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Successful superintendents of schools: preparation, recruitment, and retention

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Successful superintendents of schools: preparation, recruitment, and retention

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Content Running head: SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 1
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS OF SCHOOLS: PREPARATION,
RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION
by
Anthony J. Bull
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2018
Copyright 2018 Anthony J. Bull
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 2
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to my father, Willie D. Bull. Without him, none of this
would have ever been possible. I thank him for instilling in me at a very early age the importance
of getting a quality education. He backed up his philosophy by sending me to private school as
early as preschool, He sacrificed so much for me to get an education. When other parents were
driving fancy cars and taking lavish vacations, he was paying for my education and also encour-
aging other parents to invest in their child’s education. He sent me to private school from Head
Start to high school so that I would be successful in life. He wanted me to be a professional.
I am so blessed to have him as a father. He is my role model. I wanted to follow in his
footsteps, but he always encouraged me to accomplish greater things. He had high expectations
for me.
When I was fortunate enough to work with him at the same facility, I would get annoyed
when he asked me about getting a doctorate. He probably realized this but never stopped pushing
me to pursue a doctorate degree. He had a way of communicating with me so that I “got it.”
Finally, I took his great advice as usual and earned my doctorate at an elite university, the Uni-
versity of Southern California, where I also earned my BA degree. I know that he is very proud
of me.
Today, I am a very successful psychologist—a real professional because of his wisdom,
knowledge, and resources. I can never repay him for what he has done for me. I love him and
thank him for always being there for me, no matter what. Because of him, I am the first “Doctor”
in the family on both sides.
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 3
Acknowledgments
First, I would like to thank USC, my alma mater, for giving me the opportunity to pursue
a Doctorate in Education.
I thank Del Bradley, my significant other and my friend for life, for all her support,
understanding, maturity and patience. I know that it is not easy dealing with such a complicated
person as myself, but she is the best at it.
I thank Mrs. Prescott, my kindergarten teacher at Hawthorne Elementary School, for
teaching me how to read at 5 years old. I have never stopped reading since.
Thanks to all my teachers at Lynwood Adventist Academy for their hard work, instilling
confidence in me confidence, and always telling my father at teacher conference that I “would be
successful in life.” I took the encouragement to heart.
Regarding my St. John Bosco family, I thank Mrs. Eddy for inspiring me to read novels. I
was blessed to have her as an English teacher. St. John Bosco prepared me academically for
college and the challenges of life. I know that I can compete academically with anyone on the
planet. “Go, Braves!” They are number one!
I am grateful to my dissertation group for all their hard work and tech savvy. I would
especially like to thank Malcohm Heron for always keeping me in the loop and helping me to get
through this process. “Teamwork makes the dream work.”
I am very appreciative to my dissertation chair, Dr. Michael Escalante, for giving me the
opportunity to be a part of the group and to remain in the group. I learned so much about being a
superintendent—I thank him for his leadership and staying on me to finish.
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 4
Table of Contents
Dedication 2
Acknowledgments 3
List of Tables 6
Abstract 7
Chapter One: Introduction 9
Background of the Problem 9
Statement of the Problem 11
Purpose of the Study 12
Research Questions 13
Significance of the Study 13
Assumptions 14
Limitations of the Study 14
Delimitations of the Study 14
Definition of Terms 15
Organization of the Study 16
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 18
History of the Position of Superintendent 19
Superintendent Role Conceptualizations 20
Teacher–Scholar Role 21
Business Manager Role 22
Statesman Role 23
Applied Social Scientist Role 24
Superintendent as Communicator 25
Superintendent–School Board Relationships 27
School Board Roles 29
History of Women in the Superintendency 30
Superintendents of Color 33
Superintendent Preparation Programs 34
Mentoring for Women Superintendents 37
Traditional Career Path to the Superintendency 38
Nontraditional Career Path to the Superintendency 39
Recruitment for Superintendents by Executive Search Firms 39
Successful Superintendents’ Skills 40
Retention of Superintendents 42
Superintendent Tenure 42
Frames of Leadership 43
Level 5 Leadership 44
Chapter Three: Research Methodology 46
Statement of the Problem 46
Purpose of the Study 47
Research Questions 47
Research Design 47
Population and Sample 48
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 5
Instrumentation 49
Data Collection 49
Data Analysis 50
Chapter Summary 51
Chapter Four: Results 52
Purpose of the Study Restated 53
Quantitative Data: Response Rate for Surveys 53
Qualitative Data: Interviews 54
Figure 1. Demographic data for executive search firm consultant 56
Findings by Research Question 57
Research Question 1 57
Research Question 2 63
Research Question 3 71
Chapter Summary 76
Chapter Five: Discussion and Conclusions 78
Statement of the Problem Reviewed 79
Purpose of the Study Restated 80
Summary of Literature Review 80
Summary of Methodology 82
Summary of Findings 82
Research Question 1 83
Research Question 2 83
Research Question 3 84
Limitations of the Study 84
Recommendations for Future Study 85
Conclusions 86
References 87
Appendices
Appendix A: Research Participants’ Invitation E-mail 99
Appendix B: Superintendent Survey 101
Appendix C: School Board Member Survey 108
Appendix D: Superintendent Interview Guide 112
Appendix E: School Board Member Interview Guide 113
Appendix F: Executive Search Firm Interview Guide 115
Appendix G: Question Alignment Matrix 117
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 6
List of Tables
Table 1: Quantitative Response Rate for Superintendents and School Board
Members 54
Table 2: Demographic Data for Interviewed Superintendents 55
Table 3: Demographic Data for Interviewed School Board Members 55
Table 4: Summary of Responses to Superintendent Survey by Association of
California School Administrators (in Percentages) 59
Table 5: Summary of Results From the School Board Member Survey (in
Percentages) 65
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 7
Abstract
Superintendents are definitely the face of a school district. They have one of the most
complex jobs involving successfully managing an enterprise. The purpose of this study was to
understand the preparation, recruitment, and retention of urban superintendents in southern
California. The research questions guiding this study were the following:
1. How have training programs and experience prepared superintendents to manage the
complexities and challenges of the superintendency?
2. What are the perceptions of current successful superintendents regarding the strategies
used to help the current superintendent to attain his or her current position?
3. What are the perceived strategies that support the retention of superintendents?
This qualitative study involved interviewing (a) three superintendents with 2 or more
years of experience, (b) two school board members who possessed at least 4 years of experience
in the position on a board with at least five members and with their current superintendent
meeting the purposeful sampling criteria, and (c) one executive search firm member with 10
years experience in the field of education with at least 5 years as a search firm consultant and
having been a former superintendent of schools who met the purposeful sampling criteria for the
superintendent sample. These individuals were located in urban areas of California, and data
from the interviews were coded into themes. For the superintendents, findings suggested that the
important factors in preparing a superintendent are (a) having experience in the field of education
as a teacher and administrator (i.e., taking a traditional career path); (b) having access to a mentor
or network of other professionals to lean on; and (c) having university training, whether formal or
informal.
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 8
This study serves to inform aspiring superintendents on the preparation, skills, and rela-
tionships that will support their transition and longevity in the superintendent position.
Keywords: superintendent preparation, recruitment, and retention
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 9
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
The preparation, recruitment, and retention of California superintendents are imperative
to the progress of educators who seek the top position as a superintendent of a public school.
Educators are treated as professionals. Superintendents are no exception; they are usually the
highest educated and highest paid of educators (Kowalski, 2010). As a transformer, today’s
superintendent is expected to determine common beliefs and exert their influence on school
effectiveness (Kowalski, 2010). Those brave people who dare to dream of running a school
district must conceptualize the various aspects of the job, such as recruitment tactics, formal or
informal academic preparation programs, and successful habits of superintendents with longevity
in the position.
Background of the Problem
The percentages of people of color and women in the field of education have grown in the
past 10 years. According to Simmons (2005), the rise in superintendents of color may be associ-
ated with an increasing number of unattractive positions, mainly those in difficult school
districts. However, the number of people of color in the superintendency still remains low
(Kowalski, 2010). The percentages of people of color and women in the position do not reflect
the diversity of the student population in public schools (Kowalski, 2010). Especially before the
1980s, White males always dominated the superintendent positions and the experiences of
women and people of color received very little attention (Shakeshaft, 1989). The underrepresen-
tation of women and people of color creates a need for adequate academic preparation programs,
an understanding of the recruitment process, and successful skill sets for ongoing retention of
superintendents.
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 10
Superintendents are expected to lead by relying on professional knowledge to make
school improvement recommendations, while being accountable to the community (Wirt & Kirst,
2009). When the mission and vision of public education are revised, superintendents may be
affected climatically (Kowalski, 2010). Since around 1920, there have been national studies of
the superintendency. To understand the nature of this important position and its development in
more than 100 years, one must understand how roles and responsibilities have changed over time
and how current social, educational, and professional issues affect their relevance in practice
(Kowalski, 2010).
There are approximately 600 institutions of higher learning that offer various courses,
degrees, or licensure programs for education administrators, but many of them do not have
superintendent preparation programs (Kowalski, 2010). Academic preparation programs for
superintendents have failed to prepare a diverse group of people who are qualified for the super-
intendency.
According to Kowalski (2010), the criticism of academic preparation programs for
superintendent preparation include
low academic admission and completion standards, a general indifference toward instruc-
tional leadership, a disjunction between theory and practice, inattention to practice-based
research, an inadequate knowledge base, a proclivity to treat superintendent preparation
as an extension of principal preparation, and considering a doctorate in educational
administration as the equivalent of superintendent preparation. (pp. 7–8)
Despite such criticism, the number of universities, both traditional and nontraditional, who are
preparing superintendents continues to grow (Kowalski, 2010). Many of the new preparation
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 11
programs previously had no stake in educational administration. Although some programs are
considered rigorous and practice based, the facts may suggest otherwise (A. Levin, 2005).
The growth of academic programs is mainly due to the absence of a national curriculum,
a requirement in most other professions, and continuing efforts to deregulate state requirements
for becoming a superintendent (Kowalski, 2010). Proper recruitment for the superintendency is a
challenge to many school districts. Only a small number of applicants apply for the position.
Currently, there are efforts to eliminate licensing for superintendents due to pervasive dissatisfac-
tion with public education and reported shortages of qualified applicants (Kowalski, 2010).
Difficult school districts have heightened the awareness of superintendent relationships
with school boards, district employees, community leaders, and parents (Kowalski, Petersen, &
Fusarelli, 2007). “Consequently, generalizations about the superintendency and about superin-
tendents can be deceptive” (Kowalski, 2010, p. 6).
Relationships between the superintendent and the school board have received extensive
attention. Interest in this topic is understandable because these relationships affect the superinten-
dent’s retention and the district’s effectiveness (Björk & Keedy, 2001; Petersen & Fusarelli,
2001). According to Kowalski (2011), “the nature and relationships developed between the
superintendent and the school board members often determines real and perceived administrative
roles” (p. 6).
Statement of the Problem
The roles of a superintendent in the public school setting are numerous. As the top
leader, superintendents must be visionary leaders (Kowalski, 2006), financial planners (Owings
& Kaplan, 2006), human resource managers (I. P. Young, 2008), and instructional experts (W. G.
Cunningham & Cordeiro, 2006).
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 12
People who are considering becoming superintendents should carefully consider the
proper preparation, recruitment strategies, and skills needed for ongoing retention and success in
the position. As instructional leaders of public school districts, superintendents wear many hats
(Kowalski, 2010). Preparation programs by universities and other entities have tried to prepare
prospective superintendents to be recruited and to be successful in the position, but many of the
programs are unsuccessful (Barnett, 2004; Björk, Kowalski, & Browne-Ferrigno, 2005; A. Levin,
2005; Perry, 2012). Current superintendent supports such as networking, mentoring, and coach-
ing have contributed to most superintendents’ ongoing success in the position; however, superin-
tendent turnover is still a problem (Kowalski, McCord, Petersen, Young, & Ellerson, 2011).
Although many superintendents are successful, dismissal can end their career in education
(Kowalski et al., 2011).
Disparities in the recruitment and retention of female superintendents and superintendents
of color are also a concern (Kowalski et al., 2011). These gaps are a significant problem in
superintendents’ academic preparation, recruitment, and retention.
Purpose of the Study
A qualitative design was used to address the research questions. Creswell (2009) recom-
mended use of qualitative data to address research questions. The purpose of the qualitative
design in this study was to examine the academic preparation, recruitment, and retention of
California public school superintendents. Because the role of the superintendent is crucial to
student achievement, it is imperative to identify the preparation, supports, skills, and relation-
ships that superintendents need to meet the challenges and subtleties of the superintendency
(Waters & Marzano, 2007).
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 13
Research Questions
The following questions guided this study:
1. How have training programs and experience prepared superintendents to manage the
complexities and challenges of the superintendency?
2. What are the perceptions of current successful superintendents regarding the strate-
gies used to help the current superintendent to attain his or her current position?
3. What are the perceived strategies that support the retention of superintendents?
Significance of the Study
The growth of a global economy and the U.S. transition to an information-based society
have spurred major school improvement efforts (Kowalski, 2010). “Rather than simply carrying
out mandates, superintendents were expected to have important leadership roles, mostly, in
deciding the real needs of local schools and engaging a broad spectrum of stakeholders to deter-
mine how those needs would be met” (Kowalski, 2006, p. 5). Superintendents and school
districts have experienced growth in social problems that have expanded requirements for edu-
cation services and made it more troublesome to implement changes (Kowalski, 2010). Higher
crime rates, violence against school property, increased financial costs, changes in student needs,
and community complications are the most prevalent problems (Kowalski, 2010). In many
states, the number of students living in poverty (Anyon, 2005), the number of immigrant students
(Fix & Passel, 2003), and the number of students living without both parents have grown consis-
tently (Krieder, 2008). The student population in many school districts has become more
diverse, increasing the likelihood that ideas to improve schools may be opposed by some stake-
holders (Wirt & Kirst, 2009). Declining social environments in the past 20 years have had sig-
nificant effects on most superintendents and most school districts. “Several stakeholders are not
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 14
highly satisfied with public schools, and even more reluctant to put forth greater fiscal effort to
support them” (Kowalski, 2010, p. 6).
Assumptions
The following assumptions were made in the study:
1. That adequate preparation programs would positively affect recruitment and retention
of superintendents.
2. That the information gathered from this research would help aspiring superintendents
to gain the position.
3. That the survey responses would be beneficial for superintendents in retaining the
position.
4. That responses from superintendents, board members, and executive search firms
would be valid.
Limitations of the Study
This study included the following limitations:
1. The results of the study were limited to the participants in the study.
2. The participants were located only in California.
3. The interview guide and interview questions were administered to participants who
met certain criteria.
4. The study took place over a brief period of time.
5. The data were limited to participants who responded voluntarily to the study.
6. The validity of the study was dependent on the reliability of the survey instruments.
Delimitations of the Study
This study included the following delimitations:
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 15
1. Data collection was restricted to superintendents, board members, and executive
search firm members who met certain criteria.
2. Criteria for participation included California superintendents, superintendents who
were currently governing urban school districts, and superintendents who had held their current
position for more than a year.
3. Data collection was restricted to California school board members and executive
search firms based in California.
Definition of Terms
American Association of School Administrators (AASA): An organization of school
leaders in the United States and across the world.
Association of California School Administrators (ACSA): An organization of school
leaders in California.
Entry plan: The goals and action plan that a new superintendent develops to be successful
in the first 100 days in the role; the plan is shared with stakeholders.
Executive search firms: Firms that provide customized services to school boards, school
districts, and candidates in the process of selecting school superintendents.
Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortium (ISLLC): A program of the Council of
Chief State School Officers that has crafted standards for school leaders.
Nontraditional superintendent: A person who do not possess a typical background in
education—instead coming typically from law, business, or the military.
Preparation program: A program designed by a university or professional organization to
provide educators, including superintendents, certification in a chosen area of education.
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 16
School board: The body of governance for a local school district. Whether elected or
appointed, the members are responsible for all policy or regulations in the local school district,
including hiring and evaluating the district superintendent.
School district: A local educational agency that operates schools in a local geographic
location.
School district superintendent: An administrator or manager who is in charge of public
schools or a school district and reports to a local government body overseeing public schools.
Strategic plan: Organizational goals and actions developed collaboratively by the super-
intendent, the board, and stakeholders.
Successful superintendents: Superintendents who are currently employed in a position for
more than 2 years and are in good standing with their respective school board.
Superintendency: The office, position, or jurisdiction of a superintendent.
Superintendent preparation: The strategies that an aspiring superintendent uses to be
equipped for the superintendent position.
Superintendent recruitment: The process or strategy used by an aspiring superintendent to
gain the first superintendent position.
Superintendent retention: The process or strategy that a superintendent uses to maintain
the current position.
Organization of the Dissertation
This dissertation proposal is organized into five chapters. Chapter One has introduced the
area of study with the background and overview of the problem and the purpose of the study.
Chapter Two provides a review of current literature related to the preparation, recruitment, and
retention of California superintendents. The chapter also provides an analysis of current
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 17
leadership theory and frameworks for the superintendency. The literature review addresses the
questions for problems in the research that support the need for this study. Chapter Three restates
the problem, purpose, and research questions and describes the participants and setting, the
instrumentation, and the data collection and analysis plans.
Chapter Four reports the findings of the survey and interviews, the reasoning for the
research questions, a description of the study, review of data analysis, and a summary of the
research questions. Chapter Five presents the conclusions; implications; and recommendations
for preparation, recruitment, and retention of superintendents.
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 18
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
The position of superintendent was created in the 20th century by local boards without
statutory authority or support as a chief and influential position in education. As school districts
began to grow and as problems increased, more districts hired superintendents.
In the field of education in the United States, a superintendent of schools is the instruc-
tional leader of the school district. The role and powers of the superintendent vary among school
districts. One of the most important roles of the board of education is to hire its superintendent
(Kowalski, 2010).
In 1911, the concept of the superintendent as a separate professional was being devel-
oped. The beginning of the superintendent position was linked to adoption of a business organi-
zational model in education. Starting in 1914, Columbia University and other universities started
to teach courses on educational administration that included school finance, business methods,
budgeting, and organization. In his book, New Profession, Cubberley (1924) emphasized the role
of superintendent as chief executive of schools. By 1925, journals and books on educational
administration were portraying superintendents as executives (Kowalski, 2010).
Joseph Rice, a leading education reformer, gave his viewpoints about the importance of
the superintendency:
The office of superintendent is, in my opinion, one of importance of which cannot be
overestimated. Furthermore, in the study of the educational conditions in any given
locality, the superintendent may be regarded as the central figure, as a careful consider-
ation of what he is, what he does, as well as the circumstances under which he labors, will
scarcely fail to point out the reasons why the schools of that locality are on a compara-
tively high or low level. When he is a thorough educator, that is, when he has made a
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 19
profound study of the science, spares no pains in instructing his teachers in educational
methods and principles, and is fully sustained in his actions by the board of education, the
schools in his charge, if there be not too many, improve rapidly and ever continue to
advance. But a modification of any one of these conditions impedes the progress of the
schools. But even when the superintendent labors under very unfavorable conditions, he
seldom fails to stamp the schools with his individual. Pedagogical ideas, thus giving the
education in his schools at least a tendency in a certain direction, provided he remains
long enough, say four or five years, in any one city. As a rule, however, superintendents
do not remain long in any one place, and this is particularly true of the smaller cities.
They frequently, for political or other reasons, fail to be reappointed, or they accept other
positions by lesson of higher salaries. Superintendents in small cities not uncommonly go
from one locality to another for a consideration of one or two hundred dollars per annum.
By reason of these changes the schools of many cities are always in a transitional stage,
never reaching any distinctive character. (as cited in Kowalski, 2010, p. 11)
History of the Position of Superintendent
The history of the superintendency goes as far back as the 1820s. The superintendent’s
roles and responsibilities have advanced for more than 100 years, with the current social, educa-
tional, and professional issues affecting their application in today’s schools (Kowalski, 2010).
In 1812, the first state superintendent of schools was appointed in New York, with three primary
duties: (a) plan a common school system for the state, (b) report on the management of public
funds, and (c) provide school-related information to the state legislature (Kowalski, 2011).
During the next 40 years, every northern state and some southern states followed New York’s
lead in establishing the position of state superintendent (Butts & Cremin, 1953).
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 20
Today, school superintendents are found in all 50 states (Kowalski, 2011). “While the
overall responsibility of this position is to oversee education from a statewide perspective, the
titles and conditions surrounding the job certainly are not uniform” (Kowalski, 2011, p. 143).
Superintendent jobs and responsibilities vary according to the following areas: (a) method of
selection, such as appointed versus elected; (b) relationship to the state board of education, such
as nonmember, member, or chair; (c) authority over the state board of education, such as high,
moderate, or low; and (d) required, desired, and actual qualifications, such as professional expe-
rience in education (Kowalski, 2011).
By the end of the 19th century, most local school boards had established the position of
school superintendent (Kowalski, 2011).
The need to do so was affected by the myriad of conditions including the devilment of
larger city school districts, the consolidation of rural districts, an expanded curriculum,
passage of compulsory attendance laws, demands for increased accountability, and
efficiency expectations. (Kowalski, 2005, p. 3)
According to some authors, the earliest role of the superintendent was school board clerk
(Carter & Cunningham, 1997; G. J. Petersen & Burnette, 2005). “This role was predicated on the
belief that big city school boards were compelled to employ a figurehead but reluctant to relin-
quish power”(Kowalski, 2005, p. 3). Superintendents were assigned to routine clerical and
practical duties (Carter & Cunningham, 1997). “The role of clerk proved to be temporary and
was not sustained as the position matured” (Kowalski, 2005, p. 3).
Superintendent Role Conceptualizations
The superintendent’s position developed out of the centralization of school management
(Kowalski, 2005). The requirements of a superintendent have constantly changed over time.
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 21
These roles consist of teacher-scholar, business manager, statesman, applied social scientist, and
communicator (Kowalski et al., 2011). A superintendent who successfully navigates these roles
can move a school district in the right direction. Current superintendents must deal with state
and federal accountability measures, poor funding for schools, union issues, a lack of special
education resources, and impoverished communities (Kowalski et al., 2011).
Historian Raymond Callahan (1966) concluded that, before 1970, five separate roles
conceptualized the school superintendent position: teacher, scholar, business manager, statesman,
and applied social scientist. During the Information Age, almost 20 years later, Kowalski (2001,
2005, 2006) conceived a sixth district role for the superintendent: effective communicator.
Drucker (1999) stated that all organizations had entered a new era: the Information Age.
Teacher–Scholar Role
As a teacher-scholar, the superintendent needed to understand the qualities and expecta-
tions of great instruction. As a result, they are able to lead their district of teachers with models
of good instruction that helps boost student achievement (Callahan, 1996). In this role superin-
tendents were responsible for leading a successful school district.
In the role of a teacher-scholar, it was expected for the individual to be a master educator
—a person with expertise in pedagogy, curriculum, and student learning (Carter & Cunningham,
1997). Björk and Kowalski (2005) stated that it is expected that today’s superintendents “pro-
vide the visionary leadership and expertise to improve student academic performance” (p. 23).
From about 1865 to 1910, the conceptualization of the superintendent as teacher-scholar
was popular. During this era, the intent was to have a person work full time in supervising
classroom instruction and guaranteeing consistency of curriculum (Spring, 1990). Traditionally,
males were selected for the position because they were considered to be effective teachers. In
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 22
addition to supervising teachers, they guided the school board and completed written reports as
permitted (Gilland, 1935). However, many local school boards were hesitant to hire a superin-
tendent for fear that the person would achieve political power: “When forced to hire a superinten-
dent boards especially in larger districts often resisted yielding authority over financial and
personnel decisions” (Carter & Cunningham, 1997, p. 2).
In large urban city school districts, superintendents were viewed as scholars because they
frequently wrote in professional journals about philosophy or history (Cuban, 1988). Many
superintendents went on to become state superintendents, professors, or college presidents (G. J.
Petersen & Barnett, 2005). An 1890 report on the characteristics of the superintendent as
teacher-scholar was summarized in the following statement:
It must be made his recognized duty to train teachers and inspire them with high ideas; to
revise the course of study when new light is possible; to see that pupils and teachers are
supplied with needed appliances for the best possible work; to devise rational methods of
promoting pupils. (Cuban, 1976, p. 16)
Business Manager Role
During the time of the Industrial Revolution, superintendents managed schools as an
economic enterprise. Superintendents utilized business management practices to operate the
schools during this period. School boards recognized the success of superintendents as leaders
who possessed an understanding of these managerial practices, and so the role business manager
emerged (Kowalski et al., 2011).
After 1910, the conceptualization of superintendent as business manager developed and
lasted for about 30 years. The Industrial Revolution was instrumental in shaping this role
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 23
through classical theories and principles of scientific management. As a result, school boards
started to place more emphasis on the superintendent’s managerial skills (Kowalski, 2010).
Professors and superintendents of large urban districts were influential in creating the
business management conceptualization. Before 1910, there were no university courses in
educational administration (Cubberley, 1924). Following 1910, a few courses were created at
Teachers College, Columbia University, and professors at other universities moved to develop a
specialization that was distinct from teaching (Callahan, 1966). Callahan (1966) concluded that
superintendents were basically naïve “dupes” intent on pleasing school board members who
valued efficiency. Eaton (1990) and Tyack (1972) disagreed with Callahan’s views of superin-
tendents as weak victims but instead described them as cunning, intelligent, political pragmatists
who responded to social issues. Thomas and Moran (1992) classified superintendents as oppor-
tunists, as administrators who embraced industrial management in order to shed their image as
teachers and to expand and protect bona fide power.
Statesman Role
During the Great Depression, a new conceptualization of the superintendent as statesman
emerged. After 1930, people were unsure about giving superintendents more power at the cost of
local citizen control (Kowalski, 2006; G. J. Petersen & Fusarelli, 2001). George Sylvester
Counts criticized the application of classical theories and scientific management in public
schools, arguing that these ideas were inconsistent with core democratic values (as cited in Van
Til, 1971). “Collectively, concerns about centralization and managerial control gave rise to the
conceptualization of the superintendent as statesman” (Kowalski, 2011, p. 3). As a statesman, a
superintendent was expected to champion support for education (Howlett, 1993). The term
statesman for the superintendent was coined by Ernest Melby, former dean of education at
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 24
Northwestern University and New York University (Callahan, 1966). He lobbied administrators
to “release the creative capacities of individuals” and “mobilize the educational resources of
communities”(Melby, 1955, p. 250). According to Howlett (1993), as a statesman, a superinten-
dent was expected to galvanize authors. Björk and Gurley (2005) argued that statesmanship was
an acceptable role. “After World War II, population growth, school consolidation, and research
in the social sciences sparked new ideas about school governance and administration” (Kowalski,
2011, p. 3). The concept of representative democracy was coined as a more practical alternative
to localism. Localism is a concept whereby people actively engage in debate and try to influence
policy based on individual freedoms (Kowalski, 2011). Public administration had become
complicated, and most people did not have the time or expertise to absorb policymaking (Katz,
1971; H. M. Levin, 1987).
Applied Social Scientist Role
During the mid-1950s, “democratic administration was being disparaged as an overly
idealistic and inattentive concept incapable of proving solutions to complex social and economic
problems” (Kowalski, 2011, p. 3). Critics argued that superintendents were too focused on
political philosophy instead of the burgeoning social sciences (Björk & Gurley, 2005). After
World War II, several changes occurred, such as an increase in the number of school-age children
and creation of new school districts in newly established suburbs. These changes led to the
fourth conceptualization: the superintendent as applied social scientist (Callahan, 1966). The
purpose of this role was to develop superintendents who displayed sensitivity to large social
problems through a social scientist lens (Kellogg Foundation, 1961). Superintendents as applied
social scientists were expected to solve systemic education problems in a multicultural demo-
cratic society (Sergiovanni, Burlingame, Coombs, & Boyd, 1999).
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 25
Upon acceptance of this role, professional preparation of superintendents became more
extensive (Kowalski, 2009), less practice based, and more theoretical (Fusarelli & Fusarelli,
2005). During the 1960s and the 1970s, it was not uncommon to require doctoral students in
educational administration to complete courses in one of the behavioral sciences, such as psy-
chology, economics, political science, or sociology (Kowalski, 2009). However, Callahan (1966)
argued that the applied social scientist conceptualization could create superintendents who would
be “high level technicians, expert at keeping their organization going but not equipped to see or
understand where they are going” (p. 227).
Superintendent as Communicator
“Historically schools have had closed climates, an institutional characteristic that discour-
aged community interventions” (Kowalski, 2011, p. 4). In the past, schools were not transparent;
they encouraged teachers and administrators to work individually and in seclusion (Gideon,
2002). As a result of this practice, many administrators learned to communicate from top to
bottom (Achilles & Lintz, 1983). “Superintendents were socialized to emulate business execu-
tives who had accepted the classical model of organizational communication as their norm”
(Kowalski, 2011, p. 4). At the time many popular books on administrative communication
usually identified only four communication functions: informing, instructing, evaluating, and
influencing (Kowalski, 2011). According to Clampitt, (1991), communication effectiveness
typically was evaluated by the quality of messages administrators wrote and sent downward.
During the 1980s, scholars (Guzley, 1992) started to challenge the classical communication
model, arguing that the model usually had negative effects on employee commitment, job satis-
faction, and overall organizational effectiveness. Furthermore, researchers found that poor
communication was a major predictor of administrator effectiveness.
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 26
“Today, a confluence of reform initiatives and the realities of the Information Age based
society in which they are pursued have transformed normative communicative behavior for
superintendents” (Kowalski, 2011, p. 4). Today, administrators are expected to initiate and
facilitate school improvement by collaborating with school employees, students, parents, and
other stakeholders (Björk, 2001; Murphy, 1994). “And in order to do this they have to build and
maintain positive relationships with a broad spectrum of stakeholder groups” (Kowalski et al.,
2011, p. 4).
The classical model of communication has been superseded by the relational model of
communication (Kowalski, 2011). According to several authors, relational communication is
consistent in contrast to situational, open, two-way, and symmetrical (Kowalski, 2011): “It is
intended to minimize formal authority and actual power differences and to focus on both commu-
nicative behavior and mutual perceptions of communicative behavior”(Kowalski, 2011, p. 4).
Although many administrators do take formal classes on communication, they are plainly
evaluated on the condition of their communication style (Kowalski, 2011). Studies about perfor-
mance evaluation (M. R. Peterson, 1999) and administrator dismissals (Davis, 1998) have
disclosed the sanctions that happen if the superintendent is perceived as an incompetent and
inconsistent communicator.
Currently, the contemporary superintendent is expected to wear five different hats, and he
or she is expected to know when to transition among the roles. The need to function in all
five roles is arguably greatest in small school systems, where superintendents have no
professional support staff at the district level. (Kowalski, 2011, p. 4)
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 27
Superintendent–School Board Relationships
One of the most important decisions that the school board makes is the hiring of the
superintendent to lead the district. “Once a superintendent is hired, the personal and working
relationship that develops between the board and the superintendent sets the tone for much of the
district’s operations” (Glass & Franceschini, 2007, p. 124). It is important for the school board
and the superintendent to develop a good professional relationship for the benefit of the district.
When conflicts between the board and the superintendent arise, how these disagreements are
handled influences the superintendent’s tenure with the district. Each time the incumbent
superintendent changes, the effects can be financially and organizationally detrimental.
Superintendent–board relationships that are problematic can cause issues with finances, staff
morale, student achievement, and community support.
School board–superintendent relationships have received substantial research. According
to an AASA 2000 study, many superintendents were divided with regard to being a professional
advisor or as a dominant decision maker (as cited in Kowalski, 2010).
“School reform is another decisive issue and has generated questions about the mission of
public schools” (Kowalski, 2011, p. 6). “Until about 1950, their assigned purpose was reproduc-
tive in nature. Specifically, they were to prepare numerate and literate citizens, prevailing
cultural norms, values, beliefs, and attitudes” (Kowalski, 2006, p. 311). Many authors (e.g.,
Bauman, 1996; Fullan, 2001; Sarason, 1996) have argued that low-performing schools will not
improve enough unless they were restructured. “Changes will not be institutionalized unless
prevailing change and resistant school cultures are modified. In this vein, one of the greatest
institutionalized issues facing current superintendents and top executives across all types of
organizations is culture change” (Schein, 1996, p. 6).
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 28
“In schools, culture not only shapes perspectives on student learning, but also it shapes
decision making norms, attitudes toward problem solving, the value of research and relation-
ships” (Joyce & Murphy, 1990, p. 6). “These difficult assignments have elevated the critical
nature of superintendent relationships, credibility, and trust with school boards, district employ-
ees and all other stakeholders” (Kowalski et al., 2007, p. 7).
Superintendents consider themselves top professionals with special power and prestige.
“Society grants these rewards because professions have special competence and esoteric bodies
of knowledge linked to central needs and values of the social system” (Larson, 1977, p. 7). “True
professions are characterized by a knowledge base developed through research and shared expe-
riences, the licensing of practitioners based on a prolonged period of professional study prior to
and during practice, code of ethics, and practitioner autonomy” (Kowalski, 2011, p. 7).
The scope of professional knowledge required for practice and the manner in which
knowledge and skills are acquired have become increasingly important in a society where
practitioners are expected to be near perfect in exercising authority. That is, society has
come to expect that licensed practitioners will not err in making critical decisions. (May,
2001, p. 7)
Scholars have long recognized a nexus between community power structures and school
board power structures. In the past, superintendents faced the basic question of whether to align
with a community’s dominant power structure; today, they often face the difficult task of discern-
ing how political power is divided in a community and how they might work effectively with all
groups (Keedy & Björk, 2002). Arguably, superintendents and board members contribute to the
tensions in the relationship.
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 29
Many school administrators have been socialized to accept bureaucratic and individualis-
tic behaviors that inhibit them from maturing as collaborative leaders. Often, being in charge
remains more important than building and mobilizing support for a coherent reform plan. For
these superintendents, deregulation and decentralization are threatening because legitimate
authority is challenged. Ideally, school board members are expected to be public trustees who
make objective policy decisions in the best interests of their entire communities. In reality, many
function as political delegates, making both policy and administrative decisions on the basis of
the narrower interests of their supporting political factions. Even when school board members
acknowledge that their intended role is to develop policy, few are able to agree on the nature of
policy. Consequently, rather than setting a cogent and visionary policy agenda, they react to a
constant stream of problems as if they were administrators.
In summary, problems related to superintendent–school board relations are both constant
and evolving. Although the two groups have never really accepted a clear separation of policy
making and administration, they must now deal with their differences in a more politically
intense environment, one that often induces reaction rather than proaction. In this context,
superintendents receive mixed messages. They are told to be bold risk takers, but they remain
fearful that they will not receive support and rewards from the school board if they are.
School Board Roles
Today in most school districts, student achievement is at the forefront for boards of
education. School boards play a pivotal role in carrying out initiatives in a school district.
According to Delagardelle (2008), in high-achieving districts there is a collective effort to
improve student achievement district wide. With increased accountability and concern about
school effectiveness, the hiring and retention of superintendents is an imperative board
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 30
responsibility (Kowalski, 2010). Most superintendents are employed by school boards, with the
exception of a small number who are elected by popular vote (Glass, Björk, & Brunner, 2000;
Webb & Norton, 2006). There are no universal criteria for hiring and retaining superintendents
(Kowalski, 2010).
School boards must decide before conducting a search for a new superintendent whether
they will consider both internal candidates (i.e., persons who are already district employ-
ees) and external candidates (i.e., persons not already district employees). . . . Boards
dissatisfied with the status quo may exclude internal candidates or at least give preference
to external candidates. (Kowalski, 2011, p. 36)
As a result, researchers have examined whether school boards have been employing internal or
external candidates (Kowalski, 2011).
Typically, school board members arrive in their positions with only a slight understanding
of their policy role or the role of the individual members of the governing unit (Spillane &
Regnier, 1998). Board members rely on their superintendents to translate and give relevant
understanding to state and federal laws, regulations, and goals (Kowalski, 2010).
One of a school board’s primary responsibility is evaluating and overseeing a superinten-
dent’s performance (Kowalski, 2010). A majority of superintendents evaluations are adminis-
tered via checklists or rating scales centered on traits, skills, knowledge, and style (Glass et al.,
2000).
History of Women in the Superintendency
The thought that women and persons of color would eventually be leaders of school
districts could not have been imagined during early American history. Starting with religious
teachings, the education of White males was the responsibility of literate White men. “Women,
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 31
girls, and persons of color of all ages were socialized to respect and rely on White men’s author-
ity and wisdom, and therefore, were thought that the three groups had no need of education”
(Kowalski, 2011, p. 6). During slavery, courageous Black women would disobey the law and
teach slaves to read. Benjamin Rush advocated that women should receive education for the
benefit of their sons and the republic. “Consequently, Rush’s ideology of republican motherhood
failed to challenge existing gender roles and relations deeply, perhaps a requirement for its
acceptance at the time” (Blount, 1998, p. 7).
This ideology spawned education opportunities in seminaries, academies, and colleges for
White women from 1790 to 1850 (Blount, 1998). At the time, qualified White men were less
eager to teach and, because White women were educated for the benefit of their sons, women
began to teach, first in the home and eventually in local schools when men were unavailable.
There is no recorded history of persons of color at this time.
By the 19th century, with competent women teachers and activists such as Emma Willard
and Catharine Beecher, single and married White women slowly became acceptable teachers.
“The fact that women’s lack of work opportunities made them willing to take low wages, accep-
tance of women in teaching jobs grew, until in 1900 they accounted for about 70% of all teach-
ers” (Kowalski, 2011, p. 8). After the Civil War, most teachers were White, but Black men and
Black women started entering teaching because in the South separate schools were built for
Blacks. “By 1900, as many as 20 percent of women teachers in the South were Black” (Blount,
1998, p. 37). “Over a century later, women of all colors still significantly dominate the teaching
ranks, so much so that the profession is considered a feminized one, feminized in that women
constitute a large proportion of the teaching ranks, but also feminized in the sense that the work
fits traditional notions of women’s work” (Blount, 1998, p. 21). Usually, women were hired
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 32
when White men were unavailable. Teaching was the first public profession for women that gave
them financial independence, even though they received very low pay (Kowalski, 2010).
By 1900, with 70% of teachers being women and 20% being women of color, the role
was considered feminized. Being feminized meant that teaching was considered primarily
women’s work; it was a fairly low status role, making it also open to persons of color in
the South; and wages remained relatively low. (Kowalski, 2011, p. 152)
The teaching profession has been dominated by married, middle-age White males with a
Protestant background (Tyack & Hansot, 1982).
The past 75 years of studies on the superintendency have relied mostly on White males,
with no mention of gender, race, or ethnicity of the people (Kowalski, 2011). “Only within the
last 20 years have research and attention pointed specifically to women superintendents and
superintendents of color” (Kowalski, 2011, p. 117). Men have always been the majority in the
superintendent position. The underrepresentation of women has resulted in many researchers
investigating the reasons more women are not superintendents (Brunner & Grogan, 2007). The
representation of women superintendents remains problematic, especially when considered in
relation to total population data and student enrollment data (Kowalski, 2010). Today women
make up 65% of teachers, 43% of principals (Shakeshaft, 1999), 57% of central office adminis-
trators, and 33% of the assistant and associate superintendents (Hodgkinson & Montenegro,
1999). In 1980, 2.1% of superintendents were in this demographic group (L. Cunningham &
Hentges, 1982). In 1910, 8.9% of school superintendents were female and, over the remainder of
that century, this statistic fluctuated from a historical low of 1.2 % in 1982 (Blount, 1998) to a
high of 13.2% in 2000 (Glass et al., 2000). Several factors contributed to the dismal number of
female superintendents: school district consolidation, gender discrimination, and stereotyping
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 33
(Kowalski & Brunner, 2005). Most researchers have concluded that the superintendent has been
and remains a masculine role for the past 2 decades (Kowalski, 2010).
After 1982, the percentage of female superintendents increased gradually, to 6.6% in
1992 and 13.2% in 2000 (Glass et al., 2000). A few factors increased access to the position for
females. In 2008 it was reported by the Council of the Great City Schools, a coalition of 66 of
the nation’s largest urban public school systems, that 34% of its member superintendents were
women, 20% were African American females, 12% were White females, and 2% were Hispanic
females (Kowalski, 2010).
Superintendents of Color
Throughout time, Blacks have been a significant presence among persons of color in the
superintendent position (Kowalski, 2010). “Before 1954, most Black superintendents were
employed in rural, racially segregated school systems, mostly in southern states” (Kowalski,
2010, p. 18). However, the numbers went down substantially when the Supreme Court ruled
separate but equal public schools to be unconstitutional (Collier, 1987). “Even before this point
in time, the representation of people of color in the superintendent position had been shamefully
small” (Kowalski, 2006, p. 18).
Without focused studies of women and superintendents of color, both groups may con-
tinue to lack appropriate and accessible role models; to believe themselves substandard
because they do not fit the norms found in leadership and superintendency literature based
on studies dominated by White men; to find themselves practicing in ways not mentioned
in books on the superintendency; and indeed to experience limited access to that the very
survival of their race depended on education. (Kowalski, 2011, p. 150)
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 34
According to Simmons (2005), superintendents of color face several challenges that
others do not encounter, such as accessing the superintendent position and being employed in
problem-ridden, low-performing districts. The majority of superintendents of color are employed
in large urban districts (Kowalski, 2010). A small increase in the percentage of superintendents
of color occurred in 1980 (Cunningham & Hentges, 1982). In 2008, according to the Council of
the Great City Schools, 42% of the members’ superintendents self-identified as Black and
another 10% as Hispanic. Although the numbers of female superintendents and superintendents
of color have increased slightly in the past 10 years, the standard is still the White male
(Kowalski, 2010).
Superintendent Preparation Programs
There is very limited research on how superintendents have been prepared for the posi-
tion. Just a few universities have programs geared specifically for the position, although most
PhD and EdD programs in educational administration are considered to be preparation programs
for superintendents (Kowalski, 2010). Some states provide superintendent licensure for persons
who earn doctoral degrees or certificates from other programs, such as the Harvard Urban Super-
intendents Program; the University of Virginia School Superintendent’s Licensure Program;
nonuniversity-based programs such as the Kentucky Superintendent’s Leadership Development
Program, developed by the Kentucky State Department of Education, the National Association of
Secondary School Principals (NASSP) and AASA; and Superintendents Prepared, created by the
Urban Leadership Consortium of the Institute for Educational Leadership, Joint Center for
Political and Economic Studies, and the McKenzie Group (Grogan & Andrews, 2002).
According to Goodman and Zimmerman (2000), for-profit ventures between universities
and organizations such as the College Board are exploring new ways to combine business and
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 35
education to create a variety of superintendent preparation programs. According to Glass et al.
(2000), since 1923, studies have explored the issue of academic preparation. As of today, there is
no national curriculum for superintendent preparation programs. “Arguably, the absence of such
a curriculum attenuates efforts to develop national licensing criteria” (G. J. Petersen, Fusarelli, &
Kowalski, 2008, p. 118). Currently, there has been a focus on university-based administrator
preparation programs.
“Skepticism about the efficacy of pre-service academic preparation has been especially
prevalent in relation to university-based preparation programs for superintendents” (Orr, 2006;
M. D. Young, 2005, p. 117). Some critics have argued that administration preparation is basi-
cally irrelevant or ineffective, thus making both it and state licensing unnecessary requirements
(The Broad Foundation & Thomas B. Fordham Institute, 2003).
Typically, new superintendents have entered the job after completing an academic degree
or licensing program that qualifies them for state licensure. “Because each state sets licensing
policy independently, variation exists across states in areas such as the required degrees, required
credit hours, and years of required experience in both teaching and school level administration”
(Kowalski, 2011, p. 117). In states such as Connecticut, Illinois, Missouri, Oklahoma, and
Texas, applicants must also pass a state examination (National Conference of State Legislatures,
2010).
Several states are looking at alternative ways to certify administrators whose backgrounds
are in areas other than education (Fusarelli, 2005). “While 45 states have alternative programs
for recruiting and training teachers, this practice has been less common for school-level
administrators because virtually all states require aspiring principals to be experienced, fully
certified teachers” (Feistritzer, 2003, p. 117). Many states allow districts to apply for
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 36
certification or licensure waiver for superintendents who have the management skills (National
Conference of State Legislatures, 2010). Some research reveals that most superintendent prepa-
ration programs offer similar courses in school administration, including finance, personnel
administration, organizational theory, school law, and school community relations (Glass et al.,
2000). Some programs, but not all, also require a field experience such as an internship (M. D.
Young, 2005).
“Although no state requires a doctorate for initial state licensing of superintendents, the
percentage of practitioners in the position possessing this level of education increased substan-
tially from 1971 to 2000” (Glass et al., 2000, p. 129). The increasing prominence of superinten-
dents with doctorates prompted several authors to examine the relevance (Grogan & Andrews,
2002) and necessity (A. Levin, 2005) of this level of education for superintendents. According to
Baker, Orr, and Young (2007), the number of programs awarding doctoral degrees in education
increased by 48% between 1993 and 2003, with most of this growth related to doctoral programs
for district and school administrators. A majority of the newly created preparation programs are
at regional comprehensive colleges and universities, and the doctor of education degree (EdD)
was the first doctoral degree to be awarded at many of these places (Townsend, 2002). From
1971 to 2000, the percentage of superintendents with a doctorate increased from 29.2% to 45.3%
(Glass et al., 2000).
Some critics (e.g., A. Levin, 2005) have portrayed most school administration programs
has having weak faculty who lack experience as practitioners. However, other researchers who
have analyzed university-based preparation and other alternatives (e.g., Clark, 1999; Grogan &
Andrews, 2002; Van Meter, 1999; M. D. Young, Petersen, & Short, 2002) have concluded that
university professors are in the right position to provide relevant situations and experiences that
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 37
help students to become reflective and competent practitioners. Superintendents typically seek
continuing education from a variety of sources, such as professional organizations, state depart-
ments of education, regional service centers, and universities (Kowalski, 2010). “The impor-
tance of life-long learning is now widely recognized across professions, and in the case of
superintendents, it is often a required experience linked to license renewal” (Kowalski, 2011, p.
122).
Mentoring for Women Superintendents
The lack of Black female role models in educational administration presents problems
partly from a lack of mentors. According to Brunner (1999), women must first pursue the
position of the superintendent for there to be an abundance of potential female mentors and role
models. Today, mentoring and coaching relationships are essential to women of color.
School districts with multiple campuses have groups of principals but a district has only
one superintendent. The superintendent may be the last obstacle for formal mentoring programs.
In the 1990s, research about teacher mentoring programs showed that supporting 1st-year teach-
ers resulted in better teachers who stayed in the profession longer. That success led to programs
for aspiring principals. Today, mentoring programs are gaining popularity with superintendents.
The AASA has developed many executive coaching and mentoring programs that vary from site
to site. Many states require new superintendents to participate, others do not (Beem, 2016). In
some states, school boards must pay for their superintendent to receive coaching or mentoring,
while in other states grants pay the tuition (Beem, 2016). Currently, approximately 18 state
affiliates of AASA provide some sort of mentoring or coaching program for beginning superin-
tendents. In addition to state associations, mentoring programs are run by universities, state
departments of education, and school board associations. The current pilot program is a joint
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 38
project of the ACSA and the New Teacher Center at the University of California, Santa Cruz,
recognized for its teacher induction programs.
Traditional Career Path to the Superintendency
The traditional career path for most superintendents involves moving through the organi-
zational hierarchy of a public school district (Kowalski, 2006). According to Kowalski (2006),
most superintendents follow the traditional career path en route to the superintendency via
teacher and principal positions. Many superintendents started as assistant principals, contrary to
previous studies. “A high percentage of superintendents were employed in the position in less
than one year after first applying for it” (Kowalski, 2010, p. xv).
Most superintendents entered the education profession as teachers and then became
building level administrators (Glass et al., 2000). In the past, many states required prior teaching
and principal-level experience as prerequisites to superintendent licensing; however, during the
past 10 years, this requirement has been waived (Kowalski, 2010). According to a 2000 study
conducted by Glass et al., many superintendents held their first administrative position before age
30. According to Kowalski (2010), people are more than twice as likely to become a superinten-
dent before the age of 41 than after the age of 55.
According to Hodgkinson and Montenegro (1999), there is only one path to the position
of superintendency: teacher to principal to central office administrator to superintendent. Ac-
cording to Glass et al. (2000), the natural order is sequential, such as teacher to principal to
superintendent. According to most research, high school principals have an advantage for
becoming a superintendent.
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 39
Nontraditional Career Path to the Superintendency
Traditionally, rookie superintendents have started after completing an academic degree or
licensing program that qualified them for state licensure. National studies conducted in 1992 and
2000 concluded that superintendents entered administration from a variety of positions (Glass et
al., 2000). According to research, the most commonly held positions were high school principal,
district-level director or coordinator, elementary school principal, junior high school or middle
school principal, or assistant or associate or deputy superintendent. According to Kowalski
(2011), politicians, business leaders, and the media have pointed out publicly the level of ac-
countability for school leaders and have focused on university-based administrator preparation
programs.
Several states are considering or have created alternative ways to certify administrators
whose backgrounds are in areas other than education (Fusarelli, 2005). The Broad Foundation
and Thomas B. Fordham Institute (2003) contended that administration preparation is basically
irrelevant or ineffective, thus making both it and state licensing unnecessary requirements. They
have argued that such criteria serve only to prevent competent noneducators from being superin-
tendents (Kowalski, 2010). According to Kowalski (2004), “their policy position is void of
empirical evidence supporting their contentions that many prominent non-educators could and
would serve effectively as superintendents if spared the indignity of having to complete a pre-
service preparation program in a college of education” (p. 117).
Recruitment for Superintendents by Executive Search Firms
Most superintendents are employed by school boards with only a few being elected by
popular vote of the public (Kowalski, 2011). Hiring a superintendent is one of the most impor-
tant duties of an elected board of education. “ There is no one selection process used to select
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 40
and employ superintendents” (Kowalski, 2011, p. 73). Today, there are numerous superintendent
search firms. “The increased use of search consultants was associated with district enrollment;
that is, the larger a school system, the more likely the board was to retain a search consultant”
(Kowalski, 2011, p. 73). In the past, the strengths and talents of superintendents were at the core
of the search process, with an emphasis on what a person did well.
In the past, most superintendents worked their way up as teacher, principal, assistant
superintendent, and then superintendent. “That is, most superintendents have entered the educa-
tion profession as teachers and then became building-level administrators” (Kowalski, 2011, p.
31). Sometimes, someone skipped a step, but that was rare. This specific career path was driven
in the past by state certification requirements. Several states required prior teaching and
principal-level experiences as prerequisites to superintendent licensing (Kowalski, 2011). “Both
the 1992 and 2000 national studies found that superintendents entered administration in a variety
of positions (Kowalski, 2011, p. 33). “Commonly, superintendents have been found to have
prior experience in several administrative positions” (Kowalski, 2011, p. 34). The most com-
monly held previous positions were (a) high school principal, (b) district-level director/coor-
dinator, (c) elementary school principal, (d) junior high or middle school principal, and (e)
assistant/associate/deputy superintendent (Kowalski , 2011). Although in the last 10 years this
requirement has been waived by many states, most of the superintendents still follow this tradi-
tional career path to the superintendency.
Successful Superintendents’ Skills
Superintendents are required to have a specific skill set to fit a number of roles. The skill
set needed varies from district to district, according to the needs of that district. It is crucial that a
superintendent’s skills match the needs of the district. “Superintendents are expected to play
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 41
pivotal leadership roles—most notably, determining the real needs of local schools and engaging
a broad spectrum of stakeholders to determine how those needs would be met” (Kowalski, 2011,
p. 5).
The roles of superintendents in the public school setting are numerous. As chief execu-
tive officers, superintendents must be visionary leaders (Kowalski, 2006), financial planners
(Owings & Kaplan, 2006), human resource managers (I. P. Young, 2008), and instructional
experts (W. G. Cunningham & Cordeiro, 2006).
“Without a doubt, superintendents must be visionary leaders to chart the course of a
public school district because schooling today is different from schooling in the past” (Kowalski,
2011, p. 45). With the passage of federal and state legislation, the emphasis has changed from a
process perspective focusing on procedures to an outcome perspective focusing largely on
student achievement as assessed by standardized measures at the state level (Vang, 2008). Given
the downturn of America’s economy, superintendents must be astute financial planners, doing
more with fewer fiscal resources (Kowalski, 2010). Within the operational budgets of school
districts, the major expenditures are related to human resource activities (Webb & Norton, 2006).
“Of major concern from a human resource perspective for superintendents is equity for students,
for employees, and for other stakeholders” (Kowalski, 2011, p. 45). With the emphasis on state
testing and student achievement, instruction is at the center in all school districts (Sergiovanni,
2006).
According to the 2010 Decennial Study of American school superintendents (Kowalski et
al., 2011), successful superintendents demonstrate five skills. First, they are lead educators,
capable of giving advice to the school board, completing written documentation, and supervising
employees effectively. Second, they are opportunists who can control the community and district
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 42
culture by acting as an authoritarian in task-oriented values and beliefs. Third, they are demo-
cratic leaders, expected to galvanize support for education. Fourth, they are empathetic; they
possess sensitivity to large social problems, solving educational problems by using empiricism
and scientific certainty. Fifth, they emphasize their power and dominance and issue instructions
down a chain of command.
Retention of Superintendents
“Rapidly shifting social, political, and economic trends place a great demand on superin-
tendents to be accountable for student achievement as well as human and material resources”
(Kowlaski, 2011, p. 72). However, there are “data that show the attrition levels in the superinten-
dent position have not changed appreciably over the past several decades” (Glass et al., 2000, p.
22). As concerns about school effectiveness and accountability have been highlighted politically,
the beginning and continued employment of superintendents became important board responsi-
bilities (Kowalski, 2011). “If women account for approximately 33 percent of assistant/associ-
ate/deputy area superintendents (Hodgkinson & Montenegro, 1999), the type of position from
which most current superintendents are drawn, it is surprising that only 13.2 percent of superin-
tendents are women” (Glass et al., 2000, p. 15).
Superintendent Tenure
The price of superintendent turnover is high, both financially and organizationally. When
the chief executive officer of an organization, such as a superintendent, has to be replaced, it is a
major function. When looking at all of these factors, superintendent tenure or longevity is very
important for a school’s success. The length of time that a superintendent stays in a district is
referred to as tenure (Kowalski, 2010). According to Sharp and Walter (2004), state laws are not
universal with respect to the length of superintendents’ contracts, and some states limit the
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 43
number of years for an initial superintendent contract. In smaller enrollment districts contracts
are shorter than in lager urban districts because boards want to attract and retain high-quality
superintendents (Glass & Franceschini, 2007).
“Most superintendents’ evaluations are conducted through the use of checklists or rating
scales focusing on traits, skills, knowledge, and style” (Kowalski, 2011, p. 76). Performance
evaluations should have both formative and summative information to be effective and meaning-
ful. According to Kowalski (2011), a well-structured evaluation plan for superintendents solidi-
fies the separation of roles and responsibilities for superintendents and boards. “A well struc-
tured evaluation process informs the superintendent about the school board’s expectations and
improves board–superintendent relations” (Kowalski, 2011, p. 76).
One of the most essential responsibilities of a school board is to assess and monitor a
superintendent’s performance (Kowalski, 2011). “In the education profession, practitioners and
scholars agree that fair and unbiased evaluations must be based on multiple data sources, and
criteria should reflect the integration of job definition and the professional expectations as
cornerstones of the performance evaluation” (Kowalski, 2011, p. 77).
Frames of Leadership
Bolman and Deal (2008) described the political frame of organizations as consisting of
five propositions: (a) coalitions; (b) enduring differences; (c) scarce resources; (d) differences
giving rise to conflict, making power the most important resource; and (e) bargaining, negotiat-
ing, and jockeying for position (Kowalski, 2004). According to Björk and Lindle (as cited in
Kowalski, 2001, “school superintendents cannot deny the role that politics and interest groups
play in the core of their professional work” (p. 87).
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 44
According to Northouse (2007), some researchers conceptualize leadership as a trait and
other researchers conceptualize leadership as a behavior. Northouse conceptualized leadership
by using leadership models such as the trait approach, skill approach, style approach, situational
approach, contingency theory, path goal theory, leader member exchange theory, transforma-
tional leadership, team leadership, and the psychodynamic approach.
Kouzes and Posner (2007) identified five practices that are common to the successful
skills sets of effective superintendents. Their research showed that leaders who accomplish
exceptional things in organizations demonstrate five practices:
1. Model the way. They effectively model the behavior they expect of others; they lead
with clear guiding principles; and they clarify their values.
2. Inspire a shared vision. They envision exciting and enabling possibilities and have a
desire to make things happen as well as a desire to change the way things are and to create what
no one has created.
3. Challenge the process. Leaders venture out and are pioneers who are willing to step
out into the unknown.
4. Enable others to act. They foster collaboration and build trust.
5. Encourage the heart. Leaders recognize contributions of all parties and celebrate
accomplishments.
Level 5 Leadership
Superintendents are associated with leadership. They are highly visible and recognized as
the top person in a school district. Level 5 leadership proposes certain characteristics of a suc-
cessful leader. In the 1960s, Collins and his research team explored factors that made good
companies great (Collins, 2005). According to Collins (2005), the essential ingredient for taking
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 45
a company to greatness is having a Level 5 leader—an executive with extreme personal humility
blended paradoxically with intense professional will. Collins identified the skills and personality
traits necessary for effective leadership and identified the characteristics common to Level 5
leaders: humility, will, ferocious resolve, and the tendency to give credit to others while assign-
ing blame to themselves. Some leaders have the Level 5 trait within, but some do not.
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 46
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Statement of the Problem
The roles of superintendents in the public school setting are numerous. As the top leader,
superintendents must be visionary leaders (Kowalski, 2006), financial planners (Owings &
Kaplan), human resource managers (I. P. Young, 2008), and instructional experts (Cunningham
& Cordeiro). “Without a doubt superintendents must be visionary leaders” (Kowalski, 2011, p.
45).
With the mandates of federal and state legislation, the emphasis has changed from
“process perspective focusing only on procedures to an outcome perspective focusing largely on
student achievement as assessed by standardized measures at the state level” (Vang, 2008, p. 45).
People who are considering becoming superintendents should carefully consider the proper
preparation, recruitment strategies, and skills needed for ongoing retention and success in the
position. As the instructional leaders of public school districts, superintendents “wear many hats
and interact with a variety of stakeholders”(Kowalski, 2011, p. 45). Preparation programs in
universities and other entities have tried to prepare prospective superintendents to be recruited
and to be successful in the position; however, many have been unsuccessful (Barnett, 2004;
Björk et al., 2005; A. Levin, 2005; Perry, 2012). Current forms of superintendent support such as
networking, mentoring, and coaching have contributed to most superintendents’ ongoing success
in the position, but superintendent turnover is still a problem (Kowalski et al., 2011). Although
many superintendents are successful, dismissal can end a career in education (Kowalski et al.,
2011). Disparities in the recruitment and retention of female superintendents and superinten-
dents of color are also a concern (Kowalski et al., 2011). These gaps are a significant problem in
superintendent academic preparation, recruitment, and retention.
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 47
Purpose of the Study
A qualitative design was used to address the research questions. According to Creswell
(2009), the use of qualitative data is appropriate to address research questions. The purpose of
the qualitative design was to examine the academic preparation, recruitment, and retention of
California public school superintendents. Because the role of the superintendent is crucial to
student achievement, it is imperative to identify the preparation, supports, skills, and relation-
ships that superintendents need in order to meet the challenges and subtleties of the superinten-
dency (Waters & Marzano, 2007).
Research Questions
The following questions guided this study:
1. How have training programs and experience prepared superintendents to manage the
complexities and challenges of the superintendency?
2. What are the perceptions of current successful superintendents regarding the strate-
gies used to help the current superintendent to attain his or her current position?
3. What are the perceived strategies that support the retention of superintendents?
Research Design
To address the research questions, members of the research team determined that quali-
tative study design would be appropriate. Three basic steps initiated the outline: (a) posing a
question, (b) collecting data to address the question, and (c) using data to answer the question.
Creswell (2009) identified six explicit steps to conduct a research study: (a) identifying the
problem, (b) reviewing current literature, (c) having a specific purpose, (d) collecting relevant
data, (e) analyzing data, and (f) reporting and evaluating the research.
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 48
The qualitative design was used to identify the pipeline to the position of superintendency
via preparation, recruitment, and retention. A quantitative Likert-type scale survey was adminis-
tered to measure the attitudes of superintendents and school board members. Qualitative inter-
views were conducted with superintendents, school board members, and an executive search firm
member. The interviews contained open-ended questions to gather relevant responses tapping
the participants’ knowledge. Thus, a holistic approach was used to gain views on the prepara-
tion, recruitment, and retention of the superintendent. According to Creswell (2009), this design
leads to understanding of a research problem.
Because of the thematic group approach to study, it should be noted that there are some
similarities among the dissertations. However, the majority of each group member’s study is
individualized and distinct.
Population and Sample
This study employed purposeful, criterion-based sampling for qualitative research to
identify superintendents, school board members, and executive search firms (Patton, 2002).
Criterion sampling permitted the researcher to choose current school superintendents, school
board members, and executive search firms in California for qualitative sampling. The sampling
criteria were (a) California school districts, (b) school districts with an enrollment greater than
10,000, (c) public K–12 schools, and (d) the incumbent being in the position of superintendent
for at least 2 years in California school districts with an enrollment greater than 5,000. Further-
more, the sampling criteria required executive search firms that placed California superinten-
dents. A quantitative survey was administered via the ACSA to California superintendents to
ensure the generalizability of findings by minimizing the potential for bias in selection and to
control for the potential influence of known and unknown factors.
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 49
Instrumentation
The researcher examined research design texts to strengthen the interview protocol and to
construct effective questions (Creswell, 2009; Maxwell, 2013; Merriam, 2009). Potential
participants received an introductory email (Appendix A). Individual surveys were developed for
superintendents and school board members (Appendices B and C, respectively); executive search
firm consultants were interviewed but not surveyed. Using Qualtrics™, instructions were given
regarding how to respond to 36 questions related to the three research questions in order to
confine the interviews to a manageable time limit (Merriam, 2009).
The demographic section of the survey contained questions related to educational attain-
ment, race or ethnicity, prior work history, and work location. The surveys were piloted to
prospective participants. According to Creswell (2009), a survey instrument should undergo a
pilot study so that the effectiveness of the instrument and the value of the questions validate the
information to address the research questions.
The surveys were designed to learn the perspectives and beliefs of superintendents and
school board members relating to the steps to the superintendency. According to Creswell
(2009), in creating an exceptional survey, a researcher must include meaningful questions that
include standard language and wording, avoid biased words and phrases, and pilot the survey to a
subgroup of potential participants. The surveys required approximately 10–15 minutes to
complete. Each question offered a 5-point Likert-type scale (0 = Don’t Know, 1 = Strongly
Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Agree, 4 = Strongly Agree).
Data Collection
In this qualitative approach, data collection involved both quantitative and qualitative
areas. An online statistical survey tool, Qualtrics, was utilized to collect data. In the first phase,
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 50
emails were sent to all California superintendents, school board members, and executive search
firms that met the sampling criteria (Appendix A). The emails provided background on the
study, identified the researcher, and explained how findings would be used. According to
Merriam (2009), it is important to inform participants how their findings will be used. Follow-up
emails were sent 15 days after the initial emails to remind participants to complete the survey. It
was expected that participants would spend approximately 10 to 15 minutes to complete the
online surveys. Follow-up questions were included to clarify specific comments made during the
interviews (see interview protocols in Appendices D-F). The researcher gained approval from
the USC Institutional Review Board (IRB) to ensure fidelity of research protocol implementation
to protect research participants from harm. Interviews were conducted in the offices of the
participants. The identities of all participants will remain confidential, and any and all collected
data were secured properly to avoid breach of confidentiality.
Data Analysis
The researcher examined the qualitative and quantitative data to identify similarities or
differences in the data. Merriam (2009) described the process of data analysis as emergent,
cyclical, and dynamic. The qualitative data collected via the interviews with superintendents,
school board members, and executive search firms and the quantitative data collected via surveys
were analyzed to address each research question. Both qualitative and quantitative data were
analyzed utilizing the Question Alignment Matrix (Appendix G).
The surveys were collected through Qualtrics, an online survey tool. The mean was
calculated for each item, and separate reports were generated for each set of data. Transcriptions
of the interviews were analyzed using data management, category construction, and theory.
Using the process of triangulation, qualitative and quantitative findings were connected to current
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 51
literature and social cognitive theory as a way of facilitating validation of the data by cross-
verification.
Chapter Summary
This chapter described the methodology to be used in this research study. The purpose of
the study was to gather data that would identify the strategies that superintendents, boards of
education, and executive search firms employ for the preparation, recruitment, and retention of
school superintendents. The qualitative design was applied to understand the roles of superinten-
dents, boards of education, and executive search firms related to the preparation, recruitment, and
retention of superintendents.
The population and sample, instrumentation, data collection plan, and data analysis plan
were described. Triangulation was used to ensure the validity and reliability of the study.
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 52
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
This chapter displays the findings from an analysis of the data collected using a qualita-
tive study design to explore the preparation, recruitment, and retention of school district super-
intendents. The findings from the data analysis conveyed an in-depth understanding of the
problems expressed in Chapter One. The research questions drove the collection of the data and
the subsequent data analysis. In this chapter the researcher presents in detail the findings and
description of the procedures of the research methods designed to answer the three research
questions. The main purpose of this study was to examine the preparation, recruitment, and
retention of a superintendent and the perceptions of current superintendents, school board
members, and executive search firm consultants.
This chapter contains the findings from two surveys: a superintendents’ survey conducted
by the ACSA and another survey of school board members conducted by the California School
Boards Association (CSBA). This chapter will also present the findings of interviews of three
California superintendents who met the following criteria: (a) being currently employed as a
superintendent of a K–12 school district, (b) having completed a doctoral program, and (c)
having had a traditional career path from working as a teacher to an administrator position. Two
California school board members and one executive search firm consultant were also inter-
viewed. The school board members were only required to be on a current school board of a
K–12 school district. The executive search firm consultant met the criteria of being a former
California superintendent of a K–12 school district who followed a traditional career path to the
superintendent position.
The qualitative study design provided a detailed description of the perceptions of the
superintendent position in relation to preparation, recruitment and retention for the position. The
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 53
qualitative approach allowed for triangulation by cross-verification from the six interviews
conducted by the researcher, using survey data and current literature on the superintendent
position. The findings of this study were based on three research questions:
1. How have training programs and experience prepared superintendents to manage the
complexities and challenges of the superintendency?
2. What are the perceptions of current successful superintendents regarding the strate-
gies used to help current superintendents to attain his or her position?
3. What are the perceived strategies that support the retention of superintendents?
Purpose of the Study Restated
The purpose of the qualitative design for this study was to examine the preparation,
recruitment, and retention of California public school superintendents. Because the role of the
superintendent is crucial to student achievement, it is imperative to identify the preparation,
supports, skills, and relationships that superintendents need to meet the challenges and subtleties
of the superintendency (Waters & Marzano, 2007).
Quantitative Data: Response Rate for Surveys
According to specific selection requirements for the study, surveys and personal inter-
views were used to collect data. A Qualtrics online survey was used to administer the online
survey. Two surveys were administered in this study. One survey was emailed to current Cali-
fornia superintendents and the other to California school board members who met the sampling
criteria. The ACSA survey was emailed to 350 California superintendents, with a total response
rate of 61 (17.42%) completed surveys. The CSBA survey was emailed to 300 California school
board members with a total response rate of 49 (16.33%) completed responses. Table 1 indicates
that of a total of 711 potential participants, 102 individuals actually completed the surveys, for an
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 54
overall response rate of 14%. Table 1 shows that of a total of 650 superintendents who met the
criteria to participate, 90 elected to complete the survey. The survey was administered in the fall
of 2017. The superintendents’ response rate was 17.42%; the board members’ response rate was
9.7 %; the superintendents’ response rate was higher than that of school board members, at
17.42%.
Table 1
Quantitative Response Rate for Superintendents and School Board Members
Survey Sample size Response rate (n) Response rate (%)
ACSA 350 61 17.42
CSBA 300 29 9.70
Note. ACSA = Association of California School Administrators; CSBA = California School
Boards Association.
Qualitative Data: Interviews
Six individual interviews were conducted for this study: three superintendents, two
school board members, and one executive search firm consultant. The interviews contained
open-ended questions to obtain in-depth knowledge to answer the three research questions posed
for this study. The interviews were conducted face-to-face in the workspace of each person being
interviewed and lasted around 30 minutes. Each interview was audiotaped and transcribed to
ensure data analysis. The participants met certain selection criteria for superintendents, school
board members, and executive search firm consultants.
The criteria for superintendents was for the participant to currently hold the position of a
California Superintendent in a K–12 school district of 10,000 students or more, to have earned a
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 55
doctoral degree, to have prior experience in the field of education (e.g., teacher, administrator),
and to have at least 5 years in the superintendent position. Table 2 details the demographic data
for the superintendents who were interviewed.
Table 2
Demographic Data for Interviewed Superintendents
Student School Doctoral Years in
Interviewed enrollment location program Ethnicity position Age
Superintendent 1 10,235 urban EdD White 7 52
Superintendent 2 12,500 urban EdD White 9 55
Superintendent 3 11,020 urban EdD White 11 57
Note. EdD = Doctor of Education.
The criteria for school board members was for the participants to have served on a school
board with a minimum of five members, to have at least 4 years of experience in the position, and
to have a current superintendent who met the purposeful sampling criteria for the superinten-
dents’ sample (see Table 3).
Table 3
Demographic Data for Interviewed School Board Members
Number of Number of years
Years of board Student School Superintendent’s in position
Interviewed experience members enrollment location degree (superintendent)
Board member 1 4 5 11,500 urban EdD 8
Board member 2 8 6 12,600 urban EdD 5
Note. EdD = Doctor of Education.
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 56
The criteria for the executive search firm consultant was for the participant to have at
least 10 years experience in the field of education with at least 5 years as a search firm consultant.
The individual had to be a former superintendent of schools who met the purposeful sampling
criteria for the superintendent sample (see Figure 1).
Interviewed
Years as
consultant
Student population when
superintendent
(approximate)
School
location
Doctoral
program
Years as
superin-
tendent
Search Firm Consultant 15 10,200 urban EdD 11
Figure 1. Demographic data for executive search firm consultant. EdD = Doctor of Educa-
tion.
Three superintendents, two school board members and one executive search firm member
were selected for qualitative interviews. The research study required a superintendent to have
served a minimum of 2 years in his or her position in the school district. Some consideration in
selection was given to those people who are traditionally underrepresented in the superinten-
dency. Kowalski et al. (2011) reported that 24.1% of superintendents are women. As a result,
this researcher selected two female superintendents from Los Angeles County in California to
participate in the qualitative interview in order to gain insights from traditionally underrepre-
sented people in these important roles.
Two of the superintendents interviewed were female, and one was male. One of the
school board members was female; the other, a male. The executive search firm consultant was a
male. The racial-ethnic distribution of superintendents who participated in the qualitative inter-
view was two White females and one White male. The ethnic distribution of school board
members was one Black male and one Hispanic female. The age distribution of superintendents
who participated in the qualitative interview were 50–59 years old. The age distribution of the
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 57
school board members was one who was 40–49 years old and one who was 60 years or older.
The highest level of educational attainment of superintendents who participated in the qualitative
interview was that all three had earned doctoral degrees. The school board members’ educational
level was one member held a master’s degree and the other, a doctoral degree. All of the superin-
tendents had been in their position 2 or more years; the average years of service for three super-
intendents was 7.5. Collectively, the school board members’ years of service exceeded those of
the average superintendent. School board members’ years of service ranged from 4 to 12 years.
Findings by Research Question
Research Question 1
How have training programs and experience prepared superintendents to manage the
complexities and challenges of the superintendency?
The superintendent position has evolved over many years. With major current reforms in
education, the position has become more complicated and political.
Superintendents are responsible for student progress and achievement while balancing the
diversification of their student and staff populations, the explosion of technology and the
digital divide, an expanded set of expectations and involvement from the federal level,
the media, and board and community relations, all in the context of an increasingly
globalized education system. (Kowalski, 2011, p. 13)
The preparation of aspiring superintendents is vital to future leaders having longevity in the
position.
Prior work experience. Prior work experience in the field of education is imperative in
the preparation of superintendents for the complexities and challenges of the job. As shown in
Table 4, the majority of current California superintendents surveyed strongly agreed that their
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 58
prior work experience was more important than their university training experience in preparing
them for the top job. The majority of superintendents strongly agreed or agreed that university
programs gave them the training and experience that was significant in preparing them to become
a superintendent.
The majority of the participants expressed that prior work experience was more relevant
than their university training experience. As a result, prior work experience seems to have a
significant effect on preparation for the job. Superintendent 1 noted: “Where did I receive my
most effective training? It was on the job where I received my most effective training. In order
to do the job, you need experience. You can’t get experience unless you do the job” (interview,
October 24, 2017). Superintendent 2 responded: “I received my most effective training by
working in several positions starting from a teacher, then later working as an assistant principal,
and being very successful in all those positions” (interview, October 18, 2017). Superintendent 3
commented:
I received my most effective training by first working as an assistant principal when that
person went out on leave and then later taking over for a principal who suddenly retired.
Actually doing the job is the best experience a person can get. (interview, October 20,
2017)
Board Member 1 said that “the most effective training comes by actually having experi-
ence as a teacher, and probably a high school principal or some other type of building level
administrator is highly desirable” (interview, October 24, 2017). Board Member 2 noted that
“the most effective training starts in the classroom and ends with some type of leadership role in
the district. A traditional career path, such as teacher to administrator, is extremely valuable in
gaining the appropriate experience” (interview, October 27, 2017).
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 59
Table 4
Summary of Responses to Superintendent Survey by Association of California School Adminis-
trators (in Percentages)
Strongly Strongly DK/
Question agree Agree Disagree disagree NA
1. University programs provided me with training
and experience that was important in preparing to
become a superintendent. 15.87 56.79 25.40 7.94 0.00
2. Nontraditional training programs (such as The
Broad Academy) are important in preparing me
for my position as a superintendent. 6.25 15.63 17.19 4.69 56.25
3. Networks with university professors were
important in preparing me for my position as a
superintendent. 10.94 26.56 39.06 20.31 3.13
4. My university training program provided
intentional supports or resources to prepare
females to enter into the superintendent
position. 8.06 16.13 29.03 20.97 25.81
5. My prior work experience was more
important than my university training expe-
rience to prepare me for my position as a
superintendent. 66.67 22.22 7.94 1.59 0.00
6. Informal networks of support (such as
professional colleagues) were important in
preparing me for my position as a superin-
tendent. 55.56 38.10 4.76 1.59 0.00
7. Holding certification and/or licensure
from organizations (such as ISLLC,
AASA/USC, ACSA) were important in
preparing me for my position as a super-
intendent. 10.94 39.06 23.44 10.94 15.63
8. Holding a doctoral degree was impor-
tant in preparation for my position as a
superintendent. 26.56 17.19 12.50 17.19 20.56
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 60
Table 4 (continued)
Strongly Strongly DK/
Question agree Agree Disagree disagree NA
9. My university training program provided
intentional supports or resources to prepare
people of color to enter into the superin-
tendent position. 9.38 20.31 17.19 20.31 32.81
10. Having mentors was instrumental in
preparing me for the superintendent
position. 65.63 20.31 10.94 1.56 1.56
Note. DK = don’t know; NA = not applicable. ISLLC = Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consor-
tium; AASA = American Association of School Administrators; ACSA = Association of California
School Administrators; USC = University of Southern California.
The executive search firm consultant commented that
the most effective training a superintendent can have is a successful background in edu-
cation. Having experience in the various positions, such as teacher and principal, goes a
long way towards being prepared to take on the top job and being prepared for its many
challenges. (interview, October 30, 2017)
The interviews indicated that prior work experience is vital in preparing future superin-
tendents for the position. During the interview process, superintendents, school board members,
and the executive search firm consultant reiterated that prior work experience was the most
effective training. Most of the interviewees feel that they received their most effective training
on the job.
Mentoring. Data analysis from the surveys revealed that having mentors was instrumen-
tal in the preparation for the superintendent position. The data collected from the superinten-
dents’ survey shows that the majority of current California superintendents agreed that having a
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 61
mentor was instrumental in their preparation for the position. The data collected from the ACSA
and CSBA surveys showed that a majority of the superintendents and school board members
believed that having a mentor was imperative in their preparation. Having a mentor is a necessity
in the position of the superintendent. All of the superintendents stressed the importance of
having a mentor. Superintendent 1 noted:
Having a good mentor is vital to the position. Being able to pick up the phone and call
someone who you trust and may have been in a similar situation is priceless. Mentors
help you avoid the pitfalls of the job. (interview, October 24, 2017)
Superintendent 2 stated responded that
daily training from a good mentor is critical. A mentor provides knowledge on how to
work with a board and unions, or how to dismiss an employee. A mentor has certain
wisdom from experience of actually doing the same job. (interview, October 18, 2017)
Superintendent 3 stated:
My uncle was a former superintendent and acted as a mentor to me. He provided invalu-
able guidance on how to navigate the politics of the district. He helped me understand the
culture of the district and how to deal with the community and union leaders in an effec-
tive and meaningful way. (interview, October 20, 2017)
School Board Member 1 said that “a mentor has been in the seat before. A mentor can
give practical recommendations on the political challenges of the job. A mentor is provides
valuable experience with the board” (interview, October 24, 2017). School Board Member 2
contended that
having a network of support such as a mentor or coaches to bounce ideas off of is instru-
mental to the success of a superintendent. Mentors give you honest advice about the
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 62
situation. Vetting things through a mentor gives you confidence to take things to the
school board. (interview, October 27, 2017)
The executive search firm consultant also agreed, noting that
being able to have supportive people such as mentors is imperative. With a mentor a
superintendent is able to talk out problems that require a certain level of expertise. A
mentor is someone you can trust to give you practical advice about the situation.
(interview, October 30, 2017)
Networking. The utilization of networking is effective in preparing superintendents for
the complexities and challenges of the superintendency. The quantitative data gathered from this
study indicated the effectiveness of networking for the superintendency. As stated in Chapter
Two, there are both formal and informal networks for superintendents. Networking serves
several functions such as camaraderie, providing information, and sharing knowledge. The
majority of current California superintendents surveyed believed that having a professional
network of support was important in their preparation for the superintendency. The majority of
current California superintendents indicated that informal networks of support were important in
their superintendent preparation (see Table 4); similarly, the majority of school board members
surveyed had the same opinion.
The quantitative data analysis was consistent with the qualitative data collected about
networking . Each interview conducted included a question pertaining to networking.
Superintendent 1 stated “that networking with other superintendents is beneficial, and training
outside the job. Vet things through with the right people so you are not vulnerable. Being a part
of a superintendent circle to contact is key” (interview, October 17, 2017). Superintendent 2
agreed: “It’s all networking. Having relationships with prior superintendents and executive
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 63
search firms is beneficial to the success of the superintendent. These people have certain knowl-
edge and skills that provide wisdom” (interview, October 18, 2017). Superintendent 3 responded
that “networking with other people in the business is very strategic. It’s really a small world, so
many people know each other. As they say, it’s not what you know but who you know” (inter-
view, October 20, 2017).
School Board Member 1 responded similarly: “Networking with other superintendents,
having mentors, building relationships with union leaders, and professional networks are impor-
tant tools for the success in the position” (interview, October 24, 2017). School Board Member 2
agreed: “It’s critical to network and attend conferences, stay current with ongoing formal or
informal training. It is important to have training by outside consultants on really understanding
the dynamics of the school board and stay in tune with them” (interview, October 27, 2017).
The executive search firm consultant commented: “All networking is good. Aspiring
candidates need to get familiar with executive search firms. These search firms oftentimes
recommend candidates for the larger districts” (October 30, 2017).
Research Question 2
What are the perceptions of current successful superintendents regarding the strategies
used to help the current superintendent to attain his or her current position?
Recruitment for the superintendent position is one of the most important decisions that a
school board will face. The decision will affect student performance, district expectations,
financial stability, and have political implications.
The qualitative and quantitative data from this study revealed three emerging themes as
factors in being recruited for the superintendent position: (a) having access to a mentor; (b)
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 64
creating an entry plan (c) and networking for the position. Table 5 depicts the responses of
current school board members about recruitment for the superintendency.
Mentoring. Survey data in this study revealed that majority of the respondents believes
that having a mentor was an important strategy for being recruited as a superintendent. Similarly,
a majority of the USC Rossier School of Education’s retired and current superintendents had the
same perception. Mentoring was a consistent theme throughout this study.
Data collected from the ACSA superintendents’ survey revealed that over half of current
superintendents believed that being a part of a professional network was important in being
recruited for their current position. Over half of current California school board members
believed that having a mentor was an important strategy in being recruited for their current
position.
Superintendent 1 stated that
having a good mentor is vital to the position. Being able to pick up the phone and call
someone who you trust and may have been in a similar situation is priceless. Mentors
help you avoid the pitfalls of the job. (interview, October 24, 2017)
Superintendent 2 noted that
daily training from a good mentor is critical. A mentor provides knowledge on how to
work with a board and unions, or how to dismiss an employee. A mentor has certain
wisdom from experience of actually doing the same job. (interview, October 18, 2017)
Superintendent 3 responded:
My uncle was a former superintendent and acted as a mentor to me. He provided invalu-
able guidance on how to navigate the politics of the district. He helped me understand the
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 65
Table 5
Summary of Results From the School Board Member Survey (in Percentages)
Strongly Strongly DK/
Question agree Agree Disagree disagree NA
1. My superintendent’s prior work experience
was more important than his/her university
training experience to prepare him/her for
his/her current position. 40.82 53.06 2.04 0.00 4.08
2. Holding a doctorate degree was important
for my superintendent’s preparation. 38.78 20.41 34.69 18.37 8.16
3. Nontraditional training programs (such as
The Broad Academy) were important in
preparing my superintendent for his/her
current position. 4.08 10.20 28.57 14.29 42.86
4. Having mentors was instrumental in pre-
paring my superintendent for his/her current
position. 32.00 46.94 6.12 2.04 10.20
5. A professional network of support (such as
AASA, ACSA, or through a university) was
important for preparing my superintendent for
his/her current position. 32.65 40.82 14.29 2.04 10.20
6. Informal networks (such as professional
colleagues) were important in preparing my
superintendent for his/her current position. 26.54 55.10 6.12 2.04 10.20
7. I believe that university training programs
provide intentional supports or resources to
prepare females to enter into the superin-
tendent position. 51.02 40.82 10.20 6.12 11.16
8. I believe university training programs
provide intentional supports or resources to
prepare people of color to enter into the
superintendent position. 48.98 38.78 10.20 4.08 2.04
9. It was an important process/strategy for
my superintendent to have a mentor(s) to
be recruited into his/her current position. 61.22 32.65 12.24 10.20 16.31
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 66
Table 5 (continued)
Strongly Strongly DK/
Question agree Agree Disagree disagree NA
10. Networking with an executive search firm
was an important process/strategy for my super-
intendent to be recruited into his/her current
position. 40.82 20.41 24.49 14.29 .01
11. Networking with us, as board members, was
an important process/strategy for my superin-
tendent to be recruited into his/her current
position. 34.69 30.61 14.33 18.37 2.00
12. My superintendent’s prior experience
outside of education was an important process/
strategy to him/her to be recruited into his/her
current position. 20.48 20.41 38.78 16.33 4.00
13. Gender is an important factor to being re-
cruited into the superintendent position. 4.08 2.04 20.41 69.39 4.08
14. Race and ethnicity are important factors to
be recruited into the superintendent position. 12.24 10.20 22.45 57.14 2.03
15. The demographic composition of a board
of education (such as gender, race, and eth-
nicity) is an important factor to be recruited
into the superintendent position. 12.24 18.37 30.61 36.73 2.05
16. The university training program provided
my superintendent with processes/strategies
that support his/her success in retaining his/
her current position. 35.73 40.82 14.29 8.16 1.00
17. Professional networks (such as AASA,
ACSA, and university networks) provided my
superintendent with processes/strategies that
support his/her success in retaining his/her
current position. 32.00 55.10 8.16 2.04 2.70
18. Having a mentor(s) provided my superin-
tendent with processes/strategies that support
his/her success in retaining his/her current
position. 34.00 51.02 8.16 4.08 2.74
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 67
Table 5 (continued)
Strongly Strongly DK/
Question agree Agree Disagree disagree NA
19. The relationship my superintendent has with
our board determines his/her success in retaining
his/her current position. 55.11 30.61 6.12 4.08 4.08
20. Board/superintendent protocol (relationship)
workshops have been an important process/
strategy for my superintendent in building our
relationship. 30.07 51.02 4.63 6.12 8.16
21. My superintendent’s compensation determines
his/her desire to continue in his/her current
position. 26.94 20.00 32.65 8.08 16.33
22. Having a formal, written strategic plan sup-
ports my superintendent’s success in retaining
his/her position. 44.91 32.65 10.20 4.08 8.16
23. District stakeholders hold female superin-
tendents to a different standard for their ongoing
job retention. 10.20 12.24 28.57 48.98 12.24
24. My superintendent’s race and ethnicity may
influence the expectations that district stake-
holders have of him/her in his/her current
position. 26.53 20.41 28.57 38.78 6.12
Note. DK = don’t know; NA = not applicable. AASA = American Association of School
Administrators; ACSA = Association of California School Administrators.
culture of the district and how to deal with the community and union leaders in an effec-
tive and meaningful way. (interview, October 20, 2017)
School Board Member 1 responded that “a mentor has been in the seat before. A mentor
can give practical recommendations on the political challenges of the job. A mentor provides
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 68
valuable experience with the board” (interview, October 24, 2017). School Board Member 2
noted that
having a network of support such as a mentor or coaches to bounce ideas off of is instru-
mental to the success of a superintendent. Mentors give you honest advice about the
situation. Vetting things through a mentor gives you confidence to take things to the
school board. (interview, October 27, 2017)
The executive search firm consultant contended that
being able to have supportive people such as mentors is imperative. With a mentor a
superintendent is able to talk out problems that require a certain level of expertise. A
mentor is someone you can trust to give you practical advice about the situation. (inter-
view, October 30, 2017 )
Entry plan. Of the survey respondents, a majority of both superintendents and school
board members responded in favor of the concept that successful superintendents utilized an
entry plan, whether informal or formal. All of the superintendents who responded indicated that
they had utilized an entry plan. Similarly, all the board members who responded said that the
superintendent did have an entry plan. Some of the key strategies that promoted trust within an
entry plan included frequent communication, collaboration, and meeting with key stakeholders.
The interviewed participants believed that having an entry plan helped them during the recruit-
ment process. Superintendent 1 commented:
I was the only one of four finalists to have an entry plan. I had a 100-day plan. I believe
this plan helped me get an advantage over the other candidates. The entry plan helped me
stand out above the other candidates. (interview, October 24, 2017)
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 69
Superintendent 2 responded: “Yes I had a definite plan. It included the goals for the district.
After 3 months the plan was reviewed to look at the progress being made in the district. This
plan should have measurable and concrete goals” (interview, October 18, 2017). Superintendent
3 said:
Of course I had an entry plan. It was a part of the packet I gave to the school board. It
was a 100-day plan that included my vision for the district. This plan needs to be devel-
oped in preparation for the job. (interview, October 20, 2017)
School Board Member 1 remarked that
the superintendent did not have an entry plan. The entry plan was given to him. He had
some understanding of an entry plan but did not develop the plan. The plan needs to be a
collaborative effort that describes the short- and long-term needs to focus on. (interview,
October 24, 2017)
School Board Member 2 responded: “Yes, he had an entry plan. The plan that was put in place is
measured by a superintendent’s ability to produce the results they are recommending. The
superintendent should assess the first few months” (interview, October 27, 2017).
The executive search firm consultant agreed: “An entry plan is great to have. It should
not be a boilerplate but something one would normally do to enhance the first 90 days on the job.
It is absolutely necessary to have created an entry plan” (October 30, 2017)
The qualitative data showed that being prepared with a detailed plan on how a prospec-
tive superintendent will move the district is a proactive step that was supported by current
superintendents, school board members, and executive search firm consultants. The second
proactive step aspiring and current superintendents can take in the recruitment process is building
relationships with school board members. Interview data indicated that good professional
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 70
relationships help aspiring superintendents to prepare for the superintendent position. The
relationships that were utilized by the interviewed participants were collaboration with mentors,
school board members, and other superintendents.
Networking. The utilization of networking is effective in preparing superintendents for
the complexities and challenges of the superintendency. The quantitative data gathered from this
study indicated the effectiveness of networking for the superintendency. As stated in Chapter
Two, there are formal and informal networks for superintendents. Networking serves several
functions such as camaraderie, providing information, and sharing knowledge. The majority of
current California superintendents in this study believed that having a professional network of
support was important in their preparation for the superintendency. The majority of current
California superintendents state that informal networks of support were important in their
superintendent preparation (see Table 4).
The quantitative data analysis was consistent with the qualitative data collected about
networking. Each interview conducted included a question pertaining to networking. Superin-
tendent 1 said that “networking with other superintendents is beneficial, and training outside the
job. Vet things through with the right people so you are not vulnerable. Being a part of a super-
intendent circle to contact is key” (interview, October 24, 2017). Superintendent 2 responded
that “it’s all networking. Having relationships with prior superintendents and executive search
firms is beneficial to the success of the superintendent. These people have certain knowledge
and skills that provide wisdom” (interview, October 18, 2017).
School Board Member 1 noted that “networking with other superintendents, having
mentors, building relationships with union leaders, and professional networks are important tools
for the success in the position” (interview, October 20, 2017). School Board Member 2 stated
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 71
that “it’s critical to network and attend conferences, stay current with ongoing formal or informal
training. It is important to have training by outside consultants on really understanding the
dynamics of the school board and stay in tune with them” (interview, October 27, 2017).
The executive search firm consultant responded: “All networking is good. Aspiring
candidates need to get familiar with executive search firms. These search firms oftentimes
recommend candidates for the larger districts” (interview, October 30, 2017).
Research Question 3
What are the perceived strategies that support the retention of superintendents?
The data analysis from this study conveyed three themes that supported the retention of
superintendents: (a) university training, (b) school board relationships, and (c) mentoring. The
quantitative data indicated that the relationship between the superintendent and the school board
is paramount for a superintendent to be retained. According to the survey, the majority of current
and retired superintendents regarded their relationship with their board of education to be instru-
mental in retaining their position as superintendent (see Table 4). According to Kowalski (2011),
“pivotal to the success of any school district is a positive relationship between school boards and
their superintendents” (p. 65). The survey data findings illustrated that a majority of superinten-
dents felt that a good relationship between the superintendent and the school board supported
their plan to continue in their position as superintendent (see Table 4). The relationship between
the superintendent and the school board have far-reaching leadership and policy implications,
and a majority of the surveyed participants indicated that their relationship with their board was
more important than their compensation.
University training. According to Kowalski (2011), politicians and the media have
focused on the accountability and university training administrator preparation programs.
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 72
According to The Broad Foundation (2003), academic preparation is essentially irrelevant or
ineffective, thus making state licensing an unnecessary requirement. Typically, new superinten-
dents have entered the profession after successfully completing an academic degree or licensing
program that qualifies them for state licensure (Kowalski, 2011).
The quantitative data also indicated the impact of ongoing training in retaining the top
position. The data analysis of the surveyed participants showed that more than 50% of current
and retired superintendents agreed that their university training program benefitted them with
procedures or strategies that currently supported their retention. Superintendent 1 responded:
“Attending USC doctoral program. The program gave me the opportunity to work with great
professors and see things through another lens. The university gave me a different paradigm to
work from” (October 24, 2017). Superintendent 2 noted that “earning a doctoral degree was
significant. The university experience exposed me to different leadership styles. I was able to
learn what not to do. It gave me the ability to speak to future issues” (interview, October 18,
2017). Superintendent 3 commented that “larger school districts tend to hire people with doc-
toral degrees. In a smaller district districts that are more high-profile districts may want someone
with a doctoral degree. The superintendent is the face of the district” (interview, October 20,
2017) .
School Board Member 1 remarked that “having a doctoral degree is a major factor. The
doctoral degree is like the master’s degree was 20 years ago. I think the movement is towards
having a doctoral degree. More and mote people are getting a doctoral degree” (interview,
October 24, 2017). School Board Member 2 responded that
you need a person who can effectively communicate to the district, parents, and the board.
You need someone who understands the complexity of the job. You need a person who is
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 73
a life-long learner. A doctoral degree is recommended for larger school districts. (inter-
view, October 27, 2017).
The executive search firm consultant said that “larger school districts tend to hire superin-
tendents with doctoral degrees. I would say that a doctoral degree gives a candidate a leg up on
the competition. It doesn’t hurt to have a doctoral degree” (interview, October 30, 2017).
School board relationships. Positive relationships are imperative between a school
board and the superintendent. According to Kowalski (2011), the relationships between superin-
tendents and school boards have everlasting effects on the quality of school districts’ educational
programs: “Pivotal to the success of any school district is a positive relationship between school
boards and their superintendents” (Kowalski, 2011, p. 63).
The qualitative data for this study correlated with the quantitative data, thereby indicating
the significance of school board relationships, training programs, and mentoring. The respon-
dents interviewed were asked three questions that covered retention. It was reported that rela-
tionships, training programs, and mentoring were all important for retention. Superintendent 1
stated:
It’s good communication, working effectively with board members, treating each board
member individually. Board members are able to contact me directly day or night. I am
always available to communicate with them. I protect my board members. They are
always kept in the loop. I never let them be surprised about anything. (interview, Octo-
ber 24, 2017)
Superintendent 2 responded: “Relationships, relationships, relationships. Building rela-
tionships, having good relationships with board members, meet and talk with them regularly.
They can call directly at work or on my cell phone”(interview, October 18, 2017).
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 74
Superintendent 3 commented: “I go by the golden rule. Treating everyone regardless of position
like you would want to be treated. Everyone in the district has something to offer, and I value
them as an employee” (interview, October 20, 2017).
School Board Member 1 responded that “a good relationship with the board is critical.
Being able to operate with multiple facets. Being able to trust, execute, and delegate to the
cabinet” (interview, October 24, 2017). School Board member 2 noted:
Work effectively with the board. Constant communication with the board is vital.
Keeping the board members informed. Understand all items on a board agenda. I get
about two updates per week from the superintendent. The superintendent uses Twitter to
document daily actions. (interview, October 27, 2017)
The executive search firm consultant said that “one should understand the board and get
to know the board members. Understand that communication is key and what the board member
is saying. Listen, listen, and listen. Try to get to know what the board is thinking” (interview,
October 30, 2017).
Mentoring. Data collected from interviews also revealed that mentorship in the superin-
tendency is a successful practice in preparing superintendents for the complexities and challenges
of the position. The superintendents interviewed discussed mentoring as one of the most impor-
tant professional relationships that helped them to prepare for the superintendent position. All of
the superintendents stressed the importance of having a mentor. Superintendent 1 noted:
Having a good mentor is vital to the position. Being able to pick up the phone and call
someone who you trust and may have been in a similar situation is priceless. Mentors
help you avoid the pitfalls of the job. (interview, October 24, 2017)
Superintendent 2 contended that
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 75
daily training from a good mentor is critical. A mentor provides knowledge on how to
work with a board and unions, or how to dismiss an employee. A mentor has certain
wisdom from experience of actually doing the same job. (interview, October 18, 2017)
Superintendent 3 responded:
My uncle was a former superintendent and acted as a mentor to me. He provided invalu-
able guidance on how to navigate the politics of the district. He helped me understand the
culture of the district and how to deal with the community and union leaders in an effec-
tive and meaningful way. (interview, October 20, 2017)
School Board Member 1 said that “a mentor has been in the seat before. A mentor can
give practical recommendations on the political challenges of the job. A mentor is provides
valuable experience with the board” (interview, October 24, 2017). School Board Member 2
noted that
having a network of support such as a mentor or coaches to bounce ideas off of is instru-
mental to the success of a superintendent. Mentors give you honest advice about the
situation. Vetting things through a mentor gives you confidence to take things to the
school board. (interview, October 27, 2017)
The executive search firm consultant noted that
being able to have supportive people such as mentors is imperative. With a mentor a
superintendent is able to talk out problems that require a certain level of expertise. A
mentor is someone you can trust to give you practical advice about the situation. (inter-
view, October 30, 2017)
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 76
Chapter Summary
Chapter Four focused on the results of interviews and survey data that exposed the
strategies and best practices being implemented by current superintendents, school board
members, and executive search firm consultants in the preparation, recruitment, and retention of
superintendents. Data analysis from the first research question disclosed two themes that con-
veyed how prior work experience and mentoring had prepared superintendents for the rigor of the
superintendency. Having prior work experience was the first theme. Superintendents who held
positions in the field of education such as teacher and administrator were viewed as having
proper preparation for the position. The second theme included having access to a mentor—for
example, a retired superintendent or current superintendent. Mentorship is crucial in preparing
superintendents for the politics of the position. A third theme focused on the skills of network-
ing, which is the exchange of information among professionals that is vital to the superintendent
position.
According to Research Question 2, the data analysis exhibited three themes that indicated
the perceptions of current successful superintendents and school board members regarding the
strategies employed to aid current superintendents in retaining their position. Being able to speak
to a mentor or being associated with a professional network boosts the success of a superinten-
dent. A second factor was that being prepared for the job with a plan is an effective strategy in
being recruited to the position. The data indicated that developing a strategic or entry plan is a
leg up on being hired for a superintendent position.
The data analysis for Research Question 3 revealed that positive relationships with school
board members supported the retention of superintendents. Having a positive relationship with
the school board was viewed as the most important strategy that supported the retention of the
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 77
superintendent. University training programs were also instrumental in supporting the retention
of superintendents.
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 78
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
This chapter presents the findings from an analysis of the data collected using a qualita-
tive study design that was intended to examine the preparation, recruitment, and retention of the
superintendent position. The findings from the data analysis provided a unique understanding of
the problems suggested in Chapter One. The research questions drove the collection of the data
and the subsequent data analysis. This chapter will present the findings as well as describe the
research methods employed to answer the three research questions. The primary purpose of this
study was to examine the preparation, recruitment, and retention of the superintendent position.
The secondary purpose of this study was to understand perceptions of the superintendent position
through the perspectives of current California superintendents, school board members, and
executive search firm consultants.
This chapter presents the findings from two surveys that were administered by the ACSA
and the CSBA. This chapter will also present the findings of interviews from three California
superintendents who met the criteria of being currently employed as a California superintendent
of a K–12 school district; having held their current position for more than 2 years; and having
held previous educational positions such as high school principal, director, and assistant superin-
tendent. In addition to the interviews of California superintendents, two California school board
members, and one executive search firm consultant were also interviewed. The school board
members met the criterion of being a current school board member of a K–12 school district.
The executive search firm consultant met the criteria of a being a former California superinten-
dent of a K–12 school district who followed the traditional career path to the superintendent
position.
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 79
The mixing of the qualitative approach and quantitative data provided a detailed descrip-
tion of the perceptions of the superintendent position in relation to the preparation, recruitment,
and retention of the job. The qualitative approach allowed for triangulation by cross-verification
from the six interviews conducted by the researcher, survey data, and current literature on the
superintendent position. The findings of this study were guided by three research questions:
1. How have training programs and experience prepared superintendents to manage the
complexities and challenges of the superintendency?
2. What are the perceptions of current successful superintendents regarding the strate-
gies used to help the current superintendent to attain his or her current position?
3. What are the perceived strategies that support the retention of superintendents?
Statement of the Problem Reviewed
The roles of a superintendent in the public school setting are numerous. As the top
leader, superintendents must be visionary leaders (Kowalski, 2006), financial planners (Owings
& Kaplan, 2006), human resource managers (I. P. Young, 2008), and instructional experts (W. G.
Cunningham & Cordeiro, 2006). People who are considering becoming superintendents should
carefully consider the proper preparation, recruitment strategies, and skills needed for ongoing
retention and success in the position. As instructional leaders of public school districts, superin-
tendents wear many hats (Kowalski, 2010). Preparation programs by universities and other
entities have tried to prepare prospective superintendents to be recruited and to be successful in
the position, but many of the programs are unsuccessful (Barnett, 2004; Björk et al., 2005; A.
Levin, 2005; Perry, 2012). Current superintendent supports such as networking, mentoring, and
coaching have contributed to most superintendents’ ongoing success in the position, but superin-
tendent turnover is still a problem (Kowalski et al., 2011). Although many superintendents are
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 80
successful, dismissal can end their career in education (Kowalski et al., 2011). Disparities in the
recruitment and retention of female superintendents and superintendents of color are also a
concern (Kowalski et al., 2011). These gaps are a significant problem in superintendents’
academic preparation, recruitment, and retention.
Purpose of the Study Restated
A qualitative design was used to address the research questions. Creswell (2009) recom-
mended use of both quantitative and qualitative data to address research questions. The purpose
of the qualitative design in this study was to examine the academic preparation, recruitment, and
retention of California public school superintendents. Because the role of the superintendent is
crucial to student achievement, it is imperative to identify the preparation, supports, skills, and
relationships that superintendents need to meet the challenges and subtleties of the superinten-
dency (Waters & Marzano, 2007).
Summary of Literature Review
The review of the literature attempted to shed light on the preparation, recruitment, and
retention of the superintendent position. The goals were to create a theoretical framework, to
build a solid foundation for the study through a synthesized overview of current literature, to
identify the main methodology of the study, and to support the three areas of focus as they
correlated with the superintendent position. According to information presented in the literature
review, there is ample research to suggest that preparation, recruitment, and retention are impera-
tive in the longevity of aspiring superintendents.
The history of the school superintendent dates back to the early 1800s. The first school
superintendents were appointed in Buffalo, New York, and Louisville, Kentucky, in 1837
(Kowalski & Brunner, 2005). Currently, the position has taken on many reforms and
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 81
transformations. The evolution of the position of superintendent is consistently getting more
complex and demanding (Kowalski, 2011).
According to Kowalski (2011), there are over 600 programs offering courses, degrees, or
licensure programs for administrators and superintendents. The scrutiny placed on academic
preparation has been constantly growing since the 1980s: “Skepticism about the efficacy of
preservice academic preparation has been especially prevalent in relation to university-based
preparation programs for superintendents” (Kowalski, 2011, p. 117). According to The Broad
Foundation, academic preparation is an unnecessary or ineffective requirement (as cited in
Kowalski, 2011). Among the many criticisms are
(a) low academic admission and completion standards, (b) a general indifference toward
instructional leadership, (c) a disjunction between theory and practice, (d) inattention to
practice-based research, (e) an inadequate knowledge base, (f) a proclivity to treat super-
intendent preparation as an extension of principal preparation and (g) considering a
doctorate in educational administration as the equivalent of superintendent preparation”
(Kowalski, 2011, pp. 7–8)
“To date, there is no national curriculum for superintendent preparation” (Kowalski,
2011, p. 118). Some states are considering ways to certify people whose backgrounds are in
other areas outside of education (Kowalski, 2011). Several states allow districts to apply for
certification or licensure waiver for those with certain management skills.
One of the most important functions of a school board is hiring a superintendent: “Pivotal
to the success of any school district is a positive relationship between school boards and their
superintendents” (Kowalski, 2011, p. 6). According to Kowalski et al. (2011), poor relationships
can lead to
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 82
weakened district stability and morale, increased conflict over district instructional goals
and objectives, impede collaborative visioning and long range planning, negatively
influence the superintendent’s trustworthiness and credibility, deter school improvement
efforts, and generate institutional instability. (Kowalski, 2011, p. 63)
“Both the initial and continued employment of superintendents is an essential board responsibil-
ity” (Kowalski, 2011, p. 72). Currently there is no one selection process used nationally to hire a
superintendent: “The increased use of search consultants was associated with district enrollment
(Kowalski, 2011, p. 73). Retention of a superintendent is the responsibility of the school board
(Kowalski, 2011).
Summary of Methodology
The purpose of the study was to gather data that would identify the strategies that superin-
tendents, boards of education, and executive search firms employ for the preparation, recruit-
ment, and retention of school superintendents. The qualitative design was applied to understand-
ing the roles of superintendents, boards of education, and executive search firms related to the
preparation, recruitment, and retention of superintendents. The sample, instrumentation, data
collection, and data analysis were examined. Triangulation was used to ensure the validity and
reliability of the study.
Summary of Findings
The data for this qualitative study was gathered from interviews and surveys. This study
examined the perceptions of superintendents, school board members, and executive search firm
consultants on the preparation, recruitment, and retention of the superintendent position. All
interviews were recorded and transcribed so as to have the ability to use quotes for direct
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 83
evidence. The findings were presented in descriptive, narrative form rather than as a scientific
report (Creswell, 2014).
Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked, “How have training programs and experience prepared
superintendents to manage the complexities and challenges of the superintendency?” Prior work
experience, mentoring, and networking were the primary themes that surfaced within the quanti-
tative survey and qualitative interviews that were conducted. One of the two areas to receive the
highest response collectively from superintendents, board members, and the executive search
firm member was prior work experience. Both board members stressed their opinion that having
successful experience as a teacher and administrator is essential. The second area to receive an
equivalent response collectively from superintendents, board members, and the executive search
firm consultant was having a mentor with whom to collaborate. Five out of six participants in
the qualitative interview acknowledged their belief in having a mentor. The third highest re-
sponse collectively from superintendents, board members, and the executive search firm consul-
tant was networking. Four of the five superintendents, board members, and the search firm
consultant stated that networking is important.
Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, “What are the perceptions of current successful superinten-
dents regarding the strategies used to help current superintendents to attain his or her current
position?” Board members identified that superintendents should focus on mentoring, entry
plans, and networking. Surveys and interviews revealed that superintendents designated
mentoring and ‘entry plans as the two most desirable strategies that a superintendent could
utilize. The third largest response by superintendents was that networking was a successful
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 84
strategy used in getting the position. The majority of superintendents surveyed indicated the
essential role of networking. Superintendents unanimously claimed that they should keep the
school board well informed, effectively communicate frequently, and work collaboratively with
others.
Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, “How does the relationship between superintendent and
board of education influence student academic achievement in the school district?” Superinten-
dents identified that focus should be placed on university training, school board relationships,
and mentoring. Surveys and interviews revealed that superintendents designated university
training and school board relationships as the most desirable steps that a superintendent could
take to prepare for the role. The third largest response by superintendents was that mentoring had
the most influence on student academic achievement. Superintendents generally agreed that
having a doctoral degree and positive relationships with school board members is essential in
increasing student achievement.
Limitations of the Study
This study included the following limitations:
1. The results of the study were limited to the participants in the study.
2. The participants were located only in California.
3. The interview guide and interview questions were administered to participants who
met certain criteria.
4. The study took place over a brief period of time.
5. The data were limited to participants who responded voluntarily to the study.
6. The validity of the study was dependent on the reliability of the survey instruments.
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 85
Recommendations for Future Study
Based on the findings from this study as well as the literature review, the following
recommendations may inform future research on the preparation, recruitment, and retention of
school district superintendents. Studies could examine the impact of traditional career path
versus nontraditional career paths. Understanding the influence of the superintendent’s career
background on being prepared for the superintendent position could have implications for super-
intendent retention. The literature review revealed that there are programs to train superinten-
dents from nontraditional career paths for the superintendency. For example, The Broad Founda-
tion has a 10-month executive management program that prepares dynamic leaders from the field
of education and other corporate fields. Noneducator recruits are typically executives from
corporate, nonprofit, and military backgrounds who aspire to become educational leaders in large
urban school districts (Quinn, 2007). A potential study could examine the preparation, recruit-
ment and retention of superintendents who have completed this executive training course com-
pared to those who have not.
Future research could also include a larger sample size of superintendents, both tradi-
tional and nontraditional, to improve the transferability of findings (Morrow, 2005). There could
be possible use of a mixed-methods study design that combines quantitative and qualitative data.
More time should be allowed to complete survey responses. Observations could be conducted to
obtain more data. The number of survey questions could be lower. One last recommendation
would be to expand the research to other regions, as this study was limited to Los Angeles
County in California.
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 86
Conclusions
The purpose of this study was to examine the preparation, recruitment, and retention of
California school superintendents through the perspectives of three research questions. This
study serves to inform aspiring superintendents on the preparation, skills, and relationships that
will support their transition and longevity in the superintendent position. The findings suggested
that the important factors in preparing a superintendent are (a) having experience in the field of
education as a teacher and administrator (i.e., taking a traditional career path); (b) having access
to a mentor or network of other professionals to lean on; an (c) having university training
whether formal or informal.
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 87
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SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 99
Appendix A
RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS’ INVITATION E-MAIL
Dear___[stakeholder group role],
I am a doctoral candidate in the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern Cali-
fornia and a ________ [role] in the ________________________ Unified School District. I
would like to invite you to participate in a research study that will investigate the preparation,
recruitment, and retention of successful superintendents.
You are asked to participate only if you are currently employed as a superintendent for at least 2
years. If you agree to participate, you will be asked to complete a survey; estimated time for
completion is approximately 20 minutes. University of Southern California’s Institutional
Review Board has approved this research study (IRB #APP-17-02065).
Your participation is completely voluntary. If you decide to participate after reading this
email, you can access the survey via the following link: ____________
I value your input and hope that you will consider participating in this study. Please email me at
___________________ if you have any questions. Thank you in advance for your time.
Sincerely,
USC Doctoral Candidate Researcher
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 100
Informed Consent
Date: _____________________
Dear ________________________,
My name is __________________ and I am a doctoral student at the USC Rossier School of
Education. I am conducting a research study under the guidance and direction of Dr. Michael F.
Escalante. The purpose of my mixed-methods study is to examine the preparation, recruitment,
and retention of school district superintendents in California. I will interview and survey super-
intendents, board members, and executive search consultants.
You have been invited to participate in a graduate research study that will shed light on the
preparation, recruitment, and retention of superintendents. The results of this study will inform
multiple stakeholders, including aspiring superintendents, school boards, and executive search
firms. It is my hope that this study will serve as a valuable resource.
Your participation, although appreciated, is voluntary and you have the right to withdraw at any
time. The information collected will be kept confidential and anonymous by the researcher and
members of the dissertation committee. Data will be presented in a manner that will ensure that
no individual or district can be identified.
If you have any questions or concerns regarding your participation in this study, you may contact
me at _____________ or Dr. Michael F. Escalante at the University of Southern California.
Thank you, in advance, for your time and assistance.
Sincerely,
_______________, Researcher Dr. Michael F. Escalante, Dissertation Chair
[email address] mescalante@usc.edu
(xxx) xxx-xxxx (818) 802-4769
( ) I have read this form and have been given the opportunity to ask questions. I consent to my
participation in the research described above.
Participant’s Signature: __________________________________ Date: __________
Participant’s Printed Name: ______________________________
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 101
Appendix B
SUPERINTENDENT SURVEY
The purpose of this mixed-methods study is to examine the preparation, recruitment, and retention of
California superintendent of schools. Since this position is critical to student achievement, it is important
to identify the preparation, supports, skills, and relationships that superintendents need to be successful.
The goal of this brief, 15-minute survey is to quantify your perceptions on superintendent preparation,
recruitment, and retention. Your participation in this survey is anonymous. Thank you for your par-
ticipation.
Personal Background
1. Gender
N Male
N Female
2. Ethnicity (check all that apply)
N Asian
N Black
N Latina/o
N Native American
N Pacific Islander
N White
N Multiple
N Other
N Decline to state
3. Age range:
N 30-35
N 36-40
N 41-45
N 46-50
N 51-55
N 56-60
N 61-65
N 65+
4. Highest university degree earned:
N Ed.D.
N Ph.D.
N Master’s
N Other
• Please specify
5. What university do you identify with professionally?
•
6. How many years in the education profession?
N 1-10
N 11-20
N 21-30
N 30 or more
7. How many years as a superintendent?
N 1 year or less
N 1-5
N 6-10
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 102
N 11-15
N 16 or more
8. This is my _________ time serving as a superintendent.
N 1st
N 2nd
N 3rd
N 4th
9. Did you come from within the district or outside the district to the position?
N Within
N Outside
10. Past experiences (check all that apply):
• School site positions:
N Elementary school teacher
N Middle school teacher
N High school teacher
N Counselor (any level)
N College/university instructor
N Community college instructor
N Teacher on Special Assignment (TOSA)
N Other ______________________
• School site administrator positions:
N Elementary School Assistant Principal
N Middle School Assistant Principal
N High School Assistant Principal
N Elementary Principal
N Middle School Principal
N High School Principal
N Dean of Students
• District-level positions:
N Coordinator
N Specialist
N Director of Curriculum and Instruction
N Director of Research and Planning
N Director of Human Resources
N Director of Student Support Services
N Director: Other ____________________
N Assistant Superintendent of Curriculum and Instruction
N Assistant Superintendent of Human Resources
N Assistant Superintendent of Business/Chief Business Officer (CBO)
N Assistant Superintendent: Other _____________________
• Other than education
N Please specify: ______________
11. Base Salary Range (approximate):
N Less than $100,000
N $100,000-140,000
N $140,001-160,000
N $160,001-180,000
N $180,001-200,000
N $200,001-220,000
N $220,001-240,000
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 103
N $240,001-260,000
N $260,001-280,000
N $280,001-300,000
N $300,001-320,000
N $320,001-340,000
N $340,001-360,000
N $360,001+
12. Total Compensation Range (approximate):
N Less than $100,000
N $100,000-140,000
N $140,001-160,000
N $160,001-180,000
N $180,001-200,000
N $200,001-220,000
N $220,001-240,000
N $240,001-260,000
N $260,001-280,000
N $280,001-300,000
N $300,001-320,000
N $320,001-340,000
N $340,001-360,000
N $360,001+
School District
13. Type of district:
N Urban
N Urban/suburban
N Suburban
N Rural
14. District student enrollment :
N Less than 1,000
N 1,001-5,000
N 5,001-10,000
N 10,001-15,000
N 15,001-20,000
N 20,001-25,000
N 25,001-35,000
N 35,001-50,000
N 50,001-75,000
N 75,000-100,000
N More than 100,000
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 104
Based on your perception of your preparation experience to be a superintendent, rate the following
statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.
Statement
Strongly
Agree
(1)
Agree
(2)
Disagree
(3)
Strongly
Disagree
(4)
Don’t
Know or
NA (0)
For the next statements, please use the following definition for superintendent preparation:
Preparation is defined as the strategies and steps you took prior to taking on your first superin-
tendent position.
Preparation
1. University programs provided training and
experience that was important in preparing to
become a superintendent.
2. My prior work experience was more important
than my university training experience to pre-
pare me for my position as a superintendent.
3. Holding a doctoral degree was important in
preparation for my position as a superinten-
dent.
4. Nontraditional training programs (such as The
Broad Academy) were important in preparing
me for my position as a superintendent.
5. Holding certification and/or licensure from
organizations (such as ISLLC, AASA/USC,
ACSA) was important in preparing me for my
position as a superintendent.
6. Having mentors was instrumental in preparing
me for the superintendent position.
7. A professional network of support (such as
AASA, ACSA, or through a university) was
important in preparing me for my position as a
superintendent.
8. Informal networks of support (such as profes-
sional colleagues) were important in preparing
me for my position as a superintendent.
9. Networks with university professors were im-
portant in preparing me for my position as a
superintendent.
10. Planning my career was important in preparing
me for my position as a superintendent.
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 105
11. My university training program provided in-
tentional supports or resources to prepare fe-
males to enter the superintendent position.
12. My university training program provided in-
tentional supports or resources to prepare
people of color to enter the superintendent po-
sition.
13. Having experience as a principal is a crucial
element in preparing me for the position as
superintendent.
For the next statements, please use the following definition for superintendent recruitment:
Recruitment is the process/strategy that your used to gain his/her first superintendent position.
Recruitment
14. Having a mentor(s) was an important process/
strategy for being recruited into my current
position as a superintendent.
15. My university experience was an important
process/strategy for helping me to be recruited
into my current position as a superintendent.
16. Being part of professional networks (such as
AASA, ACSA, university alumni associations)
was an important process/strategy for being
recruited into my current position as a superin-
tendent.
17. Networking with an executive search firm was
an important process/strategy for being
recruited into my current position as a superin-
tendent.
18. Holding a doctoral degree was an important
process/ strategy for being recruited into my
current position as a superintendent.
19. Presenting at conferences and/or publishing in
professional journals was an important
process/strategy for being recruited into my
current position as a superintendent.
20. Networking with board members was an im-
portant process/strategy for being recruited
into my current position as a superintendent.
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 106
21. My prior experience outside of education was
an important process/strategy for being
recruited into my current position as a superin-
tendent.
22. Creating a “First 100-Day Entry Plan” was
important for being recruited into my current
position as a superintendent.
23. Gender is an important factor for being
recruited into the superintendent position.
24. Race and ethnicity are important factors for
being recruited into the superintendent posi-
tion.
25. The demographic composition of a board of
education (such as gender, race, and ethnicity)
is an important factor.
For the next statements, please use the following definition for superintendent retention: Reten-
tion is the process/strategy you used to maintain your current superintendent position.
Retention
26. My university training program provided me
with processes/strategies that currently support
my success in retaining my position as a super-
intendent.
27. Professional networks (such as AASA, ACSA,
university networks) provided me with pro-
cesses/strategies that currently support my suc-
cess in retaining my position as a superinten-
dent.
28. Having a mentor(s) provided me with
processes/strategies that support my success in
retaining my position as a superintendent.
29. Having a district-provided executive coach
currently supports my success in retaining my
position as a superintendent.
30. The relationship with my board of education
determines my success in retaining my posi-
tion as a superintendent.
31. The relationship with my board determines my
desire to continue in my position as superin-
tendent.
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 107
32. Board/superintendent protocol (relationship)
workshops have been an important process/
strategy for building our relationship.
33. My relationship with my board is more impor-
tant than my compensation.
34. My compensation determines my desire to
continue in my position as a superintendent in
my district.
35. Negotiating additional compensation jeopar-
dizes my relationship with the board.
36. Having a formal, written strategic plan sup-
ports my success in retaining my position as a
superintendent.
37. Receiving on-the-job professional develop-
ment training (such as conference attendance)
is a process/strategy that supports my success
in retaining my position as a superintendent.
38. District stakeholders hold female superinten-
dents to different standards for their ongoing
job retention.
39. My race and ethnicity may influence the ex-
pectations that district stakeholders have of me
in my position as a superintendent.
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 108
Appendix C
SCHOOL BOARD MEMBER SURVEY
Based on your perception of the preparation experience to be a superintendent, rate the following
statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.
Statement
Strongly
Agree
(1)
Agree
(2)
Disagree
(3)
Strongly
Disagree
(4)
Don’t
Know or
NA (0)
For the next statements, please use the following definition for superintendent prepara-
tion: Preparation is defined as the strategies and steps your superintendent took prior to
taking on his/her first superintendent position.
Preparation
1. My superintendent’s prior work experience
was more important than his/her university
training experience to prepare him/her for
his/her current position.
2. Holding a doctoral degree was important
for my superintendent’s preparation.
3. Nontraditional training programs (such as
The Broad Academy) were important in
preparing my superintendent for his/her
current position.
4. Having mentors was instrumental in pre-
paring my superintendent for his/her cur-
rent position.
5. A professional network of support (such as
AASA, ACSA, or through a university)
was important for preparing my superinten-
dent for his/her current position.
6. Informal networks (such as professional
colleagues) were important in preparing
my superintendent for his/her current posi-
tion.
7. I believe that university training programs
provide intentional supports or resources to
prepare females to enter into the superin-
tendent position.
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 109
8. I believe university training programs pro-
vide intentional supports or resources to
prepare people of color to enter into the
superintendent position.
Based upon your perception of your superintendent’s recruitment experience to be a superin-
tendent, rate the following statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree:
For the next statements, please use the following definition for superintendent recruit-
ment: Recruitment is the process/strategy that your superintendent used to gain his/her
first superintendent position.
Recruitment
9. It was an important process/strategy for my
superintendent to have a mentor(s) to being
recruited into his/her current position.
10. Networking with an executive search firm
was an important process/strategy for my
superintendent to being recruited into his/
her current position.
11. Networking with us, as board members,
was an important process/strategy for my
superintendent to being recruited into his/
her current position.
12. My superintendent’s prior experience out-
side of education was an important pro-
cess/strategy for him/her to being recruited
into his/her current position.
13. Gender is an important factor to being re-
cruited into the superintendent’s position.
14. Race and ethnicity are important factors to
being recruited into the superintendent
position.
15. The demographic composition of a board
of education (such as gender, race, and eth-
nicity) is an important factor to being re-
cruited into the superintendent position.
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 110
Based upon your perception of your superintendent’s current retention experience in being a
superintendent, rate the following statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree:
For the next statements, please use the following definition for superintendent retention:
Retention is the process/strategy that your superintendent used to maintain his/her current
superintendent position.
Retention
16. The university training program provided
my superintendent with processes/strate-
gies that support his/her success in retain-
ing his/her current position.
17. Professional networks (such as AASA,
ACSA, university networks) provided my
superintendent with processes/strategies
that support his/her success in retaining
his/her current position.
18. Having a mentor(s) provided my superin-
tendent with processes/strategies that sup-
port his/her success in retaining his/her
current position.
19. The relationship that my superintendent
has with our board determines his/her suc-
cess in retaining his/her current position.
20. Board/superintendent protocol (relation-
ship) workshops have been an important
process/strategy for my superintendent to
building our relationship.
21. My superintendent’s compensation deter-
mines his/her desire to continue in his/her
current position.
22. Having a formal, written strategic plan sup-
ports my superintendent’s success in
retaining his/her position.
23. District stakeholders hold female superin-
tendents to different standards for their on-
going job retention.
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 111
24. My superintendent’s race and ethnicity
may influence the expectations that district
stakeholders have of him/her in his/her cur-
rent position.
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 112
Appendix D
SUPERINTENDENT INTERVIEW GUIDE
Preparation Recruitment Retention
Research
Questions
How have training pro-
grams and experience
prepared superintendents
to manage the complexi-
ties and challenges of the
superintendency?
What are the perceptions of
current successful super-
intendents and school
boards regarding the strat-
egies used to help the
current superintendent to
attain his or her position?
What are the perceived
strategies that support the
retention of superin-
tendents?
Themes Interview Questions
Training
Programs
1. What type of training have
you attended that prepared
you for the superintendency?
• 1a. Where did you
receive your most effec-
tive training? Why?
5. Some superintendents have
not utilized training programs
because they believed that the
best training was on the job.
What is your opinion about
that?
9. How is ongoing training
supporting your retention as a
superintendent?
• 9a. What types of
training support your
retention?
• 9b. What strategies sup-
port your retention?
Experience
2. Describe your career path
to the superintendency.
• 2a. Which professional
experiences leading up to
becoming the superinten-
dent were the most bene-
ficial? Why?
6. What prior experiences did
you have that made you most
favorable to hire?
10. What strategies or skills
should a superintendent use to
be successful in his/her role?
Relational
Supports
3. Who were the most im-
portant professional relation-
ships that helped you to pre-
pare for the superintendent
position?
• 3a. How were they im-
portant?
7. Did you strategically use
professional relationships
(mentoring/networking) to
attain your current position? If
so, how?
11. What professional relation-
ships support your retention?
• 11a. What strategies do
you use with your board
to support your retention
as a superintendent?
Experience
4. When did you know that
you wanted to be a superin-
tendent?
• 4a. What proactive steps
did you take to get there?
8. Did you create an “Entry
Plan” when being recruited
into the position?
• 8a. If so, how did it help
you get recruited?
• 8b. If not, how could it
have helped you?
12. Do you utilize a formal,
written strategic plan outside of
the LCAP?
• 12a. If so, how does it
differ from the LCAP?
• 12b. If so, how does it
enhance your retention?
13. What factors have moti-
vated your ongoing retention in
the position?
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 113
Appendix E
SCHOOL BOARD MEMBER INTERVIEW GUIDE
Preparation Recruitment Retention
Research
Questions
How have training programs
and experience prepared su-
perintendents to manage the
complexities and challenges
of the superintendency?
What are the perceptions of
current successful superinten-
dents and school boards re-
garding the strategies used to
help the current superinten-
dent to attain his or her
position?
What are the perceived
strategies that support the re-
tention of superintendents?
Themes Interview Questions
Training
Programs
1. What type of training did
your superintendent attend
that prepared him/her for the
superintendency?
• 1a. Where did he/she re-
ceive the most effective
training? Why?
5. Some superintendents have
not utilized training programs
because they believed that the
best training was on the job.
What is your opinion about
that?
9. How is ongoing training
supporting your super-
intendent’s retention in his/her
position?
• 9a. What types of train-
ing support your super-
intendent’s retention?
• 9b. What strategies did
your superintendent ac-
quire that support his/
her retention?
Experience
2. Describe your superinten-
dent’s career path to the
superintendency.
• 2a. Which experiences
that your superintendent
had leading up to becom-
ing the superintendent
were the most beneficial?
Why?
6. What prior experiences did
your superintendent have that
made him/her most favorable
to hire?
10. What strategies or skills
should a superintendent use to
be successful in his/her role?
Relational
Supports
3. Who were the most im-
portant professional relation-
ships that your superinten-
dent had that helped him/her
to prepare for the position?
• 3a. How were they im-
portant?
7. Did your superintendent
strategically use professional
relationships (mentoring/net-
working) to attain his/her cur-
rent position? If so, how?
11. What professional relation-
ships support your superinten-
dent’s retention?
• 11a. What strategies do
you value the most when
interacting with your
superintendent?
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 114
Career
Planning
4. What proactive steps did
your superintendent take to
get to his/her position?
8. Did your superintendent
create an “Entry Plan” when
being recruited for the posi-
tion?
• 8a. If so, how do you
believe that helped your
superintendent to be re-
cruited?
8.1. How important is it for a
prospective superintendent to
have an entry plan when being
recruited?
12. Do your superintendent
utilize a formal, written strate-
gic plan outside of the LCAP?
• 12a. If so, how does it
differ from the LCAP?
• 12b. If so, how does it
enhance retention?
13. What factors motivate your
superintendent’s ongoing reten-
tion in the position?
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 115
Appendix F
EXECUTIVE SEARCH FIRM INTERVIEW GUIDE
Preparation Recruitment Retention
Research
Questions
How have training programs
and experience prepared su-
perintendents to manage the
complexities and challenges
of the superintendency?
What are the perceptions of
current successful superinten-
dents and school boards
regarding the strategies used
to help the current superinten-
dent to attain his or her posi-
tion?
What are the perceived
strategies that support the re-
tention of superintendents?
Themes Interview Questions
Training
Programs
1. What type of training was
attended by superintendent(s)
whom you recommended that
prepared him/her for the
superintendency?
• 1a. Where did he/she re-
ceive the most effective
training? Why?
5. Some superintendents have
not utilized training programs
because they believed that the
best training was on the job.
What is your opinion about
that?
9. How does ongoing training
support the retention of super-
intendent(s) whom you have
recommended?
• 9a. What types of train-
ing support a superinten-
dent’s retention?
• 9b. What strategies did
superintendent(s) whom
you recommended
acquire that supported
his/her retention?
Experience
2. Describe the career path
to the position of superinten-
dent(s) whom you have
recommended.
• 2a. Which experiences
that your superintendent
had leading up to becom-
ing the superintendent
were the most beneficial?
Why?
6. What prior experiences did
the superintendent whom you
recommended have that made
him/her most favorable to
hire?
10. What strategies or skills
should a superintendent use to
be successful in his/her role?
Relational
Supports
3. Who were the most im-
portant professional relation-
ships that your superinten-
dent had that helped him/her
to prepare for the position?
• 3a. How were they im-
portant?
7. Did superintendents whom
you recommended strategi-
cally use professional relation-
ships (mentoring/networking)
to attain their current position?
If so, how?
11. What professional relation-
ships support a superin-
tendent’s retention?
• 11a. What strategies
should a superintendent
use when interacting
with the board?
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 116
Career
Planning
4. What proactive steps did a
superintendent whom you
placed take to get to the
superintendency prior to
coming to you?
8. Do superintendents whom
you recommend create an
“Entry Plan” when being re-
cruited for the position?
• 8a. If so, how does that
superintendent to be re-
cruited?
8.1. How important is it for a
prospective superintendent to
have an entry plan when being
recruited?
12. Do superintendents whom
you placed utilize a formal,
written strategic plan outside of
the LCAP?
• 12a. If so, how does it
differ from the LCAP?
• 12b. If so, how does it
enhance retention?
13. What factors motivate the
ongoing retention of superin-
tendents whom you rec-
ommended?
SUCCESSFUL SUPERINTENDENTS: PREPARATION/RECRUITMENT/RETENTION 117
Appendix G
QUESTION ALIGNMENT MATRIX
Instrument
RQ1
How have training
programs and experi-
ence prepared super-
intendents to manage
the complexities and
challenges of the su-
perintendency?
RQ2
What are the percep-
tions of current suc-
cessful superinten-
dents and school
boards regarding the
strategies used to
help the current
superintendent to at-
tain his or her posi-
tion?
RQ3
What are the per-
ceived strategies that
support the retention
of superintendents?
Superintendent Survey 1–13 14–25 25–39
Superintendent Inter-
view Guide
1–4 5–8 9–13
School Board Member
Survey
1–13 14–25 26–39
School Board Member
Interview Guide
1–4 5–8 9–13
Executive Search Firm
Survey
1–13 14–25 26–39
Executive Search Firm
Interview Guide
1–4 5–8 9–15

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The position of school superintendent is the top position in a school district. A successful superintendent makes all the difference in the direction a school district is headed in. Some current research suggests a shortage of superintendents in the near future. School boards have the ultimate challenge of filling these positions. Larger school districts usually hire an executive search firm to recommend potential candidates. Many universities and non-universities are training people for the superintendent position. It is imperative that aspiring superintendents understand the preparation, recruitment and retention of successful superintendents for longevity in the position.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Bull, Anthony J. (author)

Core Title Successful superintendents of schools: preparation, recruitment, and retention

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/10/2018

Defense Date 03/01/2018

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag executive search firms,OAI-PMH Harvest,school board members,successful superintendents

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Escalante, Michael (committee chair)

Creator Email abull@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-9048

Unique identifier UC11671737

Identifier etd-BullAnthon-6202.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-9048 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-BullAnthon-6202.pdf

Dmrecord 9048

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Bull, Anthony J.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA