University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Emancipating curriculum: practices for equity in the U.S. history classroom

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Emancipating curriculum: practices for equity in the U.S. history classroom

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Content Running head: EMANCIPATING CURRICULUM

Emancipating Curriculum: Practices for Equity in the U.S. History Classroom
by

Monica Moran

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2018

Copyright 2018 Monica Moran
EMANCIPATING CURRICULUM

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Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to my Mami and Papi, Juana Albertina Moran and the late Pedro
Antonio Moran, who gave up everything they had in Guatemala for the hope of a better
tomorrow. It is not lost on me that that this very moment is a result of a lifetime of both of your
sacrifices. Thank you for always teaching me to be confident in my beliefs, to question
everything, and to speak with purpose. “I love you more than I can say”.

EMANCIPATING CURRICULUM

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Acknowledgements
First and foremost, I want to thank my committee for their incredible support, motivation,
and wisdom. Dr. Hinga, Dr. Green, and Dr. Love, I couldn’t have asked for a better group to
work with. Thank you for nurturing a space that allowed me to do work I am passionate about
and committed to.
I want to express deep gratitude for the teachers who participated in this study. Thank
you for being so open about your experiences and even more eager to share these experiences
with me. This dissertation would not be possible without your incredible testimonies. I feel so
fortunate to be connected to such powerful teachers. A special thank you to Ms. Christina Varela
for being the definition of a great teacher. You opened my eyes to a world outside of Inglewood
when I was 14, and you continue to be a true mentor and friend.
The warmest thank you to the cohort mates who became my Trojan Family. I came to
USC in hope of nurturing my desire to learn and am leaving with a strong and loving community
of scholars I can call my brothers and sisters. A special thank you to Fanisha, who I believe, is
the glue that holds us all together. You were my guiding light from day one and meeting you
during orientation gave me the first real feeling that I was exactly where I was meant to be. To
the rest of my Trojan Family, Chrissy, Carla, Mercis, Norma, Malcohlm, Brian and Miguel, I
know the world of education is about to be hit with a force like never before. You are all
incredible leaders who are passionate about changing the narrative and creating equity for all. I
am honored to have met you and eternally grateful for the bond that we cherish.
To the incredible village that holds me together, cheers me through every mile stone, and
keeps me grounded, thank you! This degree is a testament to the power of community. My best
(forever) friends, who have shown the world that Inglewood really is the City of Champions.
EMANCIPATING CURRICULUM

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Sigma Lambda Gamma National Sorority Incorporated for providing sisterhood, mentorship, and
laying the foundation for my post-secondary education. To the friends that turned into family
through this network for continuing to support every one of my endeavors. My students, who
push me to think critically and hold me accountable for providing the best education I possibly
can. And to my family, my tias and tios, cousins and godson for loving me, motivating me and
centering my purpose.
Finally, I want to acknowledge the very core of my being, the Moran Legacy, my “little
ones” and siblings. This has all been for you, but it was only possible because of you. You have
no idea how instrumental you’ve been to my life’s choices and purpose. My desire to learn and
motivate the youth came from my desire to make sure that you all had access to the same
advantages I had, and the opportunity to do more than I ever could. I am so proud of the
intelligent, critical, and passionate adults you’ve all become, and I am eager to see how much
more you will accomplish. Yesenia, Lizeth, Evelyn and Anthony, you are and always will be, my
why.

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Table of Contents
Dedication ii
Acknowledgements iii
List of Tables viii
List of Figures ix
Abstract x

Chapter One: Overview of the Study 1
Introduction 1
Statement of the Problem 3
Purpose of the Study 5
Conceptual Framework 6
Limitations, Delimitations and Assumptions 7
Limitations 7
Delimitations 7
Assumptions 8
Definition of Terms 8
Organization of the Study 9

Chapter Two: Literature Review 11
Theoretical Framework 11
Race and Racism 12
Critical Race Theory 13
Critical Race Theory in Education 14
Strengths of Critical Race Theory 16
Limitations of Critical Race Theory 16
Community Cultural Wealth 17
Accountability 19
Williams V. California 19
History Frameworks and Textbooks 20
The New History-Social Science Framework 22
Racial Diversity and the Teacher Force 23
Educational Pipeline 24
The Teacher Pipeline 27
Critique of Teacher Diversity 28
Pedagogy for liberation 29
Freire in the Classroom 30
Summary 31

Chapter Three: Methodology 32
Methodology 32
Qualitative Methods 33
Context 34
Participants 34
Instruments 35
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Limitations, Delimitations, Assumptions 36
Limitations 36
Delimitations 36
Assumptions 37
Ethics 37
Data Analysis 37
Credibility and Trustworthiness 38
Positionality 38

Chapter Four: Findings 39
Introduction 39
Participant Demographics 41
Findings 43
Identity, Accountability, and Social Justice: Tenets for Equity in U.S. History 43
Identity 45
Whose Identity Matters Anyway? 45
The Bridge from Identity to Content 47
Accountability 52
Accountability, More than a Numbers Game 52
Textbook Talk 58
On Ethnic Studies 61
Breaking the Shackles 63
On History Books 63
Social Studies for Social Justice 67
“Did I do it Justice?” 67
“It’s not about me” 71
Activism and Coalition Building 76
Write it, to “right” it 79
Conclusion 81

Chapter Five: Conclusion 83
Introduction 83
Purpose of the Study 83
Methodology 84
Summary of Findings 85
Identity 85
Accountability 86
Social Justice 88
Tenets of Equity 88
Implications for Practice 89
Recommendations for Research 91
Practices for Equity in U.S. History Curriculum: The Tenets of Equity 92
Conclusion 94
References 96
Appendix A: Pre-Interview Form Teacher Profile 109
Appendix B: Pre-Interview Form Pedagogy Questionnaire 110
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Appendix C: Interview Protocol 111

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List of Tables
Table 1: Participants 35
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List of Figures
Figure A: Conceptual Framework 7
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Abstract
This qualitative study is grounded in Critical Race Theory (CRT) in education and
conceptualizes the experiences of Teachers of Color who practice critical pedagogy through the
use of Community Cultural Wealth (Freire, 1993; Shor, 1987; Stefancic, 2012; Yosso &
Solórzano, 2002; Yosso, 2005). The purpose of this study is to understand the pedagogical
beliefs and assumptions of Teachers of Color who employ critical pedagogy in the U.S. history
classroom. This study focused on understanding the unique experiences of teachers that teach
beyond the standards. Specifically, this study aimed to unearth the ways in which teachers
navigate the implementation of Common Core and the History-Social Science Framework for
California Public Schools. Both Critical Race Theory and Community Cultural Wealth were
used to guide the research and analysis in this study (Stefancic, 2012; Yosso & Solórzano, 2002;
Yosso, 2005). Participants were selected through purposeful sampling (Creswell, 2013). Each of
the participants is (a) a history teacher in California, (b) credentialed via a state approved
program, (c) currently teaches U.S. History, (d) identifies as a Teacher of Color, (e) uses critical
pedagogy within his or her classroom. The researcher conducted in-depth semi-structured
interviews with each of the participants. All data was analyzed using the constant comparative
method in order to allow for emerging themes to develop through an inductive process (Corbin
& Strauss, 1990). By exploring their personal stories, the teachers in this study were able to
provide insight into practices for equity in the U.S. History classroom. As a result, findings from
this study established the Tenets for Equity within the emergent themes of Identity,
Accountability and Social Justice.

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CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
History, despite its wrenching pain, cannot be unlived, and if faced with courage, need not be
lived again.
-Maya Angelou
Introduction
Educators have the most powerful role in society. Classroom teachers in particular, have
the ability to shape their students’ lives long after they leave their care (Banks, Cookson, Gay,
Hawley, Irvine, Nieto & Stephan, 2001; Diamond & Spillane, 2004; Duncan-Andrade, 2007;
Howard, 2001; Loewen, 2013; Oakes, 2004; Valenzuela, 1999). I credit my fourth and fifth-
grade teacher, Mrs. Young, as being the foundation of my critical consciousness. When I was in
fourth grade, Mrs. Young held up our Reading textbook and said, “This book, doesn’t tell my
story. It tells stories but it doesn’t talk about me, you, or, anyone in this room. So we’re going to
do a little of that ourselves.” This was how she introduced Black History month in our
classroom. I remember that moment so clearly. She gave the burgundy-covered textbook a side
eye and put it down so as to say, “we’re done with you.”
This moment is a significant part of my educational trajectory and a defining moment in
my life. It is literally; the moment I realized that the information kept within the pages of our
textbooks was not an ultimate truth. Mrs. Young did what no other teacher had done for us up to
that point, gave us permission to question the education system. Mrs. Young was the first, but
definitely not the last, teacher to encourage us to challenge ‘the system.’
Teachers like Mrs. Young use their lived experiences and knowledge of effective
teaching strategies to inform the ways in which they teach. Teachers working within historically
underserved communities must have a complex understanding of the inequities that affect their

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students' daily lives in order to be effective in their practice (Duncan-Andrade, 2007; Howard,
2001). This requires individuals to be more than minimally prepared to teach content. Educators
who teach diverse populations must take into account their students' backgrounds when planning
for instruction (Carroll et al., 2005; NCES, 1996; Oakes, 2004; Perez Huber et al., 2006;
Valencia, 1997). Educators who deviate from traditional forms of teaching, like teaching directly
from the textbook, must learn how to navigate educational policies that place high-stakes
demands on their practice. Since A Nation at Risk (1983) was published, schools have placed an
emphasis on teaching reading and math, while deemphasizing subjects like history (Agarwahl-
Rangnath, Dover and Henning, 2016; Au, 2009). The National Assessments of Educational
Progress (NAEP) the nation’s premier organization for continuing assessment, predominantly
measures math, reading and writing (NAEP, 2017). Although they collect data on U.S. History
exams, data is only collected during fourth, eighth, and eleventh grade, and only as often as
resources allow (NCES, 2010). While the conversation around achievement in K-12 schools is
centered on reading and math, scholars have written about the critical need to examine our
nation’s approach to teaching history curriculum. James Loewen, author of, Lies My Teacher
Told Me (1995), makes the claim that the United States education system is in crisis because of
the way history is taught in U.S. public schools (Loewen, 1995). Loewen’s main critique of the
education system is the school system’s overreliance on textbooks that are written with biases
that negate the experiences of people of color in the United States (Loewen, 1995; Loewen,
2013).
Not all history teachers rely on outdated and ill-informed textbooks in their classrooms
(Agarwahl-Rangnath, Dover & Henning, 2016; Loewen, 1995, Loewen, 2013). Many educators
deviate from teaching with materials that highlight the master narrative and occult the experience

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of non-European settlers (Agarwahl-Rangnath, Dover & Henning, 2016; Loewen, 1995, Loewen,
2013). Emancipating Curriculum refers to breaking the shackles of Eurocentric curriculum and
engaging students in a curriculum that frees them from accepting and perpetuating the status quo.
Statement of the Problem
For years, educators have found ways to navigate the intricate nuances of educational
policies in order to teach culturally relevant content. This work is not new. Teachers like Mrs.
Young understood, mostly through their lived experiences, that the curriculum they were
afforded was not representative of the diversity in their classrooms. So these teachers, in an
effort to connect to their students and the communities they served, found creative ways to teach.
Historically speaking, Educators of Color have taught in ways that though effective, were not
validated under traditional systems of evaluation. It is important that we situate this study within
this understanding, in order to validate the work that provided the foundation for present-day
reforms for culturally relevant teaching. Many proponents of abandoning textbook-based
instruction believe textbooks cannot hold within them the profound and diverse stories of our
past in one place. While this may be true, it is also critical to understand how access to
textbooks, qualified teachers, and safe facilities contribute to the opportunity gap (Oakes, 2004).
Curriculum frameworks and textbooks are tangible manifestations of the deficit lenses
used to teach students in public schools, all of which contribute to the marginalization of ethnic
minorities in the United States. (Agarwahl-Rangnath, Dover & Henning, 2016; Loewen, 1995,
Loewen, 2013). Even the most “standard” curriculum decides whose history is worthy of study
who’s books are worthy of reading, which curriculum and text selections include diverse voices
and multiple ways of knowing. Including multiple perspectives, and experiences in our
curriculum and textbooks can help students find value in their own voices, histories and cultures.

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In order to truly engage students, we must reach out to them in ways that are culturally and
linguistically responsive and appropriate (Martinez, 2005; Valenzuela, 1999). We must examine
cultural assumptions and stereotypes that we bring into the classroom that may hinder students’
ability to connect.
This study has the potential to inform practical implications in the state of California. In
2016, the California Department of Education introduced a new curriculum framework for the
study of history and social science in grades Kindergarten through twelfth grade. School districts
at the forefront of this change have offered concerns about the length of time it will take to
develop lessons, purchase materials, and train teachers in the new framework.
Teachers of Color have always been underrepresented in the United States’ education
workforce (Ingersoll, 2005, US Department of Education, 2016). In 2016, the United States
Department of Education found that the majority of teachers in elementary and secondary
schools are White. Although teachers in K-12 schools are becoming more racially diverse, in
2011-2012, only thirteen percent of public schools educators were Teachers of Color (US
Department of Education, 2016). By noting the significant impact teachers have on students,
researchers have called attention to the importance of diversifying the educator workforce in
order to ensure equity in education (Duncan-Andrade, 2009; Spring, 1994; US Department of
Education, 2016; Valencia & Solorzano, 1997). Racial diversity in itself cannot usurp critical
pedagogical strategies, but learning from teachers who have a critical understanding of the ways
in which curriculum, specifically history curriculum, works to perpetuate hegemonic norms, is
imperative to the developing of liberating frameworks.

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Purpose of the Study
Teacher voice is often missing from educational research (Duncan-Andrade, 2007;
Vilson, 2015). This qualitative study is grounded in Critical Race Theory (CRT) and
conceptualizes the experiences of history Teachers of Color who practice critical pedagogy
through the use of Community Cultural Wealth (Freire, 1993; Shor, 1987; Stefancic, 2012;
Yosso & Solorzano, 2002; Yosso, 2005). This study aims to understand how Teachers of Color
understand their own experiences dealing with race and how these experiences inform their
practice when teaching U.S. history courses.
True to qualitative research methods, this study attempts to answer the research
questions by working with the participants to understanding how they make sense of their
experiences (Creswell, 2013; Merriam, 2009; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The researcher will use
semi-structured interviews, rich, thick descriptions, member checks, as well as the researcher's
positionality as a tool for reflexivity (Merriam, 2009).
The racial, ethnic/cultural, linguistic, and gender backgrounds of the participants are
defining lenses for this study. The research questions guiding this study are:
1. What are the beliefs and pedagogical practices associated with teaching race and
ethnicity in a U.S. history classroom?
a. How do teachers’ conceptualization of their own ethnic identities impact their
relationships with students?
b. How do Social Studies teachers compensate for the lack of culturally relevant
curriculum in the California Content Standards when teaching diverse
populations?

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c. Do US History teachers perceive their approach to teaching a form of social
justice?
Conceptual Framework
In order to better understand the conditions that perpetuate inequities in education, a
theoretical framework is needed that centers race, power, and experiential knowledge (Bell,
1991; Delgado & Stefanic, 2001; Ladson-Billings &Tate, 1995; Yosso, 2005). Critical Race
Theory (CRT) provides a lens for qualitative research that enables the exploration of race and
power and it’s consequences within education (Ladson-Billings &Tate, 1995; Yosso, 2005).
CRT serves to encapsulate this study acting as a compass by setting the direction and limits of
the lens used throughout all phases of this process. Community Cultural Wealth builds off of
CRT and will serve as an analytical framework that helps the researcher understand the literature
and data through a very specific lens (Yosso, 2005). Together, both will serve to center this
research on the experiences of Teachers of Color who teach history in California. As such, they
serve to create a space that gives agency to teachers and promotes diverse understandings o

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Figure A: Conceptual Framework

Limitations, Delimitations, and Assumptions
Limitations. This study will rely on the responses of the participants from the interview.
Additionally, interviews will be conducted within a four to six month time restriction.
Delimitations. The delimitations of this study were as follows:
• The researcher will only interview history teachers who identify as Teachers of Color.
Teachers must have completed a state approved credentialing program in the state of
California.
• Teachers must be available for an interview during the fall semester of 2017.
• Teachers must currently teach at least one section of U.S. history.

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Assumptions. The researcher assumed that the participants were truthful during the interviews.
The Participants have a sincere interest in participating in this research study
Definition of Terms
Common Core State Standards: set of rigorous academic standards in Math and English
Language Arts adopted by forty-two states.
Community Cultural Wealth Model: An array of knowledge, skills, abilities, and contacts
possessed and used by Communities of Color to survive and resist racism and other forms of
oppression (Yosso, 2005).
Critical Consciousness: the ability to perceive, social, political, and economic oppression and to
take action against the oppressive elements of society.
Critical Pedagogy: a philosophy of education that advocates that teaching is inherently political
and insist issues of social justice and democracy are not distinct from teaching and learning. The
goal of critical pedagogy is emancipation from oppression through an awakening of the critical
consciousness. (Darder, 2003; Freire, 1993).
Critical Race Theory (CRT): Critical Race Theory is a theoretical framework in the social
sciences. It provides a critical examination of society and culture, to the intersection of race, law,
and power (Delgado & Stefancic, 2012).
Culturally responsive pedagogy: a student-centered approach to teaching in which the
students' unique cultural strengths are identified and nurtured to promote student achievement
and a sense of well-being about the student's cultural place in the world.
Ethnic Studies- in the United States, is the interdisciplinary study of difference—chiefly race,
ethnicity, and nation, but also sexuality, gender, and other such markings—and power, as
expressed by the state, by civil society, and by individuals.

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LCFF: (Local Control Funding Formula), legislation signed by Governor Jerry Brown in 2013
developing a new system for funding local school districts. Increased allocation of funds given to
districts with high concentrations of English Language Learners, Low-Socioeconomic students
receiving Free or Reduced Lunch, and Foster Youth.
Praxis: Is a process by which a theory, lesson, or skill is enacted, embodied, or realized.
People of Color: individuals of indigenous, African, Latina/o, Asian/Pacific Islander descent. It
is intentionally capitalized to reject the standard grammatical norm. Capitalization is used as a
means to empower this group and represent grammatical move toward social and racial justice.
Organization of the Study
This qualitative study will consist of five chapters. Chapter One provides an overview of the
study including, the statement of the problem, purpose of the study, research questions,
significance of the study, limitations, delimitations, and definitions of key terms. Chapter Two
presents an in depth review of literature on several relevant concepts linked to equity in the U.S.
History classroom. It begins with a discussion on race and racism in the United States, and then
presents the theoretical framework for this study by introducing Critical Race Theory (CRT) and
Community Cultural Wealth (Delgado & Stefancic, 2012; Solórzano & Yosso; 2007; Yosso,
2005). Then, the literature review shifts to accountability for U.S. History curriculum in the state
of California by reviewing Williams V. California (2004), the History Framework and
Textbooks, and the New History-Social Science Framework. The chapter looks closely at racial
diversity within the teacher workforce by creating links between the educational pipeline and the
teacher pipeline and finally concludes with a quick overview of pedagogy for liberation (Freire,
1993; Shor, 1987). Chapter Three details the methodology, research questions, research design,
participants, and instrumentation. Chapter four reports the findings of the study as they relate to

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the research questions guiding the study. Chapter Five contains the final summary along with
conclusions, future implications, and recommendations for research as they relate to current
practice and future research.

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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
This study will utilize Critical Race Theory (CRT) and Community Cultural Wealth as
theoretical frameworks. Both of these frameworks provide context for the challenges faced by
Teachers of Color who persist through the teacher pipeline. The interdisciplinary nature of the
study’s theoretical foundation enables the researcher to develop a stronger understanding of the
links between racism and educational policy in the K-12 setting.
In this chapter, I will 1) operationalize the concepts of race, racism, CRT, and
Community Cultural Wealth. 2) Discussion on accountability and history curriculum 3) Teacher
Diversity and 4) Culturally Relevant Education within the context of Teacher Education
Programs.
Additionally, the use of CRT and Community Cultural Wealth emphasize the need to
incorporate voices of communities of color that counter the dominant narratives (Delgado &
Stefanic, 2001; Ladson-Billings, 2013; Yosso, 2005). In order to gain a critical understanding of
the experiences of Teacher of Color, I will use Yosso’s (2005) concept of Community Cultural
Wealth as an explanatory framework.
Theoretical Framework
CRT scholars have argued that racism is an endemic part of the U.S. social relations and
this racism has shaped the laws and policies of U.S. institutions (Ladson-Billings, 1998;
Solorzano, 1997; Solorzano & Yosso, 2001; Yosso, 2005). Critical Race Theory (CRT) in
Education allows researchers to employ new approaches that deviate from culturally deficit
frameworks (Yosso, 2005). Additionally, CRT asserts that race and racism are intrinsically
connected to the “pragmatic kinship of educational research and the legal structures of U.S.
Society” (Tate, 1997, p. 4).

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Race and Racism
In order to engage in a discussion about Critical Race Theory we must begin by first
addressing the concepts of race and racism. I begin by borrowing from Solorzano’s (1997)
assertion that Audre Lorde (1992) and Manning Marable (1992) have “produced the most
concise definitions of racism (Solorzano, 1997, p. 8). I will use their definitions for the purposes
of defining race and racism. Audre Lorde (1992) defined racism as “the belief in the inherent
superiority of one race over all others and thereby the right to dominance” (p. 46). Manning
Marable (1992) defined racism as “a system of ignorance, exploitation, and power used to
oppress African American, Latinos, Asians, Pacific Americans, American Indians and other
people on the basis of ethnicity, culture mannerisms, and color” (p.5). Combined, these two
definitions illuminate three points:
(a) One group believes itself to be superior
(b) The groups that believes itself superior has the power to carry out the racist behavior,
and
(c) Racism affects multiple racial and ethnic groups (Solorzano, Yosso & Ceja, 2001, p.
60).
In both definitions there is an inherent assumption that power is used to subvert a certain group
while allowing another to dominate “These two definitions take the position that racism is about
institutional power, and People of Color in the United States have never possessed this form of
power.” (Solorzano, 1997, 8). In this respect, race, racism and power become intrinsically
connected to the foundation of Critical Race theory and its developments.

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Critical Race Theory
Critical race theory emerged from and continues to be a part of an evolution of
scholarship. Yosso and Solorzano (2001) posit that CRT has its roots in an intellectual genealogy
born from the Ethnic Studies tradition; which encompasses, Cultural Nationalism, Internal
Colonialism, Marxism, Neo-Marxism and Feminism Studies. (Solorzano & Yosso, 2001; Yosso,
2005). CRT, with roots in this genealogy, developed from criticism of the Critical Legal Studies
(CLS) movement (Delgado & Stafancic, 2012; Ladson-Billings, 1998 Parker & Lynn, 2009;
Yosso, 2005). CLS scholars, though critical of mainstream legal ideology, failed to include race
and racism in its critique. (Ladson-Billings, 1998). This became the catalyst for CRT within the
legal realm. Critical race theory asserts that race is sown into the fabric of society. It is ordinary
and appears natural because it has become normalized (Ladson-Billings, 1998). CRT scholars
dismiss the notion of a colorblind society and insist that we must acknowledge race. According
to Parker and Lynn (2009) Critical race theory has three main goals:
1. To present storytelling and narratives as valid approaches through which to examine
race and racism in the law and in society
2. To argue for the eradication of racial subjugation while simultaneously recognizing
that race is a social construct
3. To draw important relationships between race and other axes of domination
CRT is a movement, “a collection of activists and scholars interested in studying and
transforming the relationship among race, racism and power” (Stefancic, 2012, p. 5). It is
precisely this activist mindset that has allowed critical race theory to enter the realm of
educational research.

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Critical Race Theory in Education
Historically, educational research has relied on biological determinist perspectives,
ignored marginalized groups and dismissed notions of race by relying on class and gender
analysis (Parker & Lynn, 2009, p. 152). Employing the use of CRT in education, and other
disciplines alike, becomes increasingly important when the research being conducted is on
historically underrepresented populations. The intertwining of race, racism and power allow for
CRT to exist as a tool for transformation. Gloria Ladson-Billings (1998) argues that CRT is a
tool for deconstruction, reconstruction and construction:
It is because of the meaning and value imputed to whiteness that CRT becomes an
important intellectual and social tool for deconstruction, reconstruction and construction:
deconstruction of oppressive structures and discourses, reconstruction of human agency,
and construction of equitable and socially just relations of power (Ladson-Billings, 1998,
p. 4).
Education scholars have utilized CRT to address the persistence of racial inequality
within the United States system of education (Ladson-Billings, 1998; Solorzano, 1997;
Solorzano & Yosso, 2001; Yosso, 2005). Over the past few decades, many scholars have utilized
this framework examine racial inequality and racism within K-12 schools (Ladson-Billings,
1998; Pizarro, 1998; Solorzano & Delgado-Bernal, 2001; Yosso, 2005). This study utilizes CRT
as a framework to understand the connection between race and the implementation of
educational policies that guide curriculum and instruction of U.S. history courses.
Since its introduction into the realm of education, scholars in this discipline have
identified five distinct tenets of critical race theory in education. All of which guide the design
and analysis of this study.

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1. The centrality of race and racism and their intersectionality with other forms of
subordination: The research questions focus on an examination of race and racism
and their intersection with educational policies aimed at the subordination of people
of color.
2. The challenge to the dominant ideology. This dissertation challenges the dominant
ideology that educational policies and standards inherently include the stories and
perspectives of historically underserved communities.
3. The commitment to social justice. The use of CRT enables this study and the
participants of this study to engage in a commitment to social justice.
4. The centrality of experiential knowledge. This qualitative study aims to understand
the experiences of U.S. history teachers and places values on their perspectives.
5. The transdisciplinary perspective. This study utilizes a transdisciplinary perspective
by utilizing history and current research on educational policy, teacher education and
race and racism (Solorzano & Delgado Bernal, 2001; Solorzano & Yosso, 2007).
Principally, Critical Race Theory serves as a framework that deviates from the use of
culturally deficit models of research. By centering research around race, using a transdisciplinary
perspective and challenging dominant ideology, this study will serve to validate experiential
knowledge and conduct work that is inherently committed to social justice (Solorzano &
Delgado Bernal, 2001; Solorzano & Yosso, 2007). This framework serves to “deconstruct and
expose the research paradigms that ignore the role of the observer in the construction of social
reality and fail to consider the historical and social conditions that distort and ignore the
experiences of people of color” (Malagon, Perez Huber, & Velez, 2009).

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Strengths of Critical Race Theory. The strengths in critical race theory lie in its ability
to serve as a developing framework. Solorzano and Yosso (2007) call this, the critical race
theory’s family tree. (p. 474) Stemming from a transdisciplinary genealogy and evolving into
various sectors of critical theory, these now include, LatCrit, FemCrit, AsianCrit and WhiteCrit
scholarship. (Solorzano & Yosso, 2007, p. 474) This permeability that transgresses disciplines,
has allowed for critical race theory to enter education and allowed it to serve as the catalyst for
varying methodologies and concepts.
Moreover, since CRT validates experiential knowledge, it allows for new theories and
methodologies to inform research. Testimonio is one of these methodologies. As Perez Huber
(2009) describes, there is no universal definition for Testimonio (p. 643) However, she arrives at
her own definition based on her own theorizing, “Testimonio [is] a verbal journey of a witness
who speaks to reveal the racial, classed, gendered, and nativist injustices they have suffered as a
means of healing, empowerment, and advocacy for a more humane present and future.” (Perez
Huber, 2009, p. 644) Though testimonio is born out of the LatCrit branch, it too is an example of
the strengths that lie in the five tenets of CRT.
Limitations of Critical Race Theory. Critical race theory serves as a starting point to
begin discussions around race in various disciplines. It originated as a critique of the Critical
Legal Studies framework and its inability to delve into analysis of racial injustice. (Delgado &
Stefancic, 2012). Despite CRT’s commitment to race and the intersectionality of any other form
of subordination, critiques of CRT found their way into the arena. Tara Yosso (2005) writes:
Women and people of Color who felt their gendered, classed, sexual, immigrant and
language experiences and histories were being silenced, challenged this tendency toward

17
a Black/White binary. They stressed that oppression could not be understood in terms of
only Black and White. (Yosso, 2005, p. 72).
These individuals felt there needed to be a discourse inclusive of all histories. By subjecting to
the Black/White binary, we “limit our understandings of the multiple ways in which African
Americans, Native Americans, Asian/Pacific Islanders, Chicanas/os and Latinas/os continue to
experience, respond to, and resist racism and other forms of oppression” (Yosso, 2005, p. 72).
Since I use Marable’s (1992) definition of racism, in which he explicitly states that racism is “a
system of ignorance, exploitation, and power used to oppress African American, Latinos, Asians,
Pacific Americans, American Indians and other people on the basis of ethnicity, culture
mannerisms, and color”, and CRT places race at the center of the discourse, then we must
incorporate all of these voices when doing research within race and ethnic studies in education.
Though “blind spots” exist within the CRT framework, they are not stagnant (Solorzano
& Yosso, 2000, p. 81). These blind spots become epicenters out of which new branches of the
discipline can form. While CRT may seem limiting, its historical evolution and adaptable nature
allow new disciplines to arise. CRT may not be all-inclusive and does center around the
Black/White binary that the United States has also succumbed to, but it does allow for the
framework to continue evolving.
Community Cultural Wealth
In her 2005 article, Whose Culture Has Capital? A Critical Race Theory Discussion of
Community Cultural Wealth, Yosso conceptualizes Community Cultural Wealth as a challenge
to traditional interpretations of Cultural Capital. Through the use of Critical Race Theory, she
challenges Bourdieu’s notion of cultural capital, as she believes, it inherently denies the fact that
people of color possess cultural capital.

18
Yosso frames Community Cultural Wealth by using six capitals:
1. Social Capital
“Can be understood as the networks of people and community resources.”
2. Familial Capital
“Refers to those cultural knowledge’s nurtured among familia (kin) that carry
a sense of community, history, memory, and cultural intuition”
3. Aspirational Capital
“The ability to maintain hopes and dreams for the future even in the face of
real and perceived barriers…. Resiliency.”
4. Linguistic Capital
“Includes the intellectual and social skills attained through communication
experiences in more than one language and/or style.” (
5. Navigational Capital
“Refers to the skills of Maneuvering through social institutions.”
6. Resistance Capital.
“Refers to those knowledge’s and skills fostered through oppositional
behavior that challenges inequality.” (Yosso, 2005, p.77-81).
She argues that these forms of capital draw on the knowledge’s Students of Color bring with
them from their homes and communities into the classroom (Yosso, 2005, p.69).
Collectively, Critical Race Theory and Community Cultural Wealth provide the context
for this study. CRT guides this research by providing a historical context for the study, while
Community Cultural Wealth validates and contextualize the experiences of the participants in
this study.

19
Accountability
In 2013, the State of California introduced the Local Control Funding Formula (LCFF),
which replaced the State’s old education finance system. The LCFF is designed to be a more
equitable model that increases and directs resources to high-need students. Under LCFF, local
agencies are required to follow eight state priorities. The first of these priorities is the delivery of
basic necessities for educational opportunity protected by the Williams v. California (2004)
settlement legislation.
William v. California (2004)
Although some scholars believe that overreliance on textbooks can inhibit a student’s
learning, it is important to note that textbooks represent an accountability measure for equity in
our nation’s schools (Oakes, 2004). On May 17, 2000, The American Civil Liberties Union
(ACLU), Public advocates, the Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational Fund, and
other civil rights organization, along with Morrison & Foerster LLP, filed a class-action lawsuit
on behalf of public school students in the state of California. The plaintiffs argued that the state
failed to provide thousands of public school students with the basic needs required for education
(Oakes, 2004). Particularly affected by these educational inequities were students from low-
income communities and communities of color. Stakeholders argued that such inequities were
unconstitutional, and consequently, violated the state and federal requirements that all students
be given equal access to public education regardless of race, color, or national origin. The
Settlement required that all students have equitable access to instructional materials, qualified
teachers, and safe facilities (Oakes, 2004). Additionally, it established clear standards and
provisions to hold schools accountable.

20
The Williams case found that students who have been historically marginalized, i.e. low-
income communities of color, were at the greatest disadvantage. Williams is key to our
discussion as it fundamentally supports the need for accountability in the dissemination of
instructional materials. Under this law, all students have the basic right to an equitable education.
Although this case has made strides in ensuring California’s public school students have access
to materials, these materials do not represent culturally relevant curriculum, especially for history
and social science textbooks.
History Frameworks and Textbooks
The American education system has proven to be a powerful site of indoctrination
(Carlson, 1970, Coffin, 2003; Hartman, 1948, Spring, 1994; Stanton-Salazar, 1997; Willis, 2001;
Wineburg, Mosborg, Porat & Duncan, 2007). Schoolhouses have served to perpetuate
stereotypes of the model minority, bilingual students, and have promoted low expectations for
ethnic minorities (Kanaiaupuni & Ishibashi, 2003; Ng, Lee, & Pak, 2007; Spring, 1994). These
actions, whether physical, social, or emotional, have desecrated rich cultural traditions through
the guise of public education (Spring, 1994; Valencia, et. al, 2002). History and the Social
Sciences offer students the ability to learn about people and society. U.S. History in particular,
can serve as a strong foundation to learn about the diversity of this nation (Alridge, 2006; Au,
2009; Bank 1995; Loewen, 2013). Through the learning of history, students explore the
democratic process, engage in critical analysis and examine multiple perspectives.
Since 1969, the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) has assessed
progress in history and the social sciences and has set forth a framework for educational
progress. The NAEP has been the defining national indicator for what students in the United
States know and can do in major academic subjects. NAEP is a congressionally authorized

21
project administered by the United States Department of Education’s National Center for
Education Statistics. During the era of the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act, Congress gave
permission to the board to continue determining the content and format of all NAEP
assessments. Under NCLB, NAEP was required to assess reading and math every two years for
students in fourth and eighth grade. Although history and science are considered part of the core
curriculum in the United States, the NAEP report on the U.S. History Framework (2010)
indicated that assessments of “other subjects such as science, writing, U.S. history, civics,
geography, and other areas” would only be conducted “to the extent time and resources allow.”
U.S. Public schools are required to teach American history at various junctures in the
educational pipeline. Nationally, the National Assessment of Education Progress sets a
framework and assesses students’ knowledge in grades four, eight and twelve. In California, the
Framework for History-Social Science (2005) assigns teaching U.S. history to grades five, eight,
eleven and twelve. Students are expected to learn pre-Columbian, early colonial, and early
American history in both fifth and eight grades (CDE, 2005). In eleventh grade, students are
expected to review early U.S. History and cover continuity and change in the twentieth century
(CDE, 2005). Finally, in twelfth grade, students engage in the study of U.S. government and
constitution (CDE, 2005).
The state of California explicitly states that the framework should serve as a guide for
instruction, and suggest that incorporating key leaders, and additional information beyond the
standards will serve to enrich the learning experience (CDE, 2005). However, the push for
standards-based education and the quantification of learning through achievements tests, have
led teachers to rely solely on the standards published by the California Department of Education.
In some cases, teachers rely solely on their textbooks to teach (Loewen, 2013).

22
Overreliance on textbooks, especially in history courses, is problematic and hinders
students’ ability to understand the complexities of society (Alridge, 2006; Au, 2009; Bank 1995;
Loewen, 2013). Despite the clause in the framework which suggests teachers may go beyond the
standards, U.S. history courses and curricula are dominated by the celebratory master narrative
(Alridge, 2006; Loewen, 2008; Loewen, 2013). In his book, Lies My Teacher Told Me:
Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong, James Loewen argues that textbooks
are filled with the conflicting desires to promote inquiry and indoctrinate blind patriotism.
According to Loewen, “history as usually taught before college, can hinder rather than help build
students’ understanding of how the world works” (Loewen, 2013, p.1). Heroic narratives mask
the history of conquest, violence, racism and sexism that are deeply rooted in the founding of this
nation (Loewen, 1995; Loewen, 2013). Furthermore, understanding the centrality of race in the
narrative of the United States is a key component of this nation’s past and enables students to
link that past to present-day events.
The New History-Social Science Framework
Following the implementation of the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) and the New
Generation Science Standards (NGSS) history teachers were hopeful that this indicated changes
for their discipline as well. On July 14, 2016, the California State Board of Education voted to
unanimously adopt a new History-Social Science Framework (McTygue, 2016). The revised
framework incorporates a new and explicit emphasis on the use of inquiry from Kindergarten
through twelfth grade. In addition, some of these changes include the inclusion of LGBT
citizens, Filipino-American contributions during the Second World War, and the election of
President Barack Obama. Although the new framework represents a change in the way teaching
is approached, it does not supplant the current California History-Social Science Content

23
Standards. Therefore, school districts are being advised not to purchase textbooks yet. In order
for this framework to become the new standards, the state legislature must vote on it, and this has
not happened yet (McTygue, 2016). Therefore there is no true accountability in ensuring
materials benefitting the new framework will reach schools, especially the most underserved.
Authors of this document anticipate that tangible changes at school sites will come at the earliest,
if ever, 2019 (McTygue, 2016).
History teachers are expected to teach beyond the standards in order to make the case that
their content area is valuable. In many cases, professional organizations for history teachers have
pushed out several ways to align the standards to Common Core and the English Language
Development (ELD) standards. While these efforts are positive in some respects because they
support instruction, they also perpetuate the idea that history standards are not important enough
to merit true attention. The new framework encourages teachers to use inquiry-based practices
that are critical to deviating from a Eurocentric perspective on history. However, this framework
is not enough, and there is a lot of room for growth.
Racial Diversity and the Teacher Force
According to the U.S. Department of Education’s study on Racial Diversity in the
Educator workforce (2016), 82 percent of elementary and secondary educators in public schools
are white. While the proportion of Teachers of Color has increased, they continue to make up a
small percentage of the teacher workforce in the United States. In 1987, thirteen percent of
public schools teachers were teachers of color compared to 18 percent in the 2011-2012 school
year (US Department of Education, 2016). The U.S. Department of Education found that the
increase in teachers of color does not define a proportional increase for all non-white racial and

24
ethnic categories (US Department of Education, 2016). When the data was divided by racial and
ethnic group, it showed a decrease in the proportion of Black teachers.
Educational Pipeline
Educational researchers use the pipeline metaphor to describe the ways in which students
move through K-12 and postsecondary levels of education (Perez Huber et al., 2006). The
educational pipeline suggests that students of color enroll, persist, and graduate at lower rates
than their white counterparts (Perez Huber et al., 2006). According to Perez Huber et al. (2006)
White students move through the pipeline and graduate from high school at higher rates than all
other groups. However, it is important to note that there is a shift in trend at the postsecondary
level. While White students continue to outperform Latina/o, African American, and Native
American students at all levels of education, Asian American student retention and graduation
rates increase during postsecondary education when compared to White students (Perez Huber et
al., 2006).
In California, research has found that students of color experience overcrowded,
underresourced schools that are most in need of qualified teachers (Oakes et al., 2004). These
students do not receive high-quality education when compared to their white counterparts (Perez
Huber et al., 2006). In their policy recommendations, Perez Huber et al. (2006) suggest that
access to qualified teachers is a key component to meeting the needs of diverse students.
Teachers who are well qualified will have the strategies, resources, and tools needed to meet the
learning needs of diverse students, including having the ability to create positive classroom
environments that validate students’ cultural identities (Caroll et al., 2005; Duncan-Andrade,
2007; Perez Huber et al., 2006).

25
Darling-Hammond (2004) explores the disparities and importance of well-qualified
teachers in the state of California. Using data reported by the California Teachers Association,
Darling-Hammond finds that there is a distinct correlation between academic achievement, as
reported in the state's Academic Performance Index (API), and the percentage of emergency
credentialed teachers working within district. The disparities were even more profound in
schools with higher rates of families considered low-socioeconomic status. Additionally, schools
that had higher percentages of free or reduced lunch, which is used an indicator for low SES, had
higher numbers of minority students (Darling-Hammond, 2004; Shields et al., 2001). Darling-
Hammond's (2004) analysis found that a greater the percentage of faculty without credentials,
the greater percentage of free and reduced lunch, greater percentage of minority students and
consequently, the lowest percentage of academic achievement. Moreover, students at these sites
are often subject to years of schooling with under prepared educators (Darling-Hammond, 2004;
Shields et al., 2001).
Access to qualified teachers is perhaps one of the most severe inequalities that exist
within the education system (Darling-Hammond, 2004; Duncan-Andrade, 2007; Ingersoll, 1999;
Ladson-Billings Oakes, 2004 Perez Huber et al., 2006; Perez Huber et al., 2015). Oakes et. al,
(2004) suggests that well-qualified teachers are those that possess the strategies tools and
resources needed to meet the diverse needs of students and create engaging classroom
environments that validate cultural identities. Increasingly, accelerated certificate programs, in
the form of university internships create incentives for young graduates to enter urban areas as
short-term educators. Some of these candidates earn their teaching credentials while
simultaneously teaching. While these are wonderful opportunities for graduates, these programs

26
do not supply the number of qualified and culturally aware candidates needed to help students in
urban high schools succeed (Oakes, 2004; Perez Huber et al., 2006).
Qualified teachers are key to the implementation of a rigorous curriculum (Darling-
Hammond & Berry, 1999; Oakes, 2004; Perez Huber et al., 2006). Many researchers have found
that there is a direct link between teacher expectations and student outcomes (Duncan-Andrade,
2007; Perez Huber et al., 2006; Quartz et al., 2003; Valenzuela, 1999; Yosso, 2005).
Many education scholars found that some educators view minority students from low-
income communities through a deficit lens (Gorski, 2008; Duncan-Andrade, 2007; Yosso, 2005;
Valencia,1997). Such educators contribute to inequities at the K-12 level by approaching their
practice through practices that do not validate students' home culture. Thus, urban educators
must refrain from using culturally deficit frameworks, and acknowledge that many of the
families they serve do indeed value education (Abrego, 2006; Abrego, 2010; Perez Huber et al.,
2006; Valenzuela, 1999; Yosso, 2005). Educators must begin by equalizing their expectations of
students and motivating them to succeed. Teachers and administrators must employ culturally
relevant pedagogies and curriculum in order to help all students reach their potential (Perez
Huber et al., 2006; Quartz et al.,2003; Valenzuela, 1999; Yosso, 2005). Educators who view
their students through a deficit lens associate academic failure with perceived familial
deficiencies which include the belief that certain students have limited intelligence lack
motivation and inadequate home socialization (Gorski, 2008; Duncan-Andrade, 2007; Yosso,
2005; Valencia, 1999).
Historically, schools have not succeeded in providing quality education to Students of
Color. Many scholars have found that inequitable distribution of qualified teachers contributes to
the achievement gap between Students of Color and White students (Darling-Hammon & Berry,

27
1999; Ingersoll, 2005; Oakes, 2004). Students of Color who come from low-income families are
most affected by this inequity. In spite of all of the challenges faced by students of color, many
of them persist through the educational pipeline and eventually become teachers of color.
The Teacher Pipeline
The teacher pipeline refers to the pathway that provides the K-12 teacher workforce (US
Department of Education, 2016). The teacher pipeline consists of the key points for teacher
education and retention (US Department of Education, 2016). Traditional models for teacher
education consist of postsecondary enrollment, enrollment in education programs, postsecondary
completion, entering the workforce, and teacher retention (US Department of Education, 2016).
Although there are alternative pathways for teacher education, such as becoming a member of
Teach for America, postsecondary pathways continue to be the dominant pathway to
certification. Research has found that diversity decreases at each point of the teacher pipeline.
Much like in the educational pipeline, the teacher education pipeline shows there are
fewer Black and Latino students enrolled and completing teacher education program compared
to their white counterparts (Perez Huber et al., 2015; US Department of Education, 2016). The
U.S. Department of Education found that, while 73 percent of undergraduate students majoring
in education completed their degree within six years, only 42 percent of Black education majors
and 49 percent of Latino education majors completed their degrees after beginning enrollment
(US Department of Ed, 2016).
National data suggests that the majority of education majors and students enrolled in
teacher education programs are white (US Department of Education, 2016). The number of
students of color enrolled in Teacher Education programs is low compared to the number of
students of color who enroll at those same institutions. In 2012, 37 percent of undergraduates

28
were students of color while only 25 percent of students enrolled in education programs at the
same institutions were students of color (US Department of Education, 2016).
Although the U.S. Department of Education’s (2016) report on the state of Racial
Diversity is important because it highlights racial composition in the teaching profession, it does
not take into account the lived experiences of Teachers of Color. The racial categories used
within this study, though helpful, continue to be “catch all” categories for educational
researchers. It would be important to assess the reasons students of color are leaving the teacher
pipeline and additionally the factors that contribute to retention.
Though the teacher workforce is becoming more diverse in general, diversity decreases at
multiple points in the teacher pipeline as teachers move forward in postsecondary education (US
Department of Education, 2016). However, these teachers carry with them the experiences they
had as students in the educational pipeline. These experiences inform their pedagogical beliefs
and inherently, the ways in which they teach (US Department of Education, 2016). A diverse
teaching staff can challenge the thinking and assumptions of its members.
Critique of Teacher Diversity
Many scholars argue that diversifying the teacher force will enhance the learning
experience for historically underrepresented students (Achinstein & Aguirre, 2008; Duncan-
Andrade, 2007; Howard, 2001 Valenzuela, 1999). However, increasing teacher diversity will not
work to create equity in education, in it of itself (Achinstein & Aguirre, 2008; Valenzuela, 1999).
Teachers must have a vested interest in teaching students from diverse backgrounds, especially if
they plan on teaching culturally relevant content. Achinsten and Aguirre (2002) question this
ideology in a study they conducted with novice Teachers of Color. Their work represents a new
frame from which to view diversity in the classroom. Achinsten and Aguirre suggest that

29
Teachers of Color will either be perceived as a cultural match or cultural suspect in the
classroom. Their findings complicate the limited conception of cultural match that dominate
policy, research, and discussions about Teachers of Color and are especially important to this
study.
Pedagogy for liberation
In Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1972), Paulo Freire introduces many concepts and
theories, such as the relationship between the oppressed and the oppressors, the banking system
of education, problem-posing education, student-teacher relationships, and praxis (Freire, 1993).
Freire claimed that social order consists of oppressors and the oppressed, and the oppressors use
education as a form of oppression to maintain unequal power relations. Furthermore, the unjust
system of oppression results in the dehumanization of the oppressed, and they must struggle to
overcome this in order to restore the humanity of both (Freire, 1972). The oppressed cannot be
liberated by the oppressed, but rather by themselves and “by those who are in true solidarity with
them” (Freire, 1972, p. 45).
Freire’s philosophy serves as an analytical tool for this study. It provides the context by
which we may understand the role of the educator as complicit in problematizing the ways in
which we teach U.S. history. Teachers who teach strictly from a textbook contribute to a system
that oppresses marginalized communities. Such teachers are not critical of their methodology and
employ practices that uphold the rote memorization of facts, dates, and people, instead of
facilitating critical historiography (Loewen, 1995). Additionally, textbooks are the result of
educational policies that are ratified by state legislatures. In the state of California, History-
Social Science standards remain the only discipline that cannot be updated without legislative
consent (McTygue, 2016). This means, that while K-16 history educators have worked tirelessly

30
to write multiple curriculum frames, they are seldom practiced because they have not been
approved by the state legislature. Unapproved material does not receive funding, therefore
cannot become tangible instructional materials (i.e. textbooks) for teachers.
Those in positions of power to write, publish, and distribute instructional materials have
the power to include or dismiss the stories of people from diverse backgrounds. This decision
then informs the way hundreds of thousands of school children learn, and dominates the way in
which teachers deliver instruction. Since the education system upholds the banking concept,
instructors are seen as gatekeepers of knowledge.
Freire in the classroom
Many scholars and practitioners have advocated for the use Freireian strategies in the
classroom (Emdin, 2016; Freire, 1993; Loewen, 1995; Loewen, 2013; Shor, 1987; Vilson, 2014).
In 1987, Ira Shor authored, Educating the Educators: A Freireian Approach to the Crisis in
Teacher Education, as a response to the conservative educational policies of the 1980’s, which
he argued, were the massive failures of educational reform.
1. Dialogue teaching: teachers engage students in dialogue to increase student
engagement and to prevent the banking method of 'teacher talk'.
2. Critical literacy: going beyond the basic reading, writing, thinking, speaking, and
listening habits, to engage learners into conceptual inquiry into self and society and into
the discipline under study.
3. Situated Pedagogy: Teachers situate the learning within the students´ cultures,
environment, and real-life context. The goal is to integrate experiential materials with
conceptual methods and academic subjects. This increases learners` interest in the

31
subject, while also allowing them to engage with their reality and to critically analyze
their own cultural context.
4. Ethnography and Cross-cultural communications: Teachers need to study the
population that they are teaching for. Particularly in diverse populations, teachers need an
understanding of language and cultures, and how to address communications in teaching
in a multicultural society.
5. Change-agency: Teachers need to study community analysis and models of
community change in order to serve as egalitarian change agents. They need to
understand the institutions in which they are working, from the school organization, the
school board or other governing body, community-school linkages, and other areas. This
can also be understood as learning about the overarching structures in which they are
teaching.
6. Inequality in School and Society: Teachers need to understand the inequalities both
within the school and within the larger societal context. (Shor, 1987, p. 23-26).
The Freireian approach serves as an identifier of critical consciousness in teaching.
Teachers who teach beyond the standards, especially in a discipline like history, are critical of
their positionality and its effect on instruction.
Summary
Critical Race Theory and Community Cultural Wealth serve to center the discussion on
power and inequities in education. The use of these theories, help illuminate the effect of the
disparities in content material in history curriculum, frameworks, and accountability.
Furthermore, this exploration supports the need for critical pedagogy and diversifying the teacher
workforce in the United States.

32
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Critical Race Theory is a framework that guides the research questions and methods of
this study. This dissertation attempts to reframe power as being held in the hands of the
classroom teacher, as opposed to policy makers. By using CRT, Community Cultural Wealth and
qualitative methods, the research questions within this study place value on the experiential
knowledge of teachers, and furthermore their perception of what effective teaching practices are
(Cresswell, 2013; Merriam, 2009; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Yosso, 2005). Teachers are not
interchangeable cogs in the system of education, but rather, central characters in the shaping of
our society (Agarwal-Rangnath et al., 2016; Loewen, 2008; Valenzuela, 1999).
Methodology
The purpose of this study is to understand the pedagogical beliefs and assumptions of
Teachers of Color who employ critical pedagogy in the U.S. history classroom. This study aims
to understand the ways in which some educators navigate policies, curriculum, and standardized
education in order to teach beyond euro-centric ideologies. This study does not plan to produce
generalizable data, but rather truly understand the unique experiences of teachers that teach
beyond the standards. Specifically, this study aims to unearth the ways in which teachers
navigate the implementation of Common Core and the History-Social Science Framework for
California Public Schools.
In this chapter, I will describe how, 1) CRT informs my methods, 2) the setting of the
study, 3) the sampling methods and participants, 4) the data collection process and 5) data
analysis. The methods of this study are all structured to answer the following question:
1. What are the beliefs and pedagogical practices associated with teaching race and
ethnicity in a U.S. history classroom?

33
a. How do teachers’ conceptualization of their own ethnic identities impact their
relationships with students?
b. How do Social Studies teachers compensate for the lack of culturally relevant
curriculum in the California Content Standards when teaching diverse
populations?
c. Do US History teachers perceive their approach to teaching a form of social
justice?
The questions explored in this study are dependent on the context, current and historical,
in which Teachers of Color find themselves. Therefore, the use of a qualitative study is
appropriate, since one of the major aims of qualitative research is to understand how people
make sense of their experiences (Cresswell, 2013; Merriam, 2009; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). It
is important to note that the essence of this study is based on perception (e.g. how Teachers
perceive their role in a school context) and interaction (e.g. the relationships teachers have with
students and colleagues).
Qualitative Methods
This study will use a qualitative case study design. Qualitative research aims to
understand how people make sense of their experiences (Cresswell, 2013; Merriam, 2009;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Qualitative design involves understanding four dynamic
characteristics: (a) focus on meaning and understanding, (b) researcher as primary instrument, (c)
an inductive process, and (d) rich description (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Qualitative research relies on interviews as one of the major sources of data (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Interviews provide the researcher with information that may not be observable.
Interviews are key to the qualitative process, as they allow the researcher to understand how the

34
interviewee makes sense of the phenomena in question. In order to acquire meaningful data
through the interview process, the researcher must focus on designing an interview protocol.
This may protocol may range in design; it may be structured, semi-structured or unstructured
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Moreover, the research design was a hands-on process that involved
looking at the various components of the design, and assessing their implications for one another.
(Maxwell, 2013) The four dynamics to understand for the research design included focusing on
the meaning and understanding of the study, the inductive process, rich description, and the
researcher as the instrument.
Context
In 2016, the California Department of Education unanimously voted to adopt a new
history-social science framework for public schools. This effort was led by members out of the
California History Project, a community of K-12 educators committed to providing the highest
quality history instruction (CHSSP, 2017). Each of the participants received their teacher
education preparation at university that belongs to this discipline-specific network.
Participants
This critical case study will use purposeful selection criteria. Purposeful sampling is
based on the assumption that the researcher wants to understand and gain insight from a specific
group, and must select a sample of which this may be understood (Chein, 1981; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). The focus of this study is on the teaching of race and ethnicity in a United States
History classroom. The following selection criteria will be used for participants in this study:
(a) History teacher in K-12 setting,
(b) Identifies as a critically reflective teacher (Larrivee, 2000).
(c) Attended State of California approved credentialing program

35
(d) has taught at least one section of U.S. history,
(e) Employs Freireian approaches to education
(f) currently teaches in a public school
(g) must be available for interviews during fall 2017
(h) open to classroom observations by researcher.
Table 1: Participants

Participant Demographics
(Self-Identified)
Subject
(Courses Taught)
Credentialing
Program
Teaching
Experienc
e
School Setting
1 Female, Latina, 48 U.S. History,
Women’s Studies
CSU, Dominguez
Hills
27 Years District, 9-12
Palos Verdes,
CA
2 Female, Chicana, 35 U.S. History,
Civics and
Economics, World
History
CSU, Long Beach 5 years Charter, 6-8
Watts, CA
3 Male, Latino, 28 U.S. History CSU, Long Beach 2 years District, 9-12
Hawthorne,
CA
4 Male, Latino, 28 Ancient
Civilizations, U.S.
History
CSU, Los
Angeles
4 years Charter, 6-8
Bell, CA
5 Male, Black, 36 U.S. History CSU, Dominguez
Hills
12 years District, 9-12
Inglewood,
CA

Instruments. In order to centralize the experiences of the participants, the researcher will
conduct one in-depth, semi-structured interview. The purpose of the semi-structured interview is
to allow an open-ended format that does not assume to define responses from the respondents
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Pizarro, 1998). Instead, a semi-structured interview will allow the
data to reflect the participant's meaning and understanding (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Pizarro,

36
1998). The questions in the protocol will be a mix of qualitative questions. The prompts are
designed to stimulate discussion about the participant’s background, value, interpretive, and
opinion questions (Appendix B: Interview Protocol). Before meeting participants for an in-depth
discussion, they will be required to fill-out a Pre-Interview form (Appendix A: Teacher Profile
and Appendix B: Pedagogy Questionnaire). This form will serve to help the researcher gain
insight into the participant’s background to assist in tailoring the semi-structured interview and
probes to be used during the in-depth interview. Interviews will take place in a pre-determined
and mutually agreed upon location.
The questions within the pre-interview form ask the participant to share his or her name,
ethnicity, hometown, and educational background. These identifiers build on the qualitative
nature of the study, because they provide background on the specific experiences and teacher
training each participant has undergone. Additionally, the pre-interview form will ask
participants to identify the use of critical pedagogical strategies within their own practice (Shor,
1987). Participants will use a 5 level likert scale to identify their use of the following practices:
1. Dialogue teaching
2. Critical literacy
3. Situated Pedagogy
4. Ethnography and Cross-cultural communications
Limitations, Delimitations and Assumptions
Limitations. This study will rely on the responses of the participants from the interview.
Additionally, interviews will be conducted within a four to six month time restriction.
Delimitations. The delimitations of this study were as follows:

37
• The researcher will only interview history teachers who identify as Teachers of Color.
Teachers must have completed a state approved credentialing program in the state of
California.
• Teachers must be available for interview during the fall semester of 2017.
• Teachers must currently teach at least one section of U.S. history.
Assumptions. The researcher assumed that the participants were truthful during the
interviews. The Participants have a sincere interest in participating in this research study.
Ethics
As a qualitative researcher, I am the primary instrument of data collections and analysis.
Therefore, my observations and interviews are filtered through my own perceptions of reality
(Merriam, 2009). My ethnicity as a Latina of Guatemalan decent, and my experience growing up
in the city of Inglewood, contribute to my perception of the data that will be collected for this
study. In order to enhance internal validity, I will use the following strategies suggested by
Merriam (2009):
1) Use findings from interviews to guide follow up interviews and member checks
2) Test emerging themes and ideas with participants by conducting member checks.
3) Track ongoing learning with written memos.
Data Analysis
Since this study is focused on understanding a specific group, the researcher will
engage in the Constant Comparative Method in order to analyze the data (Corbin & Strauss,
1990). This approach helps the researcher engage in a continual analysis of the data to
develop themes. To employ this approach, the researcher will follow Glaser and Strauss

38
(1967) recommendation, and identify open codes, axial codes, and selective codes. Data
coding will guide the process of ongoing comparison. The researcher will return to analyzing
and coding data throughout data collection. Initial codes will include: critical pedagogy, race,
ethnic studies, multiple perspectives, inquiry-based learning, culturally relevant pedagogy.
Credibility and trustworthiness.
Maxwell (2013) suggests that the goal of a qualitative study is to understand bias and use
it productively, not to eliminate it. As such, the researcher will make sure to use peer review of
data, member checks and rich, thick descriptions of interviews and observations in order to
ensure credibility and validity of data (Miles, Huberman & Saldana, 2013).
When possible, interviews will be recorded, in order to assist in transcription. Once all
sessions are complete, the researcher will transcribe the interview. Participants will be invited to
continue participation in the analysis process as a way to member check. The researcher will
engage in the constant comparative method.
Positionality
As a first-generation, daughter of Guatemalan immigrants, who grew up in the inner city,
I recognize that my subjectivity is at the forefront of this study. I have first hand experience with
the exclusion of People of Color in textbooks and school curriculum. My research interest in is a
direct reflection of my personal experience as a Person of Color, navigating the system of public
education as a student and teacher. As the data collection tool and conductor of data analysis in
this qualitative research study, I recognize that my personal experiences and opinions should be
clear and at the forefront as I practice self-awareness.

39
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
INTRODUCTION
When I was an undergrad, I started writing notes on the margins of my notebooks…I
don’t even know why I began writing them, I just knew that I never wanted to forget.
These notes were all of the little things that professors and students said that didn’t sit
well with me. A lot of times they were out right racist, sexist, or discriminatory
comments. I did this in my post grad during my credentialing program. I did it as a
graduate student at UCLA and now, I find myself doing it in a doctoral program, that
claims to train the next generation leaders of our urban schools. I can’t believe I just
realized, I’ve literally been living in the margins at every level of my higher ed journey.
I’ve been living in the margins, writing in the margins, because instinctively I must’ve
known that these were the stories that needed to be told. These were the notes that
should’ve been highlighted. These are the lessons I’ll never unlearn.
-Monica, February 2017
I begin this section with a memoir I wrote in February of 2017. My positionality as a
students and teacher of color is undeniably linked to my devotion to this study. As a teacher in
Los Angeles, my classrooms are filled with students from all over Latin America, specifically,
the countries in Central America. It is because of them, that I now find myself in an urgent
search for the diversification of our history curriculum and content. Unlike other disciplines in
which race can be ambiguous and nuanced, history as a content area demands that culture, race,
and ethnicity be placed at the forefront. The current socio-political context of the United States
has exacerbated this need and many teachers are feeling the unintended consequences of the
political climate within the walls of their classrooms.

40
This qualitative study was conducted to explore the personal beliefs, perspectives and
pedagogical practices of Teachers of Color who use critical pedagogy to teach U.S. History.
Participants were chosen through purposeful sampling in order to selectively confine the research
to a specific group of educators. The study included five participants. Both Critical Race Theory
and Community Cultural Wealth were used to guide the research and analysis in this study.
Participants were selected through purposeful sampling (Delgado & Stefancic, 2012; Solórzano
& Yosso; 2007; Yosso, 2005). Each of the participants is: (a) a history teacher in California, (b)
credentialed via a state approved program, (c) currently teaches U.S. History, (d) identifies as a
Teacher of Color, and (e) uses critical pedagogy within his or her classroom. I conducted in-
depth semi-structured interviews with each of the participants.
As part of the pre-interview process, each teacher was asked to gauge his or her
pedagogical practices using a five level likert scale to identify their use of Freirean Strategies
(Appendix B: Pedagogy Questionnaire). This step ensured that the Teachers of Color who
participated in the study employed the use of Freirean strategies in the classroom. All four
participants rated themselves a five in each of the following categories:
1. Dialogue teaching: teachers engage students in dialogue to increase student
engagement and to prevent the banking method of 'teacher talk'.
2. Critical literacy: going beyond the basic reading, writing, thinking, speaking, and
listening habits, to engage learners into conceptual inquiry into self and society and into
the discipline under study.
3. Situated Pedagogy: Teachers situate the learning within the students´ cultures,
environment, and real-life context. The goal is to integrate experiential materials with
conceptual methods and academic subjects. This increases learners` interest in the

41
subject, while also allowing them to engage with their reality and to critically analyze
their own cultural context.
4. Ethnography and Cross-cultural communications: Teachers need to study the
population that they are teaching for. Particularly in diverse populations, teachers need an
understanding of language and cultures, and how to address communications in teaching
in a multicultural society (Shor, 1987, p. 23-26).
Participant Demographics
In order to provide a more complete picture of each teacher participating in this study, a
detailed description is provided in this chapter. Each profile includes personal data such as
family background, educational background, age, current position, and location. In an effort to
protect the identity of the participants, this study will refer to each participant as, Teacher A,
Teacher B, Teacher C, Teacher D and Teacher E. The letter assignments were given in the order
in which the interviews took place. Teacher A was the first to be interviewed, concluding with
Teacher E. Although this is the order in which the interviews took place, each of the participants
reached out with follow-up input, and agreed to engage in member checks. All five participants
self-identified as People of Color and used the term Teacher of Color when referring to
themselves. However, it is important to note that this identity was used to identify with a
community of people, who each have even further defined identity markers.
Teacher A is a 48-year-old Latina who grew up in La Puente, a city in the San Gabriel
Valley. She grew up in a community that was about 99% Latino/a of Mexican descent. She
attended UC Santa Barbara as an undergraduate and majored in Sociology. After earning her
bachelor’s degree, she began working with a community clinic in the South Bay. During this
time, she created and implemented pregnancy prevention education programs that would be

42
taken into schools across the South Bay. This experience motivated her to go into teaching, and
eventually enrolled in the teacher-credentialing program at CSU, Dominguez Hills. She began
her teaching career at Morningside High School in the Inglewood Unified School District. After
working there for eight years, she moved to the Palos Verdes Peninsula Unified School District.
She has taught history for twenty-seven years, and currently teaches U.S. History, Women’s
Studies and Sociology. She has been the advisory of the Gay Straight Alliance (GSA) on her
campus for 14 years, and also advises the Palos Verdes Organization of Women (PVOW) and
the Coalition for the Advancement of Rights and Equality (C.A.R.E.). She promotes coalition
building among her clubs, and each year the organizations collaborate to host “Human Rights
Week.”
Teacher B is a 28-year-old male who grew up in the South Bay area of Los Angeles. He
spent most of his childhood between Inglewood, Lawndale, and Gardena. He grew up in
communities that were about 45% Black, 45% Latino and 10% Asian/Pacific Islander. He
attended CSU, Long Beach where he earned a bachelor’s degree in History. After graduating, he
enrolled in CSULB’s credentialing program. He currently teaches U.S. History at his Alma
matter and is in his second year of teaching. He coaches Freshman/Sophomore basketball.
Teacher C is a 35-year-old Chicana who grew up in Santa Ana, California. She considers
herself second generation and her family is originally from Mexico. She grew up in a community
that was predominantly Latino/a but attended schools that were about roughly 50% Latino/a and
50% White. She attended Riverside community college before transferring to CSU, Fullerton
where she earned a bachelors degree in History. She then went on to earn her teaching credential
and Master of Arts degree from CSU, Long Beach. She has taught for five years and currently
teaches U.S. History and government at a charter school in Watts, CA.

43
Teacher D is a 28 years old Latino who grew up in Boyle Heights. He is first generation
Mexican-American. He attended CSU, Los Angeles where he earned a bachelors degree in
history and simultaneously completed his teacher preparation program. He has taught for four
years and currently teaches Ancient Civilizations and U.S. history at a charter school in Bell,
CA.
Teacher E is a 36 year-old Black male who grew up in the greater Los Angeles area. He
is originally from the South Central area of Los Angeles. When he was fourteen he moved to,
and went to high school in Riverside, California. He attended UC Davis as an undergraduate and
earned his teaching credential from CSU, Dominguez Hills. He has taught history for twelve
years and currently works for the Inglewood Unified School District.
Findings
Identity, Accountability and Social Justice: Tenets for Equity in U.S. History
Research Question: What are the beliefs and pedagogical practices associated with
teaching race and ethnicity in a U.S. history classroom?
Three major themes for equity in the U.S. History classroom emerged from this study.
These themes are: (1) Identity, (2) Accountability, and (3) Social Justice. The first theme,
identity, emerged as teachers discussed the conceptualization of their own ethnic identities and
the ways in which it has impacted their relationship with their students. Within this category,
teachers addressed how they saw themselves represented within their history books, and how
these events affected their approach to teaching history. The second theme developed as
accountability. The theme of accountability addresses the ways in which the participants
navigate systems of accountability in order to teach culturally relevant content within the
parameters set up by the State of California, and their school sites. Finally, the last theme to

44
develop was the concept of Social Justice. Each of the participants perceived their role as a
history teacher and their approach to teaching history, as a mechanism for social justice.
Together, these themes represent tenets for equity in the U.S. History classroom.
Yosso’s (2005) Community Cultural Wealth was used as an analytical framework
throughout this study. As such, it allows us to center and validate the experiential knowledge,
intuition, and cultural epistemologies that each of the participants contribute to their every day
practice. Using only select quotes from the individual interviews, this chapter highlights the
personal experiences, beliefs, and practices of Teachers of Color who currently teach U.S.
History in California public schools. This chapter will begin to answer the central research
question of this study by answering the research sub-questions outlined in this study. The
guiding research questions were:
2. How do teachers’ conceptualization of their own ethnic identities impact their
relationships with students?
3. How do Social Studies teachers compensate for the lack of culturally relevant
pedagogy in the California Content Standards when teaching diverse populations?
4. How do U.S. History teachers perceive their approach to teaching a form of social
justice?
Identity
A. How do teachers’ conceptualization of their own ethnic identities impact their
relationships with students?
“Once social change begins, it cannot be reversed. You cannot un-educate the person who has
learned to read. You cannot humiliate the person who feels pride. You cannot oppress the people
who are not afraid anymore.” –Cesar Chavez

45
Whose identity matters anyway?
Research shows that state standards and the majority of district-mandated textbooks are
written with Eurocentric bias (Alridge, 2006; Loewen, 1995; Loewen, 2008; Loewen, 2013;
Zinn). All five of the participants expressed a concern for the ways in which standards,
curriculum, and textbooks omit the perspectives of people of color and historically marginalized
groups. Each expressed having an ah-ha moment, awakening, consciousness, or unlearning of
history that became their catalyst for learning and teaching counter-narratives (Solorzano &
Yosso, 2002; Yosso, 2005). Teacher A recalls this moment happening in college,
I never ever! Learned a single thing about people who looked like me. It was pretty
much, your traditional history narrative, you know George Washington was the greatest
president we ever had. Abraham Lincoln freed the slaves. There was a civil rights
movement, Martin Luther King gave a speech and yay! We’re all equal now. And that
was in the 1980s, and you know that’s like in the middle of the Reagan Era, so you know,
that was the history that I was taught. When I think about that, that is like so shameful,
given that the fact that the neighborhood that I grew up in, had to be 95% Mexican. Not
even Latino because of the time period and what was happening in the country. I would
say the neighborhood had to be 95% Mexican. I could name the white kids I went to
school with, on one hand. And then the other 5% kids were mostly Black kids, and some
Asian kids but that’s it.
Teacher A’s testimony is a prime example of the way in which state-mandated curricula support
a majoritarian narrative and occult the experiences of communities of color (Crenshaw, 1988;
Delgado & Stefancic, 2001; Love, 2004; Matsuda et al.1993; Solórzano & Yosso, 2002). She
grew up in the San Gabriel Valley in Southern California. Her family has lived there for several

46
generations and she lived in a community that was predominantly Mexican. The town and
greater valley area were both named in Spanish, a direct consequence of the historical truths of
the community. Even in this community, the gatekeepers of education were White teachers who,
although nice as described by Teacher A, did not teach culturally relevant content.
And so how do you have a district that’s 95% Latino and you never teach them history
that is relevant to them? Ever! Ever! Like, that’s just, I don’t understand that. And I had
some decent teachers along the way. You know, who were nice people, who made the
history they did teach us interesting. But, never! And there were no teachers that looked
like me. So, it wasn’t until I got to college, and started taking all those ethnic studies
classes, and then I was pissed! Like you know, what the hell!? Which is what I think
guides everything I do, in the classroom.
Teacher A experienced anger once she found out she wasn’t taught culturally relevant content.
This experience did more than help her understand that she was not taught her history, it helped
her understand that there were critical threads of the fabric of society that were left out of the
mainstream narrative (Alridge, 2006; Loewen, 2008; Loewen, 2013). These actions may not
have been intentional, but whether her teachers knew it or not, their work perpetuated a
Eurocentric narrative. Though this experience shocked Teacher A, it became the catalyst for the
work that she does.
From the very first day that I taught school at Morningside, I knew that I didn’t want any
child to have the experience, that I had of getting to college and thinking, What the hell!
*Teacher A didn’t teach me history! And being pissed. And you know, here I am 27 years
later, and still, it’s a journey and a process to do that. To make sure I’m doing it right and
to make sure I’m doing it justice for all kids.

47
Teacher A explains how learning that she hadn’t been taught history in an inclusive manner,
became her reason for ensuring that she did. Many of the other participants in this study cited
similar experiences as pivotal in their educational trajectories.
The bridge from identity to content
Teachers use their lived experiences and knowledge of effective teaching strategies to
inform the ways in which they teach (Carroll et al., 2005; NCES, 1996; Oakes, 2004; Perez
Huber et al., 2006; Valencia, 1997). Unlike Teacher A, Teacher B attended schools that valued
the local community’s culture. His school’s hosted, Hispanic Heritage Month, Black History
Month and Pacific Islander Month celebrations. Although these cultures were celebrated, the
majority of culturally relevant content for the Latino population was Mexican-centric. Teacher B
always knew he “wasn’t like the other Latinos”, because he was Ecuadorian, but he said that
these experiences helped him value culture in general, and expressed positive sentiments towards
his school district’s approach.
It wasn’t perfect, but they tried and I think if some of the teachers had known I was
Ecuadorian, or what Ecuadorian was, then they would’ve tried harder. But I don’t know. I
think, now we’re becoming more, teachers nowadays, even older ones, are becoming
more aware. Sometimes it doesn’t reflect because they’re teaching strategies don’t
change. Or you know they’re like, firm in the way that they’re teaching. Cause you know
they’ve been doing it for x amount of years. But, I believe to some extent, they
understand what’s going on.
Here, Teacher B is speaking to the shift in demographics of the community he works in. He
currently teaches at his alma matter and he’s noticed the change in demographics over the ten
years he’s been a student and teacher. When he was attending school, the majority of Latinos in

48
the community were of Mexican descent. It was common for people to use Mexican and Latino
synonymously. Today, the Latino population has an increasing Central American presence.
When asked if his teachers taught him history that was culturally relevant, Teacher B stated,
There was an effort. I mean, I walked away learning things that, I probably shouldn’t
have been taught because it wasn’t in the pacing. I had one teacher from the bay area. He
works for Cal now. He was probably like Afrocentric, super just like grassroots
movement. And to me, to me he was ahead of his time. So the stuff I try to teach now, is
like the way he taught us.
His teacher’s deviation from the instructional pacing guide was the reason why Teacher B was
engaged in the content. His teacher understood that the pacing guide was not enough, and he
needed to go beyond its confines in order to teach effectively to the students in his classroom.
This resonated with Teacher B, and influenced his own teaching style.
Similarly, Teacher C spoke about her consciousness initiating as a result of a paper she
wrote in 10
th
grade. She realized that stereotypical depictions of her community extended beyond
what she was taught in her textbooks and spilled over into television and cinema.
The first paper I ever wrote was in 10th grade English. It was about the lack of "Hispanics"
in movies and TV. It was the beginning of my consciousness. I learned about Mexican
tropes; the spicy Latina, the Latin lover, etc.
This assignment gave Teacher C the opportunity to explore the ways in which her community was
depicted. Although this was an assignment that required work outside of the classroom, it remained
the foundation of her critical consciousness. Teacher C understood that such depictions were
stereotypical and not accurate portrayals of her community. She did not need someone to point it
out for her. It was her experiential knowledge that allowed her to understand that it was not right.

49
Teachers often teach the way they were taught. If the practices used to frame a student’s
educational trajectory are Eurocentric in nature, and they are never challenged, then teachers will
continue to teach in that way. Eurocentric history is not wrong because it is Eurocentric, but it is
biased and dismisses the rich cultural diversity that contributed to this nation’s past. Teacher A
broke this cycle of hegemonic perpetuation by being intentional in the content she delivers. In
her case, it was an approach that deviated from the way in which she was taught. Many of the
other teachers explained understanding that there were two versions of history. One was
explicitly taught within the standards or curriculum, the other, was brought in by their teacher’s
lived experiences.
For Teacher C, unearthing the untold stories of America’s past is very personal. She
reflects on her identity as a woman with indigenous roots and her inability to fully connect to that
ancestry,
For many Brown folks, our indigenous roots have been stripped from us. How does that
look? I have students whose parents are Zapotec, yet the students do not know their
language. My family is Yaqui on my dad’s side, but its too distant to claim, my
grandmothers parents. They don’t know us anymore. Other folks have internalized a
“mestizo” narrative that applies to anyone who is no longer living on their ancestral land,
speaking their ancestral language, whether it is one generation ago or 10 generations.
Everyone is not “mixed” and much of that “mixing” was through rape and the
internalization of a racial hierarchy. This is more complicated when you talk about
Mexican families who have been in California for many generations, as the distinction
between Native American and Mexican becomes blurry. In other words the indigeneity of
folks who may be described as ‘Latino” gets weird. I can’t describe the hurt I feel when I

50
reflect on my reflection. Seeing my brown skin, seeing my features, knowing I am
indigenous, but not being able to really really claim it.
Aside from reflecting on her own indigeneity and relating it to her own students, she goes on to
discuss Andrea Smith, an academic who has been under recent scrutiny regarding unfounded
claims to native ancestry.
She [Andrea Smith] capitalizes on the ancestral ambiguity of our colonization. She knows
many of us cannot identify our ancestral peoples. She knows many of our parents,
grandparents, and great grandparents were forced to shed so much of our histories. She
knows so many of us are displaced indigenous peoples, both in land and culture. She
knows this and she uses this to find a spot for herself. In that complexity of who is
considered native or indigenous legally, politically, culturally, historically, she lives. She
knows many of us understand…We understand not knowing where we come from and we
assume she is one of the displaced, one of us whose families have been lost to history. But
she is not. She is a settler. She is a settler who has gained fame as a Native scholar. Her
theory and words are valued as insightful and groundbreaking. But her voice silenced
actual native voices, because for every thing she wrote, every space she occupied, she
actively displaced a native person. And she does it, not only without shame, but with
disdain for any who dare to call attention to her settlerism. Why is this important? Because
she is attempting to get involved in the fight for Ethnic Studies. If she was a white ally,
then cool. But she is clearly an opportunist, who would love a chance to rebrand herself.
Teacher C brings up interesting and cautionary evidence about the importance of recognizing
identity. The United States has a history of making efforts to “repair” damage done by the
injustices implemented by its government because of identity markers. By citing the case of

51
Andrea Smith attempting to pass as Native, Teacher C wants to advocate for the importance of who
tells the stories of marginalized groups. She wants to ensure that groups who have been historically
underrepresented are not further marginalized through abuses such as this.
Teachers approach to instruction is influenced by their conceptualization of identity.
Their practice is refined by the interactions they share with their students. Teacher A explains
how Black history was her window into culturally relevant pedagogy and how the demographics
of her students encouraged the Afrocentricity of the content she taught.
I think from day one, I’ve been about multicultural education or whatever you want to
call it today. I think it has been constantly evolving for me. And, I feel like it gets better
and stronger every year. And I feel like, I’m just always trying to read more, and learn
more, and just always go to conferences or whatever because I just feel like you never
know everything. So, I feel like when I first started, I was really focused on our African
American kids and our Latino kids. I mean I was in Inglewood, It made sense I definitely
had like the sense of you know, giving back to the community. I mean, like to this day,
everything I do is still very Afrocentric. I remember kids at Morningside would say oh
*Teacher A’s not Mexican she’s Blackxican. Uhm, but you know, because I feel like I
did develop such an affinity for the culture when I worked there. And all the history I was
learning, that I think is so tied to American History, whether people recognize it or not.
This nation was founded on slavery. I’m sorry, there’s no way around that. You know
1609, the first colony. In 1619, the first slaves came in, what was that? Ten years later.
You can’t tell me that didn’t go hand in hand. You can’t tell me that we’re still not,
dealing with the legacy of that, in 2018. You know, so I feel like, at that point in my
career, those probably were my strengths.

52
Teacher A is in her twenty seventh year in the profession. She has observed several educational
trends and witnessed their introduction, evolution and sometimes their demise. In regards to
culturally relevant education, Teacher A states that “whatever it’s called” today, is the same as
previous work aimed at equality. She acknowledged that there is still a lot of work left to be
done, but also believes that it’s important to acknowledge the work that laid the foundation for
present day pedagogical practices.
Accountability
B. How do Social Studies teachers compensate for the lack of culturally relevant
pedagogy in the California Content Standards when teaching diverse populations?
“You must never be fearful of what you are doing when it is right.”- Rosa Parks
Accountability plays a key role in the lives of teachers. They are held accountable to
educational policies at the federal and state level and they are expected to follow state sponsored
curriculum standards and frameworks. All of these mandates make people feel bound or
shackled. In a profession that demands an individual teacher lead 30-35 students at a time.
Teachers are caught in a middle ground that must be carefully navigated. Accountability within
U.S. History is particularly important when it comes to who tells the story. It is not only important
to tell the stories of marginalized people, but it is equally important to ensure that those retelling
these stories are equipped with the knowledge and skill sets to teach it holistically. Teachers of
history know that many historical accounts are biased, and often uphold majoritarian stories.
Accountability, more than a numbers game
Many of the conversations surrounding accountability in education are often framed
around school performance data and identifying school needs in terms of per pupil spending.
When A Nation at Risk was published, it created a national outcry for change within education in

53
the United States. The reaction to this was the creation of a standards-based system that would
ensure all students met specific benchmarks throughout their formal education. However, the
standards became more than educational goals or criteria for school children. They became the
very measures of accountability. Although there have been some changes in systems of
accountability and in the direction of standards based instruction, the teachers in this study have
not been immune to the consequences of standards-based reforms. Teacher A, recalls her
experience with this during her time at Morningside High School, an urban school that was
considered underperforming under No Child Left Behind (NCLB). Her experience at
Morningside during the NCLB era led to her decision to leave.
Let me try not to cry. Cause like I said it was in the top three hardest things I’ve ever
done in my life. Let’s see, I was happy there. I loved it there. Despite, whatever issues the
school had and the district had. Cause lord knows the district had issues. I was happy
there. So I was approaching my 8th year. One of the things that happens in a school like
Morningside, is, you take a beating from the legislature, the community, the media. You
know, that we’re this underperforming school. And it’s clearly the teachers’ fault. And I
just.. that, got old. That rhetoric got old. Especially when I did not feel like that was me.
Like, maybe there were teachers on our campus that were burnt out and needed to move
on.. But I felt like that didn’t apply to me. And that, was getting hard to constantly, I
don’t know… that just… that just, that wears you down. So much so, that I wanted to
prove that that didn’t apply to me that when all those test results come out… at that time
nothing was technologically savvy right? So they couldn’t give us the data on our kids. I
went through one year, and I pulled out every single one of my kids’ test scores. And I
was doing it by hand. To see how my kids scored, on all the standardized tests in history.

54
And I looked at it, and I was like uhhh? My kids are doing just fine. So, I don’t know,
what this is all about. So there was that? The last year and half that I was there.. I think
what kind of pushed it over the edge, One, I had a class were I was failing 30 of the 35
kids. And nobody seemed to care. I went back and was re-teaching. I literally had one
group that was five kids, they were on a whole other thing doing another thing. And the
other 30 kids, I mean, I did the things that they tell you to do. Go back and reteach, and
this and this and that. You know, and I was doing all those things, and they could care
less that I was failing them. And that was hard, also. I called all their parents. And you
know in my best, awful Spanish, was calling everyone’s parents. And parents would be
like, you know, I’m sorry maestra but I can’t control them either. So, you know.. I had
one parent who said, if you want to hit him go ahead. Yeah, and I was kinda like..I really
want to, but yeah, I can’t so we’ll just pass on that one, but thanks for the offer. You
know? So, that was hard. And then…I think, probably the thing that did it most….and
there’s other things that kind of complicated it. Was that, in the last year that I was there-
-year and a half that I was there we lost 6 kids. And with the last one, I was, I can’t go to
another funeral. That was kind of the mindset that I had.
Teaching in communities in which poverty and violence are inescapable realities for students
demands that teachers take on multiple roles. They are accountable for more than just teaching.
They act as counselors, role models, parental figures and much more. For Teacher A, wearing
multiple hats compounded the burdens associated with low-test scores.
So it was between January to December that we lost 6 kids. So, we had lost…*Anthony
who was shot point black on the head on the corner of Yukon and Century. Him and his
brother were selling drugs. And they were smart kids. And that…I mean, that’s the thing

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about the two of them. I mean, I think about them. In my classroom, they were in my
honors class. They were in my honors World History class. And they were smart and
polite, but they were carrying wads of cash around..that..you just couldn’t explain. And
they had cell phones and pagers way before anyone else did. And I would see them on the
corner when I would drive in, and they would see me and wave at me, Hi *Teacher A! I
mean, I knew what they were doing. But he was shot on that corner. It scared the crap out
of his brother, who at least temporarily got this life together. Then there was the
basketball coach. He was shot in his front yard. He was a graduate of ours. He came back
and was coaching freshman basketball. And he, and his friend, pulled up to their
house...or walking up to their house, and a car pulled up, where are you from? They of
course started running, cause they knew what was coming. You know, and he was killed
in his front yard. Uhm, then there’s another kid…who was.. stabbed. I think, or shot and I
don’t remember his name…He was a Latino kid. Then, there was *Brandon who was
killed that year. Okay. Then there was that. Then a week later, that’s when *John died. I
just..even when *John died. Like, the students were all walking zombies. From one week
to another, they had buried two friends. And, I remember kids just coming and sitting on
the floor of my classroom. They were supposed to be in a class somewhere. But they
were sitting on the floor of my classroom. And I’m like, how can you expect anybody to
go to classes and take finals. It was during final’s week! How do expect anyone to go to
classes and take finals when they just buried two friends?
During this school year, Teacher A was facing intense scrutiny because she was a teacher at an
underperforming school. Additionally, she was facing emotional stress caused by the grieving

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process. A feeling that was intensified because of the way in which her students were reacting to
all of the trauma.
Okay, so then school started again and then…in December, one day I go to school and I
don’t have any electricity in my classroom. And I’m the only one. Everybody else has
power. And I’m like wow! That’s just typical. You know? And I go, Of course! I don’t
have electricity! And…before I’m kinda contemplating like what am I gonna do with my
kids. Like, I can’t turn on the lights. Can’t put anything on the overhead projector. You
know, can’t do anything. What am I gonna do with my kids!? And then I get a phone call.
And the phone call starts with, did you know, *David T.? And whenever you get that
kind of a phone call, it was not gonna be good. I said, yeah, I knew *David T., and they
said well he was killed last night. He had gone to play basketball. He was a graduate of
ours. I had him in world history. He was a mischievous kid, but not bad. He was
mischievous like, I’m at the board and I can see a skittle flying across the room. And I’d
be like *David? How do you know it’s me *Teacher A?! Cause you’re the only person
who throws skittles across the room. You know? And he was a basketball player. Big, tall
kid and because he was a basketball player and I was the cheer coach, we spent a lot of
time together. Those were the years when we were doing state tournaments. So we spent
a ton of time together, like on buses. Cause no one else would ever be willing to
chaperone the kids on the bus. So I would always end up on the bus with all the kids. So,
we spent a lot of time together. He had a horrific family life. And after he graduated he
would come back and visit me on a regular basis. And his family situation, was still, it
was awful. It was awful. But he was just, he was just such a sweet kid. I remember one
time he was gonna fight somebody and I got in the middle and broke it up. They were

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both towering over me. They didn’t really want to fight. You know, they could’ve just
picked me up, and moved me out of the way. But, he didn’t really want to fight and he
wasn’t gonna do anything to hurt me. Ever! Like there’s some kids who could care less,
but he was not gonna ever do anything to hurt me. So, he had gone to Santa Monica, he
was playing basketball in the gym, and he got into an argument with somebody there,
when they were playing basketball. The person left and came back with a gun and shot
him in the head. In the gym. Of course, nobody saw anything. So nobody was ever
brought to justice for him. And that was..that, pushed me over the edge. So that was the
day I had no electricity. Which I think was all things that were happening for a reason.
Teacher A felt as though she was at a crossroads. The pressure from legislature, the school site,
coupled with the presence of violence made her decision difficult, but necessary.
One of the hardest things I’ve ever done in my life, was leaving Morningside. Cause I did
not want to leave the kids. I did not want to leave the kids. I loved those kids! But I was
at a point, where if I didn’t leave, I was gonna become the teacher I said, I never wanted
to be. You know who those people are. I’m gonna become burnt out, cynical, and I don’t
want that to happen. So I need to find out, is it the profession? That’s doing it to me. Is it
the environment that’s doing it to me? Maybe I’m gonna have to leave the profession all
together. And I think is the thing about working at a school like Morningside, is that, it’s
that you’re more than just a teacher. I don’t just go there and teach. You know, so I was
peoples’ mom, I was peoples’ aunt, I was peoples’ probation officer and social worker
and, you name it. And so to feel like I was doing all that willingly, but taking a beating
from the media and the legislature, and all that kind of stuff, and then to bury kids at the
same time, it was…it was just too much. So, I made the decision to leave. It was a heart

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wrenching decision to leave. Every time I had to tell a group of kids, it was just torture. I
had kids who were mad at me, kids who wouldn’t talk to me uhm Kids who were crying.
Kids from college, kids who accused me of selling out. It was bad. It was really bad. It
was hard, it was a very hard decision to leave. One, that still to this day, still go over and
over in my mind. If I could’ve done something differently, or you know, I don’t know.
But at the same time, what has happened at PV high for the last 14 years. I also feel like,
all of that happened for a reason. Like, not necessarily and easy reason, and in 10,000
ways it is much harder to work in PV than it was to work in Inglewood.
When school sites and districts push out overworked teachers, they create a gap of qualified and
under qualified teachers within the district (Oakes et al., 2004). One of the major themes that
came up during our interviews was the idea that “good schools have good teachers and bad
schools have bad teachers”.
Textbook talk
Many scholars have gained momentum in the movement towards equitable narratives in
history textbooks. However, these efforts have yet to manifest themselves into tangible policies
that result in culturally relevant curriculum. When communities of Color are depicted in
textbooks and curriculum, these depictions typically highlight travesties as opposed to
contributions to society. If students from historically underrepresented groups don’t see
themselves in textbooks, classroom discussions, or tests, it sends a powerful message that their
culture is not important (Huber et al., 2006). Consequently, it affirms the message that the white
narrative is the “average” or normal, and therefore superior. In an email exchange, Teacher E
explains,

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What makes me nervous about this approach is that teachers might focus on only the bad
portions of Black history (or other culture). The purpose of Black History Month is to
educate people in our CONTRIBUTIONS to American history. *Carla is as culturally
aware of these issues as you are, and even SHE only brought up travesties. I know that
teaching those topics are important (because I forget that not everyone gets the blunt dark
parts of history like I did at home), but there needs to be some sort of ready-made
curriculum like there is with Math or English; something that even the most
“conservative” of teachers can still execute. I trust you two (shit, y’all will probably make
it better), but other…I don’t know.
In this context, Teacher E had expressed an interest in learning about the ways in which his
colleagues teach or introduced Black History Month. He believes that when people take the time
to teach history specific to Communities of Color, they tend to victimize the community. Often
taught in terms of creating victims not agents of history. Teacher E recognizes that he
experienced some of his learning at home, and that while it is necessary to teach about the dim
realities of history, it is also equally important to teach how People of Color contributed to
American History.
Teacher E described an ideal situation in which ready made curricula exists for use by
“even the most conservative teachers.” One of the major things to note is that career Teachers are
engaged in a constant cycle of self-reflection and praxis. Teacher B also alluded to a similar
“bank of resources” during our conversation,
I feel like there are a lot of materials out there. I feel like at Long Beach State, we had
access to that data base, and you know I feel like once you finish school you’re like cut
off like, ah you can’t use our resources data base anymore. So I wish there was like a

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universal one, you know, for educators that should be free. Because at the end, it’s not
like we’re hoarding it. It’s like we’re investing it back into our youth. Uhm, so that is one
thing, I wish I had.
Much of the work that goes into teaching comes through experience, reflection and
refining of practice (Caroll et al., 2005; Duncan-Andrade, 2007; Perez Huber et al., 2006).
Teaching is a journey of self-reflection and praxis as much as it is a journey of empowering
students. Each of the participants explained that they reflect on the effectiveness of the delivery
of instruction, and work to “make it better” for next time. Career teachers understand that the
ability to engage their students happens because they get to know their students every year.
Career teachers, within the context of this study, refers to teachers who have taught or
plan to teach for the rest of their careers, and who have gone through the state approved
credentialing programs. Some of the teachers made comments regarding teachers who use the
profession as a placeholder before “entering the real world” or, organizations that supply
“teachers who have no training.” These dynamics contribute to the way in which accountability
manifests itself within education.
Teach for America is really messing with the system. At my school, we have a bunch of
TFAers who, one, have no idea why they want to teach and two, have no real world
experiences. Many of them have gone to top tier schools and done well academically, but
honestly never stepped outside of their bubbles. I have coworkers who are interacting
with People of Color for the first time in their lives. I was mind blown by this. I literally
couldn’t believe it. They signed up to teach in LA so they could live in LA, but there was
very little thought that went into who their students would be. Outside of like a summer
training, they didn’t have to jump all the hoops we did to get our credential, because they

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don’t have their credential! Shit! How can you expect someone who is learning the
strategies of teaching, which is a surface level skill, to dive into the critical components
of teaching? You can’t! These people are just trying to find their footing, and many don’t
even make it through the year. So then you have our administrators jumping in with all of
these extra scripted lessons so they can fill in the skills gap, that they don’t bring to the
table. And you know what the worse part is? This is happening in communities of color. I
bet if you talk to teachers in affluent areas they aren’t worried about this.
There are many people who believe that teaching is an easy profession. Teaching as a profession,
is not always taken seriously. Even among educators, those in K-12 are sometimes claiming they
are “teaching until I figure out what to do with life. But as Teacher A states,
This business is not for everybody. That’s for sure. It can’t be just because you don’t
know what else to do with yourself and your degree in math. And oh, I can teach! Yeah,
that’s not a good reason to be a teacher.
On Ethnic Studies
Ethnic Studies exists as a branch of the social sciences, but within the context of K-12
curriculum, it has gained entrance as an elective, an “other.” Some school districts, like LAUSD
and El Rancho, have recognized the importance of creating interdisciplinary electives such as
Ethnic Studies courses. However, these efforts continue to be far in between, and rely on the
teacher acting as creator and manager of content. One of the teachers in the study recognized the
push for Ethnic Studies as a positive one, but with minimal effort in achieving equity within U.S.
History curriculum.
One class on Ethnic Studies isn’t enough. Are you kidding me? Ethnic Studies is given as
an elective, and there is just too much content that can’t be covered in one semester, one

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year, if you’re lucky. We need to integrate this content since kindergarten. We need to
make sure our babies aren’t learning that “ In 1492 Columbus sailed the ocean blue”
Because believe me teachers are still doing that, and this is even after the fact that
California now recognizes Indigenous People’s Day over Christopher Columbus. We need
to do right by history and our kiddos. Education is a battleground and always will be. Sadly
many teachers may not be white nationalist but they definitely reinforce a culture that
devalues folks of color. The importance of teaching ethnic studies.
Teacher C expanded on this,
Ethnic studies is not just curriculum, it’s pedagogy and praxis. Case in point. I have a co-
worker who teaches some Ethnic Studies like content. Lots of relevant lessons etc. But
when a particular student was giving her a hard time, as this particular students does, she
resorted to threatening to kick him out of her class and have him taken another teacher for
the same subject. This from an educator who claims to be about social justice. She is also
anti-union. This is the indoctrination of young teachers working at charters. And wait for
it....she is brown. Now she is normally a good, whatever that means, teacher I think, but the
environment at the school is so toxic teachers are no longer trying to put their best foot
forward for the kids. No longer trying to push back in any negative feeling they might have
towards the kids. The kids are not the problem. What she doesn't realize is that she is
probably getting fed up with her students quicker because of the workload on teachers. It’s
creating a horrible competitive co-worker vibe and adds stress, which eats at a teacher’s
patience with kids.
For Teacher C, Ethnic Studies is more than just a “ready made curriculum.” It can’t be. She
believes that teaching is not just about what you teach, but how and why you teach.

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Breaking the Shackles
For all of the teachers in the study, teaching history was a form of social justice. Each
expressed their concern with the Eurocentricity of content, and spoke about their desire to build on
the content standards, textbooks, and curriculum in order to present a more inclusive version of
history. For Teacher B, deviating from the mandated curriculum felt like freedom. He describes the
pacing guide as feeling like handcuffs.
So, the pacing is kinda like hancuffs us. The pacings, the textbooks, handcuff teachers.
To some sort of freedom. You know freedom with the content, and I understand because
history is written by politicians, I mean the standards, everything’s written by politicians,
so. People who have never taught are telling us how to teach. Which is the hardest thing
as a teacher.
He brings up the metaphor of “handcuffs” to symbolize the degree to which teachers are
restricted and mandated to abide by the district approved curriculum and state-approved
standards. He also mentions that these expectations are initiated and approved through the
legislature, which is made up of politicians not educators. Teacher B is citing a sentiment that
many educators can relate to. They are held to standards and expectations created by individuals
who have not had the experience of working within a classroom. Sometimes, the individuals who
are making decisions at the governmental level have not attended public schools themselves.
On History Books
Researchers have concluded that history textbooks lack the depth and complexity needed to
represent an accurate portrayal of history (Alridge, 2006; Au, 2009; Bank 1995; Loewen, 2013).
Many history teachers can be heard saying they don’t use the textbook because they are not “good
enough.” In some cases, they cover superficial content that does not address multiple perspectives.

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In other cases, the textbooks are written at grade-level, but are used in schools where students are
two, three, sometimes, five times behind on reading levels, making these textbooks inaccessible to
students. In California, where there is a large English Language Learner Population, the textbooks
are not always provided in the home language, and are therefore linguistically out of reach for
students. Whatever the specific situation, teachers have multiple reasons for teaching without the
book. All of the teachers stated that the books they have in their classrooms don’t do the
curriculum justice. However, Teacher A was adamant about making sure she uses them, and
teaches students how to use textbooks because she wants them to be successful in college.
I do use my history book. There’s definitely people who are like, no! not using the history
books and there’s a little bit of an elitist thing among history teachers, about not using the
history book. Could I teach without the book? Yes, I absolutely could. But, I think, that as
much I’m trying to teach content to kids, I’m also trying to teach them some skills. They’re
gonna have to go and read textbooks in college. So they need to learn how to read
textbooks and pull information out of them. You know, they’re gonna have to read
textbooks in college and they have to know how to pull out important pieces of information
from a textbook. They don’t have a choice. So like, when I was teaching the AP kids, oh
my god, those kids have to use a textbook. They have to use a college textbook. Those kids
aren’t using the same book as everybody else. They can’t. Uhm, so, I use the textbook.
Teacher A describes the importance of textbooks in a classroom. Regardless of whether a
textbooks meets specific standards. They need to be used in the classrooms as tools for students.
Although teaching without a textbook may be a viable option for many, it does not dismiss the fact
that textbooks help with accountability. They ensure that teachers are teaching specific content.
Those books, if written in complex text, provide evidence for the adjustments and scaffolds

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educators should implement in order to make content accessible. Finally, as Williams v. California
(2004) shows us, schools without access to textbooks perpetuate the achievement gap (Oakes,
2004).
Unlike Teacher A, who uses the book to teach skills needed in college, Teacher B finds that
the book is often too complex for his students. In his case, he finds himself re-writing text to make
it available to his students. When asked what book he uses he states,
I don’t even know! Some old books, Mcdougle little..You know, whatever the district
purchases for us. And I mean there are good things in there. You know there are sources
in there, it’s good when you have to. I don’t know when you just have to compare
different sources. Secondary to primary. Like this is one narrative this is the other. But,
we hardly open them. Most of them, I take pictures of it, or I retype them, and create my
own little textbook excerpts. Print it out and alright, this is technically, them looking at
the book.
In teacher B’s statement one can understand the restraints that are placed on teachers of large
urban districts. Realities that teachers in affluent communities, like the one Teacher A works in,
do not have to face. One of them being district-mandated curriculum As one teacher out of
nearly 100 history teachers in the district, he does not have a say in what books are purchased. So
he has to find unique an inventive ways to ensure that his students are learning. Furthermore,
because it is a larger district with multiple school sites, instructional materials are often
purchased for all sites with one purchase order. Which means, that just because certain materials
are a good fit for one school, it is not necessarily the case at another site. Some districts have
been known to make deals with certain publishers who offer discounts if materials are purchased
for more than one subject matter. This is what happened at Teacher D’s site. He works for a

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charter management organization that has over thirteen school sites. Although his site had books
that were only two years old, the entire organization was required to adopt a new textbook
because of a deal it made with one of the publishers.
So like, last year they bought all of these new books for the history department across all
of the *Cherry Blossom Schools. Our books are the History Alive! books and they still
need some work , but they are way better than the new ones they are getting. So we go to
our onboarding for the school year and they tell all history teachers that we have a
mandatory training for some textbook. It turned out that because they got new books that
aligned with Common Core, they got some deal to get new history books. But see, that’s
part of the problem too, cause since we don’t have new standards, then no one seems to
care what books we get, if we even get books. Some of my friends at other schools have
super old books. So sometimes I complain about how it is here, and then when I talk to
them, I think maybe it’s not that bad.
Measures of accountability may promote data driven instruction, but they also provide a platform
that can help level the playing field. What Teacher D is suggesting is that since the California
History-Social Science standards have not been revised, they are not a priority for school sites.
These priorities manifest themselves in terms of allocation of funds and resources. At his site, it
means there is no urgency for new books. It also means that since other areas, such as English
and Mathematics, are prioritized, history is left in the backburner.

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Social Studies for Social Justice
D. Do US History teachers perceive their approach to teaching a form of social justice?
“Injustice anywhere, is a threat to justice everywhere. We are caught in an inescapable network
of mutuality, tied in a single garment of destiny. Whatever affects one directly, affects all
indirectly. ” -Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., Letter from the Birmingham Jail

Many people who go into education do so because they want to make a positive impact
on society. This is not specific to teachers of history, but the participants in this study expose
why history teachers, especially U.S. history teachers, feel it is their duty to enforce the ideals of
freedom and equality. All of the teachers in the study touched on the importance of civic
engagement for social justice especially in the aftermath of the presidential election. As history
teachers, all of the participants expressed that their classrooms presented windows of
opportunities to have discussions about real-world issues affecting their students. More
importantly, they felt this was an opportunity to create very real links between discriminatory
policies and practices that culminated in the current socio-political context of the United States.
Some teachers also found out that their classrooms became sanctuaries in which they could have
conversations surrounding immigration, Islamophobia, sexism and homophobia. Many of them
also found that their colleagues were too afraid to talk about some of these issues even though
students found themselves wanting to dive into these conversations across all content areas.
“Did I do it Justice?”
Teachers within the study identified as teachers for social justice. One of the drawbacks in
doing this work is that often time it can be isolating work. In many cases, individuals who push
back and challenge traditional ways of teaching history are alone in their stance. However, each of

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the educators felt confident that the new policies requiring Ethnic Studies, and even the new
framework’s push to include indigenous, Sikh and LGBTQ history is moving in the right direction
(McTygue, 2016). They are optimistic in the training of new teachers to learn and teach in a social
justice oriented way. Teacher A has had several student teachers work with her and comments that
this work can be taught,
I think absolutely it can be taught to other teachers. I think that’s what they’re trying to do.
And it seems like in most of the credential programs today, that are about you know, social
justice, you know whatever they’re calling it. I think that they’re definitely trying to do
that. It’s people feeling comfortable enough to do that. But its also, It’s a massive chunk of
history if you think about it.
Two major points that she brings up are that the teachers have to feel comfortable doing the work
and they have to be ready engage in a massive amount of history.
So like, modern, 11th grade US history, in theory is suppose to be just a tiny review of
colonial America to industrialization. Tiny, tiny review. And then it’s suppose to be all
modern, and moving forward. But even still, that’s a huge chunk of history. And what I’m
finding, depending on the group of kids, is some kids don’t remember anything about the
American Revolution. Not a thing, so like this year, when I was kinda, like seeing where
they were at with the American Revolution and I was getting nothing. I was like, I can’t
skip this. I can’t assume that they learned. Cause they didn’t clearly. And if they don’t
understand some fundamental things about the founding of this nation, then I can’t teach
the rest of this. So it slowed me down. Like, I really like to get to the 80s and the 90s but
most 11th grade US history teachers, feel like if they’ve gotten to Vietnam, they’re doing
good. But, at this point, it’s 2018! And we don’t do the 80s the 90s we’re leaving out big

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chunks of important things. So, I’m trying desperately this year to get to the 90s,
Desperately! I keep telling the kids that. I’m like, okay, we’ve got to speed this up on this
part, cause, we’re getting to the 90s. And they’re like, Oh *Teacher A it’s fine, you know,
they’re kids. I had that in my head that I want to do that. And, so it’s this massive chunk of
history and you’re trying to make sure that you do justice to all these different perspectives.
You know, it’s like I think Asian history in California is pretty particular. Chinese history.
There is some ugly nasty history, that’s not in our history books. And I have a fairly decent
size Asian population. And I feel like they need to know this. So, I don’t know it’s just a
lot. I feel like it can be done. It’s never gonna be perfect, I don’t think. And some years
you’re gonna do it better than others. Like I didn’t do it as well as I want to on LGBTQ
history this year. I’m not done yet obviously, but I feel like okay next year, I’m have to
rethink it. And-and I’ll find a way. Just because I just think, for that as a group of kids. We
want to talk about a group of kids who never sees themselves in a history book? Never!
You know, so in recent years, history books have gotten better, about women, about
African American, and eh Latino? shaky but you know, some of these groups, it has gotten
better. But these are kids, who never see themselves. Ever! So, you know? that’s a whole
level. A whole other level of marginalization that a lot of us can’t understand because we
have the privilege of being straight people. You know we look in a history book, it’s filled
with straight people. Or these people we presume to be straight. Which historically and
statistically we know is not true. But no one is telling their stories.
Teacher A is in a constant state of reflection about her curriculum and the ways in which it related
to her students. One of the major takeaways from this piece is that history is extensive. In order to
“do it justice” teachers have to understand that they will not be able to teach the content in depth all

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the time, but they can introduce multiple perspectives all the time. As the sole teacher in a class,
this task can seem daunting, but understanding the complexity and the mass amount of history that
needs to be addressed, allows teachers to think of new ways to introduce multiple perspectives.
Teacher B does this by engaging students in inquiry-based lessons.
Inquiry just is the biggest thing. Instead of me telling you, these are the facts and this is
the way to look at it. You have to be like, these are the facts and you look at it, however
you want to look at it. Make the best meaning of it. So you write your own history. So
basically, interpret it the way you want. You just need to you know, keep an open mind
and see that there’s different perspective in everything.
In addition to structuring inquiry-based lessons, a major component of Teacher B’s strategy
requires him to transfer ownership and responsibility to his students. This method gives them the
ability to think like historians. Teacher A has found another way to transfer responsibility to her
students by creating a “flipped classroom” in her classes. She explains,
My student teacher goes, *Teacher A, he’s like, you realize you’re doing flipped classroom
right? So you know there’s all this discussion about flipped classroom right? He says you
may not do it electronically and with technology you know the way they are trying to teach
flipped classroom, but this, you do flipped classroom. He’s like you have them read the
information ahead of time. And then, when they come to class, you’re just doing something
with the information. I’m like yeah, I go so maybe I should be getting the credit for flipped
classroom? Cause I’ve been doing it for as long as I can remember. But yeah, so I just, I
have them read and I feel like, that saves me time too. Like if they read the content and I
can just do a little review at the start of the class on content, we can go on and take it to a
different level. So they’re reading about World War Two right now. But today in class I

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spent my whole time talking about women in the war. And we watched old newsreels,
and we watched movie’s depictions of things, and talked about women’s roles in World
War Two beyond being nurses. And but also, how those newsreels treated women. That’s
something else. And how Hollywood even still, when Hollywood retold those stories,
how they treated women in those stories. So, I can spend my whole time doing that,
because they’ve already read the content. Or same thing will happen when I do Japanese
incarceration. You know, they’ve already read the content, so they have the basic
understanding and then I can just take it to, a different level. That’s what allows me.
Them reading the textbook, is what allows me to go where I go with the curriculum.
Because they’re getting the basic level stuff that they need there. And then I can do the
other things and fill in the pieces that are not in our book. Our book has like a paragraph
on women and World War Two. There’s a paragraph on Japanese Incarceration. Which
they call, what do they call it? Japanese Internment. And I’m teaching them to call it,
incarceration. Let’s call it what it was. These people were behind barbed wires!
Teacher A’s use of a “flipped classroom” is an intentional strategy that allows her curriculum to
move beyond the textbook and dive into critical thinking skills. Her students are able to analyze
and critic historical accounts and depictions of history by following this method. In order to for a
variant of the flipped classroom to work for a social justice framework the teacher needs to be
aware that the textbook can provide basic information but is inherently bias in it’s omission of
multiple perspectives.
“It’s not about me”
Each of the participants in this study alluded to their role in benefiting from previous civil
rights movements and acknowledged their participation in present-day movements for equity and

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justice. They viewed their role as a history teacher, as important and critical to the empowerment
of their students. Teacher A currently teaches at an affluent and predominantly white high
school. She shared several stories in which her students were discriminated based on their
gender, religion, sexual orientation, race and culture. Since she’s been there, she has witnessed
students target their peers by vandalizing property with swastikas or the N word. There have
been incidents of harassment and bullying due to gender or because students identify as LGBTQ.
In each of these instances, she has advocated on behalf of her students. One example of this was
an incident during her second year at that school. Teacher A explained that the students view
Halloween as a “fun day without rules”. Students on her campus enjoy wearing “group
costumes” and will go all out for Halloween. In anticipation of the chaos that would ensue, she
considered taking the day off, but opted to go in. While taking roll in her first period class, she
had a couple of students walk in late, at which point she realizes her students were wearing
offensive costumes.
So my first period class, all the other kids are there on time. Two boys come in late, so
I’m already pissed they come in late. When I look at their shirts, they’re both wearing
shirts that say, “border patrol” on them. So my first thought is okay, lame, but whatever.
Going through the rows stamping homework….and then I see the back of their shirts.
And their shirts said, “border patrol” again, but underneath it in small letters it said, “If
you’re brown, we’ll take you down.” My concern already at this point was is if there’s
two of them, there’s more. They’re into this big group contest thing like, in like what
their group is. So I know there’s more of these kids. So they eventually come back to
class and their shirts are on inside out. So apparently that’s what the administrators told

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them, you had to wear your shirt inside out. You can’t wear that shirt. But I’m already
pissed. I’m livid.
Teacher A realizes this will be the extent of the students’ consequence. Although she was upset,
she also understood that they couldn’t do much more than have them wear their shirt inside out.
She continues with her day on to encounter an a group of students hosting a “raid on
immigrants.”
Class ends, and I’m on my way to the restroom during nutrition and I encounter a group
of now, I want to say about twenty of these boys, who have these shirts and they are now
running around the campus. And they are now chasing “immigrants.” And they had, bats,
and nets and lassos. And people who they had sort of dress up as “immigrants.” Wearing
ponchos and sombreros of course. So now I’m screaming at random children at the top of
my lungs. I, run into the first classroom I can. Pick up the phone, call for security. The
assistant principal comes in the cart with security and immediately approaches these kids
and says, “I told you guys that there was to be no blah blah blah.” And they were like,
“we weren’t doing anything! We weren’t doing anything.” And Im like, “I’m standing,
right here!” And I said to him, this guy goes on to become our principal eventually. Find
all these kids. Round them all up. So I’m livid. I’m pissed. I’m going back to my
classroom. I’m pissed for 10,000 reasons. And we have new buildings being built on our
campus at that time. Of course who’s build them? People who look like me. I have a
guest speaker coming in my psychology class. Who is he? A man who looks like me. I’m
mortified. Embarrassed that this is happening but I’m pissed at the same time. So now
I’m going off on all my classes. All day long. I leave that Friday thinking, I’m gonna quit
my job! I cant work here. I’m not gonna work in a place that would allow this to happen.

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This incident was offensive to Teacher A on a personal level, but she looked beyond herself and
thought about her students, and the ways in which this incident would create harm on her
campus. Although she considered quitting, she felt she had a responsibility to her students to
seek justice and make this right. In order to address this issue, she reached out to her
departmental colleagues for support and sent out emails to the principal and key stakeholders in
the community.
Then, my rational person kicked in. After 24 hours and said okay, if I quit, what happens
to these kids? Nothing. Uhm, and what’s gonna stop it from happening next year?
Nothing. So that weekend, I emailed, because it was before the days of texting, I emailed
a bunch of my colleagues and said, hey this is what happened. This is why its wrong. So I
just want you guys to know that I’m gonna take this on. So, I would love to have your
support, but I will do this by myself too. So, people are like, no no, we support you, it’s
wrong. Of course I was the only one that spoke up about it, but okay. So, I wrote an email
to the principal. The only people I CCd at that point, were just the two APs. And I went
on about being a public school, and our obligation for safety. So, the next day, all the APs
call me and apologize. And I said to them, I’m not after an apology, and it’s not about
me. What about all the brown children on this campus? Who don’t have the will at 16
years old to speak up against this? Why would they? And I do. So that’s who I’m upset
for. So your apology to me, that’s not what I’m after. So then I took it to my department,
and I said, I did this level already. And that got me nowhere. So now I’m gonna write
another letter, and I’m gonna start CCing all kinds of people. Just so you know. And I
was gonna keep going, and keep going, until I get the attention I need. And if I have to
take it to the ACLU; I will take it to the ACLU. My department got behind me and so the

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next letter that went out got signed by all of us. And, it went to our principal, but we CCd
a ton of people. So then he called me into his office. So the principal called me into the
office, uhm, to have a meeting with me over it. And I think he thought that was gonna
pacify me. But still I was not getting a response that I wanted. I was getting a lot of like,
kids will be kids. And that kinda stuff, and that just was not acceptable to me. So when I
left I said, so this is the kind of thing that if it’s not handled properly the Daily Breeze
would really like to hear about this I’m sure, and probably the ACLU. And I walked out
of the room. So then, after that, then I started getting a response. Like okay, what do you
want us to do. So, one of the things they did was they called all those kids in, and they
had to have a meeting with me. Then there was like other consequences they dealt with
the kids and then I also said, and there’ll need to be rules for next Halloween. That say,
this is what you can and cannot do. They did all of that and so, it felt like I got what I
needed to get out of it.. but it was, it was awful, it was brutal. But, I couldn’t let it go.
There was no way I was gonna work there if they didn’t do anything about that, but I also
felt like I had a responsibility to make sure they did something about it. To this day,
every year at Halloween they break out the rules. No costumes can be offensive to any
race, gender, sexual orientation, and the kids are always like, why are they so serious
about this? And I’m like, let me tell you. And I tell my kids the story every year. Uhm,
and they get like, I just get to see their little eyes, and their like oh my god I can’t believe
someone did that.
This incident shows the critical ways in which teachers who understand inequities can challenge
the normalization of discriminatory practices. Teacher A is one of a handful of Latino/a teachers
on her campus. However, she shared that she is the only one who identifies strongly with her

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Mexican culture, and who acknowledges the marginalization she has experienced in the form of
social-class, race and gender. Her personal experience with injustice helps her understand
injustice when she sees it.
The incident described by Teacher A is important in understanding the ways in which
History teachers, and any teacher for that matter, can act as an advocate for his or her students.
This particular incident still incites powerful emotions, but for a teacher who’s career spans
‘twenty sever years and counting”, it is only one of many incidents in which she has had to step
in and be an advocate for her students. She views herself as an advocate for those who are
marginalized.
Activism and Coalition Building
One of the major ways in which educators impact the lives of their students is by
engaging in activities beyond the classroom. All of the teachers within this study advise an
extracurricular activity on their campus. Sometimes these activities are typical extracurricular
activities, like yearbook, ASB and sports. Teacher A explained how one of the clubs she
currently advises was born out of a student trying to do something about feeling marginalized on
campus.
Last year in December, I picked up C.A.R.E. Which is the Coalition for the Advancement
of Rights and Equality. And the way that that started was, I had an African American
student who came to talk to me one day after school. She talked to me for an hour and
half and what she wanted to talk to me about was what it’s like to be Black in PV. And
what I said to her was, I have no idea what it is like to be Black in PV, I said, but I
understand what it is to be marginalized in PV. So we talked for an hour and half. And,
she said and I’d really like to, somehow take my experience, and turn it into a club. She

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said, I tried to approach, so and so teacher but they didn’t take it seriously enough for me.
Cause she’s like a serious kid. She is not messing around. She is gonna rule the world
probably some day. So, she said, I’d really like to form a club, would you be our advisor.
So I said, okay, here’s the deal. I have two clubs already and they are not the ping-pong
club. So they require an awful lot of my time and attention. I said, so, I’ll consider it if
you guys are gonna be serious. Knowing, that I had these two other clubs and that my
time is gonna be split between the three of you. And here’s the other thing. A clubs that’s
gonna be about diversity and rights and equality, I’m all for that. But if you’re gonna be
the Taco Tuesday club. I’m not your girl. So I said, if it’s gonna be serious and deeper
and about long –term change, then yes. Then I will do it. She’s like okay. That’s fine.
She’s like I don’t want taco Tuesday either. So I was like okay! So, she then started
recruiting kids. They weren’t even a club yet. Cause you have to get officially approved
and all this stuff. She started recruiting kids. They started having meetings in my room
after school. Hour long meetings, because lunchtime was not gonna cut it for these kids.
The first thing they did was hash out a mission statement. And they went back and forth
and round and round about what was gonna be in this mission statement. But they came
up with a mission statement. They came up with a name for the club. They designed
sweatshirts and a logo. I mean they did all this before school was even out. And then,
ended up with this project that they decided they were gonna make PSAs about
homophobia, racism, sexism, ability and we were gonna air them on the campus.
Teacher A was perceived as a trustworthy ally by the students because of the type of clubs she
advises on campus and the way in which she promoted equity within her classroom. Because of
this, she was able to provide a strong foundation for the creation and execution of C.A.R.E.

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Teacher A focuses on creating safe spaces for her students in and out of the classroom.
This is why she is so passionate about the clubs she advises. She seeks ways to ensure the
sustainability of the clubs, and promotes coalition building and activism as the advisor.
But obviously for me these three clubs, this is like at the core of who I am. It’s the things
that I believe in. and so, it’s not just clubs to me. It’s not just the ping-pong club to me.
It’s about teaching them to be activists. It’s about helping them, like they want to be
activists. They want to do this work. But how do they do it? They don’t know, they’re 16!
You know and they also, you know, did not grow up in a community where people do
this. Right? And last year, it started with there weren’t all three clubs last year. Last year
it was GSA, PVOW and it was the Campus Democrats. The Campus Democrats folded
this year. So, I get them to work together as much as possible so that they’re learning
coalition building. Right? And I get them to support each other in whatever it is that
they’re doing. So, they advertise for each other on their social media if somebody is
having a club. They attend each other’s club stuff. You know that they all care about the
same things. I stress that to them all the time. If you care about equality, it’s for all
people. Which is all of these groups right here. So, you shouldn’t have an issue if you’re
a boy who’s in C.A.R.E. coming to the PVOW meeting. You know, you shouldn’t have
an issue if you’re a straight boy from whatever, coming to the GSA meeting, cause it’s all
the same. So, yeah, so yeah those are my clubs. They’re my life, sort of. They are
definitely my life.
Teacher A has created a platform, safe space, and strong foundation through guidance and
mentorship. As an advocate and advisor to student leaders, she has the ability to create positive
impact on the culture of the school. More importantly, her work does not only promote social

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justice on her campus, it transcends beyond the confines of one high school. Students who are
involved in the clubs she advises will take the skills they learn in high school into the real world.
Write it, to “right” it
Teachers faced with lack of resources find innovative ways to fill the gaps that directly
impact their students. Teacher B, Teacher D and Teacher E re-write passages of history books to
make content accessible for their students, while Teacher A and Teacher C have both written
curriculum and courses to fill voids left by predetermined course frameworks and curriculum
outlines. As teachers gain experience and acquire new skill sets, they become masters at
navigating systems of accountability in order to present new ways of teaching that are more
inclusive and equitable. Teacher A has found a way to this by developing courses in Women’s
Studies on her campus.
I wrote the course. Ten years ago or so. And I wrote it as an interdisciplinary course, so
that it would have literature and history and art, and current events and, there’s actually in
the old framework, there is women in our history. And so I kind of used that to base it on,
and it’s still in the new standards. Over time it’s taken on a life of its own. It really, truly
has a life of its own. So basically the way I look at it. We look at modern women’s issues.
But how did we get to this point? Like, I’m trying to teach my kids that we didn’t end up
with #metoo and #timesup out of nowhere. This came from hundreds of years of things in
this country and so, right now we’re going back and looking at Early American history
and how it affected women. And so, I’m trying to make the connections to how that’s
coming forward. We do some literature. We do “Handmaid’s Tale.” We did, at one point
I was doing three books with them but last year, the climate in this country, and
everything that’s happening, I was like, you know, we’re gonna do Handmaid’s Tale, and

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we’re gonna do it hard and we’re gonna do it right. Because I think it’s more relevant
now than ever before. And so we do that, we do a lot of current events. A lot of stuff on
sexual assault, sexual harassment. Cause that’s so in the media. We do a big thing on
music lyrics. So they all brought me music lyrics yesterday. We do a big thing on
advertising. And really key films that we look at. So it’s just, it’s just a really good class
to teach. One year, they use to do it as a dumping ground. That was not so great. There
were kids that needed a class and they just put them in it. I ended up failing a lot of those
kids in Women Studies. But I think the counselors finally, especially after that year, they
finally got the point that this class is not for the faint of heart. It’s really not. Because it’s
that, it’s just turned into this thing that’s just incredibly hardcore, and militant, and it’s
definitely feminist. There’s no way around it. So we spent like the first two weeks talking
about what it means to be a feminist. Why people embrace that or don’t embrace that.
You know, we go through the good the bad and the ugly and talk about how the early
feminist movement didn’t include all women. It wasn’t for all women. But that the
feminist movement, is now, for all women. We read part of “Bad Feminist.” I don’t know
if you know Roxanne Gay. We read part of bad feminist. And the kids loved it. They ate
her up. They’re all following her on twitter now because they loved her so much. But the
kids ate that up, because she says, “In the end, I’d rather be a bad feminist than not a
feminist at all.” Uhm, and you know talked about the issues of inclusion. You know like
we talked about the women’s march. And how there’s a lot of criticism of the women’s
march saying that it’s not inclusive enough. And so I had them read the statement of
purpose and unity principles from the women’s march. I said, so you can take it from
other people who are saying it’s not inclusive or you can read this for yourself and see

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what these women are saying. And if you read their stuff it is about everything under the
sun. I mean, they talk about Black Lives Matter and they talk about water rights for
indigenous people. And you know, it was all in there. I said so, for people to paint it as
not being inclusive, I said, they’re not reading their stuff. So they don’t know what
they’re talking about. And if they weren’t at the march, I said, I was at those marches you
guys and you look around, everybody and their mother, granted this was LA, everybody
and their mother was at that march. Representing something. AND it’s not gonna be
inclusive if I keep my brown butt at home. I said, otherwise, I’m just part of the problem.
I spent like two weeks, like really hashing all of that stuff out. So, it’s a really good class.
I love that class. I really love that class.
Teachers are the movers and shakers of the system of education. When they see something does
not work, they take it upon themselves to change it. In the case of curriculum, teachers have been
working hard towards creating more inclusive resources. Teacher A did this by writing
curriculum that aligned with the standards and made the course interdisciplinary so that it would
be academically rigorous. Because of her experience she understood that she had to cover all
angles and prepare for possible pushback when implementing the Women’s Studies course. At
first, it was not taken seriously, and as she described, was viewed as “dumping ground” elective.
Much the way, Ethnic Studies courses are perceived. Although there are strong efforts to
implement alternative curriculum by teachers on the frontlines, these efforts continue to be
scarce, and when introduced, are be met with criticism and pushback.
Conclusion
This chapter provided and overview of how the identity, accountability, and social justice
intersect to promote equity in K-12 school settings. Teachers within this study use their personal

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experiences to promote social justice within their classes as they navigate through the
accountability systems set up by public schools. Although not generalizable, findings in this
study provide opportunities to generate hypotheses and build theory about relationships that help
create positive spaces that foster equity in classrooms. As social science teachers, they have the
advantage of working within a content area that is undeniably linked to the study of humanity,
policy and its consequences.

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CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION
“Do the best you can until you know better. Then, when you know better, do better” –Maya
Angelou
Introduction
The current racial and political climate has highlighted the importance of learning the
diverse narratives that make up the history of the United States. The teaching of American
history is recognized across the country as being essential for the preservation of democracy and
the development of responsible citizens (Ravitch, 1998). The United States is becoming
increasingly diverse and as such, teachers working within our public schools must have a
complex understanding of the inequities that affect their students' daily lives in order to be
effective in their practice (Duncan-Andrade, 2007; Howard, 2001). Educators, who deviate from
traditional forms of teaching, do so, by learning how to navigate educational policies that place
high-stakes demands on their practice. Since A Nation at Risk (1983) was published, schools
have placed an emphasis on teaching reading and math, while deemphasizing subjects like
history (Agarwahl-Rangnath, Dover and Henning, 2016; Au, 2009). Many educators deviate
from teaching with materials that highlight the master narrative and occult the experience of non-
European settlers (Agarwahl-Rangnath, Dover & Henning, 2016; Loewen, 1995, Loewen, 2013).
Emancipating Curriculum refers to breaking the shackles of Eurocentric curriculum and
engaging students in a curriculum that frees them from accepting and perpetuating the status quo.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to identify the beliefs, assumptions, and pedagogical
practices associated with teaching U.S. history in California public schools. In an effort to give

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voice to an underrepresented group within educational research, this study was centered on
understanding the experiences of Teachers of Color who teach U.S. history.
The research questions guiding this study were:
1. What are the beliefs and pedagogical practices associated with teaching race and
ethnicity in a U.S. history classroom?
a. How do teachers’ conceptualization of their own ethnic identities impact their
relationships with students?
b. How do Social Studies teachers compensate for the lack of culturally relevant
curriculum in the California Content Standards when teaching diverse
populations?
c. Do US History teachers perceive their approach to teaching a form of social
justice?
Methodology
This qualitative study is grounded in Critical Race Theory (CRT) in education and
conceptualizes the experiences of Teachers of Color who practice critical pedagogy through the
use of Community Cultural Wealth (Freire, 1993; Shor, 1987; Stefancic, 2012; Yosso &
Solorzano, 2002; Yosso, 2005). The purpose of this study was to understand the pedagogical
beliefs and assumptions of Teachers of Color who employ critical pedagogy in the U.S. history
classroom. This study does not plan to produce generalizable data, but rather truly understand the
unique experiences of teachers that teach beyond the standards. Participants were selected
through purposeful sampling (Creswell, 2013). Each of the participants is (a) a history teacher in
California, (b) credentialed via a state approved program, (c) currently teaches U.S. History, (d)
identifies as a Teacher of Color, (e) uses critical pedagogy within his or her classroom. The

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researcher conducted in-depth semi-structured interviews with each of the participants. All data
was analyzed using the constant comparative method in order to allow for emerging themes to
develop through an inductive process (Corbin & Strauss, 1990).
Summary of Findings
RQ. 1: How do teachers’ conceptualization of their own ethnic identities impact their
relationships with students?
Identify
Teacher voice is missing from educational research, and when it is explored, it is not
always aggregated by race. In 2016, The U.S. Department of Education’s study on Racial
Diversity in the Educator workforce, found that 82 percent of elementary and secondary
educators in public schools are white. Although the proportion of Teachers of Color has
increased, they continue to make up a small percentage of the teacher workforce in the United
States. The participants in this study identify as Teachers of Color and therefore represent the
small percentage of teachers that are often forgotten or clumped in with the all-encompassing
“Teacher Voice.” The experiences of Teachers of Color are very different from their white
counterparts. Their positionality as People of Color gives them a unique insight on the Teacher
experience. Teachers of Color continue to be racially underrepresented within the teacher
workforce, and this study allows us to explore what it means to be a Teacher of Color who
teaches U.S. history in California Public schools.
The participants in this study all attended California public schools during their K-12
experience, and each went to a public university. Each of them experienced the effects of the
pipeline of education, and furthermore the teacher pipeline as they ascended in their schooling.
While they may have attended K-12 schools that were diverse or predominantly made of People

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of Color, they experienced less classroom diversity in college and in professional settings. As
teachers, all of them taught in schools that had a 10-30 percent representation of Teachers of
Color. Although some of them may have been in settings that had a larger representative sample
of Teachers of Color, some of the teachers pointed out that economically and geographically, the
schooling experiences of their peers was still very different than theirs. Teacher A for example,
noted that she was the only Person of Color on her staff that identified strongly with her Mexican
culture, and who was brought up in a low-income household.
The use of Critical Race Theory (CRT) and Community Cultural Wealth allowed this
study to develop a framework that validated the experiential knowledge of each of the
participants. Instead of dismissing their instinct, or their unique ways and approaches to teaching
diverse communities, Community Cultural Wealth, acknowledges that their ways of knowing are
real and important. Due to their compounded experience as a Student of Color and then, a
Teacher of Color, each of the participants was able to navigate the system of education to create
positive outcomes for themselves and their students. The most critical finding within this
emergent theme, is that identity plays a critical role in a teacher’s approach to teaching.
RQ. 2: How do Social Studies teachers compensate for the lack of culturally relevant
curriculum in the California Content Standards when teaching diverse populations?
Accountability
The participants in this study faced inequities in education through a compounded
experience as both students and teachers of color. The inequities they confronted as students
informed their desire to create equitable spaces for their students. This experience, coupled with
their teacher preparation, enables them to navigate policies that do not benefit the students they
teach. The inequities experienced by the participants in this study were faced during their own

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schooling, when they attended schools that were underresourced or inadequately staffed. Each of
them remembered using schools books, specifically history books that omitted diverse narratives
and upheld Eurocentric ideologies.
The Williams v. California (2004) settlement has created a catalyst for equity in the state
of California, but it’s end goals are far from met. In California, research continues to uphold that
Students of Color experience overcrowded, underresourced schools that are most in need of
qualified teachers (Oakes et al., 2004). These students do not receive high-quality education
when compared to their white counterparts (Perez Huber et al., 2006). These realities were
blatantly evident in the ways in which the participants in this study addressed the issue of
textbook accessibility. Teacher A works in an affluent community and her issue with
accessibility was framed in terms of moving beyond the textbook in order to prepare students for
college. However, Teacher B, Teacher C, Teacher D and Teacher E all spoke about textbook
accessibility in terms of reading levels. They had to focus their efforts on rewriting passages, or
looking for resources that reflected diversity in the narrative. For them, it was critical that the
narrative they were teaching was true and validated the experiences of the people who looked
like their students. Some of these efforts required that educators fill in the gaps written into the
standards by the legislature. Others, navigated district mandated policies, textbooks, and
curricula in order to make their courses historically accurate. Teacher A and Teacher C even
went as far as writing a Women’s Studies and Ethnic Studies course respectively, in order to
accomplish their goal of making their content more inclusive.

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RQ. 3-Do US History teachers perceive their approach to teaching a form of social justice?
Social Justice
Oakes et. al, (2004) suggests that well-qualified teachers are those that possess the
strategies tools and resources needed to meet the diverse needs of students and create engaging
classroom environments that validate cultural identities. Each of the participants recognized that
their role as an educator was powerful because they have the potential to shape their students’
lives long after they leave their care (Banks et al., 2001). As teachers of history, each participant
believes it is their duty to create spaces that allow students to develop into responsible citizens
who are civically engaged. For them, teaching is more than a daily lesson. It is, transformative
and in some cases, it gives them the possibility to empower students to be activists in their own
right. Beyond helping their students find the ability to be advocates for themselves, they also
found ways to advocate for their students. Teacher A did this on several occasions by creating
safe spaces for students who felt marginalized on campus. Ultimately, each of the educators felt
their advocacy work was not about making their experience as Teachers of Color better, but
rather, to make the experience of their marginalized students just.
Tenets of Equity
Through these interviews, the tenets for equity emerged. These tenets are concepts that
all educators should consider in order to make their classrooms more equitable spaces. First and
foremost is identity. Although initially, this study focused on race and ethnicity, it became
apparent that teachers must consider all identity markers, (i.e. religion, gender, sexual
orientation, language) when planning for instruction. Secondly there is Accountability.
Accountability refers to the policies, mandates and textbooks that teachers must understand and
navigate in order to make sure they are compliant by the federal, state and local governing

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bodies. Accountability is important because it places responsibility on the school system to make
sure it does our students and larger community justice through education. By exploring what
accountability means for Teachers of Color who implement critical pedagogy, researches and
practitioners can build on that work to work towards equity across education. Accountability
plays a huge role in schooling, and it is critical for pre-service and current teachers to understand
how such systems work. Finally, the last tenet for equity is Social Justice. Social Justice emerges
as the understanding that teaching is not about the teacher, but instead is about the students. By
transferring the power onto the student, educators can move away from traditional methods of
instruction and act as facilitators of education. When the work becomes about the students and
how they benefit from better textbooks, quality teachers, systems of accountability, then
schoolhouses become powerhouses of empowerment.
Implications for Practice
Understanding the diverse make-up of our country, not only opens the door to an
understanding of the complex history that led to present-day issues, it also provides a catapult for
embracing the changes toward a more equitable society. Present day legislation does not allow
for a change in the California Content Standards in History and Social Science, and yet educators
who recognize the importance of validating counter-narratives of American History are working
towards creating accountability frameworks that will allow all educators to teach with all people
in mind.
1. This study suggests that pre-service teachers be required to take diversity coursework
every semester during their teacher preparation program. These courses should focus on
identity formation, multiple perspectives and inquiry-based methods for local history.
Although some credential programs advocate social justice and lifelong learning, it is

90
evident that most programs only require one course on diversity. While this is a step in
the right direction, one course is not enough. As with U.S. history curriculum, diversity
curriculum is extensive and can feel overwhelming for one instructor to deliver. This is
why incorporating diversity requirements throughout the program will help promote
approaches to equity for all teacher candidates.
2. This study recommends the revisiting of the California History-Social Science
Framework through a collaboration that requires the involvement of K-12 teachers. The
most recent attempt at diversifying the standards was met through the implementation of
a new framework. However, the California legislator remains the ultimate governing
body over the standards. As such, it is in their power to approve any new changes. The
California History Social Science standards have not been approved since October 1998.
Although there are arguments that suggest that history never changes, it is important to
understand that this stance is damaging to a critical understanding of our past. Textbooks
continue to uphold Eurocentric biases and omit the diverse narratives of history. This is
true for all history books but especially within U.S. history texts.
3. Instead of advocating against the overreliance of textbooks, this study suggests that
textbooks adapt to the changes demanded of curriculum standards, and focus on creating
more comprehensive books. Underresourced schools continue to prevail even after the
Williams (2004) settlement. Although all schools are required to have a textbook for their
students, the quality of the textbook is not measured under Williams. Additionally,
schools in low-income, communities of color, most often have schools that have an
overrepresentation of under qualified teachers who rely on textbooks to teach. In these
cases, overreliance on textbooks that are biased in nature can have detrimental effects on

91
the students that use them. Schools should be equipped with quality, comprehensive
textbooks.
4. In terms of history requirements, there is a need to shift focus from English and Math, to
bring back equal time to the study of History, especially as it concerns K-5 classrooms.
Once students are in 6
th
grade students are required to take history as a core class, but
there is no system of accountability in the primary grades. The California History-Social
Science standards have standards for grades Kindergarten through twelfth grade.
However, assessments used to measure achievement in public schools focus on English
and Math, and therefore the focus on “achievement” has a strict English and Math
emphasis. This has allowed many K-5 schools to deviate from the practice of daily social
studies instruction. Many of the schools caught within this conundrum are
underresourced schools that have more at stake in terms of funding
5. The state should focus on creating partnerships between K-12 schools and Universities.
Many of the teachers alluded to a need for more resources or a “bank of resources” that
would be used free of cost to teachers. Although some organizations exist that currently
provide resource banks, it should be state mandated to ensure that all teachers have
equitable access to these resources.
Recommendations for Research
The significant findings associated with this study contribute to the body of scholarly
literature by identifying the major components associated with practices for equity in U.S.
History classrooms. In pursuit of greater clarity about equity in U.S. history curriculum, the
researcher recommends the following be considered for future study:

92
1. The process of creating and planning Ethnic Studies courses followed with the
implementation of it.
2. Comparing traditional teacher preparation programs against non-traditional training
programs such as Teach For America, in order to explore how each of them trains its
teachers to focus on multiple perspectives specifically in U.S. history courses.
3. Explore the implementation of the new California Framework for history-social
science across California public schools.
Practices for Equity in U.S. History Curriculum: The Tenets of Equity
The work that critically conscious teachers engage in, is an effort born out of necessity
because of their experiences with the inequities in education. Whether it was their personal
experience with discrimination as a student, or their relationship with school systems that
maintain underresourced schools, their work represents a push to upholding equitable practices
within the U.S. History classroom. History as a content area demands that these ideas be
confronted, and even within this disciple, they have been obscured. However, teachers can
employ the practices and beliefs employed by the teachers in this study across all content areas.
All teachers, regardless of content area, can engage with the three tenets of equity and
begin to move towards a practice of equity within their classroom. As all teachers in this study
pointed out, teachers should be actively engaged in a process of self-reflection and praxis
(Fernandez, 1998). Although teachers may find themselves on the more critical end of the
teacher consciousness spectrum, they should never deviate from the practice of self-reflection.
In order to implement the tenets of equity in their classroom, teachers should be aware of
the ways in which their identity and the identity of their students can impact the way content is
perceived, accepted, and developed within their classroom. A teacher should ask, “How does my

93
identity and world view impact the way I am teaching?” Then, a teacher must remember to
center the classroom experience on his or her students and ask, “How does my students’ identity
impact the way they understand the content I am teaching?” and finally, “How is my students
Identity validated and affirmed within the content that I teach?” Educators must understand how
their identity developed, how they conceptualize their identity in relation to the world, how this
informs their practice and the most crucial element, how their practices impact the identity
development of their students.
Accountability plays an equally important role in the practice of equity in the classroom.
As educators, teachers are always accountable to someone other than themselves. Sustaining
equity cannot be done in isolation. In order for classrooms to be transformative spaces that thrive
on equity, these instances must be shared with all stakeholders. Textbooks, curricula, and
frameworks should be written to include multiple perspectives. Additionally, these methods must
be introduced to teachers during teacher preparation programs. All teachers should be required to
use resources that promote the use of multiple perspectives and the introduce culture in positive
and affirming ways. In history, this means ensuring that the counters stories make their way into
lessons. In other subjects, it may mean introducing literature written by and for People of Color.
Finally, Social Justice as a tenet, allows educators to actively engage in creating spaces of
inclusion and equality. Schoolhouses help train the future generations. By creating systems that
validate identity, and promote equality, U.S. history teachers contribute to a future in which
students will be positive contributing members of society. Together, these tenets require that the
teachers work on the self (identify), engage a community (accountability) and finally ensure that
all members of the community are treated equally (social justice).

94
Conclusion
I grew up in a community that was predominantly Black and Latino. Of the Latino
population, the majority was of Mexican descent. Growing up, the majority of my teachers were
Black. I didn’t realize it at the time, but that was a unique experience. I went to school during a
racial transition in the city of Inglewood. The effects of white flight were felt across the city, and
that allowed for new members to step up into positions of power. Our mayor, city council
members, public service employees, and majority of our teachers were Black. Our school district
hosted month-long programming for Black History Month and celebrated cultural celebrations
throughout the year. Many of my teachers were outspoken about the racial inequities that existed
in our textbooks, and I remember understanding, at a very young age that the Black community
had fought long and hard to get to where they were. Even though I didn’t understand the
complexities of the plight for civil rights. In fourth grade, Mrs. Young told us that our textbooks
didn’t tell our stories, and when she said that, I knew that I was part of the community she was
referring to. Somehow, I also came to believe myself as a third-class citizen, waiting in line for
her turn to see herself in books. The racial representation hierarchy, I thought, would begin with
the Black Community. Then, it would move to the Mexican Community, and then finally one
day, I would see myself, a Central-American of Guatemalan descent represented in a book. It
never happened. That logic should not have been how I, at eight years old, rationalized the
representation of my people in schoolbooks.
Not much has changed since the years I longed to read a story about Guatemalan
immigrants, or any Latinos in our history books. Today, even the most progressive of history
books don’t provide comprehensive narratives of the diversity of this nation. Often times these
narratives objectify the experiences of People of Color by making them subjects of history,

95
instead of humanizing their experiences. In history books, stories of marginalized communities
are always told through a Eurocentric lens, in which the protagonist is the White, American
settler. But it is important to show the ways in which diverse groups of people contributed to this
nation. This nation is rich in cultural and linguistic diversity, and our classrooms represent this
truth. We need to do better by our students, especially now that we know better.

96
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Appendix A: Pre-Interview Form Teacher Profile
Name:
Race/Ethnic Background (however you identify:
Gender:
Hometown:
High School attended:
Undergraduate institution:
Major/Majors:
Minor/Minors:
Graduate institutions:
Degree Program/year degree conferred:

Credentialing Program (Teacher Education Program):
Additional credentials:

110
Appendix B: Pre-Interview Form Pedagogy Questionnaire
Pedagogical Practices
The following is used to help me understand the practices you use in your classroom.
Please circle the answer that best describes you:

Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly
Agree
I use Dialogue teaching in my
classroom
Teacher engages students in
dialogue to increase student
engagement and to prevent the
banking method of 'teacher talk'
1 2 3 4 5
I use Critical literacy in my
classroom
Going beyond the basic reading,
writing, thinking, speaking, and
listening habits, to engage learners
into conceptual inquiry into self
and society and into the discipline
under study
1 2 3 4 5
I use Situated Pedagogy strategies
in my classroom
Teachers situate the learning within
the students´ cultures, environment,
and real-life context.

1 2 3 4 5
I learn about my students’
backgrounds and use this
information to communicate with
families.
Understanding of language and
cultures, and how to address
communications in teaching in a
multicultural society

1

2

3

4

5

111
Appendix C: Interview Protocol
Hello,
Thank you so much for taking the time to meet with me. I would like to ask you questions about
your experience teaching United States History. I am interested in the use of critical pedagogy
and the ways race and ethnicity are taught in U.S. History classes as well as the use of culturally
relevant pedagogy in the history classroom. Feel free to share as much as you would like to
during our conversation. If at any point you do not feel comfortable, or would like to stop the
interview, please let me know and we will stop.

-I would like to record the conversation to make sure I capture everything you say. Would it be
okay with you if I recorded our conversation?

I’m going to start with general questions about your decision to become a teacher.

1. What are some of the major reasons you chose to become a teacher?
2. Why did you choose to teach History?
3. How has your personal background informed the way you approach teaching history?
a. Probes:
i. Race/ethnicity
ii. Social Class
iii. K-12 schooling
iv. College and Teacher Education Program
v. Teaching Experience
I’m going to ask questions specifically related to Race and Ethnicity in US History.
1. What does race and ethnicity mean to you? How would you define it?
2. Have race and ethnicity played a role in U.S. History?
a. How so? Can you please explain?

3. Do you think it is important to teach about race and ethnicity in your U.S. history classes?
Why or why not?

4. Do you emphasize race and ethnicity in your teaching?
a. Can you think of specific lessons or units where you emphasized race and
ethnicity?
b. Could you describe the ways in which you prepare to teach a lesson that
emphasizes race and ethnicity?

5. Do you teach about racism in the past?

112
6. Do you teach about racial inequities in your U.S. history class?
a. Can you think of a lesson where you taught about racial inequities?

7. To what extent do the California Content Standards for History and Social Science guide
your instruction?
a. Probes:
i. Do they enhance the emphasis of race and ethnicity in your instruction? In
what ways?
ii. Do they limit the emphasis of race and ethnicity in your instruction? In
what ways?

8. Does your student demographic influence the ways in which you teach U.S. History?
Probe: Do your students' race and ethnicity influence the content you present?
i. Religion? Native Language? Nationality?

9. Have you heard of the term “culturally relevant pedagogy”?
a. What does culturally relevant pedagogy mean to you?
b. Would you consider yourself a teacher that uses culturally relevant pedagogy?
i. What does culturally relevant instruction look like in your classroom?

10. Was culturally relevant pedagogy addressed in your teacher education program?

11. What influences your decision to use culturally relevant pedagogy?

12. Is there anything else you would like me to know?

Thank you for your time.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This qualitative study is grounded in Critical Race Theory (CRT) in education and conceptualizes the experiences of Teachers of Color who practice critical pedagogy through the use of Community Cultural Wealth (Freire, 1993

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Asset Metadata

Creator Moran, Monica (author)

Core Title Emancipating curriculum: practices for equity in the U.S. history classroom

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 07/19/2018

Defense Date 04/27/2018

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag accountability,community cultural wealth,critical race theory,curriculum,educational pipeline,equity,history-social science framework,OAI-PMH Harvest,pedagogy,people of color,praxis,Social Justice,teachers of color,teaching,U.S.history,urban schooling

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Hinga, Briana (committee chair), Green, Alan (committee member), Love, Laurie (committee member)

Creator Email M.moran28@yahoo.com,mora448@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-20427

Unique identifier UC11671447

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Legacy Identifier etd-MoranMonic-6427.pdf

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Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

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Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

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