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Cultivating a growth mindset: an exploration of teacher beliefs and learning environments
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Running head: CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET:
AN EXPLORATION OF TEACHER BELIEFS AND LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS
by
Sandra Song
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
December 2018
Copyright 2018 Sandra Song
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 2
Acknowledgments
The decision to pursue a doctoral degree is not something to be taken lightly. Most
doctoral candidates have full-time careers and families. It is not possible without a strong support
system. To that end, I want to acknowledge my professors and fellow students at the Rossier
School of Education. All the coursework have enriched not only world perspective but have
contributed to my ever-growing body of knowledge. My fellow students have encouraged me in
so many ways, from light-hearted talk to the prodding to continue to “Write On!”
I would especially like to acknowledge my dissertation committee. My dissertation chair,
Dr. David Cash, has been a positive support during this writing journey. His encouragement and
helpful feedback has been instrumental in motivating me to write in a clear and concise manner.
Cohort meetings were always informative and uplifting. I couldn’t have asked for a better
dissertation chair. The incredible wisdom and inspiration from committee member, Dr. Rudy
Castruita, is a treasure that I will never forget. I thank Dr. Castruita for challenging me and
stretching me beyond what I thought was capable. Lastly, I want to thank Dr. Laurie Love, for
agreeing to be on my dissertation committee, and for her guidance and feedback during this
process. I have had the wonderful privilege of having all three dissertation committee members
as professors in one of the classes at Rossier, and I have learned so much from each one of them.
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 3
Table of Contents
List of Tables 5
List of Figures 6
Abstract 7
Dedication 8
Chapter One: Overview 9
Introduction 9
Background of the Problem 9
Historical Context 10
District and School Conext 11
Statement of the Problem 20
Purpose of the Study 22
Significance of the Study 23
Limitations and Delimitations 23
Definition of Terms 25
Organization of the Study 26
Chapter Two: Literature Review 27
Introduction 27
What is a Growth Mindset? 28
A Conceptual Framework 28
Implicit Theories 28
Fixed Mindset 29
Growth Mindset 30
Grit 34
Theoretical Frameworks around Growth Mindset 36
Social Cognitive Theorty 36
Self-Efficacy Theory 40
Goal Orientation Theory 41
Attribution Theory 42
Neuroscience behind Learning 46
Social Emotional Learning 48
Role of Educator’s Beliefs in an Effective Learning Environment 52
Effective Learning Environments 52
Role of Teachers 55
Teacher Beliefs 55
Setting High Expectations 58
Growth Mindset Interventions 59
Conclusion 61
Chapter Three: Methodology 63
Introduction 63
Purpose of the Study 64
Conceptual and Theoretical Framework 64
Research Questions 64
Research Design 65
Population and Sample 66
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 4
Population 66
Sampling Criterion and Rationale 67
Criterion 1 67
Criterion 2 67
Instrumentation 69
Interviews 70
Observations 71
Documents and Artifact Review 72
Reliability and Validity 72
Ethics 74
Data Analysis 76
Summary 76
Chapter Four: Summary of Findings 78
Participating Stakeholders 79
Participant #1: Annie 79
Participant #2: Betty 80
Participant #3: Cecilia 80
Participant #4: Doug 80
Participant #5: Emma 81
Participant #6: Frank 81
Participant #7: Gigi 81
Participant #8: Henry 81
Process to Analyze Data 82
Findings 86
Research Question 1 87
Belief that Learning is a Process 87
Build Self-Efficacy 90
Research Question 2 91
Teacher as Facilitator 91
Setting a Positive Culture in the Classroom 95
Language of the Classroom 97
Research Question 3 98
Feedback to Improve 98
Feeling Safe 100
Synthesis and Chapter Summary 101
Chapter Five: Conclusions 105
Summary of Findings 105
Implications 109
Future Research 110
Conclusions 112
References 113
Appendix A: Participant Consent Form 131
Appendix B: Schedule for Semi-Structured Interview 134
Appendix C: Observation Notes from Emma’s Classroom 137
Appendix D: Artifact-Language of Growth versus Fixed Mindset 144
Appendix E: Artifact-Feedback 146
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 5
List of Tables
Table 1: District and school smarter balanced summative data 13
Table 2: School climate survey selected results 16
Table 3: Participant information 69
Table 4: Demographic data of student sin each teacher participant’s
class 82
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 6
List of Figures
Figure A: Farrington’s hypothesized model of how five
noncognitive factors affect academic performance within
a classroom/school and larger socio-cultural context 20
Figure B: A conceptual framework to illustrate the various theories
in growth mindset 28
Figure C: Bandura’s social cognitive theory 37
Figure D: Weiner’s original attribution model 43
Figure E: Creswell’s data analysis approach for qualitative research 84
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 7
Abstract
This study applies social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986) and implicit theories of intelligence
(Dweck, 1999) to understand how mindset can impact student behavior and motivation toward
learning. The purpose of this study was to explore the mindset of the educator and identify how
educators cultivate a growth mindset to improve students’ attainment. This qualitative case study
was conducted using purposeful sampling that included face-to-face interviews, in-class
observations, and a collection of relevant classroom artifacts. Collected data was carefully
transcribed and coded to discover themes and answer research questions utilizing Creswell’s
(2014) data analysis approach for qualitative methods. Findings from this study indicate that
educators at this school believed that learning was a process, not a product. Through the process
of learning, teachers believed in building student self-efficacy. Findings also indicated that
teachers promoted a growth mindset by taking on a teacher-as-facilitator role, creating a positive
classroom culture, and modeling growth mindset language. Finally, the data showed that teachers
felt strongly that a safe environment and feedback for improvement were essential for any type
of academic or social-emotional growth to occur. The research findings from this study have
implications for professional development at the school site level, as well as in teacher education
programs since it was evident that growth mindset begins in the mindset of the teacher. The
findings from this study support the literature presented around growth mindset. Teachers who
were committed to instilling a growth mindset to their students, spent the time designing specific
learning experiences and structuring classroom protocols so that their students would not only
learn, but love the process of learning.
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 8
Dedication
To my incredible family, this dissertation is dedicated to you. Without your support,
understanding and patience, I could not have completed this.
To my husband, Hogan. You have always been my biggest supporter. From the moment I
told you that I wanted to pursue my doctorate degree, you didn’t hesitate to encourage me to
follow my passion. As a Trojan alumnus, you were even more thrilled when I decided to go with
USC as my graduate school of choice. The financial cost, the time cost, and the cost of patience
was a enormous sacrifice. Whether I was in class in Los Angeles, studying or writing for long
periods of time at the “work table”, or missing family events to squeeze in precious reading time,
that meant more work for you. The sacrifice was even greater since you were just starting your
own career and you had to be the one to take care of the kids. You have given the most. This
dissertation is for you. You bring more meaning to the term, “Fight On!”
To my sons, Isaac, Ethan, and Luke. You mom has always been the working mom. There
were many, many instances when I felt guilty about working, and I felt bad that you didn’t have a
stay-at-home mom like many of your friends. I’ve also told that you should pursue a career doing
something you love, and it will never feel like a job. I love what I do. I think you know that. My
hope is that have seen me live with a growth mindset, a mindset that embraces learning,
challenges, and doesn’t give up.
To my parents, Ken and Patty. You’ve always believed in me, believed that I was capable
of great things. You’ve instilled in me a sense of self-efficacy and confidence because of your
support and belief in me. Thank you for being the best parents in the world. Thank you for
praying for me every night. I love you so much.
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 9
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW
“I don’t divide the world into the weak and the strong, or the successes and the failures...I divide
the world into the learners and nonlearners.”
-Benjamin Barber
Introduction
This dissertation is a qualitative case study that will explore teachers’ beliefs about
growth mindset and investigate how beliefs may impact students’ social-emotional learning, as
well as academic achievement. Having a growth mindset is akin to being a lifelong learner. This
case study will examine the particular role of teachers’ mindset in an urban elementary school
and explore beliefs about intelligence and learning among teachers at the school, as well as look
at how teachers create a learning environment in their classrooms that promote a growth mindset.
The investigation will begin with a critical look at the idea of a growth mindset, identify teachers
who demonstrate these attributes and survey their classroom practices.
Background of the Problem
Everyone is born a learner. From the moment babies enter the world, the journey of
learning begins with babies’ natural sense of curiosity and discovery. The baby’s brain is
developing at an amazing rate to process information through the formation of neurons and
synapses. Brain research shows (Goswami, 2004) how it is through the transmission of electrical
and chemical signals [creating connections] between neurons that make up the basis for learning
and memory.
Harvard University research shows that in the first few years of life, more than one
million new neural connections are formed every second in the brain (Center on the Developing
Child, 2009), which make up the basis for learning. If all humans begin life as thriving learners,
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 10
why is that some people continue to embrace learning while others eventually become
nonlearners? Dweck (2006) argues that as soon as children are able to evaluate themselves, some
become afraid of challenges. They become afraid of not being “smart” (p. 16). She points to
environmental factors, such as the social interactions, as the primary reason why children end up
with this type of insecurity (Dweck, 2006).
Learning is the process leading to change (Ambrose et al., 2010; Fisher & Frey, 2010;
Mayer, 2011), which is not only the primary goal of education but also the most distinguishable
characteristic that sets humans apart from animals--our extraordinary ability to build and use
knowledge (Mayer, 2011). Learning is fundamental to growth and development. The
introductory quote by Benjamin Barber sums it well, dividing “the world into the learners and
nonlearners”; the danger lies in those who choose to remain stagnant and do not put forth effort
for continual improvement.
Historical Context
Since the landmark publication of A Nation at Risk (1983), the American school system
has been under scrutiny, setting off multiple calls for educational reform on local, state, and
federal levels. The report shed light on the declining academic underachievement of American
students, especially in comparison with students in other industrialized nations, the alarming
rates of adult illiteracy, and the increasing demands for highly skilled workers in new fields. The
report states that “What was unimaginable a generation ago has begun to occur--others are
matching and surpassing our educational attainments” (A Nation at Risk, 1983).
In 2001, former President Bush signed the well-known federal education bill, No Child
Left Behind (NCLB), renaming and replacing the previous Elementary and Secondary Education
Act (ESEA) signed by President Johnson in 1965. Both laws intended to help states create
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 11
educational equity but NCLB included much higher levels of accountability. NCLB hoped to
raise educational achievement and close the achievement gap through raising test scores,
mandating more qualified teachers, and providing educational choice. The U.S. Department of
Education (2004) stated that NCLB principles were rooted in equality and inclusion:
No Child Left Behind ensures accountability and flexibility as well as increased federal
support for education. No Child Left Behind continues the legacy of the Brown v. Board
of Education (1954) decision by creating an education system that is more inclusive,
responsive, and fair. (p. 13)
However, the accountability measure of Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP), used to measure the
performance of students in specific subgroups (race, ethnicity, poverty, language, disability),
ended up creating what Darling-Hammond (2007) called a “diversity penalty.” One of NCLB’s
accountability goals was to have 100% of students test at proficient by the year 2014. Although
nobody would contest the importance this goal, Darling-Hammond (2007) claimed that this will
end up labeling most of the nation’s public schools as ‘failing,’ even though there were
documented improvements.
The Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) has now replaced NCLB. ESSA was signed by
former President Obama in December 2015. This new education law allows states more
flexibility with testing, accountability, and the responsibility of fixing underperforming schools.
This is a welcome relief for states and local educational agencies (LEA) with diverse needs and
challenges who ended up penalized for the one-size-fits-all approach of NCLB.
District and School Context
The school district governing the selected case study elementary school is a mid-size
urban public school district in Southern California. It currently serves approximately 17,000
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 12
students in twenty-three schools from transitional Kindergarten through the sixth grade. As a
Title 1 district, the majority of students receive free or reduced lunch (86%) and are Hispanic or
Latino (86%). 57% of the students are English learners, 13% are students with disabilities, and
19% identified GATE. Although the district has seen slow gains over the past years on
standardized test scores, the majority of students are still underperforming in comparison to
neighboring school districts in Southern California.
The Smarter Balanced Summative Assessments identify four achievement levels in their
score report: (1) Standard not met, (2) Standard nearly met, (3) Standard met, and (4) Standard
exceeded (California Department of Education, 2017). An achievement gap is defined as the
discrepancy between the achievement of different student groups. Achievement gaps exist within
the majority student groups: Hispanic or Latino student group and the socioeconomically
disadvantaged student group. On the 2016-2017 District Smarter Balanced Assessments, scores
show that only 23% of Hispanic/Latino students met or exceeded standards while 43% of White
students and 63% of Asian students met or exceeded in English Language Arts. In Math, only
18% of Hispanic/Latino students met or exceeded standards while 37% of White students and
63% of Asian students met or exceeded standards. When data is disaggregated for free and
reduced lunch, reports show that only 23% of socioeconomically disadvantaged students met or
exceeded standards in ELA while 46% of non-disadvantaged students met or exceeded. In Math
the results were similar: only 19% of socioeconomically disadvantaged students met or exceeded
standards while 46% of non-disadvantaged students met or exceeded. There is a clear and urgent
need for action.
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 13
Table 1
District and School Smarter Balanced Summative Assessment Data 2014-2017
School
Overall % students
met or exceeded in
ELA
District
Overall % students
met or exceeded in
ELA
School
Overall % students
met or exceeded in
Math
District
Overall % students
met or exceeded in
Math
2016-2017 43% 26% 36% 22%
2015-2016 41% 26% 37% 21%
2014-2015 39% 24% 33% 20%
While the comparison data in Table 1 shows that the school has consistently
outperformed the district on the Smarter Balanced Assessments for the past three years, it is still
underperforming when compared to neighboring schools in other districts. There are still more
than half of the student population that are not meeting or exceeding standards.
The case study elementary school is a K-6 public school, one of the twenty-three
elementary schools in school district. Student demographics are similar to the district
demographics. Of the 700 students, 79% are considered economically disadvantaged based on
free or reduced lunch, 68% are Hispanic or Latino, and 43% are English learners. The past three
years of Smarter Balanced Summative Assessment data in English language arts/literacy and
mathematics for the school are shown in Table 1, alongside district assessment data. In 2014-15,
39% of students met (3) or exceeded (4) levels in English language arts/literacy (ELA) and 33%
met or exceeded in mathematics. Since that time, there has been increasing growth in both ELA
and Math percentages. In 2015-16, there were 41% for ELA and 37% in math. The gains were
even greater this current year with 43% for ELA and 36% for math. Although the gains have
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 14
been fairly consistent each year, it still leaves the majority of students in the not met (1) or nearly
met (2) categories for all three reported years. As Table 1 illustrates, the district data follows a
similar growth trend although the district growth is not as significant. The achievement gap at the
school mirrors what the district data shows. School level data reveals that in English Language
Arts, only 36% of economically disadvantaged students met/exceeded while 59% of non-
disadvantaged students met/exceeded. In Math, only 29% of economically disadvantaged
students met/exceeded while 55% of non-disadvantaged students met/exceeded.
The California Assessment of Student Performance (CAASPP) reporting system requires
a minimum of thirty students to be calculated as ethnic student groups for data reporting. The
student group data demonstrated the following in English Language Arts who met or exceeded:
Asian 78%, White 53%, and Hispanic 31%. The percentages in Math performance followed a
similar pattern: Asian 77%, White 45%, and Hispanic 23%. There are clear needs for addressing
academic achievement gaps both at the school and within the district. Although there have been
slow and steady gains, there remain multiple challenges at the school site level.
In addition to the need for addressing academic achievement, there is a need to address
social and emotional learning. In order to investigate the status of how students measure in this
area, the most recent School Climate Survey data has been included.
The School Climate Survey is administered yearly to fifth and sixth grade students. The
survey comes from Each Mind Matters-California’s Mental Health Movement and prepared by
the Orange County Department of Education. The School Climate Survey contains eleven school
climate domains and two mental health domains. Data was carefully extracted from the survey
based on relevance to this growth mindset study. The domains selected were as follows: Support
for Learning, which includes use of supportive teaching practices (e.g. encouragement, feedback,
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 15
taking risks, relevance, independent thinking, individual attention, clear instructions, organizing
work); Social and Civic Learning (e.g. support for developing effective listening, conflict
resolution, self-reflection, emotional regulation, and responsibility); Social Support from Adult
to Student (e.g. pattern of supportive and caring relationships, personal interest, concern for
problems); School Connectedness (e.g. positive identification with school and norms for
participation, sense of belonging); and Mental Health Domains (e.g. symptoms of anxiety and
stress and symptoms of depression).
Table 2 displays results from the latest survey taken in March 2018 demonstrated that 6%
feel symptoms of depression fairly often, 11% feel symptoms of anxiety or stress fairly often,
5% disagree/strongly disagree that their teachers believe they can be a success, 6%
disagree/strongly disagree that their teachers give helpful feedback to them, 15% feel that they
talk about ways to control emotions at school, and 12% do not feel good about themselves.
Through the examination of the data, it is clear that both behavioral and academic needs
are present at the school. Recently, there has been a push towards addressing the whole child’s
needs (both behavioral and academic) through social-emotional learning. The Collaborative for
Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning, or CASEL, is the nation’s leading organization for
the advancement of academic, social, and emotional competence. Social-emotional learning, or
SEL, can be defined as “the processes through which children and adults acquire and effectively
apply the knowledge, attitudes, and skills necessary to understand and manage emotions, set and
achieve positive goals, feel and show empathy for others, establish and maintain positive
relationships, and make responsible decisions” (CASEL, 2012, p. 4).
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 16
Table 2
School Climate Survey Selected Results (March, 2018)
Fairly Often Sometimes Almost Never Never
Feeling
symptoms of
depression 6% 25% 33% 37%
Feeling
symptoms of
anxiety/stress 11% 30% 43% 15%
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Neither
Agree nor
Disagree
Agree Strongly
Agree
My teachers
believe that I
can be a
success 4% 1% 14% 36% 48%
My teachers
give me
helpful
feedback to
students like
me 3% 3% 15% 42% 37%
At this
school, we
talk about
ways to help
us control our
emotions 6% 9% 18% 38% 29%
I feel good
about myself
at this school 5% 7% 18% 35% 35%
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 17
Educators around the world already know the critical and influential role of social and
emotional learning in school. Every day students experience real-life situations involving
relationships, problems, and emotions that can affect their learning and well-being, as well as
the learning and well-being of their classmates (Weissberg & Cascarino, 2013). High quality
schools ensure that students are learning and also enhance the need to align the academic
disciplines with learning interpersonal and intrapersonal competencies so that they are
prepared for work and life. Effective school educators know teaching social and emotional
learning to students is an absolute for a well-rounded education. Social and emotional skills
are considered foundational to academic learning in school and beyond (Durlak, Weissberg,
Dymnicki, Taylor, & Schellinger, 2011). There has been substantial growth in the field of
social and emotional learning in the past few years. The literature shows that evidence-based
SEL programs are positively linked to increases in academic achievement with an effect size
of 0.27 (Durlak et al., 2011).
There are five competencies of social-emotional learning: (1) self-awareness, (2) self-
management, (3) social awareness, (4) relationship skills, and (5) responsible decision-making
(CASEL, 2012). A growth mindset directly addresses two of these competencies: self-
awareness and self-management. CASEL (2012) defines self-awareness as the ability to
accurately recognize one’s own emotions, thoughts, and values and how they influence
behavior. It is based on beliefs about one’s self, one’s mindset. CASEL (2012) defines self-
management as the ability to successfully regulate one’s emotions, thoughts, and behaviors in
different situations. This includes the ability to set and work towards personal and academic
goals. A growth or fixed mindset is realized within this SEL competency through actions and
behaviors. Self-management encompasses motivation, as well as self-discipline, habits that are
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 18
necessary for demonstrating noncognitive traits such as perseverance and grit. A growth
mindset, the basis for this research study, is supported through two of the five SEL
competencies: self-awareness and self-management.
Growth mindset is defined as the belief that your basic abilities can be cultivated through
dedication and hard work, and that brains and talent are just the starting point (Dweck, 2016). In
Carol Dweck’s book Mindset: The New Psychology of Success (2016), she states, “the view you
adopt for yourself profoundly affects the way you lead your life” (p. 6). Through decades of
research on achievement and success, Dweck has found that having a growth mindset can lead to
an unrelenting belief in effort, resilience in the face of setbacks, and a change in the definition of
failure.
The opposite of a growth mindset is a fixed mindset. People with fixed mindsets worry
incessantly about exposing their deficiencies and being perceived as inadequate. A fixed mindset
is the belief that one’s basic abilities are carved in stone and do not change (Dweck, 2016).
Students who exhibit a fixed mindset often lack effort or hesitate to try something new for fear it
may cause them to look incapable. Since Dweck’s study (2016), schools and educators have
jumped on board to adopt this potentially powerful topic to harness the power of the mind in
academic achievement. The belief that intelligence is not stagnant nor innate paves the way for
individuals to take ownership for growth and learning. It can unleash the fixed mindset that there
is nothing that can be done about what you are born with. Not only can growth mindset help with
academics, it can also have powerful benefits towards building social-emotional competencies.
Dweck (2016) gives countless examples of successful CEOs, athletes, and leaders who have
illustrated a growth mindset through their relentless effort, keen self-awareness of their
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 19
limitations, and their embracing of challenges as opportunities to grow (pp. 32, 33-34, 37, 41-43,
70, 85-88).
Building on this idea of a growth mindset, Duckworth (2007) asserts that grit is a key
predictor for success, more so than talent or an intelligence quotient, or IQ. Grit is defined as
passion and perseverance for long-term goals (Duckworth, 2016; Duckworth, Peterson,
Matthews & Kelly, 2007). A growth mindset has been suggested as a way to develop grit, the
elusive ingredient that helps students be successful (Duckworth, 2016). Research has shown that
noncognitive factors such as grit, growth mindset, perseverance, self-efficacy, and work habits
must be developed for improved academic performance (Farrington et al., 2012; Duckworth,
2016). Noncognitive traits or factors are a set of behaviors, skills, attitudes, and strategies that
may not be measurable on cognitive tests but must exist in tandem with cognitive or content
knowledge to exhibit successful outcomes (Farrington et al., 2012). Farrington et al. (2012)
offers a hypothesized conceptual framework that illustrates the relationship of how the socio-
cultural context plays into the five noncognitive factors affecting academic performance. Figure
A outlined by Farrington et al. displays how academic mindset affects academic perseverance,
learning strategies, and social skills, which in turn shape academic behaviors that ultimately
result in academic performance.
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 20
Figure A. Farrington’s Hypothesized Model of How Five Noncognitive Factors Affect Academic
Performance within a Classroom/School and Larger Socio-Cultural Context
Statement of the Problem
There have been extensive studies on how the classroom environment affects a child’s
feelings about belonging, self-efficacy, and can reinforce or undermine a growth mindset
(Farrington et al., 2012). It is well known that children are highly influenced by their
environment through Bandura’s (1986) development of social cognitive theory. Sociocultural
theory focuses on the idea that an individual’s social networks (peers and adults) can influence
one’s learning as well as how cultural beliefs and attitudes can affect learning (Vygotsky, 1997;
Bandura, 1986). Brophy (1986) contends that addressing the development of effective teaching
behavior is a requirement to improving student achievement since teachers differ in how they
perform instructional behaviors based on context-specific factors. If a teacher believes in her
students to succeed, the chances of that student succeeding is much greater than if a teacher
doesn’t believe in her students’ success. Marzano (2007) argues that a teacher’s belief in students
is one of the most powerful hidden dynamics of teaching because it is typically an unconscious
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 21
activity (p. 162). Teachers who have high expectations for student achievement are more likely
to enhance student achievement (Roeser, Eccles & Sameroff, 1998). Studies have shown that
teachers tend to offer a less rigorous curriculum to disadvantaged students, creating a “rigor gap”
(Torff, 2011). Torff (2011) argues that this “rigor gap” is predicated on some understanding
about how the mind works and how best to teach; therefore high teacher expectations for
students is key to improving student achievement. Students’ perceptions and beliefs about their
own abilities and capacity for learning can positively or negatively be affected by a teacher’s
perceptions and beliefs, resulting in self-fulfilling prophecies (Brophy & Evertson, 1981). High
expectations stem from a teacher’s belief that all children can learn and grow. A teacher who has
a growth mindset naturally has high expectations for her students because she believes that
ability is not stagnant, it is malleable. Research is clear that students grow proportionately to how
much you expect them to grow (Brophy & Good, 1970; Cooper & Good, 1983; Dusek & Joseph,
1983; Raudenbush, 1984, Smith, 1980). It is clear that teachers are a key to improving student
outcomes.
Accountability pressures on academic performance on standardized tests coupled with the
challenges of social-emotional needs in the classroom present a formidable task for any educator.
Growth mindset and the development of social-emotional competencies sound promising but
what happens when the teacher or educator has underlying beliefs that do not hold the belief that
significant improvement is a possibility? This can present a barrier to the potential of academic
growth. This study will explore the beliefs of educators at one elementary school. Educators
include classroom teachers and the principal.
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 22
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this qualitative case study is to explore the mindset of teachers at one
urban elementary school. Since educators play such a critical role in the development of positive
ideologies, the modeling of behavior, and providing a conducive environment for positive
student outcomes, the adult educators will be the primary focus of the study. In depth interviews,
on-site observations, and documents/artifacts will be reviewed among carefully selected staff
members.
The case study school introduced the idea of a growth mindset at the beginning of the
year of the study. Although the introduction was brief and informal, messages regarding a
growth mindset were repeatedly communicated throughout the year. There was one formal
presentation on the topic of growth mindset during a staff meeting but it was not a thorough
professional development. Teachers seemed to embrace the idea of a growth mindset. Evidence
of growth mindset statements were displayed in various classrooms.
The research questions look into how teachers at the school are attempting to promote a
growth mindset.
1. What are the beliefs about intelligence and learning among teachers at the school?
2. How do classroom teachers create a learning environment that promotes a growth
mindset?
3. Could fostering a growth mindset be an effective approach to increasing academic
achievement or supporting social emotional learning?
This study is framed through the lens of Bandura’s (1997) social cognitive theory,
looking at the critical role of social context in the learning environment. A child is highly
influenced by his environment. Therefore, the teacher/educator influence is one that has the
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 23
greatest impact. Teacher beliefs inform teacher decisions. The study also draws upon theories of
intelligence and ability (Anderman & Maeher, 1994) as basic beliefs on the part of the adult. The
researcher is approaching this study with a constructivist worldview, a view that seeks to
understand the context or setting of the participants (Creswell, 2014). The research recognizes
the constant tension between competing forces of academic performance for accountability
versus growth mindset practices that focus on process and effort.
Significance of the Study
Studies on growth mindset are relatively limited due to the recentness of this research.
This study hopes to bring new perspective to the concept of growth mindset and recommend
effective strategies that promote a growth mindset for the staff at the selected school, as well as
other schools who are implementing this concept to build student competencies in social-
emotional learning. The study hopes to explore deep set feelings and beliefs about what practices
and verbal messages, take a critical look at the focus of performance versus process, and
challenge school practices that may conflict with growth mindset beliefs. The hope is that the
power of teacher influence based on a true growth mindset will significantly impact students’
learning outcomes.
Limitations and Delimitations
There are three limitations on this study. One limitation is that some teachers had
gathered their own resources for teaching growth mindset through other means outside of the
school professional development. As growth mindset has become a popular topic, the internet
and educational resources have been inundated with resources for teaching growth mindset or
activities that promote a growth mindset. The study assumed that the only professional
development received on growth mindset was the information shared at the school site officially
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 24
through staff development. It is noteworthy to include that are many misconceptions about
growth mindset found on the internet and in print (Briceno, 2015; DeWitt, 2017; Dweck, 2015;
Gross-Loh, 2016). A second limitation lies in the observational data collected. The nature of
observation data collection presented challenges. Since growth mindset is not a defined subject
to teach, it was difficult to capture impromptu growth mindset conversations or statements. In
addition, participation was voluntary so although the observations attempted to capture authentic
interactions and realistic instruction, the volunteering staff were aware of the researcher’s
purpose for observation. It was not certain that the observations collected were representative of
what happens naturally (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Patton, 1987). Lastly, purposive sampling was
used specifically choose teachers who appear to embody a growth mindset. Recommendations
on research participants were offered by the school principal. Purposive sampling is a sampling
procedure where the researcher specifies characteristics within the population of interest and
locates individuals with those characteristics (Johnson & Christensen, 2014). Maxwell (2013)
describes purposive sampling as a strategy where “particular settings, persons, activities are
selected deliberately to provide information that is particularly relevant to your questions and
goals” (p. 97). Although convenient for the researcher, purposive sampling has severe limitations
in the ability to generalize from the sample to larger populations. As such with a case study, the
actual number of interviews and observations for this study were small in number. There is the
possibility that the researcher did not interview a staff member who had been very effective at
promoting growth mindset but the researcher was unaware, and subsequently did not select that
teacher for an interview.
One delimitation is the purposeful omission of student perspectives and data. Although
student perspective and student outcome data would be insightful to learning about how teacher
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 25
beliefs translate to students, this research is meant to examine aspects that are under the control
of the teacher to support student learning. Teacher perspectives on impact to students will be
collected in this study. Student impact can include social-emotional impact and/or academic
impact. Further investigation into the direct impact on student learning would be a
recommendation for a future study.
Definition of Terms
Fixed mindset. The belief that your basic qualities are simply fixed traits and are carved in
stone, also known as entity theory of intelligence (Dweck, 2016).
Growth mindset. The belief that your basic abilities can be cultivated through dedication and
hard work, and that brains and talent are just the starting point, also known as incremental theory
of intelligence (Dweck, 2016).
Intelligence. The capacity to acquire and apply knowledge.
Mindset. Internal beliefs that can shape attitudes and determine direction.
Neuroplasticity. The physical changes in the brain that result from thoughts, environment,
emotions, and behavior (Willis, 2009).
Neuroscience. The study of how the brain learns and remembers, combining neurology,
psychology and biology (Goswami, 2004).
Social emotional learning. The processes through which children and adults acquire and
effectively apply the knowledge, attitudes, and skills necessary to understand and manage
emotions, set and achieve positive goals, feel and show empathy for others, establish and
maintain positive relationships, and make responsible decisions” (CASEL, 2013, p. 4).
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 26
Organization of the Study
After setting the background and purpose of the study, Chapter Two will review the
literature surrounding growth mindset, theoretical foundations of growth mindset (i.e., social
cognitive theory, self-efficacy, goal orientation theory, attribution theory), the neuroscience
behind learning, social emotional learning, and the role of teachers’ beliefs in an effective
learning environment. The researcher will also create a conceptual framework to outline the
dissertation. The conceptual framework will explain the theory and beliefs behind why the
researcher is planning to study the topic (Maxwell, 2013). Chapter Three will describe the
methodology of the study. This will be a qualitative case study. Chapter Four will report study
the findings from the data collected at the school. Lastly, Chapter Five will summarize the
findings, discuss implications for practice or policy, and share recommendations for future
research based on the findings.
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 27
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
“...the view you adopt for yourself profoundly affects the way you lead your life.”
-Carol Dweck
Introduction
Chapter One briefly introduced the idea of growth mindset and provided a basis for the
study. As stated in Chapter One, the relevance and importance of having a growth mindset can
be profound in its far-reaching implications for learning, especially in the field of education
where achievement gaps still exist despite decades of research, policy changes, and academic
initiatives. Growth mindset has the potential to make a substantial impact on student learning,
social emotional well-being, and sustainable change is worth a deeper look. Dweck’s (2016)
claim that mindset, or the view that you adopt for yourself, can determine the direction and
course of one’s life is a significant one, and one in which Chapter Two will begin its review of
the literature, including several theories that help to frame the concept of growth mindset. After
delving into the literature surrounding the development of the growth mindset concept, Chapter
Two will review the following key concepts found in the literature related to the research
questions outlined in Chapter One:
● Neuroscience Behind Learning
● Social Emotional Learning
● Role of Educators’ Beliefs in an Effective Learning Environment
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 28
What is a Growth Mindset?
A Conceptual Framework
Figure B. A conceptual framework to illustrate the various theories in growth mindset
The concept of growth mindset (Figure B) has its foundations in social cognitive theory
(Bandura, 1986), which acknowledges the importance of cognitive factors within a person,
environmental factors, and behavior. Self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1989), goal orientation
theory (Pintrich, 2000), and attribution theory (Weiner, 2010) play prominent roles in growth
mindset. In a later section, all theories will be discussed in further detail.
Implicit Theories
The popular term growth mindset has its roots from what was known in psychology as
implicit theories of intelligence (Dweck, 1999). Implicit theories are beliefs about the nature of
human attributes, or beliefs about themselves and their world (Dweck, 1996; Lange, Kruglanski,
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 29
& Higgins, 2011). Yeager & Dweck (2012) explain that they are “implicit” because they are
rarely made explicit, and they are “theories” because they create a framework for interpreting
events in one’s world. For decades, Stanford professor Carol Dweck had been intrigued as to
why some people succeed and others do not. Through her extensive research and empirical
studies, she authored the book Mindset: The New Psychology of Success, a compilation of her
years of research and insights about how the power of the mind can highly influence motivation
and behavior. Dweck’s work began in the 1980s as a prominent psychologist and researcher in
the field of social cognitive theories. The literature involving social cognitive theories will be
discussed later in this chapter. According to Dweck (1999), our implicit beliefs are how we
assess our own intelligence and abilities through our interactions and interpretation of our
environment, and these assessments ultimately influence our goals, motivations, behaviors, and
self-esteem. The following subsections will discuss the two dichotomous constructs within
Dweck’s implicit theories: entity and incremental theory. These two theories of intelligence
became later known as fixed and growth mindsets (Dweck, 2016).
Fixed mindset. Entity theory, or fixed mindset, is based on the belief that ability and
talent is fixed, that their basic abilities do not change (Dweck, 2008). Dweck (2016) postulates
that individuals who attribute intelligence to fixed traits hold a fixed mindset or a fixed theory of
intelligence. This belief that your qualities are carved in stone creates an urgency to prove
themselves over and over, and that “If you have only a certain amount of intelligence, a certain
personality, and a certain moral character--well, then you’d better prove that you have a healthy
dose of them” (Dweck, 2016, p. 6). This type of mindset aligns with a performance orientation,
which tends to focus on performance goals that prove abilities (Pintrich, 2000). When faced with
challenges or setbacks, fixed mindset individuals are more likely to stop trying since they are
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 30
afraid to fail, make mistakes, or be labeled as inferior, thus proving a lack of performance.
Dweck (2016) comments that these individuals are constantly evaluating every situation with
questions like Will I succeed or fail? Will I feel like a winner or loser? Will I look smart or
dumb? When looking at how people attribute their success in tasks that required intelligent
behavior, the two theories take different views. Entity theorists attribute that success to having
sufficient native aptitude while incremental theorists attribute success to having practiced a skill
and improving performance over time (Dweck, 1999).
Growth mindset. An incremental, or growth mindset is defined as the belief that your
basic abilities can be cultivated through dedication and hard work (Dweck, 2008). Dweck (2016)
posits that the abilities and intelligence you are born with are only the starting point. This
mindset does not purport that anyone can be the next Einstein, it simply means that it is
impossible to see what can be accomplished with years of passion, toil, and training (Dweck,
2016; Yeager & Dweck, 2012). Growth minded individuals have a natural desire to stretch
themselves, even when things are not going well (Dweck, 2016). This propensity to challenge
oneself and stick with something when it is not easy, is the hallmark of a growth mindset
(Dweck, 2016). This type of mindset values growth and mastery over performance indicators. It
is not so much about a label or achievement as it is about improvement within oneself (Dweck,
2016). Naturally, a growth minded individual tends to lead to higher self-esteem because they are
not concerned with how others view them or themselves compared to others. They are
comparing themself to themself.
Through years of research on achievement and success, Dweck (2008) found that having
a growth mindset can lead to a strong belief in effort, resilience, and a different perspective on
failure. Those with a growth mindset tend to welcome challenges as opportunities to grow, they
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 31
view failures or mistakes as stepping stones to learning. Dweck (2008) continues by stating that
growth-minded individuals value mastery over performance, judging themselves to themselves
and not to others. When Dweck (2016) studied successful people in the world, she found that
many of these people employed a growth mindset. This was a key to their success! Having a
growth mindset is much more than just positive thinking and wishful thoughts that is devoid of
any actual steps toward action. Those with a growth mindset employ effective strategies to grow,
such as goal setting, being proactive in getting help when needed, using metacognitive strategies,
and using time efficiently.
Dweck’s work on mindset has far-reaching implications for teaching and learning
because the way that students view their own learning can significantly affect their effort,
motivation and learning progress. This promising research served as a catalyst for further studies
to be conducted on how a growth mindset can impact improvement in academic achievement, as
well as social emotional health.
Claro, Panescu, and Dweck (2016) conducted a study on high school students from Chile
to investigate how academic achievement is influenced by factors, such as socioeconomic
background and students’ beliefs about their abilities. They confirmed prior research (Coleman,
1968) that family income is a strong predictor of academic achievement, but they also found that
a growth mindset can offset the effects of poverty for improved academic outcomes (Claro,
Panescu, & Dweck, 2016). These researchers claim that this is the first national scale
documentation of the powerful relationship between mindsets about intelligence and academic
performance. “Our research shows that, at every socioeconomic level, those who hold more of a
growth mindset consistently outperform those who do not--even after holding constant a panoply
of socioeconomic and attitudinal factors” (Claro, Panescu, & Dweck, 2016, p. 4).
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 32
Several studies have been conducted with positive results, mainly among underprivileged
or minority groups. Aronson et al. (2002) tested the effect of a growth mindset intervention with
African-American college students. In their study, they compared two control groups and a
growth-mindset treatment group. Researchers found that the control groups showed no change in
achievement. The growth mindset group not only showed a clear gain in achievement, but also
showed a significant increase in their valuing and enjoyment of courses with their growth
mindset intervention (Aronson et al., 2002).
Blackwell et al. (2007) conducted a growth mindset intervention with minority students
transitioning to seventh grade, many of whom were showing declining grades. The control group
received eight sessions of study skills training while the growth mindset group received that plus
growth mindset training. The key message received by the treatment group was about effort
changes the brain and the students can control this process. What they found was that the growth
mindset treatment group’s grades stopped declining and started a new pathway toward
improvement (Blackwell et al., 2007).
Good et al. (2003) also conducted a growth mindset intervention for seventh grade
students who were Hispanic, African-American, and low income. While both groups had
mentors that met with their students in person for ninety minutes in the Fall and ninety minutes
again in the Winter, there was no further in-person communication. The remaining
communication was through email only. When compared to a control group, the growth mindset
treatment group resulted in a 4.5 point gain in math achievement test scores and a 4 point gain in
reading achievement test scores. An interesting side note is that the control group had a highly
significant gender difference in math, but with the growth-mindset treatment group, the gender
gap was largely eliminated (Good et al., 2003).
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 33
Yeager and Dweck (2012) studied growth mindset related to resilience in the face of
academic and social challenges. They found that students who believe that their intellectual
abilities can be developed and grown tend to show higher achievement across challenging school
transitions and greater course completion rates in math. Yeager and Dweck (2012) reiterate the
power of mindset over self-esteem boosting or trait labeling: “When we emphasize people’s
potential to change, we prepare our students to face life’s challenges resiliently” (p. 312).
The concept of learned helplessness was first developed as a condition in which animals
choose not to escape a negative situation because the past has taught them that they are helpless.
(Abramson, Seligman, & Teasdale, 1978). An attributional approach to achievement-based
helplessness (Burhans & Dweck, 1995) differs from Seligman’s concept of learned helplessness
in that it includes several cognitive, affective, and behavioral components. Research shows that
children as young as four and five years of age can demonstrate this type of helplessness. Smiley
and Dweck’s (1994) studied preschool-aged children to see how they would respond to
challenges. Given the choice to tackle an easy jigsaw puzzle (one that was already previously
completed by them) or harder one (one that was left incomplete because time had run out), the
researchers found that the young children with fixed mindset chose the previously-completed
one, wanting to be labeled as ‘smart’ or ‘look good.’ The fixed minded children responded
negatively to failure, and avoided the more challenging puzzles. It was apparent that they had
implicitly learned that failing a task had a negative association so they chose not to even attempt
the more challenging puzzles. Children with growth mindset chose the harder one, wanting to
stretch themselves, and showed a belief that success is about becoming smarter, not just being
smart. The study concluded that children with a performance-orientation and lower confidence
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 34
were most susceptible to helplessness, and that these differences in achievement goals can
emerge very early in life (Smiley & Dweck, 1994).
Boaler (2013) works primarily in the area of mathematics, a subject area that typically
communicates the largest fixed ability messages and thinking. Boaler (2013) exhorts educators to
look at mistakes in a different way, especially in the area of mathematics. When mistakes are
made, new synaptic connections are formed, and these connections cause the brain to grow
(Boaler, 2013). This suggests that “students and teachers should value mistakes and move from
viewing them as learning failures to viewing them as learning achievements” (Boaler, 2013, p.
149). Boaler (2013) continues, “In my work with teachers we find ways to significantly
reposition mistakes in mathematics classrooms, with teacher grading students not by marking a
mistake with a cross but with a gold star or a smiley face and the words, ‘It is great that you
made this mistake; this is a really important opportunity for learning and I am glad you are
thinking about this’” (p. 149). What scientists now know about brain plasticity has serious
implications for teaching and grouping structures that are based on the ideas of fixed ability and
limited student potential (Boaler, 2009).
Grit. A closely related concept to growth mindset is grit. While both grit and growth
mindset are concepts that can be learned and developed, Duckworth argues that a growth
mindset may be the path towards developing grit (TED, 2013). Duckworth continues by stating
that working hard, and continuing to work hard despite failures, is what can take a student from
talent to success. Duckworth (2016) defines grit as passion and perseverance for long-term goals.
Grit is how one can achieve long term goals by overcoming challenges (Hochanadel &
Finamore, 2015).
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 35
Through years of research and with a background in elementary teaching, Angela
Duckworth sought out to study why some people succeed and others do not. Similar to Dweck’s
research, she discovered that it wasn’t about born talent or luck. What makes people successful is
their willingness to stick with a goal for an extended time, it is what she calls grit (Duckworth,
2016).
Duckworth’s (2016) research on grit is closely related to growth mindset, and builds on
similar ideas in that it builds on an incremental theory, one of growth. Another similarity is that
brain research also supports this similar notion. When Duckworth studied the relationship
between grit and achievement, she found a positive correlation.
The admissions process for the United States Military Academy at West Point is one of
the most rigorous in the world. Very few make it into West Point, yet one in five cadets will drop
out before graduation due to its intensive expectations. Duckworth studied West Point students to
investigate why some cadets were able to make it through and why they were so successful. All
accepted cadets undoubtedly had the academic ability, mental fortitude, physical athleticism, and
social connections. Given that equality, what was the determinant as to why some were able to
succeed while others dropped out? Through her studies, Duckworth (2016) concluded that it was
a “never give up” attitude, a hang-in-there posture toward challenge, it was grit. Grit was the
common denominator in cases where individuals made it through. Spurred to probe even further
into this psychology of success, she began interviewing leaders in other fields and asked: “Who
are the people at the very top of your field? What are they like? What do you think makes them
special?” (Duckworth, 2016, p.7). She concluded:
No matter the domain, the highly successful had a kind of ferocious determination that
played out in two ways. First, these exemplars were unusually resilient and hardworking.
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 36
Second, they knew in a very, very deep way what it was they wanted. They not only had
determination, they had direction. It was this combination of passion and perseverance
that made high achievers special. In a word, they had grit” (Duckworth, 2016, p. 8).
Since Duckworth’s 2016 publication of her book, Grit: The Power of Passion and
Perseverance, a growing wave of research has started to emerge. Mahan (2017) examined the
relationship between factors of grit, efficacy, mindset and motivation (GEMM) and looked for a
correlation with academic probation status removal. Although student perception of the online
GEMM tutorial interventions were overwhelmingly positive, the only factor that emerged to be
predictive of academic probation status removal was self-efficacy (Mahan, 2017).
A further grit study was done on whether teaching character competencies of growth
mindset and grit during the advisory period to middle school students would increase motivation
in the classroom (Garofalo, 2016). Their analyses did not prove any causal relationship between
growth mindset and motivation, or even grit and motivation. However, it is interesting to note
that the effect of grit was much greater than the effect of growth mindset (Garofalo, 2016).
Theoretical Frameworks around Growth Mindset
Several theories were fundamental in the development of growth mindset. This next
section will review the major theories that serve as frameworks that outline the idea of mindset.
All of these theoretical frameworks fall under the umbrella of social cognitive theory.
Social cognitive theory. Albert Bandura (1977, 1982, 1986) began his work in
developing social cognitive theory, branching out from behavior theorists in the mid-1900s.
Social cognitive theory posits that learning occurs in a social context and has a dynamic and
reciprocal interaction between the person, environment, and behavior (Bandura, 1986). Figure C
illustrates this triadic reciprocality, and how a change in one factor can affect the others.
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 37
Figure C: Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
Prior to Bandura’s development of social cognitive theory, Bandura initially formed
observational learning theory and then later the social learning theory (Bandura, 1977). These
were precursors to social cognitive theory, which came about with the intent to be more inclusive
of more motivational and cognitive processes. Some key principles within social cognitive
theory are goal setting, self-efficacy, and self-regulation (Bandura, 1986).
With the social cognitive theoretical framework, it is clear to see how Dweck developed
this growth mindset concept since mindset is about beliefs, and beliefs are shaped by outside
influences. It is important to also consider sociocultural influences on learning and behavior, as
well as motivation (Brophy, 1986; Farrington et al., 1012; Vygotsky, 1997). Extensive studies
have been done on the context of the classroom and how it affects a child’s feelings about
belonging, self-efficacy, and help or hinder a growth mindset (Farrington et al., 2012). Rueda
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 38
(2011) reminds us that “Motivation is inherently cultural. We develop motivational beliefs from
others with whom we interact in the variety of social contexts in the ecological niches we
inhabit” (p. 39). An example of an environmental or cultural factor can include feedback, or
messages received by an individual.
Parental praise molds their children’s mindsets (Dweck, 2016), which in turn can affect
behavior. Although well-intentioned, parents who praise ability (e.g., “You are so smart!”) can
actually hinder a growth mindset and this also harms their motivation (Dweck, 2016). What ends
up happening is that children begin to doubt themselves as soon as challenges appear or anything
goes wrong (Dweck, 2016). Researchers have discovered that children who hear more process
praise (e.g., “you worked hard”) have a greater tendency to attribute success to effort and
deliberate practice, whereas children who hear more person praise (e.g., “you’re so smart”) may
conclude that their success was attributed to fixed traits (Zentall & Morris, 2010).
Gunderson et at. (2013) conducted laboratory studies on the effect of parent praise toward
one to three-year olds. The purpose of this study was to investigate the long term effects (five
years later) of parental praise on very young children. What they found was that although
parents’ early praise of inherent characteristics were not associated with children’s later fixed-
ability frameworks, the parents’ praise of effort did predict incremental (growth) frameworks at
seven to eight years of age. This supports Dweck’s growth mindset theory.
Anderson and Nielson (2016) conducted a recent large-scale study on how parent praise
affects their children’s reading abilities. After controlling for previous abilities and the parents’
socioeconomic status, they showed that children with fixed mindsets tend to have lower reading
skills. They hypothesized that parents who believe their child’s abilities are fixed engage with
their child in unconstructive, performance-oriented ways. In their experiment, the parents
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 39
received a reading intervention where they were told about the malleability of their child’s
reading abilities and how they can support their child by praising their effort instead of their
performance. This intervention increased the reading and writing achievements of all
participating children, with even bigger gains for parents who had a fixed mindset prior to the
intervention (Anderson & Nielson, 2016).
Praising children around the growth-oriented process, persistence, use of good strategies,
and practice can establish healthier outcomes in the future (Anderson & Nielson, 2016; Dweck,
2016; Gunderson et al., 2013). In the same way and positive intent, teacher and peer praise also
affects students’ mindsets (Brummelman et al., 2014; Cooper, 1979; Hitz & Driscoll, 1988).
Bacon (2002) conducted an action research project that investigated the role of peer
feedback on achievement and mindset in two seventh grade art classes. Students participated in a
six-week study that occurred during two different units of study. Students received direct
instruction on growth versus fixed mindset based on Dweck’s research, as well as instruction on
what feedback is and how to provide it. Data was collected through pre- and post-surveys,
classroom observation, and student artifacts, such as peer review sheets and photographs of
student work. The findings showed that participating in the feedback cycle with peers resulted in
a greater trust in the students’ ability to help each other succeed, led to higher achievement in the
art room, and helped students realize their own potential for growth (Bacon, 2002).
Feedback has been a widely researched topic in the educational realm (Brophy, 1981;
Hattie, 2009; Marzano, 2017; Weiner, 2006). Hattie (2009) discusses the importance of mastery-
oriented feedback in his well-respected meta-analysis, Visible Learning. He states that effective
feedback clearly guides students with mastery-related goals instead of performance-related
statements like “Finish the task,” or “Make it neat.” Teachers can demonstrate more effective
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 40
feedback by starting with clear and challenging goals and making sure the learning goals are
transparent to others, then providing timely feedback about their goals toward mastery (Hattie,
2012; Marzano, 2017). Feedback is most effective when it is explicitly communicated about
specific aspects of their performance relative to specific target criteria, and when it provides
information that helps students progress towards those criteria (Ambrose et al., 2010).
Self-efficacy is the prominent concept within social cognitive theory. This next section
discusses the theory in detail and compares it to growth mindset. High self-efficacy can
positively influence motivation.
Self-efficacy theory. Self-efficacy theory is the belief that you can make a difference.
Pajares (2003) defines self-efficacy as the judgments that individuals hold about their capabilities
to learn or to perform courses of action at designated levels. They are self-perceptions that
individuals hold about their capabilities. Simply put, it is what you believe you can do. Rooted in
social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1997), self-efficacy is the foundation for motivation. Unless
people believe that their actions can produce the desired outcome, there is little incentive to act.
Bandura has argued that beliefs of personal competence constitute the key factor of human
agency. In psychology, self-efficacy has made a powerful and independent contribution to the
prediction of academic performance due to its relevance to learning and motivation. Having a
growth mindset can mitigate the effects of low self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy looks and sounds much like growth mindset. So how does this theory
compare to a growth mindset? Both Dweck’s theory of mindset and Bandura’s theory of self-
efficacy are based on social cognitive theory. It would seem logical that if high self-efficacy is
present, then a growth mindset is also present and vice versa. There are very limited studies on
this topic. Wood and Bandura (1989) sought to investigate the relationship between self-efficacy,
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 41
implicit theories of intelligence and ability in the business world, and their research supported
the notion that both theories are highly similar or related. Those who performed the challenging
managerial task under a fixed (entity) mindset suffered a loss in perceived self-efficacy, lowered
their organizational goals, and became less efficient in their use of strategies. The opposite
proved to be true for those with a growth (incremental) mindset, sustaining their perceived self-
efficacy, set challenging goals, and used strategies effectively (Wood & Bandura, 1989).
Another more recent study partially supported Wood and Bandura’s (1989) findings, and
showed a positive correlation between growth mindset and high self-efficacy (Palazzolo, 2016).
Palazzolo’s (2016) study also supports the work of Gunderson et al. (2013) finding a positive
correlation with praise in young children and growth mindset later in life, but didn’t result in a
positive correlation with a fixed mindset. Hattie (2009) categorizes self-efficacy as an attribute,
the confidence to make learning happen. Those with high self-efficacy see challenging tasks as
opportunities to learn something new while those with low self-efficacy tend to avoid difficult
tasks and deny personal agency (Hattie, 2009). Hattie (2009) argues that teachers can actively
teach these attributes [self-efficacy] and dispositions (Hattie, 2009) thus further supporting the
notion that a growth mindset can be taught and developed.
Goal orientation theory. One of the hallmarks of a growth mindset is the value of
mastery over performance indicators (Dweck, 2016). Performance and mastery goals are under
the umbrella of goal orientation theory, a social cognitive theory of achievement motivation.
Goal orientation theories examine why students engage in their work (Pintrich, 2000). Pintrich
(2000) asserts that students who are performance-oriented are most interested in demonstrating
their ability compared to others. They tend to look outward at the comparison to others rather
than inward to a comparison of themselves (Pintrich, 2000). In performance orientation, success
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 42
is defined as high grades and high performance as compared with others. Error is viewed as
failure, and evidence a lack of ability. Ability is viewed as fixed in a performance-orientation.
In an actual classroom, performance-orientation looks like this: The instructor tells
students how they compare to other students in the class. The instructor makes it obvious when
students are not doing well on their work and points out those students who get good grades for
the purpose of making an example to rest of the class. The instructor may call on “smart”
students more than other others.
However, a mastery-orientation classroom will look like this: The instructor encourages
students to focus on self-improvement and compare their current achievement to their own prior
achievement. Success is defined as individual improvement, progress, mastery, and innovation.
The instructor views mistakes and errors as part of the learning process, communicating that
ability is developed through effort. The instructor values understanding of concepts, not just
memorization. The instructor desires for students to enjoy the learning process and recognizes
students for trying hard. As apparent, goal orientation theory is also closely aligned to a growth
mindset as performance orientation is aligned with a fixed mindset.
Attribution theory. Attribution theory examines students’ beliefs about their successes
and failures (Weiner, 2010). In this important theory, Weiner (2010) shares that when an
achievement-related event occurs, the learner searches for attribution, trying to understand what
happened. The specific attribution can either be internal to the individual or external, which is
called the locus of causality (Figure D). If the learner believes she failed the exam because she
lacks ability, she is choosing an internal cause because ability is internal to the learner. In
contrast, if the learner feels he failed an exam because the teacher was incompetent, he has
chosen an external cause. This is important because in the face of failure, attributions to stable
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 43
causes can lead to low expectations in the future. If attributions are unstable, they can be
changed. Controllability, locus, and stability are the three causal dimensions in Weiner’s theory
(2010).
Figure D. Weiner’s original attribution model
Attribution is the perceived cause that determines the attribution (whether correct or not).
Bernard Weiner’s Attribution Theory (1986, 1992) says that individuals are conscious and
rational decision makers and are motivated by a goal of understanding and mastering the
environment and themselves. Attribution theory explains why individuals respond differently to
the same event. Attribution theory is important because success or failures attributed to effort are
generally more adaptive and lead to more positive expectancies for success. Accurate feedback
that identifies the skills or knowledge the learner lacks, along with communication that skills and
knowledge can be learned, followed with the teaching of these skills and knowledge promotes
accurate, valid, and adaptive attributions. This is the basis of a growth mindset and giving
positive feedback, focusing on the verbal praise.
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 44
Research studies on praise and attribution theory showed the powerful impact of praise
on continued effort (Dweck, 2016). Adolescents were given ten challenging problems, this study
focused on the effects of verbal praise. The group that received ability-based praise did not wish
to continue, wanting to keep the “smart” label and for fear of losing that label. The group that
received effort praise wanted to continue. After tests, 40% of ability praise lied about their scores
to inflate how they did. In the end, those with effort praise showed they enjoyed the learning
process more so than the ability group, who claimed it was ‘no longer fun anymore’ when it got
hard. This is an example of attribution theory at work. Dweck’s work has its roots in previous
work on attribution theories and learned helplessness. (Lange, Kruglanski, & Higgins, 2011).
Dweck claims that after looking at rat labs and attribution theory, that she felt that the theory
“held promise of revealing how people interpreted the things that happened to them and how
these interpretations guided the way in which they reacted” (Lange, Kruglanski, & Higgins,
2011, p. 44)
By focusing on hard work, effort (goal orientation), the self-confidence and belief in
one’s abilities (self-efficacy), including language (attribution theory), students can develop a
passion for learning, and not just a hunger for approval, which can stifle growth or attempts at
growth. All the conceptual theories discussed factor into the development of a growth mindset.
Due to the relative newness of the concept of mindset, there is a limited amount of
studies conducted on the implementation of growth mindset interventions in schools and whether
they have made an impact on social emotional health or academic achievement. This is the
purpose of this study. The few published studies have also shown inconclusive or varying results.
Fraser (2017) conducted a study on a Scottish primary school using growth mindset as a
one-time intervention. This particular primary school had been implementing a growth mindset
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 45
approach to teaching for three years, and the study showed that a critical element in successful
change is what they called “embarking on the process,” which included staff development,
professional reading, belief in the approach, collaboration between staff, and getting buy-in from
staff. Since there wasn’t any pre-intervention pupil data collected prior to the study, the research
proved some limitations on whether there was growth on the part of the pupils. The results
showed evidence of increased growth mindset but they were short-lived (Fraser, 2017).
Another study (Donohoe, Topping, & Hannah, 2012) investigated the impact of an online
growth mindset program called Brainology
TM
with young teenagers. The online program directly
teaches about the plasticity of the brain, and how brain connections can be altered (Dweck,
2016). The aim of the program is to encourage a growth mindset, resiliency, and a sense of
mastery. The study had a control group and treatment group. The study found that the
BrainologyTM program led to a significant increase in mindset scores from pre to post-test in the
treatment group. However, the increase was not sustained, and there was a significant decline at
follow-up. There were no significant changes for the control group. Researchers also found no
significant changes in resiliency or sense of mastery for either group (Donohoe, Topping, &
Hannah, 2012).
Yeager et al. (2014) investigated the possible correlations of mindset to reactions to
social adversities. All three studies conducted showed that when social adversity is common-at
the transition to high school--a fixed mindset can affect overall stress, health, and achievement in
negative ways. They also discovered that the growth mindset group showed less negative
reactions to social adversity, and that later on reported lower stress and physical illness.
Academic performance was also better with this growth mindset group (Yeager et al., 2014).
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 46
Growth mindset may sound like the ubiquitous self-help psychology books that promote
a “You can do anything” positive thinking philosophy but the difference is that it is based on
brain research. Neuroscience shows how the brain works, how it can be reprogrammed. The
following section will explore the science behind the mindset.
Neuroscience behind Learning
A relatively new discipline in science is neuroscience, the study of how the brain learns
and remembers. Neuroscience combines neurology, psychology and biology (Goswami, 2004).
With current technology, neuroimaging allows scientists to see the human brain in vivo, which
helps us to understand very complex processes. Neuroscience helps us to understand how the
brain develops and functions, which is especially important in the field of education. What we
know is that when babies are born, more than one million new neural connections are formed
every second (Center on the Developing Child, 2009). This initial explosion of brain
development in an infant’s life forms the basis of the brain’s architecture, which serves as the
foundation for learning, behavior, and health in latter years (Center on the Developing Child,
2009). Brain volume then quadruples between birth and adulthood because of the proliferation of
connections (Goswami, 2004). Neuroscience has also discovered that neural connections are
made when learning happens (Bernard, 2010), and that effective teaching affects the brain by
changing connectivity (Frey & Fisher, 2010). In this way, the brain has proven to be highly
plastic. Scientists call this neuroplasticity (Bernard, 2010; Goswami, 2004). Neuroplasticity are
physical changes in your brain that result from your thoughts, environment, emotions, and things
you do (Blakemore, 2005; Willis, 2009).
The concept of neuroplasticity is an important one. For years, it was believed that while
the brains of children grew and changes occurred, the adult brain is fixed and immutable, but
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 47
current research shows this is untrue (Aldrich, 2013; Blakemore, 2005). The adult brain still
changes in size and activity, primarily based on usage (Blakemore, 2005). Aldrich (2013)
showed that adult brains continue to grow, creating new synapses throughout life. As adults grow
older, some synapses are deleted while others become stronger (Aldrich, 2013). So if adult brains
are still capable of growth, then how much more can adolescent brains grow?
The well-known phrase Practice makes perfect actually has some validity in
neuroscience. Increased practice in a skill or thought creates a stronger electrochemical pathway
with increased myelin (Willis, 2009). Myelin is like insulation on an electric wire, which helps
electrical impulses travel faster (Willis, 2009). Willis continues by saying that the more times the
network is stimulated, the stronger and more efficient it becomes. So, actually, in the case of
neuroplasticity, actually Practice makes [semi]permanent since when practice ceases, the brain
“prunes” the connection and eliminates the pathway (Blakemore, 2005; Willis, 2009). As a
former neurologist and current teacher, Willis (2009) shares the importance of teaching kids
about their brains, their most powerful tool, and know how to make it work better for them.
Adults and children alike can benefit from understanding how the brain works, and see how
learning occurs structurally in the brain (Blackwell, Trzesniewski, & Dweck, 2007; Willis,
2009). There is also growing neurological evidence that illustrates how the two different
mindsets process errors (Schroder et al., 2017).
The new discoveries in neuroscience have led to additional research studies to investigate
the plasticity of the brain. Maguire et al. (2006) set out to test the neuroplasticity of the brain
through researching how the hippocampus of London taxi drivers may differ from other non-taxi
drivers. The hippocampus is a small brain area thought to be involved in spatial representation
and navigation. This was significant because taxi drivers in London undergo extensive training
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 48
and must depend on their navigational skills. Their research and neuroimaging found a
significantly larger hippocampus in the London taxi drivers compared to other drivers. What this
means is that structural changes could be detected in the brains of those with extensive
experience of spatial navigation. This study supports the concept of neuroplasticity (Maguire et
al., 2006). The next section will make the connections of growth mindset to social emotional
learning.
Social Emotional Learning
The Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL) defines social
emotional learning (SEL) as the processes through which children and adults acquire and
effectively apply the knowledge, attitudes, and skills necessary to understand and manage
emotions, set and achieve positive goals, feel and show empathy for others, establish and
maintain positive relationships, and make responsible decisions (CASEL, 2013, p. 4). The five
competencies of social emotional learning are self-awareness, self-management, social
awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision-making (CASEL, 2013). Two aspects of
social emotional learning are to be highlighted here. One is self-awareness, the ability to
accurately recognize one’s own emotions, thoughts, and values and how they influence behavior.
This is mindset, the basis for this research study. The other aspect is self-management, the ability
to set and work towards personal and academic goals. This is also directly connected to a growth
mindset since a person with a growth mindset challenges themselves with growth and
improvement. A growth-minded person seeks to grow and refuses to stay stagnant with the status
quo. A self-management competency assumes high motivation and self-discipline which are
character traits that develop grit.
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 49
Literature supports the notion that social emotional learning is a critical part to addressing
the whole child and are considered foundational to academic learning and beyond (Durlak,
Weissberg, Dymnicki, Taylor, & Schellinger, 2011). Research suggests that effective SEL
programs begin as early as preschool and continue through high school, is taught explicitly in the
classroom, and should be fully integrated into the curriculum (Weissberg & Cascarino, 2013).
SEL interventions are also found to be associated with higher sense of self-efficacy (Zins &
Elias, 2007), which provides more evidence linking SEL to growth mindset. Zins & Elias (2007)
find that “social-emotional competence and academic achievement are interwoven and that
integrated, coordinated instruction in both areas maximizes students’ potential to succeed in
school and throughout their lives” (p. 233). Although there is a growing body of research linking
evidence-based SEL programs to increases in academic achievement, or healthy classroom
conditions where academic achievement is more likely (Black, 2006; Burroughs, 2017; Durlak et
al., 2011; Norris, 2010; Sparks, 2011), there is also incompatible research that shows
inconclusivity towards this correlation (Hoffman, 2009). This is where the literature is limited
and further studies are needed.
Durlak et al. (2011) embarked on the first large scale meta-analysis of school-based
programs that promote social and emotional development. The purpose of the study was to
examine SEL impact across diverse student outcomes. Their hypothesis was that a school-based
SEL program would yield positive effects across a variety of skills, attitudinal, behavioral, and
academic outcomes (Durlak et al, 2011). The study involved 270,034 students, including
elementary, middle and high school students. The majority of the programs lasted less than one
year. The results of the study showed that in all six categories (social and emotional skills,
attitudes toward self and others, positive social behavior, conduct problems, emotional distress,
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 50
and academic performance) there were positive effect sizes, which confirmed their hypothesis.
Group effect sizes were as follows: SEL skills (0.57), attitudes (0.23), positive social behavior
(0.24), conduct problems (0.22), and emotional distress (0.24). Of special notice is the effect size
on academic performance, which was 0.27. Durlak et al. (2011) point out that this positive effect
size has important implications for educational policy development. In this current era of school
choice and accountability, this is valuable information as academic performance is the most
widely used measure for school reputation and effectiveness. However, some schools opt to
emphasize social-emotional learning as a value and skill that is just as important as academics,
choosing instead to put their focus not on whether an SEL program is needed to improve
academic outcomes but rather to focus on social-emotional learning because it is a vital part of
schooling.
In an alternative model of viewing the school as more than a high performance learning
organization, Wyness and Lang (2016) address the concept of schools that raise the profile of the
socio-emotional dimensions of schooling. The case study on Harold Lane describes a small
secondary school (703 pupils) in England in a socio-economically deprived area. The school
focused heavily on relationship-building with its pupils, both teacher to student and teacher to
parent. One of the major innovations in the school is the addition of fifteen support teachers who
serve as liaisons between student, parent, and school. The support teachers act as pupil mentors,
work with families, and tackle any and all ‘barriers to learning.’ The “support teachers provide
the ‘glue’ that binds the complex patchwork of roles and responsibilities within the school to
‘external’ sources of support from families and other agencies” (Wyness & Lang, 2016, p. 1050).
Some of the responsibilities can include duties such as removing head lice so that a girl can get
to school, or picking up students so they would not be late for school. The staff at Harold Lane is
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 51
also teaching emotions as skills and resources. Wyness and Lang (2016) argue that “the
emotional dimension of the school as a social and relational network makes it easier for the
children to articulate their concerns and interests” (p. 1053). The school does not ignore its
responsibilities to teach and produce academic outcomes, but rather claim that school outcomes
are “only one indicator of the school’s commitment to the education and nurturing of children as
good citizens and centered human beings” (Wyness & Lang, 2016, p. 1053).
Research has shown that poverty has detrimental effects on children’s learning and mental health
(Halpern, 1990). With the challenge of poverty weighing heavily on children’s social emotional
health, schools must look for ways to address student needs clearly for any real change to take
place (Elias, Zins, Graczyk, & Weissberg, 2003). Studies have shown that social emotional
learning can have positive effects on students in poverty (Bierman et al., 2010; Claro, Panescu,
& Dweck, 2015; McClure, 2016).
Bierman et al. (2010) examined the impact of the Fast Track PATHS (Promoting
Alternative Thinking Strategies) curriculum involving 2,937 children of multiple ethnicities and
poverty across multiple years. The study showed modest positive effects of reduced aggression
and increased prosocial behavior and improved academic engagement. Bierman et al. (2010)
concluded that a well-implemented multiyear social emotional program can have significant and
meaningful effects.
Effective implementation of the social emotional program is key to its success in student
outcomes (Bierman et al., 2010; Rimm-Kaufman et al., 2014). In the study on the efficacy of the
SEL program, Responsive Classroom, Rimm-Kaufmann et al. (2014) carefully measured fidelity
of implementation. The model rests of the assumption that teachers would implement its
practices with fidelity so effective implementation is a priority. The challenge with measuring
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 52
fidelity with Responsive Classroom (RC) is that it is not measured by the traditional completion
of lessons from the curriculum or time spent delivering the curriculum, but rather it is measured
by the frequency of use, and extent of use in RC practices and principles. For example, do
teachers use morning meetings once a day or once a month? Do teachers provide choices about
how to show your work and in what capacity? In the study, Rimm-Kaufmann et al. (2014)
included twenty-four elementary schools over the span of three years. District policy required all
of those schools to select an SEL approach. Some used the RC approach while the control
schools were exempt from that district policy. Findings from this study show that that higher
implementation, the better the results. The effect sizes on academic achievement were 0.26 in
math and 0.30 in reading. This is comparable to previously mentioned effect sizes in the meta-
analysis from Durlak et al. (2011) of 0.27 for SEL interventions. The next section will explore
the literature around effective learning environments, particularly with a close look at the role of
how the beliefs of the educators affect student mindset and learning.
Role of Educators ’ Beliefs in an Effective Learning Environment
Effective Learning Environments
Children spend a significant amount of time in school (Eccles & Roeser, 2009) so what
happens during the school day makes an extraordinary impact in a child’s life. From a
sociocultural perspective, the research shows that children are highly influenced by their
environment (Bandura, 1986; Farrington et al., 2012; Vygotsky, 1997). Very simply put, an
effective learning environment is one that is conducive to student learning and maximizes the
potential to learn.
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 53
According to the Commission for Teaching Credentialing (2009), Standard Two of the
California Standards for the Teaching Profession (CSTP): Creating and Maintaining Effective
Environments for Student Learning:
Teachers promote social development and responsibility within a caring community
where each student is treated fairly and respectfully. They create physical or virtual
learning environments that promote student learning, reflect diversity, and encourage
constructive and productive interactions among students. They establish and maintain
learning environments that are physically, intellectually, and emotionally safe. Teachers
create a rigorous learning environment with high expectations and appropriate support for
all students. Teachers develop, communicate, and maintain high standards for individual
and group behavior. They employ classroom routines, procedures, norms, and supports
for positive behavior to ensure a climate in which all students can learn. They use
instructional time to optimize learning. (pp. 6-7)
Strong, positive relationships between the teacher and student are the key to any effective
learning environment (Hattie, 2012; Hemmeter, Ostrosky, & Fox, 2006; Roorda, 2012). Students
must feel a sense of safety and emotional well-being before embarking on the demands of the
curriculum (Bowman et al., 2000). An effective learning environment must be “physically,
intellectually, and emotionally safe” (CSTP, 2009, pp. 6-7). For an environment to be
emotionally safe, it is important to integrate a social emotional curriculum into everyday
learning.
In addition to a social emotional curriculum being explicitly taught and modeled
throughout the day to promote positive behavior, evidence shows that an academic mindset must
be present before any real learning happens (Farrington et al., 2012). Farrington et al.’s (2013)
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 54
sociocultural framework (Figure A) illustrates how an academic mindset affects academic
perseverance, learning strategies, and social skills, which in turn shape academic behaviors that
ultimately result in academic performance. Noncognitive traits such as grit, growth mindset, self-
efficacy, and work habits must be developed to improve academic performance (Farrington et
al., 2013). Ambrose et al. (2010) supports this idea by stating:
As educators we are primarily concerned with fostering intellectual and creative skills in
our students, but we must recognize that students are not only intellectual but also social
and emotional beings, and that these dimensions interact within the classroom to
influence learning and performance. (p. 156)
Because children are highly influenced by their environment (Bandura, 1986; Vgotsky, 1997),
the focus of this study is within the context of the classroom and teacher.
Another aspect of an effective environment is the perspective of student learning and
growth as the focus, not necessarily performance. Learning is a process, and teachers must create
a climate in which students believe they can make errors without getting reprimands from their
teachers or snide looks and comments from peers (Hattie, 2012). Learning requires errors, and
errors help us to learn (Ambrose et al., 2010; Dweck, 2016). Dweck (2010) urges classroom
teachers to create a culture of risk taking and look at challenging, meaningful learning tasks as a
way to grow. “Teachers can point out that the students’ efforts were what led to the progress and
improvement over time” (Dweck, 2010, p. 2). A mastery-orientation versus performance-
orientation in the classroom supports this perspective on learning. This is in keeping with
Pintrich’s (2000) goal orientation theory. It is important to point out the continual tension in
current classrooms where teachers are having to negotiate between performance and mastery
goals in the era of school accountability and high-stakes tests.
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 55
The explicit and implicit messages communicated from teachers in effective learning
environments also support the social emotional health of students and the learning process
(Ambrose et al., 2010; Brummelman et al., 2014; Cooper, 1979; Hitz & Driscoll, 1988; Pintrich,
2000). Research indicates that students achieve more when teachers communicate to their
students about their achievements (Brophy, 1986) and provide feedback (Hattie, 2012; Marzano,
2017).
All aspects of an effective learning environment begin with the teacher. In John Hattie’s
book Visible Learning: A Synthesis of Over 800 Meta-Analyses Relating to Achievement (2012),
he argues that the teacher is the most influential factor and has the biggest impact in learning.
Visible Learning is the results of fifteen years of research and over 50,000 studies relating to
influences on student achievement. This next section will look at the research available on the
role of teachers, specifically teacher beliefs, and effect of setting high expectations.
Role of Teachers
The effectiveness of the classroom teacher has a significant influence on student
achievement (Darling-Hammond, 2000; Heck, 2009). Hattie (2012) urges teachers to “know thy
impact,” and be aware of their impact so they can make instructional decisions appropriately and
carefully. Teacher self-efficacy has also proven to be powerfully related to student outcomes
(Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2007; Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001; Goddard et al., 2000). Davis
(1998) defines teacher efficacy as “the teacher’s belief in his or her ability to organize and
execute the courses of action required to successfully accomplish a specific teaching task in a
particular context” (p. 233).
Teacher beliefs. When considering the impact of a growth mindset to improve student
outcomes in schools, it is essential for teachers to reflect within themselves to explore whether or
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 56
not they truly have adopted a growth mindset or whether they believe that fostering a growth
mindset could be an effective approach to increased levels of self-efficacy and ultimately
improved academic achievement (Dweck, 2016; Ricci, 2017). Dweck argues that for great
teachers, “it starts with the growth mindset-about yourself and about children. Not just lip service
to the idea that all children can learn, but a deep desire to reach in and ignite the mind of every
child” (Dweck, 2016, p. 205). The mindset of the teacher is the root of where thoughts, values,
perceptions, and feedback to students lie (Dusek & Joseph, 1983).
Teacher beliefs and commitments have the greatest influence on student achievement
(Hattie, 2012). Kagan (1992) broadly defines teacher beliefs as tacit, often unconsciously held
assumptions about students, the classroom, and the academic material to be taught. From Visible
Learning, Hattie (2012) found that the difference between a high-effect teacher and low-effect
teacher is close to 0.25, which means that a student in a high-effect teacher’s classroom learns
about a year more than his peers in a low-effect classroom. Hattie explains that high-effect and
low-effect refers to a teacher’s attitudes and expectations. From his research, Hattie concludes
that it comes down to the belief system of expert teachers that sets them apart.
Hattie’s (2010) extensive research outlined five major dimensions of excellent or
“expert” teachers. One of these five dimensions is a belief that all students can reach success
criteria. These expert teachers have a growth mindset, a belief that intelligence is changeable
rather than fixed. His studies found that these expert teachers exhibit a passion for learning.
Hattie mentions a study of students of over 3,000 teachers (The Measures of Effective Teaching
Project sponsored by the Gates Foundation), where students overwhelmingly stated that the
teachers of classes with the most student achievement gains were the teachers with the most
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 57
passion (as defined by seven adjectives starting with ‘C’ – teachers who care, control, clarify,
challenge, captivate, confer, and consolidate).
Schmidt, Shumow, and Kackar-Cam (2015) researched the possible relationship between
implicit beliefs within the teacher and their seventh grade students. Quantitative data analysis
from seven science classrooms and two teachers revealed significant teacher effects in student
beliefs about mindset. The classroom with a growth-minded teacher who taught about growth
mindset, utilized learning strategies, emphasized mastery goals, and conceptual development
showed better outcomes than the classroom that did not (Schmidt, Shumow, and Kackar-Cam,
2015).
Fives and Buehl (2008) also explored the impact of teacher beliefs on student
achievement. From their study, they expressed concern for teachers who viewed ability as innate
because they if those teachers struggled with teaching effectively, they might be less receptive to
accepting assistance since their belief is that ability is innate and cannot improve. Another
concern is that of a mentor teacher who has a fixed mindset. If that mentor teacher views ability
as unchangeable, then they may be less likely to help the teacher in need because “they will
never change” (Fives & Buehl, 2008).
Teacher beliefs play a critical role in how instruction unfolds in the classroom (Buehl &
Fives, 2009). According to Kagan (1992), teacher belief is critical to high quality instruction, and
“as we learn more about the forms and functions of teacher belief, we are likely to come a great
deal closer to understanding how good teachers are made” (p. 85).
When teachers view their students’ ability as malleable, the learning potential of their
students is maximized and successful strategies are more likely to be implemented (Clarke,
2014). Unfortunately, when teachers’ beliefs display a fixed mindset, it can pose a barrier to
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 58
learning and student outcomes (Thomas, 2013). Brophy and Good (1974) found that teacher
beliefs in their ability to change circumstances can determine their active or passive nature of
their approaches to teaching. Therefore, it begins with and can end with the teachers’ mindset.
Setting high expectations. Having and communicating high expectations with
appropriate supports is outlined in the California Standards for the Teaching Profession (2009),
and well documented as an effective practice among expert teachers (Marzano, 2017). A
landmark study (1968) showed that teachers’ expectations about how students were going to
perform influenced how they treated them, also known as “self-fulfilling prophecy” or the
“Pygmalion effect” (Rosenthal & Jacboson, 1968). The higher expectations a teacher has for
students, the more teachers will challenge and interact with them, and the lower expectations a
teacher has for students, the less they will engage and challenge them. Torff (2011) claims that
unless teachers hold high expectations for all their students, achievement gaps will continue to
occur. Hattie’s (2011) meta-analyses found a similar conclusion but with regards to students
have high expectations for themselves. Of all the positive influences to student learning, the
highest in all of Visible Learning was self-reported grades with an effect size of 1.44. Self-
reported grades are opportunities for students to evaluate their own performance. It is most
effective when teachers provide clear learning goals and success criteria, and teach their students
to have high expectations for themselves. This was proven to be the single most powerful
influence in improving their achievement (Hattie, 2009).
Studies show that teachers with high efficacy and high expectations promote achievement
in their students and directly influence their students’ academics (Archambault, Janosz, &
Chouinard, 2012; Summers, Davis, and Hoy, 2017). These are significant findings as they further
support the connection of teaching noncognitive factors like growth mindset and grit that
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 59
promotes social emotional health, and could lead to improvements in academic achievement.
This next section will investigate the most current literature on growth mindset interventions
conducted as it pertains to increased academic achievement.
Growth mindset interventions. Since growth mindset is a relatively new topic, not
many studies have been completed to date. The researcher has included numerous studies on
growth mindset that have been conducted in recent years. The results are varied. Some studies
and interventions seem to have worked better than others. While some studies only looked at
whether there was a correlation between growth mindset and achievement, other studies
implemented an intervention to see if growth mindset could be developed. The research is
limited on what components of a growth mindset intervention support better outcomes.
Menanix (2015) compared one teachers’ pedagogy toward teaching for a growth mindset
in two different contexts. She concluded that teaching for a growth mindset requires an
examination of all aspects of teaching, and that simply teaching about growth mindset isn’t
enough--it must be coupled with content and opportunities to experience a growth mindset
(Menanix, 2015). Menanix (201 5) recommends that further research be done on the nuances of
instruction and decision-making that teachers do with regard to their verbal messages, message
delivery, types of assignments, agency and authority, and the challenge level of tasks assigned.
The literature suggests that growth mindset interventions can serve as a catalyst for
developing a growth mindset. However, if the end goal is improved academic achievement, then
intentional application of skills with content is necessary. This may explain why some studies
did not produce desired effects. Direct growth mindset instruction may be enough to shift student
mindset in productive ways.
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 60
This is further evidenced by a study using the online program, BrainologyTM, as an
intervention (Saunders, 2013). Saunders sought to investigate whether there would be a
difference in the reading achievement of at-risk adolescents after the implementation of this
growth mindset intervention. Although there was no statistically significant effect when looking
at the group’s mean scores, it is worthwhile to note that seven of the eighteen students in the
treatment group increased reading achievement with an average of ten points. Ten points is
equivalent to two years of academic growth, which is much higher than the three or four point
expected gain in a year. It is also interesting to note that the control group only had two of the
twelve students increase their reading achievement scores (Saunders, 2013). Since the results
were not statistically significant, there is not conclusive evidence that this growth mindset
intervention was effective. The study did not include additional opportunities for application of
growth mindset strategies, nor did it offer opportunities for students to be challenged.
An additional study (Brougham, 2016) conducted to explore the impact of a growth
mindset intervention on academic performance at urban high schools also drew the same
conclusions, finding no correlation. It is worthwhile to note that this study, just like the Saunders
(2013) study, did not include any direct opportunities for students to apply growth mindset
strategies (Brougham, 2016).
Wilson (2016) also studied the possible relationship between grit, growth mindset, and
reading scores, and whether these noncognitive factors could influence closing the achievement
gap. Her study collected frequency of teacher instruction on grit and growth mindset along with
anecdotal teacher information regarding the instruction of the concepts. The results showed no
relationship that existed between grit/growth mindset instruction and grit/growth mindset scores,
nor between grit/growth mindset and reading scores. What she did find was that information
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 61
regarding how teacher taught the concepts might have been a variable in why no relationship was
found. The findings from the study point to the need for further studies to be done on how
grit/growth mindset instruction can effectively impact academic achievement (Wilson, 2016).
The results from these most recent studies on growth mindset indicate the need for
additional investigation linking the effectiveness of a growth mindset intervention with
pedagogical decisions (Menanix, 2015).
Conclusion
Recent neurological discoveries about the plasticity of the brain support the
psychological studies conducted about how one’s mindset can profoundly affect one’s direction
in life and attitude. Dweck’s term, growth mindset, was founded on multiple social cognitive
theoretical frameworks, including self-efficacy theory, attribution theory, and goal orientation
theory. Sociocultural framework also helped to understand the role of mindset with the context
of environment and culture. Growth (incremental) and fixed (entity) mindsets are implicit
theories of intelligence (Dweck, 1999) that illustrate one’s belief about ability. While a growth
mindset believes that intelligence and ability can be grown and developed, a fixed mindset
believes that those are fixed or innate abilities that cannot change.
Teachers and educators are well aware of the need to address behavioral needs of their
students through a social emotional curriculum before any academic learning can happen.
Growth mindset and grit are cultivated through social emotional learning through some of its
competencies, thus proving more need for social emotional learning and instruction in the
classroom. Research suggests that growth mindset and social emotional learning can help
improve academic outcomes, but the results are still inconclusive as to educators can connect
growth mindset and pedagogical decisions.
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 62
The last section of this chapter reviewed the importance of effective learning
environments, particularly the role of the teacher. A teacher’s beliefs and self-efficacy are
critical factors in how well their students achieve. As such, it begins within the belief system of
the teacher taking the most influential role in a student’s learning environment.
This case study will explore educator beliefs at one elementary school, and investigate
how teachers connect a growth mindset through instructional practices and implicit or explicit
messages. Chapter 3 presents the methodology for this study.
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 63
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
“Research is formalized curiosity. It is poking and prying with a purpose.”
-Zora Neale Hurston
Introduction
The goal of research is not to simply to increase knowledge but to use the research to
inform decision-making in the classroom, school, or district (McEwan, 2003). It is the intention
of this dissertation to engage in research to investigate the different facets of a growth mindset
and how that might contribute to improved student achievement. This is important information
for practitioners and educators that will allow them to understand how to narrow the achievement
gap. Chapter One provided an introduction to the idea of a growth mindset, delivering promising
claims for improving learning. Chapter Two explored the literature behind growth mindset,
including the research from neuroscience, social emotional learning, and the role of educators’
beliefs in an effective learning environment. In Chapter Two, various studies were discussed
about how growth mindset interventions could even offset the effects of poverty for improved
academic outcomes (Claro, Panescu & Dweck, 2015). However, the research is unclear as to the
most effective methods to employ a growth mindset successfully so that improvement in
academic achievement is realized, or what some commonalities lie within the beliefs of
educators that support a growth mindset. It is these two unanswered questions that form the basis
of this study. This chapter will provide a detailed explanation of the data collection using case
study methods to explore the mindset of teachers at one particular urban elementary school in
Southern California.
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 64
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this qualitative case study was to explore the mindset of teachers at Davis
Elementary School
1
. Since teachers play such a critical role in the development of positive
ideologies, the modeling of behavior, and providing a conducive environment for positive
student outcomes, these adult educators were the primary focus of the study. Davis Elementary
introduced the idea of growth mindset in the previous year before the study. Evidence of growth
mindset statements began to emerge in classrooms and in conversations. The research questions
investigated the mindset of educators at the school, as well as looked into how educators are
attempting to promote a growth mindset on their own.
Conceptual and Theoretical Framework
Some key concepts and theories that emerge from the literature review are how teacher
beliefs and high expectations within an effective learning environment can positively contribute
to a growth mindset, as well as how self-efficacy, goal orientation, and attribution theories on the
part of the teacher and learner can affect a person’s behavior and mindset. Vygotsky’s
sociocultural theory (1997) and Bandura’s social cognitive theory (1977) also heavily influence
this research as these theories demonstrate the interplay between one’s self and their
environment.
Research Questions
The following research questions will guide this study:
1. What are the beliefs about intelligence and learning among teachers at the school?
2. How do classroom teachers create a learning environment that promotes a growth
mindset?
1
To keep the identities of case study participants confidential, a pseudonym was created for the name of the
elementary school as well as participants’ names.
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 65
3. Could fostering a growth mindset be an effective approach to increasing academic
achievement or supporting social emotional learning?
Research Design
Research approaches are plans for how the research will be conducted, starting from
broad assumptions to detailed methods (Creswell, 2014). The decision to select a qualitative,
quantitative, or mixed methods research approach needs to be made based on the philosophical
assumptions the researcher brings to the study, research design, methods for data collection,
analysis, and interpretation, as well as the research problem (Creswell, 2014).
For this study, a qualitative approach was selected for a number of reasons. The
researcher is approaching this study with a constructivist worldview, a view that seeks to
understand the context or setting of the participants (Creswell, 2014). Through the use of open-
ended questions in interviews, observations in natural settings, and authentic document reviews,
the researcher would be able to explore the beliefs that educators hold regarding growth mindset.
Qualitative research is inductive, and seeks to understand and explore why things are happening
as they are. Research is typically done in the participant’s natural setting, and the data is
interpreted by the researcher. The purpose was to understand and explore the belief about growth
mindset. Merriam & Tisdell (2016) state that “...research focused on discovery, insight, and
understanding from the perspectives of those being studied offers the greatest promise of making
a difference in people’s lives” (p.1).
A case study methodology was selected because of the researcher’s desire to derive an in-
depth description and analysis of a bounded system (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Yin (2014)
describes a case study as “an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon
(the ‘case’) within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between the phenomenon
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 66
and context may not be clearly evident” (p. 16). In a case study, the unit of analysis is what
characterizes the case study, not the topic of investigation (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The unit of
analysis is the group of selected teachers at one particular elementary school in order to
understand how a growth mindset is cultivated in their classrooms through an investigation of
their beliefs about learning and intelligence. The theory of action was that having a growth
mindset could lead to increases in student achievement, thus closing the achievement gaps that
exist within particular student groups.
Population and Sample
Population
As stated earlier, this case study was conducted at Davis Elementary School, a K-6
Southern California urban public school with a student population of 703 students. Davis
Elementary has a total staff of 80, including 31 Classroom Teachers, 21 Instructional Assistants,
14 Office Staff, 12 Support staff, 4 Behavior Support Team members, and 2 Administrators. The
Behavior Support Team members are comprised of the School Psychologist, School Counselor,
Behavior Health Aide, and Behavior Interventionist. The primary role of the Behavior Support
Team is to provide resources and student supports for student behaviors as well as address
additional behavior needs beyond what classroom supports are available. Their services mainly
include counseling, social groups, outside referrals for behavior needs, behavior data collection,
and testing.
Davis has 23 regular education classes, 4 Gifted and Talented Education (GATE) classes,
and 4 Special Day Classes (SDC) on site. The classroom teacher experiences range from two
years to thirty-two years. There is little transfer staff turnover at this school. It has a positive
academic reputation in the district and boasts the highest test scores in the district. Much of the
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 67
school’s success and achievement has been attributed to the school principal, who has been at
this school for nine years.
Sampling Criterion and Rationale
Sampling is the process of drawing a sample from a larger population (Johnson &
Christensen, 2014). This study will use a purposive sample. Johnson & Christensen (2014)
describe purposive, or purposeful sampling, also known as judgmental sampling, as a sampling
when the researcher specifies the characteristics of the population of interest and locates
individuals with those characteristics. Maxwell (2013) describe purposive sampling as a strategy
where “particular settings, persons, activities are selected deliberately to provide information that
is particularly relevant to your questions and goals” (p. 97).
Criterion 1. The research was specific to educators employed at this school site. This
sampling criterion represented a proportional representation of educators to student group size.
Among the 703 students at the school, the breakdown was 360 primary students (51%) and 343
upper students (49%). Therefore, the research participants consisted of approximately half
primary teachers and half upper grade teachers. Primary teachers are considered teachers of
grades K-3 whereas upper grade teachers are teachers are grades 4-6. This research design
decision is drawn from the theoretical framework that children are influenced by their
environment and school contexts. Since most of a child’s time at school is within the classroom,
the focus of the interviews and observations took place with classroom teachers. The school
administrator was also selected because of the nature of leadership and influence among staff.
Criterion 2. Upon explanation of the nature of the research study to the site
administrator, the principal was able to offer recommendations for participant selection.
Recommendations were made based on principal knowledge and observation of individuals who
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 68
he believed to be promoting a growth mindset in the classroom setting. The principal has been
the site administrator for the past nine years at Davis Elementary School. He conducts daily
classroom visits and gives frequent feedback to classroom teachers. He is very aware of the
culture of each classroom. All teachers selected have been at the site with this principal for a
minimum of five years.
This method of purposeful sampling was helpful in interviewing effective teachers who
would most likely provide the best data for the study, and were far more eager to share about
what they do than less proficient teachers (Maxwell, 2013). In depth interviews, on-site
observations, and document reviews were conducted with carefully selected staff members.
Prior to this beginning the recruitment process, the researcher obtained permission from
the school district, as well as the site administrator of Davis Elementary School. Prior approval
for research was also obtained from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) to ensure that the
research was conducted according to federal, institutional, and ethical requirements. The
participants selected for this study were contacted through email to see if they would be
interested in the study. The email explained the purpose of the study, as well as the
confidentiality, anonymity, and voluntary nature of the study. All participants were volunteers,
and did not receive any monetary compensation for their time. All participants read and signed
the Participant Consent Form (see Appendix A). Once the group of participants was secured, the
researcher began scheduling the interviews and observations with the participants being allowed
to choose their preferred dates and times.
Eight one-to-one interviews and seven observations were conducted with carefully
selected participants that met all three criteria. Participant information is briefly displayed on
Table 3. The table indicates which participants were also selected for an observation. An
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 69
observation was not included for the site administrator due to the nature of the administrator role
and minimal opportunity to gather observable data on the interaction between participant and
student. Relevant documents and artifacts will also be analyzed and reviewed to provide
additional data for qualitative research (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Table 3
Participant Information
Participant ID Yrs of Experience Grade Level Interview or
Observation
Participant #1:Annie 15 K INT & OBS
Participant #2: Betty 5 1/2 INT & OBS
Participant #3: Cecilia 34 2 INT & OBS
Participant #4: Doug 15 3 INT & OBS
Participant #5: Emma 20 4 INT & OBS
Participant #6: Frank 15 6 INT & OBS
Participant #7: Gigi
Participant #8: Henry
14
10 yrs admin
5/6
Admin
INT & OBS
INT only
Instrumentation
Instrumentation used for data collection is dependent upon the purpose of the study and
the type of research. Qualitative case studies view the researcher as the primary instrument of
data collection and analysis (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Through multiple sources of
information, including interviews, observations, and review of relevant documents and artifacts,
this study investigated the research questions stated. Interview questions and observation
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 70
protocols designed for this study have been validated based on the fact that many of them were
used successfully in prior studies by the researcher.
Interviews
Patton (1987) explains that “interviewing allows the evaluator to enter another person’s
world, to understand that person’s perspective” (p. 109). Patton (1987) further argues that
interviews add another layer to outward behaviors since not everything can be observed. Weiss
(1994) adds that some of the “most significant events of people’s lives can become known to
others only through interview” (p. 2). The interviews will be a key part of this study since the
research will be exploring the mindset of the educators. Using a combination of highly
structured, semi-structured, and unstructured formats of interviewing allowed for some
standardized information to be obtained, allowed some questions to be used flexibly, left room
for open-ended questions, and gave time for informal conversation (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Combining all three types of interviewing helped to best capture and understand the participant.
This is important in the case study since the research seeks to explore how concepts of self-
efficacy, attribution, goal orientation, effective learning environments, beliefs, and high
expectations impact the fostering of a growth mindset. It is inside an individual’s mindset that we
place the bulk of the study, and the most effective way to unravel it is through a personal
interview. All interview questions stemmed from the literature reviewed in Chapter Two, and
were guided by the research questions. Although the researcher had prepared questions for the
interview, the format was a combination of highly structured format, a semi-structured format to
allow for flexibility, and an unstructured format to leave room for exploration and authentic
conversation.
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 71
Patton (1987) outlines six different types of interview questions, including (a) experience
and behavior questions, (b) opinion and values questions, (c) feeling questions, (d) knowledge
questions, (e) sensory questions, and (f) background/demographic questions. Strauss, Schatzman,
Bucher & Sabshin (1981) offer four major categories of questions: (a) hypothetical, (b) devil’s
advocate, (c) ideal position, and (4) interpretive. The interview questions in this case study
broadly followed these types of interview questions in its investigation.
Observations
Direct, firsthand observations are an important part of qualitative research (Patton, 1987).
Patton (1987) states there are five strengths using observations as a research tool. First, data is
collected in the field, right on the spot where it happens. Second, firsthand experience allows the
researcher to be inductive, making sense of the activities. Third, the researcher has the
opportunity to see things that would normally be missed if it wasn’t a focus for inquiry. Fourth,
an observation may allow the researcher to learn about things that the participant may not have
disclosed during an interview. Lastly, observations allow the researcher to have a more
comprehensive view of the study since the interviews tend to be selective perceptions from the
participant. Merriam & Tisdell (2016) add that observations can also be used to triangulate
findings when used in conjunction with interviews and document analyses.
Some essential elements that might be noted in the observations are the physical setting,
the participants, activities and interactions, the conversations, subtle factors, and the researcher’s
own behavior (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The role of the researcher was that of observer as
participant, a stance where the researcher’s activities are known to the group but participation in
the group is secondary to the role of gathering information (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This will
allow for the most authentic data collection, and will not intrude on natural interactions that
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 72
occur in the school settings. This case study included seven in-depth observations. These
observations mirrored the proportion of the interviews, covering a variety of school locations.
Documents and Artifact Review
Important considerations to adding documents and artifacts are their relevance, purpose,
and ethics. For this case study, the researcher reviewed documents and artifacts to provide
supplemental and supporting data to answer the research questions. Documents and artifacts
found enable the researcher to capture the language and words of the participants in their
authentic form, represent data to which participants have given attention, and are creative
(Creswell, 2014). The documents for review included growth mindset posters, charts, bulletin
boards, notes, or other artifacts located in classrooms or other locations on the school campus.
The artifacts may vary depending on what is found in each observation. The researcher kept an
open mind when determining what documents may be useful. Merriam & Tisdell (2016) state
that “being open to any possibility can lead to serendipitous discoveries” (p. 75). None of the
documents contained any identifiable information.
Reliability and Validity
Merriam & Tisdell (2016) discuss the various terminology used to describe the rigor and
ethics in research by stating that traditional terms, validity and reliability, now differ from the
more recent terms of credibility and trustworthiness. Both sets of terms are highly important in
reputable research studies, and can be “approached through careful attention to a study’s
conceptualization and the way in which data are collected, analyzed, and interpreted, and the
way in which the findings are presented” (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p. 238). Maxwell (2013)
defines validity as the “correctness or credibility of a description, conclusion, explanation,
interpretation, or other sort of account” (p. 122). Validity is synonymous to the credibility or
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 73
believability of the research (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Reliability is the
repeatability and transferability of findings (Creswell, 2014), and that studying it repeatedly will
yield the same results (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Maxwell (2013) lists two broad validity threats that are commonly raised in qualitative
studies: researcher bias and reactivity. Both of these validity threats are present in this case
study. Although eliminating bias entirely is not a goal in qualitative study, Maxwell (2013)
contends that it can be used productively if the researcher explains their possible biases and how
they dealt with it. In this case study, the researcher is an administrator. Although the researcher
is not employed at this school site, she is an administrator at another school site within the
district. The researcher has no direct evaluative or supervisory role over the school staff being
researched. Reactivity is defined by Maxwell (2013) as the “effect of the researcher on the
individuals studied” (p. 124). Maxwell (2013), however, assures researchers of qualitative
studies that attempts to minimize influence should not be a meaningful goal. The reactivity effect
is “not as serious a validity threat as some people believe” (Maxwell, 2013, p. 125). The
researcher argues that administrator presence in classrooms [for observations] is a normal
occurrence at this school so that teachers do not typically feel as if an observation felt unusual.
Maxwell (2013) points out that “repeated observations and interviews, as well as the sustained
presence of the researcher in the setting studied” (p. 126) is one strategy to support validity.
Because of the academic reputation of this school, it hosts many outside visitors who request to
walk classrooms and observe instruction. Not only do observers, administration, and outside
guests visit classrooms often in frequency, the length of the observations (30-40 minutes in
length) allowed for a “sustained presence.” This case study also used rich data as another
strategy to increase credibility and trustworthiness. Rich data (Maxwell, 2013) is detailed data
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 74
that provides a full picture of what is happening. Rich data was collected in the form of verbatim
transcripts of the interviews. Rich data was also collected from the observations since detailed
notes and interactions were documented in the moment, not after leaving the observation site.
Triangulation is the process of using multiple sources of data as a means to compare and
cross-check data collected from interviews, observations, and documents (Maxwell, 2013;
Creswell, 2014). The researcher will also use triangulation to compare the different sources of
data to derive themes. Triangulation may also include follow-up interviews with the same
people, if needed (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). One advantage of conducting a case study was that
the researcher is employed at the case study school so that any follow-up is easily accomplished.
Ethics
Ethical considerations must accompany all aspects of research design (Glesne, 2011).
Considerations such as seeking institutional approval, selecting a site of study that does not have
a vested interest in the outcome of the study, consent forms, sensitivity to vulnerable
populations, pressuring participants, fair treatment and uniform data collection procedures, bias
during data analysis, respecting privacy of participants, appropriate citations, etc. (Creswell,
2014) are all important factors that must be addressed in the research design.
Maxwell (2013) states that “gaining access” is more complex than the phrase suggests,
and that “it typically requires ongoing negotiation and renegotiation of your relationships with
those you study” (p. 90). The relationship between researcher and participant are both affected,
and it is important to be cognizant and sensitive to that (Maxwell, 2013). In this case study, the
researcher clearly disclosed the purpose of the study and received consent from participants
before collecting any data. It is important to note that relationship between researcher and
participant are both affected, and it is important to be cognizant and sensitive to that (Maxwell,
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 75
2013). The nature of the relationship between the researcher and participant can be challenging.
As school principal of a different site, the researcher has disclosed that there is no information
that will be shared with the current site administrator.
Once participants were identified and preceding the interview, the researcher clarified
with the participant that the interview was voluntary and that they are free to express their honest
opinion and comment without any judgement or evaluation. The researcher added that the
purpose for the interview was for a dissertation study, and that the researcher was investigating
the impact of a growth mindset on student achievement. The researcher added that the participant
can stop at any time to give a way of escape should it become uncomfortable. All participants
were asked for consent to audiotape the interview before the interview began.
All observations also included consent from the participants by prior to the activity. All
observations were approached uniformly where the researcher would be present with a laptop in
a corner of the room, taking notes, while allowing the natural occurrences of the room to happen.
In order to minimize anxiety on the part of the teacher, the observations would not be
videotaped. For this study, the researcher’s stance was observer as participant. Although the
participants were aware of the researcher’s presence and activity of taking notes on the laptop, it
was assumed that the natural activities within the room would carry on. Field notes would be
taken within the context of the environment. The researcher was placed in a non-obtrusive
location where observations were easily visible. The non-classroom observations occurred in the
back or unobtrusive area where there was clear visibility of the person, as well as the ability to
hear voices audibly. The research question asked about educator beliefs regarding growth
mindset so it is important to see the human exchanges as well as hear the dialogue occurring
between students and educators.
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 76
Data Analysis
Data analysis is the process of making sense of the data in order to answer research
questions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). For this case study, the researcher utilized a constant
comparative method of data analysis that involved comparing one set of data with another to find
similarities and differences (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In addition, the
researcher analyzed the interview and observation data through a coding process (Corbin &
Strauss, 2008; Harding, 2013). Empirical, or emergent codes were derived while reading through
the collected data (Harding, 2013) and the researcher began the process of classification
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Corbin & Strauss, 2008) to make meaning from the data so that the
research questions could be answered. The researcher looked for categories, themes, and findings
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Miles, 2014). The coding process involved naming pieces of data,
starting from open codes to axial codes to themes (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Corbin & Strauss
(2008) refer to analytic tools as the mental strategies that researchers use to make sense of the
data (p. 58). Some analytic tools to be used in this study are comparison making and asking
questions from the data (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Review of pertinent documents and artifacts
provided additional data to triangulate all the present findings from interviews and observations.
Summary
This chapter presents the qualitative methodology used to answer the following research
questions:
1. What are the beliefs about intelligence and learning among teachers at the school?
2. How do classroom teachers create a learning environment that promotes a growth
mindset?
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 77
3. Could fostering a growth mindset be an effective approach to increasing academic
achievement or supporting social emotional learning?
Through the theoretical framework that having a growth mindset can make substantial
impact on student learning and social emotional well-being, the purpose of this case study was to
explore the mindset of the educators at one elementary school. The research questions
investigated the mindset of educators at the school, as well as looked into how educators are
attempting to promote a growth mindset on their own. Data was collected through in-depth
interviews, on-site observations, and document reviews.
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 78
CHAPTER FOUR: SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
“You can have data without information, but you cannot have information without data.”
-Daniel Keys Moran
Recent scientific evidence demonstrates both the incredible potential of the brain to grow
and change, and the powerful impact of growth mindset for improved student outcomes
(Bernard, 2010; Boaler, 2013; Dweck, 2016; Goswami, 2004). Through the work of Vgotsky
(1997), Bandura (1986), Brophy (1986), and Farrington et al. (2012), research shows that a
child’s school environment can significantly impact student behavior. This research study begins
with the classroom teacher, the curator of that critical learning environment since they set the
stage. Good teachers control what happens, what does not happen, and use their influence for
positive change in shaping the mindset of their students. The purpose of this study is to explore
how teachers at one elementary school cultivate a growth mindset through an examination of
their thinking and their classroom learning environments. This chapter reports the findings of
this case study. A total of eight in depth interviews were conducted, as well as seven on-site
classroom observations. Relevant artifacts found in classrooms were also included in the study.
The findings are based on the following three research questions:
1. What are the beliefs about intelligence and learning among teachers at the school?
2. How do classroom teachers create a learning environment that promotes a growth
mindset?
3. Could fostering a growth mindset be an effective approach to increasing
academicachievement or supporting social emotional learning?
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 79
Participating Stakeholders
This study used a purposeful sampling that allowed the researcher to specify criterion
based on the research questions around growth mindset. Two criterions were used for participant
selection: (1) participants must be classroom teachers at Davis School representing a
proportional ratio of upper and primary grades; and (2) participants were recommended or
approved by the site principal as individuals who he believed promoted a growth mindset in the
classroom. As mentioned in Chapter Three, all participants received an interview and
observation, with the exception of the school principal. Although this research study centers
primarily on the mindset and influence of the classroom teacher, it is worthwhile to include the
principal as the instructional leader and visionary for the school. Numerous studies indicate the
relationship between school leadership and positive student outcomes (Hallinger, Bickman, &
Davis, 1996; Hallinger & Heck, 1998; Waters, Marzano, & McNulty, 2003), but more
importantly principals can be highly influential change agents for teachers when there is a clearly
communicated and shared goal/vision, trusting relationships are fostered, and there is an active
support of instruction (Supovitz, Sirinides, & May, 2009). For the purpose of this study, the
researcher decided to include the principal to bring some context into the case study but the study
remains primarily focused on the teachers at Davis Elementary School.
Since the participants are the unit of study, this section also includes detailed information
about each of the participants.
Participant #1: Annie
Annie is a Caucasian female teacher with 15 years of teaching experience. She has been
teaching Kindergarten for all 15 years at Davis Elementary School. Annie received her
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 80
Bachelor’s degree from California State University Fullerton and Master’s Degree from Walden
Univeristy. Annie has 27 students in her class.
Participant #2: Betty
Betty is a Pacific Islander female teacher with 5 years of teaching experience. She
teaches a Primary Special Day Class (SDC) which services 1
st
and 2
nd
graders. This SDC class is
a Moderate-to-Severely Learning Disabled Class. Betty received her Bachelor’s degree in
Liberal Studies and Master’s Degree in Special Education.
Participant #3: Cecilia
Cecilia is a one of the most veteran teachers on campus. Cecilia is a Caucasian female
teacher with 34 years of teaching experience. Of those 34 years, she stated that 24 years have
been teaching 2
nd
grade, which is her current assignment. Cecilia has also been at Davis for most
of those 34 years. There are 27 second graders in Cecilia’s class. Cecilia received her Bachelor’s
Degree at the University of Southern California and her Master’s Degree at Azusa Pacific
University.
Participant #4: Doug
Doug is one of five male teachers on the Davis campus. Doug is Caucasian and has been
teaching for 15 years, the past 7 years have been at Davis School teaching 3
rd
grade. Doug has 28
students in his class. Doug has a Master’s Degree and holds a National Board Certification for
Teachers, one of the professional’s highest standards for accomplished practice (National Board,
2018). Doug attended the University of Southern California for his undergraduate work, and
received his Master’s degree from the University of California, Irvine.
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 81
Participant #5: Emma
Emma is a Caucasian female teacher with 20 years of teaching experience. Emma teaches
fourth grade. There are 32 students in Emma’s class. Emma received her Bachelor’s Degree at
the University of California, Irvine in Studio Art. Emma went on to obtain a Master’s Degree
from National University.
Participant #6: Frank
Frank is an Asian male teacher with 15 years of teaching experience. Although this was
his first year at Davis, he has been in the same district for the other years teaching grades 4-6. He
is currently teaching 6
th
grade at Davis. After earning his Bachelor of Arts degree, Frank pursued
a Master’s degree from the University of California Berkeley in Arts and Education. Frank has
33 students in his class.
Participant #7: Gigi
Gigi is a Hispanic/Latina female teacher with 14 years of experience. She currently
teaches 5
th
/6
th
graders in a Special Day Class. This SDC class is also a Moderate-to-Severely
Disabled Class. There are 12 students in Gigi’s class, ranging from 5
th
to 6
th
grades. Gigi holds a
Master’s degree in Special Education.
Participant #8: Henry
Henry has been the Principal of the school for the past 9 years. Henry is a Caucasian male
principal and holds an Educational Doctorate degree from the University of Southern California.
Prior to joining the Administrative team in the district, Henry was a middle school English
teacher in another school district.
Although this research study did not directly include students, it is relevant information to
include some student demographic data in each participant’s classes. Two categories were
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selected because they were highlighted in Chapter One of this study as two student group
classifications who showed achievement gaps in standardized testing data for the Smarter
Balanced Assessments in both English Language Arts and Mathematics. Table 4 depicts the
percentages of socio-economically disadvantaged students and percentages of Hispanic/Latino
students in each of the participants’ respective classes.
Table 4
Demographic Data of Students in Each Teacher Participant ’s Class
Participant Names
% Socio-Economically
Disadvantaged
% Hispanic/Latino
Annie 78 70
Betty 80 70
Cecilia 78 78
Doug 50 50
Emma 59 34
Frank 57 39
Gigi 83 66
Process to Analyze Data
A qualitative case study design was selected because the researcher was approaching this
study with a constructivist worldview that seeks to understand the context or setting of the
participants (Creswell, 2014). Through the use of open-ended questions in interviews,
observations in natural settings, and authentic document reviews, the researcher would be able to
explore teacher beliefs and see how they cultivate a growth mindset in their classrooms.
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 83
Once the sampling of participants was secured, all participants were contacted via
electronic (email) mail. The email requested their participation in the study. The email included
information about the research study, participant consent form, and asked if they would
volunteer for both an in-depth interview and in-class observation. One preliminary participant
declined the invitation to participate, so an alternate was selected from another recommendation
by the principal. In total, there were seven teacher participants and one principal.
After data was collected, it was analyzed using Creswell’s (2014) data analysis approach
(see Figure E). Creswell’s (2014) approach begins the raw data. Raw data includes audio-
recordings of the interviews, field notes from the in-class observations, and artifacts found in
classrooms.
All participants gave consent for audio-recording of the interview by checking off a
section on the participant consent form and providing their signature (see Appendix A). In-
person interviews ranged from 30-50 minutes long per participant interviewed. The interviews
began with professional background questions, followed by a set of 13-15 questions that were
aligned to the research questions. The schedule for the semi-structured interviews has been
provided in Appendix B. Once each interview was complete, the audio recording was saved and
uploaded to HappyScribe transcription service.
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Figure E. Creswell’s data analysis approach for qualitative research
Each processed transcription was reviewed once again carefully by the researcher for
accuracy and clarity. Validating the accuracy of the information (as seen in Figure E) is an
important part of the data analysis process. Any confidential information was replaced with a
pseudonym or stricken during the reporting of data. All participants were given a pseudonym.
Upon completion of the research study, all transcribed interviews and audio-recordings were
destroyed in accordance with the University’s Institutional Review Board.
Class observation notes were taken during live instruction and class activities. During
these observations, as well as during interviews, artifacts were either shared by the participant or
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 85
observed by the researcher. When items were noticed by the researcher, permission was always
asked before taking a photograph of the item. Observation notes were also organized into the
same labeling system for interviews so that observations and interviews would remain linked
together.
Once all interviews were carefully transcribed, observation notes and artifacts collected,
they were organized and prepared for analysis. The coding process began by reading through all
the data to get a sense of the whole (Creswell, 2014; Tesch, 1990). Reading through the
transcripts, observation notes, and artifacts occurred multiple times to discover any themes or
patterns emerging. The coding process began soon after. A code can be described as “often a
short word or phrase that symbolically assigns a summative, salient, essence-capturing, and/or
evocative attribute for a portion of language-based or visual data (Saldaña, 2013, p. 3). The
coding process was supported by the use of Google Highlight, an annotation tool available on
Chrome. The application allows the user to highlight segments of the transcribed document in
Google documents, and sort them by highlighted color. In total, the researcher discovered 22
open codes. Using a constant comparative method, the researcher developed categories and
descriptions from the open codes. Descriptions involve a rendering of information about people,
places, or events in a setting (Creswell, 2014) or themes are categories, or axial codes (Merriam
& Tisdell, 2016). The researcher found six themes from the study, roughly 1-3 themes for each
research question. This chapter serves to describe these six themes organized by research
questions, and then make interpretations based on the findings and support them with the
literature, theory, and/or data collected.
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Findings
Through the theoretical framework that having a growth mindset can make substantial
impact on student learning and social emotional well-being, the purpose of this case study was to
explore the mindset of the educators at one elementary school. A key assertion of this study is
that teachers who personally have a growth mindset of their own use their influence and teaching
to shape a growth mindset in their students. Therefore, research questions were centered around
teacher beliefs to explore their mindset, how teachers craft a learning environment for their
students, and teacher beliefs about whether a growth mindset could lead to increased student
outcomes.
There were many similarities in the interviews and observations conducted for this study.
The six major themes that emerged from the researcher’s analysis are: (1) Learning is a process;
(2) Build self-efficacy; (3) Teacher is facilitator; (4) Setting a positive culture in the classroom;
(5) Language of the classroom; (6) Feedback for improvement; and (7) Emotional safety. It was
clear to the researcher that although there is not a clear definition of a growth mindset at Davis
Elementary School, that the participants did have a basic understanding of the concept. This is
most likely due to the fact that there has been very limited professional development in this area.
When asked about any professional learning around growth mindset at the school site, Annie
replied, “Very small. I think we are maybe we had like one day at the very, very beginning of the
year. But some teachers have kind of taken off with it. I haven’t had a chance to really attack it.”
According to data collected from interviews, a few teachers could recall one or two staff
meetings on the topic of growth mindset at the beginning of the year. When asked further detail
from the staff meetings, recollection was limited. Betty had difficulty remembering, “I know that
it’s never been explicit and directly stated, like this is what we’ll do.”Aside from this conclusion,
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 87
several themes emerged from this study, and they have been categorized under each research
question.
Research Question 1
The first research question asked, “What are the beliefs about intelligence and learning
among the educators at Davis Elementary School?” This question explores teachers’ mindsets.
Dweck (2015) describes mindset as people’s beliefs about human attributes, including abilities.
According to Dusek & Joseph (1983), the mindset of the teacher is the root of where thoughts,
values, perceptions, and feedback to students lie. The underlying theory of action behind this
first research question is based on Dweck’s (2016) statement that “the view you adopt for
yourself profoundly affects the way you lead your life” (p. 6). For the purpose of this research
study, Dweck’s quote translates to the view teachers adopt for themselves profoundly affects the
way they teach. The literature supports that teacher beliefs have significant impact on student
achievement (Fives & Buehl, 2008; Hattie, 2012; Schmidt, Shumow, & Kackar-Cam, 2015). The
one common theme that was found to align to Research Question 1 was regarding the teacher’s
beliefs about learning.
Belief that Learning is a Process
Ambrose et al. (2010) defines learning as a process, not a product. It involves change that
unfolds over time (Ambrose et al., 2010). Analyses of interviews collected from educators at
Davis School provide evidence that they also perceived learning as a process, and not a linear
product of delivering information.
During the coding process, it was revealed that all eight interviews contained similar
phrases and words that indicated that they believed learning was a process that was continuous.
In essence, learning is all about having a growth mindset. Growth mindset is the based on the
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 88
belief that basic qualities are things you can cultivate through your efforts, your strategies, and
help from others (Dweck, 2016). Basic qualities include intelligence and learning. Fourth grade
teacher, Emma, shared her belief about growth mindset and intelligence in the following manner:
So what I usually tell my students is that their intellectual ability or what they can achieve
is not pre-determined at birth. They could use the power of their mind, positive thinking
to actually become successful…I think someone with a positive growth mindset feels like
if they have a positive outlook you know they could achieve their goals. They can work
harder. They will accept critical feedback and criticism and not take it personally. And
they know that, that they can improve whatever.
Gigi, 5th/6th SDC teacher, explained her view on growth mindset as, “[it’s] learning your
whole life...lifelong learning, something like that, always increasing your understanding of
things. You know. Basically just learning, keep learning, a whole lot of different things in
different areas.” Sixth grade teacher, Frank, explained the learning process as continuously
improving and growing in a similar manner as Emma. This was supported during Frank’s
classroom observation. The researcher noticed the class retaking their math chapter tests. Frank
explained that he valued mastery of math concepts over performance Pintrich (2000) asserts that
students who are performance-oriented are most interested in demonstrating their ability
compared to others. A mastery-orientation values progress, growth, and the view that learning is
a process (Pintrich, 2000). This mastery-orientation was evidenced in the classroom observation
as the researcher noticed a chart on the whiteboard that showed mastery scores that highlighted
amount of learning versus a grade. Frank stated, “You know that Khan Academy leaderboard
over there? You know every week I print it out and I don’t print based on what percent they are
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 89
but what have they mastered.” He further explained that students can retake those math chapter
tests as many times as they’d like once they have practiced the concepts.
This concept of learning as a continuous process repeated itself multiple times in
different ways through the interviews. Third grade teacher, Doug, felt so strongly about the
unceasing quality of learning in his classroom that the word, “done” is not permitted to be used:
So we’re always learners. So when I consider what a growth mindset means there’s not
really an endpoint. There’s a lot of refinement and reflection that have to go into anything
that we do. So when we’re working on something, sometimes we can find ourselves just
stuck. And that’s I think that’s actually o.k. because I would rather be stuck, and walk
away from something without that feeling of I have to be done. So that I can walk, I could
free myself walk away and come back and give it another shot and have a new
perspective. You know maybe at the time when I was working on something I might not
have been as focused as I would want it to be so it’s not that there’s an idea of something
has to be done. Actually that word is not even allowed in my classroom [italics added for
emphasis].
The interview with the school principal, Henry, also followed this same idea. Henry
stated that “we’re never done learning, we’re never done trying and so that we’re always
constantly reminding and constantly trying to improve ourselves.” He stated that as leader of the
school, he had been working with teachers on this idea of continuous professional learning for
the past seven years. About four years ago, “we really started working on the kids and pushing
that out, and really teaching and educating kids about what growth mindset is and getting them to
be [saying] ‘I’m not done,’ ‘How can I improve?’ and be curious about what they’re learning.”
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 90
Build Self-Efficacy
The priority of building self-efficacy in students was another theme that showed
commonality through the extracted open and axial codes. Teachers believed that the purpose of
learning is not simply delivery of content but building self-efficacy in students. Self-efficacy can
be defined self-perceptions that individuals hold about their capabilities (Pajares, 2003). Simply
put, it is what you believe you can do, the foundation for motivation. Having a growth mindset
can mitigate the effects of low self-efficacy since it can make a powerful contribution to the
prediction of academic performance. Betty, 1
st
/2
nd
grade SDC teacher, explained the importance
of “having opportunities for students to feel successful whether that’s like if they’re presenting
something, like being able to use a computer, or being able to write about it.” Second grade
teacher, Cecilia, supported the importance of self-efficacy by stating that “they need the mindset
that they can do well [that] they believe in themselves and that they know they can do it.” Emma
demonstrated this idea of using practice to build ability, improve learning, and understand that
learning is a process. Emma stated that every year she shares an article with her students about
the brain and how the brain is like a muscle. Everyone has the ability to build muscle in their
bodies, and everyone can grow their brains. Emma encouraged her students to exercise their
muscles to get stronger just like we lift weights to build body muscle.
Frank spoke of self-efficacy in the midst of difficulties, “Like I’ve been saying that they
have the grit to keep going even when faced with challenges...I always like to think like if, if I
believe [emphasis added] that it can be done, then it can be done.” Frank gave an example of one
of his students. One female student was struggling in math and asked Frank for help. Frank told
her that he could help but that the student needed to take initiative and put forth her own effort,
and that she could grow and learn. It depends on the effort that you’re going to put in.” Although
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 91
it would have been easy for Frank to jump in and give her the answer, he wanted his student to
feel and believe that she could do it herself.
Research Question 2
The second research question asked, “How do classroom teachers create a learning
environment that promotes a growth mindset?” This question considered the classroom learning
environment as a critical factor in promoting a growth mindset in children since children spend a
significant amount of time in school (Eccles & Roeser, 2009). From a sociocultural perspective,
the literature shows that children are highly influenced by their environment (Bandura, 1986;
Farrington et al., 2012; Vygotsky, 1997). Given that an effective learning environment is one that
is conducive to student learning and maximizes the potential to learn, what practices and
structures are in place to promote a growth mindset? Three themes were found that aligned to
Research Question 2: (1) Teacher as facilitator; (2) Setting a positive culture in the classroom;
and (3) Language of the classroom.
Teacher as Facilitator
Analysis of interviews and observation notes demonstrate evidence that teachers view
themselves as facilitators of learning. This type of 21st century learning differs from a traditional
view of education where the teacher delivers content in a lecture-style while students passively
listen and absorb information (Gomez, 2016). This may be due to the fact that the case study
school is a STEAM school, an educational approach that utilizes the disciplines of Science,
Technology, Engineering, Arts, and Mathematics as access points for inquiry and integration.
Throughout the interviews, participants sprinkle in references to the school’s STEM curriculum,
Project Lead the Way (PLTW) where the model of instruction is for teachers to facilitate
learning in cooperative groups. PLTW engages students in cross-disciplinary activities and
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 92
empowers students to develop essential skills like problem solving, critical thinking,
communication, collaboration, and perseverance. Kindergarten teacher, Annie, explained that in
their Project Lead the Way curriculum, often times children want to give up in the beginning
especially in the first few months of the year. Annie would typically see her young
Kindergarteners “throw their hands up” and just sit there for long periods of time waiting for
someone to “rescue” them. Annie shared that instead of telling them what to do, she would sit
with them and ask them encouraging questions, things to help them think it through. “I am, you
know, just kind of being a facilitator, more than a kind of like a lecturer or you know like
guiding them without giving them the answer.”
Betty explained that at every staff meeting, the principal would talk about allowing kids
to “grapple with the passage or grapple with the math” and “there’s a lot of writing down what
you know but not giving them the answer even if it’s wrong.” Betty confessed that although
there were times she didn’t quite understand how to carry this out at first, she was aware that it
was a school-wide expectation. The word “grappling” was repeated by Annie when she further
explained, “Grappling is a very different way of thinking from when I went to school… I think
we need to allow kids to be able to grapple, and promote the process not just the product.”
Betty stated that she sees it in the PLTW curriculum, “[w]ith PLTW they always say you’re a
facilitator. You’re not there to like tell them exactly how to go through the process, let them
figure it out.” Betty added that this is a positive shift because when students are trained early to
problem solve on their own, they internalize that problem solving as the way to learn instead of
depending on the teacher all the time for all things.
Feelings were similar with Cecilia, as she stated “The role of the teacher is a facilitator.
We’re here to facilitate their learning and they lead their way. They are leading their learning and
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 93
we’re just there to facilitate.” When the researcher asked Cecilia to elaborate, she replied, “well,
in my grade they are still young so even though we have moved from absolute quiet to lots more
noise and guiding rather than direct instruction, I think that the younger ones still need some
direction and structure. But we are all moving in that direction.” Cecilia also mentioned that in
PLTW, the curriculum is designed for facilitation, and not direct instruction.
Doug spoke in depth about the role of teacher as facilitator, as well as modeling it during
the in-class observation. When asked about the role of the teacher, he replied:
My role really is to put myself out of a job…My role is to ask questions, to offer a point
of view but not say this is what an answer is or the answer is. To challenge, but also to
give the feedback like, “Wow this is really going well” or “Have you thought about blah,
blah, blah?” So my role is to just trigger I guess the thinking and take it to that next step
without being the hammer coming around and my red pen saying this is right or wrong.
Field notes from the class observation in Doug’s classroom showed evidence of this type of
student-led instruction. During this observation, students were seated in a semi-circle on the rug
with their own chromebook. Doug had shared out an informational video to provide background
knowledge on pulleys and force. Students viewed the video on the big screen in front of them or
on their own chromebooks. Doug paused the video at preset moments to ask critical questions
that built knowledge. Questions ranged from “What questions do you have?” to “How do you
know?” At one point, he asked the class, “What are some key words, or language of the
disciplines?” Doug put his fingers on his head to remind his students to think and be ready to
answer in a complete sentence. Doug carefully facilitated the discussion, being careful put the
onus of learning on the students.
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 94
Within this short vignette, Doug illustrated how he facilitated his students’ learning
without telling them. Through the use of multiple questions and prodding, he encouraged his
students to own their own thinking and construction of knowledge.
Emma also demonstrated this idea of teacher as facilitator in her fourth grade classroom
observation. During this observation, students were spread all throughout the classroom as well
as outside the door. Appendix C illustrates that the layout of the classroom invites collaboration
through the clustering of student desks into groups. It should be noted at all seven observed
classrooms had a similar layout, where student desks were clustered together. The desks at this
school were non-traditional in that they were quadrilateral (not rectangular), but designed to fit
together flexibly and had wheels for mobility. Emma reviewed the Design Challenge project
with the class. The directions were written on the whiteboard were reviewed orally and allowed
the students to go to their appropriate groups. Students scurried to their groups without
hesitation. The researcher walked around to listen in on student groups. Student worked
collaboratively in groups on different projects. Emma checked in with groups periodically, but
teacher support was minimal.
The fact that all teachers echoed the same feeling may stem from the leadership at the
school. The principal’s interview demonstrated a similar response about the role of teacher as
facilitator in the learning. Henry stated that the really good teachers are great questioners. Henry
shared that teachers with a growth mindset are putting the responsibilitiy of learning on the
students. In his experience some teachers are naturals, but for most teachers, it takes work. They
may need to pre-plan their questions and make it a habit. He stated, “You have to ask, who’s
doing the thinking? Who’s doing the work?” He reminisced about when he was a teacher and
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 95
how he didn’t teach this way. Henry stated, “Looking back, they would have learned so much
more had I taught this way.”
Part of this emerged theme of teacher as facilitator includes the modeling of behaviors
that are desired. Annie stated that she tries to model mistakes or failing in front of her
Kindergarten students, but making it very clear that she didn’t give up after the mistake.Annie
stated, “I always try to model a mistake or a fail so they can see me fail and they can see me
overcome it.” Modeling mistakes in front of students illustrates the process of learning according
to Doug, “I have to model it a lot myself in terms of the idea of building from a mistake and
really kind of making a BIG thing about how things like that ‘I’m done’ language isn’t part of
who we are.”
Setting a Positive Culture in the Classroom
The data shows that teachers believe learning environments that promote a growth
mindset are safe, positive, and engaging. When participants were asked what constitutes an
effective learning environment, teachers replied that the students have to feel safe. Emma was
emphatic, “Kids have to feel safe. Number one. And free to ask questions and comfortable. I
think that’s the best.” Cecilia stated, “I try to really, really build a safe environment for them.”
Several teachers replied that engagement was important. Doug stated that the environment needs
to be an “active place…they have to have a chance to move about, take risks, and meet with
other people.” Doug claims that his third graders tend to be much more engaged in their work
when they are free to move about the classroom. He allows this physical movement because it
sets them free to learn without restriction or fear of reprimand from teacher.
Cecilia stated: “You have an effective learning environment when kids are engaged. I
used to think that an effective learning environment had to be absolutely quiet (laughed), and it’s
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 96
not anymore. That’s my [emphasis added] growth mindset! When kids are engaged, they are
learning.”
In addition to the environment being safe and engaging, it also needs to be positive. The
theme of positivity was scattered throughout the interviews, as well as the observations. Annie
stated, “I feel like they can rise when given a good positive environment.” An observation in
Annie’s classroom demonstrated this type of positive climate during the morning rug time where
the class was practicing a rhyming activity: Annie said a line from a nursery rhyme, and students
repeated the line. At the end, the whole class said it all together. Annie asked her
Kindergarteners, “Is there anyone who can say it all by themselves?” One student raised her
hand, and said the entire nursery rhyme standing up. The class cheered, “Hip hip hooray! Three
more students eagerly put their hands up to volunteer. They each stood to recite the entire
nursery rhyme. After each one, the class cheered again, “Hip hip hooray!” Betty stated, “The
best way to promote a growth mindset to your kids is, I think, it’s just being very positive.”
Similar positive activities were found in the observations from Betty’s classroom: As students
went up to the interactive whiteboard to count objects, Betty exuded positive energy as she
encouraged each of her special-needs students to do their best. One student went up to count,
touching each object as he counted aloud. One after another, students accurately counted the
objects on the whiteboard, and the teacher/class clapped after each turn. Betty said, “Yes, you
can do this. Right, Denise?” Denise replied, “I can do this!” Betty held her hand and supported
her to count. Denise counted to 20, and the entire class cheered for her. Doug explained how he
views test results as, “It’s not, ‘Wow, I missed five.’ It’s, ‘Hey I got three right.’”
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 97
Language of the Classroom
The data unanimously revealed the presence of growth mindset language in each of these
classrooms. Growth mindset language are verbal and written words/phrases that convey the
message that your abilities can be cultivated through dedication and hard work (Dweck, 2008).
The codes for language received the highest frequency in the study. The power of YET repeated
itself multiple times in the interviews and observations. Appendix D shows artifacts found that
depict growth mindset language in many of the classrooms. When teachers were asked to
describe the language used by growth minded students or teachers, Frank explained that they
would say things like, “I can’t do it yet. I’m going to keep trying. Can I do it again? Can we try it
this way? Can I redo it?” Frank added, “We talk a lot about ‘yet.’ I don’t understand it YET but I
WILL maybe if I try it this way. I can’t do this yet but I can if I keep going at it. ”
Betty gave an example of a student who always said she couldn’t do this or that. Betty
would stop her and tell her “we don’t say ‘I can’t’ in this class.” Betty shared how important
language is in reinforcing beliefs.
Emma spoke about the need for students to hear growth mindset language everyday,
whenever an opportunity pops up. Emma states that she actively looks for opportunities to bring
in conversations about growth mindset so that she can keep it fresh in their minds. The
observation from Emma’s fourth grade classroom demonstrated how students now owned this
growth mindset language. In her class, students are accustomed to giving and accepting feedback
from peers. During this portion of the observation, a small group of students looked at a
projected slide together to give feedback to the other group. The group had written, “We don’t
know how to code…YET.” Emma pointed this out to the other group and called out, “That’s
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 98
right. We don’t know how to code YET.” At that second, a classmate interjected,
“Perseverance!”
Research Question 3
The third research question asked, “Could fostering a growth mindset be an effective
approach to increasing academic achievement or supporting social emotional learning?”
Research has shown that noncognitive factors such as grit, growth mindset, perseverance, self-
efficacy, and work habits must be developed for improved academic performance (Farrington et
al., 2012; Duckworth, 2009; 2016) and the literature supports the notion that social emotional
learning is a critical part to addressing the whole child and are considered foundational to
academic learning and beyond (Durlak, Weissberg, Dymnicki, Taylor, & Schellinger, 2011).
However, research studies have proved inconclusive with regard to whether growth mindset
interventions positively correlate to increasing academic achievement (Menanix, 2015; Wilcox,
2016). Further investigation is needed. This question was meant to garner teacher opinions on
whether they believed fostering a growth mindset could lead to increases in academic
achievement or support social emotional learning. Two themes were found that aligned to
Research Question 3: (1) Feedback to improve; and (2) Emotional safety.
Feedback to Improve
The data from interviews, observations, and artifacts illustrated that teachers believed in
the power of feedback not only from teachers themselves but from students/peers. Teachers
Doug and Emma already spoke in depth about the value of feedback for learning. Emma
explained that if you have a growth mindset, you will “work harder, accept critical feedback and
criticism and not take it personally.” Emma’s classroom observation also demonstrated the use of
“critical friends,” a way for her students to give and accept feedback from their peers. When
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 99
asked to explain this concept of “critical friends,” she replied, “So I learned that from another
teacher, and I liked it a lot. You know we kind of picked up saying something positive first and
then offering some feedback, some criticism.” During Emma’s classroom observation, groups of
students were invited to the front of the room where their presentation could be projected so that
another group could provide critical feedback. Emma encouraged feedback to flow. One student
said, “I like your presentation. I noticed in the beginning, you could spread out the team
members while presenting because we couldn’t see the slides very well. Maybe two on the left
side and two on the right?” A few minutes later, Emma turned to the class and asked for some
volunteers to be critical friends to give feedback to the group in front. She told the class, “We
rely on you to help us improve ourselves.” Within seconds, four students walked up the front of
the class to give feedback.
Doug had a similar philosophy on feedback. He explained that in his classroom, his third
graders are reminded continuously that they are never “done.” During the interview, Doug
pointed to a sign in the classroom that has the word “Done” crossed out. Doug explained that
instead of using the word, “done,” students say, “Ready for feedback.”
During the observations, the researcher had noticed that all classrooms had the same or
similar illustration of a butterfly with multiple revisions. After inquiring about the butterfly
poster, teachers had explained that it was Austin’s butterfly. This was based on a video called,
Austin’s Butterfly. This video illustrated how a first grader named Austin used peer feedback
from his classmates to improve his drawing of a butterfly. Austin went through several attempts,
each one an improvement from the previous. The staff had viewed the video together at a staff
meeting at the beginning of the year, and that a poster of Austin’s butterfly process was provided
to each teacher (see Appendix E). Doug spoke about how he was impacted by Austin’s butterfly,
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 100
stating, “For me, seeing that that video that we talked about, the Austin’s butterfly video, that
was, even though I didn’t realize it, instrumental.” When asked to explain further how he used it
in his classroom, he replied:
So, it started out as something we would use within the context of our art program. So
how to be a critical...the...Critiquing of art and how to approach when someone who’s
done and then offer them some feedback on that and build from there. But then once you
start seeing things in that way you realize EVERYTHING is that way or you can
approach it that way.
The value of receiving feedback starts with top management. The principal explained that
when he hires new teachers, he finds it valuable when teacher candidates were former athletes
because they’ve been coached. They understand that coaching is something that makes them
better. As principal, Henry regularly provides continual feedback to his teachers. This was
evidenced through Betty’s recollection of her first observation and receiving his critical
feedback. She stated that it she was hard on herself but she grew tremendously from it.
Feeling Safe
Emotional safety surfaced as a common theme. Teachers felt that feeling safe to make
mistakes and to have trusting relationships was an important factor in a healthy classroom
environment. Cecilia argued the importance of a strong teacher-student relationship:
I really feel that the bottom line is that kids need to have a relationship with their teacher.
They have to feel that what they do matters to their teacher. Because for so many of
them, what they do doesn’t matter to their parents. It doesn’t matter to anyone else. I felt
like I was the only one who cared about what [student] did. She had bad attendance last
year but her attendance went up and she wanted to come to school. Even though her little
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 101
sister didn’t want to come to school, she did. I think she knew I loved her and I believed
in her.
During the interview, Cecilia showed the researcher a letter that a former student had sent to her
recently. The former student was currently a college student at the University of California, San
Diego (UCSD). She wrote to her former teacher that she still remembered her and how her
teacher helped her to believe in herself and pursue her dreams. She had made it to her dream
school, UCSD because of that belief she instilled in primary grades. Cecilia’s eyes swelled up
with tears thinking of her former student, and pointed out that this was a great example of growth
mindset and how her belief in herself changed her trajectory in life.
Safety was important to Annie, as she stated that she believed that a teacher is someone
who is “always going to love them unconditionally, always going to be there for them.” Frank
noted the importance of routines to feel safe and know what to expect. Once they feel safe, they
are ready to learn.
The quotations and vignette from interviews, observations, and artifacts illustrate that
educators mostly associate growth mindset with feeling emotionally/intellectually safe and
giving/providing feedback as a means to learn better.
Synthesis and Chapter Summary
It should be noted that the data collection occurred at the end of the school year, and there
were many school activities going on that were not regular events that typically occur during the
bulk of the school year. Although scheduling interviews and classroom observations proved to be
challenging at that time of the year, it was important to collect the data in the last weeks of
school because the site principal and some teachers would be changing schools the following
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 102
year. Having a new site administrator, along with the long summer break, may affect
participants’ memory of actions taken throughout the year.
Dweck (2016) argues that educators can pass along a growth mindset not just by having
the belief in their heads but “through their deeds: the way they praise (conveying the processes
that lead to learning), the way they treat setbacks (as opportunities for learning), and the way
they focus on deepening understanding (as the goal of learning)” (p. 221). Through the analysis
of data collected from interviews, observations and artifacts, it was evident that some of Dweck’s
findings about growth mindset practices are present at Davis Elementary School.
The first research question asked about the beliefs about intelligence and learning. The
themes discovered were that teachers believed that learning was a process, not a product.
Teachers put value the process of learning as a continual activity. Learning never ends. Through
the process of learning, students are building self-efficacy and confidence. Hattie (2012) also
describes learning as a process, and that teachers must create a climate in which students believe
they can make errors without getting reprimands from their teachers or snide looks and
comments from peers. Evidence of a mastery-orientation versus performance-orientation in the
classroom was found in some classrooms. In addition, the purpose of learning was also viewed
as a means to build self-efficacy. Hattie (2009) categorizes self-efficacy as an attribute, the
confidence to make learning happen. Those with high self-efficacy see challenging tasks as
opportunities to learn something new while those with low self-efficacy tend to avoid difficult
tasks and deny personal agency (Hattie, 2009). Building self-efficacy seemed to be a common
goal in many classes. Teachers were eager to build confidence in their students, while
challenging them to be self-directed learners. This supports Dweck’s (2010) advice that teachers
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 103
should point out that the students’ efforts were what led to the progress and improvement over
time.
The second research question asked how teachers create a learning environment that
promotes a growth mindset. The themes that emerged from the data were that the teacher needs
to be a facilitator, a positive culture is necessary, and that growth mindset language was critical.
Teachers found it much more valuable for their role to be a guide, than provider of knowledge.
Along with facilitating learning, there was a schoolwide emphasis on building perseverance and
grit through grappling with challenging work. Teacher as facilitators and guides was a prevalent
theme found in both interview and observations. The STEAM school framework and PLTW
curriculum support this approach to learning. Dweck (2010) urges classroom teachers to create a
culture of risk taking and look at challenging, meaningful learning tasks as a way to grow.
Creating a positive environment where successes are celebrated and mistakes are accepted was
also a common theme found in the collected data. The use of positive, growth-minded language
was also a feature found in all classrooms. Educators at Davis spoke of the importance of
modeling, both in action and language. According to research, teachers providing verbal praise
children around the growth-oriented process, persistence, use of good strategies, and practice can
establish healthier outcomes in the future (Anderson & Nielson, 2016; Dweck, 2016; Gunderson
et al., 2013). In the same way and positive intent, teacher and peer praise also affects students’
mindsets (Brummelman et al., 2014; Cooper, 1979; Hitz & Driscoll, 1988).
The last research question asked if fostering a growth mindset could possibly increase
academic achievement or help support social emotional learning. Two aspects of social
emotional learning (self-awareness and self-management) are directly connected to a growth
mindset since a person with a growth mindset challenges themselves with growth and
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 104
improvement. A growth-minded person seeks to grow and refuses to stay stagnant with the status
quo. A self-management competency assumes high motivation and self-discipline which are
character traits that develop grit. The themes that emerged with this research question were that a
safe environment was necessary, and that feedback was an important part of improvement and
growth. The schoolwide approach to feedback, using Austin’s Butterfly, appeared to provide
common language for feedback to occur. Teachers felt that modeling errors and explicitly talking
about how mistakes help us learn were an important part of creating a safe space for students to
learn their best. Learning requires errors, and errors help us to learn (Ambrose et al., 2010;
Dweck, 2016). Bacon’s study on peer feedback (2002) also showed that participating in the
feedback cycle with peers resulted in a greater trust in the students’ ability to help each other
succeed, led to higher achievement in the art room, and helped students realize their own
potential for growth. The data shows that teachers felt that an emotionally safe environment
where students were not only allowed to make mistakes, but understand that failures are part of
the learning process, encourages students to learn even more. In addition, feedback was viewed
as an essential piece to improvement. As such, it should be embraced as a stepping stone to
growth in academic achievement. This supports the research from Boaler (2010), who educators
to look at mistakes in a different way, especially in the area of mathematics. Boaler (2013) states
that teachers should embrace mistakes because they are important opportunities for learning.
The themes found through data analysis outlined in Chapter 4 are not far from what
Dweck (2016) explains in her research about growth mindset, and definitely point that educators
are in the right direction in promoting a growth mindset at the school. The last chapter will
discuss some conclusions resulting from this research study.
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 105
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS
“Success is peace of mind which is a direct result of self-satisfaction in knowing you did your
best to become the best you are capable of becoming.”
-John Wooden
Summary of Findings
Learning is the process leading to change (Ambrose et al., 2010; Fisher & Frey, 2014;
Mayer, 2011), which is not only the primary goal of education but also the most distinguishable
characteristic that sets humans apart from animals--our extraordinary ability to build and use
knowledge (Mayer, 2011). Learning is fundamental to growth and development. In addition to
academic learning, high quality schools also ensure that students are learning social emotional
competencies for a well-rounded education.
In Chapter 1, the study displayed school and district data revealing achievement gaps on
the Smarter Balanced Assessment, a computer-based state assessment aligned with the Common
Core State Standards. Large percentages of students are not meeting standards, especially in the
socioeconomically disadvantaged and Hispanic/Latino student group. In addition to this
academic achievement data, school climate data shows that there is a need to address social and
emotional learning.
Recent scientific evidence demonstrates both the incredible potential of the brain to grow
and change, and the powerful impact of growth mindset for improved student outcomes.
Through the work of Vgotsky, Bandura, Brophy, and Farrington, we also know that a child’s
school environment can significantly impact student behavior. This research study begins with
the classroom teacher, the curator of that critical learning environment since they set the stage.
Good teachers control what happens, what doesn’t happen, and use their influence for positive
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 106
change in shaping the mindset of their students. The purpose of this study was to explore how
teachers at one elementary school cultivate a growth mindset through an examination of their
thinking and their classroom learning environments. A total of eight in depth interviews were
conducted, as well as seven on-site classroom observations. Relevant artifacts found in
classrooms were also included in the study.
The research questions investigated the mindset of educators at the school, as well as
looked into how educators are attempting to promote a growth mindset on their own.
The following research questions guided this study:
1. What are the beliefs about intelligence and learning among teachers at the school?
2. How do classroom teachers create a learning environment that promotes a growth
mindset?
3. Could fostering a growth mindset be an effective approach to increasing academic
achievement or supporting social emotional learning?
For this study, a qualitative approach was selected for a number of reasons. The
researcher is approaching this study with a constructivist worldview, a view that seeks to
understand the context or setting of the participants (Creswell, 2014). Through the use of open-
ended questions in interviews, observations in natural settings, and authentic document reviews,
the researcher would be able to explore the beliefs that educators hold regarding growth mindset.
The first research question asked about the beliefs about intelligence and learning. The
themes discovered were that teachers believed that learning was a process, not a product.
Teachers put value the process of learning as a continual activity. Learning never ends. Through
the process of learning, students are building self-efficacy and confidence. Hattie (2012) also
describes learning as a process, and that teachers must create a climate in which students believe
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 107
they can make errors without getting reprimands from their teachers or snide looks and
comments from peers. Evidence of a mastery-orientation versus performance-orientation in the
classroom was found in some classrooms. In addition, the purpose of learning was also viewed
as a means to build self-efficacy. Hattie (2009) categorizes self-efficacy as an attribute, the
confidence to make learning happen. Those with high self-efficacy see challenging tasks as
opportunities to learn something new while those with low self-efficacy tend to avoid difficult
tasks and deny personal agency (Hattie, 2009). Building self-efficacy seemed to be a common
goal in many classes. Teachers were eager to build confidence in their students, while
challenging them to be self-directed learners. This supports Dweck’s (2010) advice that teachers
should point out that the students’ efforts were what led to the progress and improvement over
time.
The second research question asked how teachers create a learning environment that
promotes a growth mindset. The themes that emerged from the data were that the teacher needs
to be a facilitator, a positive culture is necessary, and that growth mindset language was critical.
Teachers found it much more valuable for their role to be a guide, than provider of knowledge.
Along with facilitating learning, there was a schoolwide emphasis on building perseverance and
grit through grappling with challenging work. Teacher as facilitators and guides was a prevalent
theme found in both interview and observations. The STEAM school framework and PLTW
curriculum support this approach to learning. Dweck (2010) urges classroom teachers to create a
culture of risk taking and look at challenging, meaningful learning tasks as a way to grow.
Creating a positive environment where successes are celebrated and mistakes are accepted was
also a common theme found in the collected data. The use of positive, growth-minded language
was also a feature found in all classrooms. Educators at Davis spoke of the importance of
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 108
modeling, both in action and language. According to research, teachers providing verbal praise
children around the growth-oriented process, persistence, use of good strategies, and practice can
establish healthier outcomes in the future (Anderson & Nielson, 2016; Dweck, 2016; Gunderson
et al., 2013). In the same way and positive intent, teacher and peer praise also affects students’
mindsets (Brummelman et al., 2014; Cooper, 1979; Hitz & Driscoll, 1988).
The last research question asked if fostering a growth mindset could possibly increase
academic achievement or help support social emotional learning. Two aspects of social
emotional learning (self-awareness and self-management) are directly connected to a growth
mindset since a person with a growth mindset challenges themselves with growth and
improvement. A growth-minded person seeks to grow and refuses to stay stagnant with the status
quo. A self-management competency assumes high motivation and self-discipline which are
character traits that develop grit. The themes that emerged with this research question were that a
safe environment was necessary, and that feedback was an important part of improvement and
growth. The schoolwide approach to feedback, using Austin’s Butterfly, appeared to provide
common language for feedback to occur. Teachers felt that modeling errors and explicitly talking
about how mistakes help us learn were an important part of creating a safe space for students to
learn their best. Learning requires errors, and errors help us to learn (Ambrose et al., 2010;
Dweck, 2016). Bacon’s study on peer feedback (2002) also showed that participating in the
feedback cycle with peers resulted in a greater trust in the students’ ability to help each other
succeed, led to higher achievement in the art room, and helped students realize their own
potential for growth. The data shows that teachers felt that an emotionally safe environment
where students were not only allowed to make mistakes, but understand that failures are part of
the learning process, encourages students to learn even more. In addition, feedback was viewed
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 109
as an essential piece to improvement. As such, it should be embraced as a stepping stone to
growth in academic achievement. This supports the research from Boaler (2010), who educators
to look at mistakes in a different way, especially in the area of mathematics. Boaler (2013) states
that teachers should embrace mistakes because they are important opportunities for learning.
The themes found through data analysis outlined in Chapter 4 are not far from what
Dweck (2016) explains in her research about growth mindset, and definitely point that educators
are in the right direction in promoting a growth mindset at the school.
Implications
The findings from this study support the literature presented around growth mindset. It
was evident to the researcher that cultivating a growth mindset begins with the teacher.
“Uncovering how teachers’ beliefs about teaching and learning influence their instructional
practices and students’ goals in the classroom is important for understanding how to create
learning environments focused on mastery and understanding” (Deemer, p. 73, 2004). The data
did not clearly show evidence that classroom teachers were teaching for mastery versus
performance. There was only one classroom teacher that spoke explicitly about he recognized
mastery of standards, and not performance.
Low-achieving students can thrive in the care of a teacher with a growth mindset
(Dweck, 2018). It begins in the mindset of the teacher, but requires deliberate and explicit
decisions to model, teach, and reinforce concepts if they are to make an impact on students.
Teachers who were committed to instilling a growth mindset to their students, spent the time
designing specific learning experiences and structuring classroom protocols so that their students
would learn it.
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 110
The lack of sufficient professional development on the topic of growth mindset also left
teachers to make their own conclusions about how to build a growth mindset learning
community. The literature reveals that teachers can cultivate a growth mindset by attributing
success through hard work and sustained effort (goal orientation), building the self-confidence
and belief in one’s abilities (self-efficacy), and using growth-minded language (attribution
theory). With these strategies, students can develop a passion for learning, and not just a hunger
for approval, which can stifle growth or attempts at growth. While some of these characteristics
appeared in some of the classrooms, this is an area that could benefit from additional
professional development at the school level (Ricci, 2017) as well as in teacher education
programs. This includes a discussion about the definition of intelligence.
It is worthwhile to note that the principal’s role in cultivating a growth mindset
community at the school has influenced the teachers. Deemer’s (2004) research shows that
teachers need the same type of safe learning/teaching environment that student need to thrive. A
school culture that values a mastery over performance orientation, where teachers are not in
competition, and are offered multiple ways to learn helps teachers to take risks (Deemer, 2004).
The principal values learning and has provided numerous learning opportunities for staff to
grow. The principal works closely with the instructional coach, who has an active role in
providing differentiated coaching to all teachers. Teachers are also encouraged to attend
conferences and become teacher leaders.
Future Research
Research around growth mindset is limited. The researcher recommends the following to
be considered for future study:
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 111
Participant demographics showed that all individuals had an advanced educational degree
(M.A. or higher) and most over fourteen years of teaching experience. Additional
research studies with these criterions may uncover different patterns. Research on pre-
service teachers’ mindset beliefs (Gutshall, 2014) suggest that new teachers generally
have a malleable outlook, but upon application of mindset beliefs in hypothethical
student scenarios seemed to alter and influence beliefs. This information would help to
refine teacher preparation programs.
Identify growth mindset strategies to be presented at formal staff development. Collect
data on how teachers are using these strategies, and how they affect student
achievement/social emotional learning.
Dweck (2016) advises educators to be cautious in how they use praise. The role of praise
is an especially challenging topic because it seems so helpful. Praising effort that is not
truly effort, or praising the process without the direct relationship to the outcome can
miss the mark on attributing hard work/effort as the reason for the achievement (Dweck,
2016). Additional research study on how and what teachers praise would help educators
correlate the relationship between praise and sustained perseverance.
There is a need to communicate to parents about growth mindset, especially in how they
view mistakes made by their children and the verbal praise that they give. Further studies
on how families approach performance versus mastery would help provide insight on
how they can support their children in learning.
The researcher recognizes the constant tension between competing forces of academic
performance for accountability versus growth mindset practices that focus on process and
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 112
effort. Further study is recommended on aligning evaluation and grading procedures that
recognize growth rather than achievement.
Conclusions
Accountability pressures on academic performance on standardized tests coupled with the
challenges of social-emotional needs in the classroom present a formidable task for any educator.
In order for educators to close achievement gaps and support students with social emotional
learning, they need to build their capacity to meet student needs.
Data from this research study supports the literature showing that students need caring
adults who will provide a safe, nurturing learning environment (Hattie, 2012; Hemmeter,
Ostrosky, & Fox, 2006; Roorda, 2012). Research also shows how noncognitive factors like
perserverance, grit, growth mindset, self-efficacy must exist in tandem with cognitive knowledge
to exhibit successful outcomes (Farrington et al, 2012). Having a growth can lead to unrelenting
belief in effort, resilience in the face of setbacks, and a change in the definition of failure
(Dweck, 2016). Dweck’s work on mindset has far-reaching implications for teaching and
learning because they way that students view their own learning can significantly affect their
efforts, motivation, and learning progress. This promising research served as the catalyst for this
research study. Through this qualitative case study, the researcher was able to identify some
common themes about growth mindset beliefs among teachers and how they are actively
cultivating a growth mindset both in themselves and their students. In addition, the researcher
was able to provide some insight and recommendations for future study.
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 113
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Appendix A
Participant Consent Form
You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who
voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You should ask
questions about anything that is unclear to you.
Title of Project: Cultivating a Growth Mindset: An Exploration of Teacher Beliefs and Learning
Environments
Principal Investigator: Sandra Song via email at songsand@usc.edu
IRB Contact Information:
University Park Institutional Review Board
3720 South Flower Street #301
Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702
(213) 821-5272 upirb@usc.edu
Purpose: The purpose of this study is to explore the mindset of educators at one urban elementary
school. Since educators play such a critical role in the development of positive ideologies, the
modeling of behavior, and can provide a conducive environment for positive student outcomes, the
adult educators (i.e., classroom teachers, counselors, administration) will be the primary focus of the
study. In depth interviews, on-site observations, and documents/artifacts will be reviewed among
carefully selected staff members to find trends and patterns. The study hopes to find similarities
among growth-minded staff members, and identify strategies employed either implicitly or explicitly
that promote a growth mindset to their students. Staff members were selected with the following
criteria:
represent a range of teaching experience and cross-section of grade placements
represent staff who work directly with children and can promote a growth mindset
recommended as staff who appear to exhibit a growth mindset
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 132
This study may provide valuable information to educational leaders about the importance of the
educator mindset of growth, as well as give guidance to help current and future educators as they
form professional philosophies about teaching and learning.
Participant Involvement: You are being asked to participate in a research study exploring beliefs of
educators employed at one urban elementary school. You will be asked to participate in the
following:
a) A one-on-one interview, which will last between 30 and 45 minutes and will be conducted in
person. This research will take place between May 2018 and October 2018. Interviews will
take place during the staff member’s non-working hours. If you agree to take part in this
study, you will be asked to if the interview can be audio-taped. You don’t have to answer any
questions you don’t want to; if you don’t want to be taped, handwritten notes will be taken.
b) An on-site classroom observation, which will last between 45 to 60 minutes in length. The
observation will be scheduled in advance, in cooperation with the participant. All efforts will
be made to accommodate the participant’s regular schedule as not to disrupt planned events.
The observation may include the collection of artifacts or documents found in the classroom
that are found relevant to the study. Permission will be obtained by the researcher to use any
documents/artifacts.
Confidentiality: There will be no identifiable information obtained in connection with this study.
Your name, address, or other identifiable information will not be collected. All information will be
kept in a locked cabinet in the investigator’s office. Audio recordings will be deleted after
transcription.
Risks: There is minimal risk foreseen in this study as the investigator has no supervisory role at this
case study site, nor will any confidential or identifiable information be shared with the site
administrator or school/district employee. Any party may withdraw from participation at any time
with no repercussions.
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 133
Participant Rights: By participating in this study on the exploration of growth mindset among
educators, I understand that:
a) I will be participating in a one-on-one interview that may be audio-taped with participant
consent.
___ I agree to be audio recorded. ___I do not wish to be audio recorded.
b) I give my consent to an on-site observation. All field notes will be typed or handwritten. Any
relevant documents or artifacts found in the classroom will be identified by the researcher,
and the researcher will ask for verbal consent before including them in the study.
c) My participation in this study is completely voluntary, anonymous, and confidential. I
understand that I may withdraw from the study at any time, whether the interview or
observation was completed.
d) I have read this participant consent form, and I understand the contents. If I have any
questions or concerns about the research, I can contact Sandra Song at songsand@usc.edu
USC faculty chair, Dr. David Cash at dcash@usc.edu. A copy of this consent form will be
given to me.
Your signature below indicates that you agree to participate in the study and understand participant
rights, as well as participation requirements.
___________________________________________ ________________________
Signature of Participant Date
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 134
Appendix B
Schedule for Semi-Structured Interviews
Research
Question
Interview Question Type of Question Literature
Review
1 Tell me about your teaching
experience (# years on job,
grades, professional education,
training)
Background/demographics
2 RQ#1 This research study is based on
a concept called growth
mindset. What is your
understanding of a growth
mindset?
Knowledge What is growth
mindset?
3 RQ#1 Have you heard of a fixed
mindset? If so, what is your
understanding of a fixed
mindset?
Knowledge What is fixed
mindset?
4 RQ#1 Have you personally
experienced a time you’ve
moved from a fixed to a growth
mindset? Or seen it with
someone else?
Experience and behavior Fixed and growth
mindset
5 RQ#1 In your opinion, what role does
environment and personal
values or beliefs play on an
individual’s behavior?
Opinion and values Social cognitive
theory
6 RQ#3 Do you feel that intelligence is
fixed or changeable? Why or
why not?
Opinion and values Fixed and growth
mindset
7 RQ#3 How would you describe
someone with a growth
mindset?
Hypothetical
Opinion and values
Growth mindset
8 RQ#1 As an educator, what do you
believe is the best way to
promote a growth mindset?
Opinion Growth mindset
9 RQ#3 Tell me about a time when you
saw an opportunity to
encourage a growth mindset
Descriptive Attribution theory
Teacher belief
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 135
within a conversation with a
student.
10 RQ#1 A grade level colleague allows
her students to retake a math
chapter test. How did you feel
about that instance?
Feeling Goal orientation
theory
11 RQ#1
RQ#2
Give an example of how a
growth mindset can be
beneficial for students in your
line of work?
What impact has growth
mindset had on your classroom
as a whole?
Interpretive Social emotional
learning
12 RQ#1
RQ#2
Suppose a student came to you
feeling down on himself
because his parents tell him he
is dumb, his friends call him a
loser, and his is starting to
believe it. What would you say?
Hypothetical Attribution theory
Social Emotional
Learning
13 RQ#1 What words or phrases would
you hear from a student who
has embraced a growth
mindset?
Sensory Growth mindset
Attribution theory
SEL
14 RQ#3 Some people would say that
growth mindset is just another
educational fad. What would
you tell them?
Devil’s advocate Growth mindset
15 RQ#2 What constitutes an effective
learning environment?
Opinion Effective learning
environment
16 RQ#2 How would you describe an
ideal classroom or counseling
session that illustrates an
opportunity to teach about
growth mindset?
Ideal Effective learning
environment
Growth mindset
17 RQ#2 How would you define the role
of the teacher in a child’s
education?
Knowledge
Opinion
Teacher role
18 RQ#2 What are some things a teacher
can do to promote a growth
Knowledge
Opinion
High expectations
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 136
mindset in the classroom? Experience
Ideal
19 RQ#3 Talk to me about how growth
mindset was helpful to you as a
teacher?
Experience
Opinion
Growth mindset
20 New RQ#3 Could fostering a growth
mindset be an effective
approach to increasing
academic achievement? How
about in supporting SEL?
Experience
Opinion
Growth mindset;
Effective learning
environment; SEL
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 137
Appendix C
Observation Notes from Emma’s Classroom
OBS_#5, Teacher Emma
Researcher: Sandra Song
Location: Participant #5 classroom
Date/Time: May 25, 2018; 10:45-11:45 a.m.
Classroom Layout
Wall Talker
Te
ac
he
r
de
sk
W
hi
te
B
o
ar
d
m
e
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 138
Researcher sat at front corner of the room, based on teacher recommendation. There are 32
students in this class. The student desks were arranged in clusters of four or five, spaced all
throughout the room. All clusters of student desks were in a C-formation.
10:45 Teacher greeted class coming in right after recess with a “Good morning, Class.”
Class responded chorally, “Good morning, Ms.---” [name stricken for confidentiality]
T reviewed the Design Challenge project. She had directions written on whiteboard so she
referred and pointed to the directions as she verbally reviewed them.
T: “If you feel like you are finished, you can go to May Do’s.”
T reminded them that if they are working outside to keep voices down.
Students went to their appropriate groups, they already knew which group to go to.
At this point, all students were working collaboratively on their respective design projects.
Observer walked around to listen in on student groups. [Teacher walked over to observer and
invited observer to walk around and interact/ask questions if desired.]
Most students congregated around tables while some others went outside.
T rang bell...all students stopped what they were doing.
T: “Sorry to interrupt you, is there a group willing to be a critical friend with the rods group, M’s
group?”
A group came up to the front.
10:50 T sat with a group in front of room by the Wall Talker (i.e., an interactive smart board). T
asked whether the group had worked out who was sharing. Students did a practice presentation
on Wall Talker.
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 139
T reminded the Critical friends that they are looking at images, fonts, how it flows. (this is their
role).
Students in M’s (Student name changed for confidentiality) group took turns reading the slides
projected on screen.
Observer walked around room. Student groups ranged from 1-5 students in each. Some were
working on Scratch, while others were on google slides. One was working on a STEAM Design
challenge by himself.
10:57 T asked, “What do you think about this picture? What do you suggest?” One of the
students suggested putting the tablet somewhere closer to screen.
11:00 T: “We are asking for critical feedback.” (OC-students seem to know that getting feedback
is a natural occurrence in the classroom.)
Student: “Here is how we used Science...T for Technology, we used technology when we used
Scratch. We used Engineering when we built using VexIQ.A we designed the trifold board. We
used Math when we figured out how measured. Thanks for watching!” Students took turns
explaining a slide each as they skipped through the slides presentation.
One student exclaimed, “We should change that font!”
T: “Can we exit out so we can see the small slides? Can we have more people commenting?
Remember to start with a positive.”
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 140
S: “One thing you can fix or add is maybe add a tree or water on the picture? Add an SOS or
rescue flag?” (OC-Teacher has a protocol for the presenting group to call on hands up for
receiving feedback). Student called on someone else.
S: “Was that a technology slide?” A student scrolled back to the appropriate technology slide.
(OC-there were inaudible comments so observer moved in closer)
T: “D, would you like to call on somebody?”
T turned to rest of class: “Chicka chicka boom boom.” (OC-teacher call back to regain attention
and remind class to work quietly so the presenting group could be heard) “We need a few more
minutes of quiet.”
More students gave feedback about the presentation.
T: “What about showing two different viewpoints?” This encouraged others to chime in with
critical feedback.
S: “I like your presentation. I noticed that in the beginning, you can spread out the team members
since you couldn’t see the board...maybe two on that side and two on this side” (pointing to the
wall talker screen).
T: “I really liked your diagrams, with the arrows pointing. I can tell you spent a lot of time on
this. This is a very good presentation. You have time to make something else. You can add to
your project.”
Teacher turned to the rest of class, “Can we have another group?”
11:15 Two students walked up the front of the room, where the wall talker was.
T turned to class and asked for some critical friends to give feedback to J and C.
T: “We rely on you to help us improve ourselves.”
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 141
Four students came up to give feedback.
T reminded class to stay quiet because this is so important to us.
The two students (J and C) introduced themselves to their critical friends.
As presentation began, T reminded them to use a powerful voice (OC-they were hard to hear
because of their soft voices).
As they began, teacher interrupted and asked the group, “What do you think about this font?”
(Font was black on red background and difficult to see). Someone interjected, “It could be
white.”
T: “What do you think about this art slide?” There were 5 pictures displayed. Teacher turned to
the group, “What would you recommend? How about art that has to do with outer space?”
Teacher gave some suggestions of how to improve.
Teacher gave a suggestion of “Maybe you could add examples of how math is used in STEAM?”
On the ‘Constraints’ slide, the slide stated, We don’t know how to code...YET. Teacher said,
that’s right we don’t know how to code YET. Someone else interjected “perseverance”
Teacher pointed out grammar mistake of not using ‘an’ instead of ‘a’.
Teacher pointed to the blank space, and asked, “What about all this white space?”
S: “You guys could add on a text box or a paragraph” [to fill the white space].
11:25 At this point, there was a slide with a video commercial. The video would not load.
Teacher turned to a student in the back. T: “Would you help us Ch-? They were trying to access
the commercial they had videotaped and couldn’t access for the projector. Ch- came up and
assisted. They watched the commercial.
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 142
11:27 T: “Let’s talk about the video. How about a positive and a helpful comment?”
S: “The quality was not too shaky. However, the projector costs more than a telescope.
T: “Let’s talk about the video quality.”
S: “It was hard to hear.”
T: “I liked how you used the diagram, it helped me follow along.
T: “Its not due until next Friday. You have time. It’s something to consider. Maybe you want to
Austin’s butterfly it and make it better. Any other critical feedback?”
T: “Save your work, save your work!” This sounded like a song that she normally sings.
A female student came up to me (observer) to explain the difference between growth mindset
and fixed mindset. I did not ask her. She showed me the posters that were hung on the wall
(fixed vs growth mindset) to explain the difference. Another female student engaged in
conversation with me about what I’m doing.
One group came up to try different fonts (colors) on the wall talker because they knew that the
clarity and resolution on the wall talker differed from what they saw on their chromebooks.
Teacher came over to observer to explain that she does all kinds of lessons on growth mindset
and mindfulness. She told me that she believes they go hand in hand. She asked me whether I
had seen the wolf youtube video on growth mindset, and wanted to show me. I obliged and she
played it for me on the wall talker. She says she plays it multiple times throughout the year for
her class. As I looked at the class, some of them stopped their projects to watch the video with
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 143
me. Teacher mentioned that she also created a Ghandi PBL unit that she teaches at the beginning
of the year.
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 144
Appendix D
Artifact-Lanuage of Growth versus Fixed Mindset
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 145
CULTIVATING A GROWTH MINDSET 146
Appendix E
Artifact-Feedback
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
This study applies social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986) and implicit theories of intelligence (Dweck, 1999) to understand how mindset can impact student behavior and motivation toward learning. The purpose of this study was to explore the mindset of the educator and identify how educators cultivate a growth mindset to improve students’ attainment. This qualitative case study was conducted using purposeful sampling that included face-to-face interviews, in-class observations, and a collection of relevant classroom artifacts. Collected data was carefully transcribed and coded to discover themes and answer research questions utilizing Creswell’s (2014) data analysis approach for qualitative methods. Findings from this study indicate that educators at this school believed that learning was a process, not a product. Through the process of learning, teachers believed in building student self-efficacy. Findings also indicated that teachers promoted a growth mindset by taking on a teacher-as-facilitator role, creating a positive classroom culture, and modeling growth mindset language. Finally, the data showed that teachers felt strongly that a safe environment and feedback for improvement were essential for any type of academic or social-emotional growth to occur. The research findings from this study have implications for professional development at the school site level, as well as in teacher education programs since it was evident that growth mindset begins in the mindset of the teacher. The findings from this study support the literature presented around growth mindset. Teachers who were committed to instilling a growth mindset to their students, spent the time designing specific learning experiences and structuring classroom protocols so that their students would not only learn, but love the process of learning.
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Creator
Song, Sandra S.
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Core Title
Cultivating a growth mindset: an exploration of teacher beliefs and learning environments
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education (Leadership)
Publication Date
10/17/2018
Defense Date
10/04/2018
Publisher
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Tag
achievement gap,growth mindset,learning environment,OAI-PMH Harvest,positive classroom culture,self-efficacy,social emotional learning,teacher beliefs
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Tags
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