expectancy for success in education.
This study about parental expectations and values will consist of a survey. I am
inviting you and your child to separately complete a survey and return it in the postage
paid envelop. As a participant, you will be asked to provide some demographic
information and to complete questionnaires about interactions with your child and your
attitudes and beliefs toward their academic success. Although you may not receive any
direct benefit from participating in this research, it is hoped that this research will
benefit future students and add to the field of education.
Your identity and privacy will remain confidential. Participants will not be
identified by name. This consent form is the only document identifying you as a
participant in this study. It will be stored securely and all data collected will be
destroyed upon completion of this research.
Your participation in this research is voluntary. Refusal to participate will involve
no penalty; you may withdraw at any time without consequences of any kind.

132

Invitation to participate in research
Dear participant,
My name is Mickey Mitchell-Caston and I am a doctoral student in the
Department of Education at the University of Southern California. Currently I’m
conducting research about expectancies and values toward academic achievement. The
purpose of the research is to examine parental influences contribute to their children’s
academic success, value, and expectancy for success in education.
This study about parental expectations and values will consist of a survey. I am
inviting you and your parent to separately complete a survey and return it in the
postage paid envelop. If parents choose they may alternatively visit
https://www.surveymonkey.com/s/ScaleofEducationalAspirationsandExpectationsforAdolescents , in
order to complete the survey online. As a participant, you will be asked to provide some
demographic information and to complete questionnaires about interactions with
parents and your attitudes and beliefs toward school success. A small number of you
will be asked to participate in informal interviews in order to gain further insights into
parental practices that contribute to student’s values and expectancy for academic
achievement. Although you may not receive any direct benefit from participating in this
research, it is hoped that this research will benefit future students and add to the field
of education.
Your identity and privacy will remain confidential. Participants will not be
identified by name. This consent form is the only document identifying you as a
participant in this study. It will be stored securely and all data collected will be
destroyed upon completion of this research.
Your participation in this research is voluntary. Refusal to participate will involve
no penalty; you may withdraw at any time without consequences of any kind.

133

Consent Form-Adult
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089 rsoeinfo@usc.edu

INFORMED CONSENT FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
ADULTS

CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE IN RESEARCH
EXPECTANCY VALUE THEORY AND AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT

You are being invited to participate in a research study conducted by Mickey Mitchell-
Caston under the direction of faculty advisor Kimberly Hirabyashi, PhD from the Rossier
School of Education at the University of Southern California. You are being invited to
participate because you have a child in grades 9-12 enrolled in a Long Beach Unified
School district high school. The results of this study will be used in a doctoral
dissertation project. Your participation is voluntary. Please read the information
below, and feel free to ask questions about anything you do not understand, before
deciding whether or not to participate. If you agree to participate, you will be asked to
sign this form. You should also keep a copy of this form.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
To examine the role of parental expectations on African American student achievement.

PROCEDURES
There are two phases for this study: 1) parent survey and 2) parent interview. All the
participants are asked to complete the parent survey and selected parents who agree
will be asked to participate in an interview.
1) Parent Survey:
You and your spouse will be asked to complete the parent survey at your home. Your
child will be asked to complete a separate survey and return it to the researcher.
Participation is voluntary. All of the survey questions are multiple-choices. The survey
consists of 36 questions and you will be asked about your beliefs of your children’s
education, your behavior and your background. It will take about 15 minutes to
complete the survey. When you complete the survey, you are asked to return it in the
stamped, pre-addressed envelope.

134

POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS

There are no anticipated risks to your participation; you may experience some
discomfort at responding the interview questions or you may be inconvenienced
from taking time out of your day to participate in the interview.
POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO SUBJECTS AND/OR SOCIETY
You will not directly benefit from your participation in this study. It is hoped that this
research will assist educators in understanding how expectancy value theory can be
used to better understand the educational needs of African American students.
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
Participants who agree to be interviewed and are selected by the researcher will receive
a $20 gift card at the end of the interview

CONFIDENTIALITY

Any information that is obtained in connection with this study and that can be
identified with you will remain confidential and will be disclosed only with your
permission or as required by law. The information collected about you will be
coded using a fake name (pseudonym) or initials and numbers, for example abc-
123, etc. The information which has your identifiable information will be kept
separately from the rest of your data.

Only the investigator will have access to the data associated with this study. The data
will be stored in the investigator’s home in a password protected computer.

The results of the survey will be released to the dissertation committee of this
investigator. Personal information such as your names and contact information will
be separated from the rest of the survey data and codes will be used as an identifier
between your personal information and your survey data.
The data will be stored for three years after the study has been completed and then
destroyed.

When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no
information will be included that would reveal your identity. If audio-taped
recordings of you will be used for educational purposes, your identity will be
protected or disguised.

PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
You can choose whether to be in this study or not. If you volunteer to be in this study,
you may withdraw at any time without consequences of any kind. You may also
refuse to answer any questions you don’t want to answer and still remain in the
135

study. The investigator may withdraw you from this research if circumstances arise
which warrant doing so.

RIGHTS OF RESEARCH SUBJECTS
You may withdraw your consent at any time and discontinue participation without
penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies because of your
participation in this research study. If you have questions regarding your rights as
a research subject, contact the University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for
Research Advancement, Stonier Hall, Room 224a, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1695,
(213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu.

IDENTIFICATION OF INVESTIGATORS
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to send email
to mlmitche@usc.edu for Mickey Mitchell-Caston.

SIGNATURE OF SUBJECT

I have read the information provided above. I have been given a chance to ask
questions. My questions have been answered to my satisfaction, and I agree to
participate in this study.

Name of subject

Signature of subject

Data
SIGNATURE OF PARENT

I/we have read the information provided above. I/we have been given a chance to ask
questions. My/our questions have been answered to my/our satisfaction, and I/we give
our permission to have our child participate in this study.

Name of Student

Name of Parent

_____________________________________________________________________
Signature of Parent Date
136

Please place this sheet and your survey in the pre-addressed envelope and return it by
mail.

Thank you very much for your cooperation.

Mickey Mitchell-Caston
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education

137

University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089 rsoeinfo@usc.edu
INFORMED CONCENT FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
FOR YOUTH
CONSENT FORM-YOUTH

Expectancy Value Theory and African American Students

You are being asked to participate in a research study conducted by Mickey Mitchell-
Caston under the direction of Kimberly Hirabyashi, PhD from the Rossier School of
Education at the University of Southern California. You were invited because you are an
African American student enrolled in high school in the Long Beach Unified School
District. The results of this study will be used in a doctoral dissertation project. Your
participation is voluntary. Please read the information below and ask questions about
anything you do not understand. If you decide to participate, your parent’s permission
will be required as well as your own. Even if your parents decide to participate you can
decide not to. All information given to the researcher on the questionnaire and
interview will be kept confidential.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of the study is to better understand motivational factors and family
practices relating to students’ academic achievement.
PROCEDURES
There are two phases to this research project 1) survey 2) selected interviews
POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO SUBJECTS AND/OR SOCIETY
You will not directly benefit from your participation in this study. It is hoped that this
research will assist educators in understanding how expectancy value theory can be
used to better understand the educational needs of African American students.
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
Participants who agree to be interviewed and are selected by the researcher will receive
a $20 gift card at the end of the interview

CONFIDENTIALITY

Any information that is obtained in connection with this study and that can be identified
with you will remain confidential and will be disclosed only with your permission or as
138

required by law. The information collected about you will be coded using a fake name
(pseudonym) or initials and numbers, for example abc- 123, etc. The information which
has your identifiable information will be kept separately from the rest of your data.
Only the investigator will have access to the data associated with this study. The data
will be stored in the investigator’s home in a password protected computer. The
results of the survey will be released to the dissertation committee of this
investigator. Personal information such as your names and contact information will
be separated from the rest of the survey data and codes will be used as an identifier
between your personal information and your survey data.
The data will be stored for three years after the study has been completed and then
destroyed.

When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no
information will be included that would reveal your identity. If audio-taped
recordings of you will be used for educational purposes, your identity will be
protected or disguised.

PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
You can choose whether to be in this study or not. If you volunteer to be in this study,
you may withdraw at any time without consequences of any kind. You may also
refuse to answer any questions you don’t want to answer and still remain in the
study. The investigator may withdraw you from this research if circumstances arise
which warrant doing so.

RIGHTS OF RESEARCH SUBJECTS
You may withdraw your consent at any time and discontinue participation
without penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies because
of your participation in this research study. If you have questions regarding your
rights as a research subject, contact the University Park IRB, Office of the Vice
Provost for Research Advancement, Stonier Hall, Room 224a, Los Angeles, CA
90089-1695, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu.
IDENTIFICATION OF INVESTIGATORS
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to send email
to mlmitche@usc.edu for Mickey Mitchell-Caston.

139

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Please place this sheet and your survey in a pre-addressed envelope and return it by mail.
Thank you very much for your cooperation.
Mickey Mitchell-Caston
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this study was to examine African‐American students’ perceptions of their parents’ and guardians’ attitudes towards education and academic achievement at two urban school districts in Southern California. African‐American students and parents responded to statements about their personal values and expectations about education, as well as students’ perceptions of their parents’ and guardians’ beliefs toward education. The surveys’ results shed light on the complex relationships between messages students hear and beliefs they deemed were held by parents and guardians, and their effects on student expectation and aspirations. ❧ Forty‐nine high school students and parents responded to questions about their academic communication with one another, aspirations, expectations and aspirations. Students and parents responded to Likert‐scale survey items and short answer queries. Conclusions found that students’ beliefs about their primary caregivers’ beliefs have a great influence on their own values, expectations, and aspirations.

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