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Latino/a college student-athletes: Influences on recruitment, enrollment and degree completion

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Latino/a college student-athletes: Influences on recruitment, enrollment and degree completion

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Content Running head: LATINO/A COLLEGE STUDENT-ATHLETES 1

LATINO/A COLLEGE STUDENT-ATHLETES: INFLUENCES ON RECRUITMENT,
ENROLLMENT AND DEGREE COMPLETION

by

Renee Ramos

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2018

Copyright 2018 Renee Ramos

LATINO/A COLLEGE STUDENT-ATHLETES

2
DEDICATION
I dedicate my dissertation to Michael, Ramona and Christina Ramos and Michial and
Joey Parra. Each of you are a blessing in my life and with your love and support I learned to live
out my dreams.
To the young athletes, especially young women, I hope this inspires you to make your
dreams a reality both in athletics and beyond.
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3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I never thought I would go back to college, let alone for a doctoral program. The support
I received starting this journey three years ago to the present has been more than I could ever ask
for. To start, I want to thank my parents Michael and Ramona who have given me unconditional
love. One of the greatest gifts you gave me was putting a ball, bat and glove into my hands and
showed me the love for the game of softball, which I truly believed allow me to pursue my
higher educational journey. You both encouraged me to reach for the stars and raised me to be
empowered and through hard work I could accomplish anything. To my three amigos, my sisters
Michial and Christina and my brother in-law Joey, whenever I needed confidence you three were
there. You understood the changes that took place and kept me motivated throughout my journey
you are the real MVP’s. To my big Mexican family, your words of inspiration along the way
have continued to fuel my fire. Thank you to all my friends who were always there to support
and believe in me.
Dr. Cory Buckner, thank you for planting the seed and showing me the way to further my
educational pursuits. Those within my department who paid it forward and helped me with any
academic support needed, Rosie and Susie – you are next in line to earn your Ed.D, Dr. Nisha
Parmar – your patience and willingness to help me throughout this process has been invaluable.
Dr. Martin Jauregui, you have been an excellent mentor and someone I admire and acknowledge
as part of my extended family. My friends from the Rossier cohort, each year we continued to
grow and support each other and for that I am tremendously gratefully to have built long lasting
friendships. A special thank you to Howard Croom. We started this program together and what
started out as friendship has blossomed into a family bond. You have listened to my ideas,
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4
celebrated my victories and most importantly you want to see me succeed, and I am forever
grateful to have you in my life.
To the participants who gave their time and effort, I could not have done this study
without you. I am forever grateful.
Finally, I would like to acknowledge my amazingly fierce chair and committee members.
Dr. Tracy Tambascia, your support and commitment to my research has made this journey
possible and one I will never forget. You have challenged me and I am better for it today. The
countless hours you have dedicated to guiding me; you embody the meaning of an educator. Dr.
Jamie Hoffman, thank you getting me started in the dissertation process and believing in my
proposed research. I knew I could always count on your support and background knowledge. Dr.
Briana Hinga, your positivity and direction throughout my journey has been superior. It was a
privilege working with such fierce women.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication 2
Acknowledgements 3
Abstract 7
Chapter One: Overview of the Study 8
Latino/as in Higher Education 8
Student-Athletes 9
Ecological Systems Theory 9
Statement of the Problem 10
Purpose of the Study 10
Significance of the Study 11
Limitations and Delimitations 12
Definitions 13
Conclusion 14
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 15
Historical Trends in Education for Latino/as 15
The Latino/a Educational Pipeline 16
Latino/as in Higher Education 17
Student-Athletes and Higher Education 19
Overview and History of NCAA 20
Knight Commission and Eligibility Requirements 22
Student-Athlete Graduation Rates 23
Challenges to Student-Athlete Identity 24
Latino/a Student-Athletes in Intercollegiate Athletics 25
Latino/a and Sport Participation in Communities 26
Latino/a Student-Athlete Representation 27
Stacking Latino Student-Athletes in College Sports 29
Theoretical Framework 30
Ecological Systems Theory Overview 30
Conclusion 37
Chapter Three: Methodology 38
Research Questions 38
Research Design Overview 39
Site Selection 39
UW Athletic Department 40
Population and Sample 40
Instrumentation 41
Data Collection 43
Data Analysis 44
Validity 45
Role of the Researcher 46
Conclusion 47
Chapter Four: Results and Findings 48
Research Study Participants 49
Interview Participants 54
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Results from the Interviews 56
Theme 1: Exposure and Influencers to Attend College 56
Theme 2: Access to Elite Private Institution and the Perceptional Value of Academics
and Resources Offered 57
Theme 3: Importance of Teammate and Coaching Relationships 60
Theme 4: Identification and Representation 62
Additional Findings 68
Summary of Findings 71
Chapter Five: Discussion, Implications and Recommendations 72
Discussion of Findings 72
Overarching Research Question 73
Research Sub-Question A 76
Research Sub-Question C 78
Recommendations 79
Recommendation 1 – The U.S. Department of Education, the NCAA and Sports
Conference Commissioners need to provide a complete database which includes
transfers and non-scholarships students in a disaggregated format. 79
Recommendation 2 – Administrators and coaches need to connect Latino/a student-
athletes to an institutional agent who is Latino/a. 80
Recommendation 3 – The institution, athletic administrators, coaches, journalist and
sports media can increase the visibility of Latino/a student-athletes. 80
Recommendation 4 – Parents, high school, and club coaches need to inspire Latino/a
students to stay in sports. 80
Future Research 81
Conclusion 82
References 84
Appendix A: College Sport Racial and Gender Report Card 95
Appendix B: Recruitment Email 97
Appendix C: Survey Questions for Graduates 98
Appendix D: Survey Questions for Current Latino/a Student-Athletes 101
Appendix E: Information Sheet 103
Appendix F: Interview Protocol 105

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ABSTRACT
This qualitative study examined the experiences of former Latino/a collegiate student-
athletes to better understand the perceived challenges they faced as college athletes. Ecological
Systems Theory was used as a lens from which to view the Latino/a student-athlete and the
interconnections between the different systems, including history, culture, educational policy,
and family development. A number of issues were examined, including the perceived challenges
Latino/a student-athletes faced during their college experience, and how the university’s athletics
department and other support systems supported their goal of completing a college degree.
While other historically marginalized groups have seen an increase in intercollegiate
participation and subsequent research, the Latino/a population has yet to experience either,
despite a significant growth in the population. Using survey analysis and interviews from six
former Latino/a student-athletes, findings included the following themes: (1) exposure and
influencers to college, (2) perceptional value of academics and school reputation, (3) importance
of teammate and coaching relationships, (4) identities and ethnic representation, (5) career skills,
support networks and opportunities, and (6) additional findings on the educational perceptions of
former Latino/a student-athletes and the challenges they faced applying to, navigating through,
and graduating from college. Recommendations for practice include the NCAA providing
disaggregated data, administrators and coaches connecting Latino/a student-athletes to
institutional agents, increase visibility of Latino/a student-athletes and parents, high school and
club coaches inspire Latino/a students to stay in sports.

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CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
This study examined the experiences of Latino/a college student-athletes. Through
qualitative research methods, the experiences of Division I graduate Latino/a student-athletes
was investigated in order to gain a better understanding of the perceived challenges they faced
and to uncover effective strategies. The experiences of Latino/a student-athletes are directly and
or indirectly affected by the connections between student-athletes and family, coaches,
counselors and teammates. As a consequence, this study considered how Latino/a student-
athletes navigated their college experience and how the university’s athletics department—along
with various other systems—supported their goal of completing a college degree.
Latino/as in Higher Education
Nationally, the Latino/a population is rapidly growing and within the state of California
they are the fastest growing population. In a 2010 U.S. Census Bureau study, Latino/a make up
16% of the U.S. population overall and 27.8% in California. While the Latino/a population is
increasing on a national and state level, Latino/a matriculation into four-year colleges is low.
According to the Pew Research Center, Latino/a high school students’ dropout rate in 2013-2014
was 12%, which is the highest high school dropout rate in the U.S. when compared to Blacks
7%, Whites 5%, and Asians 1%. And in every segment of higher education, the Latino/a
population is underrepresented. Furthermore, college enrollment of the Latino/a population is not
indicative of graduation, as only 41% of Latino/a students graduated within 6 year, or 150% of
program time, from full-time freshmen compared to 50% of White students in 2010-11
(Santiago, 2011). There is a need to conduct research on Latino/a student-athletes college
experiences to explore how increase the presence of this population.

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Student-Athletes
At the collegiate level, student-athletes are met with a myriad of challenges. Student-
athletes have multiple time commitments such as practice, study hall, as well as coaches aspiring
to win national championships (Edwards, 1985; Melendez, 2006). Many studies covering race
and sports focus on racial issues among Black and White students; however with the change in
America’s demographics there is a need to understand the complexity of both racial and cultural
issues. Little is known about Latino/a student-athletes college experiences and its impact on the
underrepresentation of the population. Studies illustrated stacking patterns, in which minority
athletes are underrepresented in central playing positions (Grusky, 1963) in collegiate athletic
programs. Racial segregation and discriminatory factors in playing positions were found in
multiple studies (Eitzen & Furst, 1989; Jamieson, 2005). Taking into account all the elements,
Ecological Systems Theory will be used to examine the presence of Latino/a student-athletes.
Ecological Systems Theory
Bronfenbrenner first developed the Ecological Systems Theory during the 1970’s to
explain early childhood growth and development (Evans, Forney, Guido, Patton & Reen, 2009).
The Ecological System Theory was Bronfenbrenner’s life work as he constantly revised and
reframed it until he died in 2005. Bronfenbrenner’s (1977) theory considers the intertwining
relationships of the individual and their environments. The Ecological Systems is described as
nested series of structures which represent the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem and
macrosystem, each subsystems contained within the next and each influences the other.
This study examined the Latino/a student-athlete placed within the Ecological Systems
Theory and sought to understand the interconnections between the different systems. A number
of issues impact the lives of Latino/a student-athletes, including history, culture, educational
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policy, parents and families development. The Ecological Systems Theory will offer a lens to
understand these influences.
Statement of the Problem
Sports embrace equality and merit, but studies analyzing the underrepresentation of
minority groups like the Latino/a population in college athletics indicates that more research
needs to be done. During the 1960’s and 1970’s the underrepresentation of minorities in sports
was given attention, and while this helped increase representation it also attributed to the
misconception that opportunity and access are equal (Shropshire, 1996). The Latino/a population
is the largest population in the United States, accounting for 56.6 million. Latino/a have the
smallest representation in higher education, and they account for an even smaller population in
intercollegiate athletics, with only 4.5% male and 3.9 % female (US Census Bureau, 2016; Ryan
& Bauman, 2016; NCAA, 2010). While other minority groups have seen an increase in
intercollegiate participation and subsequent research, the Latino/a population has yet to
experience either, despite population growth. This is a problem because ultimately, while the
Latino/a population continues to grow in the nation, there is little known about the Latino/a
student-athlete experience. Fry (2002) noted that Latino/a represent the most poorly educated
population. This problem is important to address so that institutions can begin to understand the
unique experiences and needs of Latino/a student-athletes.
Purpose of the Study
The success of student-athletes can be influenced by interactions between various
systems, which can in turn influence development. The purpose of this study was to examine the
experiences of former Latino/a student-athletes to understand their perceived challenges and how
they navigated college, starting from the recruiting process, moving into interactions with
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academic and athletic support systems, and ending with graduation. This study increased
understanding of the issues that Latino/a student-athletes face while navigating through college
and how their interactions with multiple systems—particularly the micro, meso, exo, and macro
systems described by Bronfenbrenner—influence their experiences. Insight into the college
experiences of Latino/a student-athletes will help construct an awareness on how to foster
positive outcomes for this population of students and look to increase the number of those
students retained for enrollment and ultimately the attainment of undergraduate degrees.
The research was guided by the following overarching research question and sub-questions:
What do former Division I Latino/a student-athletes perceive were the challenges they faced
applying to, navigating through, and graduating from college and what systems were responsible
for addressing those challenges?
a. How did parents and coaches influence the recruiting process?
b. What was the role of academic, athletic, and personal supports in college?
c. What, if any, career related benefits do Latino/a student-athletes perceived they received
as a result of their involvement with college athletics?
Significance of the Study
This qualitative study examined the experiences of Latino/a college graduates who were
former Division I student-athletes. The first phase of the study was conducted through a survey
of both former and current Latino/a student-athletes. The survey data helped to inform the
qualitative interviews, which only included Latino/a student-athletes who graduated. The
findings developed through this study may be used by athletic administration, coaches, staff, and
faculty to gain a better awareness of Latino/a student-athletes challenges in higher education
institutions. The study is also important because little research has been conducted on the
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experiences of Division I Latino/a student-athlete college experience, specifically, the recruiting
process, the role of academic and athletic support and any career benefits. Given the low
participation rates of Latino/a student-athletes the study will provide greater awareness of the
issues that Latino/a student-athletes face during college.
This information will help athletic administration, coaches, staff, faculty understand how
to best serve this specific student population. Conclusively, the goal is to identify
recommendations that athletic administration, coaches, staff, faculty and student-athletes can
utilize to positively impact Latino/a student-athletes’ lives, to increase the Latino student-athlete
population and ultimately close the degree attainment gap.
Limitations and Delimitations
There are several factors limiting this study. There is published literature on the Latino/a
population and the educational pipeline, as well as stacking patterns among minority and
Latino/a student-athletes in higher education, but there is very little literature that looks at the
combination of academics and athletics among Latino/a students. This study aims to begin filling
the gaps in the literature. This study will only look at student-athletes from the Southern
California area and thus limited to the views of individual student-athletes associated with that
region of the country. The students in this study may come from varying Latin backgrounds that
could produce inconclusive results. Additionally, this study only used qualitative methods. These
student-athletes may not communicate true thoughts because of their preconceived perceptions
of institutional agents. Shared experiences may be missing or misleading due to personal bias
and exaggerations. The sample included students from the 2010 cohort to the most recent which
may present a challenge with selective memory. A small sample of student-athletes, and lack of
access to participants may also limit generalizability to all Latino/a student-athletes. The design
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of this study intends to mitigate any potential threats to validity in order to increase both
reliability and generalizability of the research.
Definitions
The following section defines the terms used throughout this study.

Division I: Division I schools generally have the largest student bodies, manage the
largest athletics budgets and offer the most generous number of scholarships. Schools that are
members of Division I commit to maintaining a high academic standard for student-athletes in
addition to a wide range of opportunities for athletics participation (NCAA, 2017).
Latino/a: a person of Latin or Hispanic American origin or descent. This will encompass
diverse ethnic groups concerning national origins from Hispanic and Latino countries, which will
include those with roots in Mexico, Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic, Columbia Peru, Ecuador,
Guatemala, other Central and South American countries, Cuba, and other Spanish cultures as
well used as a gender-neutral or non-binary alternative to Latino or Latina (Gallo, Peneda,
Espinosa de los Monteros, & Arguelles, 2009; U.S. Census Bureau, 2012).
NCAA: The National Collegiate Athletic Association is a member-led organization
dedicated to the well-being and lifelong success of college athletes (NCAA, 2017).
Proposition 16: In 1996, the NCAA implemented a sliding scale requiring a student-
athlete who earns a 2.0 GPA to score at least 1080 on the SAT, a student who scored 820 on the
SAT must earn at least 2.50 GPA, or a linear combination of the two (NCAA, 2017).
Proposition 48: In 1986, the NCAA implemented a policy in which potential student-
athletes needed to achieve an SAT minimum score of 700 combined as well as earn a minimum
2.0 high school GPA (NCAA, 2017).

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Conclusion
This study examined the experiences of Latino/a student-athletes are directly or indirectly
affected by the connections between student-athletes and family, coaches, counselors and
teammates. Chapter One provided background into the problem of the Latino/a population
growth in the nation, there is little known about the Latino/a student-athlete experience. Chapter
Two provides context into perceived challenges Latino/a student-athlete faced during their
college experience. With extensive research on Latino/a educational and athletic experiences will
be discussed as a way to frame its complexity. A theoretical framework will also be established
to learn about the development and presence of Latino/a student-athletes in higher education.
Chapter Three presents the methodological approaches used in this study.

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CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Given the increased demographics of the Latino/a population, it is critical that scholars
break new ground and pursue new inquiry to understanding the underrepresentation of Latino/as
in intercollegiate athletics. Literature on Latino/a student-athletes’ participation in higher
education is scarce, thus validating the need to explore their higher education experience. Insight
into how culture, ethnicity, and being a student-athlete affect the development and persistence of
the Latino/a student-athletes at predominately White institutions (PWI) may illustrate areas
which need further study. The purpose of this chapter is to explore existing literature on
Latino/as in higher education and their educational experiences as student-athletes.
This chapter begins with a historical overview of Latino/as and their integration in higher
education. The chapter then focuses on student-athletes in higher education, with a brief history
of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), and student-athlete graduation rates as
well as the challenges student-athletes face. A detailed section on Latino/a student-athletes in
higher education follows and includes a discussion of organized sports, financial barriers,
stacking, and graduation rates. Next is an examination of Latino/as’ minimal presence in
athletics, specifically within elite competitive environments like the Olympics and professional
sports. The chapter concludes with an introduction to the theoretical framework that provides
insight for framing the study to account for the underrepresentation of Latino/as in intercollegiate
athletics.
Historical Trends in Education for Latino/as
Segregation of Latino/a students in education dates to 1848 (Valencia, Menchaca, &
Donato, 2002) when Latino/a students attended different universities. Segregation resulted in
inequitable facilities, resources, and course offerings for Latino students (Valencia et al., 2002)
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and contributed to under-resourced, understaffed, and, at times, neglected institutions. These
institutions eventually transformed into underfunded K-12 schools staffed by underprepared
teachers and characterized by high turnover and a lack of accountability among leadership
(Saenz & Ponjuan, 2009; Valencia et al, 2002). Segregation in schools may explain high dropout
rates and lower matriculation and graduation rates among Latino/a students. There were legal
challenges to school segregation, including Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka , which was
a critical court case in the desegregation of schools. However, Mendez v. Westminster in 1947
was the first federal case to end de jure segregation in California (Rangel & Alcala, 1972). This
victory for Latino/a students in the desegregation of schools was a clear sign of progress;
however, it was short lived as educational barriers continued.
The Latino/a Educational Pipeline
Educational barriers have an impact on the educational pipeline. The educational pipeline
is an analogy used to illustrate students’ movement through each education level, starting with
primary school and moving through secondary and postsecondary levels (Huber, Huidor,
Malagon, Sanchez, & Solórzano, 2006). The educational pipeline for Latino/a students, in
particular, shows a clear image of the disproportionate numbers of Latino/a students who do not
advance to each education level. For every 100 Latino/a students who start elementary school,
half graduate from high school and only 8 to11 of them graduate from college or professional
schools (Huber et al., 2006). This illustrates a problem, often referred to as a leak within the
educational pipeline, for Latino/as, especially when compared to other racial or ethnic
populations. The data indicate the exponential gap related to higher education, especially for
those with graduate degrees. Addressing institutional issues at each educational level affecting
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Latino/a students is key in order to help them move through the educational pipeline smoothly
(Hernandez & Lopez, 2004).

Figure 1. The U.S. Educational Pipeline, by Race/Ethnicity and Gender, 2000
Latino/as in Higher Education
According to the National Center for Education Statistics (2017), data on Latino/a
students were not collected as a separate category in higher education until 1976. Latino/a
students are the largest growing population in higher education and are the least studied
(Solórzano, Villalpando, & Oseguera, 2005). Available research shows a steady increase in the
Latino/a population in higher education, and a 14% increase since 1994 (Carter & Wilson, 2001).
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Despite this increase, Latino/a college students still have lower levels of degree
attainment in higher education. A report looking at historical trends for Latinos in higher
education found that over the past three decades, Latino freshmen who enroll at four-year
institutions are likely to have lower levels of educational attainment than their non-Latino peers
(Saenz, Hurtado, Barrera, Wolf, & Young, 2007). Specifically, only 10% of Latinos aged 25 to
29 had earned a bachelor’s degree or higher, compared to 34% of Whites and 18% of African
Americans (Llagas & Snyder, 2003). In 2004, the Clinton administration declared improving
access and the success of Hispanic students at all postsecondary levels to be a national priority.
Despite these efforts to increase Latino/a success in higher education, it is evident the gap is still
prominent in terms of degree attainment (Fry, 2002; Hurtado & Ponjuan, 2005).
Data from 2000-01 provided by the California Postsecondary Education Commission
(CPEC) show a continued disparity. In California, out of every 100 Hispanic high school
graduates, only 40 enroll at a postsecondary institution. Of those 40 students, 30 begin at one of
the state’s community colleges, three are admitted and enroll at the University of California, and
seven attended California State University campuses (Solórzano et al., 2005).
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Figure 2. Percentage of the population 25 years and older with a bachelor’s degree or higher by
race and Hispanic origin: 1988 to 2015

Over time, degree attainment has increased for all races; however, the gap between
groups increased. Specifically, the gap between African American and Latino/as increased. In
2015, 22% of African American students earned bachelor’s degrees while only 15% of Latino/as
did, increasing the gap in degree attainment to 7 percentage points (Ryan & Bauman, 2016).
Student-Athletes and Higher Education
Today, there are more than 460, 000 college student-athletes who compete in 24 sports
every year (NCAA, 2017). The NCAA plays a role in supporting college athletes through various
policies and propositions meant to promote and enforce graduation rates. Student-athletes not
only have to navigate college—starting from the recruiting process, moving into interactions
with academic and athletic support systems, and ending with graduation through development
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events—they also have unique athletic challenges, especially the struggle to transition from high
school to college and the need to balance multiple commitments (Twale & Korn, 2009).
Overview and History of NCAA
The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) is the governing body of
intercollegiate athletics. The NCAA enforces academic rules and policies as well as fair play in
college sports to ensure student-athletes have the best education experience to be successful. In
addition to its role in the supervision of collegiate sports, the NCAA established academic
reform to level the playing field while also maintaining academic standards. For instance,
Progress Toward Degree (PTD), Academic Progress Rate (APR), and Graduation Success Rate
(GSR) are some of the key policies and measures used by the NCAA today to evaluate students
enrolled in college.
The NCAA and its current academic structure have a significant impact on all college
student-athletes, as they must adhere to the association’s rules in order to compete. However,
criticism of lack of college athletic governance began in 1852 with the second intercollegiate
competition between Harvard and Yale (Oriard, 2012). This controversy highlighted that college
sports had no regulations or governing body and minimal institutional control. In 1905, the birth
of the NCAA occurred despite ongoing disputes over whether college football should be banned
or reformed (Smith, 1983). Stemming from this crisis was the need for policy and regulations for
academics. As a result, the NCAA took on an additional role as enforcer of academic integrity.
Other academic reforms were aimed at fostering academic preparedness through admissions in
order for freshmen to be eligible for competition. Because of these new policies, colleges could
no longer admit student-athletes who did not meet admissions requirements, thus redirecting
focus on academics for incoming freshmen.
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Propositions 48 and 16. One of the core values and objectives of the NCAA is the
pursuit of academic excellence. The two most important policies relevant to this value are
Proposition 48 and Proposition 16. Proposition 48 was introduced in 1980 and modified
admission requirements for student-athletes. To combat academic issues such as low graduation
rates within intercollegiate athletics, Proposition 48 increased the minimum GPA for high school
students to attend a university based on a sliding scale of ACT or SAT scores (Price, 2010).
Proposition 16, which was introduced in 1996, required prospective students to take 16 core
courses during high school, which was an increase from the previous 14. Proposition 16 also
required that prospective student-athletes maintain a 2.0 GPA in core courses (Storch & Ohlson,
2009). The new requirement meant student-athletes could not load up on courses during their
senior year of high school in order to receive athletic aid at the Division I level. Instead, this
policy meant they had to meet specific benchmarks to compete in college athletics. The
implementation of both propositions was controversial with regard to their impact on minority
student-athletes from economically disadvantaged backgrounds (Crowley, Pickle, & Clarkson,
2006).
Since Proposition 48 was implemented, there has been in an increase in academic
standards, resulting in increases in six-year graduation rates, especially for African Americans
and Hispanics. However, Price (2010) found that the passage of the proposition also resulted in a
dramatic decrease in minority, freshman student-athletes. Members of the NCAA questioned
how such reforms would affect low-income and minority populations, and this became an
important part of the examination NCAA academic policy (Hosick & Sproull, 2012).
Furthermore, access to higher education for students may be difficult given NCAA entrance and
participation standards, depending on location of the high school and resources provided (Hosick
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22
& Sproull, 2012). NCAA requirements such as Proposition 48 and 16 may have an impact on
low-income and minority student-athletes, which, through athletic funding, may be the only
opportunity to fund a college education (Hosick & Sproull, 2012).
Knight Commission and Eligibility Requirements
The academic reforms and changes were driven by the formation of the Knight
Commission on Intercollegiate Athletics. Formed in 1989, the commission had two goals: first,
to emphasize academic values among college sports, and, second, to involve college presidents
in the decision-making process related to college athletics (Knight Commission on
Intercollegiate Athletics, 2014). With regard to strengthening academic standards, the
governance of intercollegiate athletics was moved away from athletic directors and placed into
the hands of college presidents. With the new structure, the commission introduced the “one plus
three model” in 1991, which consists of one president working to control three areas: academic
integrity, fiscal integrity, and institution accountability (Knight Commission on Intercollegiate
Athletics, 2014). This new model led many efforts to strengthen academic accountability and
changed academic eligibility standards.
The eligibility standards—minimum GPA, term-by-term and annual credit hour
requirements, and progress toward earning a degree—represent three continuing eligibility
requirements established by the NCAA. Once a student-athlete is admitted to an institution, she
or he is required to meet continuing eligibility requirements throughout the time of athletic
competition, which is a concept known as PTD. By increasing PTD, students have to meet
requirements known as 40/60/80% of their specific degree. The PTD legislation requires student-
athletes to declare a major after their sophomore year and that they complete 40% of their degree
program requirements by the end of their fourth, full-time term (Meyer, 2005). Student-athletes
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must also successfully earn a minimum of six credit hours each semester and 18 credit hours
between the fall and spring semesters to maintain GPA requirements. The GPA policy requires
student-athletes to maintain a minimum 1.8 GPA after the first year, 1.9 GPA after the second
year, and 2.0 GPA throughout the course of years three through five (NCAA, 2013). To maintain
academic integrity, students must pass the minimum GPA, meet term-by-term and annual credit
hour requirements, and attain the degree standards that help them make strides toward earning a
degree. If they do not pass the requirements, students do not play (NCAA, 2016).
The academic progress rate was introduced in 2004 to reward teams that demonstrate
progress toward a degree (Meyer, 2005). Every term, APR is measured for eligibility and
retention of each student athlete (NCAA, 2015). This team-based metric was a way for
presidents to assess teams’ academic progress in a timely manner versus graduation rates; the
measure also accounts for transfer students (NCAA, 2015). These benchmarks are in place to
hold institutions, coaches, and teams accountable for retaining and graduating student-athletes.
The NCAA can impose playoff or postseason bans and scholarship reductions if these
requirements are not met (Bakker, 2005).
Student-Athlete Graduation Rates
As part of their academic reforms, the NCAA implemented the GSR in 2003 to quantify
student-athletes’ graduation rates over a six-year period (LaForge & Hodge, 2011). Ferris,
Finster, and McDonald (2004) found that student-athlete graduation rates from 1992-93 through
2002 were lower than institution-wide graduation rates, with standard deviations of 12.2 and 17.0
respectively. Across institutions, student-athletes graduate at a lower rate than their non-athlete
peers. The NCAA instituted the Division I GSR to accurately reflect student-athlete progression
toward a degree (NCAA, 2015). Price (2010) asserted that graduation rates increased to 57% and
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continued to grow to 59% for the entering cohort of 1988 as a result of GSR implementation.
This led the NCAA to proclaim that establishing admission standards led to higher graduation
rates. However, further analysis of the data indicated disproportionate graduation rates among
student-athletes when compared to all students at institutions (Ferris et al., 2004).
Underprepared student-athletes are not a new phenomenon in college athletics. From the
earliest periods of intercollegiate sports, the recruitment of academically underprepared athletes
from working class families has been part of intercollegiate athletics (Ferris et al., 2004). These
student-athletes come from low socioeconomic backgrounds and academically inferior schools
or inner cities across the country. Academic and athletic departments share the responsibility of
carrying out the NCAA’s mission of offering the best educational experience within the rules and
polices it set. As a consequence of recruiting underprepared student-athletes, institutions offer
many support services that emphasize helping student-athletes transition to higher education. The
NCAA created the Challenging Athletes’ Minds for Personal Success (CHAMPS)/Life Skills
Program which requires all Division I schools to provide life skills programming for student-
athletes (NCAA, 2016). There are five areas that the CHAMPS/Life Skills program targets:
academic excellence, athletics excellence, personal development, career development, and
service. Each institution tailors their program to the needs of their student-athletes, but the
overall goal remains the same: to complete their college degree.
Challenges to Student-Athlete Identity
Making the transition from high school to college can be an overwhelming challenge
financially, academically, and socially, especially if student-athletes are underprepared. Student-
athletes often matriculate to universities with a set of priorities that emphasize athletics and place
the student identity in the background. Student-athletes have at least two identities: the student
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pursing academic excellence in the classroom and the athlete who competes to win, compounded
with pressure from coaches focusing on winning championships and national exposure for
universities (Edwards, 1985). Moreover, student-athletes have multiple time commitments,
including at least 20 hours of practice a week. Melendez (2006) noted that additional time
commitments outside of practice, such as family, friends and study hall, can interfere with a
student-athlete’s academic performance. With time constraints between practice, meetings,
competition and travel throughout the year, minimal time may be devoted to academics (Long &
Caudill, 1991).
Despite maintaining a dual identity and time commitments, the odds of earning a college
degree as NCAA athletes are significantly higher, with college athletes typically achieving a
successful graduation rate of 86% (NCAA, 2016). However, most athletes still focus the majority
of their time to developing their athletic skills versus focusing on academics. Graduation rates
for revenue-generating sports, such as football or basketball, are lower (Mangold, Bean, &
Adams, 2003). When student-athletes lose focus on their education, they tend to have lower
GPAs and lower graduation rates (Paskus & Simiyu, 2012). Whether it is competition season or
not, Johnson (2013) reported that if student-athletes are not encouraged to pursue an education,
their graduation rate is often lower than that of non-student-athletes. Attending college
underprepared combined with athletic time commitments does not leave sufficient time to focus
on academics, may result in lower graduation rates for student-athletes.
Latino/a Student-Athletes in Intercollegiate Athletics
Latino/as represent a fast-growing minority population within athletics, and it is essential
that higher education professionals know how to address their needs. Little is known about
Latino/a student-athletes’ college experiences and their impact on retention and graduation rates.
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What we do know is that students who may not have had the socio-economic resources or
educational opportunities can gain access to higher education through athletics, and it can
provide a unique access point for first-generation college and minority students (Rudolph, 1962).
In 2002, the NCAA reported that over 30% of Division I athletes identified as other than White,
non-Hispanic. Latino/a student-athletes have a small presence in Division I NCAA sports; only
1.6% of all basketball players and 1.8% of football players at the Division I level were Latino
(Farrell, 1996). There was some increase in Latino representation in baseball, as 4.1% of players
identified themselves as Latino. Latinos are highly represented in professional sports like
baseball and soccer, 28.2 percent and 17%, respectively (Alamillo, 2013). In college, Latinos
have the highest percentage of Hispanic men in volleyball at 12.3% and water polo at 7.3%,
highlighting their following in California and Florida. For women, the majority of Latinas
participate in rugby (15.2%) and water polo (7.3%) (Ruffins, 2010). Regardless of the type of
sports played, college athletics increases higher education opportunities and levels the playing
field of access to a university education for first-generation college and minority students
(Rudolph, 1962; Watt & Moore, 2001).
Latino/a and Sport Participation in Communities
Access to higher education through athletics begins with the recruiting process, which is
at the center of college athletic programs (Clotfelter, 2011). Coaches and athletic recruiters
contend that high-profile sports like football and basketball help provide educational
opportunities for the less advantaged. Players from lacrosse, swim, or soccer tend to come from
less economically disadvantaged backgrounds (Shulman & Bowen, 2011). According to Iber
and Regalado (2006), Mexican Americans have been very accomplished in sports and sports are
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essential to identity. Furthermore, Regalado identified the value of athletics as a means to
assimilation for ethnic groups.
Many children participate in sports as part of an after-school activity. Rosewater (2009)
found that organized sports are a gateway to academic success for low-income youth and lead to
higher chances of attending college and attainment in the labor market. Likewise, sport
participation is correlated with improved test scores among Latino students. Furthermore, Snyder
and Spreitzer (1990) found that students who participated in high school sports were more likely
to go to college as compared to non-athletes. However, they acknowledged there is little research
to guide practitioners in trying to assess Latino/as perceptions and subcultural meanings
associated with sport. Rosewater (2009) found that 75% of White, middle-class children
participated in organized sports while only 40% to 60% of low-income children of color did so.
In particular, sports participation is less likely for Latinos than for other ethnic groups, especially
when a financial investment is required (Rosewater, 2009). Additionally, White student-athletes
of higher socioeconomic status were 7% more likely to attend college. It is important to note that
students are considered recruitable to NCAA institutions on their first day of 9th grade year and
7th grade if the student plays basketball (NCAA, 2016).
Latino/a Student-Athlete Representation
While it is evident there is a gap among Latino/a students and degree attainment, there is
little research examining how Latino/a student-athletes fare. The 2012 College Race and Gender
Report Card (RGRC) reviewed NCAA Division I student-athlete data in regards to both race and
gender. The RGRC is an assessment tool used to analyze hiring practices among coaches and
athletic department administration as well as college teams’ composition regarding race and
gender. Basketball, football, and baseball were closely examined to look at trends for male
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athletes, while basketball, cross-country and track were examined in terms of female athletes.
Latinos accounted for 1.8% for Division I football at the Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) level,
Whites made up 43.3%, African Americans accounted for 51.6%, and Asians made up 2.1% of
football players. In baseball, African Americans accounted for 2.6% and Latinos made up 6%, in
comparison to the representation of Whites which was 85.3%. While the Latino/a population
continues to grow in the country and in enrollment within higher education, its representation
among NCAA sports remains level, while that of White students continues to grow. Tables for
the RGRC are included in Appendix A.
Latinas remain largely underrepresented in college athletics. For example, Latinas
accounted for 7.3% of all NCAA female students during 2002-2003 (Jamieson, 2005).
Meanwhile, White women accounted for 68% of all female students and 70% of all female
student-athletes (NCAA, 2003). Among females participating in Division I basketball, Latinas
were at 2%, African Americans account for 47.9%, and Whites represent 38.2%. White female
athletes continue to have high representation at 60.9% for outdoor track, while African
Americans account for 24% and Latinas are not represented at all. Softball was also analyzed,
and results showed Latinas account for 7.2% of players and African Americans make up 4.1%;
combined, they do not come close to the number of White, female student-athletes, who
comprise 79.4% of all softball players.
A possible explanation for the low Latina representation is Acosta’s (1999) finding that
Latina women are encouraged to participate in sports, the labor force, and activities relative to
the family’s social condition. Additionally, Acosta found many challenges, including the absence
of Latina role models, limited financial resources, and family members’ ambivalent attitudes
about higher education and sports. The number of Latina student-athletes represented may also
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show signs of stacking on specific teams in specific positions, which will be discussed in a later
section. Tables for the RGRC are included in Appendix A.
Stacking Latino Student-Athletes in College Sports
The concept of stacking was introduced in 1963 through Oscar Grusky’s theory of formal
structure. Grusky found patterns that showed certain playing positions were held
disproportionately by minorities, and this is commonly referred to as “stacking”. Stacking
patterns can be found among successful college athletic programs which rely on the recruitment
of minority student-athletes.
Looking at NCAA data, Jamieson (2002) found that in softball, Latinas were stacked in
the positions of pitcher, second base, third base, and shortstop. Interestingly, the position of
pitcher is termed the “Lisa Fernandez phenomenon.” The title is often given when coaches take a
chance on a Latina athlete who is more likely than her White counterpart to have experienced
education dislocation, financial constraint, and limited familiarity with higher education. In a
similar study, the stacking phenomenon was documented in NCAA Division I women’s
volleyball programs in 1987 and 1988 with regard to White and African American female
student-athletes. White females were found to be overrepresented at the setter position, which is
comparable to the quarterback position in football (Eitzen & Furst, 1993). The setter is a highly
visible position, essentially coordinating all the other positions. African American women were
underrepresented in the setter position and were retained at the outside hitter position, which is a
more peripheral position (Eitzen & Furst, 1993). Stacking should not be ignored due to the
discriminatory factors it represents, and has also been found in male sports.

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Theoretical Framework
The ecological systems theory of student development provides the ideal model through
which to analyze the historical and cultural context of Latino/a students in higher education,
followed by an analysis of the structures of the NCAA and how they indirectly affect Latino/a
student-athletes. Also considered are how the overarching systems influence the microsystem,
the family, and how this relationship impacts Latino student-athletes decision to attend college.
Several hindering factors can exist and serve as a barrier for Latino/a students: the financial aid
process, socioeconomic status, family problems and being academically underprepared
(Hernandez & Lopez, 2004). Ecology theory will be used to understand the underrepresentation
of Latino student-athletes, to gain a better awareness of their experiences in higher education
institutions, and learn how institutions can better assist this population.
Ecological Systems Theory Overview
Bronfenbrenner’s (1994) ecological model contributes to the body of psychological
development theories with as approach that accounts not only for the biological aspects of
development, but also for the social and cultural aspects of an individual’s environment. A
student has multiple values that may overlap and, sometimes, collide. Such contexts and
processes collaborate and influence an individual’s growth or development (Evans et al., 2009).
Bronfenbrenner established the process, person, context, and time model (PPCT) to categorize
the various factors that influence human development. Context illustrates how the individual is
the center of four structures surrounding him or her. Within the contexts, where development
takes place, Bronfenbrenner asserts a nested series of structures which represent the
microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem. Starting with the most intimate
ecological system and moving outward to larger systems, Bronfenbrenner’s framework of
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31
systems focuses on how each system interacts and influences the other. The microsystem
consists of variables the individual is directly exposed to; usually, the family has the most
influence. The mesosystem is based off the interconnections between the microsystems. The
exosystem includes structures in society that indirectly affect an individual’s development, for
example a parent’s workplace. The macrosystem encompasses the historical, cultural context
such as values, beliefs, customs, and laws, furthermore influencing interactions of all other
systems. The individual is at the center of these subsystems, which in this study will be the
Latino/a graduate student-athlete.

Figure 3. Renn and Arnolds’ (2003) adaptation of Bronfenbrenner’s model.
Macrosystem: Historical and cultural trends for Latinos. A report on historical trends
for Latinos found that, over the past three decades, Latino freshmen who enroll at four-year
institutions are likely to have lower levels of educational attainment than their non-Latino peers
(Saenz et al., 2007). Segregation in schools, specifically among racial, socioeconomic and
immigrant components, represents another significant trend for Latino/as in education (Orfield &
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32
Gordan, 2001). These examples of historical trends and events might reflect the broadest system
in Bronfenbrenner’s (1994) ecological model, which is the macrosystem and includes the micro,
meso and exosystems and how they interact. Historical trends and events, cultural expectations
and social forces, and patterns and values fall within these systems and influence a person’s
development. Schools with high numbers of minorities are under-resourced, understaffed, and,
at times, neglected, transforming into inequalities such as underfunding, underprepared teachers,
high turnover and no accountability among leadership (Saenz & Ponjuan, 2009). Likewise,
cultural components in the macrosystems can influence access to higher education and,
sometimes, create barriers. Knowledge of the college requirements, financial support to pay for
college and comprehension of the financial aid process are considered cultural components.
Exosystem: Marginalized population in intercollegiate athletics. When Latinos do
have a chance to participate in intercollegiate athletics, opportunities are often limited. While
Latino/a student-athletes participate in college sports, only a few Latinos participate in NCAA
sports. Minimal representation in college athletics could be explained through the exosystem.
The exosystem does not involve the developing person, but actions within it directly influence
the environments of the microsystem (Bronfenbrenner, 1994). For instance, federal financial aid
policies or NCAA legislation regarding recruiting and scholarships are examples of exosystems
that influence a student’s development without having any direct involvement with the student.
Financing higher education presents a significant hurdle for Latino/a students. There are a
number of ways to finance a college education, including financial aid, work-study, and personal
contributions, yet attending college is still often out of reach due to cost. The cost of college
tuition continues to rise, while the amount of financial aid being distributed based on need
decreases. This impedes Latino/a students’ ability to participate in higher education. Latino/as
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33
have the highest need for financial aid of any racial/ethnic group, as many come from low-
income families, yet they receive the lowest average financial aid amount of any racial/ethnic
group, including smaller grants and lower work-study awards than White students (Santiago &
Brown, 2004).
Latinos have a significant presence in professional sports, yet they are marginalized in
intercollegiate athletics. Student-athletes have the chance to earn athletic scholarships, but there
is less incentive to do so if they have the opportunity to play professionally. Reforms by the
NCAA to increase GPA requirements and high school core course distributions are examples of
how policy can indirectly affect the developing individual. American colleges and universities
are exosystems that remain the principal recruitment grounds for the National Basketball
Association (NBA) and National Football League (NFL), but systems in which Latinos made
limited headway. This may be due, in part, to the fact that college does not fall within the
pipeline or exosystem for the two professional sports in which Latinos participate the most:
boxing and soccer (Cameron, 2012).
Other examples of exosystems are the Olympics and the passing of Title IX, which
resulted in schools sponsoring softball as a NCAA sport. However, lack of access to organized
sports, a scarcity of Latina role models, and minimal financial resources means lower Latina
participation in these sports. Given that 80% of student-athletes in softball were recruited from
Amateur Softball Association (ASA) summer programs, collegiate softball is a structure of
growing, yet disparate, opportunities. In fact, despite the recent prominence of Olympic pitcher
Lisa Fernandez and professional player Crystl Bustos, collegiate softball remains pervasively
White (Iber & Regalado, 2007; 2006)Iber, 1961; Regalado, Samuel, & Ebrary, 2007).
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Mesosystems: Navigating the requirements to enroll into a four-year institution.
There are many aspects of the college-going process that student-athletes must know and
maneuver in order to successfully enroll at a NCAA sponsored institution. High school staff,
coaches, counselors, and family are important in troubleshooting problems during this process so
that student-athletes can continue to higher education (Smrt, 2001). Taking into consideration a
student’s generational factors, Latino/a many have limited educated role models at school, such
as teachers and counselors (Castellanos, 1996; Hanna & Schofield, 2003). Latino parents with
aspirations for their children to attend college may not be not well prepared to help their children
through applications, enrollment, and other related processes if they do not have college
experience of their own (McDonough, 1997).
For many student-athletes, community college is a starting point in the pursuit of higher
education. Latino students who graduate from high school enroll in higher education enroll in
community colleges in high numbers as compared to their peers from other racial or ethnic
groups. Evidence from fall 2004 shows that 54.4% of Latinos enrolled in a postsecondary
institution were attending two-year colleges as compared to 36.1% of White and 42.5% of
African American students (Cook & Cordova, 2007).
However, despite the significant amount of research on community colleges, research on
Latino student-athletes and transfer student athletes is limited (Harper, 2009; Horton, 2009b).
First, acknowledging why Latino student-athletes choose to attend community colleges before
transferring may help explain their overrepresentation at 2-year institutions and why they are less
likely to attain a degree. Community college counselors are part of the meso system and need to
be able to provide information on eligibility requirements in order to transfer to a 4-year
institution and that they graduation with an Associate Degree. Attachment to family, tuition cost,
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35
and accommodating class schedules for students who work full-time appeal to Latino students
and could explain their heavy accumulation in two-year institutions. According to Wong (2006),
transfer student-athletes have to meet specific academic requirements at the community college
level in order to be eligible for competition. Navigating eligibility requirements can be confusing
during the transferring process, and, as a result, students often fall short of meeting NCAA
requirements at a Division I institution. At a community college the student-athlete can compete
for two seasons leaving them with limited time to compete at four-year institution. A community
college counselor is a key support system to help prepare them to meet their educational goals
and requirements to transfer to a four-year institution.
As part of the mesosystem, high school staff, coaches, academic counselors need to
clarify to both the student and parents the academic requirements for NCAA Division I
institutions. The mesosystem transpires when two microsystems collaborate, which refers to the
connections and relationships between two or more involving the individual (Bronfenbrenner,
1979). The mesosystem reinforces the campus peer culture and examples include academics,
work, and sports, with each providing resources that affect a student’s development (Renn,
2003). A counselor is a critical resource for any student; however, athletic counseling entails
knowledge of numerous aspects and specific requirements that apply only to student-athletes,
thus making the counselor more important (Community College Counselors/Advisors acade,ic
Association for Athletes, 20143C2A, n.d.). At the community college level, the interactions
between various microsystems—family, culture, economic stability, and NCAA transfer
requirements—may promote overrepresentation of Latino students and hinder their transfer and
degree-attainment rates. Implications for working with high school and transfer Latino/a student-
athletes from underserved communities must be taken into consideration, as they are at risk of
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36
not receiving accurate information for matriculating into a four-year institution. Members of the
mesosystem, such as counselors and school staff members, are responsible for providing
knowledge to best advise high school and transfer Latino/a student-athletes (Lawrence & Wright,
2009).
Microsystem: Cultural influence to join the workforce. Latino students face social,
cultural, and structural pressure to join the workforce and help their family achieve economic
stability. Tinto (1975) noted that family background issues, precollege success, and a student’s
college selection decisions can influence college persistence. According to Saenz and Ponjuan
(2009), family attachments bring about strong desires to provide for the family financially.
Cameron (2012) found that Latino U.S. residents aged 16 to 19 had the highest rate of work
force participation of any non-White ethnic group at 23.7%. To illustrate such ties, evidence
suggests that a familismo orientation instills expectations in Latinos to be family oriented, strong,
brave, hardworking, and family contributors. As influencers of the microsystem, Latino parents
stress hard work and job attainment at a very young age. With the student at the center of
Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecology model, the microsystem has the most influence on a person’s
interactions directly with the environment. The microsystem is the smallest and most intimate
system and consists of face-to-face interactions of the developing, person with family, friends,
teammates, coaches, counselors, and student organizations (Evans et al., 2009). The interactions
between these individuals or groups will, in turn, influence how an individual develops.
For Latinos, the microsystem of family provides and provokes family obligations. Based
on such responsibilities or socioeconomic status, Latino students may delay attending college or
enroll in a two-year institution while they work to support the family or themselves. Cerna,
Pérez and Sáenz (2009) argued that Latino students may choose to work full time for a year or
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37
two before enrolling in college to gain financial stability, whereas others may enroll in college
part-time while they work or delay their enrollment based on their economic situation or familial
responsibilities.
Conclusion
The research showed that Latino student-athletes live within various systems that
influence their opportunity to pursue higher education. However, there appears to be little
evidence of interpretation of the college experience of Latino student-athletes. Understanding
their experience can increase support from the family, improve participation in organized sports,
lead to higher retention rates, and have a positive impact on Latino student-athletes’ lives.
Chapter Three presents the specific research approach and methodology used to
understand the experiences of former graduate Latino/a student-athletes who participated in
intercollegiate athletics. This chapter includes the rationale behind the qualitative research
approach, explicit details regarding the research design and data collection, and a brief
discussion of the framework used to examine the findings.

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CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
This chapter will discuss the research design, data collection process techniques and
methods for this study. The purpose of this study is to examine the educational perceptions of
former Latino/a student-athletes and understand the challenges they faced while in college. To
frame the study, I start by providing the research questions. Next, I briefly address the research
design and methodology. Lastly, I will discuss the instrumentation and data collection methods,
followed by how the data will be analyzed.
Research Questions
Research questions are the heart of any study. According to Maxwell (2013) research
questions are the starting point which determine the design, influence on the study, and response
of each part of the study. The research questions in this study will focus on the experiences and
perceptions of individuals. To guide this study from a qualitative approach, the following
research questions were developed:
What do former Division I Latino/a student-athletes perceive were strengths and challenges
they faced applying to, navigating through, and graduating from college and what systems were
responsible for addressing those challenges? Additionally, the following sub-questions will be
explored:
a. Who, if anyone, influenced the recruiting and admissions process?
b. What was the role of academic, athletic, and personal supports in college?
c. Which, if any, career related benefits do Latino/a student-athletes perceive they received
as a result of their involvement with college athletics?

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Research Design Overview
Qualitative research seeks to understand how people make sense of their experiences
within the world and is an inductive process whereby the researcher collects data, analyzes it,
and theories based on his/her interpretation (Merriam, 2009). Since numbers are not used in
qualitative inquiry, the product of qualitative research is highly descriptive when aiming to
answer the research questions and provides awareness into the research problem (Merriam,
2009). Maxwell (2013) provides several goals that contribute to qualitative research. For
example, qualitative research can help researchers understand how the participants make sense of
experiences, gain meaning from contexts which can influence behavior and process events and
actions (Maxwell, 2013). In addition, the amount of structure which is desired determines which
type of interview will be used. Semi-structured interviews allow the flexibility of less structured
questions, and can contribute more detail accounting for variability during the interview process
(Maxwell, 2013). The representation of the sample for this study is essential to capture the
former Latino/a student-athletes educational perceptions to appropriately answer the research
questions.
Site Selection
The university selected is a private, four-year university located in the Western United
States. I will refer to this institution as University of Westeros (UW). The university is a
Predominantly White Institution (PWI), with 40% of the student population identifying as White.
UW has a student enrollment of less than 20,000 offering various degrees ranging from
bachelor’s degree to professional doctoral degrees. Additionally, 97% of the student body
primarily consists of students with full time enrollment (FTE). Figure 1 below illustrates the
student body by race/ethnicity.
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Figure 4. UW Student Body Break Down by Race/Ethnicity
UW Athletic Department
University of Westeros (UW) has a rich history of tradition and has one of the most
respected athletic programs in the nation. There are 21 NCAA Division I sports, 9 men’s sports,
11 women’s sports equating to 650 student-athletes and approximately 250 staff members within
the athletic department (University of Westeros, 2014). With a total of nine men’s head coaches
and roughly 31 assistant coaches while there are 13 women’s head coaches and around 28
assistant coaches. There are 20 student-athlete academic support staff members, 8 academic
counselors, 7 learning specialists and approximately 70 tutors.
Population and Sample
The population for the survey included 13 current and 10 former Latino/a student-athletes
from the University of Westeros to provide a robust sample. The qualitative portion of this study
only included six former Division I Latino/a student-athletes who graduated from the University
of Westeros, including scholarship and non-scholarship students. I recognize a student-athlete
who receives an athletic scholarship will have experiences that are different from non-
scholarship student-athletes; it was important to include both groups and to note the differences
during the data analysis process.
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The sample was selected using purposeful sample. Purposeful sampling is defined as a
strategy where particular settings, persons, or activities are selected deliberately to provide
information that is particularly relevant to your questions and goals (Maxwell, 2013). To be
included in this study, participants have to meet the criterion of being a former student-athlete at
a NCAA Division I institution who graduated within the past 8 years, from 2010-2017.
The following reasons were taken into consideration when choosing the criteria. First,
participants who played on a collegiate sports team for a length of time ranging from two to five
years. Second, with limited number of available subjects to interview, the goal will be to
interview former student-athletes with ethnic origins in Mexico, Puerto Rico, Dominican
Republic, Columbia Peru, Ecuador, Guatemala, other Central and South American countries,
Cuba, and other Spanish cultures. Lastly, participants needed to have graduated from this
institution. Each case provided rich information that provided insight into the experiences of
Latino/a student-athletes and if they were directly or indirectly affected by the connections
between student-athletes and family, coaches, counselors and teammates.
Instrumentation
As the researcher, I was the key instrument in collecting data. The first instrument used
was a survey, followed by in-depth semi-structured one on one interviews to collect the
qualitative data that addressed the educational experiences of former graduate Latino/a student-
athletes. To gain better understanding of the experiences of Latino/a student-athletes, qualitative
research elicits rich meaningful data from the process of interviewing. Semi-structured
interviews allow for flexibility, ability to clarify and ask probing questions (Merriam, 2009). The
survey allowed me to collect data of attitudes and opinions as well as information from a larger
segment of the population (Maxwell, 2013).
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42
The survey included demographics, parent’s education level, and a few questions related
to the participants’ participation in college athletics. There was an option for participants to
volunteer to take part in an interview.
An interview protocol was developed using open-ended questions designed to explore the
experiences of the participants. To encourage participants to share their experiences I used open
ended questions using “how” and “what” (Brenner, 2006). Broader questions regarding
participants’ recruiting process and academic and athletic support were asked first to obtain
general views regarding these experiences. Specific questions about these interactions’ influence
on aspects of their college experiences were presented to elicit more in-depth responses. This
funneling approach was used to prevent bias allowing participants to articulate their own views
before exploring issues with specific questions (Patton, 2002).
An evaluation was conducted by my dissertation chair, who reviewed the protocol for
clarity, word choice, and question sequencing (Patton, 2002). After IRB approval was granted, it
was necessary to conduct a small-scale pilot study to insure the questions were clear and
understandable, in order to obtain reliable information necessary to answer the research
questions (Fink, 2013). The interview protocol was piloted with two former student-athletes
(one female and one male) at a similar institution, comparable in age, education, and gender to
the target sample. The pilot study testing was conducted a month prior to live interviews to
ensure the questions were clear, and understandable, and elicited the necessary information to
answer the research questions (Fink, 2013). After piloting the instruments, some questions were
refined, with additional prompts to make the protocol understandable for the participants.

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Data Collection
Before any interviews took place, the study was approved by the Institutional Review
Board (IRB) at the University of Southern California.
To enlist participants, I used a number of methods to contact recent graduates who
participated in my study, including a recruitment email, requesting assistance from the university
alumni association, contacting the office that works with Latino/a students on campus, and
alumni social media forums. I also asked participants to recommend others for this study
(snowball sampling). The survey was emailed to 18 former Latino/a student-athletes and 21
current Latino/a student-athletes. However, current students were not included in the interview
sample due to my current role as an employee in the athletics department. The recruitment email
identified me as a doctoral student completing research for my dissertation, and it also included
purpose of the research, criteria to participate and the time commitment involved, and a link to a
survey requesting demographic data that assisted with purposeful sampling and selection of
interview participants (Appendix B). An academic counselor from the athletics department sent
out the recruitment email. Six participants volunteered to take part in the qualitative study and
were contacted by me via phone or email. I responded with a date and time for the interview to
interested participants. Interviews took place in a neutral setting separate from any athletic
offices or facilities to ensure privacy and confidentiality.
At the start of each interview, I introduced myself and reviewed the information sheet
with the participant and encouraged her or him to ask questions (Appendix E). After the
participant had reviewed the information sheet and informed consent form, the participant gave
verbal consent indicating their willingness to participate in the study. I asked initial icebreaker
questions to develop rapport with the participants (Creswell, 2014).
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44
Notes were taken during in person and over the phone interviews in addition to using an
audio recording device, which were transcribed. I obtained an additional verbal consent to record
the conversation. All participants’ identities remained confidential, using pseudonyms. Each
participant was interviewed once, for one hour, with only one follow up to clarify information.
The following measures were taken to maintain confidentiality in the qualitative data
collection process. The interviews were transcribed by a professional third party transcriber,
Furthermore, the transcribed interview responses, audio recordings, and codebook were kept in
different locations on a password secured laptop. Data will be deleted five years after completion
of the study.
Data Analysis
Maintaining organization is a key component for analyzing the data from this study. Once
all the surveys were collected, participant’s responses were analyzed for basic descriptive data.
Data analysis included percentages, and means, to subsequently be used to identify preliminary
patterns and trends in responses and determine target participants for the interviews.
Using a recording device is one way to ensure organization when collecting data. Audio
recordings were securely submitted to an online transcription company. Once all the interviews
were transcribed, the data was systematically organized using a spreadsheet software program in
Microsoft Excel, which allowed the researcher to present the data using columns and sections to
group themes.
I begin the process scanning the transcribed interviews for open codes or themes, as
recommended by Strauss (1987). During the open coding process, I identified themes that were
descriptive and multi-dimensional. There are three levels of coding which include, open coding,
axial coding and selective coding (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). Open coding is generally the initial
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45
stage of breaking down data to the smallest unit of analysis (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). Following
open coding, the next level of coding used was axial coding which is to identify larger recurring
themes within the data (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). Lastly, the axial codes were grouped into
selective codes which were the major themes of the research that constructed meaning to help
answer the research question (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). During the data analysis, I used the
Ecological Systems Theory to frame the findings.
Using the constant comparative method, data was analyzed in order for a developing
theory to emerge. Constant comparative analysis includes four stages: observing a phenomenon,
defining key concepts, establishing collection method, and determining appropriate study
sample. Both constructed and emerged codes were identified (Lincoln & Cuba, 1985).
Constructed themes were employed based off questions from the interview protocol. Examples
of these constructed codes include, “recruitment process,” “academic and athletic influences”
“career preparedness.” There was a comparison process in which each quotation was compared
to other codes to ensure that each related and fit within that specific code. Repeating this process
helped to develop a strong coding scheme and reduce redundant codes. Each code was defined
with clear examples in a codebook. The established definitions served as the constant
comparative methods to determine the inclusion-exclusion criteria for new data and the inclusion
or omission of currently identified and future quotations in each code were based upon whether
or not they fit this evaluative definition
Validity
In qualitative research, validity and reliability correlate into credibility and
trustworthiness respectively. Member checks, bias clarification, and researcher positionality were
employed for establishing credibility and trustworthiness in this study (Creswell, 2003). The
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46
process of triangulation with the survey and interviews is essential in providing checks and
balances on the results (Maxwell, 2013). Member checking is feedback from or respondent
validation in the accuracy of information solicited. Member checking was an essential part of
this process because it was valuable to follow up with the participants to confirm that my
interpretations of the data were reflective of the participants. Lastly, the participants were offered
the opportunity to review the transcription of interviews. A positive aspect of this process is that
participants have the opportunity to correct misinterpretations and confirm the data analysis.
Role of the Researcher
A factor that influences my position as a researcher is that for the past 3 years, I have
worked at a private, four year university as an academic counselor, and have therefore had
engagement with the student-athlete population. I have developed certain views about the race
and ethnicity breakdown of the student-athlete population. In addition, during my work with an
array of student-athletes, I have witnessed Latino/a students’ successes and struggles. In attempt
to make sense of why Latino/a student fails while another succeeds, include but not limited the
following challenges financial, academically and socially, especially if student-athletes are
underprepared. Ultimately, I have come to believe that students are directly or indirectly affected
by the connections between student-athletes and family, coaches, counselors and teammates. My
experiences may affect my ability to be neutral in gathering or interpreting data. To reduce bias, I
had participants review the results, reflected on my own thought process and avoided drawing
conclusions.
I was a neutral observer and refrained from exerting any influence on the study. I was
empathetic to responses but remained emotionally distant by not showing approval or
disapproval and refrained from using leading questions. Lastly, using triangulation from the
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47
reflective response prior to the interview, data from the interview and the literature further aided
me in establishing credibility and trustworthiness in this study.
Conclusion
This study explored the experiences of Latino/a student-athletes are directly or indirectly
affected by the connections between student-athletes and family, coaches, counselors and
teammates. Chapter Three described the qualitative methodology design used for this study and
analysis through constant comparative method. The sample and population are included, as well
as the instrumentation and data collection method. A description of the recruiting process of
participants, informed consent and data analysis process. Finally, in an effort to insure validity of
the proposed study, Chapter Three also provided information on how to protect participants, and
the steps that were taken to increase trustworthiness and to evaluate the researcher’s
positionality. In Chapter Four, the results of this study will be presented.

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CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS
This chapter presents the findings from qualitative research conducted with former
student-athletes from the University of Westeros. The chapter focuses on data from interviews
and surveys. A brief description of participants is presented, which provides information on the
participants’ experiences and perceptions of the challenges they faced applying to, navigating
through, and graduating from college; and systems that were responsible for addressing those
challenges.
Through analysis of the survey and qualitative interview data, several themes emerged
related to the experiences of former Latino/a student-athletes challenges and college persistence.
This chapter is organized by several emerging themes from the data: (1) exposure and
influencers to attend college (2) access to elite private institution and perceptional value of
academics and resources offered (3) importance of teammate and coaching relationships (4)
identities and ethnic representation (5) career skills, support networks and opportunities (6)
additional findings.
The research questions that guided this study are:
What do former Division I Latino/a student-athletes perceive were the challenges they faced
applying to, navigating through, and graduating from college and what systems were responsible
for addressing those challenges? Additionally, the following sub-questions were explored:
a. How did parents and coaches influence the recruiting process?
b. What was the role of academic, athletic, and personal supports in college?
c. Which, if any, career related benefits do Latino/a student-athletes perceive they received
as a result of their involvement with college athletics?

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Research Study Participants
This study was completed with the support of the University of Westeros Student-Athlete
Academic Services Director. Participants were surveyed and interviewed based on availability
during the data gathering process. Electronic surveys combined with in-person and telephone
interviews were used to help triangulate the data collected in order to increase credibility and
reliability, provide descriptive information and reduce bias (Creswell, 2014).
Surveys
Prior to exploring the stories and perceptions of former Latino/a student-athletes, it was
essential to elicit demographic data from both current and former Latino/a student-athletes to
provide a robust sample. A survey was administered to 21 current and 18 former Latino student-
athletes. A total of 23 surveys were collected during this process. Google Forms, an online
survey tool, was used to administer the survey to the designated population and helped gauge
participants’ feelings regarding their college experience as a Latino/a student-athlete. The graphs
below reflect some of the demographic data that was collected.

Figure X. Survey Participants Gender and College Going Generation
8
5
5 5
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Male Female
Gender
Current Student-Athletes Former Student-Athletes
2
7
2 2
8
0
2
4
6
8
10
First Second Third
College Going Generation
Current Student-Athletes
Former Student-Athletes
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50

Figure X. Survey Participants Sport Affiliation
There were 10 survey items that specifically pertained to experiences of family, coaches,
counselors, and teammates. The ten closed-ended quantitative data were analyzed by coding each
four-point Likert-type scale response as follows: Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Agree, Strongly
Agree.

6
1 1 1
3
1
2 2
1 1
2
1 1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Sport Affiliation
Current Student-Athletes Former Student-Athletes
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51
Table 1
Current Latino/a Student-Athlete Survey Responses
Current Survey
Question
Number of
Responses
Strongly
Disagree
Somewhat
Disagree
Somewhat
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Total
I feel college
athletics is a main
access point to
earn a college
degree
13 0.00% 15.38% 30.77% 53.85% 100.00%
I felt I had college
educated Latino/a
role models
13 0.00% 23.08% 38.46% 38.46% 100.00%
I feel supported
by my coaches
and teammates
transitioning to
college
13 0.00% 0.00% 46.15% 53.85% 100.00%
As a collegiate
student-athlete I
believe my family
values my
participation in
sports
13 0.00% 7.69% 7.69% 84.62% 100.00%
Attending college
as a student-
athlete presents a
financial burden
for my family
13 7.69% 30.77% 30.77% 30.77% 100.00%
At the University
of Westeros I feel
like being a
Latino/a student-
athlete makes me
a minority
13 23.08% 15.38% 53.85% 7.69% 100.00%
As a collegiate
student-athlete I
feel being a
Latino/a student-
athlete makes me
different from
other student-
athletes
13 38.46% 23.08% 38.46% 0.00% 100.00%

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Table 1, continued
Current Survey
Question
Number of
Responses
Strongly
Disagree
Somewhat
Disagree
Somewhat
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Total
I feel supported by
all staff
13 0.00% 0.00% 23.08% 76.92% 100.00%
I use campus
resources and
services, like
tutoring or
academic advising
to help me be a
better student-
athlete
13 0.00% 0.00% 7.69% 92.31% 100.00%
My educational
experience as a
student-athlete
exposed me to
various career
paths
13 0.00% 7.69% 23.08% 69.23% 100.00%

Table 2
Former Latino/a Student-Athlete Survey Responses
Former Survey
Question
Number of
Responses
Strongly
Disagree
Somewhat
Disagree
Somewhat
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Total
I felt college
athletics was a
main access point
to earn a college
degree
10 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 100.00% 100.00%
I felt I had college
educated Latino/a
role models
10 0.00% 20.00% 50.00% 30.00% 100.00%
I felt supported by
my coaches and
teammates during
my transition to
college
10 0.00% 10.00% 20.00% 70.00% 100.00%
When I was a
collegiate student-
athlete I believe
my family valued
my participation in
sports
10 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 100.00% 100.00%
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53
Table 2, continued
Former Survey
Question
Number of
Responses
Strongly
Disagree
Somewhat
Disagree
Somewhat
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Total
Attending college
as a student-athlete
presented a
financial burden
for my family
10 60.00% 0.00% 10.00% 30.00% 100.00%
At the University
of Westeros I feel
like being a
Latino/a student-
athlete makes me a
minority
10 30.00% 20.00% 20.00% 30.00% 100.00%
When I was a
collegiate student-
athlete I felt being
a Latino/a student-
athlete made me
different from
other student-
athletes
10 20.00% 30.00% 30.00% 20.00% 100.00%
While I was in
college, I felt
supported by all
staff
10 0.00% 10.00% 10.00% 80.00% 100.00%
While in college, I
used campus
resources and
services, like
tutoring or
academic advising
to help me be a
better student-
athlete
10 0.00% 10.00% 30.00% 60.00% 100.00%
My educational
experience as a
student-athlete
exposes me to
various career
paths
10 0.00% 10.00% 30.00% 60.00% 100.00%

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Participant Overview
The six participants for the qualitative portion of the study were selected using purposive
sampling employing the volunteer pool of surveyed respondents who volunteered to be contacted
for follow-up interviews. A total of eight potential interview candidates were contacted by email
invitation to participate in the interview with six participants responding. To maintain
confidentiality, participants chose pseudonyms: Tulse, Justin, Mr. Lopez, Paul, Inez, and Ashley.
All six interview participants reported in survey data they had graduated from this university,
identified as being from Latino/a ethnic origins, and had participated on a collegiate sports team
for two to five years. An overview of the participant sample and data collected are summarized
in Table 5. Below is a detailed description of each participant’s profile.
Table 3
Interview Participant Demographics
Interview Participants
Interview
Participants
Gender Year
Graduated
Ethnic
Identification
Athletic
Aid
Sport
Affiliation
Major
Tulse Female 2016 Latina
Spanish
American
Yes W. Tennis International
Relations
Justin Male 2016 Hispanic
Puerto Rican
No M.
Baseball
International
Relations
Mr. Lopez Male 2017 Latino
Mexican
No M.
Baseball
Sociology
Paul Male 2016 Latino
Mexican
Yes M. Track
& Field
Human
Biology
Inez Female 2017 Latina
Mexican
No W.
Waterpolo
Creative
Writing
Ashley Female 2015 Latina Yes W. Tennis International
Relations

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Participant Profiles
Tulse, born in Austria, moved to the United States with her parents when she was two
years old. Her father is from Mexico and Tulse holds citizenship in all three countries. After
graduating with a degree in International Relations and a minor in Occupational Therapy, she
professionalized in women’s tennis. She has been representing the Mexican team since she was
16 years old. Currently, she represents Mexico in the professional realm of women’s tennis.
Justin was drafted by the San Francisco Giants after graduating with an International
Relations degree. Following in his dad’s footsteps, who played professional baseball for 13
years, Justin played in the minor leagues for a year before an injury took him off the baseball
diamond. He now works for the Los Angeles Kings as an Event Coordinator and Community
Outreach. He is also currently pursuing a Master’s degree in Sports Management at California
State University, Northridge.
Mr. Lopez earned a degree in Sociology and was drafted after graduation by the Boston
Red Sox organization. He chose the University of Westeros because he felt it would benefit his
future in both baseball and academics. He currently plays in the minor leagues for Greenville
Drive.
Paul was a transfer student from Cal Poly Pomona. He majored in Human Biology with a
minor in Occupational Therapy. He is currently a full-time student pursing his Master’s degree in
Occupational Therapy.
Inez played for the women’s waterpolo team and graduated with a degree in English
Creative Writing and a minor in Cinematic Arts. She is currently an Associate Producer for the
television show American Pickers on the History Channel.
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56
Ashley earned a degree in International Studies with a minor in Occupational Therapy.
Her dad immigrated from Panama and was her coach until college, and her mother immigrated
from the Philippines; they met playing tennis. Ashley was faced with adversity early on in her
college career, tearing a ligament in her knee her sophomore year. With a positive mindset and
great work ethic, she returned to tennis and now plays professionally. She also continues to
participate in outreach programs to inspire students to stay in sports.
Results from the Interviews
From the interviews, six themes emerged about the experiences of former Latino/a
student-athletes, the challenges they faced applying to, navigating through, and graduating from
college. The themes revealed were: (1) exposure and influencers to attend college (2)
perceptional value of academics and school reputation (3) importance of teammate and coaching
relationships (4) identities and ethnic representation (5) career skills, support networks and
opportunities (6) additional findings. For each theme, the findings from the interviews will be
presented first, followed by the survey data.
Theme 1: Exposure and Influencers to Attend College
Consistent across all participants was the influence and support of parents and coaches to
attend college. The narrative from Inez illustrates her experience of parental influence.
I think that started when I was a kid. I started as a soccer player, and my dad just told me
right away when I was a kid, 'cause he always wanted to be a college athlete, that,
"Someday you're gonna be a college athlete! Ultimately I had parental influence just
being like, "You know what you wanna do, you wanna go play in college." [Inez]
ustin described his experience with his coach and the influence he had during the recruiting
process.
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57
I mean ... so I guess so Gabe was obviously really great with the way he recruits and he
really made me feel like comfortable about the University of Westeros. And so, after
really making me aware about that and then just the whole culture and environment of
being on campus, it just felt like home for me. He wasn't pressuring me at all. He told me
to weigh my options and whatever I felt that he was in full support of my decision.
[Justin]
The survey data was synthesized and analyzed to understand the Latino/a student-athlete
experience at a predominately White institution. The survey questions that served to inform
theme one are listed below:
As a collegiate student-athlete I believe my family values my participation in sports.
The strongest support was indicated from family valuing participation in sport as current student-
athletes indicated 83.33% Strongly Agree and the other 8.33% Somewhat Agree and former
student-athletes 100% Strongly Agree.
Theme 2: Access to Elite Private Institution and the Perceptional Value of Academics and
Resources Offered

The participants disclosed three aspects of their college experiences including, the need
to get a college degree, the reputation of an elite private four-year institution, and availability of
resources. Justin expressed the “need to go to college” as well as the alumni support.
Well, I guess the perception of college is that I need to go to college to get a degree so
that I can get a good job and work and make money but I feel like the University of
Westeros is a lot different in that with the support of the alumni, it really ... it's kind of
almost like worth more than just any degree you could get. Just having the University of
Westeros title means ... has a lot more worth. [Justin]
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58
There are many factors to consider when deciding on which college to attend; for Tulse the
school she envisioned needed to have both academic and athletic programs that would take her to
the next level.
I looked at a lot of the PAC 12 schools and I just wanted to go to a school that was really
good academically, but also really good like athletics. The University of Westeros was a
really, really good school or in my top five always. And so, that definitely helped me get
to the next level. I look at it from a sports view, so it was like not that academics wasn't
important, but definitely athletics played a bigger factor and was more important to me.
But I still wanted to make sure that the school I went to had both. [Tulse]
Inez echoes the sentiments of having the name of the institution on her resume. Additionally,
from her perspective of how the name of the university would benefit beyond athletics and into
the job market.
I need to figure out what's the best option for me, to move forward with my life, once
this period of time in my life is over. I toured the University of Westeros knowing that, if
I have the University of Westeros on my resume, and I'm applying to jobs, they're gonna
see that and be like, "Okay, this girl went to the University of Westeros." So, that was
my reason for choosing. [Inez]
The survey question that served to inform the theme of access to elite private institution is
listed below:
I feel college athletics is a main access point to earn a college degree. The survey data
show that current and former Latino/a student-athletes tended to indicate some agreement that
college athletics was a main access point to earn a college degree. Current student-athletes
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59
indicated 53.85% Strongly Agree, 30.77% Somewhat Agree, 15.38% Somewhat Disagree
whereas former student-athletes 100% Strongly Agree.
In regards to perception of academic value, the participants described the support they
received and how it helped during their time at the university. This is exemplified in the
comment by Tulse and Justin from the interview.
I had a lot of tutoring my first couple years because I was homeschooled when I was in
high school and so, for me that was a really big transition because I had to sit in class for
like two hours. But I had tutors and then a lot of the faculty I could go to them with
papers or help write my resume, or if I had to give a speech or something. There were a
lot of different people that I could go to and everyone was always open and willing to
help, so I think that made it also a lot easier to reach out. I knew that the faculty wanted
to help me. That made me also want to help myself. [Tulse]
Both participants felt they received an immense amount of support, specifically during the
transition period from high school to college. Justin credited student-athlete academic services.
It really benefited me especially my freshman and sophomore year. Granted, I didn't like
the 8am tutors but all in all they were always there. I mean there was always someone
there to help out. People don't really give, I feel like, SAAS enough credit but they really
do deserve a lot more praise for as much time that they invest into those students because
those students would not have the same amount of success if it weren't without you guys.
[Justin]
In the following responses students differed in how they perceived campus resources, the
interview responses reflected they did not take full advantage of such opportunities.
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60
I knew it was there, but if I didn't reach out then no one would reach out to me. So, it was
up to me to take advantage of like I said, the computer lab, because I remember I wasn't
doing too well in classes in the first couple of years. Yeah, it was kind of just up to me to
be on myself to pick up those grades, especially, I feel like sometimes my standards of
getting my good grades were up here; other people might have been a little bit lower. I
was getting those lower grades and it was like, okay, he's doing okay. But, in my eyes, I
wasn't doing great. [Paul]
Paul felt like it was up to him to improve his grades because he had high standards, but Inez did
not take advantage of the support and felt her grades would be okay.
My perception was that I didn't use them enough. I think they were great, I think they did
a great job, 'cause I know that they helped a lot of my teammates, but I had a little bit too
much of an ego of college, thinking that, "I don't need any help! I'm fine." For me, I was
definitely under prepared. But, as school goes on, you start catching up little by little.
[Inez]
This question from the survey addressed campus resources and services used at the university:
I use campus resources and services, like tutoring or academic advising to help me
be a better student-athlete. Current student-athletes indicated a high level of use of such
resources, with 92.31% Strongly Agree, 7.69% Somewhat Agree; former students
responded with 60% Strongly Agree, 30% Somewhat Agree and 10% Somewhat
Disagree.
Theme 3: Importance of Teammate and Coaching Relationships
Both current and former student athletes indicated that connecting with teammates and
creating long lasting relationships was important to them. In fact, they often described them as
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61
family. Furthermore, building positive connections in which they appreciated the coaching
relationship, led to enduring relationships. The following quotes came from the interviews:
Our team was really close. I lived with all my teammates all of my years. We always
hung out outside of practice, we'd go eat dinners and we'd go out together and just go
shopping on weekends, which also made it a lot easier and more fun. I was playing next
to like my best friends and it makes you try harder, because you're not just playing for
yourself anymore. [Tulse]
Justin and Ashley described their teammates as family. Justin said “I become really close
with the guys. We did everything together. I mean it's essentially a brother. You're pushing each
other to each other's potential academically and athletically. And so, you really just create a bond
that really lasts forever. Ashely had a similar experience, saying “Pretty much a lot of my
experience was positive, just because of the team. We were like sisters. We had a very special
bond that I know a lot of teams didn't have.” Paul spoke highly of his relationship with his coach,
whom he credited with giving him confidence, and he was able to earn a scholarship for track.
Paul also stated the following: “He made me feel like I was a part of the team and that I was an
essential part of the team.”
The theme of teammates and coaching relationships was explored through the following
survey question:
I feel supported by my coaches and teammates transitioning to college. The data
showed the majority of former and current Latino/a student-athletes felt supported by coaches
and teammates. Current student-athletes responded 53.85% Strongly Agree and the other 46.15%
Somewhat Agree; former student-athletes responded 70% Strongly Agree, 20% Somewhat
Agree and 10% Somewhat Disagree.
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62
Theme 4: Identification and Representation
In spite of attending a predominately White Institution, participants stated they did not
have a different experience due to their ethnicity. The data showed that former Latino/a student-
athletes felt their teams were diverse and that the institution was inclusive. In the interview,
Tulse and Paul both said jokes were made about their ethnicity, but that it was all in good fun.
We would like make jokes that I'm Latin or like that I'm Mexican, but I'd never felt like
discriminated against or anything. Our team was also very diverse. A lot of our parents
had immigrated to the US. My dad's from Mexico, one of my other teammates, one of her
parents came from Panama, one from Asia, or my other teammates parents they
immigrated from China. So a lot of our parents had immigrated here. So, we were all like
a bunch of different races so it wasn't weird. I never felt discriminated against. [Tulse]
Paul’s narrative was similar, acknowledging the ethnic jokes that were made:
I was always like the only Mexican, so it was always fun, there was always good jokes
here and there. But, I didn't ever feel discriminated against my teammates because I was
Latino. I think, is this like more of a funny thing, like oh, I'm the only Mexican. I have
this whole track team checked into and being the only Latino, it was kind of like a joke.
[Paul]
Inez said she did not have “typical” Latina features, which meant she was often overlooked as
being Latina.
I don't look Latina in any way. I got all the very fair genetics. I have light brown hair,
light eyes, and light skin. I blended in with, you know, quote unquote, the norm, I guess.
If I started talking to someone in Spanish, or something, and they'd be like, "Whoa! You
speak Spanish?" And I'm like, "Yes." in contrast to other teams, the water polo team at
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the University of Westeros is typically very diverse. When I was there, there was a
Brazilian on my team, there was multiple people from Australia. There was a girl from
Trinidad and Tobago, and there was a couple girls from Greece. There was a girl from
Holland, there was a girl from Hungary, so there's a very diverse group of people [Inez]
It is important to note the location of the institution – which is in a highly diverse, urban
area – seemed to impact students’ perception of diversity on campus. In most cases, the
participants associated the diverse location of their university with the actual diversity on
campus. Interview responses echoed these perceptions, though the participants ultimately
acknowledged the low numbers of Latino/as within the school. Tulse expressed her perception
by saying “It’s hard to discriminate if there's so many Latin people in LA and LA's known for
that, so I feel like you're maybe like a part of the city, maybe not. There might not be as many in
our school, but its growing I guess.” Tulse also commented on her interaction with Latino people
by saying “there's a lot of Latin people in LA. So In the cafeteria not all the people but there are a
lot of people who worked there that are Latin. So when I went there, it was like cool for me
cause I would like speak Spanish to them and its like I never speak Spanish to anyone.” It was
further evident that the low number of Latino/as within the school existed in the following
remarks.
Predominately White, yeah. I guess it's really diverse as in there's a lot of diverse people
but just not in quantity. [Justin]
Paul realized that the number of Latinos in the classroom was limited and hoped to have more
social interactions with other Latinos.
I felt special and unique because I was the only Latino, so it was something to kind of
live up to. I like being able to say that sometimes, that I was the only Mexican out there.
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Academically, just being in the classroom, I didn't feel like there was a lot of Latinos out
there, I think I wish, yeah, that's one thing. I wish I had more connections with other
Latinos. The only times I could socialize with other people was when I was in the
classroom. There wasn't people that I could look up to, kind of go to advice for, I felt
like. [Paul]
Similarly, Ashley recognized there was minimal representation of Latinos on campus:
At the (University of Westeros) I feel like we had some Latinos but not a whole lot, so
maybe that was a bit of a negative. It was not as diverse, but just being open to meeting
new people, especially when you're from a different socio economic background, or
different ethnicity. You're going to be a minority there. [Ashley]
There were two closed ended survey items that addressed the participant’s perceptions as
Latino/a student-athletes.
At the (University of Westeros) I feel like being a Latino/a student-athlete makes me
a minority. With this survey item, 53.85% of current student athletes Somewhat Agree, 7.69%
Strongly Disagree, 15.38% Somewhat Disagree and 23.08% Strong Disagree; for former student-
athletes, 30% Strongly Agree, 20% Somewhat Agree, 30% Strongly Disagree, and 20%
Somewhat Disagree.
As a collegiate student-athlete I feel being a Latino/a student-athlete makes me
different from other student-athletes. Based on the Likert scale data, survey responses varied
among both current and former Latino/a student-athletes in regards to feeling different from
other student-athletes: 33.33% of current student athletes Somewhat Agree, 41.67% Strongly
Disagree, 25% Somewhat Disagree and for former student-athletes 20% Strongly Agree, 30%
Somewhat Agree, 20% Strongly Disagree, 30% Somewhat Disagree
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Theme 5: Career Skills, Support Networks, and Opportunities
Four of the five participants recognized sports and the unique transferrable skills they
developed through their participation. The participants citied in their interviews how these skills
help in their current professional field. Justin discussed his team orientation in his current job:
My job with the Kings it's really kind of a team. It's a really team oriented job. And,
playing collegiate sports it's obviously, especially baseball, it's a team it's 100% a team
effort. I mean doing your part and then also being selfless is really what you learn to
takeaway as being a student athlete. Having that translate over into the real world will
definitely put you in a much better position and people will notice that. [Justin]
During the off-season, Mr. Lopez used his transferrable skills in his part-time job:
I think it's influenced me, kind of going back to being vocal, and meet people, and
networking, and stuff. I think in that sense it's helped me a lot. I've gotten in contact with
alumni who said they'd be willing to help if I needed it. Whether it be a job or something,
so I think in that sense athletics has helped. [Mr. Lopez]
Support networks. Academic, coaching and parental support were identified by
participants as being important in their career development. Each participant indicated in their
interviews which support network best supported them. Once again Paul credited his
relationship with his coach by saying, “My coach has given me the confidence to just really be a
leader, influenced me wanting to get my doctorate.” He also discussed the support he received
from with his athletic counselor “I think Angela from academic support for the athletics
department, she was helpful in the sense that she helped me get that scholarship for the Pac-12.
Just knowing that she was there to support me after my undergrad. That was nice.”

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Tulse identified her parents as her support network:
My parents have always backed me up. My dad has always really pushed me really hard.
He always liked playing tennis when he was younger, but he never had everything, even
though I don't have everything, for him I do have it all because he had nothing. And you
know he really wants me to succeed and you know having him behind me has been really
helpful. And then my coaches at the University of Westeros, they've always been very
supportive. I always said I would go pro, but I never knew if I could actually do it or
make it. But my coaches were always supportive and you know there's been times where
I'm like, "Oh I should quit," or, "It's not going well." There's a lot of up and downs, but
you know they've always been there supporting me. [Tulse]
Much like Tulse, Inez referred to her mom as her support network:
Well my mom ever since I was a kid has been an entertainment writer. That definitely
influenced me getting a taste of, "I wanna work in entertainment someday." Her taking
me to movie premieres when I was a kid. And me being exposed to all that, or her taking
me to her office when I was a kid, and just seeing what she did every day, was definitely
a big influence. My dad planted the athletics, and got me to college. My mom planted the
creative seed that influenced me to get my creative writing major. [Inez]
One survey question asked participants about support from the institution:
I feel supported by all staff. On average participants felt they were adequately supported
by university staff. Current students responded with 76.92% Strongly Agree, 23.087%
Somewhat Agree; former student-athletes reported 80% Strongly Agree, 10% Somewhat Agree
and another 10% Somewhat Disagree.
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Career opportunities. Five out of the six participants also acknowledge earning their
degree was important and how the elite reputation of the university may bring additional career
opportunities. The following excerpts from the participant’s interviews illustrates their
perception of having opportunities due to earning a degree.
Being able to have my BA is so important and didn't realize the importance of it until
after I graduated. Being able to say I have a degree from the University of Westeros and
then now obviously the next step, grad school, getting a master’s degree it's just so
important especially now today with how competitive the job market is and how
competitive jobs are. It's put me in the right position to be successful. [Justin]
Mr. Lopez felt having a degree was respected: “A lot more people respect not only
having a college degree but from the institution that it came from.” Paul said, “It helped me get
into the grad program I'm in and it set me on a really good path... it just opened up a lot more
doors for me to be more professional, in a sense. Ashley, cited having multiple back-up plans
due to the connections she gained through the school. “I knew that getting my degree was super
important, that I wanted to finish my degree. And I knew that with the University of Westeros
there's connections and everything, whatever I think my next career might be that I have a plan B
and plan C.”
The survey item addressing perception of career opportunities is listed below.
My educational experience as a student-athlete exposed me to various career paths.
From the responses, it is evident the majority of participants were in some level of agreement
when asked about exposure to career paths. Among current student-athletes, 69.23% Strongly
Agree, 23.08% Somewhat Agree, 7.69% Somewhat Disagree; former student-athletes 60%
Strongly Agree, 30% Somewhat Agree, 10% Somewhat Disagree. While the survey data
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reaffirms opportunities to be exposed to career paths, detailed responses suggest sports provided
opportunities to develop skills in a career field.
Additional Findings
From the survey and interview data, study participants provided additional insight into
the Latino/a student-athlete experience. Important additional themes emerged, such as Latino/a
role models and the financial impact of college.
Latino/a role models. Two of the six participants were first-generation college students,
and the remaining four were second generation college students. Two current Latino/a student-
athletes were first generation, making the majority second or third college going generation.
During the qualitative interview process, participants were asked “who was your athletic role
model?” Respondents answers ranged from Derek Jeter, Albert Pujols, Mia Hamm and Serena
Williams, each participant citing these role models as having desirable character traits. I then
followed up asking if any had Latino/a athletic role models. Outside of Albert Pujols, who is
Dominican, five of the six participants did not identify any Latino/a athletic role models. One
participant stated, “It's kind of tough because, in the sport of tennis, there's not a lot of Latinos or
Latinas.” Lastly, in the career section of the interview, I asked, “Tell me about any role models
or support networks that influenced the career decision you made?” One participant stated “I do
not have any.” The others described their parents as support networks.
My parents have always backed me up. My parents have always believed in me. My dad
has always really pushed me really hard and I think he really wants me to succeed and
you know having him behind me has been really helpful. [Tulse]

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Well my mom ever since I was a kid has been an entertainment writer. That definitely
influenced me getting a taste of, "I wanna work in entertainment someday." [Inez]
For me it's been mostly my parents I'd say as far as a support group, just because they
really believe in me and they know what I'm capable of. Even if I might not see it, they
really believe in me and support me. [Ashley]
The survey question associated with role models is below.
I felt I had college educated Latino/a role models. Current Latino/a student-athletes
responded with 38.46% Strongly Agree, 38.46% Somewhat Agree, 23.08% Somewhat Disagree;
former student-athletes 30% Strongly Agree and 50% Somewhat Agree, and 20% Somewhat
Disagree.
Financial Impact of College. There were two options to finance their college education:
scholarship or financial aid. Each student understood the expense of a college education and how
that could impact their family.
Yeah. It was definitely really hard for my parents. Tennis is a very ... It’s more of a rich
man sports and we were definitely not rich. It was really hard. The fact that I play tennis,
this literally is the only reason I could go to the University of Westeros. Like there's no
chance my parents could've ever been able to send me to such a prestigious school and
it's so expensive here. And so, without tennis, I never would've made it here. [Tulse]
The following response describes how having tuition assistance was essential and eventually, the
participant earned an athletic scholarship.
I feel like I was kind of fortunate enough that once I came to the University of Westeros
my ... just being that tuition assistance really helped because they never put that pressure
on me that I need to work or why am I doing sports? But, when I was at Pomona I didn't
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have that tuition assistance, so I was working and playing sports and doing school. They
didn't put the pressure on me, but it was more myself putting the pressure to kind of help
them out. [Paul]
Those not on athletic scholarship echoed the sentiments of being in debt now, but that
their parents fully supported their path to play sports and pursue a college education. The next
two responses are from student-athletes that were not funded through athletic scholarship but
received financial aid.
Well, I mean we knew going in that the (University of Westeros) wasn't cheap and my
parents made just enough to where we didn't get as much financially as we would have
wanted or hoped to have gotten. I mean four years later looking at all the debt right now
it's just like, "Dang, that's a lot of debt." Where I mean do I think there should be a better
system in place for that? Yes. Does baseball need more scholarships? Yes. All sports
need more scholarships. [Justin]
Inez also discussed the hardship of having an unemployed parent and using available financial
aid.
One of my parents was unemployed when I first started school, but we qualified for all
this financial aid, so I'm now nicely and heavily in debt now, so that's fun. But in terms of
me finding ... needing to help out my family, my dad still had a job, not to say that it
wasn't difficult, 'cause it definitely was, but they made sure to tell me like, "No. You don't
think about us, we're fine." "Just continue using financial aid, use work to learn about
finances, learn how to spend your money wisely." So I'm very fortunate that I didn't have
to worry about that. [Inez]

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The following survey question addressed financial burden:
Attending college as a student-athlete presents a financial burden for my family. For
current student-athletes the numbers varied: 30.77% Strongly Agree, 30.77% Somewhat Agree,
7.69% Strongly Disagree, 30.77% Somewhat Disagree; former student-athletes responded with
30% Strongly Agree and 10% Somewhat Agree, and 60% Strong Disagree. Through the
interview, the participants acknowledged that college was “not cheap” but they also never felt
pressure to seek work. They were motivated to work harder in their sport and to graduate.
Summary of Findings
This chapter presented an overview of the data collected from six interviews pertaining to
the experiences and perceptions of Latino/a former student-athletes’ challenges and the
persistence they faced applying to, navigating through, and graduating from college. The five
themes showed the importance of how Latino/a student-athletes navigated their way through
college and illuminated their cultural and social environments influence for success, perceptions
and experiences as a collegiate student-athlete.
This chapter provided a review of research questions, participant’s profiles, and emerging
themes. Each theme was supported by the findings through participant’s responses. The final
chapter is an overview of the significant findings which will be connected to the literature
reviewed in a brief discussion. In addition, recommendations for future study will be presented.
This will be followed by implications for current and future research, then concluding remarks.

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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This study examined the experiences of Division I, former and current Latino/a student-
athletes and the connection between family, coaches, and teammates in supporting their
academic success. The rich narratives from the participant experiences shed light on challenges
they faced and uncovered effective strategies that helped them navigate their college experience
at a Predominately White Institution. The purpose of this chapter is to discuss findings and
connect them to the Ecological Theory framework. Chapter Five concludes with
recommendations for practice, a discussion of the implications, and recommendations for future
research.
Discussion of Findings
This section evaluates the data through the framework of Ecological Systems Theory.
The ecological model accounts for history, culture, educational policy, parents and family
development (Bronfenbrenner, 1994). Figure 1 illustrates the ways in which each subsystem
influences each other. In this section, findings from both interview participants and survey
responses of the experiences of current and former Latino/a student-athletes at WU seek to
understand the interconnections and influences between the different systems. Starting with the
overarching research question and moving into more detail of each sub-question.
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Figure X. Student-athlete adaptation of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model.
Overarching Research Question
What do former Division I Latino/a student-athletes perceive were the challenges
they face applying to, navigating through, and graduating from college and what systems
were responsible for addressing those challenges? The experiences of former Latino/a
student-athletes in this study were essential in understanding the ways in which various systems
influenced the process of navigating their college experience. The Ecological System Theory
focuses on the intertwining relationships of the individual and their environments from the
micro, meso, exo and macrosystems (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). From the macro system, one
perceived challenge would be the lack of social capital and understanding how to navigate the
college environment. While many of the participants were second generation college students
and with parental support, the participants were still unfamiliar with college. Colleges need to
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address the lack of social capital for Latino/as in order to help them move through the pipeline
(Hernandez & Lopez, 2004). This could help with retention of students, particularly first year
Latino/a students (Saenz et al., 2007). Students who were unfamiliar with the institution and felt
the “need” to attend but did not fully understand how being in college could help them build the
relationships and knowledge – in essence, social capital – to be successful. The advantages from
a social capital perspective. Participants credited their parents as influencers to attend college.
Bronfenbrenner (1979) would view the “need to go” to college from a microsystem standpoint,
as these participants were second generation college students. Furthermore to meet the cultural
expectation of others, particularly family members, as the parents pushed their children to attend
college thus drawing on the familismo orientation, placing emphasis on their children to be
strong, brave hard working, and family contributors. (Dennis, Phinney, & Chuateco, 2005). This
was a motivating factor for many students, to bring pride to their family through participating in
athletics, earning a scholarship, and graduating from college.
Another perceived challenge could be the lack of representation of other Latino/a student-
athletes, role models, staff and faculty within the university. The university represents the
macrosystem that provides the context in which schooling and socialization take place. There
were two quotes where participants mentioned “jokes” made about race and ethnicity. The jokes
were dismissed; however, it is important to address that the jokes were made within the student’s
microsystem, which could lead to feelings of being singled out. Second, the campus culture,
which represents the mesosystem, can also influence a student’s racial identification pattern
(Renn, 2003). The macrosystem consists of the these integrative systems, the institution and its
representation of society, which has historically trivialized the mistreatment of racial minorities.
This may contribute to a low sense of belonging for Latino/a students in general. Support for
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cultural diversity among students and leaders is needed in order for Latino/a student-athletes to
succeed within the macrosystem (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). To combat this lack of representation,
the participants often cited never feeling discriminated and that their perception of their sport
teams and the athletic community was diverse given the support from teammates within their
microsystem. The College Race and Gender Card (RGRC) in Appendix A shows the lack of
representation of Latino/as, it provides a breakdown of the NCAA and its member institutions
for gender and race in 2012. The Institute for Diversity and Ethics in Sports (TIDES), released
the most recent RGRC for 2017, analyzing the hiring practices among coaches and athletic
department administration, and teams composition. Potential role models include coaches and
administration. However, White coaches dominate, holding 87% of positions on men’s teams
and 85% of women’s teams (Lapchick, 2017). White athletic directors represent 86 percent of all
field (Lapchick, 2017).
Lastly, within the exosystem are the financial barriers that many students face while
attending college. Participants who were on athletic scholarship acknowledged the financial
impact of playing a sport and the affordability of attending an elite private four-year institution
due to their funding. Those who relied on financial aid understood the financial burden it placed
on the family and the debt they would acquire to pay for their college education. Latino/as
received the lowest average amount of financial aid, which continues to be a significant hurdle in
higher education (Santiago & Brown, 2004). In both instances, the family or parental support,
which was a significant part of the microsystem, helped address this challenge. All of the
participant’s parents supported them financially and they cited how fortunate they were to have
such support. Participants also discussed many positive experiences and relationships as they
applied to, navigated through, and graduated from college. All of these supports, which were
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evident in each of the various ecological layers, or systems, gave them a better chance for
success.
Research Sub-Question A
How did parents and coaches influence the recruiting process? Family, friends,
teammates, and coaches are part of the smallest and most intimate system for an individual, also
known as the microsystem (Evans et al., 2009). The research revealed that former Latino/a
student-athletes have positive experiences within the microsystem of family, teammates, coaches
and counselors. Research participants highlighted their parents’ athletic background and
discussed how their parental influence to participate in athletics began as children. The family
and parents are the foundation in which the participants learn how to navigate and fit into society
(Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Regalado (2007) found that Mexican Americans were successful in
sports and sports are essential to identity as athletics was a means to assimilation for ethnic
groups. Second to the family, teammates and coaches represent another microsystem and
alternate avenues through which the participants socialized and were influenced to attend
college. During the recruiting process, coaches and teammates became part of the inner circle of
the microsystem. Coaches use different methods to contact and recruit student-athletes, and
“junior day” was mentioned as a positive recruiting tool. Coaches helped students feel
comfortable and were responsible for making the campus environment feel like home. During
the recruiting process student-athletes also met future teammates, either while being recruited or
once they were already associated with the team. Teammates became closer through shared
experiences and became important influences in the recruiting process.

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Research Sub-Question B
What was the role of academic, athletic, and personal supports in college? In
athletics, participants expressed the strongest relationships with coaches. Coaches generally
control entrance to the team, which then forms part of the student’s microsystem. As part of the
microsystem coaches are important in helping to troubleshoot problems, specifically when
transitioning from high school to college (Smrt, 2001). There was a deep appreciation and
mutual respect described by participants. Teammates play a significant role within the
microsystem also, as they are not only teammates but may also be a classmate. Such interactions
can impact positively or negatively an individual’s development. In the context of this study the
teammate relationships were described as positive and long lasting relationships. The survey data
also supported this finding, as 46.15% somewhat agreed and 53.85% of current student-athletes
strongly agreed they felt supported by coaches and teammates; 70% of former student-athletes
shared this opinion.
The relationships a Latino/a student-athlete develops in college are critical to positive
development. The four to five years spent at the institution are important, and the relationships
fostered can have an impact on the Latino/a student-athlete college experience. Academic
counselors are vital to the success of Latino/a student-athletes success in meeting their
educational goals. Academic counselors play a critical role in providing knowledge specific to
student-athlete requirements (Community College Counselors/Advisors Academic Association
for Athletes, 2014). Academic counselors advise student-athletes on matters of curriculum,
course and degree requirements, and graduation counseling. Participants discussed the benefits
of having an academic counselor as they transitioned from high school to college. Participants
highlighted the academic resources, describing the academic support staff as “very helpful.” The
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academic counselors were characterized as “someone always able to help.” The survey data
showed a strong sense of support from all staff, with over 80% of all participants feeling
supported.
In the survey response, 60% of the participants used campus resources and services, like
tutoring or academic advising, to help them be a better student-athlete, however admitted to
mainly focusing on athletics. Furthermore, student-athletes reported that they rarely received
awards or accolades related to their academic role, and only one student could share such an
experience. Students expressed being academically under prepared and struggled with time
management as they adjusted to college. While there was academic support like tutoring, there
was also mention of underutilization of resources. It is critical for academic support systems to
reinforce campus peer culture through the importance of tutoring which ultimately affects the
student’s development (Renn, 2003).
Research Sub-Question C
This question asked, “What, if any, career related benefits do Latino/a student-athletes
perceived they received as a result of their involvement with college athletics?” Bronfenbrenner
and Morris, (2006) wrote that in order for development to occur, an individual must engage in an
activity. In order for it to be effective the activity must take place on a fairly regular basis, over
extended periods of time. For participants, the development of transferrable skills such as being
confident, team oriented, strong work ethic and mental toughness, were acquired as collegiate
student-athletes. Perez and Saenz (2009) argued that Latino student may choose to delay
enrollment to help support their family financially. However, Latino student-athletes have gained
transferrable skills to help in the workforce once they complete their degree. Bronfenbrenner
(1979) defines the exosystem as more than one setting which the individual is not actively
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involved but the developmental possibilities are influenced by what happens in that setting. One
example would be the career center partnering with the athletic department, building a lateral
relationship across the exosystem having the potential to indirectly connect students to jobs,
resume workshops, job applications and interview techniques. With the benefits of transferrable
skills, and an elite college degree, participants felt they had the alumni support and two of the six
participants who are pursuing a graduate degrees felt such benefits helped in the graduate school
application process.
Recommendations
This section offers recommendations to athletics administrators, coaches, staff, and
faculty to positively impact Latino/a student-athletes’ lives, to increase size of the Latino/a
student-athlete population and ultimately to close the degree attainment gap.
Recommendation 1 – The U.S. Department of Education, the NCAA and Sports
Conference Commissioners need to provide a complete database which includes transfers
and non-scholarships students in a disaggregated format.

The federal database does not account for undergraduates who transfer between schools
and the NCAA database is inclusive of only scholarship student-athletes therefore the two are
incomparable. There is a need to provide research reports that disaggregate data by race, sex,
sport, and division. Furthermore, the NCAA should establish a commission on racial equity.
Harper, Williams and Blackman (2013) claim disaggregated data reports can raise consciousness
within and beyond the NCAA about the persistence and pervasiveness of racial inequities and
partners with athletic conferences and institutions to develop policies and programs that help
narrow racial gaps.
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Recommendation 2 – Administrators and coaches need to connect Latino/a student-athletes
to an institutional agent who is Latino/a.

This is one form of connecting Latino/a student-athletes with the Latinx Center as they
provide cultural support and help students develop leadership skills. Institutional agents from the
Latinx Center can serve as role models or as a mentor, and someone to which Latino/a student-
athletes could relate. Patton (2009) noted that more faculty and staff must take responsibility to
show themselves as mentors. This is important because few Latino/as are employed as senior
administrators, coaches, or faculty. Therefore, there must be intentionality with either pairing
Latino/a student-athletes with faculty or professional mentors or encouraging Latino/a student-
athletes to have a faculty/staff mentor.
Recommendation 3 – The institution, athletic administrators, coaches, journalist and sports
media can increase the visibility of Latino/a student-athletes.

Making Latino/a student-athletes feel that their diversity is valued could lead to racial
capitalism. According to Leong (2012), racial capitalism is defined as deriving social or
economic value from non-White racial identity. Team posters, athletic websites and social media
are tools the institution can use that could have a tremendous positive influence on recruitment
and retention of Latino/a student-athletes. Journalist and sports media should highlight not only
Latino/a athleticism but simultaneously how well they perform in the classroom.
Recommendation 4 – Parents, high school, and club coaches need to inspire Latino/a
students to stay in sports.

Multiple factors can create barriers for Latino/as continuing to play sports and degree
attainment. Beginning in adolescence research by the National Alliance for Sports indicated 70
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81
percent of children leave organized athletics by their teenage years, and that by the age of 14,
girls are twice as likely to drop out of sports. As they get older Latino/a students represent a
portion of low-income households, and may therefore opt to join the workforce to help their
family financially then attend college. While Latino/as value education, college degree
attainment aspirations is not translating in the completion numbers. To have the greatest impact,
Latino/as need to take advantage of opportunities to participate in sports and education as these
two arenas together can lead to positive change. Research has found that sports participation
leads to positive educational outcomes (Mackin & Walther, 2012). Furthermore, participation in
sports contributes to student-athlete character development, skills, and opportunities to acquire a
desirable career post-college. Parents, high school and club coaches can inspire future Latino/a
student-athletes by attending practices and games, where there is representation of Latino/a
student-athlete and the proven pipeline to college.
Future Research
Given the limited research on Latino/a collegiate student-athletes, more extensive and in-
depth study on Latino/a student-athletes is needed in order to formulate a clearer picture. First,
future qualitative studies which incorporate a larger participant group to expand on the Latino/a
student-athlete experience will be important, including at difference between gender groups.
Additionally, extending the current research design to other predominately White institutions, as
well as Hispanic serving institutions, can further illustrate the unique experiences of Latino/a
student-athletes. Researchers able to conduct similar studies at other institutions for
benchmarking can use straightforward comparison performance data (Dowd, 2005). Part of
bench marking involves comparing organizations for assessment and it is critical to select
institutions that are comparable to refrain from discrepancies (Bensimon, Hao, & Bustillos,
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82
2007). Athletic departments can learn from other Division I institutions at which Latino/a
student-athletes graduate at rates comparable to or higher than student-athletes overall and
undergraduate students overall. Since it was not addressed in this study, additional inquiries
looking into enrollment and graduation rates of Latino/a general population as well as the
Latino/a student-athlete population. Furthermore, the data should be disaggregated and tracked
as they can provide measures to distinguish if results are comparable or differ significantly from
peer institutions. While the NCAA collects and publishes this data it is not disaggregated, and
statistical information the NCAA does provide is essentially dormant as key stakeholders do not
seek to understand the meaning behind the numbers. Future research of racial composition of
individual sports teams in comparison to racial demographics within the undergraduate student
body as well as inequities in graduation rates are necessary to narrow the underrepresentation of
Latino/a student-athletes. This can help provide insight into the disproportionate number of
Latino/a college student-athletes. This process allows for coaches and counselors, two important
mesosystems, to observe and investigate best practices. Benchmarking can provide a clear image
of the institution's capabilities as well as deficiencies of the athletic program to increase the
number of Latino/a student-athletes.
Conclusion
Current research contributes to our insight of the underrepresentation of Latino student-
athletes in collegiate athletics by extensively describing the historical development and
framework of Latino/a students in higher education. This research has shown that Latino/a
student-athletes’ live within various systems that influence their opportunity to pursue a degree
in higher education. Applying Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory there is a greater
understanding regarding how Latino/a student-athletes are influenced by the closest
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83
environments like family, coaches, and teammates and also by the broadest environment such as
financial and visibility aspects.
This review has exposed many implications for athletic administration, coaches, staff,
faculty, and student-athletes. Limited studies have sought to interpret the college experience of
Latino/a student-athletes and why intercollegiate athletic participation rates are low.
Understanding the experience of Latino/a student-athletes can increase support from the family,
improve participation in organized sports, lead to higher retention rates, and positive impacts on
Latino/a student-athletes lives. The findings from this study can be useful to those who work in
intercollegiate athletics such as coaches and administration, furthermore, practitioners, teachers,
faculty and student affairs. Moreover, student affairs professionals working with this population
who can empower students academically and socially and understand the challenges of this
population may also benefit from the findings.
Latino/a student-athletes come from a variety of different backgrounds, each presenting a
myriad of challenges and barriers in their pursuit of a college degree. It is important to
understand these experiences to develop best practices to provide this population with support to
increase the Latino/a student-athlete population and ultimately close the degree attainment gap.
Working with this population will require coaches and educators to take into account rich
cultural traditions, explicit needs, motivations, and goals.

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APPENDIX A
College Sport Racial and Gender Report Card
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APPENDIX B
Recruitment Email

Dear (Name),
My name is Renee Ramos and I am a doctoral candidate in the Rossier School of
Education at the University of Southern California. I am conducting a research study as part of
my dissertation, which examines current and former Division I Latino/a student-athletes and
their experiences in applying to, navigating through, and graduating from college. You are
cordially invited to participate in the study.

If you agree, you will be invited to complete an online survey that contains multiple choice and
short answer questions. The survey can be accessed here.

The online survey is anticipated to take no more than 10 minutes to complete and will assist me
in collecting general data and find 8-10 people to interview.

If you meet the criteria, I will contact you to schedule a date and time for your individual
interview. The interview will be about 45-60 minutes long and will be audio-taped, with your
permission.

Participation in this study is completely voluntary and your identity will remain confidential at
all times during and after the study.

If you have questions, please contact me at reneeram@usc.edu or 909-224-2788.
Thank you for your participation,

Renee Ramos
Doctoral Candidate – Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California

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APPENDIX C
Survey Questions for Graduates

Please answer the following questions to the best of your ability. All responses will remain
confidential.

Gender

What is your age?

Did you graduate from X University?

If yes, what year?

Do you identify as (list all relevant titles .. Hispanic, Chicano, Latino)
What language do you usually speak at home?
What is your father’s highest education level?
What is your mother’s highest education level?
Did your mother or father attend college?
What sport team(s) were you affiliated with? Did you receive any athletic scholarships while you
were at this university?
What was your major in college?
What country did you live in prior to attending college?
I felt college athletics was a main access point to earn a college degree
Strongly Disagree Somewhat Disagree Somewhat Agree Strongly
Agree
1 2 3 4

I felt I had college educated Latino/a role models
Strongly Disagree Somewhat Disagree Somewhat Agree Strongly
Agree
1 2 3 4

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I felt supported by my coaches and teammates during my transition to college
Strongly Disagree Somewhat Disagree Somewhat Agree Strongly
Agree
1 2 3 4

When I was a collegiate student-athlete I believe my family valued my participation in sports
Strongly Disagree Somewhat Disagree Somewhat Agree Strongly
Agree
1 2 3 4

Attending college as a student-athlete presented a financial burden for my family
Strongly Disagree Somewhat Disagree Somewhat Agree Strongly
Agree
1 2 3 4

At the University of Westeros I felt like being a Latino/a student-athlete made me a minority
Strongly Disagree Somewhat Disagree Somewhat Agree Strongly
Agree
1 2 3 4

When I was a collegiate student-athlete I felt being a Latino/a student-athlete made me different
from other student-athletes
Strongly Disagree Somewhat Disagree Somewhat Agree Strongly
Agree
1 2 3 4

While I was in college, I felt supported by all staff
Strongly Disagree Somewhat Disagree Somewhat Agree Strongly
Agree
1 2 3 4

While in college, I used campus resources and services, like tutoring or academic advising to
help me be a better student-athlete
Strongly Disagree Somewhat Disagree Somewhat Agree Strongly
Agree
1 2 3 4

My educational experience as a student-athlete exposes me to various career paths
Strongly Disagree Somewhat Disagree Somewhat Agree Strongly
Agree
1 2 3 4

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Would you be willing to participate in a 45-60 minute interview?
 Yes
 No

If yes, please fill out the information below:
Cell_______________
Email______________
Please circle your preferred way to contact you: phone email
Thank you!

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APPENDIX D
Survey Questions for Current Latino/a Student-Athletes

Please answer the following questions to the best of your ability. All responses will remain
confidential.

Gender

What is your age?

What year are you in at X University?

What is your expected graduation date from X University?

Do you identify as (list all relevant titles .. Hispanic, Chicano, Latino)
What language do you usually speak at home?
What is your father’s highest education level?
What is your mother’s highest education level?
What college going generation are you?
What sport team(s) were you affiliated with? Did you receive any athletic scholarships while you
were at this university?
What is your major in college?
What country did you live in prior to attending college?
I feel college athletics is a main access point to earn a college degree
Strongly Disagree Somewhat Disagree Somewhat Agree Strongly
Agree
1 2 3 4

I felt I had college educated Latino/a role models
Strongly Disagree Somewhat Disagree Somewhat Agree Strongly
Agree
1 2 3 4

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I feel supported by my coaches and teammates transitioning to college
Strongly Disagree Somewhat Disagree Somewhat Agree Strongly
Agree
1 2 3 4

As a collegiate student-athlete I believe my family values my participation in sports
Strongly Disagree Somewhat Disagree Somewhat Agree Strongly
Agree
1 2 3 4

Attending college as a student-athlete presents a financial burden for my family
Strongly Disagree Somewhat Disagree Somewhat Agree Strongly
Agree
1 2 3 4

At the University of Westeros I feel like being a Latino/a student-athlete makes me a minority
Strongly Disagree Somewhat Disagree Somewhat Agree Strongly
Agree
1 2 3 4

As a collegiate student-athlete I feel being a Latino/a student-athlete makes me different from
other student-athletes
Strongly Disagree Somewhat Disagree Somewhat Agree Strongly
Agree
1 2 3 4

I feel supported by all staff
Strongly Disagree Somewhat Disagree Somewhat Agree Strongly
Agree
1 2 3 4

I use campus resources and services, like tutoring or academic advising to help me be a better
student-athlete
Strongly Disagree Somewhat Disagree Somewhat Agree Strongly
Agree
1 2 3 4

My educational experience as a student-athlete exposed me to various career paths
Strongly Disagree Somewhat Disagree Somewhat Agree Strongly
Agree
1 2 3 4

LATINO/A COLLEGE STUDENT-ATHLETES

103
APPENDIX E
Information Sheet
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089-4033

INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

STUDENT AFFAIRS EDUCATORS WHO SERVE STUDENT VETERANS:
EXAMINING THEIR EXPERIENCE, KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS, AND DISPOSITION
AND HOW THESE QUALITIES MAY INFLUENCE PRACTICE

You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Renee Ramos under the
supervision of Dr. Tracy Tambascia, at the University of Southern California. Research studies
include only people who voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about
this study. You should ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
Currently, little is known about Latino/a student-athletes college experiences and its impact on the
underrepresentation of the population. Therefore, this research study aims to understand the
experiences of former Latino/a student-athletes to understand their perceived challenges and how
they navigated college, starting from the recruiting process, moving into interactions with
academic and athletic support systems, and ending with graduation. The research findings may
highlight the need for additional research, support recommendations for professional development
and best practices, and may influence positive outcomes for this population of students and look
to increase the number of those students retained for enrollment and ultimately the attainment of
undergraduate degrees.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in a 45-60 minute, audio-
recorded interview. You do not have to answer any questions you do not want to answer and can
decline to be recorded. Handwritten notes will be taken in this case. If recording has been initiated,
you will be able to stop being recorded at any time.

CONFIDENTIALITY
Any identifiable information obtained in connection with this study will remain confidential. Data
saved on the researcher’s computer will be password protected and any hard-copy data will be
shredded after the study has been completed. Your responses will be coded with a false name
(pseudonym) and maintained separately. You have the right to review the audio recording and
transcripts of your interview. The audio-tapes will be destroyed once they have been transcribed
and the interview transcriptions will be shredded once the study is completed.

LATINO/A COLLEGE STUDENT-ATHLETES

104
The members of the research team, and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies
to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

When the results of the research are published, or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research study, please contact the following
Renee Ramos at reneeram@usc.edu or phone at 909-224-2788 or Faculty
Advisor Dr. Tracy Tambascia at tpoon@rossier.usc.edu or (213) 740-9747.

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu

LATINO/A COLLEGE STUDENT-ATHLETES

105

APPENDIX F
Interview Protocol
Introductory Protocol:
I’d like to thank you once again for being willing to participate in the interview aspect of my
study. My role is to serve as the interviewer for this study. I am a doctoral student at the
University of Southern California conducting research in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of Doctorate in Higher Education Administration.

Essentially, this document states that: (1) data collected will be held confidential and will not be
shared with other students on campus or with faculty/staff, (2) you are free to withdraw from the
study and discontinue participation at any time without penalty. Answering these questions
should not take longer than an hour.

Before we get started, I would like to provide you a general overview of my study and give you
the chance to ask any questions you might have about participating in this interview. The topic of
my study will focus the educational perceptions of former Latino/a student-athletes and
understand the challenges they faced while in college. Furthermore, the research questions in this
study will focus on the experiences and perceptions of individuals. Therefore, to guide this study
from a qualitative approach, the following research questions were developed:

What do former Division I Latino/a student-athletes perceive were the challenges they
faced applying to, navigating through, and graduating from college and what systems were
responsible for addressing those challenges? Additionally, the following sub-questions will be
explored:
a. How did parents and coaches influence the recruiting process?
b. What was the role of academic, athletic, and personal supports in college?
c. Which, if any, career related benefits do Latino/a student-athletes perceive they received
as a result of their involvement with college athletics?

Interview Questions:
Section – Recruiting Institution
1. How did you get on the path to pursue a collegiate athletic career?
2. How did coaches reach out to you?
3. Explain how you decided to come to this institution and who helped you make
that decision.
4. Tell me about the kinds of positive experiences have you had at this institution?
If any, what kinds of negative experiences have you had at this institution?
5. Can you explain your perceptions about attending college?
6. Describe the main motivating factors for attending college?

LATINO/A COLLEGE STUDENT-ATHLETES

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Section – Athletics
1. Describe your experience on your sports team and your relationships with your
teammates.
2. Describe your relationships with your coaches.
3. What would you tell an incoming Latino/a student-athlete to help in their
transition to this institution?
3. Do you think you had a different experience because of your ethnicity? Can you describe these
differences?
4. Do you feel like you identified strongly with either your academic role or athletic role? Which
role do you most strongly identify with and why?
5. What was your motivation for playing college athletics? Why?

Section – Academics
1. How did you perceive the academic support staff?
2. If any, what challenges have you encountered related to your academic role?
3. Can you share some accolades, rewards, or praise you received related to your academic role?
4. Explain how campus services and resources have helped you manage your academic and
athletic roles?

Section – Family/Culture
1. Did your family value your participation in sports?
2. How did your family/parents feel about you pursuing your education while playing sports?
3. Did sports conflict with economics of the family?
4. How do you see sports as a vehicle to advance economically?
5. Who was your athletic role model? And why?
6. Describe your feelings about race/ethnicity
7. Can you describe how you felt your ethnicity was barrier or privilege both in playing your
sport and academically?

Section – Career
1. What is your current occupation?
2. How has being a student-athlete influenced your career-decision making process?
3. Tell me about any role models or support networks that influenced the career decision you
made?
4. How has completing your degree impacted your career trajectory?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This qualitative study examined the experiences of former Latino/a collegiate student-athletes to better understand the perceived challenges they faced as college athletes. Ecological Systems Theory was used as a lens from which to view the Latino/a student-athlete and the interconnections between the different systems, including history, culture, educational policy, and family development. A number of issues were examined, including the perceived challenges Latino/a student-athletes faced during their college experience, and how the university’s athletics department and other support systems supported their goal of completing a college degree. While other historically marginalized groups have seen an increase in intercollegiate participation and subsequent research, the Latino/a population has yet to experience either, despite a significant growth in the population. Using survey analysis and interviews from six former Latino/a student-athletes, findings included the following themes: (1) exposure and influencers to college, (2) perceptional value of academics and school reputation, (3) importance of teammate and coaching relationships, (4) identities and ethnic representation, (5) career skills, support networks and opportunities, and (6) additional findings on the educational perceptions of former Latino/a student-athletes and the challenges they faced applying to, navigating through, and graduating from college. Recommendations for practice include the NCAA providing disaggregated data, administrators and coaches connecting Latino/a student-athletes to institutional agents, increase visibility of Latino/a student-athletes and parents, high school and club coaches inspire Latino/a students to stay in sports.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Ramos, Renee (author)

Core Title Latino/a college student-athletes: Influences on recruitment, enrollment and degree completion

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 07/26/2018

Defense Date 04/09/2018

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Division I,ecological systems theory,latino/a student-athletes,NCAA,OAI-PMH Harvest,student-athletes

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Tambascia, Tracy (committee chair), Hinga, Briana (committee member), Hoffman, Jamie (committee member)

Creator Email ramosra00@gmail.com,reneeram@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-24408

Unique identifier UC11671928

Identifier etd-RamosRenee-6506.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-24408 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-RamosRenee-6506.pdf

Dmrecord 24408

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Ramos, Renee

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA