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Expanding bilingualism and biliteracy through a student-centered culturally relevant pedagogy in secondary schools: An innovation gap analysis

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Expanding bilingualism and biliteracy through a student-centered culturally relevant pedagogy in secondary schools: An innovation gap analysis

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Content Running head: CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 1 EXPANDING BILINGUALISM AND BILITERACY THROUGH A STUDENT-CENTERED CULTURALLY RELEVANT PEDAGOGY IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS: AN INNOVATION GAP ANALYSIS by Jamie M. Gebhard Lee A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF EDUCATION August 2018 Copyright 2018 Jamie Lee CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS From my weening years as a chess player in elementary school to my current role as a secondary administrator, there are so many people to thank for shaping who I am today, which has impacted my journey to and through the University of Southern California Global Executive Education doctoral program. First and foremost, I need to give thanks to an ever-present, relentless agape-giving, universe-creating King of all kings, the Lord Jesus Christ. I certainly could not have asked for or imagined the amazingly gracious steady and tumultuous experiences, relationships, supports, or invisibly inspiring gifts I have received throughout my lifetime that have compelled me to persist when I felt like giving up, inspired me when I felt like hope was unthinkable, and given me renewed energy and strength to read one more scholarly peer- reviewed journal article or check another APA formatting element. Other laudable folks to whom I would like to issue gratitude are the countless children and domestic workers, teachers, coordinators, missionaries, and entrepreneurial people doing the good work in developing cities, towns, and nations who inspire me to continue persevering with a goal in mind, to develop and improve secondary education for all students globally. Special thanks to Oasis de Amor of Honduras for inspiring me to work with students with special needs; Heart to Heart International of Romania for inspiring me and provoking me to learn and understand culture in context of learning; Dakar public schools of Senegal who were introducing inclusive education for students with special needs in classrooms of 100 students; International China Concern who developed a wide variety of programs to support students with special needs live independent adult lives; Life Builders International of Nigeria who regularly provides education and healthcare to Nigerians experiencing a vast array of trials; girls all throughout the globe who do not have access to high quality equitable education; Chicago Public Schools CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 3 teachers and students for teaching me about diligence, dreams, and fighting for social justice; and many more individuals throughout the journey who never give up in spite of trials, challenges, and tribulations. The amazing people at the University of Southern California have designed a world- class, cutting-edge global education doctorate program that invited the likes of some of the most intriguing people I have ever met who are equally as passionate about changing the world of education to promote greater equity, improve outcomes for all students, and seamlessly build a bridge to 21 st -century teaching and learning. Thank you, Dr. Mark Robison and Dr. Rob Filback for setting up a solid infrastructure for us to learn more about policy, problem-solving, creativity and innovation, and the dissertation within early childhood through tertiary education and our own specializations. Thank you, Dr. Monique Datta for being an encouraging chair with timely and thoughtful feedback; there is no way I could have progressed through the multitude of revisions and data collection sentiments without your insight and keen eye for improving my writing. Thank you, Dr. Krop, Dr. Seli, Dr. Tambascia, Dr. Chung, Professor Wertman, Dr. Maddox, Dr. Adolph, Dr. Yates, Dr. Diamond, and Dr. Picus for spending countless hours organizing the curriculum, engaging us with new and challenging readings, contemplations, and technological tools and for providing us with usable feedback to improve our writing, thinking, and communication. You all enjoyed Los Angeles, Hong Kong, Qatar, and Finland with us, and we appreciate you for it. Thank you, Dr. Chong for coordinating our every need while we were on site during our synchronous in vivo sessions. Most importantly, thank you to my Cohort 5 confreres, for whom we affectionately developed hashtags, enjoyed each other’s companionship, and supported each other through a spectrum of career advancements, baby births, engagements, divorces, travel, natural disasters, and everything in between. We reassure and inspire each other CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 4 when we struggle, we care for one other through illness, and we are present for each other when we need encouragement. We are “ohana” for life: Cathy Atwell, Tadios Belay, Nancy Bjorkland, Brittany Debity Barker, Crissy Gayagas, Frank Gettridge, Kai-Li Hwang, Li Liu, Nefertiti Makeda, Michael McAlister, Will Pierros, Charles Prince, Emmanuel Reed, Emon Reyes, Paulo Rodrigues, Tim Smith, John Wilkerson, and YongFei Zhao. Cohort 4, you shared your wisdom with us. Cohort 6, you made us proud with your professional connections and advancements. Global Education alumni looks exorbitantly promising. Thanks to my husband, Lundy Lee, for allowing me to explore the world with my global compadres, for listening to me describe the exertion required during a literature review, for always ensuring my technology was operational and adequate, and for helping me organize and discipline my time so I could still relish in life experiences. Thanks to my mom and dad, Karen and Rick Gebhard, for consistently loving me unconditionally and listening intently. They always wanted to have a college life, and now they are rightfully enjoying retirement among friends recreating in the land of gators and golf carts. I offer a special thanks to my grandmothers, Gertrude Dvorak and Celine Gebhard. Grandma Gert has always been an avid reader, walker, and sewer; she taught me about sacrifice and good stewardship, and I promised myself that if I ever constructed a library, I would name it after her. Grandma Celine took care of her family and always emphasizes her deep pride for what I am doing, the first and only child or grandchild to complete a doctorate. My dogs get a distinct kudos for unconditionally loving me, even though there were times when I just wanted them to politely and tranquilly sit, so I could work on the dissertation or read the multitude of resources; I love you, Maddie and Indy. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 5 Table of Contents Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... 2 List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. 8 List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... 10 Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... 12 Chapter One: Introduction of the Problem .................................................................................... 13 Background of the Problem....................................................................................................... 17 Importance of Addressing the Problem ..................................................................................... 23 Organizational Context and Mission ......................................................................................... 25 Organizational Performance Status ....................................................................................... 28 Organizational Performance Goal ......................................................................................... 32 Description of Stakeholder Groups ....................................................................................... 33 Stakeholder Groups’ Performance Goals .................................................................................. 34 Stakeholder Group for the Study ........................................................................................... 35 Purpose of the Study and Research Questions .......................................................................... 36 Conceptual and Methodological Framework ............................................................................ 37 Definitions ................................................................................................................................. 38 Organization of the Study ......................................................................................................... 39 Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ........................................................................................ 40 21 st -Century Language Learning in a Global Context .............................................................. 41 Global Marketplace ............................................................................................................... 44 Immigration ........................................................................................................................... 45 Culturally Relevant and Sustaining Pedagogy in the 21 st Century ........................................... 46 History of Bilingualism and Biliteracy in the United States ..................................................... 47 Advantages of Attaining Bilingualism and Biliteracy ........................................................... 53 Bilingualism and Biliteracy in California ................................................................................. 60 Advancing Bilingualism and Biliteracy Within Secondary Schools ..................................... 61 Leadership for Advancing Bilingual Education and Culturally Relevant Pedagogy ............ 69 Teacher Pre-Service and In-Service Training for Bilingual Education ................................. 70 Teacher Preparation for Culturally Relevant and Sustaining Pedagogy ............................... 75 The California State Seal of Biliteracy ..................................................................................... 76 Assessing Bilingualism and Biliteracy .................................................................................. 77 CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 6 The Process for Earning the California State Seal of Biliteracy ........................................... 80 Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences ...................................... 84 Knowledge and Skills ............................................................................................................ 84 Motivation ............................................................................................................................. 86 Organization .......................................................................................................................... 92 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 94 Chapter Three: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 95 Purpose of the Analysis and Research Questions ..................................................................... 95 Stakeholder of Focus Goal and Critical Behaviors ................................................................... 96 Methodological Framework ...................................................................................................... 97 Assumed Influences of the Performance Gap ........................................................................... 99 Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Theory and Observation of Teacher Needs .... 100 Population and Sample ............................................................................................................ 106 Data Collection ........................................................................................................................ 109 Validation of the Influences .................................................................................................... 113 Trustworthiness of the Data .................................................................................................... 117 Role of the Investigator ........................................................................................................... 118 Data Analysis .......................................................................................................................... 119 Limitations and Delimitations of the Study ............................................................................ 119 Limitations ........................................................................................................................... 120 Delimitations ....................................................................................................................... 121 Chapter Four: Data Results and Analysis ................................................................................... 123 Participating Stakeholders ....................................................................................................... 123 Data Collection and Validity ................................................................................................... 124 Knowledge and Skills.............................................................................................................. 128 Factual Knowledge .............................................................................................................. 130 Conceptual Knowledge ........................................................................................................ 134 Procedural Knowledge ........................................................................................................ 139 Metacognitive Knowledge ................................................................................................... 146 Key Insights ......................................................................................................................... 149 Motivation ............................................................................................................................... 151 Belief for Bilingualism and Culturally Relevant Pedagogy ................................................ 152 CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 7 Value of Bilingualism and Biliteracy .................................................................................. 155 Teacher Self-Efficacy .......................................................................................................... 157 Goal-Orientation for Mastery .............................................................................................. 159 Key Insights ......................................................................................................................... 161 Organization ............................................................................................................................ 164 Organizational Resources .................................................................................................... 166 Organizational Cultural Models .......................................................................................... 168 Organizational Cultural Settings ......................................................................................... 171 Organizational Training and Professional Growth .............................................................. 176 Organizational Policies and Procedures .............................................................................. 179 Key Insights ......................................................................................................................... 181 Key Findings ........................................................................................................................... 183 Belief and Value Over Self-Efficacy ................................................................................... 183 Focus on English Learners Over Bilingualism .................................................................... 184 Coordinate Professional Learning ....................................................................................... 184 Systematic Plan to Promote Bilingualism and Biliteracy for All ........................................ 185 Appendix A: Summary of Assumed Knowledge Causes and Validation Methods ................ 229 Appendix B: Data Collection Instruments .............................................................................. 240 Appendix C: University of Southern California Information Sheet for Research ................. 254 Appendix D: Interview Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Matrix ........................... 256 Appendix E: Table E ............................................................................................................... 257 Appendix F: Table F ............................................................................................................... 258 Appendix G: Kirkpatrick Four Levels of Change ................................................................... 260 CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 8 LIST OF TABLES Table 1: CPHSD Seal of Biliteracy recipients 2014-2017 ............................................................ 30 Table 2: Organizational Mission, Organizational Performance Goal, and Stakeholder Performance Goals ........................................................................................................................ 34 Table 3: History of Bilingual Education (DeLeon, 2014; Gorman, 2015; Holstein, 1999; Kim et al., 2015; Lo Bianco, 2001; Pokrivčáková, 2013; Spack, 2002; Wiley & García, 2016) ............. 52 Table 4: Seal of Biliteracy Pathways of Completion in College Prep High School District ........ 83 Table 5: CLAD, BCLAD, and SB 2042 Authorizations 2016-2017 .......................................... 107 Table 6: Assumed Causes and Validation Methods for Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization (Ambrose et al., 2010; Rueda, 2011) .......................................................................................... 115 Table 7: Demographic Information of Survey Respondents ...................................................... 126 Table 8: Validation of Knowledge Assumed Causes or Influences ........................................... 129 Table 9: Survey Mean Score Results: Factual ............................................................................ 130 Table 10: Survey Mean Score Results: Conceptual .................................................................... 134 Table 11: Survey Mean Score Results: Procedural..................................................................... 139 Table 12: Survey Mean Score Results: Metacognitive ............................................................... 146 Table 13: Validation of Motivation Assumed Causes or Influences .......................................... 151 Table 14: Survey Mean Score Results: Belief ............................................................................ 153 Table 15: Survey Mean Score Results: Value ............................................................................ 156 Table 16: Survey Mean Score Results: Self-Efficacy ................................................................. 158 Table 17: Survey Mean Score Results: Goal-Orientation........................................................... 160 Table 18: Validation of Organizational Assumed Causes or Influences .................................... 165 Table 19: Survey Mean Score Results: Resources ..................................................................... 166 Table 20: Survey Mean Score Results: Cultural Models ............................................................ 168 Table 21: Survey Mean Score Results: Cultural Settings ........................................................... 171 Table 22: Survey Mean Score Results: Training ........................................................................ 177 CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 9 Table 23: Survey Mean Score Results: Policies and Procedures ................................................ 179 Table 24: Validated Needs Summary Table ............................................................................... 186 Table 25: Knowledge Validated Needs and Solutions ............................................................... 190 Table 26: Motivation Validated Needs and Solutions ................................................................ 192 Table 27: Organization Validated Needs and Solutions ............................................................. 195 Table 28: Solutions and Solution Categories .............................................................................. 198 Table 29: Solutions and Implementation Action Timeline ......................................................... 201 Table 30: Evaluation Plan (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006) ................................................... 205 CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 10 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: California State Seal of Biliteracy eligibility (California Department of Education, 2017). ............................................................................................................................................ 15 Figure 2: Foreign language proficiency required in each state (Davin & Heineke, 2017). .......... 78 Figure 3: Motivation through efficacy, value, and support (Ambrose et al., 2010). .................... 87 Figure 4: Gap analysis process (Clark & Estes, 2008). ................................................................ 98 Figure 5: Languages teachers learned ......................................................................................... 127 Figure 6: Teacher understanding of bilingualism and biliteracy. ............................................... 132 Figure 7: Teacher understanding of culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy. .................... 133 Figure 8: Dual language acquisition in core content areas. ........................................................ 136 Figure 9: Cultural relevant pedagogy influences curriculum and instruction............................. 138 Figure 10: Student-led and student-centered dual language instruction. .................................... 141 Figure 11: Dual language pedagogy (Lindholm-Leary, 2015). .................................................. 142 Figure 12: Planning and delivering culturally relevant pedagogy. ............................................. 143 Figure 13: Culturally relevant pedagogy: Academic achievement. ............................................ 143 Figure 14: Culturally relevant pedagogy: Cultural competence. ................................................ 144 Figure 15: Culturally relevant pedagogy: Sociopolitical awareness. .......................................... 145 Figure 16: Teacher reflection on progressing in dual languages. ............................................... 147 Figure 17: Teacher reflection on culturally relevant pedagogy. ................................................. 148 Figure 18: Knowledge findings summary................................................................................... 150 Figure 19: Beliefs about bilingualism and biliteracy. ................................................................. 153 Figure 20: Teachers value language and culture. ........................................................................ 157 Figure 21: Self-efficacy of incorporating language and culture into content. ............................ 158 Figure 22: Goal-orientation for academic achievement. ............................................................. 161 Figure 23: Motivation summary findings. .................................................................................. 163 CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 11 Figure 24: Sufficient materials to support dual language and culturally relevant pedagogy. ..... 167 Figure 25. School culture for celebrating bilingualism and multilingualism. ............................ 170 Figure 26. Professional development for dual language and culturally relevant pedagogy. ...... 172 Figure 27. Collaboration time within content. ............................................................................ 174 Figure 28. Collaboration with world language teachers. ............................................................ 175 Figure 29. Training for dual language acquisition and culturally relevant pedagogy. ............... 178 Figure 30. Policies that support dual language acquisition and culturally relevant pedagogy. .. 180 Figure 31. Organization summary findings. ............................................................................... 182 Figure 32. Validated needs diagram. .......................................................................................... 189 CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 12 ABSTRACT Bilingualism and multilingualism prove efficacious for learners through a range of cognitive and academic benefits and affords an expansive breadth of economic opportunities. California pioneered recognizing students for attaining proficiency in two or more languages by awarding a State Seal of Biliteracy to secondary school graduates. The seal of biliteracy has since been established in 43 states, including the District of Columbia. Since 1997, teachers in California have been required to earn credentials to enhance English language acquisition. In 2017, California passed Proposition 58, the Education for a Global Economy Initiative, which is an impetus for igniting the value of and actionable efforts to incorporating dual and multilingual learning programs across California at increasing rates. Promoting the furtherance of bilingualism among all students entails a thorough analysis of knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs, which illuminate a trajectory for increasing a school's capacity to develop students as bilinguals and biliterates. Study findings are consistent with teachers’ need for factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge about dual language acquisition and their self-efficacy in delivering a pedagogy that incorporated dual language learning. Additionally, along with resources, training, and policies, cultural models and settings are a demonstrated need among the district to further systematically develop dual language acquisition. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 13 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION OF THE PROBLEM The 21 st century welcomed some of the most significant changes in global interconnectedness, access to information, and demands of the modern workforce. In the wake of the transformation 21 st -century demands have had on the life, relationships, and the marketplace, these demands are logically transferred to the schools. The 21 st century brought a nationwide set of near universal adoption of the common core standards for English language arts and mathematics. Additionally, alongside the myriad new pre-engineering, science, technology, and design courses infused with reliance on innovation, creativity, and entrepreneurship that are offered in schools, there is evidence that schools in the United States are not keeping up with many other industrialized nations in regard to skilled labor to meet the economic and employment demands (Friedman & Mandelbaum, 2011). Besides the United States, the growing epicenters of research and development among businesses subsist in Japan, Germany, and China (Advantage Business Media, 2013). The world has gotten smaller with the advent of instant communication, internet, and easily accessible air travel (Reimers, 2009). The need to speak and understand more than one language is increasingly evident and vacillates in the American school system between an ideology that fashions other language ability as an asset versus a deficit (California Department of Education, 2018; Haukås, 2016). In California, there are over two and a half million public-school students who speak a language other than English in the home (California Department of Education, 2016a). California recently developed a way to demonstrate to future employers and universities which individuals developed highly proficient bilingual and biliteracy skills during secondary school; the measure is the California State Seal of Biliteracy. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 14 The State Seal of Biliteracy is a gold embossed seal which is placed on the secondary school diploma upon graduation for those who have proven proficiency in two or more languages. The State Seal of Biliteracy was developed as a mechanism for recognizing the significant assets that bilingualism contributes to a global society and economy within the 21 st century. California was the first state to adopt a State Seal of Biliteracy in 2011; the seal is symbolic of a graduate’s proficiency in English and another world language. As of 2016, 21 states and Washington D.C. offered a seal of biliteracy to high school graduates (Rocque, Ferrin, Hite, & Randall, 2016). In 2017, 27 states approved a seal of biliteracy, and 14 additional states are progressing through development and approval of a seal of biliteracy (Californians Together, 2017). As of 2018, only seven states have not approved nor are in process of approving a seal of biliteracy, which is evidence that elevating the status of bilingualism is sweeping the nation (Californians Together, 2018). California is a marquee exemplar regarding bilingual education in the United States and leads the nation in dual immersion language programs at the primary school level (Kim, Hutchison, & Winsler, 2015). Within College Prep High School District, all secondary schools offer at least one language other than English in order to meet the minimum 2-year language requirement within the A through G requirements for acceptance to a 4-year university (University of California, 2015). The selection of world languages taught in high schools is dependent on several variables, two of which are the demand for instruction in the language by the residents or enrollees in a school and teacher credentialing in the target language. When students do not express interest by selecting a world language course in their schedule, it may impact the overall quantity of sections the course is taught or whether the course is taught at all. Outside of dual immersion language instruction programs and mandatory English learner authorization, core CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 15 content subject area teachers are not required to possess world language credentials in addition to their content area. There are five methods in which students earn the State Seal of Biliteracy, including demonstrating their proficiency through participating in 4 years of world language during high school with a 3.0 grade point average or higher in the world language courses, earning a score of three or higher in any Advanced Placement (AP) world language exam, earning a score at or above 600 on the Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) II foreign language exam, earning a score of four or higher on an International Baccalaureate (IB) exam in a world language, or scoring proficient on an “Off-the-shelf” exam in a world language that does not offer any of the aforementioned options (California Department of Education, 2016b). Figure 1. California State Seal of Biliteracy eligibility (California Department of Education, 2017b). CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 16 AP world language exams are offered in Chinese, French, German, Italian, Japanese, Latin, and Spanish; note that nearly all the languages are European languages. SAT-II foreign language subject exams are offered in Spanish, French, Chinese, Italian, German, Modern Hebrew, Latin, Japanese, and Korean. International Baccalaureate world language programs are offered in Latin, Classical Greek, Spanish, Mandarin Chinese, and French. “Off-the-shelf” exams must be approved by the state superintendent of public instruction; examples of languages in which students have attained proficiency are Russian, American Sign Language, Tagalog, and Vietnamese (California Department of Education, 2016b). According to the California Department of Education in the 2015-2016 school year, English learners constituted 22.1% of the total enrollment in California public schools, over 85% of whom spoke and understood Spanish in the home (California Department of Education, 2016a). For students who are identified as English learners and demonstrate dominance in a language other than English, they must also prove proficiency in English through success in their English courses, meet or exceed the state standardized English assessment on the California Assessment of Student Performance and Progress (CAASPP), and score a minimum proficiency on the English Language Proficiency Assessment of California (California Department of Education, 2016b). The problem addressed in this study is the gap between students who could be and those who are earning a seal of biliteracy. The district has a multitude of students and resources that embody language capital and assets in languages other than English, yet despite these assets, the quantity of students earning the seal are low comparatively, and native English speakers are not demonstrating bilingual proficiency at the same rate as their peers who have home languages other than English, which highlights the paradox about whether home or school is adding the CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 17 most language value. This study investigates whether there is a systematic approach from the district to enable all students to develop biliteracy and bilingual proficiency through a student- centered culturally relevant pedagogy. Background of the Problem Language is complex and personal; all people engage and participate in society with the resources and assets they possess to have meaningful and productive involvement. Integral to engagement and participation is the use of intelligible productive language, such as through speaking and writing, and astute levels of comprehension, such as through listening and reading. Those who possess the skills to communicate in the majority or dominant language can engage at a higher frequency and depth than those without that asset; therefore, in many contexts, to speak another language is a survival necessity (Blommaert, Collins, & Slembrouck, 2005; Riordan, 2014). For those who include themselves in the language majority, learning another language may not be a survival priority. However, there is a fluctuation between policies and philosophies regarding language dominance and respect for the assets of knowing other languages. In the United States, and particularly California, bilingualism and biliteracy surfaced throughout the past 30 years as an imperative for participation in a global economy. Though bilingualism and biliteracy are gaining momentum in the global economy today, the primary language medium, otherwise known as the lingua franca continues to be predominantly English, which is also the dominant language medium of instruction in schools in the United States, Australia, and United Kingdom (Blommaert et al., 2005; Gorman, 2015; Lindholm-Leary, 2000). As noted in Table F in the Appendix F, English is spoken as the primary language in 35 countries (Sousa, 2017). Moreover, English is the primary language of international commerce and trade globally (Blommaert et al., 2005). CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 18 When considering how to engage the secondary curriculum to support dual language literacy and bilingual development, the topic of culturally relevant pedagogy surfaces. Culturally relevant pedagogy is the notion that teacher becomes a pedagogue of curriculum and instruction that is focused on academic achievement of all learners, cultural competence in the heritage and dominant cultures, and sociopolitical consciousness for students to become active citizens who challenge the status quo of inequity and covert discrimination (Ladson-Billings, 1995; Ladson- Billings, 2014). When Ladson-Billings embarked on identification of the critical components of pedagogy that is characterized by respectful and inclusive of the diversity of African American students, she may not have predicted how these concepts would expand to all learners from a multitude of tribes, tongues, and nations who decorate classrooms from coast to coast. Because culture and language are intimately woven together within the identity of each person, they will inevitably accompany each student into the classroom environment (Du Bois, & Baumgarten, 2013; Wilson & Kamanā, 2009). According to the Partnership for 21 st -Century Learning, there are four general overarching student outcomes, the first of which is content knowledge and 21 st -century themes (2016). The key components of the content knowledge include subjects such as English, mathematics, and world language. Additionally, they recommend expanding students’ understanding to topics related to global competence and civic literacy (Partnership for 21 st Century Learning, 2016). Within the subcategory of global awareness is found the Framework for State Action on Global Education, which can serve as a blueprint for internationalizing K-12 schools in the United States. There are six elements to developing global awareness and proficiency within school, one of which includes a new approach to language acquisition (Partnership for 21 st Century Learning, 2016). California hosted an inaugural California Global CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 19 Education Summit: Educating for Global Competence in 2016 to discuss the inclusion of global competence within 21 st -century skills and standards (California Department of Education, 2016a). There are divergent views about the importance and background of bilingualism and biliteracy (Luk & Bialystok, 2013; Souto-Manning, 2006). Notable is the notion that bilingualism may not be recognized as valuable despite cognitive and academic achievement benefits, economics of bilingualism in a changing global economy, and the systemic models of curriculum and instruction that promote optimal bilingual and biliteracy outcomes. Perceptions of learning and maintaining two or more languages have carried negative connotations among some parents and teachers. Learning and maintaining two or more languages was previously observed through a deficit perspective because some parents believed that learning languages sacrificed other crucial areas of content curriculum or that English learners were overidentified for special education services (Blommaert et al., 2005; Lindholm-Leary, 2000; Souto-Manning, 2006). Views that native language is an interference to learning English pervade the linguistic pedagogical landscape, which is the voice on behalf of the focus on monolingualism and English dominance in schools across the United States. In the sense that learning English as a second language holds linguistic capital given the pervasive status of English in the economic realm, unintentionally parents and teachers have corralled the curriculum and students into a one-size- fits-all linguistic repository. Parents have innocently removed the perceived barrier of the heritage or native language in order to effectively assimilate into the mainstream language and culture (Souto-Manning, 2006). Students whose primary language is other than that used by most citizens in a society are identified as minority language speakers. For example, in the United States, English is the CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 20 majority language and all others are considered minority languages. Minority language speakers experience more than linguistic adjustments and acclimation when they adapt to a new country and culture. Concurrent with language acquisition is a sociocultural characteristic which is closely linked to each student’s identity and self-concept (de Jong & Bearse, 2014; Moreno Herrera & Wedin, 2010). Language plays a significant role as one views him or herself in relation to others and society (Clots‐Figueras & Masella, 2013; Hornberger, 2007). This knitting together of language and culture imbues a compulsion to address culture within the curriculum and pedagogy concurrent to language instruction (Freire & Valdez, 2017). For example, in Japan, minority languages are not given high levels of hierarchical value in terms of language capital; therefore, minority languages are not valued as contributing or engaging in the mainstream economy. Contrary to U.S. state compulsory education attendance policies, minority language speakers in Japan are not required to attend Japanese schools. However, if they choose to attend school, they are sequestered into Japanese language learning and only use their primary language to learn Japanese quicker (Riordan, 2014). In Hawaii, the pendulum shifted each century regarding the importance of maintaining native Hawaiian language. The Hawaiian language diminished because English was the medium of language instruction for business and education throughout the early to mid-1900s (Wilson & Kamanā, 2009). There was a resurgence of speaking native Hawaiian in the late 20 th century, which was evident by the origin of Hawaiian as the medium of instruction in Nawahi primary and secondary schools and the Ka Haka ‘Ula O Ke’elikolani College of Hawaiian Language of the University of Hawaii at Hilo (Wilson & Kamanā, 2009). The lack of awareness of the cognitive benefits of dual language acquisition have imbued bilingualism and biliteracy as distracting from the mainstream core curriculum (de Jong & CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 21 Bearse, 2014; Souto-Manning, 2006). However, literature increasingly discusses the cognitive and long-term achievement benefits of dual language learners (Callahan & Gandara, 2014; Lindholm-Leary, 2000; Pokrivčáková, 2013; Souto-Manning, 2006). Some identified cognitive benefits of accruing two or more languages include creativity, flexibility of thought, and abstract thinking (Lindholm-Leary, 2000). Learning languages opens pathways in the mind and elicits new ways of thinking (Jasinska & Petitto, 2013). Additionally, when comparing first and second language structures, vocabulary, and grammar, the brain continually retrieves prior knowledge and makes cognitive connections to old and new knowledge (Surmont, Piet Van de Craen, Struys, & Somers, 2014). Students who actively engage in 6 or more years in dual language experiences find an inherent long-term benefit to the acquisition of more than one language for their overall intellectual capacity (Lindholm-Leary, 2000). According to Lindholm-Leary (2000), 65% of participating dual language immersion students felt they were at or above the achievement of their non-program peers and 15% felt they were “way ahead” of them. This represents a robust self-perception of cognitive functioning for the individuals who embarked on a dual language immersion experience. Bilingualism and biliteracy are increasingly recognized as useful and beneficial for the global economy, which is evident by the notion that encountering non-English speakers is ubiquitous (Bandeira-De-Mello, Fleury, Aveline, & Gama, 2016; Callahan & Gandara, 2014; Pokrivčáková, 2013); therefore, developing and demonstrating the skills of bilingualism and biliteracy is growing in demand. Some parents and students recognize the economic benefits of having a capacity to read, write, speak, and listen in another language for future employment and career options (de Jong & Bearse, 2014; Gorman, 2015). Language acquisition and usage is highly dependent on proximity to other language speakers; having the language capital of a CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 22 language that is not highly utilized nor valued in a region, such as a minority language or tribal dialect, may lack validity. Meanwhile, a predominant hierarchical economic language, such as English or Japanese will be beneficial for economic value (Blommaert et al., 2005). For those with hierarchical value, opportunities to capitalize on these skills is cited with growing evidence that employment opportunities abound for qualified bilingual candidates, but only a small percentage of candidates are qualified for such jobs (Damari et al., 2017; Lo Bianco, 2001). Moreover, despite the growing demand for bilingual and biliterate communicators, English speakers are most likely to rely on their first and, in some cases, only language because others who learn English as a second language are proficient enough or prefer to communicate in the lingua franca of English (Lindholm-Leary, 2000). The curriculum and instruction of bilingualism is perceived as any system providing instruction in two languages, and that may encompass an isolated target language instruction class, transitional bilingual class, or class with equitable time spent instructing in two languages (Aiello, Di Martino, & Di Sabato, 2015; Cahnmann & Varghese, 2005; Kim et al., 2015; Montanari, 2014; O'Rourke, Zhou, & Rottman, 2016; Pokrivčáková, 2013). Two paramount methods for instilling the value for building the capacity of bilingualism and biliteracy among school-aged children are through dual language immersion and two-way immersion programs (de Jong & Bearse, 2014; Gorman, 2015; Lindholm-Leary, 2000). Dual language programs capitalize on the linguistic resources that all learners bring to the experience (de Jong & Bearse, 2014). The terms dual language and two-way immersion are often interchanged. However, dual language immersion is the canopic term to describe all dual language and transitional bilingual programs, while the two-way immersion is dedicated to an equal balance of instruction in English and a target language. Dual language programs are intended to build language and CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 23 academic proficiency in two languages through a structured curriculum with an emphasis on cultural competence (de Jong & Bearse, 2014; Lindholm-Leary, 2000). Most of the dual language programs exist within schools or as entire entities of dual language ideology (de Jong & Bearse, 2014; Lindholm-Leary, 2000). In cases of effective dual language instruction, the target and native languages of the students are both hierarchically validated as important languages, and instruction and social communication is utilized in both languages systematically and equitably throughout the entire program (de Jong & Bearse, 2014; Lindholm-Leary, 2000). Without dual language proficient teachers, the accessibility of promoting dual language learning in a coordinated manner may appear impossible. This study will study the gap between the goal of higher student attainment of the State Seal of Biliteracy and the present performance. The study will especially address the innovative nature of remediating a gap in dual language learning and culturally relevant pedagogy within all secondary content area classrooms, despite the low number of core content area teachers who possess credentials that prove proficiency in two or more languages. Teachers have inconsistent second language proficiency in U.S. classrooms, despite the high numbers of students who often bring more than one language with them to school in California (California Department of Education, 2016a). Culturally relevant pedagogy approaches the cultural and linguistic capital of the ethnically diverse student population as an advantage and as added value for all students (Gay, 2002). Therefore, teachers will need to be skilled in developing student-centered and student-led language instruction within the content area instruction to promote cultural relevance and dual or multilingual acquisition. Importance of Addressing the Problem Graduates are expected to engage in post-secondary education or employment in a globalized society. The number of students attaining proficiency in two or more languages CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 24 represents a bifurcation of language capital in homes and schools, which impacts subsequent generations of human capital in the United States. Despite the 2-year world language requirements for college and university admissions and the newfound acknowledgement of the seal of biliteracy veiling over most of the state secondary school diplomas, systematic preparation of secondary students for participation as bilingual and biliterate citizens before graduating from high schools represents a gap. The recognition of and evaluation on schools’ abilities to produce earners of the State Seal of Biliteracy in 33 states and the progress toward it in another 10 signifies a systematic move toward producing more bilingual and biliterate graduates (Californians Together, 2017). The initiation of the State Seal of Biliteracy fossilizes the momentum toward a more globalized preparedness for secondary students in language and cultural proficiency. However, it is not enough to simply develop a metric without a systematic organized initiative empowered to help students progress in that direction. Low bilingualism and biliteracy among secondary students also represents a larger national impediment in the United States of reliance upon English among native English speakers despite an increasingly globalized society and evidence of the myriad cognitive, academic, economic, and cultural benefits of learning two or more languages. Though English continues to be a language of international commerce, trade, and entertainment, English speakers often rely on translation to be active and engaged citizens when in a context where English is not the language of medium. According to the European Union (EU), multilingualism is positively viewed and encouraged, such that all members of the EU must provide students with instruction in two languages in addition to their majority language, so as to build toward a continental culture of multilingualism (Aiello et al., 2015; Pokrivčáková, 2013). CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 25 By exploring and addressing the gap in achievement of students to prove proficiency in two or more languages through culturally relevant pedagogy at the secondary level, it may illuminate and potentially resolve aspects of the resounding and persisting achievement gap that exists between ethnic minorities and English Only students. Students engaging in a culturally relevant pedagogy that solicits the assets of each students’ primary language and culture and promote bilingualism and biculturalism are suspected to exemplify higher levels of motivation, school engagement, and efficacy among students. Organizational Context and Mission College Prep High School District (CPHSD) is situated in a southern California suburb consisting of rural and urban landscapes, with access to livestock and agriculture and metropolitan living, dining, and entertainment. Enrollment for the 2015-2016 school year within CPHSD was 7,291 students, which is the total number of days of school attendance per students divided by total number of school days (Ed-Data, 2017). The district consists of three comprehensive high schools, one magnet high school, and one continuation high school for students with low credits aged 15 years 6 months to 18 years old. The district also sponsors two charter high schools, but they are not included in the study, nor are they obligated to the district curriculum adoptions or Local Control Accountability Plan (LCAP) goals. Each comprehensive high school contains an independent study online learning center option for students who prefer course schedules that are a hybrid of online and live courses, to accelerate through secondary courses more quickly, and to provide an option for credit recovery. For this study, only the three comprehensive high schools and the one magnet high school will be utilized because they are college preparatory high schools with core alignment to college and career readiness. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 26 Demographic data from 2015-2016 indicate that the district consists of diverse student enrollment, including 61.7% Latino, 28.7% White, 2.9% Asian, 2.3% African American, 2.2% Filipino, 0.4% Pacific Islander, 0.4% American Indian or Alaska Native, and 1.5% reported None or Two or More (Ed-Data, 2017). Languages represented through the Ed-Data (2017) reflect home languages of Arabic, Farsi, Tagalog, Vietnamese, and Spanish, which is the majority home language, yet the informal list of languages that students indicate on their home language survey include Ma’m and Q’anjob’al (Guatemala), Ilocano (Philippines), Japanese, Russian, and German in addition to the aforementioned languages. All district students are classified as English Only (EO), signifying that the student does not speak or hear another language at home or with immediate family; Initial Fluent English Proficient (IFEP), signifying that the student does engage in usage of another language, but their English proficiency is adequate for school based on the California English Language Development Test (CELDT) or English Language Proficiency Assessment of California (ELPAC) assessment; Reclassified Fluent English Proficient (RFEP), signifying that the student was classified as an English learner but met the minimum proficiency requirements to reclassify; and English learner (EL), signifying that the student has not demonstrated proficiency in English, and he or she maintains dominance in the first language and still receives support to learn English. As it relates to language proficiency, the district does not currently formally examine or measure other language proficiency other than English. It is evident that all students enter secondary school with a broad range of language proficiency and linguistic assets, due to previous formal and informal language learner, differing durations and magnitudes of language learning, or no language learning aside from primary language. This heterogeneity in language proficiency upon arrival CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 27 has the potential to impact trajectory of instruction to guide students toward gaining proficiency over the course of the years prior to graduation. Graduation requirements within CPHSD are 230 total credits and incorporate 40 English credits, 30 mathematics credits, 30 social sciences credits, 20 fine arts or world language credits, 20 physical education credits, and 70 electives credits. Additionally, for college or university seeking students, there are minimum requirements for application to the California university systems: University of California (UC) and California State University (CSU). The minimum requirements are called the A-G requirements, and they describe the fundamental courses required for entrance into one of those universities. The following describe the courses required in A-G: (a) 2 years of history or social science, including at least 1 year of world cultures and 1 year of U.S. history; (b) 4 years of college preparatory English; (c) 3 years of college preparatory mathematics, including advanced algebra and two- and three-dimensional geometry; (d) 2 years of laboratory science, including at least two of the three disciplines of biology, chemistry, or physics; (e) 2 years of a world language other than English; (f) 1 year of a visual or performing art; and (g) 1 year of a college preparatory elective, of which there is a wide selection (University of California, 2015). Note the difference between the graduation requirements and the A-G requirements regarding world language; non-college going students have the option to not take a world language at all, while college going students need only take 2 years. California developed a new accountability system since the cessation of the No Child Left Behind federal education accountability guidelines in 2014. The new Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium performance-based online assessments were piloted in 2013 and field tested in 2014 (Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium, 2016). The LCAP was developed in response to the new Local Control Funding Formula (LCFF) and the distribution of funds, which CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 28 was enacted in 2013 (California Department of Education, 2017b). The LCFF allocates an equitable sum of money to districts per unduplicated count of students with additional subsidies provided for those students identified within one or more of the following categories: English Language Learner (ELL), Socioeconomically Disadvantaged (SED), and Foster Youth. The LCAP requires local stakeholder input in alignment with eight state priorities: student achievement, student engagement, course access, implementation of common core standards, school climate, basic services, parent involvement, and other student outcomes (California Department of Education, 2017b). Each school is also required to create a Single Plan for Student Achievement, which aligns with the LCAP goals and determined how Federal Title I money will be spent; Title I money is restricted to provide supplementary services for Els and SEDs as well. CPHSD developed goals in alignment with the eight LCAP priorities to address a range of needs for the district to improve outcomes. In alignment with the LCAP goals, particularly those of student academic achievement, the mission of CPHSD is to provide high quality educational programs to promote the success of all students through high expectations, highly skilled and committed staff members, facilities and an environment that promotes teaching and learning, community connections, and organizational alignment. The district mission and LCAP goals are distilled to reflect an instructional focus to help students to communicate their thinking and ideas through written, oral, and nonverbal expression. Organizational Performance Status Among those earning the seal of biliteracy, most earners of the seal were native Spanish speakers who initially placed out of English learner status or were reclassified as fluent English proficient later in their school tenure. These individuals arrived at school with the asset of CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 29 speaking one or more languages other than English at home. A small percentage of earners were native English speakers who had pursued and completed one of two seal pathways in Spanish at school. The pathways completed were 4-year language program or passing the AP exam in Spanish. The quantity of students earning the seal of biliteracy at each site is displayed in Table 1. The columns represent the total quantity of graduates who earned the seal of biliteracy per school year since the origin of the seal in the 2013-2014 school year. Each high school is listed with the total number per year broken down into those who are classified as EO, IFEP, and RFEP. Notably, the seal of biliteracy has gained momentum and interest leading to an increase since it was first proposed to graduating seniors, but the total percentage of students earning the seal of biliteracy remains low as compared to the quantity of graduates not earning the seal. Not achieving 100% achievement of the California State Seal of Biliteracy earners represents the gap in the organization’s mission to prepare all students to become college and career ready in the 21 st century. Therefore, it may indicate that students will need to supplement their participation for later participation in a global society as persons who demonstrate bilingual and biliterate proficiency. As seen in Table 1, the quantity of achievement each year since 2014 represents an increase, yet the number of seal earners who are predominantly EO, the percent has mostly decreased. In the class of 2014, 33 of 161 seal earners (20.5%) were native English second language learners. In 2015, 23 of 183 seal earners (12.6%) were native English second language learners. In 2016, 44 of 235 seal earners (18.7%) were native English second language learners. In 2017, 26 of 308 seal earners (8.4%) were native English second language learners. In one site, over the course of 4 years, only two students who earned the seal were native English CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 30 speakers. Given that in 2015-2016 the Latino enrollment is 61.7%, the numbers of students earning the seal is significantly skewed toward native Spanish speakers who have reclassified. A question of how much value the schools are adding to second language development surfaces. Generally, it is assumed that the growth has more to do with students with existing language strengths gaining more awareness of how to earn the seal for rather than a systemic change in district priorities or policies to prepare all students to become bilingual and biliterate. Students with existing language assets derived from native language development at home demonstrate proficiency in two languages at a significantly greater rate than those who do not bring any home language assets or who are not afforded assessments for earning the seal in languages other than Spanish, French, or American Sign Language (See Table 4 in Chapter 2). Table 1 CPHSD Seal of Biliteracy recipients 2014-2017 Graduation Year 2014 Quantity 2015 Quantity 2016 Quantity 2017 Quantity 2018 Quantity* School Site Berkelium EO IFEP RFEP NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 22 10 1 11 59 7 4 48 51 10 2 39 Antimony EO IFEP RFEP 39 2 11 26 41 1 2 38 59 1 7 51 73 4 1 68 87 3 6 78 Indium EO IFEP RFEP 58 0 5 53 67 0 4 63 75 2 10 63 106 0 3 103 87 0 1 86 Titanium EO IFEP RFEP 65 31 14 20 75 22 1 52 79 31 10 38 69 19 5 45 76 24 6 46 Total 161 183 235 307 301 EO = English Only; IFEP = Initial Fluent English Proficient; RFEP = Redesignated Fluent English Proficient. *Pending 2018 AP scores and final GPAs CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 31 Since the California State Seal of Biliteracy originated in 2011, it is still relatively new and unknown to many people in schools and the community. Despite some school community members’ lack of understanding of the seal, CPHSD currently has identified the seal as a priority within the LCAP. World language teachers recently requested that information about how students can earn the seal be posted in their classrooms. Additionally, world language teachers asked that information about the seal be available in the school counseling office and the main school office so that students, counselors, administrators, and parents will have immediate and clear knowledge about the expectations for earning the seal. World language teachers and counselors can poignantly share about the benefits of earning the seal and reinforce students to follow the pathway to earning it. The world language teachers have indicated that they feel nearly 90% of the student body could qualify and become amply prepared to easily pursue and earn the seal, but there are roadblocks that dissuade or prevent them from pursuing the seal. Some of the roadblocks anecdotally noted were student schedule limitations, variance in teacher grading among world language classes, and lack of knowledge among students about how to earn the seal. There are assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational root causes that impede progress toward achieving a significant districtwide increase in seal earners; these will be explored and validated, partially validated, or invalidated based on research findings. Potential consequences for not achieving the organizational and LCAP goal for biliteracy represents an underperformance of human capital and an underutilization of student assets. This type of underutilization is indicative of broader societal beliefs or ideals about the community and students with the linguistic capability of becoming proficient in two or more languages. Because the district continues to make earning the seal of biliteracy a priority, the professional learning and student support systems and instructional foci should reflect these new priorities. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 32 The research about cognitive and economic benefits of bilingualism reverberate within this school district because many students have potential to further capitalize on the strengths they possess by having the ability to traverse multiple languages. Organizational Performance Goal One of the 15 sub-goals throughout the CPHSD LCAP Academic Achievement Goal 1 was to increase the quantity of students earning the State Seal of Biliteracy by 2% each year. Though the percentage of students expected to earn the seal was small considering the assets and potential of the students, for the purpose of this study, the goal will be set to 100% attainment. Upon completion of the LCAP plan, the CPHSD Board of Education and the County Office of Education was required to provide assistance with aligning the goals with the eight state priorities and ultimately provide approval of the district plan. Various stakeholders, such as teachers, parents, students, community members, and administrators contributed feedback regarding goal development and the allocation of supports. Each LCAP goal was developed for implementation within a 3-year cycle per LCAP plan, with understanding that each 4-year graduation cycle will involve new students because each prior graduating class moves on to post- secondary. The target of increasing the goal attainment is dependent on a moving target of students who matriculate through secondary school, while the LCAP plan remains in place for 3 years. Given that the seal is earned through one of the previously mentioned methods of 4-year language program, AP, SAT-II exam, IB, or “off-the-shelf” assessment, increases in seal earners based on programmatic or pedagogical changes made within the district in 1 year may not be reflected in outcomes until 3 or 4 years later. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 33 Description of Stakeholder Groups Those involved in the creation of LCAP, which contained the academic achievement goal to increase the quantity of students earning the California Seal of Biliteracy, include students, parents, teachers, administrators, other school personnel, district office personnel, community members, the Board of Education, and the County Office of Education. However, this study identifies teachers, administrators, and parents as the most intimately linked stakeholders for this performance problem because they will have the most direct impact in achieving a positive outcome. Teachers are pivotal stakeholders in the acquisition of two or more languages for students, as they are responsible for planning lessons in alignment with state common core standards, delivering and facilitating the instruction, and facilitating the students’ classroom- based learning experiences. Teachers can impact the outcome of the performance goal because they directly influence the information to which the students have access. Specifically, world language and English language development teachers are involved in preparing students to increase fluency in their second languages. Additionally, AP teachers are involved in the recruitment of students to their AP programs, by which AP World Languages is one of the capstones for earning the California State Seal of Biliteracy. Administrators represent a gateway for prioritizing organizational impacts on students obtaining the California State Seal of Biliteracy. Administrators are held accountable and their schools are assessed on a range of outcome measures, one of which is the quantity of students who earn the seal, and they can impact processes, policies, and priorities. Moreover, administrators relay information about the goals of the state, county, district, and school to all other stakeholders. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 34 Parents are the students’ first teachers, and though they may not be directly involved with curriculum and instruction, they can be enforcers of and contributors to a student’s first and second language learning. Based on current data, most students who currently earn the seal speak another language socially or within their own families. Parents are directly involved in the early years of literacy development and implement the values of which or how many languages they use to communicate with their children. Stakeholder Groups’ Performance Goals Table 2 Organizational Mission, Organizational Performance Goal, and Stakeholder Performance Goals Organizational Mission The College Prep High School District is committed to providing high quality educational programs that maximize the success of each and every student. Foundational to our success is the continued focus on the development and completion of district goals that are in concert with the following beliefs: We, the College Prep High School District, believe that it is our responsibility to: • Hold high expectations for and improve the academic achievement of all students within College Prep High School District. • Provide a highly skilled, caring, and committed staff that collaborates to positively support and affect instruction and learning. • Provide the appropriate educational facilities that create an environment supportive of both teaching and learning within a safe and orderly setting. • Promote, foster, and develop community connections through strong and effective communication and partnerships, as well as opportunities for shared input. • Support organizational alignment that maximizes student academic success. Organizational Performance Goal By May 2019, 100% of graduating seniors will earn the California State Seal of Biliteracy by demonstrating proficiency in a second language by: 1. Demonstrating proficiency on English language arts CAASPP state assessment and obtain 2.0 in English language arts courses, 2. Demonstrating minimum English proficiency as an English learner on the ELPAC, and CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 35 Table 2, continued Organizational Performance Goal 3. Meeting one of the following language requirements in a language other than English: a. Complete 4 years of a world language with 3.0 or better, b. Pass an Advanced Placement (AP) world language Exam with three (3) or higher, c. Pass the SAT-II Foreign Language sub-test with a 600 or higher, d. Complete an International Baccalaureate (IB) world language Program with a score of three (3) or higher, or e. Pass an Off-the-Shelf Language Assessment that was approved by the superintendent of public instruction. Teachers Administrators Parents By Spring 2019, all teachers will promote bilingualism and biliteracy through culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy and student-centered dual language instruction to improve proficiency in two or more languages. By Fall 2018, administrators will coordinate the master plan for executing a system to support the incorporation of culturally relevant pedagogy and student-centered dual language instruction. By Fall 2019, parents will provide meaningful feedback to students, teachers, and administrators regarding their child’s progress within the culturally relevant pedagogy and support dual language acquisition. Currently, students within CPHSD have earned the seal of biliteracy through a 4-year world language program or AP exam. Students have not earned the seal through IB because the district does not offer any IB programming, nor have students earned the seal through SAT-II subject test or “off-the-shelf” language assessment. Stakeholder Group for the Study In a typical gap analysis study, all stakeholders’ contributions would be thoroughly investigated and researched. However, for this study, teachers have the greatest impact on delivering culturally relevant pedagogy and curriculum, mediating information about the seal, and advocating for what will produce the best outcomes for students in order to accomplish the CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 36 stakeholder goal to promote bilingualism and biliteracy through incorporation of dual language instruction and culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy so that students increase their cultural engagement and increased proficiency in both languages. Teachers are responsible for planning lessons, contributing to the development of the curriculum, delivering instruction, and using best practices in language and learning pedagogy. They possess immediate and direct influence over student performance through their daily interaction. Combined with the notion that all highlighted stakeholders share in the responsibility of enhancing and achieving performance objectives, teachers are most imperative to the achievement of the organizational performance goal of increasing the quantity of California State Seal of Biliteracy earners, which leads to more language proficient and culturally engaged learners. Therefore, teachers are the primary stakeholders to understand progress toward achieving the overarching goal of increasing the number of students who earn the seal of biliteracy. Purpose of the Study and Research Questions The purpose of this project is to conduct a gap analysis, with emphasis on innovating a school-wide effort to promote and advance bilingualism and biliteracy despite a low quantity of teachers possessing bilingual credential, to examine the knowledge, motivation and organizational influences that affect the CPHSD’s ability to achieve 100% student attainment of earning the California State Seal of Biliteracy. The analysis will begin by generating a list of possible or assumed influences based on observation, review of literature, and learning and motivational theory that will be examined systematically to identify actual or validated influences. While a complete gap analysis would develop and collect data on all the influences of CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 37 all stakeholders associated with the goal, for practical purposes the stakeholder to be focused on in this analysis is teachers. The research questions addressed in this study include: 1. What is the teachers’ knowledge and motivation related to promoting bilingualism and biliteracy through culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy and student- centered dual language instruction to improve proficiency in two or more languages? 2. What is the interaction between the organizational culture and context and teachers’ knowledge and motivation? 3. What are the recommended knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational solutions needed to accomplish the goal of promoting bilingualism and biliteracy through culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy and student-centered dual language instruction to improve proficiency in two or more languages? Conceptual and Methodological Framework The conceptual framework for this study is a gap analysis, which is a systematic and analytical method that helps to clarify organizational goals and identifies root causes that influence the actual performance level from achieving the preferred performance level within an organization (Clark & Estes, 2008). The methodological framework is a mixed methods study with quantitative and qualitative data collected and descriptive statistics. Assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that affect organizational goal achievement will be generated based on informal anecdotal observation, learning and motivation theory, and review of literature surrounding the topic of bilingualism and biliteracy proficiency, along with culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy. These influences will be assessed by using literature review, surveys, interviews, classroom observations, and document analyses. To understand the overall context, a variety of district data will be reviewed and compared to state, CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 38 national, and international metrics. New quantitative and qualitative data will be obtained through surveys and interviews of teachers and classroom observations. The inquiry is a case study of CPHSD and will loosely follow an explanatory model with evidence from the quantitative results substantiated and developed further by the qualitative data results. Research- based solutions will be recommended and evaluated in a comprehensive manner. Definitions Bilingualism: Ability to engage and communicate using two languages; use of and proficiency in two languages may change depending on the opportunities to use the languages and exposure to other users of the languages (Bono & Stratilaki, 2009). Biliteracy: Ability to read and write in two languages. California State Seal of Biliteracy: Program recognizing high school graduates who have attained a high level of proficiency in speaking, listening, reading, and writing in one or more languages in addition to English (California Department of Education, 2016b). Culturally Relevant Pedagogy: Pedagogy that embodies cultural knowledge of ethnically diverse groups that is used to redesign teaching and learning, incorporating academic achievement, cultural competence, and sociopolitical consciousness (Gay, 2002; Ladson- Billings, 1995). Culturally Sustaining Pedagogy: Pedagogy that seeks to sustain linguistic, literate, and cultural pluralism (Paris, 2012). Dual Language Immersion: Foreign language immersion for native English speakers, transitional bilingual programs for native speakers with a native language other than English, two-way immersion programs that combine these two populations, and heritage language programs (Center for Applied Linguistics, 2016). CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 39 Global Competence: Acquisition of in-depth knowledge and understanding of global and intercultural issues; the ability to learn from and live with people from diverse backgrounds; and the attitudes and values necessary to interact respectfully with others (Office of Education and Cultural Development, 2016). Global Citizenship: Building a sense of belonging to a common humanity and helping learners become responsible and active members of a global society. Lingua Franca: Medium of communication most frequently used across various contexts. Two-way Immersion: Bilingual program with a balance of use in English and another language. Organization of the Study The study is organized into five chapters, which include the problem of practice, literature review, methodology for collecting data, data analysis of accumulated research, and recommendations given based on research findings. Chapter One includes the problem of practice, a description of the problem, background information about and importance of the problem and its surrounding variables, the organizations goals and stakeholders, and key vocabulary for understanding the topic. Chapter Two outlines the literature review, which takes the reader on a journey through the history of bilingualism and biliteracy and how the problem impacts students presently. Chapter Three is the methods section and presents a description of how the data will be collected regarding variables in knowledge, motivation, and organization that impact the problem. Chapter Four outlines the data analysis, which will generalize themes and validate or invalidate the claims about the assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences and needs. The final chapter, Chapter Five, will evaluate the findings and identify recommendations, highlighting key strategies for the organization to consider in order that they may focus on improving upon their current results and outcomes. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 40 CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE This literature review will identify and discuss crucial elements regarding current and perspective levels of attainment of students progressing toward earning the California State Seal of Biliteracy, a symbol of comprehensive bilingualism and biliteracy attainment upon graduation from secondary school in California. The review begins with a look at the diverse and changing demands of students, teachers, and schools in the globally interconnected 21 st century, which includes notions about globalization and immigration and their impacts on instruction within schools worldwide. The review continues by including in-depth scientific research findings regarding cognitive, academic achievement, economic and cultural assets, benefits, and advantages of bilingualism. The literature embraces a description of the history, policies, and current state of bilingual education, describing various forms of bilingual instructional models, requisite and effective teacher preparation, credentialing, and training, and curriculum and instruction to support bilingualism and biliteracy by and through culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy. The relevance of culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy is explored as it relates to curriculum and instruction and juxtaposes against students gaining bilingualism and biliteracy across all content areas of instruction. The literature will look at how bilingualism and biliteracy is defined and the efficacy of how it is assessed. The literature review will delve into the origin and development of the State Seals of Biliteracy, primarily the California State Seal of Biliteracy, which is described and reviewed for native and non-native English speakers. In the final section of the literature review, a summary of assumed influences and needs in teacher knowledge, motivation, and organization is scripted surrounding learning and motivation theory CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 41 and the specific influences that predominate the specific pathways to earning the California State Seal of Biliteracy. The knowledge and skills section are composed of factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive elements that are essential to informing the gap in attaining the seal of biliteracy. Motivation reviewed will describe how choice, persistence, and mental effort are impacted by beliefs, values, teacher self-efficacy, and goal-orientation (Clark & Estes, 2008; Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). Organizational elements covered regarding the gap will include resources, cultural models, cultural settings, training, and policies and procedures (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001; Rueda, 2011). Finally, the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences and needs gathered will capture the essence of how these variables are expressed in the literature and directly impact the goal of increasing bilingualism and biliteracy of all students and earning the seal of biliteracy, which will complete the literature review. 21 st -Century Language Learning in a Global Context Education in the 21 st century affords a newfound opportunity to create globally engaging experiences. Through international competition, the role of language teaching and learning may continue to burgeon as educational institutions develop the capacity of future employees to meet the economic demands (Reimers, 2013; Lo Bianco, 2001). There is growing consensus among researchers that to be prepared to participate in a global economy, language proficiency is one of the key variables to a solid foundation and introduction into global engagement (Reimers, 2009). An increasing number of global citizens are engaging in communication in more than one language with consistency for personal reasons, employment, healthcare, or otherwise. This ability to be able to communicate in more than one language may become an access barrier for individuals who do not prepare to engage in language learning. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 42 Global corporations surfaced their lack of confidence that U.S. high schools and universities prepare graduates to be prepared for cross-cultural communication and multilingual skills (Reimers, 2009). Only seven states and Washington D.C. require 2 years of world language credit to earn a high school diploma (Davin & Heineke, 2017). As of 2001, only 8% of college students in the United States prioritized language learning during undergraduate studies, contrary to the EU, which enrolls upwards of 78% of elementary and 61% of lower secondary students were learning two or more languages in school (O'Rourke et al., 2016). In a globalized knowledge economy that depends on intellectual capital and resources rather than natural resources, such as is prevalent in the 21 st century in most industrialized nations, the individual is capitalized in terms of developed skills and intellectual capacity. Despite the nexus of globalization nudging nations to intermingle with other languages and cultures, many local minority or heritage cultures assume the need to assert their identity in response (Lo Bianco, 2001). These language minority statuses provoke some multiethnic and multilingual nations to preserve their multilingual tapestry because of the richness of cultural value and heritage and positive effects of students maintaining their heritage languages (Lo Bianco, 2001; Wilson & Kamanā, 2009). The necessity of language as a medium of interaction across cultures and continents remains essential for participation in the global economy. An estimated three billion people on the planet engage in bilingualism daily (Noack & Gamio, 2015). In 1992, according to UNESCO, 90% of the 6000 languages spoken in the world would be extinct within two generations (Lo Bianco, 2001). Over 20 years later, UNESCO predicts that of the remaining 7,102 living languages remaining, 50% will be extinct by the end of the 21 st century, most of which are located in sub-Saharan Africa, Oceania, Southeast Asia, and within the Amazon CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 43 rainforest (Noack & Gamio, 2015). Chinese, which consists of all Chinese dialects, has more speakers than any other language with 1.39 billion, followed by Hindu-Urdu at 588 million speakers, English at 527 million speakers, Arabic at 467 million speakers, and Spanish at 389 million speakers (Noack & Gamio, 2015). Language is highly personal and powerful and often represents or pervades status among those who speak or do not speak the dominant language (Medvedeva & Portes, 2016; Wilson & Kamanā, 2009). Nelson Mandela once said, “If you speak to a man in a language he understands, that goes to his head. If you talk to him in his language, that goes to his heart.” According to the Central Intelligence Agency Factbook (2017), 4.83% of the world’s population speaks English and 4.85% of the world’s population speaks Spanish as a first language. Though rather infinitesimal in comparison to the world’s population, English is often learned as a second or third language and is the lingua franca for international commerce and trade. Having a common language medium across a wide range of industries and nations is aided by a common denominator in language. Despite the widespread use of English, the EU additionally marks French and German as working languages (Medvedeva & Portes, 2016). In the many contexts in which bilingualism is promoted, a common fear is that whichever instructional model is utilized, the heritage or primary language will be subtracted while the new language is acquired, yet there are bilingual instructional models that attempt to remedy the malady of subtractive language learning and promote additive bilingual learning (Cahnmann & Varghese, 2005; Kim et al., 2015; Younes, 2016). The 21 st century invited an era of new technologies to the language navigation landscape, such as online or application-based translation or interpretation products like Google Translate and Google Pixel Buds. Additionally, there are language learning virtual software tools, such as CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 44 Pimsleur Language Learning, Babbel, Duolingo, Berlitz, and Rosetta Stone to name only a few. Informal learning often overlaps with, supplements, or supplants formal language learning (Coroama, 2011). With these advances in technology, interpersonal communication is functionally accessible, but it may lack the nuanced cultural infusion of inference, history, and passion. Global Marketplace Increasingly, adults engaging in employment within the 21 st century changing demands find themselves intertwined with companies, agencies, or institutions embedded in global enterprise. 21 st century learning is often identified as requiring the four “C” elements, such as critical thinking, communication, collaboration, and creativity (DeLeon, 2014). As it pertains to language learning and usage, those elements resound throughout the notion and importance; those who can communicate in another language are able to collaborate across cultures and contexts. This expansion toward global cooperation and competition through a network of technology-supported interconnectedness is a marquee exemplar of the necessity for graduating students to become prepared to engage in this evolving economic landscape. O’Rourke et al. (2016) found that there are 80 federal agencies that need language proficiency among the array of employees in approximately 100 languages due to the requisites of the work required within those agencies. In a study conducted to examine the hiring processes for a spectrum of industry sectors, such as government, public administration, education services, health care, real estate, finance, and science, bilingual language skills were found to be critical or essential for hiring most frequently in government, administration, education services, and health care (Damari et al., 2017). CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 45 Employment opportunities are increasingly unlocked as employment competition from the global marketplace persists. Employees are expected to engage in understanding cultural and linguistic diversity, and businesses are engaging in the economies of emerging markets. With the advent of the seal of biliteracy, Callahan and Gandara (2014) studied the impact that evidential bilingualism has on employability, and they found that most of businesses prefer employees that are bilingual in order to appeal to and communicate with their diverse clientele. Immigration The trajectory of human movement within the 21 st century due to globalization is continuing to dilate as more people move into large urban metropolises, seek higher wages, and evade corrupt governments and vapid wastelands. The increasing migration enumerates opportunities for languages and cultures to interface and integrate. In Spain, between 2001 and 2011, 60% of the growth in population consisted of immigrants, one third of whom were from Latin America (Medvedeva & Portes, 2016). Japan historically engaged in providing bilingual education for minority cultures and languages, such as Ainu and Korean, and retrieved the Japanese diaspora, or otherwise known as the Nikkei, back to Japan despite their lack of Japanese language (Riordan, 2014). When immigrants or ethnically displaced people move into a locale where their language and culture are not dominant, they will ultimately decide whether to maintain their heritage language or work toward assimilating into the mainstream language and culture. In some cases, their only option for language maintenance is within their own homes and ethnic communities, while in other cases, the educational institutions in which they participate are prepared to provide them with language maintenance additive bilingual education. For first generation immigrants, the memories surrounding immigration are encoded into the minds of the learners more significantly as compared to memories more distant from the CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 46 immigration experience (Esposito & Baker-Ward, 2016). Additionally, the experiences and events become more fossilized in the memories of the immigrant in the dominant language of the environment (Esposito & Baker-Ward, 2016). Immigrant children are required to acquire enormous quantities of vocabulary and conversational fluency to succeed in the school setting (Haim, 2015; Scheele, Leseman, & Mayo, 2010). Consequently, the memories would be dependent on language proficiency (Esposito & Baker-Ward, 2016). Culturally Relevant and Sustaining Pedagogy in the 21 st Century Global competence, issues of global significance, and global identity penetrate the classroom in the same way that they circulate the communities throughout the planet during the era of globalization (Damari et al., 2017; Ladson-Billings, 2014). Global competence is recognized as expertise and savvy in language proficiency, knowledge of geography, international, and regional travel, perspective-taking, mediating former cultural or ideological barriers, and activity for improving global conditions (Damari et al., 2017). Along with global competence comes the demand for a pedagogy that embodies the identities of students whose heritages provide a panorama of the diversity from which they and their families originate. Pedagogy that typifies cultural competence, academic achievement, and sociopolitical, or otherwise stated as critical consciousness belaying social action can be identified through the cornerstone research of Ladson-Billings throughout the 1970s and 1980s, which became popularly known as culturally relevant pedagogy; however, contextually within United States history in the 1960s and 1970s, the notion of needing to be culturally relevant or responsive was approached through a deficit ideology, which was inherently subtractive of the heritage culture and focused on assimilation (Ladson-Billings, 1995; Paris, 2012). CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 47 Several researchers identified the significance of culturally relevant pedagogy as the purpose or goal of education (K. Allen, Jackson, & Knight, 2012; Freire & Valdez, 2017; Ladson-Billings, 1995). Three fundamental features of culturally relevant pedagogy emerged and remain ubiquitous across references to culturally relevant, culturally sustaining, or culturally sensitive pedagogy; they are the uncompromising elements of academic achievement, cultural competence, and sociopolitical or critical consciousness (Howard, 2003; Howard & Rodriguez- Scheel, 2017; Ladson-Billings, 1995; Ladson-Billings, 2014; Paris, 2012). Academic achievement embodies high expectations for learning and attainment of academic prowess. Cultural competence strives to grapple with the assimilation influences; therefore, the goal would be for students to maintain their heritage culture while learning to adapt to the dominant mainstream culture. Critical consciousness is the socially active notion of questioning the presuppositions and societal norms that may or may not be inclusive of diverse cultures and languages. In light of these notions, culturally relevant pedagogy shifted from an emphasis on making pedagogy, curriculum, and instruction relevant to ensuring the heritage cultures of students are sustained, known as culturally sustaining pedagogy because multilingualism and multiculturalism are becoming university accepted and expected (Paris, 2012). History of Bilingualism and Biliteracy in the United States Researchers have documented a rich history of bilingual education throughout the world, in Europe, in the United States, and especially in California (Baker, 1996; DeLeon, 2014; Gorman, 2015; Holstein, 1999; Kim et al., 2015; Lo Bianco, 2001; Pokrivčáková, 2013; Wiley & García, 2016; Wilson & Kamanā, 2009). Baker (1996) describes the periods of bilingualism throughout United States as passing through various interwoven periods of permissive, restrictive, opportunistic, and dismissive approaches to language learning. Wiley and García CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 48 (2016) highlighted policy pendulum swings oriented toward promotion, expediency, tolerance, restriction, repression, erasing, and null. Regardless of the time or age in American history, language policies can be influenced by notions of politics, power, control, collegiality, and competition. As outlined in Table 3, it is noted that the 1800s presented a range of pivotal practices in bilingual education. Notably, Puerto Rico and the American Samoa, both territories of the United States have official bilingual policies (DeLeon, 2014). Throughout the 1800s in the eastern and midwestern parts of the United States, German Catholic settlers developed bilingual parochial schools that served up to 165,000 students in 1886 (DeLeon, 2014). In 1881, the Illinois Supreme Court ruled to permit foreign language courses in the elementary schools (DeLeon, 2014). In 1822, California became land owned by Mexico; however, in 1946, ownership returned to the United States, thus changing the language trajectory of the state (DeLeon, 2014). From the 1860s to 1900, Native Americans provided instruction to the European traders in language and survival, and many Native Americans learned English to operate as mediators between the old and new residents (Spack, 2002). In the early 20 th century, American immigrants maintained their native languages within their communities and soon thereafter, the schools (Holstein, 1999). Bilingual education is influenced by federal, state, and local legislation, all of which have seen a pendulum shift markedly since 1964, though the history of bilingualism in the United States spans centuries (Gorman, 2015; Holstein, 1999; Kim et al., 2015). Since early European immigration to the United States, the immigrant members from Germany, Spain, Italy, Poland, and England retained their native languages within their own communities or developed bilingual schools. It was during the 1920s to 1950s surrounding the two world wars that value of bilingualism was CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 49 diminished in favor of nationalistic unification around the English language. During the 1950s and 1960s, English as a second language gained newfound predominance within schools (Holstein, 1999). Soon thereafter, Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Title VII of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 1965 and allocated funding to bilingual education through a federal injunction known as the Bilingual Education Act in 1968, which would encourage schools to impart instruction in two or more languages, one of which needed to be English (Gorman, 2015; Holstein, 1999; Kim et al., 2015). Following the federal pivot toward funding bilingual education, within San Francisco’s Chinese immigrant population emerged the Lau v. Nichols lawsuit in 1974, which is known as the case regarding schools’ requirement to meet the language needs of students by delivering instruction in the students’ native language with the intention of providing equitable opportunities to learn (Gorman, 2015; Holstein, 1999; Kim et al., 2015; Pokrivčáková, 2013; Wiley & García, 2016). The Lau Remedies were parameters for improving equal access and succor for students in schools from non-English- speaking communities; they persisted from 1974 through 1981 until President Reagan determined that the expense was unnecessarily funded by the federal government and could not be sustained (DeLeon, 2014). In 1978, the Bilingual Education Act was reauthorized to include more English learner supports (DeLeon, 2014). Though the origin of Lau v. Nichols was in California in 1974, an amendment to the California constitution made English the official language in California in 1988 (Kim et al., 2015). Following the tumultuous policy changes and adaptations occurring in the United States, the education and cultural arm of the United Nations, UNESCO initiated an “Endangered Languages Project” in 1993, which was followed by the establishment of the International CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 50 Clearinghouse on Endangered Languages (DeLeon, 2014; Lo Bianco, 2001). These efforts from UNESCO were founded on the notion that minority languages were diminishing globally. This reduction in minority languages could impact the heritage cultures and histories of a multitude of communities and reinforces the predominance of power brokerage that coincides with language. Meanwhile in the United States federal government in 1996, House Resolution 123, a proposal to make English the official language in the United States, did not pass (Kim et al., 2015). California paradoxically voted to pass Proposition 227 in 1998, which eliminated bilingual education and provoked an era of English instruction, policies, and scaffolds in schools (DeLeon, 2014; Gorman, 2015; Lo Bianco, 2001). Another shift occurred during the advent of No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, when Title III of NCLB allocated federal funding to support English language development for students who spoke another language at home (Cahnmann & Varghese, 2005; Kim et al., 2015). The act deprioritized the primary or heritage languages of the students and emphasized an attainment of English as the primary objective. Though it did not seek to eliminate bilingual education outright, the following action of the federal government illuminated the intent. Following the inauguration of NCLB in 2001, the federal government repealed the Bilingual Education Act in 2002 (Cahnmann & Varghese, 2005). The former Office of Bilingual Education and Language Minority Affairs became the Office of English Language Acquisition (Wiley & García, 2016). Bilingual advocates in California, such as those from Glendale Unified School District’s extensive bilingual dual immersion programs, advocated for a seal of biliteracy to provide high school graduates with proof of their bilingualism and biliteracy skills (DeLeon, 2014; Montanari, 2014). Declined in its inaugural attempt in 2006, the Assembly Bill (AB) 815 passed in 2011 in California, which took effect in January of 2012 (California Department of CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 51 Education, 2017a). AB 815 was the pioneering bill to adopt and substantiate a State Seal of Biliteracy (SSB). California became the trailblazing state for development of the biliteracy seal. Since then, 27 additional states joined in creation of the SSB and 14 states are progressing toward the creation and passage of this type of bilingual verification process for their high school graduates (California Department of Education, 2016b; Californians Together, 2017; O'Rourke et al., 2016). The seal may have contributed to or been the impetus for voters to approve Proposition 58, known as the California Education for a Global Economy Initiative, would repeal the statewide limitations on bilingual education of Proposition 227 and enliven pathways toward heritage language maintenance and proficiency in two or more languages (California Department of Education, 2017a). Europe has been chiseling out a path for multilingual education for centuries thanks to the unification of the EU, which originated as a conglomerate of six member-nations in 1951 up to 27 member-nations in 2017 (Central Intelligence Agency, 2017). In 2001, there was evidence of the adoption of a “M+2 rule,” which required that all member countries of the EU are expected to provide instruction in the students’ mother tongue, otherwise known as the primary language, and include two additional languages into instruction (Aiello et al., 2015; Holstein, 1999; Sylven, 2013). Finland, who has been the forerunner in the multilingualism of Europe, Sweden, Germany, Slovakia, Italy, and Spain are among those nations who continue to develop their systems of trilingual schools. Where there is a need for bilingual education, there is a value on preparing students for inclusion in a multilingual society nearby or abroad, building a workforce that is competitive with the world nations, and uniting together for a common cause or against others with CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 52 conflicting causes. The chart below displays a timeline traversing global, federal, and state policies surrounding bilingualism and bilingual education. Table 3 History of Bilingual Education (DeLeon, 2014; Gorman, 2015; Holstein, 1999; Kim et al., 2015; Lo Bianco, 2001; Pokrivčáková, 2013; Spack, 2002; Wiley & García, 2016) Years Global, Federal, and State Policies Policy 1700-1900* U.S. Federal New immigrants from Germany, Spain, Italy, Poland, and England initiated primary language instruction and bilingual education Native Americans teach and learn language from European traders 1920-1950* U.S. Federal Rise of “Americanism” during world wars reduced bilingual education in schools 1950-1960* U.S. Federal Increase in immigrants; ESL presence in schools continued to grow 1951 European Union Six original member-nations join the European Union 1958 U.S. Federal National Defense Education Act 1964 U.S. Federal Title VI of Civil Rights Act 1965 U.S. Federal Title VII of Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) Bilingual Education Act (BEA) 1974 U.S. Federal Lau v. Nichols; Lau Remedies proposed, which included ESL, English tutoring, and bilingual education 1978 U.S. Federal Reauthorization of BEA, expanded English learner category 1981 U.S. Federal Lau Remedies were withdrawn by President Reagan because they were too costly 1988 State: California Constitutional amendment made English the official language in California 1993 UNESCO Global Initiated the “Endangered Languages Project” 1995 UNESCO Global Established the International Clearinghouse on Endangered Languages 1996 U.S. Federal House Resolution 123 failed to pass; this bill would have made English the official language in the United States CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 53 Table 3, continued Years Global, Federal, and State Policies Policy 1998 State: California Proposition 227 passed: Eliminating Bilingual Education for English Only instruction 2001 European Union “M+2 rule” in European Union (EU) Multilingual Education Requirement; All EU members must provide language learning in mother language plus two additional. Ethnic minorities have the right to be educated in their mother language 2001 U.S. Federal No Child Left Behind signed into law; high-stakes testing in English language arts and mathematics; Title III allocates funding to schools to develop English proficiency 2002 U.S. Federal Repeal of BEA; former Office of Bilingual Education and Language Minority Affairs renamed Office of English Language Acquisition 2006 State: California Assembly Bill (AB) 2445 proposed to initiate the California State Seal of Biliteracy (SSB), but it is vetoed by the governor 2011 State: California AB 815 California SSB passed; funds were allocated from AB 3488 to establish the SSB; California is the 1 st State to initiate a seal of biliteracy 2014 U.S. Federal No Child Left Behind ceased; ESSA proposed 2016 State: California Proposition 58 passed; Known as the California Education for a Global Economy Initiative; reinstated bilingual education in California 2016 States: Various SSB passed in 21 states 2017 States: Various SSB passed in 27 states, in progress in 14 additional states 2018 States: Various SSB passed in 41 states, in progress in 2 additional states *Estimated date ranges The rapid expansion of the seal of biliteracy is evident from its inception in California in 2011 to the adoption of the seal in 41 states and progression in two more. The remaining states yet to develop a seal include Idaho, Maine, Mississippi, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Wyoming. Advantages of Attaining Bilingualism and Biliteracy Cognizant of the growing English learner population within the United States, many who are living under the poverty minimum, language instruction carries a significant consequence in CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 54 the future of learners. English learners chronically underscore on standardized state assessments as compared to their native English-speaking peers due to a lack of early English literacy support and low parental education (Kim et al., 2015). In light of these known challenges, there is growing evidence that bilingualism and biliteracy produce a plethora of cognitive, academic, cultural, and economic assets for individuals who can become proficient in two or more languages (Bono & Stratilaki, 2009; DeLeon, 2014; Esposito & Baker-Ward, 2016; Haim, 2015; Iluz-Cohen & Armon-Lotem, 2013; Jasinska & Petitto, 2013; Kim et al., 2015; Lindholm-Leary, 2000; Luk & Bialystok, 2013; Medvedeva & Portes, 2016; Nair, Biedermann, & Nickels, 2016; Pokrivčáková, 2013; Souto-Manning, 2006; Surmont et al., 2014; van Hell & Tanner, 2012). Haim (2015) suggests that bilingualism or multilingualism ought not be measured separately per language, but bilingual competence should rather be comprehensive of the whole mind and linguistic repertoire. Historically, some parents and teachers adhered to the philosophy that maintaining an heritage or home language would inhibit a student from achievement in English due to an idea named “competition hypothesis,” especially under circumstances where English language learning programs may conclude, which would leave students vulnerable to remedial programs that are deficient of rigorous learning expectations (Scheele et al., 2010; Souto-Manning, 2006). Despite preconceived trepidation about concurrent bilingual education, the literature regarding the acquisition of two or more languages simultaneously contradicts this notion and highlights the distinct advantages of gaining proficiency in two or more languages. Conversely, there are other adherents to the philosophy that learning English supplants pride in and cultural capital reminiscent of their heritage language and culture (Macleod & Abou-El-Kheir, 2017). Bilingual education is not inherently subtractive of the heritage language and culture, but rather CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 55 bilingualism is additive and has potential to add value and advantage to the learners in the areas of verbal and non-verbal cognitive functioning, academic achievement, economic engagement and opportunity, and cultural prevalence (Haim, 2015; Hornberger, 2003; Scheele et al., 2010; Surmont et al., 2014). Cognitive advantages. Studies of general cognitive function identify some advantages accrued through bilingualism, such as thinking that is more creative, greater flexibility in mental processing, ability to think abstractly, and concept formation that is superior to monolinguals (Jasinska & Petitto, 2013; Lindholm-Leary, 2000; Medvedeva & Portes, 2016), better communicative and cognitive skills which improve learning outcomes and resulted in higher self-perception of academic advancement (Lindholm-Leary, 2000; Pokrivčáková, 2013), stronger nonverbal executive control (Luk & Bialystok, 2013), higher ability to filter out distracting or irrelevant information within working memory and a greater ability to shift attention between processes (Iluz-Cohen & Armon-Lotem, 2013; Medvedeva & Portes, 2016; van Hell & Tanner, 2012), stronger coping and adaptation skills (Medvedeva & Portes, 2016), and strong metalinguistic skills (Haim, 2015; Haukås, 2016; Surmont et al., 2014). Research suggests that early bilingual exposure may have potential to change structural components of the brain, particularly in the left hemisphere (Jasinska & Petitto, 2013). This type of exposure to two languages increases the capacity of the mind to capture a wider range of vocabulary and knowledge that span two different lexicon and syntax. Activation is evident in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulated cortex, and supplementary motor area of the brain for students who engage in dual language activation (Rodriguez-Fornells, De Diego Balaguer, & Münte, 2006). CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 56 Causality of bilingualism and intelligence could be bidirectional or unidirectionally causal in either direction; therefore, there is a correlation between linguistic proficiency and generic executive functioning (Haim, 2015; Iluz-Cohen & Armon-Lotem, 2013; Medvedeva & Portes, 2016; Surmont et al., 2014). Metalinguistic access and application are imperative to the proficiency of language learning because students with high metalinguistic analyses can make comparisons between languages and reflect on and control their language choices (Haukås, 2016). Additionally, students who understand their language or languages more adequately can transfer these metacognitive processes to other abstract concepts (Surmont et al., 2014). Regardless of language acquisition age, bilinguals were noted to have more profound neural activation than their monolingual counterparts (Jasinska & Petitto, 2013). However, it should be noted that not all bilingual language learners are highly proficient. Research found that high language proficient learners performed above average, while low language proficient learners performed well below average in the areas of inhibition and shifting between languages (Iluz-Cohen & Armon-Lotem, 2013). Though retrieval trailed monolinguals, high proficiency bilingual students were more astute to respond correctly, implicating that speed is not necessarily superior in language reception and production (Jasinska & Petitto, 2013). High proficient bilinguals are more skilled at teasing out ambiguities and competition of language interference than monolinguals, which can provoke higher automaticity in the long-term (van Hell & Tanner, 2012). Academic advantages. Though not controlled for socioeconomics, native English- speaking and native Spanish-speaking students in bilingual dual immersion maintenance programs perform at higher academic levels longitudinally than monolingual students or students in other forms of bilingual education (Chiat & Polišenská, 2016; Kim et al., 2015; Nair et al., CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 57 2016). In Spain, bilinguals were found to have higher aspirations, personal expectations, and parental support, and no other language group outperformed bilinguals (Medvedeva & Portes, 2016). Learning more than one language simultaneously lends to cross-linguistic transfer, which utilizes the resources of a language to support learning of the additional new languages (Haim, 2015; Montanari, 2014; Surmont et al., 2014). Students who learned to read and write in their mother language obtained higher levels of achievement in both the native and target languages (Montanari, 2014; Surmont et al., 2014). Reading proficiency in the first language becomes a reliable resource for learning a second language, and such early literacy skills as phonemic awareness, letter identification, and word reading can transfer seamlessly to a commonly rooted language system (Montanari, 2014). For studies conducted to measure novel word learning, naming, and identification, there were distinct advantages for early bilingual learners compared to late bilingual learners; however, both groups outperformed monolinguals (Nair et al., 2016). Students in content and language integrated learning (CLIL) programs outperformed their non-CLIL peers in vocabulary, fluency, and creativity (Surmont et al., 2014; Younes, 2016). Finland has a long history of bilingual education, and they consistently score among the top performers on the international Program for International Student Assessment exams as compared to other industrialized Organization of Economic and Cultural Development (OECD) nations (Sylven, 2013). Dual language programs are noted to close the achievement gap between English learners and native speakers and outperformed monolingual students and maintenance programs, such as two-way or dual immersion exhibit higher academic proficiency overall (Kim et al., 2015; Montanari, 2014). For learners of English who speak other romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, or Spanish, phonemic awareness, letter identification, vocabulary, and decoding transfer easily between languages (Kim et al., 2015; Montanari, 2014). Students in CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 58 both 50:50 programs, which are 50% instruction in native language and 50% instruction in target language and 90:10 programs, which are taught 10% in English in year one and increase 10% in English each year, showed exceptional growth in their primary and secondary languages (Kim et al., 2015). Economic engagement and opportunity. The cosmopolitan notion of possessing global knowledge and awareness combined with a propensity to be able to communicate throughout specific domains in more than one language is increasingly valued within the global marketplace due to the globalization and the rising economies of developed and emerging markets (de Jong & Bearse, 2014; Hornberger, 2007; Lindholm-Leary, 2000; Medvedeva & Portes, 2016; Pokrivčáková, 2013). English is often the lingua franca, or otherwise known as the commonly adopted language of medium for most intercultural exchanges, within international business, trade, and policy; however, within the EU, the English is accompanied by French and German as the main working languages despite the 24 official languages and various minority or heritage languages throughout Europe (Medvedeva & Portes, 2016; Younes, 2016). For secondary schools, the notion of college and career readiness pervades all tiers of policy and goal-setting within the organization. Schools and districts are tasked with cranking out students who are either college or career, or college and career ready. Secondary schools are tasked with the responsibility of developing and guiding students on pursuing their post- secondary goals through either college or career. Given the climate of 21 st -century learning expectations and the genesis of the SSBs, language is a significant element in said college and career readiness (DeLeon, 2014). For many individuals, having an ability to traverse two or more languages is a gateway to participating in a lucrative economy. In many contexts, speaking CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 59 English is often associated with elite socioeconomic status, while those not speaking English may be viewed as less valuable (Medvedeva & Portes, 2016). According to recent research by Damari et al. (2017), there exists a significant demand for employees who are proficient in two or more languages as evidenced by the responses of the companies, and most especially the small organizations. Entities that expressed the greatest need for bilingual or multilingual employees are the industries of education services, government and administration, and health care (Damari et al., 2017). Although various skills, such as technical and interpersonal, are more substantially sought by industries over language and global competencies, the benefits of language are not negated because the majority of companies desire employees who can interact positively with colleagues and clients of different languages and cultures (Reimers, 2009). Employees who can possess highly technical skills with strengths in interpersonal communication may also have linguistic diversity and range, which will enable a broader range of interaction for whichever company or industry (Damari et al., 2017). The 21 st century has engaged new levels of language accessibility through technology; though despite the increasing technological tools for aiding in communication cross-linguistically, the field of translation and interpretation increased at a quicker rate than other sectors in the global marketplace (Damari et al., 2017). There continues to be a gap in qualified candidates who can fulfill the required jobs to keep up with the 40-billion-dollar industry (Damari et al., 2017). Cultural advantages. People who are bilingual have cultural nuances and extended experiences that are unique to being raised bilingual, which is advantageous to them in life in various manners (Medvedeva & Portes, 2016). Individuals with assets to speak more than one language and broker more than one culture have greater opportunities to relate to an expansive network of potential friends, colleagues, and life and work experiences. In Medvedeva and CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 60 Portes’ (2016) research, though not accounting for socioeconomics, bilinguals exhibited higher aspirations than monolinguals. Their parents portrayed higher ambition for their bilingual children, they got along better with their parents, and demonstrated strong family identification than their monocultural and monolingual peers. The metalinguistic nature of bilingual or multilinguals adds value to their propensity to think abstractly and be reflective (Haim, 2015; Surmont et al., 2014). Metalinguistic thinking correlates to metacognition, which can be advantageous to bilinguals and multilinguals as they traverse various cultural nuances and adapt to each change. Language and culture are often interwoven so significantly, so the more assets an individual has linguistically, the more he or she will possess and exemplify culturally. Bilingualism and Biliteracy in California Bordering both Mexico and the Pacific Ocean, California adorns itself as a border state with a multiplicity of ethnic and linguistic diversity. Considering that California was historically a region occupied by Mexico, the predominant status-allocated languages during the early 1900s were French and German (DeLeon, 2014). Presently, Spanish is the predominant second language spoken in home and studied in schools statewide wherein 90% of two-way immersion schools are taught in English and Spanish (de Jong & Bearse, 2014). California voters recently presented their affirmative confirmation to reinvigorate bilingual education into the curricular fold of K-12 education programs statewide through the passage of Proposition 58 (California Department of Education, 2017b). Since the 1998 passage of Proposition 227, California K-12 public schools were not permitted to engage in bilingual or transitional bilingual educational programs. Instead, if interested in continuing to operate dual immersion schools, districts were required to obtain waivers of approval from parents who planned to attend the dual immersion CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 61 school that offered bilingual education services (DeLeon, 2014; Gorman, 2015; Kim et al., 2015; Lo Bianco, 2001). Dual immersion programs are a long-standing tradition of California schools as compared to other states nationally and have been offered in Spanish, French, Korean, Japanese, Chinese, and German (Kim et al., 2015). In 1994, California was home to 47 dual immersion schools statewide; however, in 2010, that number had grown to 233 (DeLeon, 2014). Put into perspective, in 2010, there were 372 two-way immersion programs total across 28 states (Kim et al., 2015). California is home to the only Italian-English dual immersion program in the United States (Montanari, 2014). Advancing Bilingualism and Biliteracy Within Secondary Schools While the United States may lack examples of secondary schools and programs that reinforce bilingualism and biliteracy outside of the English or world language courses, throughout Europe CLIL is much more common at all levels, especially in secondary school (Aiello et al., 2015; Cabezuelo Gutierrez & Fernández Fernández, 2014; Surmont et al., 2014; Younes, 2016). Finland has a centuries-long emphasis on bilingualism and is home to the CLIL research institute (Sylven, 2013). Belgium, Luxemburg, and Malta operate all schools through CLIL and Sweden, Italy, and Spain continue to research and refine their CLIL programs (Aiello et al., 2015; Sylven, 2013). An example of a secondary bilingual model in the United States is having a select content course taught in another language other than English; however, in most instances, these content courses are taught in the native language of many of the students in the class, such as is prevalent in high immigrant communities (de Jong & Bearse, 2014). Hawaii experienced a unique revolution of native Hawaiian language. As an example, the Nawahi School provides CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 62 kindergarten through twelfth grade instruction fully in Hawaiian and English as a new language, Chinese, and Japanese; however, English is not permitted to be used for instruction until after sixth grade, which is the start of lower secondary school (Wilson & Kamanā, 2009). Hawaii also operates a fully Hawaiian speaking university, Ka Haka ‘Ula O Ke’elikolani College of Hawaiian Language of the University of Hawaii at Hilo into which Hawaiian speakers can matriculate upon secondary school graduation (Wilson & Kamanā, 2009). Culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy within secondary schools. Repeatedly researchers support the notion that additive language and cultural instruction is beneficial to the learner for a range of reasons (Freire & Valdez, 2017; Lindsey, Kearney, Estrada, Terrell, & Lindsey, 2015; Saint-Hilaire, 2014). Despite unique programs, such as CLIL and dual immersion, generating ubiquitous pedagogy within all classrooms that envelopes, honors, and reinforces mastery of the heritage languages for improved learning and proficiency is gaining momentum. Nearly all models of bilingual education emphasize a cultural component to ensure cultural and cross-cultural competence (Freire & Valdez, 2017). The California and American Council for the Teachers of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) standards each address a cultural strand to be addressed within the world language course curriculum. Bilingual program models. The expanse of bilingual, dual language, language maintenance, or target language instruction can be described as having weak and strong forms of bilingual education for promoting bilingualism and biliteracy (Baker, 1996). Dual language programs are immerging as the most effective methodology for providing balanced and equitable instruction in both the native and target languages (Aiello et al., 2015; Luk & Bialystok, 2013; Pokrivčáková, 2013; Riordan, 2014); however, since the 1990s in Europe, CLIL are gaining momentum as a dominant model for instructing toward bilingualism and multilingualism, CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 63 especially at the secondary school level (Aiello et al., 2015; Cabezuelo Gutierrez & Fernández Fernández, 2014; Surmont et al., 2014; Sylven, 2013; Younes, 2016). Baker (1996) identifies the strong forms of bilingual education as immersion, heritage maintenance, two-way or dual immersion, and mainstream bilingual (Baker, 1996). The weak models described include transitional bilingual and mainstream with separate and isolated world language teaching (Baker, 1996). The sections below will further elaborate on the stronger forms of CLIL, immersion, heritage maintenance, and two-way or dual immersion. Content and language integrated learning (CLIL). CLIL is widely recognized in Europe as a pervasive and potent model for promoting bilingualism and biliteracy in schools because it integrates language learning into content classes, such as mathematics and science (Aiello et al., 2015; Pokrivčáková, 2013; Surmont et al., 2014; Sylven, 2013; Younes, 2016). The purpose and goal of CLIL is to build proficiency in two languages, study content through a target language for growth in content comprehension and content specific vocabulary, improve communication, improve cognitive skills, and increase motivation, and develop intercultural and international competence for future employment opportunities (Cabezuelo Gutierrez & Fernández Fernández, 2014; Huttner, Dalton-Puffer, & Smit, 2013; Pokrivčáková, 2013; Surmont et al., 2014). CLIL, found almost exclusively in secondary settings throughout Europe, involves content, communication, cognition, and culture (Sylven, 2013). Through CLIL, the language instruction becomes a tool for learning rather than the sole instructional focus, wherein the primary language behaves as a useful resource (Younes, 2016). A byproduct of integrating languages within the content is the opportunity to develop exchanges with other schools who speak the target language or where teachers proficient in the target language can be obtained (Sylven, 2013). CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 64 CLIL beckons for equitable weight shared among the representative languages and cultures of the student body (Blommaert et al., 2005; Hornberger, 2007; Lindholm-Leary, 2000). CLIL models and definitions vary per EU nation, yet English is predominantly used as the target language (Sylven, 2013). Though German CLIL may focus more on intercultural learning, United Arab Emirates CLIL is focused on second language learning (Sylven, 2013; Younes, 2016). Successful CLIL implementation encompasses balanced influence and usage of the primary and secondary languages (Younes, 2016). In Italy, CLIL requires one course in a subject area taught in a target language, namely English (Aiello et al., 2015). In Slovakia, 50% of the instruction is in the mother language while the other 50% is in the target language (Pokrivčáková, 2013). In Spain, learning content in a language other than Spanish is controversial, yet they are working on mimicking the models of other EU nations (Sylven, 2013). In Germany, CLIL focuses more on reading and writing, yet there is inconsistency among schools on the implementation of CLIL (Sylven, 2013). In Sweden, CLIL is growing in schools, yet still most students obtain English outside of the classroom (Sylven, 2013). In the CLIL model, researchers noted that language structures are stimulated, vocabulary is develops expeditiously in the target language, and intercultural learning is enhanced, which benefits all language learning (Surmont et al., 2014; Sylven, 2013). CLIL was noted to benefit struggling learners and enhance cognitive capacity (Pokrivčáková, 2013). Immersion. Immersion and mainstreaming are often conflated due to the connotation that students who are immersed into a classroom are also within the mainstream educational settings. These two terms are not necessarily interchangeable based on the notion of what curriculum and instruction is intended to look like in each setting. Immersive experiences are common when the native languages of the students are different and the immersed student has a CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 65 first language that is a minority language (Gallagher & Leahy, 2014). Immersion research indicates that the learners are enriched more than their monolingual peers, and the intentionality of immersion is supported by the teachers and leadership (Gallagher & Leahy, 2014). Value is attributed to all learners as language learners (Gallagher & Leahy, 2014). Heritage maintenance. This model differentiates the native speakers from the non- native speakers of a specific language, therefore clustering homogenous language groups together, and much like dual immersion, the heritage maintenance seeks to enable the students to maintain and improve their primary native language while also gaining proficiency in a second language (Beaudrie, 2011). This emphasis on mastery of second language as necessity is predicated on the notion of assimilation, superior status, and linguistic usefulness within society and the economy (Cahnmann & Varghese, 2005). In the secondary setting, this could be a world language course for native speakers. One example of a heritage maintenance model is alternating years of instruction in the target and heritage languages, such as exemplified within the model of Dhahran Ahliyya Schools, wherein students receive Arabic instruction from kindergarten through third grade with English as a second language, then alternate between English and Arabic in core content classes until secondary school (S. Alturki, personal communication, April 18, 2018). In another example, Finland adapts a unique model of heritage language maintenance due to the country’s bilingual national policy of official languages of Finnish and Swedish. There are Finnish language dominant and Swedish language dominant schools, each accustomed for the native language of the students, wherein Finnish students learn Swedish and Swedish students learn Finnish, among other languages in lower and upper secondary school (K. Torsell, personal communication, April 18, 2018). Finnish and Swedish students learn English from grades four CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 66 through nine, at which point learning English is optional (J. Pippo, personal communication, April 18, 2018). Two-way or dual immersion. Two-way immersion and dual language immersion programs are often synonymous because they both emphasize equal language learning in two languages, taking an additive bilingual and biliterate approach (de Jong & Bearse, 2014; Kim et al., 2015; Lindholm-Leary, 2000; Montanari, 2014). The majority of bilingual or dual immersion programs substantiate at the K-8 level, while less models persist at the secondary level in the United States. Dual immersion programs are popular among kindergarten through fifth, sixth, or eighth grades due to the language delivery models. Students in the dual language programs are generally 50% native speakers of the language of instruction and 50% non-native speakers of the language of instruction (Kim et al., 2015; Rocque et al., 2016). In various studies, it was noted that dual immersion programs often operate as programs within the mainstream school, not the entire school (de Jong & Bearse, 2014; Rocque et al., 2016). Dual immersion takes shape as either fifty/fifty (50/50) or ninety/ten (90/10) models. 50/50 models, which are used by approximately 33% of the dual immersion programs, generate and deliver instruction that is 50% in the native language and 50% in the target language for each grade level. 90/10 models, which are employed by 42% of all dual immersion programs, develop and deliver instruction that is 90% in the target language in kindergarten, the reduces by 10% each year until middle school (Kim et al., 2015). Regardless of which model is utilized, 50/50 or 90/10, students demonstrated academic gains and proficiency in both languages at higher rates than their monolingual peers (de Jong & Bearse, 2014; Kim et al., 2015; Rocque et al., 2016). CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 67 Although researchers have noted an array of benefits to the dual immersion programs, it is to be noted that they are not as preeminent of a sociocultural equalizing force that eliminates status. Elevation of the dominant language was noted to persist despite efforts to elevate the status of the minority languages (Cahnmann & Varghese, 2005). Curriculum and instruction. In a 21 st -century world whose networks overlap city, state, nation, and continent, curriculum for an international curriculum must consist of activity, competency, cultural sensitivity and understanding, and diverse processes that are embedded into all aspects of the curriculum (Tudball, 2005). A marque indication of an internationalized curriculum is integration of diverse cultural, ethnic, traditional, and religious instructional materials within core content areas, especially language arts and social sciences (Lindholm- Leary, 2000; Riordan, 2014; Wilson & Kamanā, 2009; Yemini, 2014). There are positive outcomes for bilingual or multilingual language learners when language, cognition, sociocultural, and academic achievement are integrated (Freire & Valdez, 2017; Kim et al., 2015). Curriculum is also inclusive of world languages, usually taught as separate courses, but is often relegated to upper secondary school or high school (O'Rourke et al., 2016; Yemini, 2014). A bilingual program should embed the equitable acquisition of the primary and secondary languages (Olivos & Sarmiento, 2006). The language component must contain grammar, morphology, syntax, and interactional skills, and it is especially important for learners to have access to speakers of that language for authentic communication (Bono & Stratilaki, 2009). In California, world language teachers are obligated to teach to the national and state world language standards for public schools. However, teachers in core content are not obligated to utilize, encourage, or include world language standards into the mainstream courses. This notion CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 68 continues to maintain world language exclusivity and dedicated instruction in a separate setting (Ong, 2009). For curriculum to be decorated with the inclusive notions of multiple languages and cultures to promote culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy, teachers also need appropriate curriculum mapping, physical resources, textbooks and novels, and other materials that support and reinforce these notions (Cahnmann & Varghese, 2005; Kim et al., 2015). Though times have changed since Ladson-Billings first proposed culturally relevant pedagogy, teachers are still often tasked with generating their own resources, translations, and adaptations to the curriculum to accommodate the ethnicities, languages, and cultures represented throughout the classrooms (Cahnmann & Varghese, 2005). Cultural relevance within the pedagogy is manifested through an emphasis on academic achievement, cultural competence, and sociopolitical or critical consciousness (A. Allen, Hancock, Starker-Glass, & Lewis, 2017; K. Allen et al., 2012; Howard, 2003; Ladson-Billings, 1995; Paris, 2012). These elements are more a way of thinking about pedagogy and curriculum and a state of being for teachers than a prescribed, lock-step curriculum map of diverse materials (Borrero, Flores, & de la Cruz, 2016; Young, 2010). Challenges. State assessments and prescribed curricula can be impediments to the globalization of school-wide efforts (de Jong & Bearse, 2014). Though California has collectively fluctuated on their beliefs about the efficacy of bilingual education, the voters concurred with a majority vote to reinstate bilingual education in 2017 through Proposition 58 (California Department of Education, 2017b). However, despite the desire to elevate the notion that there are substantial benefits to bilingualism, state assessments are still designed to support English speakers, readers, writers, and listeners. It is implicit in the academic demands of today CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 69 that students should take advantage of all elements of instruction that could enhance their cognitive synapses, but there is no evidence in outcomes as to whether state assessments and measures have correlated bilingualism or cultural relevance. Leadership for Advancing Bilingual Education and Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Providing a structurally sound, linguistically balanced valuable model for promoting bilingualism and biliteracy in the secondary school setting encompasses enabling strong leadership personnel who possess a vision and ideal for equitable bilingual curriculum and instruction, hire and inspire teachers who are highly trained in content and language acquisition, and value and believe in the assets of both or all languages spoken by the students (Aiello et al., 2015; Luk & Bialystok, 2013; Pokrivčáková, 2013; Riordan, 2014; Wilson & Kamanā, 2009). In Utah, principals of language immersion programs were identified into various roles in those immersion schools, such as immersion guru, immersion proponent, immersion overseer, and cultural unifier (Rocque et al., 2016). Administrative, instructional, and organizational support are imperative for bilingual and biliteracy education to become whole school sustainable (Lindholm-Leary, 2000). Administration needs to prioritize the development of knowledge, skills, and competencies of teachers to become pedagogues who are culturally relevant and sustaining and who promote high quality bilingual education (Blommaert et al., 2005). Leadership also entails unifying support among the stakeholders, which includes district staff, parents, community members, teachers, and legislators (Rocque et al., 2016). Rocque et al. (2016) described the responsibilities that are evidenced to produce improved student outcomes, which include involvement in and knowledge of curriculum, instruction, and assessment, beliefs, affirmation, outreach, and being a change agent. As it CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 70 pertains to leading schools to achieve high rates of bilingualism, biliteracy, and culturally inclusive relevance, leaders must employ these characteristics. Leaders are expected to model desired behavior; therefore, regarding language skills of leaders within the dual language immersion programs researched in Utah, 56% of the two-way immersion principals spoke both languages of instruction, while only 25% of one-way immersion programs had leaders who spoke both languages (Rocque et al., 2016). Teacher Pre-Service and In-Service Training for Bilingual Education The importance of teachers cannot be understated as it relates to student outcomes, namely within bilingual programs. Numerous studies identify the qualifications and training of the teachers as the most influential and pivotal persons to impact in the development and progression of high quality acquisition and production of two languages through bilingual programs (Aiello et al., 2015; Bedore, Peña, Joyner, & Macken, 2011; Blommaert et al., 2005; Cabezuelo Gutierrez & Fernández Fernández, 2014; Cahnmann & Varghese, 2005; de Jong & Bearse, 2014; Gorman, 2015; Lindholm-Leary, 2000; Nguyen, 2015; Olivos & Sarmiento, 2006; Pokrivčáková, 2013; Riordan, 2014; Souto-Manning, 2006; Sylven, 2013). Teachers are imperative in the curriculum design and development, instructional delivery, and direct influence over the performance and outcomes of students in demonstrating proficiency in language learning and cultural competence. The most important variable for student success is a teacher’s pedagogical knowledge and their understanding of the student’s needs (Olivos & Sarmiento, 2006). The wide variety of nuances and subtleties necessary to promote a culturally inclusive and equitable status to both or all languages known and spoken by the students will positively impact student achievement and engagement. According to various researchers, an essential CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 71 element that teachers must possess is belief in the value that multilingualism is beneficial and essential (Bono & Stratilaki, 2009; Cahnmann & Varghese, 2005; de Jong & Bearse, 2014; Hornberger, 2007; Lindholm-Leary, 2000; Wilson & Kamanā, 2009). One teacher profiled had visual representation that was promptly elevated to her walls indicating phrases such as “La lengua es el espiritu del alma” (language is the spirit of the soul), “Ser bilingue es nuestro orgullo,” (To be bilingual is our pride), and “Quien sabe dos lenguas vale por dos,” (Whoever knows two languages is worth two) (Cahnmann & Varghese, 2005). Teacher language proficiency throughout the credentialing process is complex and endures a parade of challenges, such as time, fluency, acquisition time, modeling of native speakers, and assessment of minimum language proficiency for instruction (Kim et al., 2015; Nguyen, 2015). Assessing teachers’ language abilities is also complex; questions and prompts that are generalized or relevant to the position impact fluency levels (Aiello et al., 2015). In the United States, each state demands different minimum proficiency levels in a target language for teachers to obtain beyond their pedagogy coursework; this requirement is often a deterrent for teacher candidates (Kim et al., 2015). The following sections will discuss the essential pre- service and in-service teaching training and professional development requirements. Pre-service teacher training. Bilingual teachers require a plethora of knowledge and expertise in language pedagogy and subject specific content. In most cases internationally and in the United States, bilingual teachers are required to earn credentials that validate their qualification to teach in a bilingual context (Aiello et al., 2015). Teachers internationally desiring to teach in the heritage language and English must prove proficiency in English, while in many cases, they overestimate their abilities in English. In Vietnam, Hawaii, and throughout Europe, teachers are often undertrained and minimally proficient in the target language, yet they CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 72 are tasked with providing bilingual instruction to students seeking to learn the additional target language (Aiello et al., 2015; Nguyen, 2015; Wilson & Kamanā, 2009). Linguistically, teachers need to possess at least minimum fluency in the languages through which they will teach content (Aiello et al., 2015; Cabezuelo Gutierrez & Fernández Fernández, 2014; Nguyen, 2015). Aiello et al. (2015) points out that teacher qualification guidelines for CLIL are rare, but he notes that Italy, Cypress, Netherlands, and Romania require compulsory CLIL coursework. Various pre- service training components that teachers need to know, including knowledge of research about second language development, instructional strategies for second language learners, multicultural learning, best practices in teaching and learning, such as collaboration and equity (Aiello et al., 2015; Lindholm-Leary, 2000). California credentialing requirements have changed over the past several decades. Various examinations that teaching candidates must pass include the California Basic Education Skills Test, Reading Instruction Competence Assessment, Teacher Performance Assessment, and an additional language examination (Olivos & Sarmiento, 2006). Senate Bill (SB) 2042 outlined the preparation that teachers must receive to earn their single subject (upper secondary) or multiple subject (elementary and lower secondary) teaching credential. Though SB 2042 does contain language about teaching diverse populations and English learners, it does not speak to bilingual education (Olivos & Sarmiento, 2006). Since 1994, the California Commission on Teacher Credentialing developed a two-tiered system for proving proficiency to work with English learners or provide instruction in a language other than English; the two-tiered system includes the Bilingual, Cross-cultural, Language and Academic Development (BCLAD) and Cross-Cultural, Language and Academic Development (CLAD) authorizations (California Commission on Teacher Credentialing, 2013). CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 73 One avenue to earn the BCLAD or CLAD is through the passage of language and culture domain exams related to English learners. The exams are “Test 1: Language Structure and First- and Second-Language Development,” “Test 2: Methodology of Bilingual Instruction, English Language Development and Content Instruction,” “Test 3: Culture and Cultural Diversity,” “Test 4: Methodology for Primary-Language Instruction,” “Test 5: The Culture of Emphasis,” and “Test 6: The Language of Emphasis (listening, reading, speaking, and writing)” (California Commission on Teacher Credentialing, 2013). Given that all teachers in California are required to possess either the BCLAD, CLAD, or SB 2042 English learner authorizations to deliver adequate and informed pedagogy and instruction to students who are learning English as an additional language, the essential characteristics learned through these authorization is important to teacher’s ability to deliver culturally relevant pedagogy for encouraging dual language learning in English and in maintenance of students’ first languages. The BCLAD certifies teachers to provide instruction in a language other than English. However, for those teachers who do not possess evidence of proficiency in another language through the BCLAD, they are required to obtain the CLAD or SB 2042 to meet the minimum proficiency mandated through the California Education Code Section 44001, Section 44830(a), Section 44831, and particularly Section 44253.1, which reads: For these pupils to have access to quality education, their special needs must be met by teachers who have essential skills and knowledge related to English language development, specially designed content instruction delivered in English, and content instruction delivered in the pupils' primary languages […]. (Commission on Teacher Credentialing, 2017) CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 74 Teachers desiring to earn bilingual certification must pursue the BCLAD certificate, which requires teachers to pass all six exams. By earning the BCLAD, teachers are issued the right to be able to provide instruction for English language development (ELD), primary language development, specially design academic instruction delivered in English (SDAIE), and content instruction delivered in primary language (California Commission on Teacher Credentialing, 2017). Teachers may also provide evidence of their verified language proficiency by passing the California Subject Examination for Teachers in a world language or by completing a commission-approved bilingual education program (California Commission on Teacher Credentialing, 2017). Teachers may earn the CLAD authorization by passing the first three exams on the aforementioned list. Teachers earning their preliminary single subject teaching credential should automatically earn the CLAD certificate to accompany said credential (California Commission on Teacher Credentialing, 2017). In 2001, the Commission on Teacher Credentialing adopted “SB 2042 Standards of Quality and Effectiveness for […] Single Subject Teacher Preparation Programs (Swofford, 2002). All teachers participating in single subject credentialing programs with approval through SB 2042 will automatically hold the minimum requirement for providing pedagogy to English learners (Swofford, 2002). SB 2042 authorization indicates that the teacher candidate is one domain short of the CLAD authorization (Swofford, 2002). In-service teacher professional development. Teachers already engaged in the field of teaching desiring to join the realms of bilingual education or continuing in providing bilingual education have demonstrated a need for ongoing professional development to ensure students are afforded a high quality bilingual education experience (Aiello et al., 2015; Cabezuelo Gutierrez & Fernández Fernández, 2014; Montanari, 2014; Pérez Cañado, 2016). In one study, as many as CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 75 40% of teachers self-reported that they did not possess bilingual teaching methodologies (Pérez Cañado, 2016). In this and other studies, teachers noted that they did not have sufficient materials to adequately provide instruction in another language, which is why Glendale Unified School District’s Italian program secured a large quantity of materials in Italian (Montanari, 2014; Pérez Cañado, 2016). In instances where teachers believe they are highly familiar with the materials or curriculum, they still may find insufficient time or training to adapt or design supplemental materials (Pérez Cañado, 2016). Universities are teaching methodological courses in alignment with CLIL for teachers who already possess a credential. For language proficiency of teachers in Europe, credentials are recognized from the national ministry of education or the nation from which that language originated (Aiello et al., 2015). While this seems self-evident, teachers are often not equipped with sufficient expertise in the native languages of their students, which makes the inclusion of linguistic pedagogies challenging for teachers (Nguyen, 2015). Teacher efficacy in language instruction. Teachers who desire to attune themselves and the curriculum to the identities, histories, and cultures of the students face inept published curricula and materials and are often subjected to develop or adapt their own unique curricular scope and sequence landscapes in alignment with standards (Cahnmann & Varghese, 2005). Each of the core content and world language teachers are obligated to plan and deliver lessons in accordance with the California core content standards. World language teachers are especially obligated to the world language content standards for California public schools (Ong, 2009). Teacher Preparation for Culturally Relevant and Sustaining Pedagogy Teachers prepared in credentialing programs through colleges and universities after 1995 may have received exposure through the research of Gloria Ladson-Billings concerning culturally relevant pedagogy (Howard, 2003; Ladson-Billings, 1995; Ladson-Billings, 2014; CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 76 Paris, 2012). Though the literature proliferated teacher education programs for over 20 years, there continues to be gaps in teacher preparation programs regarding the practical application and implementation of culturally relevant pedagogy (Howard & Rodriguez-Scheel, 2017). Impact of culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy on bilingual education. The notion of sustaining and asserting value on the native languages and cultures of students is to be embedded in culturally aligned pedagogies (Paris, 2012). Teachers are responsible for shaping the curriculum design and classroom culture to connect students and their unique linguistic and culturally experiences to an interesting and intriguing curriculum that validates and honors their heritage while adding nuanced instruction about the dominant language and culture (Ladson- Billings, 2014; Paris, 2012). The California State Seal of Biliteracy The California SSB was passed within Assembly Bill 815 in 2011 to provide high school graduates with an additional achievement to reflect their dual or multilinguistic prowess (DeLeon, 2014; O'Rourke et al., 2016). California was the first state to initiate such a seal honoring the linguistically proficient graduates; however, as of 2017, 27 states and the District of Columbia have a confirmed program for recognition of bilingual and biliterate graduates, while 14 additional states are in process of approving similar programs and recognition (California Department of Education, 2016b; O'Rourke et al., 2016; Wiley & García, 2016). The seal symbolizes to prospective colleges, universities, and employers that the graduate demonstrated a substantial level of proficiency in two or more language through secondary school coursework or a college level examination. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 77 Assessing Bilingualism and Biliteracy Acquisition and development of two or more languages concurrently is not simply a singular categorical variable, but instead is an intimate connection among various aspects of personhood and identity, such as social interaction, interpersonal communication, and cognitive processes (Bedore et al., 2011; Iluz-Cohen & Armon-Lotem, 2013; Luk & Bialystok, 2013). In accordance with the seal requirements, students must demonstrate their proficiency through the academic institution or examination agencies; however, measurement of proficiency can be much more complex. According to the ACTFL, Intermediate Mid level of proficiency is sufficient for workplace communication and corresponds to the Common European Framework level A2 and B1, respectively, for receptive and productive skills and at least a level three on the College Board AP language exam (Davin & Heineke, 2017). As via the methods for earning the seal in California, it is assumed that proficiency through a rigorous curriculum or summative examination of reading comprehension, writing, speaking, and listening anecdotes is sufficient evidence of valid communication fluency and comprehension (California Department of Education, 2016b). However, each state possesses different assessments and thresholds for demonstrating proficiency in a target language(Davin & Heineke, 2017). In Figure 2, there is a description of the language proficiency level attainment needed to earn the seal of biliteracy across different states. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 78 Figure 2. Foreign language proficiency required in each state (Davin & Heineke, 2017). Demonstrating proficiency and fluency. Language and communication consists of a range of variables including verbal and non-verbal, visual and auditory, and social and contextual. Given the range of components to language, measuring fluency as a categorical variable is challenging and under-representative of the holistic assembly of language (Luk & Bialystok, 2013). Fundamentally, language can be assessed through reading fluency and comprehension, written expression, aural communication or speaking, and receptive understanding or listening. Highly proficient bilingual students have demonstrated the ability to more quickly resolve language ambiguity and can distinguish between first and second language more readily than less proficient bilinguals (van Hell & Tanner, 2012). Gaining proficiency is the ideal, but not all bilingual language learners are able to demonstrate the same degrees of proficiency and fluency. Hornberger (2003) describes a continuum of biliteracy for each of the areas of context, development, content, and media of biliteracy. The California world language CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 79 standards spread over the notions of content, communication, cultures, structures, and settings (Ong, 2009). Literacy and written communication. Literacy contains the essential elements of communicating through written language, which encompasses reading and writing. For bilinguals or multilinguals, age of acquisition and native language proficiency impact second or third language learning and proficiency (Haim, 2015). There is strong evidence to support the notion that cross-lingual transfer occurs via grammar, syntax, reading, and writing (Haim, 2015). From early literacy, reading requires phonemic awareness, phonetics, letter and word identification, word and sentence fluency, and comprehension. As students age, they transition from learning to read to reading to learn information and gain new knowledge. Whether students have surpassed early literacy learning to read in their first language before engaging in learning to read in their second language will impact second language acquisition (Haim, 2015). Cross- lingual transfer was found between reading in primary language to reading in secondary language, and it was also noted across reading in primary language to writing in secondary language (Haim, 2015). Writing engages learners in retrieval of long-term memory, genre, and linguistic knowledge. It requires students to process information and translate thoughts into written or typed text (Haim, 2015). When learning to write in a second language, depending on age of acquisition or instruction in primary language, students are expected to grapple with these unique demands of conveying meaning to an audience or recipient. Oral Communication. Effective oral communication is essential to communicate needs and wants within the personal lives of all people, conduct employment in nearly all contexts, relay feelings and emotions, and recount stories and experiences. Speaking in a second language CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 80 enables the transmission of unmediated oral communication between two parties who might otherwise not be able to connect (Aiello et al., 2015). Speaking in a second language presents nuanced challenges as compared to first language communication in the emotional component. Speaking in a second language often requires courage to take risks despite the lack of a sense of mastery (Aiello et al., 2015). Listening requires a unique set of invisible skills in order for there to be a successful exchange of communication. In oral communication exchanges, the listener must hear what is said through the speaker’s tone or intonation as compared to their own, grasp the meaning of the words used in the exchange, and formulate a concept in their mind to comprehend and use the information to provide a response. Listening is dependent on comprehensible input, contextualized content, and structured or unstructured receptive and expressive usage (Lindholm-Leary, 2000). The Process for Earning the California State Seal of Biliteracy Secondary school graduating seniors eligible for the seal of biliteracy must achieve a minimum proficiency in English and at least one other world language (California Department of Education, 2016a). There is a bifurcated evaluation system for assessing language proficiency in native and non-native English learners, wherein the English learners must also demonstrate proficiency of English through an additional English language assessment. Aside from the various methods for demonstrating world language proficiency and the English minimum grade point average requirement, English learners must also demonstrate a minimum proficiency in English formerly on the CELDT, and currently the ELPAC, which is in alignment with the integrated and designated English ELD standards (California Department of Education, 2016a). CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 81 Native English speakers. The seal of biliteracy is approachable and attainable for all types of language speakers; native English speakers who do not communicate in or utilize another language at home are strictly reliant on classroom instruction or supplemental tools for language learning. Though some students may have friends or relatives that speak another language at home, they may not have any formal introduction or instruction in that language; therefore, they may also be introduced to a second language through school-based instruction. Native English speakers originate their language learning journey from a purely introductory level and are expected to earn the seal of biliteracy by the time they complete secondary school in one of the following ways. Table 4 lists the district offerings of developing second language proficiency, and the following guidelines for earning the seal can be found on the California Department of Education (2017a) website. Four-year language program. Students must participate in and receive credit for 4 years of a foreign or world language. Throughout the duration of the 4 years of foreign or world language, the student must maintain a 3.0 grade point average within those language courses. Advanced placement. Students are required to complete and pass the AP World Languages and Cultures exam in one of the allowable world languages, including Chinese language and culture, French language and culture, German language and culture, Italian language and culture, Japanese language and culture, Latin, Spanish language and culture, or Spanish literature and culture (College Board, 2017). The acceptable passing scores to earn the seal of biliteracy are 3, 4, or 5. With a score of three or higher on the AP exam, students must demonstrate proficiency at the minimum of level Intermediate Mid (Davin & Heineke, 2017). SAT-II foreign language. Students may also opt to complete the foreign language exam through the Scholastic Achievement Test (SAT) II Subject Test in language, such as Spanish, CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 82 French, Chinese, Italian, German, Modern Hebrew, Latin, Japanese, or Korean (College Board, 2016). Students are required to earn a 600 or higher on the subject test to be eligible to earn the seal of biliteracy. International baccalaureate. Students earning the seal through IB must fully participate in an IB program and meet the minimum proficiency of three or better on the IB world language exam in Latin, Classical Greek, Spanish, Mandarin Chinese, and French (International Baccalaureate, 2017). Approved off-the-shelf foreign language exam. If a student speaks and understands a language that is not represented through a 4-year course offering, IB, AP, or SAT-II Subject Test option, he or she may seek out an opportunity to take an off-the-shelf foreign language exam, which must be approved by the state superintendent of schools. Non-native English speakers. In addition to all the avenues for measuring proficiency in a second language, students who remain classified as English learners must also demonstrate proficiency on the state ELD assessment. Until 2017, California used the CELDT to annually measure the ELD progress of all English learners. The assessment disaggregated students based on their reading, writing, listening, and speaking. In 2018, California will begin to assess English learners using the ELPAC to align more accurately with the new common core standards within the general curriculum for designated and integrated ELD standards (California Department of Education, 2016b). For the English learners, they must meet the minimum requirements listed in the previous section and have a minimum proficiency score on the CELDT, now ELPAC. CELDT passing was level four or five on a five-point scale. ELPAC proficiency is still in process of being normed (California Department of Education, 2016a; California Department of Education, 2016b). CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 83 Table 4 Seal of Biliteracy Pathways of Completion in College Prep High School District Native Speaker Pathway Native Speaker Pathway Target Pathway Target Pathway American Sign Language (ASL) Pathway French Pathway Exam Pathway School All All All All AHS THS All Four Year Course List Speakers 1** Speakers 2** Target 1* Target 2* ASL 1* French 1* ELD 1/2/3 Speakers 2 AP Target 2* Target 3* ASL 2* French 2* ELD 1/2/3 AP Target 3 AP ASL 3 French 3 English 10 / ELD 4 AP ASL 4 English 11 / ELD 4 AP Exam Spanish Spanish Spanish Spanish None French Spanish French German Japanese Chinese Italian Latin SAT-II Subject Test Spanish Spanish Spanish Spanish None French Spanish French Chinese Italian German Hebrew Japanese Korean IB Exam Spanish Spanish Spanish Spanish None French Greek Latin Spanish French Turkish Indonesian Off-the- Shelf Exam NA NA NA NA Yes NA *** Ilocano Tagalog Vietnamese *Signifies the minimum requirement for A-G requirements. UC and CSU institutions require a minimum of 2 years of world language. **Signifies that the 1-year program meets the 2-year minimum for the A-G requirement. ***Signifies the Off-the-shelf languages that are being explored; certainty about approved exams is still to be determined (Avant Assessments, 2018; Riverside County Office of Education, 2018). CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 84 Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences Teachers are integral to the education trajectory and mobility of students toward achieving independent post-secondary success, especially as it relates to language acquisition and access to culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy (Howard, 2003; Paris, 2012). In the following section, knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational influences will be reviewed considering existing literature about best practices on improving organizational performance. Knowledge and Skills Paramount aspects to the knowledge realm of assumed influences on achieving the goal of bilingualism and biliteracy within culturally relevant pedagogy, teachers must have fundamental understanding of factual and conceptual knowledge, application of procedural knowledge, and reflective metacognitive knowledge, which is a dissection and reorienting of Bloom’s Taxonomy between the knowledge domain and the cognitive processes (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). Additionally, Clark and Estes (2008) identify four levels of training that can be provided to employees to improve upon their outcomes, information, job aids, training, and education; any of these elements that is inadequate may result in the same or worse outcomes. Because nearly 90% of all knowledge is automated, it is imperative that teachers grow in their knowledge of best practices in bilingual and culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy through factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge (Clark & Estes, 2008). Declarative factual knowledge influences. Teachers must comprehend the seal of biliteracy and its requisite component pathways for obtaining it (DeLeon, 2014; O'Rourke et al., 2016). Definitions of bilingualism and biliteracy vary, but teachers must definitively know CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 85 common definitions of bilingualism, biliteracy, and second language acquisition (Bono & Stratilaki, 2009; DeLeon, 2014; Haim, 2015; Holstein, 1999; Iluz-Cohen & Armon-Lotem, 2013; Kim et al., 2015; Luk & Bialystok, 2013; Nair et al., 2016). Teachers must also develop an operable and functional definition of the essential components of culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy before effectively incorporating them into their curriculum and instruction (Bedore et al., 2011; Gay, 2002; Holstein, 1999; Iluz-Cohen & Armon-Lotem, 2013; Paris, 2012). Declarative conceptual influences. Once teachers definitively understand each aspect of bilingualism and biliteracy, second language acquisition, and culturally relevant pedagogy, they must integrate and organize the knowledge into meaningful components in preparation for application within the classroom context (Ambrose, Bridges, DiPietro, Lovett, & Norman, 2010). Conceptual knowledge that teachers must embrace for full implementation of dual language learning within core content classes includes instructional strategies and their application to unique learning contexts, service delivery models for dual language acquisition or two-way immersion in the secondary setting, and lesson planning for effective use of the language and cultural capital within the core content courses (Cahnmann & Varghese, 2005; de Jong & Bearse, 2014; Hornberger, 2007; Lindholm-Leary, 2000; Liu & Liu, 2016; Pokrivčáková, 2013; Riordan, 2014; Surmont et al., 2014; Sylven, 2013). For culturally relevant pedagogy, teacher must conceptually understand the central tenants of academic achievement, cultural competence, sociopolitical consciousness (Howard, 2003; Ladson-Billings, 1995; Ladson-Billings, 2014; Paris, 2012). Procedural knowledge influences. After grasping the terms and concepts associated with bilingualism and biliteracy, second language acquisition, and culturally relevant and CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 86 sustaining pedagogy, teachers must execute development of curriculum, delivery of instruction, and professionally grow through opportunities to enhance their performance toward improved student outcomes (Lindholm-Leary, 2000; Liu & Liu, 2016; Nguyen, 2015; Riordan, 2014; van Hell & Tanner, 2012). Teachers must efficaciously execute lesson plans that incorporate best practices in dual language acquisition and culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy; it is the delivery of the instruction and facilitation of learning that will yield examples of teachers’ procedural knowledge (A. Allen et al., 2017; K. Allen et al., 2012; Freire & Valdez, 2017; Gay, 2002; Howard, 2003; Ladson-Billings, 1995). Metacognitive knowledge influences. Highly impactful teachers and learners exercise autonomy, develop automaticity, and embed reflection into their practices (Ambrose et al., 2010; Mayer, 2011). Equally important, teachers need to become metacognitive about their own biases, beliefs, and values regarding bilingualism and biliteracy, second language learners, and culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy (Blommaert et al., 2005; Bono & Stratilaki, 2009; de Jong & Bearse, 2014; Freire & Valdez, 2017; Ladson-Billings, 1995). Motivation As Clark and Estes (2008) articulate, “Belief is (Almost) Everything” (p. 79). There are three fundamental components of motivation, known as motivation indices, that interplay to produce outcomes within individual or organizational performance; they are choice, persistence, and mental effort (Clark & Estes, 2008). Motivational factors impacting these indices are belief, value, self-efficacy, mood and emotions, control ideology, and goal-orientation (Ambrose et al., 2010; Clark & Estes, 2008; Mayer, 2011; Rueda, 2011). Critical to motivation, as displayed in Figure 1, the environment must be supportive for teachers, they must see the value in the learning, and they must believe they have a high level of efficacy that they can accomplish the CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 87 required tasks (Ambrose et al., 2010). Teachers experience varying levels on a continuum of these triangular traits. Figure 3. Motivation through efficacy, value, and support (Ambrose et al., 2010). Motivation indices. A critical imperative to improving organization performance, motivation lies at the heart of advancing for organizational change (Ambrose et al., 2010; Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). Choice. The ideals of culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy to provide additive value to the heritage languages and cultures of students in classrooms are dependent upon the choices that district, schools, administrators, and especially teachers make in designing curriculum, delivering instruction, and participating in ongoing training to refine and improve the capacity to teach learners from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds (Paris, 2012). There is a multitude of exemplary teachers who have engaged in culturally relevant pedagogy and have seen tremendous results in student progress (Gay, 2002). Teachers and administrators learning the languages of the students and electing to incorporate the languages into the classroom can contribute to an inclusive environment (Rocque et al., 2016). CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 88 Persistence. Teacher requires a vast array of skills and talents with which they engage daily for informing instructional decisions and delivery. To meet the goals of increasing bilingual and biliterate proficiency in students, teachers must implement the critical behaviors of using and revising effective practices in culturally relevant pedagogy and dual language acquisition. Some barriers to persistence may be related to beliefs, values, teacher efficacy, and feelings experienced throughout the training, planning, instruction, and reflection processes (Popkewitz & Fendler, 1999). Mental effort. If a teacher wants to engage in improved proficiency to develop bilingual and culturally sustaining pedagogy, he or she is required to engage in high levels of mental effort. Mental effort is a complex responsibility that is multi-faceted and continually shifting based on student need, native languages and levels of proficiency, and other variables extraneous to teacher control (Clark & Estes, 2008). Motivation factors. Various invisible traits that involve beliefs, values, self-perception of efficacy and confidence, and mood influence the inherent motivation to work toward a predetermined goal of increasing bilingualism and biliteracy in a culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogical manner among all students (Ambrose et al., 2010; Clark & Estes, 2008; Mayer, 2011; Rueda, 2011). Motivational beliefs, values, and self-efficacy vary per individual and within context and over time; what a teacher may believe before a training session may differ than after the training session (Rueda, 2011). Beliefs, values, self-efficacy, expectancy- value, mood, attributions, and goal-orientation synergistically demand attention in order to move an organization forward in achieving its goals; each is described in relation to learning and motivation theory and the influences upon teachers as stakeholders to attaining the organizational goals. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 89 Beliefs. Teachers must first belief that enhancing bilingualism and biliteracy is essential and that instructing through culturally relevant and sustaining mechanisms will provoke the most student motivation and engagement. There are teachers from every nation who have positive beliefs about multilingualism, but the beliefs are not often manifested in action within the classrooms of these same teachers (Haukås, 2016; Nguyen, 2015). Freire and Valdez (2017) points out that the organizational culture influences teacher beliefs, yet teachers have the potential to reflect upon their new experiences in the bilingual context, learn, and adjust their beliefs. This component identifies the beliefs that teachers possess about bilingualism, biliteracy, second language learners and learning, and cultural relevance within pedagogy. Values. For students to become increasingly bilingual and biliterate and to develop a flourishing bilingual and culturally relevant context, teachers must value the notion of bilingualism, biliteracy, culture, and the long-term benefits of learning and communicating in more than one language (Blommaert et al., 2005; Bono & Stratilaki, 2009; de Jong & Bearse, 2014; Freire & Valdez, 2017; Wilson & Kamanā, 2009). It is critically important that there is value attributed to the primary or heritage language of students because of the inherent assets that the language brings to language learning and that both the primary and secondary languages are valued in the learning process to an equitable measure (Blommaert et al., 2005; de Jong & Bearse, 2014; Hornberger, 2007; Wilson & Kamanā, 2009). Self-efficacy. Teachers are often expected to perform based on predetermined expectations, but self-efficacy often goes unnoticed or unexplored as a variable for increasing motivation (Rueda, 2011). The greater the self-efficacy for a teacher, the more likely he or she is to persist with a task related to bilingual or second language instruction and culturally relevant or sustaining pedagogy (Rueda, 2011). Teachers in a variety of contexts, researchers, or education CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 90 organizations indicated that teachers were self-aware that they needed more training in pedagogy, language, or content language integrated learning (Aiello et al., 2015; Bedore et al., 2011; Cahnmann & Varghese, 2005; Curdt-Christiansen & Sun, 2016; Nguyen, 2015; Souto- Manning, 2006; Sylven, 2013). In some cases, teachers overestimated their language or pedagogical skills, but the research provided insight into their gaps in preparation (Nguyen, 2015). In other cases, teachers who were aware of the demands of the bilingual and culturally relevant curriculum and their present levels of performance desired further training (Cabezuelo Gutierrez & Fernández Fernández, 2014; Pérez Cañado, 2016). Expectancy-value theory. In coordination with the motivation indices and factors to progress toward a goal, organization members, those individuals who make up the organization, each operate at different positions on the spectrum of expectancy and value for the range of tasks required to move and sustain organizational change in a positive trajectory (Ambrose et al., 2010; Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011; Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Expectancy theory identifies the degree to which a person feels they will have success with the given task; in other words, what they expect to be able to produce or contribute (Ambrose et al., 2010; Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). The two elements of expectancy-value outline the capacity of investment that an individual will bring to the task. The higher the expectancy-value, the more likely the individual will persist in completing the task or activity because there is perceived success and value (Wigfield & Cambria, 2010). As is common with human behavior, teachers need to feel they belong to a group and have autonomy in accomplishing their goals (Sinek, 2009). Second language teachers must value the second language and believe that they are competent in providing instruction in one or both languages (Cabezuelo Gutierrez & Fernández Fernández, 2014; Nguyen, 2015). Accompanying value, teachers must expect to be successful in CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 91 comprehending, planning for, and delivering instruction that is culturally relevant and sustaining (Gay, 2002; Ladson-Billings, 1995). Attributions. Individuals and organizations each have influences internally and externally that impact outcomes; these are known as attributions (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). The more control an individual within the organization has over his or her variables, the more pliable the outcomes. In order to be proficient pedagogues of cultural relevance, teachers must take ownership of the notions of academic achievement for all students, develop cultural competence, and take responsibility for instilling sociopolitical awareness in students (Gay, 2002; Howard, 2003; Ladson-Billings, 2014). Though these are imperative to resolving gaps in organizational performance goals, they are not explicitly identified through data collection. Goal-orientation. Two predominant schemas exist regarding goal-orientation, mastery versus performance (Rueda, 2011). Mastery implies effort is exerted to reach maximum achievement in an aspect of knowledge or performance, while performance implies that effort is directed to meet the minimum standards of achievement. Mastery and performance manifest themselves through the output of the individual who is striving to attain the goal. The organizational goals, though they may be made known to all stakeholders, may not be the motivating variable for each stakeholder (Rueda, 2011). In an era of high-stakes testing, teachers are in a quandary about teaching to the test, which is performance-oriented, or focusing on whole student achievement and development, which is mastery-oriented. Because language is a lifelong skill and each level of development is dependent on the previous level of growth, language acquisition follows a more mastery-oriented persuasion. As was evident with the Vietnamese teachers who believed they had attained a CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 92 higher proficiency than was acceptable to instruct their students, performance orientation could impede students to achieve proficiency (Nguyen, 2015). Organization The organizational elements that influence teacher performance and progress toward achievement of the goal of promoting bilingualism and biliteracy through a culturally relevant curriculum include cultural models, cultural settings, policies and procedures, resources, and training (Clark & Estes, 2008; Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001; Rueda, 2011). Administrative and organizational support are imperative for bilingual education and culturally relevant pedagogy to flourish (Lindholm-Leary, 2000; Rocque et al., 2016). Cultural models. Organizations consist of a collection of individual employees, each with their own motivations, aspirations, or intentions regarding what they hope to accomplish within the organization. Cultural models are invisible characteristics that permeate individuals, teams, departments, groups, and the organization as an entire entity (Clark & Estes, 2008; Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001; Rueda, 2011). Because inclusivity of diverse cultures of students is so integral to the success of promoting bilingualism and culturally sustaining pedagogy, teacher culture and interactions with staff and students is paramount (Freire & Valdez, 2017; Saint-Hilaire, 2014). Cultural setting. Facilities and physical spaces impact the operations of an organization, especially a school. The cultural settings are the physical settings where activities, instruction, and various interactions occur to support the operations and can impact achievement of unique goals (Clark & Estes, 2008; Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001; Rueda, 2011). In 2015, the United States Department of Education measured 83% of the public-school teachers in the United States were European American despite the 49% of students enrolled were CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 93 not of the same ethnic heritage (Souto-Manning, 2006). To minimize the gap between teacher and student cultural heritage, teachers need to be provided spaces for collaboration with one another within content and across content and language and assistance in developing environments that promote bilingualism and cross-cultural inclusivity (Cahnmann & Varghese, 2005). Organizationally, recruitment and preparation of teachers who more closely match the ethnicities of the students is an important topic, yet will not be explored directly in this study. Policies and procedures. Each organization has regulations, expectations, rules, structures, policies, and procedures to provide and promote predictability, consistency, and fairness. The policies and procedures within an organization could have deleterious effects on productivity, such as too much paperwork to accomplish simple tasks, and provide checks and balances to promote onward trajectory, such as mandatory attendance to meetings that discuss student work and commonly plan subsequent lessons (Rueda, 2011). Teachers may or may not have influence over federal and state policies that influence what they are required to teach and how money can be spent; however, in California, the LCFF and LCAP were recently developed to bring decision-making about spending and goal-setting around state priorities to the local stakeholders of each local education agency (LEA), of whom teachers are included (California Department of Education, 2016b). Resources. Equipment, material, and tools to accomplish a task are essential to the success of accomplishment. However, the misunderstood belief that money can resolve all inequities in education or improve outcomes is unsubstantiated. Despite the lack of evidence to support high quality instruction’s reliance on incredible amounts of wealth, teachers do need essential tools, such as textbooks, technology, furniture, equipment, supplies, and environmental CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 94 materials to enhance the learning experiences of each student (de Jong & Bearse, 2014; Kim et al., 2015; Lindholm-Leary, 2000). Training. Training can be perceived as obtaining knowledge through information combined with practice (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). Teachers need pre-service and in- service training in areas such as second language acquisition, culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy, and language instruction in the primary and secondary language (Aiello et al., 2015; A. Allen et al., 2017; Borrero et al., 2016; Nguyen, 2015; Olivos & Sarmiento, 2006). Conclusion The notion that bilingual education is imperative for all through a culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy with infusion of bilingual and second language strategies will sustain this research. The literature outlined the various essential components, models, and curricula of bilingual education across content areas and grade levels. The research examples regarding bilingualism from Sweden, Italy, Finland, Spain, Germany, Singapore, Vietnam, Canada, United Arab Emirates, Slovakia, and various states throughout the United States, such as Utah, Hawaii, and California shine a light of insight into the expectations and essentials for fulfilling the organizational goals of the district (Aiello et al., 2015; Cahnmann & Varghese, 2005; Pokrivčáková, 2013; Sylven, 2013; Wilson & Kamanā, 2009; Younes, 2016). Learning and motivational theories were outlined alongside the teachers’ requisites and essential influences of knowledge, motivation, and organization to engage bilingualism, second language acquisition, and culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy in all classrooms across California. The research has created a framework to influence the data collection in Chapter Three. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 95 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY The methodology chapter addresses the methods in which data will be collected through a triangulation of surveys, interviews, classroom observations, and document analysis to work toward answering the research questions. The stakeholder goal and critical behaviors of the stakeholder will drive the knowledge, motivation, and organizational assumed root causes and propel the data collection methods. The methodological framework reviews the genesis of this problem-solving analysis and is predicated on the notion of a gap between a desired performance outcome and present performance. The assumed influences are captured through assumptions based on informal observation, learning and motivation theory, and review of the literature. The target population for data collection and analysis is reviewed and outlined in this chapter. A description of the triangulation utilized describes the trustworthy nature of the methods of collecting and analyzing valid data, and the role of investigator is described in context of the research study. Finally, the limitations and delimitations are described, which foretells potential future research and means for gathering comprehensive data with expanded time and range of participants. Purpose of the Analysis and Research Questions The purpose of this study was to conduct a single stakeholder gap analysis to examine the knowledge, motivation and organizational influences that affect the ability of the CPHSD to achieve 100% attainment of graduating students who demonstrate proficiency in two or more languages as evidenced by earning the California SSB. This goal is despite the lack of teacher’s credentialing in second language proficiency, culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy, or current language standards around core content instruction that is presented in two or more languages. The analysis began by generating a list of possible or assumed influences and needs CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 96 that were examined systematically to focus on actual or validated influences and needs. While a complete gap analysis would focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes the primary stakeholder in this analysis was teachers. The research questions addressed in this study included: 1. What is the teachers’ knowledge and motivation related to promoting bilingualism and biliteracy through culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy and student- centered dual language instruction to improve proficiency in two or more languages? 2. What is the interaction between the organizational culture and context and teachers’ knowledge and motivation? 3. What are the recommended knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational solutions needed to accomplish the goal of promoting bilingualism and biliteracy through culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy and student-centered dual language instruction to improve proficiency in two or more languages? Stakeholder of Focus Goal and Critical Behaviors For the secondary teachers to accomplish their goal, all teachers will need to promote bilingualism and biliteracy through culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy, and student-led and student-centered dual language instruction to improve proficiency in two or more languages. They needed to exhibit a variety of essential observable behaviors. As evidence of attainment of their goal, they should have demonstrated the following behaviors simultaneously throughout instruction: 1. Use bilingual or second language acquisition strategies within core content areas, 2. Use culturally relevant pedagogy within core content areas, and 3. Facilitate student-led bilingual language acquisition within core content areas. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 97 Methodological Framework The research methodology undertaken in this study was a mixed methods case study single stakeholder gap analysis (Clark & Estes, 2008). As shown in Figure 4, the framework embarked on a systematic analysis of knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that revealed the root causes of the gap between the actual performance outcomes and the desired performance outcomes and goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). The initial step in the gap analysis method was to identify the organizational goals and compare the present level of performance of the organization against those goals that have not been achieved or attained. The range of root cause influences for the perceived gap were attributed to incomplete knowledge and skills, deterred motivation, and complex and interdependent organizational factors. To investigate among the teachers as stakeholders and throughout the organization, the investigator employed various techniques for collecting quantitative data through surveys and qualitative data such as through interviews, observations, and document analyses. Once data were collected, the identified influences and needs were validated, partially validated, or invalidated based on the findings in the data. The influences were validated if they continued to demonstrate a need for the organization based on the findings. They were partially validated if they presented a low priority need for the organization based on teacher responses. They were invalidated if they were not currently a need for the organization pertaining to the innovation. The final stage in the gap analysis was to review and analyze the results of each measure and recommend solutions or implementations based on whether they were related to knowledge and skills, motivation, or organization. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 98 Figure 4. Gap analysis process (Clark & Estes, 2008). Due to the integration of culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy and bilingual education at the secondary level, the innovation model was utilized in this study. An innovation model is a gap analysis which is defined by a 100% gap between the goal and the current level of performance. The integration of the instruction that incorporates and promotes bilingualism and biliteracy through usage of culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy as an effort to increase the quantity of students earning the seal of biliteracy with teachers who do not possess bilingual credentials is an important distinction to qualify this study as an innovation model within the gap analysis framework. The innovation model seeks to develop a new program or system for expected implementation, one expected outcome of which will rely on the students’ assets for dual language opportunities to promote bilingualism and biliteracy through a student-centered culturally relevant pedagogy across the content areas. However, teachers can persist in behaving as culturally relevant pedagogues in their planning and inclusivity of students from various cultures and languages. The seal of biliteracy was the select metric because it is easily measurable. An exact quantity of seal earners was obtained by collecting the data of the quantity of recipients of the CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 99 seal from the previous year’s graduating classes at each of the comprehensive high schools and one magnet school. Each year, data is collected and indicates the concrete quantity of graduating seniors from the previous graduating classes who earned the seal of biliteracy. Though the district demonstrated an increase in seal earners within the years 2013 to 2017, there was a decrease in 2018. There is a gap in the coordinated systematic supports for students to attain the seal through given interplay of teacher credentialing and training, the diverse language levels and prior programs of student’s exposure in elementary and middle school, past or current student- centered pedagogical practices, and promotion of bilingualism and biliteracy at the secondary level in all core content classes. Additionally, there is currently a limited number of world language course offerings and exam options as pathways for demonstrating proficiency in a second language. The lack of teachers credentialed to provide content and language integrated bilingual education impacted the organization’s ability to implement culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy that provokes increased bilingualism and biliteracy across all core content areas. Through the innovation study, the best practices for guiding more students to develop biliteracy were identified and recommended for implementation within the organization. Assumed Influences of the Performance Gap Assumed knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational influences were deduced based on preliminary scanning data, such as the investigator’s personal experience and oversight within the district, critical observation within the organization, learning and motivation theory, and a brief overview of literature with research relevant to bilingualism, biliteracy, dual language learning, culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy, or a combination. Measures were established to validate or invalidate the assumed causes. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 100 Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Theory and Observation of Teacher Needs The first section reviews the assumed knowledge and skills influences that impact the ability of the teachers to meet the stakeholder goal. Knowledge and skills are composed of factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002). Factual knowledge is the static information and the ability to retrieve a definitive recollection of the terms associated with the influences (Clark & Estes, 2008; Krathwohl, 2002). Conceptual knowledge is the ability to recollect or retell the underlying concepts beyond the definition (Krathwohl, 2002). Procedural knowledge requires the teacher to demonstrate or describe how they are familiar with the process of accomplishing a step, series of steps, or component of the required skill (Krathwohl, 2002). Metacognitive knowledge is the ability to reflect upon the information, concepts, and procedure, and adjust to improve the outcomes (Krathwohl, 2002). The second section reviews the assumed motivation influences that impact the ability of teachers to attain the stakeholder goal. Motivation indices are qualified by choice, persistence, and mental effort. Choice is the intentional determination to make a selection to partake in an activity or utilize a specific resource, and it engages the beliefs and values of a person (Clark & Estes, 2008). Persistence is the ability to continue striving for the goal, even in spite of any potential difficulties, challenges, or distractions; it is influenced also by the goal-orientation and attributions of the individual (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). Mental effort requires intellectual investment in accomplishing the goal without over or underestimating the requirements to complete the job; it often engages the expectancy-value and self-efficacy of an individual (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). The third section reviews the assumed organizational influences that impact the teachers’ ability to achieve the stakeholder goal. Organizational culture consists of the individual culture, group culture, and the interplay between CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 101 all the individuals and groups within the broad organization; these contribute to the cultural settings and cultural models that exist within organizations (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). Other organizational influences include policies and procedures, resources, and training. Knowledge and Skills. Assessing the knowledge assumed causes will entail utilizing research literature, survey data from teachers, qualitative data collected through teacher interviews, classroom observations, and document analysis of lesson plans and professional learning community meeting minutes. Recommendations for remediating the knowledge gaps will be informed by the learning framework referenced in Krathwohl’s revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of learning, which includes factual learning, executed by remembering; conceptual learning, evidenced through understanding and analyzing; procedural learning, such as applying and creating the steps to execute the pedagogy; and metacognition, which involves analyzing and evaluating (Anderson et al., 2001; Krathwohl, 2002). Factual knowledge. Teachers are required to understand basic definitions about dual language acquisition and models for secondary schools, bilingualism and biliteracy, culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy, and the California SSB. Conceptual knowledge. Teachers need to understand dual language models and culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy. They must understand how dual language instruction can improve student outcomes and build on student assets. Teachers need to understand culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy and how it is delivered within core content areas and pedagogical strategies that elucidate more than one language and culture. Procedural knowledge. Teachers need to be able to demonstrate an ability to plan lessons and units and deliver and facilitate student-led and student-centered dual language learning and culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy. Teachers are not immediately CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 102 equipped with dual language capabilities, so they will need to rely on student linguistic and cultural assets; they must know how and when to elicit student-led dual language learning. Metacognitive knowledge. Teachers need to reflect on their lesson development and instructional delivery. Reflections about lesson development and instructional delivery must be paired against learned prior knowledge and generate questions for further research that can be shared within collaboration with professional learning communities and across language and core content teachers. Motivation indices. Motivation is multidimensional and includes elements of active choice, persistence, and mental effort on the part of the teacher contributing to the student outcomes (Clark & Estes, 2008). Clark and Estes’ (2008) and Rueda’s (2011) application of motivation principles in the areas of self-efficacy and competence, beliefs and attributions, high interest and intrinsic motivation, high levels of value, and goal-orientation that positively contribute to higher achievement will be the epicenter of motivation theory for this study. Choice, persistence, and mental effort are essential for goal achievement. Optimally, expectancy or self-efficacy, value, and support are high for effective change efforts and persistence to endure the challenges associated with engaging a dual language curriculum within core content areas with culturally relevant pedagogy (Ambrose et al., 2010; Rueda, 2011). Goal-orientation impacts the choice and persistence arms of motivation because teachers’ performance outcomes are either performance-oriented or mastery-oriented and are required for accomplishment. Mastery orientation propels teachers into exploring the rationale and adopting habits of securing dominion over topics rather than simply accomplishing them (Rueda, 2011). CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 103 Motivation needs. Motivation is instrumental in the execution of tasks. Motivation is the paramount element of the KMO framework to influence the assumed root causes (Clark & Estes, 2008). Motivation involves active choice, persistence, and mental effort (Ambrose et al., 2010). The motivation needs that will be addressed regarding the teacher’s progress toward attaining the goal are expectancy-value, beliefs, values, self-efficacy, goal-orientation, and attributions. Beliefs and values. Individual teachers must make the choice to learn and commit to delivering dual language and culturally relevant pedagogies concurrently. Choice is dependent upon beliefs and values that the individual holds, and learning new information about a topic or experiencing something meaningful relevant to dual language acquisition and cultural relevance may have potential to sway beliefs or values. Teachers need to believe that bilingualism and biliteracy is important and embed it within core content instruction, culturally relevant pedagogy can and should be implemented within the core curriculum, and that students’ primary languages are an asset for learning and bilingual language development. Additionally, they need to understand the cognitive, economic, and cultural benefits of teaching and learning in two or more languages. Self-efficacy. Self-efficacy, the confidence that one can succeed or achieve a given task, is integral to making instructional choices and persisting (Ambrose et al., 2010; Rueda, 2011). Self-efficacy is like expectancy theory because individual beliefs about his or her ability to conduct a task or experience success with an activity depends upon what the individual expects of him or herself (Rueda, 2011). Teachers need to be confident they will be able to develop and adapt lessons that incorporate dual language learning, whether it be through student-led opportunities or culturally relevant pedagogy. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 104 Expectancy-value. Expectancy-value is the belief that an individual has in his or her own capabilities and desire to work toward the goal (Rueda, 2011; Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Teachers need to prioritize and be confident that they can provide successful second language learning and dual language instruction within their core content classes, engage student-led language instruction, and embed culturally relevant pedagogy to reinforce language and cultural development. Goal-orientation. The dichotomous goal-orientation structure identifies performance and mastery as the two orientations in which individuals align as they pursue goals (Rueda, 2011). Performance orientation concentrates on task completion, while mastery orientation is determination to achieve successful operationalizing of the learning information. Mastery orientation infers a desire for inferential learning and application to generalized contexts after learning the concept (Rueda, 2011). Attributions. Teachers can demonstrate attribution by taking ownership of their actions within the curriculum and instruction that they believe has a direct impact on student performance and outcomes related to the goal. Teachers will take ownership of producing opportunities for students to capitalize on their language assets and learn two or more languages through their area of core content instruction. They will take ownership of developing lessons and units that engage students through culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy. Organization needs. Organizations are complex systems that weave a tapestry of intertwined and inter-related individuals who operate toward a common goal. All organizations, including secondary schools, exemplify cultural models and settings. Cultural models are often automated and invisible for the insiders within the organization to unfold (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Though values and beliefs are invisible, behavior can be observed and CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 105 measured. Some observable behaviors include group norms, language, rituals, and celebrations can be observed (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Regarding the cultural models, teachers need to belong and feel a sense of community or contribution to the organization (Rocque et al., 2016). Cultural settings are locations in which the organizational demands take place, such as the school setting, district office, or department meetings. Cultural models can shift between the cultural settings within the organization due to the values within the large and small groups. Resources. Resources are essential for teachers to progress on their individual and collective organizational goals. Schools need to provide teachers with instructional materials, curricula, tools for providing instruction that is culturally relevant and sustaining and toward dual languages in all content areas, ongoing professional development in dual language instruction and culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy, and dedicated materials to promoting the pathways toward earning the seal of biliteracy. Cultural models. Though often invisible and automatic to members of the organization, the cultural models influence and persuade the district and school in decision-making, interpersonal relationships, and values. Schools need to embrace and support all teachers in progressing toward the LCAP goal of attaining more bilingual proficient students and the organizational mission. Moreover, schools need to celebrate growth in dual language acquisition and engagement through culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy. Cultural settings. Location and locale significantly influence the operations, proximity, and collegiality that impacts goal attainment. Schools need to provide teachers with professional learning and growth opportunities, along with collaboration time within their content areas and across core content and language courses to emphasize bilingualism and cultural relevance. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 106 Training. Training models and evaluating training are imperatives for reinforcing dynamic and high-performance outcomes. Schools need to commit to providing a range of tools for teachers to achieve the standards for meeting their stakeholder goal and the organizational mission. Policies and procedures. Ordered ethical and legal requirements often precede organizational decision-making; these requirements result in policies and procedures within the organization. Schools need to communicate policies and procedures for scheduling 4-year plans to ensure maximum pedagogy that embodies cultural relevance, bilingualism and biliteracy across the curriculum, and completion of seal of biliteracy requirements. Population and Sample The population of the study was English, mathematics, physical and biological science, social science, special education, visual and performing arts, and world language secondary high school teachers at three comprehensive and one magnet high schools in CPHSD who deliver instruction to diverse learners within their classes. Among these four school sites, there were 259 total eligible participating teachers among the aforementioned departments. Among them, there were 63 English teachers, 43 mathematics teachers, 36 physical and biological science teachers, 44 social science teachers, eight of whom are also English teachers and operate within an integrated humanities curriculum, 38 special education teachers, 21 visual and performing arts teachers, and 22 world language teachers. All teachers were required to possess the CLAD authorization, BCLAD authorization, or Senate Bill 2042 English learner approval in California since the passage of Proposition 227 in 1998. As of 2017, 90 total teachers possess the CLAD, 19 teachers possess BCLAD, 104 teachers possess SB 2042 authorization, and 44 do not possess any of those three authorizations (See Table 4). Of the 19 teachers that possess the BCLAD, 12 CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 107 of them are world language teachers which means only seven teachers of 259 possess bilingual credentials. Given the move toward more inclusive practices of English learners in mainstream instruction, all secondary high school teachers in the CPHSD should interface with English learners and diverse learning profiles within the college preparatory classes. With the subsequent redirection toward approved bilingual education programs in California public schools through the passage of Proposition 58 in 2017, districts will increasingly be employing bilingualism and biliteracy across curriculum at all instructional levels, not in isolated classrooms. All teacher input will help unfold the assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational causes for the gap identified in this study. Table 5 CLAD, BCLAD, and SB 2042 Authorizations 2016-2017 Site School Type Department CLAD BCLAD SB 2042 None Antimony High School Comprehensive English Mathematics Science Social Science Special Education Visual and Performing World Language 13 5 2 7 4 4 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 2 6 5 3 2 9 6 2 2 3 3 2 1 1 3 Indium High School Comprehensive English Mathematics Science Social Science Special Education Visual and Performing World Language 5 4 6 0 5 2 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 5 2 5 1 5 3 2 1 6 0 1 3 1 1 0 Titanium High School Comprehensive English Mathematics Science Social Science Special Education Visual and Performing World Language 9 3 3 5 3 3 2 1 0 0 0 1 1 4 3 4 5 6 6 5 1 4 5 1 0 2 3 1 CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 108 Table 5, continued Site School Type Department CLAD BCLAD SB 2042 None Berkelium High School Magnet English Mathematics Science Social Science Special Education Visual and Performing World Language 0 3 0 NA 1 1 0 0 0 0 NA 0 0 1 6 5 7 NA 1 1 2 0 0 1 NA 0 0 0 Total 90 19 104 44 *Note: Numbers may not equally match due to teacher turnover during the course of this study. The sample for the study was a stratified random sample of teachers from each of the academic departments at each high school in the CPHSD that deliver core, standards-aligned college or career preparatory curriculum. The teachers were coded by the department in which they teach and listed by number up to the total number of teachers in that department at each site. The teacher selected for each interview was randomly selected through a randomization website, Random.org by inputting the minimum and maximum numbers within that selection. The teachers instruct in content areas including English, mathematics, physical and biological science, social science, special education, visual and performing arts, and world languages. Physical education, counseling, and online learning center teachers were not included in the core academic college preparatory content areas because they are not involved in developing curriculum in core college preparatory subjects, nor do they deliver traditional core classroom instruction to utilize culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy or second language learning strategies. These secondary teachers, in the identified content areas, deliver instruction that address all required Common Core State Standards for college and career readiness. Moreover, these teachers influence the design and content of the curriculum and the pedagogical delivery of instruction. The stratified random sample provided a range of representation across content areas and school sites. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 109 The intended goal for the qualitative data collection through interviews was to have at least one teacher per department at each high school be part of the sample, but that was not achieved. Instead, one teacher per core content area district-wide was interviewed. An interview from one teacher per core content area district-wide provided a degree of reliability and enabled identification of themes across the district and throughout content areas. Moreover, utilizing one teacher from each department in the district helped identify trends across the sites and departments in the assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational causes in the achievement of closing the gap. Data Collection To collect data using human subjects such as teachers, the data collection proposal was sent to the Institutional Review Board (IRB) for review and approval. Upon approval, data was collected by a range of measures, such as surveys, interviews, and document analyses. At least one teacher from each department district-wide participated in the quantitative survey, which was presented through electronic mail as a link to the Qualtrics data collection platform in October and November of 2017. Due to initial low response rate, the survey was then distributed to each secondary site in paper copy version for administrators to distribute. The survey was provided to the teachers while the interviews were conducted. The results of the survey were stored and maintained as confidential through the Qualtrics data collection platform and within the secure possession of the principal investigator. The data was stored in a password-protected database within a password-protected computer, which remained in the possession of the principal investigator. There was participation from at least one person from every department at every site through the surveys with the exception of visual and performing arts and world language at two sites. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 110 The investigator was an administrator within the district at one of the school sites and is supervisor to various teachers. Therefore, according to IRB, the principal investigator was unable to conduct the interviews and observations at the supervisory site because the results and responses obtained through the interview may have been impacted and the responses may have been modified by the interviewees due to supervisory pressure. A third-party IRB approved investigator attempted to contact participants at the principal investigator’s site, but no willing participants were interviewed. The principal investigator conducted the interviews at the sites at which she is not a supervisor to the teachers. Therefore, all seven interviews among all content areas were conducted at two comprehensive sites and one magnet site, wherein one comprehensive site did not participate in interviews. All interviews were conducted in person, audio recorded with interviewee approval, and transcribed verbatim. All participants were able to meet in person for interviews. The information gathered through the interviews and the identities of the interviewees will remain confidential. Because data could not be collected through observation of at least one classroom per content area, the principal investigator used the information teachers provided during the interview to quantify the data on the classroom observation tool, which included items about the inclusion of dual language instruction and the components of culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy. One form was completed for each interviewee. This was determined as sufficient because the district teachers are expected to follow the same board-approved curriculum, and the responses could be generalized as a reflective sample across the district. Document analysis was necessary for triangulation because it contained the sources of various pieces of data and evidence of existing organizational assumed influences. The documents reviewed included district board policies, the professional development calendar, CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 111 professional development agendas, and student performance data. The documents provided written documentation of district initiatives, priorities, and accepted policies. All survey and interview questions were produced and conveyed in English, though one interviewee indicated that English is not her first language. Documents used for the analysis were printed or written in English. Instrumentation An innovative model gap analysis was utilized for outlining the knowledge, motivation, and organizational variables that contribute to an existing gap in performance (Clark & Estes, 2008. To generate a comprehensive gap analysis for a single stakeholder group, the study was a case study analysis of one district; however, mixed methods were utilized within the methodology for this study due to the quantitative and qualitative data collected. The instruments used to gather data to investigate the knowledge, motivation, and organization included a quantitative survey to teachers and quantification of classroom pedagogy through the classroom observation tool, qualitative semi-structured interviews with select teachers, and document analysis. The data collected through these various avenues will be used to triangulate for recognition of patterns and validation of the knowledge, motivation, and organization variables. Quantitative surveys. The survey was issued to all teachers in CPHSD who met the department criteria at the three comprehensive schools and one magnet school. The sample size desired for the study included at least two teachers per department at each comprehensive school site. The survey consists of questions related to knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors within the performance gap of attainment of bilingualism and biliteracy. The survey was conveyed to the teachers through an electronic data collection source, Qualtrics, and paper CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 112 surveys distributed through administration at each site. The surveys were provided to maintain anonymity of the user. However, the survey requested identifying demographics information of each participant in order to track the desired minimum contribution per department and school sites. Qualitative interviews and classroom pedagogical tool. The qualitative interviews were conducted through semi-structured open-ended interview questions. This permitted space for improvisation and subsequent questioning when a topic inspired further disclosure or information that would illuminate knowledge, motivation, and organizational variables impacting the performance gap. When clarification was needed, interviewer could ask a clarifying question. Because classroom observations could not be conducted, the information from the interviews was utilized to complete a classroom observation protocol with identifying information about dual language instruction and culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy. One protocol was completed for each of the seven interviews in the areas of English, mathematics, science, social science, special education, and world language from the district comprehensive and magnet secondary sites. Data collected through the classroom pedagogical protocol included teacher activities and instruction relevant to culturally relevant pedagogy through academic achievement, cultural competence, sociopolitical consciousness, and relevance to bilingualism through use of more than one language during instruction. Document analysis. Document analysis was conducted upon Board of Education policies (BP), professional development calendar and agendas, and student performance data. The document analysis enabled understanding of the planning, professional development, and CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 113 actual student performance. The data obtained through document analysis was triangulated with the other sources of data collected. Performance data was collected from AP World Language scores, CAASPP English scores, CELDT and ELPAC results, and seal of biliteracy attainment. Professional development agendas were reviewed for English, mathematics, science, social science, special education, world language, and visual and performing arts. Document analysis included review of board policies, which included curriculum development and design (BP 6141), selection and evaluation of instructional materials (BP 6161.1), courses of study (BP 6143), education for ELLs (BP 6174), multicultural education (6141.6), and international exchange (6145.6). Validation of the Influences The assumed influences mentioned above underwent further primary data collection using surveys, interviews, observations, and document analysis to make conclusive decisions about their validation. The assumed root causes influencing the organization’s ability to meet the teacher’s goal were imperative to the validation process. Important elements in the validation process included teachers’ knowledge about bilingualism and biliteracy, knowledge about culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy, and knowledge of dual language acquisition and how each of these elements are implemented within core content areas. Deciding to deliver lessons that are culturally relevant and sustaining reciprocally influenced curriculum and instruction and delivery of dual language instruction despite limited bilingual capacity of the teachers. The influences were validated, partially validated, or not validated based on the findings through triangulation of qualitative and quantitative data. As an innovation study, the validated influences will require innovative recommendations CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 114 Motivation assumed root causes influencing the organization’s ability to meet teacher’s goal are among the most significant and impactful in the improvement process. Teacher’s belief about and value in bilingualism and biliteracy with target language and student’s heritage language, teacher’s ability to demonstrate confidence to design, deliver, and implement student- led and student-centered lessons that progress students in dual language learning and engage them in culturally relevant and sustaining curriculum, and teacher’s mastery goal-orientation toward alignment of 21 st -century skills within all tasks through the units are the fundamental elements of motivation that were addressed through this study. Organizational assumed root causes influencing the organization’s ability to progress in teacher’s achieving their goal is also instrumental. Elements of organization analyzed for validation included the district and school’s responsibility to provide teachers with the essential tools, resources, and materials relevant to dual language acquisition, culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy, and collective promotion of the seal of biliteracy. It is the responsibility of the organization to develop an infrastructure to provide ongoing professional learning, growth opportunities to develop and sustain dual language acquisition and pedagogy that is culturally relevant, provide time and space for teachers to collaborate amongst themselves within their content areas, and provide time and space for language teachers to collaborate with core content teachers in physical and biological science, social science, and mathematics, and communication of policies and procedures that support completion of the seal of biliteracy. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 115 Table 6 Assumed Causes and Validation Methods for Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization (Ambrose et al., 2010; Rueda, 2011) Assumed Causes and Influences Survey Interview Document Analysis Knowledge Teachers need to understand what bilingualism and biliteracy is. (F) X Teachers need to know what culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy is. (F) X X Teachers need to understand how to include students’ primary and target languages into core content area instruction. (C) X X X Teachers need to understand how culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy influences curriculum and instruction. (C) X X X Teachers need to deliver best instructional practices through student- led and student-centered pedagogy that elicits native and target languages. (P) X X Teachers need to demonstrate an ability to plan and deliver lessons in their content area that are inclusive of culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy. (P) X X X Teachers need to reflect on lesson and unit development and how students are progressing in two or more languages. (M) X X Teachers need to reflect on how the curriculum and pedagogy is culturally relevant. (M) X Motivation Teachers need to believe that bilingualism and biliteracy is an asset for students’ cognitive development and academic achievement. (B) X X CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 116 Table 6, continued Assumed Causes and Influences Survey Interview Document Analysis Motivation Teachers need to value students’ heritage languages and cultures in order to incorporate them into student-led instruction. (V) X X Teachers need to demonstrate confidence and self-efficacy in planning and facilitating dual language instruction and culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy within their content area. (SE) X X Teachers need to align their instructional goals with the organizational goal and 21 st century standards, which includes dual language learning and culturally relevant pedagogy. (GO) X X Organization Schools need to provide teachers with instructional materials and curricula in all content areas that support dual language learning and culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy. (R) X X Schools need to embrace and support all teachers in progressing toward the LCAP goals and organizational mission. (CM) X X X Schools need to celebrate growth in dual language acquisition. (CM) X X Schools need to provide teachers with professional learning and growth opportunities and collaborative time within each content area. (CS) X X X Schools need to provide language teachers and core content area teachers (science, social science, and mathematics) time and space to collaborate. (CS) X X X Schools need to provide teachers with ongoing professional development in dual language instruction and culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy. (T) X X X CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 117 Table 6, continued Assumed Causes and Influences Survey Interview Document Analysis Organization Schools need to commit to providing a range of tools for teachers to achieve the standards for meeting their stakeholder goal and the organizational mission. (T) X X Schools need to communicate policies and procedures for scheduling student 4- year plans to ensure maximum completion of State Seal of Biliteracy requirements. (PP) X X (R) Resources; (CM) Cultural Models; (CS) Cultural Settings; (T) Training; (PP) Policies and Procedures Trustworthiness of the Data To secure valid results from this methodology, the use of triangulated data was instituted. Data was collected from teacher surveys, teacher interviews with classroom observations tool data collection revealing pedagogical practices, and document analysis of relevant prior data and district planning. The district was provided with transparent instructions about the progression of the data collection process and about how the data would be analyzed. Teachers were coded and provided pseudonyms to secure anonymity for survey completion and interviews. Survey data was collected on a secure data entry system, Qualtrics, which requires principal investigator to login securely and enables for the anonymous data collection. District documents were encoded with pseudonyms to secure the confidentiality of the district data and documentation. Whenever data provided apparent revelation of the district, it was omitted or edited to secure the confidentiality. Most document analysis material was open access data that could be retrieved by the public through the department of education or open statistics websites. The data was securely stored on a password-protected computer within a password-protected data collection online system that does not record login information. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 118 Role of the Investigator As investigator in this study, the role of was one of school site administrator at one of the district comprehensive high schools. With permission granted by the Assistant Superintendent of Educational Services and the Assistant Superintendent of Human Resources of the CPHSD, this study was approved to help provide the district with an analysis of the data surrounding the district LCAP goal pertaining to the California SSB. The district agreed to the investigation which was designed to illuminate requisite steps to improve student outcomes in the realm of bilingualism and biliteracy district-wide. The validated knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences contributing to the gap can be used by administration throughout the district to inform their district priorities, which is why participants throughout the organization who participated in the study through surveys and interviews will remain anonymous and their individual responses confidential. Each survey participant was assigned a code when their data was captured. Each interview participant was assigned a pseudonym. Participants were informed that their contribution through interview and survey was invaluable but voluntary. For survey collection, the principal investigator used the encoded Qualtrics data collection system to maintain anonymity; however, to ensure more participants, paper surveys were distributed to each school site for distribution. To secure anonymity in the paper copies, names were not requested, and surveys were turned into the office manager or principal’s secretary. Surveys were then collected by the principal investigator. For interviews, the investigator met with teachers in person. Because their identity was revealed explicitly, they were assigned pseudonyms to secure their identity. The investigator focused mainly on allowing teachers to elaborate, but when they seemed to misunderstand a question or did not provide depth to the question, subsequent and provocative questions were CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 119 enlisted to gain more depth to understanding the teacher’s position. Because investigator is employed as a direct supervisor over teachers with whom the interviews would need to be conducted, a guest interviewer was assigned to conduct the interviews at one of the school sites within the district. However, no teachers at the supervisor’s site agreed to participate in the interview. Data Analysis To proceed with obtaining themes in the validation of knowledge, motivation, and organizational assumed causes, data analysis consisted of several steps. Once survey data were collected, they were prepared within a spreadsheet to analyze. The interviews were transcribed, coded, and analyzed within the knowledge, motivation, and organization categories of assumed influences. Survey and interview questions were aggregated by category of knowledge, motivation, and organization; therefore, knowledge, motivation, and organization questions within the surveys and interviews will be cross-checked for accuracy, consistency, and themes. The teacher survey and interview data, classroom observation tool pedagogical findings, and document analysis data were consolidated into several Excel spreadsheets to organize the process for validating the assumed causes. On a separate tab within the Excel spreadsheet, each assumed cause was reviewed against the results of the data to deduce whether each assumed influence was validated, partially validated, or not validated as a pungent reason for the organizational gap. Limitations and Delimitations of the Study Each research study is limited by externalities and internalities outside of the control of time, space, resources, and access of the researcher. This section will outline some of the expected limitations and delimitations incurred throughout this study’s methodology. Efforts were made to minimize limitations and increase the validity of results so that the findings can be CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 120 generalized and used to make sustainable organizational change in support of building an infrastructure for gaining bilingualism and biliteracy through earning the California SSB. Limitations One limitation engendered in this study existed in the form of incomplete data collection. The sample size was created due to the constraints of time and availability of participants and the investigator. Ideally, to develop an accurate view of the teachers’ KMO landscape, all teachers would have completed the survey and interview; however, only one teacher per department district-wide was expected to participate in the interviews, while all were invited to participate in the survey. Additionally, teachers who may have significant experience, knowledge, or expertise about the topics may not have completed the survey or volunteered to participate in the interview, while those teachers less familiar or comfortable with the topics may have been reluctant to respond. Additionally, during surveys and interviews, participants may have experienced social desirability bias, wherein participants responded how they believe they should have responded. However, the questions were selected and phrased in such as manner to try to minimize that as much as possible. Though teacher observations were desired and would have been beneficial in affirming teachers’ expressed ideas about bilingualism and culturally relevant pedagogy, the practicality of time and availability of the investigator and participants was a realistic constraint. Another limitation of this study includes the documents utilized in the document analysis. Data that is finally reported is often 2 or more years old, so it is not reflective of what is occurring directly in the classroom within the current school year. Therefore, when triangulating the data with classroom observations, the outcomes may not reflect any shifts, changes, or revisions to the curriculum that occurred in the past year or two. Therefore, the range of time CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 121 between the current data, current LCAP plan, and current student cohort are always in flex within 1 to 4 years of alignment. It will also not reflect the professional development in which teachers have engaged throughout the past year or two; however, that is why professional development schedules, agendas, and minutes will be reviewed. Another limitation of this study included the lack of research on secondary bilingual models in schools within the United States, and particularly in California. Though California possesses the majority of dual language programs in the United States, they are primarily instructed throughout kindergarten through eighth grade. European nations have undergone more research since the initiation of their EU expectation of one plus two language policy. Because this study is an innovation study that juxtaposes bilingualism and biliteracy with culturally relevant pedagogy with teachers who are not proficient in two languages, the research covering these topics is not comprehensive. Additionally, the California SSB was originated in 2011 as the first state to permit students to earn a seal demonstrating their bilingual proficiency, there is minimal but growing research about the validity of the seal as a language marker and sufficient measure of bilingualism and biliteracy. Other limitations include self-reporting data, which may impinge on comprehensive recollection of historical information; external variables over which the organization does not have any influence, such as university and college pre-service teacher preparation programs. Delimitations Teachers were selected as the primary stakeholder group because they possess the potential for greatest impact on the organization’s ability to impact knowledge, motivation, and organizational assumed root causes which lead to closing of the gap between present and desired performance on the seal of biliteracy. Site and district administrators are considered as the CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 122 stakeholders with the potential for greatest impact on the organizational goals; however, there are limitations to their ability to impact instruction, pedagogy, curriculum planning, and language interaction with students directly. Parents may be considered as stakeholders of focus; however, parents would have been more difficult to access and measure because they vary each year and do not have a direct impact on the value-added instruction, pedagogy, and academic language that aligns with the curriculum. Parents have a tremendous influence on their children’s language development, but it would be much more difficult to determine which parents to select and obtain feedback and results from parents on the surveys. All stakeholder groups should have an interest in the findings of the study. However, unless delivered directly to them in a variety of forms of media, parents will not know about the research study. Site and district administrators will likely have the most interest in the results of the study because they directly instruct and support teachers and develop the school site and LCAPs, which each outline the district goals and priorities in alignment with the eight state priorities and five overarching local control goals. Because the organizational performance goal came directly from the LCAP plan that was developed from the input of all stakeholders, it should be apparent that the stakeholders found it to be a priority to increase the number of students who become fluent in two or more languages. Finally, students are the stakeholder group with the most invested in the goal, but they are mostly dependent upon the actions and decisions of those who control the funds, resources, curriculum and materials, and instructional delivery. The limitations, though present, should not impact the gap analysis process to reveal validated assumed root causes that impact the organization in making progress on the organizational goals. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 123 CHAPTER FOUR: DATA RESULTS AND ANALYSIS The gap analysis framework was applied to the study to systematically validate or invalidate the assumed influences, of which were determined from literature review on the topics, learning and behavioral theories, and professional knowledge about the environment of curriculum and pedagogy at secondary schools. Given that the overall purpose of this study was to extrapolate the present performance in knowledge, motivation, and organization for promoting bilingualism and biliteracy through a student-led culturally relevant pedagogy, validation of the assumed influences will be assessed in this chapter. Chapter Four presents the findings and analysis of the data that was quantitatively and qualitatively collected through online and paper surveys to teachers, interviews of content area teachers, and document analyses. Key findings from the data are analyzed and synthesized according to the assumed influences. In this chapter, the objective to validate the assumed influences in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organization will be evident in each of the subsequent subheadings. Participating Stakeholders Teachers invited to participate in the surveys were all those currently in teaching positions within English, math, science, social science, visual and performing arts, special education, and world language at four comprehensive high schools, one of which is a magnet school. The overall quantity of surveys distributed was 260. Forty-two completed surveys were submitted, and among them, one or two teachers left one or several questions blank. There were two additional incomplete surveys whose incomplete results were discarded from the study altogether. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 124 Interviewees were selected through random stratified sampling, and ultimately there were seven participants, one from each department, including English, math, science, social science, visual and performing arts, special education, and world language. Chapter Four contains pseudonyms for all interview participants to protect their identity. Interview participants included Sofia, Trischa, Jessica, Nikola, Simon, Elise, and Ray, and whose pseudonyms will be named in association with their quoted contribution. For math, the first randomly selected teacher agreed to participate. For special education, the third invitee agreed to participate. For visual and performing arts, the fourth invitee agreed to participate. For world language, the eighth invitee agreed to participate. For English and social science, the eleventh invitee agreed to participate for each, while for social science, an administrator was contacted to help expedite selecting a participant due to lack of responses. For science, after eight invitations were sent, an administrator was contacted to help facilitate a willing participant. Among interview participants, Indium High School was not represented in any department. For document analysis, some documents were obtained through public access on the GamutOnline.net board policy page for the district, while professional development documents were requested and obtained through the district director of professional learning. Student achievement assessment scores were publicly available for CAASPP and CELDT for the previous 3 years, while AP scores were requested and provided from the district director of assessment and accountability. Data Collection and Validity In pursuit of answering the research questions, data was collected in the form of teacher surveys for quantitative results, teacher interviews for qualitative results, which included a CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 125 pedagogy protocol for quantifying positive responses for dual language learning and culturally relevant pedagogy, and document analysis for evidence of the assumed influences. The research questions to be answered were threefold: 1. What is the teachers’ knowledge and motivation related to promoting bilingualism and biliteracy through culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy and student- centered dual language instruction to improve proficiency in two or more languages? 2. What is the interaction between the organizational culture and context and teachers’ knowledge and motivation? 3. What are the recommended knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational solutions needed to accomplish the goal of promoting bilingualism and biliteracy through culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy and student-centered dual language instruction to improve proficiency in two or more languages? Demographic data were collected on the survey participants, and the results are displayed in Figure 5. There was balanced participation among secondary school sites, teaching assignment types, and years of teaching experience. Additional demographic information was obtained regarding language learning in which teachers have engaged formally and informally. Data was reviewed and compared holistically and among subcategories, such as per academic department, number of years of experience teaching, and degree of teacher language proficiency in a language other than English. Longevity is instrumental for illuminating how impactful some of the preparation is within contemporary teacher preparation programs, especially given that new teachers are at the precipice of the change in California language mandates versus teachers who have been engrossed in the previous EO legislation. A critical rationale for identifying teachers’ language CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 126 learning is to extrapolate whether teachers with more extensive language learning themselves invite higher degrees of dual language learning into their classrooms. Table 7 Demographic Information of Survey Respondents Survey Measure Item Total Surveys Completed per Site Percentage of Participants per Site Total Teachers within District Percentage of Overall Participation High School Antimony Indium Titanium Berkellium 13 10 14 5 30.9 23.8 33.3 11.9 84 61 80 31 15.5 16.4 17.5 16.1 Current Teaching Assignment English Math Science Social Science Special Education Visual and Performing Arts World Language 9 9 8 7 6 2 1 21.4 21.4 19.0 16.7 14.3 4.8 2.4 63 43 36 33 38 21 22 14.3 20.1 22.2 21.2 15.8 9.5 4.5 Years Teaching Overall 0-2 3-5 6-8 9-11 12-14 15-17 18-20 21+ 6 6 4 6 7 5 2 6 14.3 14.3 9.5 14.3 16.7 11.9 4.8 14.3 Note: Sample size is 42. According to the demographic information listed above, the number of world language and visual and performing arts teachers is low compared to the other departments. As world language teachers, curriculum and instruction surrounding imperatives of second language acquisition and culture are paramount, so the imbalance in input may be skewed. However, inferences about the participation and lack of participation of teachers is speculative and is not critical to the validity of the existing data. Additionally, English teachers at Del Lago Academy CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 127 jointly teach social science as Humanities teachers. They are not double counted in the results. The existing data is a sufficient sample to draw conclusions representative of the district. Figure 5. Languages teachers learned. French, Spanish, German, Mandarin Chinese, and Japanese are AP and SAT-II Subject Exams; Italian is an SAT-II Subject Exam; Arabic, Russian, Tagalog, and Portuguese are not exam languages, but there are students in the district who speak these languages. Teachers who engaged in the survey are predominantly native English speakers with 76.2% (32 of 42) having some level of Spanish proficiency, which is the predominant second home language in the community besides English. French is the next most populous language spoken among teachers at 23.8% of teachers indicating some level of proficiency. German and Mandarin Chinese each had a small number of teachers having proficiency at 14.2% and 7.1%, Beginner Conversationa l Beginner Intermediate Intermediate Intermediate Advanced Advanced Native Speaker English 0 0 0 0 4 38 Italian 0 0 0 0 1 0 Japanese 2 0 0 0 0 0 German 2 0 3 1 0 0 Arabic 0 0 0 0 0 0 Russian 2 0 0 0 0 0 Mandarin Chinese 2 0 0 1 0 0 Tagalog 0 0 0 0 0 0 Portuguese 0 1 0 0 0 0 French 4 2 2 0 2 0 Spanish 17 3 4 5 1 2 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Number of Teachers Language Levels of Proficiency (Self-Reported) CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 128 respectively. No teachers have any level of proficiency in Arabic or Tagalog, both languages that are represented by students in the district. Among all teachers, five indicated some level of proficiency in two or more languages in addition to English. Six teachers indicated some proficiency in three or more languages in addition to English. This is important to note because the minimum requirement for language instruction in the EU is the mother tongue plus two additional languages, which that requirement is not equivalent in the United States. As a caveat when considering this data, it is probable that those who have a background with language learning may have been more interested in a survey about language and culture than colleagues who do not have prior language experience or interest. Upon analysis of the means and methods pursued for language acquisition among teachers, high school and college were the predominant pathways for formal language learning. Additional methods of language learning teachers indicated were adult school, special language international institutes, Rosetta Stone, Duolingo, and informal learning through travel, television and movies, colleagues, and family members. Validation of Assumed Influences In the following knowledge, motivation, and organization sections within this innovative study, the validated items are those influences that the teachers demonstrated as a sustained need, in which case they do not already persist in them. Partially validated items demonstrate mixed results . Items that are identified as not validated indicate that the teachers already possess these influences, and they are, therefore, unnecessary to from which to achieve the stakeholder goals. Knowledge and Skills Data analysis of the knowledge items for bilingualism, biliteracy, and culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy will enable a clear path to validation or invalidation of the assumed CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 129 influences of which the organization needs to implement an innovative program for promoting bilingualism and biliteracy through a student-centered culturally relevant pedagogy. Factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge was obtained through surveys and interviews. Factual knowledge about bilingualism and culturally relevant pedagogy and conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge were partially validated among teachers due to mixed results on survey and interview data. Conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge about dual language learning was validated because teachers exhibited an expressed need to develop in order to achieve the organizational mission. Table 8 Validation of Knowledge Assumed Causes or Influences Knowledge Category Assumed Influence Validated Partially Validated Not Validated Factual Teachers need to understand what bilingualism and biliteracy is.  Factual Teachers need to know what culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy is.  Conceptual Teachers need to understand how to include students’ primary and target languages into core content area instruction.  Conceptual Teachers need to understand how culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy influences curriculum and instruction.  Procedural Teachers need to deliver best instructional practices through student-led and student- centered pedagogy that elicits native and target languages.  Procedural Teachers need to demonstrate an ability to plan and deliver lessons in their content area that are inclusive of culturally  CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 130 relevant and sustaining pedagogy. Metacognitive Teachers need to reflect on lesson and unit development and how students are progressing in two or more languages.  Metacognitive Teachers need to reflect on how the curriculum and pedagogy are culturally relevant.  Factual Knowledge Having a solid understanding of bilingualism, biliteracy, and culturally relevant pedagogy is imperative for being able to progress in the implementation of pedagogy, design and delivery of instruction that is inclusive of high academic achievement, cultural competence, and sociopolitical awareness and the furtherance of proficiency in two or more languages. Table 9 displays the mean scores for questions related to factual information, such as understanding how students earn the seal of biliteracy, what is dual language pedagogy, and what is culturally relevant pedagogy. Table 9 Survey Mean Score Results: Factual Knowledge: Factual Mean Score (0-3) I know methods for students to earn the California State Seal of Biliteracy. 0.79 I know what dual language acquisition pedagogy is. 1.05 I know what culturally relevant or sustaining pedagogy is. 1.45 Teachers need to understand what bilingualism and biliteracy is. This influence is validated. The survey results indicate that a small number of teachers are familiar with dual language acquisition pedagogy and how students can earn the SSB. Table 4 displays the mean score for teachers understanding methods for earning the seal is 0.79, while dual language CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 131 acquisition pedagogy understanding merited a mean score of 1.05. As unaware as teachers reported themselves to be about the seal, they indicated a higher awareness, although still at novice levels, of understanding bilingualism and biliteracy. The interviews projected a keen understanding among teachers regarding their knowledge of strategies for developing the English language ability of English learners. All teachers referenced some historical training for supporting English learners. One example was when Trischa described, “A few years ago there was a real focus on professional development through the district that focused on ELLs, vocabulary development.” Three teachers explicitly stated the authorization under their credential that they earned, such as the CLAD or BCLAD: Nikola, “The only training I had was my BCLAD.” Trischa, “I did my CLAD when I did my [credential] training.” Elise, “I almost got a BCLAD.” However, no teacher indicated how bilingualism is promoted within the core curriculum for all students regardless of primary language. Two teachers described the importance of and their pedagogies for developing higher levels of literacy, which can be attained through higher level vocabulary and context and demonstrated through complex writing. It should be expressed that among teachers participating in the interviews, three directly teach classes that include newcomer English learners as a significant portion of the classes or as the entire class. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 132 Figure 6. Teacher understanding of bilingualism and biliteracy. This influence is validated because the knowledge of the seal of biliteracy is still unknown and dual language pedagogy knowledge at the secondary level is relatively low. Teachers who exhibited a greater understanding of bilingualism provide instruction to newcomer English learners. Therefore, this influence will need to be further supported. Teachers need to know what culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy is. This influence is partially validated. Definitively, culturally relevant pedagogy was viewed through the lens of academic achievement, cultural competence, and sociopolitical awareness. Teachers demonstrated through self-reported surveys mixed results ranging from no understanding to extremely solid understanding, wherein the majority of participants expressed understanding somewhat to well. The mean score on the surveys factual understanding of culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy is 1.45. Interviews enabled teachers to provide more explicit descriptions of culturally relevant pedagogy. No teacher blatantly described culturally relevant pedagogy as possessing the three-prong philosophy of academic achievement, cultural competence, and sociopolitical awareness. All teachers identified the importance of maintaining 18 17 5 2 9 23 9 1 NOT AT ALL SOMEWHAT WELL EXTREMELY WELL Number of Teachers Factual - I know methods for students to earn the California State Seal of Biliteracy Factual - I know what dual language acquisition pedagogy is CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 133 high expectations and pursuing academic achievement for all students through the analysis of data and scaffolding or differentiating of instruction, this regardless of their socioeconomic or ethnic background, with some minor exceptions extrapolated from the interview data. Two teachers described barriers for student achievement, such as issues at home, lack of access to resources, or inability to grasp concepts sufficiently, while the remainder of teachers described district and site organizational barriers, but not students’ inability to achieve. Regarding cultural competence, every teacher identified at least a minimum commentary about how understanding student cultures and backgrounds, making connections to them, and building relationships with the students is important. Teachers used terms like, “consider,” “be sensitive to,” be “culturally sensitive to,” be “aware,” and be “socially responsive” when describing how they should engage students of all ethnic and socioeconomic strata. Three teachers pointedly expressed how they have adjusted their curriculum, resources, and pedagogy to include the represented ethnicities of their students, such as through artists or authors with varying backgrounds aside from the dominant European heritage. Figure 7. Teacher understanding of culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy. Two teachers acknowledged the sociopolitical nature of how the curriculum and instruction should provoke students to engage civically and attend to their agency within an ability to impact the world. Ray emphasized that the student’s position and agency matter, which are critical to the sociopolitical arm of culturally relevant pedagogy in that, “They’re CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 134 becoming invested in something that clearly affects them…but then understanding how that impacts them personally and being able to express that in the form of an argument.” The influence was partially validated because though some teachers present nascent to intermediate knowledge of culturally relevant pedagogy, it is still inconsistent across all content areas. This partial validation will not result in direct intervention. Conceptual Knowledge Conceptual understanding of dual language learning and culturally relevant pedagogy are essential for teachers to be able to procedurally implement curriculum and instruction for supporting dual language learning through a culturally relevant pedagogy. Teachers expressed the arduous nature of incorporating dual language into their core instruction for various reasons, which may include lack of training, lack of language ability, and materials that are not inclusive of embedded supports. Additionally, only one school site referenced a school-wide training about culturally sensitive instruction, but other sites spoke from places of prior experience or pedagogical training regarding engaging students more generally. Conceptual knowledge about dual language learning was validated, while conceptual knowledge about culturally relevant pedagogy was partially validated. Dual language learning will need intervention, but culturally relevant pedagogy will not require intervention for this study. Table 10 Survey Mean Score Results: Conceptual Knowledge: Conceptual Mean Score (0-3) My curriculum and materials address dual language learning. 0.83 My curriculum and materials address culturally relevant pedagogy. 1.09 Teachers need to understand how to include students’ primary and target languages into core content area instruction. This influence was validated. Teachers self-reported below CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 135 average understanding in dual language acquisition models and their implications for their content area with a mean of 0.83. Over 75% of surveyed teachers indicated that they have somewhat to no knowledge of dual language acquisition. Except for the world language teacher, no teachers overtly described how they incorporate etymology, other language learning, or direct comparisons among language or origin within content. However, every teacher interviewed described a need for explicit vocabulary instruction when building language in English, especially for ELLs. Trischa described, “…Ensuring that vocabulary, for example, academic specific vocabulary, content specific vocabulary is actively taught rather than just the assumption that the students will absorb the meaning.” Sofia echoed, “It’s a lot of explicit vocabulary…making sure they have time to write and then you talk about stuff.” Elise said, You add a lot of vocabulary, and then you teach them to use it, to apply it…You have to read higher level texts, academic texts, and literature. That is the only way to increase your vocabulary and to increase the sophistication of your language. Ray provided the same sentiment in is description of incorporating vocabulary, “Speaking-wise and writing-wise, it’s the vocabularic knowledge is not where it needs to be,” so he encouraged the student to look up the word in context and use it similarly, “Getting practice with the language […] putting it in context.” CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 136 Figure 8. Dual language acquisition in core content areas. The nearly 25% of surveyed teachers who indicated that their curriculum and materials address dual language learning was not equally met in the interview data. Only those teachers who directly work with clusters of English learners referenced the inclusion of dual languages, and that was English and Spanish. Nikola and Sofia described the difficulties of addressing languages other than English, while Jessica voiced that she was able to employ her own multilingual language skills with parents. Given that California only recently passed the Proposition 58 in 2017, teachers did not reference proactively instructing in a language other than English because it was previously contrary to California legislation. Jessica inferenced the previous Proposition 227, which required teachers to instruct in EO. Other teachers described their efforts at supporting English learners in the mainstream classrooms, but they did not describe dual language pedagogy or instruction. The Board of Education documents explicitly described the requisite ELD instruction and specially designed academic instruction in English (SDAIE) in AR 4112.22 in accordance with Education Code 44253.2. The influence was validated because teachers are not yet aware or educated on how to incorporate dual language learning into their content areas across all schools. Therefore, the 16 18 7 1 13 20 7 2 NOT AT ALL SOMEWHAT WELL EXTREMELY WELL Number of Teachers Conceptual - My curriculum and materials address dual language learning Procedural - I know how to plan lessons and units incorporating dual languages CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 137 influences will require intervention to progress toward the organizational goals. This influence was expected to be not validated because it was known that the district did not have a coordinated plan for promoting bilingualism systematically. For those that self-reported they could incorporate dual languages well or extremely well, it would require further investigation because interview responses spoke mostly to the strategies employed with English learners. Teachers need to understand how culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy influences curriculum and instruction. This influence was partially validated. Teachers self- reported low average understanding for how culturally relevant pedagogy influences curriculum and instruction with a mean of 1.09, most respondents indicating they understand somewhat. More than half of survey respondents purported to have somewhat of an understanding of culturally relevant pedagogy. Through interviews, teachers gave life to the scope of their understanding of culturally relevant pedagogy, referencing such notions as academic achievement, cultural competence and sensitivity from teachers, and the imminent changed nature of a teacher in the presence of his or her students depending on what they need. Teachers did not use terms like cultural competence and sociopolitical awareness, but their sentiment was exemplified through their circumstantial anecdotes and descriptions, which will be quantified more in the subsequent procedural section. 7 23 11 1 4 21 15 2 NOT AT ALL SOMEWHAT WELL EXTREMELY WELL Number of Teachers Conceptual - My curriculum and materials address culturally relevant instructional materials Conceptual - I know how to plan lessons and units incorporating culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 138 Figure 9. Cultural relevant pedagogy influences curriculum and instruction. Survey responses indicated that teachers appeared to have more difficulty understanding how knowledge about culture translates into curriculum and pedagogical shifts. Almost 75% of teachers said their materials did not or only somewhat address cultural relevance, but they have a slightly higher degree of conceptual knowledge about how to plan lessons that incorporate cultural relevance. Exemplars for promoting a shift toward pedagogy that is culturally relevant, Simon commented, “I don’t differentiate my tactics or my classroom, I’m a different person,” which highlights the notion of teacher as pedagogue described in Ladson-Billings’ work around culturally relevant pedagogy. Simon also commented, “You’re really changing every aspect of what you do,” when describing how he does not simply employ different strategies or tactics to produce outcomes for students. He and two other teachers described how they shift who they are to meet the needs of their students, wherein Ray expressly divulged that, “It’s all about differentiation and making sure that you’re teaching to the kid, not teaching to the class.” Board policy indicates, It is the job of schools to preserve and perpetuate our common pluralistic culture and to accurately reflect the contributions of all ethnic groups to the common culture” (BP 6141.6). Furthermore, in the same section of board policy, the district advises that students must learn to respect and cooperate with people from all backgrounds, “recognizing that we all have equal claim to the American culture which we have collectively created and which we share. (BP 6141.6) This influence was partially validated because culturally relevant pedagogy is not yet pervasive and thoroughly understood, especially as it relates to promoting bilingualism and biliteracy, despite the anecdotes from several interviewees. Though the Governing Board has CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 139 generated some explicit language around the inclusion of all cultures and beliefs, the expression of teacher’s conceptual knowledge in this area was mixed. This influence will not be addressed in the interventions, but it can be implicitly threaded throughout the other interventions. Procedural Knowledge The ability for teachers to implement or facilitate instruction that supports learning in two or more languages and that is culturally relevant was measured by how teachers responded to survey questions about lesson planning and delivery and interview questions about language and culturally relevant pedagogy. The quantitative responses are displayed in the subsequent tables and figures, while the qualitative responses accompany the claims associated with the quantitative data. The procedural knowledge about dual language learning was validated, while the procedural knowledge about culturally relevant pedagogy was partially validated. Table 11 Survey Mean Score Results: Procedural Knowledge: Procedural Mean Score (0-3) I know how to plan lessons and units incorporating dual language learning. 0.95 I know how to deliver and facilitate student-led and student-centered dual language experiences. 0.88 I know how to plan lessons and units incorporating culturally relevant pedagogy. 1.36 Teachers need to deliver best instructional practices through student-led and student-centered pedagogy that elicits native and target languages. This influence was validated. Evidence through the surveys indicates that most teachers have below average knowledge about how to plan lessons that incorporate dual language learning or student-led and student-facilitated dual language learning. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 140 Board policy 6141.6 describes, “Instruction should help students realize the value of individual differences as well as the human dignity and worth common to all people.” As explicit as the board policy is about the intention of promoting equity and value of differences, it is unclear the pathway to enhancing teaching and learning to facilitate this with fidelity. Described in the board policies are definitions of models for English learners, such as English language classroom, English mainstream classroom, sheltered English immersion, and bilingual education/native language instruction. Bilingual or native language instruction, “means a language acquisition process for students in which much or all instruction, textbooks, and teaching materials are in students’ native language,” (AR 6174). The professional learning calendar and agendas exemplify designated reflection sessions for English and ELD teachers four times per year. The English and ELD teachers are expected to review common assessments and reflect on ways to improve instruction in support of developing the language capacity in reading, writing, speaking, and listening among English learners. Additionally, there is a unique training for mathematics and ELD teachers to collaborate about instruction in mathematics content that incorporates explicit language learning. Worth noting is the absence of language in the board policies around the newly passed legislation of Proposition 58, the Education for a Global Economy Initiative, which is the impetus for districts soliciting input from parents to determine the type and degree to which native and heritage language instruction will be incorporated into instruction. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 141 Figure 10. Student-led and student-centered dual language instruction. The interviews illuminated a lack of understanding of how to incorporate dual language learning into content instruction. Figure 11 shows the mean quantity of interviewees on a binary scale (yes = 1, no = 0) of zero to one who described pedagogy for dual language learning, which was outlined based on a description by Lindholm-Leary (2015). Each item was either evident or not evident in teacher responses to the interview question prompts, “What other factors do you take into consideration when planning lessons?” and “Describe how you approach language instruction within your curriculum.” The following graphics indicate the quantity of teachers interviewed that described these concepts within their responses. Their description of the concept was tallied for an overall mean score per characteristic. 17 15 8 2 NOT AT ALL SOMEWHAT WELL EXTREMELY WELL Number of Teachers Procedural - I know how to deliver and facilitate student-led and student- centered dual language experiences CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 142 Figure 11. Dual language pedagogy (Lindholm-Leary, 2015). Explicit vocabulary instruction was the most frequently noted pedagogical claim given by five of the seven interviewees. Four teachers indicated that students use their native language to negotiate learning English, so they invite students to use their first language to more readily understand the content or facilitate learning English. None of the teachers explained that native English speakers are invited to or requested to use or demonstrate use of their second language. Two of seven teachers indicated that there is a balance between two languages, one of whom teaches a sheltered English course and one of whom is a world language teacher. This influence was validated because most teachers responded that they do not provide student-led or student-centered pedagogies and because aside from explicit vocabulary instruction and elicitation of native languages of English learners, teachers still need systematic training on this type of instructional transformation to promote bilingualism and biliteracy. The validation of this influence will require intervention to address the need. Teachers need to demonstrate an ability to plan and deliver lessons in their content area that are inclusive of culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy. This influence was 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 EXPLICIT VOCABULARY INSTRUCTION STUDENTS USE NATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHER FACILITATES OR INVITES STUDENTS TO INTRODUCE NATIVE OR HERITAGE LANGUAGE ETYMOLOGY EXPLICITLY TAUGHT CURRICULUM AND MATERIALS PROVIDED IN ENGLISH AND ANOTHER LANGUAGE(S) THERE IS BALANCED EQUITY BETWEEN LANGUAGES USED FOR INSTRUCTION Mean Dual Language Acquisition CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 143 partially validated. Teachers were not given a definition of culturally relevant pedagogy yet self- reported that they have an ability to deliver content in a culturally relevant way somewhat or well with a mean of 1.36 (Table 11). Figure 12. Planning and delivering culturally relevant pedagogy. According to Powell (2014), culturally relevant pedagogy consists or three prongs: Academic achievement, cultural competence, and sociopolitical awareness. Powell delineates more specific detail for each of the three prongs, which is described in the y-axis of the following figures. Data from the interviews was quantified, such that those teachers who referenced academic achievement, cultural competence, or sociopolitical awareness within their instruction implicitly or explicitly were given a value of one. The tallies of teachers responding positively provided a mean score per sub-component of each of the three prongs. Figure 13. Culturally relevant pedagogy: Academic achievement. 4 21 15 2 NOT AT ALL SOMEWHAT WELL EXTREMELY WELL Number of Teachers Procedural - I know how to plan lessons and units incorporating culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 ACADEMIC LANGUAGE USED IN INSTRUCTION ACADEMIC LANGUAGE EXPLICITLY TAUGHT STUDENT-LED INSTRUCTION USED STUDENT COLLABORATION USED Mean Academic Achievement CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 144 The academic achievement index indicates a unique need in developing student-led instruction, especially for developing and promoting language acquisition in two or more languages. The pervasive high expectations for student academic achievement were endemic to each content area and school site. Student collaboration was utilized in all content areas. Academic language usage in instruction was evident, as each teacher described how their content area vocabulary was important for student comprehension and knowledge acquisition, but all but one teacher described explicit academic vocabulary instruction. None of the teachers portrayed that the explicitly taught academic language was in a language other than English. Figure 14. Culturally relevant pedagogy: Cultural competence. Similar to the low prevalence of student-led instruction in the academic achievement section, teachers did not give responses that indicated that there was consistent sharing of classroom control with students. Teachers often described how they plan, improvise, or deliver the lessons, but there was little mention of student choice and initiative except for two of seven teachers. All teachers referenced how they contextualize their content area to students’ background or prior understanding or their cultural or ethnic heritage. As an example, Sofia described how she folder into the community culture, 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 CULTURAL REFERENCES OF STUDENTS REPRESENTED CONTENT CONTEXTUALIZED TO STUDENTS TEACHER SHARED CONTROL OF THE CLASSROOM WITH STUDENTS Mean Cultural Competence CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 145 I was invited to quinceañeras. I was invited to funerals and got to experience the culture in a completely different way…All those little things they won’t tell you exactly what’s happening, but you can figure it out if you’re paying attention.” All teachers acknowledged that teachers must consider the backgrounds of all the students when planning instruction. Ray expressed that the authors of most of the literature presented in class is from the perspective that does not match the dominant ethnicity of the students, but he makes intentional effort to allow students to choose texts that they might find relevant. Jessica declared that she previously used a resource that was from the perspective of someone who is older and not ethnically related to the students, “[The students were like] it’s a bunch of boring white people talking to the camera.” Figure 15. Culturally relevant pedagogy: Sociopolitical awareness. Sociopolitical awareness promotes engagement in explicit instruction or discussion about bias, ideology, status quo, and real-world connections. Teachers explicitly or inferentially described lessons that included real-world learning opportunities, but there was minimal mention of explicit teaching of ideology, bias, status quo, or minority culture consistently across all classrooms, indicative in Simon’s comment, “we’ll all be citizens, we’ll all be voters,” and, “I 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 REFERENCES TO ELEVATE STATUS OF MINORITY CULTURE OR LANGUAGE AROUND THE ROOM STUDENTS QUESTION THE STATUS QUO STUDENTS ENGAGE IN REAL-WORLD ACTIVITY TEXTS ARE DECONSTRUCTED REGARDING IDEOLOGIES AND BIASES Mean Sociopolitical Awarness CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 146 know I’m doing a great job in these classes when the kids keep asking [about my political affiliation] because that means it’s not become abundantly clear.” This influence was partially validated because there are significant trenches regarding the incorporation of culturally relevant pedagogy. Teachers were reluctant to describe explicit ways they provide instruction about ideologies and biases or elevate minority languages and cultures. There are mixed results in the areas of student-centered autonomy and facilitation of students’ own learning. This influence will not be addressed in the interventions explicitly, but it will be incorporated implicitly. Metacognitive Knowledge Reflection on pedagogical performance holds sway to improving outcomes for students; therefore, metacognitive influences were included in the assumed causes for validation. Teachers who reflect on dual language acquisition and culturally relevant pedagogy will attune themselves to implementing consistent supportive strategies at greater rates than those who do not. Data results indicate a range of metacognitive pathology related to language and culture. Metacognitive reflection about dual language learning was validated, while metacognitive reflection for culturally relevant pedagogy was partially validated. Table 12 Survey Mean Score Results: Metacognitive Knowledge: Metacognitive Mean Score (0-3) I regularly reflect on improving my teaching practice related to dual language learning. 1.24 I regularly reflect on improving curriculum and instruction that is culturally relevant and sustaining toward building students’ capacities in value-added cultural learning. 1.60 I am conscious of my biases of other ethnicities, languages, and cultures. 2.26 CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 147 Teachers need to reflect on lesson and unit development and how students are progressing in dual languages. This influence was validated. Most teachers indicated that they reflect on how students are progressing in two or more languages somewhat, with an overall mean of 1.24, which is the lowest of that which teachers were asked regarding their metacognitive reflection. Consistent with the questions around dual language acquisition, teachers expressed the least amount of knowledge about dual language learning within their content areas. Teachers are not regularly reflecting on how to improve their instruction to include dual language learning, but several teachers conveyed that they work with their professional learning communities will occasionally talk about how English learners are progressing. All teachers articulated some form of training they received or participated in to support and include English learners, which illuminates why the only references to dual language learning are related to the progress of English learners. Figure 16. Teacher reflection on progressing in dual languages. This influence was validated because there is still a strong cohort of teachers who are unsure how to incorporate dual language learning into the core content, let alone reflection on how instruction in two or more languages is progressing or impacting students. The validation of this influence will require intervention to achieve the organizational goal of attaining greater bilingualism and biliteracy. 7 23 7 5 NOT AT ALL SOMEWHAT WELL EXTREMELY WELL Number of Teachers Metacognitive - I regularly reflect on improving my teaching practice related to dual language learning CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 148 Teachers need to reflect on how the curriculum and pedagogy are culturally relevant. This influence was partially validated. Teachers had a mean score of 1.6 regarding their own reflection on how culturally relevant their pedagogy is reflective of the students. It is elevated as compared to notion of reflecting on dual language learning. The question about teachers’ own perspectives on their awareness of bias proved a much higher mean response at 2.26. Only one teacher indicated that he or she was not at all aware of his or her own biases; however, 80% indicated that they are well or extremely aware of their own biases. Aside from the mention of one training that one school site participated in about culturally responsive teaching, teachers did not mention of any training regarding culturally relevant pedagogy, but they are heavily aware of their own biases of languages and cultures. Figure 17. Teacher reflection on culturally relevant pedagogy. When questioned about reflection on culturally relevant pedagogy, teachers each referenced some notion of professional learning collaboration, but the degree of reference to personal or collective reflection varied. Simon described the culture of students as more than simply their ethnicity, but also their age, socioeconomics, and social groups, while Elise described the culture of students through sports, preferences, and entertainment and described how her class lends to making cross-cultural comparisons. 2 22 9 9 1 7 20 13 NOT AT ALL SOMEWHAT WELL EXTREMELY WELL Number of Teachers Metacognitive - I regularly reflect on improving curriculum and instruction that is culturally relevant and sustaining toward building students' capacities in value-added cultural learning Metacognitive - I am conscious of my biases of other ethnicities, languages, and cultures CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 149 This influence is partially validated because there is a strong cohort of teachers who exhibit strong metacognitive reflections on bias regarding ethnicities, languages, and cultures, but there continues to be a need for reflection of cultural relevance and dual language learning within professional learning. Key Insights Teachers’ knowledge of culturally relevant pedagogy surpasses their understanding of how to include and elicit students’ movement in the furtherance of learning two or more languages. Results indicate a broad opportunity to capitalize on the foundational knowledge teachers exhibit about culturally relevant pedagogy to promote bilingualism and biliteracy. The inability to incorporate non-English languages into core curriculum is residual from Proposition 227 because it was contrary to the law to provide instruction in a language other than English. The methods for furthering other language development concurrently with English is yet to be determined within the new Education for a Global Economy Initiative, otherwise known as Proposition 58. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 150 Figure 18. Knowledge findings summary. 18 9 7 16 7 13 4 17 7 2 1 17 23 14 18 23 20 21 15 23 22 7 5 9 16 7 11 7 15 8 7 9 20 2 1 5 1 1 2 2 2 5 9 13 FACTUAL - I KNOW METHODS FOR STUDENTS TO EARN THE CALIFORNIA STATE SEAL OF BILITERACY FACTUAL - I KNOW WHAT DUAL LANGUAGE ACQUISITION PEDAGOGY IS FACTUAL - I KNOW WHAT CULTURALLY RELEVANT OR SUSTAINING PEDAGOGY IS CONCEPTUAL - MY CURRICULUM AND MATERIALS ADDRESS DUAL LANGUAGE LEARNING CONCEPTUAL - MY CURRICULUM AND MATERIALS ADDRESS CULTURALLY RELEVANT INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS PROCEDURAL - I KNOW HOW TO PLAN LESSONS AND UNITS INCORPORATING DUAL LANGUAGES PROCEDURAL - I KNOW HOW TO PLAN LESSONS AND UNITS INCORPORATING CULTURALLY RELEVANT AND SUSTAINING PEDAGOGY PROCEDURAL - I KNOW HOW TO DELIVER AND FACILITATE STUDENT-LED AND STUDENT-CENTERED DUAL LANGUAGE EXPERIENCES METACOGNITIVE - I REGULARLY REFLECT ON IMPROVING MY TEACHING PRACTICE RELATED TO DUAL LANGUAGE LEARNING METACOGNITIVE - I REGULARLY REFLECT ON IMPROVING CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION THAT IS CULTURALLY RELEVANT AND SUSTAINING TOWARD BUILDING STUDENTS' CAPACITIES IN VALUE-ADDED CULTURAL LEARNING METACOGNITIVE - I AM CONSCIOUS OF MY BIASES OF OTHER ETHNICITIES, LANGUAGES, AND CULTURES Knowledge Not at all Somewhat Well Extremely Well CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 151 Motivation Choice, persistence, and mental effort are the cornerstone to defining motivation, and the more elevated each aspect is, the greater degree of motivation teachers have to accomplish the objectives. Belief and value in bilingualism and biliteracy was heavily present through the surveys, while teachers provided some insight to the sentiment of the beliefs and values through the interviews. Teachers’ beliefs about and values for bilingualism and the incorporation of students’ heritage languages and cultures were not validated because they present with a strong belief and value in heritage languages and cultures. Goal-orientation for mastery was partially validated because of the mixed results leaning toward emphasizing student mastery of 21 st - century skills over performance. Teachers’ self-efficacy toward student-centered culturally relevant pedagogy and dual language learning was validated because teachers demonstrated a need to grow in these areas to meet the organizational goal. Table 13 Validation of Motivation Assumed Causes or Influences Motivation Category Assumed Cause or Influence Validated Partially Validated Not Validated Belief Teachers need to believe that bilingualism and biliteracy is an asset for students’ cognitive development and academic achievement.  Value Teachers need to value students’ heritage languages and cultures in order to incorporate them into student- led instruction.  CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 152 Table 13, continued Motivation Category Assumed Cause or Influence Validated Partially Validated Not Validated Self-Efficacy Teachers need to demonstrate confidence and self-efficacy in planning and facilitating dual language instruction and culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy within their content area.  Goal-Orientation Teachers need to provide instruction that is student- centered for achievement in alignment with 21 st -century standards, which include bilingualism and culturally relevant pedagogy.  Belief for Bilingualism and Culturally Relevant Pedagogy For teachers to be able to support increasing bilingualism among students, they need to believe that bilingualism and biliteracy is an asset for students, such that the primary or heritage language and the target language are important for cognitive development and academic achievement. Teachers displayed the strongest notions of belief in and value for the complexity of developing bilingual and biliterate students, but as will be evidenced throughout the chapter, belief and value are not met with equivalent investment in pedagogy, materials, and training for promoting this throughout the district. Belief was not validated due to strong outcomes from teachers in this area. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 153 Table 14 Survey Mean Score Results: Belief Motivation: Belief Mean Score (0-3) I believe that bilingualism and biliteracy are assets for students' cognitive development and academic achievement. 2.68 I believe bilingualism and biliteracy are a priority for our students. 1.96 I believe that students' native language is an asset for them and should be utilized in learning. 2.60 Teachers need to believe that bilingualism and biliteracy is an asset for students’ cognitive development and academic achievement. This influence was not validated because teachers demonstrate a strong belief in favor of the assets of bilingualism. According to the survey results, 39 of 40 survey respondents believed well or extremely well that bilingualism and biliteracy is an asset for students' achievement. Only 29 of 40, still a significant number, believe that bilingualism is a priority for students. Thirty-eight of 40 teachers believe that a student's native language is an asset for them and should be utilized in learning. No teacher believed that these were not at all valuable for students. Figure 19. Beliefs about bilingualism and biliteracy. 0 1 10 30 1 11 16 13 0 2 15 24 NOT AT ALL SOMEWHAT WELL EXTREMELY WELL Number of Teachers Beliefs - I believe that bilingualism and biliteracy are assets for students' cognitive development and academic achievement Beliefs - I believe bilingualism and biliteracy are a priority for our students Beliefs - I believe that students' native language is an asset for them and should be utilized in learning CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 154 Interviews revealed a mixed perspective about the belief teachers have regarding the importance and contribution bilingualism can have toward cognitive and academic achievement. All teachers made some mention that they want students to do well and achieve, and none of the teachers indicated that learning two or more languages will present any harm to students or their future opportunities. As evidence of teacher beliefs about students’ individual growth and added value of bilingualism, Elise presumed that, When we don’t understand other cultures, we make assumptions and prejudices come out and we stay ignorant…There’s a world out there beyond their close-mindedness…You need to challenge your comfort zone…It’s like living in two dimensions versus three…for a lot of students it takes pushing and pulling for them to get to a point where they [are] more open-minded. Nikola explicitly described how learning two languages is imperative in the current marketplace. Sofia was quick to describe the added richness that other languages and cultures can bring to the classroom, especially given how closely students’ social emotional lives are intermingled with their identities. All teachers frequently referenced English learners when discussing language acquisition, suggesting that supporting them to learn English was a requisite task for them. However, none of the teachers expressed that they could support all students to further their bilingual abilities, even if native English-speaking students were taking world language courses. Ray expressed the complexity of language as he referenced an example of how students in his class discuss language through ancient texts. Through the discussion, he described how anachronistic the English language can be, how it has evolved, and how it varies regionally. He indicated that this is relevant regardless of what the primary language of the student is. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 155 Elise posed a belief that some students may not be suited toward language learning, suggesting that “not every student is a language person, and you start thinking maybe they don't have the mental hardware,” while Nikola described how challenging having multiple languages in a class can be for a teacher, stating, “having such a huge diversity in one classroom is beyond normal differentiation.” These two comments were anomalous compared to all other qualitative and quantitative data, and although they don’t discredit the belief that all students can achieve bilingualism and biliteracy, they shed different light on the complexity of language acquisition. This influence was not validated because there was an overwhelming strength in belief about students learning two or more languages and the benefits bilingualism presents; therefore, there will not be interventions for this influence. The notion that bilingualism is a priority remains average, which may be impacted by district priorities, but teacher beliefs about their belief in the value of culture and language remains elevated. Value of Bilingualism and Biliteracy For the objectives to be accomplished in promoting bilingualism and biliteracy through a culturally relevant pedagogy, teachers must value these notions, which will increase their motivation to fulfill and facilitate students’ achievement in this realm. Teachers exhibited an above average to high degree of value for students’ native languages and heritage cultures through surveys. Interviews reflected an inclusive practice and recognition of the value of students’ primary language and culture with few exceptions. Therefore, the values in native and heritage languages as assets for learning were not validated. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 156 Table 15 Survey Mean Score Results: Value Motivation: Value Mean Score (0-3) Students' native language is an asset for them and should be utilized in learning. 2.60 Teachers need to value students’ heritage languages and cultures in order to incorporate them into student-led instruction. 2.44 Teachers need to value students’ heritage languages and cultures in order to incorporate them into student-led instruction. This influence was not validated. Value and belief play a critical role in motivation because they construct the foundational infrastructure to withstand swaying ideas. Through survey responses, teachers reflected a high degree of value on the accompanying languages and cultures of students. The survey results indicate above average results for valuing students’ native language and culture. Throughout the interviews, teachers made sporadic reference to the incorporation of the first language of students to build biliteracy. However, only two teachers made an explicit comment about the value the first language in learning. Elise described how directions and jokes may need to be delivered in the students’ first language so they can thoroughly and meaningfully grasp the concepts. Sofia described her way of incorporating students’ first languages, “Last year, we had vocab sheets that had Spanish, Guatemalan…Arabic, and…not Russian…Ukranian. It’s hard, it’s easy, it’s good.” CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 157 Figure 20. Teachers value language and culture. This influence was not validated because though there were an overwhelming majority who responded well and extremely well about the value of the native language and culture. The district does not need intervention in this area. Comments skewed away from a notion of value were generally teased out as more reflective of teacher self-efficacy with language and culture rather than a lack of value in it. Teacher Self-Efficacy Teachers must have confidence in their ability to plan, implement, deliver, and adjust curriculum and pedagogy that promotes bilingualism, biliteracy, and culturally relevant pedagogy. Described in this section is the teachers’ self-reported perception of their ability to promote bilingualism and biliteracy through a culturally relevant pedagogy. Self-efficacy was validated because teachers demonstrated a need to grow in their confidence regarding how to promote and develop students’ dual language acquisition. 0 3 13 25 0 7 10 24 NOT AT ALL SOMEWHAT WELL EXTREMELY WELL Number of Teachers Values - Students' native language is an asset for them and should be utilized in learning Values - Teachers need to value students' heritage languages and cultures in order to incorporate them into student-led instruction CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 158 Table 16 Survey Mean Score Results: Self-Efficacy Motivation: Self-Efficacy Mean Score (0-3) I feel confident in planning dual language instruction within my content classes. 0.80 I feel confident with incorporating culturally relevant strategies into my content area curriculum. 1.32 I feel confident with student-led language learning. 1.04 Teachers need to demonstrate confidence and self-efficacy in planning and facilitating dual language instruction and culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy within their content area. This influence was validated. Teachers demonstrated a lack of confidence in teaching in a dual language context with a mean of 0.80 with the majority responding somewhat or not at all confident. Juxtaposed from the degree of belief and value asserted toward aspiring bilinguals, teachers exerted a much lower degree of confidence toward planning and incorporating lessons and units that employ dual language learning. Figure 21. Self-efficacy of incorporating language and culture into content. Interviews revealed a range of barriers in the pursuit of helping all students attain high levels of learning and performance, such as the time and space of collaboration and the lack of resources and training for promoting bilingualism through culturally relevant pedagogy. One 15 18 5 3 4 18 13 6 11 17 10 3 NOT AT ALL SOMEWHAT WELL EXTREMELY WELL Number of Teachers Self-Efficacy - I feel confident in planning dual language instruction within my content classes Self-Efficacy - I feel confident with incorporating culturally relevant strategies into my content area curriculum CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 159 barrier that was not described, but it is impacted due to some of the other absent processes, is the impact on the self-efficacy of teachers within a realm that is admittedly lacking. When describing his language abilities, Nikola expressed, “I know enough Spanish to Spanglish my way through certain things,” and he hesitates when expressing, “having such a huge diversity in one classroom is beyond normal differentiation.” Sofia concurs with his sentiment, “When I got pregnant I lost all my Spanish…I feel like a kindergartener.” When describing the additional planning that addressing language entails, Sofia also expresses, “That is really hard for a lot of teachers to do because it takes a lot of planning.” Despite the challenges of differentiating to all students, Ray expressed the assistance of comedy, “Don’t waste a moment, every moment is a comedic moment.” This influence was validated because support for including dual language learning through culturally relevant pedagogy persists, even though some teachers feel confident with aspects of dual language learning or culturally relevant pedagogy. Interventions to address self- efficacy in producing dual language within context should be provided. Goal-Orientation for Mastery Transitioning from performance to mastery-based learning remains quintessential to a transition to 21-century learning. Several teachers implicitly referenced 21-century standards or adjustments students are expected to dominate as independent young adults, but no one explicitly referred the demands of 21-century academia. Most teachers provided reference to a prior training, Essential Elements of Instruction (EEI) to describe strategies or methodologies for enabling engaging learning opportunities. Aside from mathematics, who relies heavily student- centered discourse, teachers did not describe a radical transformation of instruction that is exploratory or constructivist. Goal-orientation for mastery was partially validated. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 160 Table 17 Survey Mean Score Results: Goal-Orientation Motivation: Goal-Orientation Mean Score (0-3) My lesson plans and pedagogy encourage mastery-based learning over performance. 1.48 Teachers need to align their instructional goals with the organizational goal and 21st century standards, which includes dual language learning and culturally relevant pedagogy. 1.88 Teachers need to provide instruction that is student-centered for achievement in alignment with 21 st -century standards, which include bilingualism and culturally relevant pedagogy. This influence was partially validated. Teachers self-reported a high degree of goal- orientation fixed toward helping students achieve in alignment with 21 st -century standards. Evident in the belief section and correlate to this assumed goal-orientation influence, teachers rated a high degree of belief in the value of bilingualism and biliteracy but a 0.72 and 0.64 lower degree respectively of priority for implementation (See Table 7). Goal-orientation for achieving 21 st -century standards had a mean survey score of 1.48 and 1.88, respectively to each question. Lesson planning for mastery over performance was rated lower, indicating that teachers are still inclined to assess for student performance rather than help students develop mastery for long- term proficiency. 1 15 16 9 1 10 21 9 NOT AT ALL SOMEWHAT WELL EXTREMELY WELL Number of Teachers Goal Orientation - My lesson plans and pedagogy encourage mastery- based learning over performance Goal Orientation - Teachers need to align their instructional goals with the organizational goal and 21st century standards, which includes dual language learning and culturally relevant pedagogy CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 161 Figure 22. Goal-orientation for academic achievement. Board policies indicate that, “With Board approval, a district school may establish a sister-school relationship with a school in another country” (BP 6145.6). In her interview, Elise mentioned the students from China who came to their school last year, and because she speaks some Mandarin Chinese, she was able to communicate with these students successfully. No other teacher referenced the inclusion of cultural exchange within their classroom to promote further 21 st -century opportunities to engage in discourse with other sister schools where language and culture could escalate to a significant level of integration. Additionally, the LCAP plan has an additional goal for having a plan to deliberate and potentially revise grading practices to become more equitable and focused around mastery over performance. The influence was partially validated because a majority of survey participants rated well or extremely well on planning for mastery over performance and planning with 21 st -century learning at the forefront. However, though the board policy exists regarding sister-school relationships, only one teacher had awareness or referenced this experience. This partial validation will not be explicitly addressed through intervention, but it will fold into other interventions. Key Insights Teachers exemplified a strong collective degree of belief and values in the heritage and primary language and cultures of students, yet their fervency was not met with a high degree of self-efficacy in delivering curriculum and instruction that is student-centered, student-led, or inclusive of students’ primary languages or promoting dual language learning. Culturally relevant pedagogy was met with a more efficacious response, but teachers’ efficacy waivers based on external variables, such as resources, materials, or training. Teachers rated themselves CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 162 high on the inclusion of 21 st -century skills within their lessons, and to provide a more through description of whether teachers are actually utilizing 21 st -century tools and resources to advance 21 st -century skills among students, further research would need to be conducted. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 163 Figure 23. Motivation summary findings. 0 1 0 0 0 15 4 11 1 1 1 11 2 3 7 18 18 17 15 10 10 16 15 13 10 5 13 10 16 21 30 13 24 25 24 3 6 3 9 9 BELIEFS - I BELIEVE THAT BILINGUALISM AND BILITERACY ARE ASSETS FOR STUDENTS' COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT BELIEFS - I BELIEVE BILINGUALISM AND BILITERACY ARE A PRIORITY FOR OUR STUDENTS BELIEFS - I BELIEVE THAT STUDENTS' NATIVE LANGUAGE IS AN ASSET FOR THEM AND SHOULD BE UTILIZED IN LEARNING VALUES - STUDENTS' NATIVE LANGUAGE IS AN ASSET FOR THEM AND SHOULD BE UTILIZED IN LEARNING VALUES - TEACHERS NEED TO VALUE STUDENTS' HERITAGE LANGUAGES AND CULTURES IN ORDER TO INCORPORATE THEM INTO STUDENT-LED INSTRUCTION SELF-EFFICACY - I FEEL CONFIDENT IN PLANNING DUAL LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION WITHIN MY CONTENT CLASSES SELF-EFFICACY - I FEEL CONFIDENT WITH INCORPORATING CULTURALLY RELEVANT STRATEGIES INTO MY CONTENT AREA CURRICULUM SELF-EFFICACY - I FEEL CONFIDENT WITH STUDENT-LED LANGUAGE LEARNING GOAL ORIENTATION - MY LESSON PLANS AND PEDAGOGY ENCOURAGE MASTERY-BASED LEARNING OVER PERFORMANCE GOAL ORIENTATION - TEACHERS NEED TO ALIGN THEIR INSTRUCTIONAL GOALS WITH THE ORGANIZATIONAL GOAL AND 21ST CENTURY STANDARDS, WHICH INCLUDES DUAL LANGUAGE LEARNING AND CULTURALLY RELEVANT … Motivation Not at all Somewhat Well Extremely Well CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 164 Organization The organization’s role in propelling the teachers to achieve a greater degree of bilingualism and biliteracy among students is evident through alignment of the organization’s goal using resources, cultural models, cultural settings, training, and policies and procedures is essential. The need for teachers to have instructional materials and curricula that support dual language learning and culturally relevant pedagogy, embracing and supporting teachers to achieve LCAP goals, providing adequate professional development within and across content areas for improving dual language learning, and the provision of tools for attaining district goals were validated needs. Celebrating bilingualism, professional development for dual language and culturally relevant pedagogy, and communication of policies and procedures were partially validated because of mixed results. The organization consists of the Board of Education elected representatives, superintendent, three assistant superintendents, three directors within educational services, and seven full-time instructional coaches. The entire district is guided by the approved board polices in alignment with the Education Code of California, wherein members of the entire organization are enabled an opportunity to contribute to curriculum adoption and policy development and implementation. Especially regarding curriculum and instruction, teachers are the foremost impacting on student achievement in accordance with the district goals. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 165 Table 18 Validation of Organizational Assumed Causes or Influences Organization Category Assumed Cause or Influence Validated Partially Validated Not Validated Resources Schools need to provide teachers with instructional materials and curricula in all content areas that support dual language learning and culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy.  Cultural Models Schools need to embrace and support all teachers in progressing toward the LCAP goals and organizational mission.  Cultural Models Schools need to celebrate growth in dual language acquisition.  Cultural Settings Schools need to provide teachers with professional learning and growth opportunities and collaborative time within each content area.  Cultural Settings Schools need to provide language teachers and core content area teachers (science, social science, and mathematics) time and space to collaborate.  Training Schools need to provide teachers with ongoing professional development in dual language instruction and culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy.  Training Schools need to commit to providing a range of tools for teachers to achieve the standards for meeting their stakeholder goal and the organizational mission.  Policies and Procedures Schools need to communicate policies and procedures for scheduling student 4-year plans to ensure maximum completion of State Seal of Biliteracy requirements.  CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 166 Organizational Resources The amount and quality of resources provided to teachers can have a direct and substantial impact on student performance, especially as it relates to promoting dual language learning through a culturally relevant pedagogy. Resources may come in the form of materials for instruction, supplies for enabling access to core curriculum, core curriculum, or technological supplements, each of which can enhance or promote inclusion of more than one language, student-centeredness, cultural competence, and sociopolitical awareness. The organization is responsible for providing resources to teachers for deliverance of the curriculum and instruction. Teachers described that resources are one of their greatest needs pertaining to promoting bilingualism through culturally relevant pedagogy. Table 19 Survey Mean Score Results: Resources Organization: Resources Mean Score (0-3) I have sufficient materials and supplies for teaching dual languages within my content area. 0.56 I have sufficient materials and supplies to provide culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy. 0.72 Schools need to provide teachers with instructional materials and curricula in all content areas that support dual language learning and culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy. Teacher perspectives about materials and resources that support dual language learning and cultural relevance belays significance. Contrasted against teacher beliefs about their own ability to know and deliver lessons that support bilingualism or are culturally relevant, resources appear to be a gaping need. Some teachers declared that they must adhere to the prescribed curriculum, while other teachers contrasted with how they are afforded the flexibility to monitor, adjust, or adapt the core curriculum to the students’ needs. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 167 This influence was validated because only one teacher indicated he or she had adequate materials and supplies for culturally relevant pedagogy, while no teachers have sufficient materials and supplies for dual language learning within content despite the board policies that indicate curriculum will reflect he desires of the community and needs of society. Though the LCAP goal of bilingualism was added, additional resources to develop biliteracy do not appear to be evident. Figure 24. Sufficient materials to support dual language and culturally relevant pedagogy. Only one surveyed teacher proclaimed that he or she had sufficient materials to support cultural relevance. None of the teachers surveyed indicated that they had sufficient materials for teaching bilingually in the core content. Through interviews, teachers mimicked these sentiments through discussion about barriers in cohesion, resources, or coordinated training. Nikola indicated that he may attempt to interject his “Spanglish” into the lesson, but it is often not embedded into the text, materials, or resources. Ray indicated that he allows students to select authors with whom they may connect, though he referenced the canonical authors that are typical within the curriculum. 21 17 3 0 14 21 5 1 NOT AT ALL SOMEWHAT WELL EXTREMELY WELL Number of Teachers Resources - I have sufficient materials and supplies for teaching dual languages within my content area Resources - I have sufficient materials and supplies to provide culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 168 According to the board policies around curriculum and instruction, the “course of study shall provide students with opportunities to attain the skills, knowledge, and abilities they need to be successful in school, college, and/or the workplace,” (BP 6143). Additionally, curriculum is adopted, “which to the extent possible reflects the desires of the community, the needs of society, and the requirements of the law” (BP 6141). This validated influence will require intervention. Organizational Cultural Models Cultural models that support, embrace, and encourage the facilitation of bilingualism and biliteracy through pedagogy that is culturally relevant was addressed in this section. The models are exemplary of the values, priorities, and organizational systems that reflect the inherent culture of the schools and district. Board documents describe an ability of the district to hire bilingual teachers for the “purpose of providing primary language instruction,” (AR 4212.22). Table 20 Survey Mean Score Results: Cultural Models Organization: Cultural Models Mean Score (0-3) Our school culture embraces and celebrates bilingualism or multilingualism. 1.36 The mean for reflecting teachers’ embrace and celebration of bilingualism was 1.36, which was almost solidly average, which was less than the means for belief and value toward bilingualism, but there was evidence of the lack of priority for making bilingualism and cultural relevance organic and pervasive among content areas. Schools need to embrace and support all teachers in progressing toward the LCAP goals and organizational mission. Teachers mentioned English learner programs, such as the move toward “cluster” classes, wherein English learners were clustered into small groups in mainstream classes or the collaborative model for team teaching Math with English learners. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 169 Some teachers expressed that they were unaware that there is an LCAP sub-goal about achieving higher rates of students who earn the California SSB, which was also evident in that nearly half of survey participants were not at all aware, and only six felt they knew well or extremely well, how students earn the seal. This influence was partially validated because various teachers at each unique site made references to data and pursuit of earning higher scores or ranking, but there was no explicit description of the LCAP goals or alignment with what occurs at the school setting to the attainment on LCAP goals. This is combined with the expressed description of a need for coherent and interdependent professional learning. Teachers did not describe the LCAP goals generically or specifically. This influence will not be addressed through the interventions. Schools need to celebrate growth in dual language acquisition. This influence was partially validated. According to survey results, the mean score for recognizing a culture of celebration for bilingualism is 1.36, with more than half indicating that they somewhat agree. Interview data suggests that there is an appreciation for bilingualism and biliteracy among students, though there is not a celebration or inclusion of dual language learning across the school and district culture. Several teachers pointed out that bilingualism is an essential skill and is beneficial for students. Nikola articulated that bilingualism is “an absolute must now,” and he wished there were “more options” for the students. Sofia emphasized her belief that, “recognizing different languages are [a] benefit to the class, not a hindrance.” Elise commented about how many people in San Diego do not respect language learning the same as schools on the east coast of the United States, It’s different on the east coast. They have French and Russian and German and then other languages, Tagalog. They have a lot of languages. It’s not just [the language] I’m CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 170 teaching here. Part of it is teaching your brain to grow and deal with sophistication. We also learn about quality of life and happiness…appreciating history and education and food and art. In addition to the comments teachers made about their belief about bilingualism, the district has shared the seal of biliteracy data with counselors and administrators to be able to reward the students at their senior awards night and on their diploma. The district pointed out the strength of the students’ attainment of the seal of biliteracy among their top academic achievements. The district highlighted the strength of the students’ attainment of the Seal of Biliteracy among the district’s top academic achievements. Figure 25. School culture for celebrating bilingualism and multilingualism. This influence was partially validated because though there are pockets of celebration for the attainment of bilingualism and biliteracy as evidenced through the seal of biliteracy, there are still a significant number of teachers who do not know how to earn it, and just over a third of teachers believed that the schools and district did well to extremely well on celebrating bilingualism. This influence will not be addressed through the interventions, but continuing to celebrate bilingualism is expected. 2 22 13 4 NOT AT ALL SOMEWHAT WELL EXTREMELY WELL Number of Teachers Cultural Models - Our school culture embraces and celebrates bilingualism or multilingualism CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 171 Organizational Cultural Settings Time and space were significant concerns among teachers, each of which are finite resources. The correlational relationship between teachers’ beliefs about bilingualism, biliteracy, and culturally relevant pedagogy and the expressed lack of curricular materials and resources impact illuminates the need for time and space to plan and collaborate. Planning and collaborating play a central role in the furtherance of dual language learning through culturally relevant pedagogy. Table 21 Survey Mean Score Results: Cultural Settings Organization: Cultural Settings Mean Score (0-3) I have sufficient time and space to plan lessons that include dual language learning and that are culturally relevant. 0.40 My professional learning community has sufficient time and space to collaborate about improving curriculum and instruction for dual language learning and culturally relevant pedagogy. 0.60 Language teachers (English, Spanish, French, ASL) collaborate with core content teachers to discuss strategies for supporting bilingualism and biliteracy within each content area. 0.40 Schools need to provide teachers with ongoing professional development in dual language instruction and culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy. This influence was validated. Planning time is essential when teachers are required to initiate aspects of curriculum and pedagogy that are not readily accessible through a prescribed curriculum. At almost 50% of survey respondents, teachers expressed not at all having sufficient time and space to plan lesson inclusive of two languages that are culturally relevant, while only three total teachers expressed the notion that they are at least well-equipped with the time and space. The overall mean of time and space sufficiency rested at 0.40, which is the lowest finding among all knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 172 Teachers interviewed identified barriers to coordinated professional development, but they did not necessarily identify the need to meet with language teachers. Only Nikola emphasized more training related to language instruction across all content areas except for explicit vocabulary instruction indicating he would like, “definitely more training…we’ll benefit from more training on what that looks like in very specific content classes.” Sofia referenced an Advancement Via Individual Determination (AVID) culturally relevant pedagogy strand at the summer institute training, and three other teachers from the same site all described an on-site training about culturally sensitive and responsive teaching. Simon depicted his previous teaching experiences at ethnically and socioeconomically diverse schools in other locales in the United States, which he believed shaped his thinking and practice for teaching in a manner that is culturally relevant. Though everyone brought different experience and knowledge to their teaching experience, finding support through a coordinated effort at the district level was lacking. Jessica explicitly described this need, “I think [we need] more organized ongoing training. Systematic training can help a lot…every 2 years, every 3 years. [Maybe a] half day of: these are the latest things people do.” Figure 26. Professional development for dual language and culturally relevant pedagogy. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 173 Document analysis of board policies and professional development documents reflected a similar finding to what teachers expressed. From professional development agendas, there is no evidence that dual language learning and culturally relevant pedagogy is discussed. Professional learning communities do not prioritize dual language learning, while some discuss English learners and how to differentiate instruction among them. Culturally relevant pedagogy was not discussed among any of the teachers or sites as a topic of discussion within their professional collaborative time, while most of the time was noted as dedicated to planning and collaborating about the lessons and units. There were no specific prompts or aspects that specifically guided the teachers to discuss whether or how the curriculum and instruction was culturally relevant or inclusive of other languages. This influence was validated because teachers pointed to the lack of time and space for them to participate in professional development that supports the planning and preparation of dual language learning and culturally relevant pedagogy specifically. This influence will be addressed through the interventions. Schools need to provide teachers with professional learning and growth opportunities and collaborative time within each content area. This influence was validated. Teachers indicated through interviews that they all, at each school site, have some time for professional learning and collaboration built into their schedule, whether they are early morning meetings or after school weekly meetings, but they all would concur that it is not enough time. Trischa and Nikola regrettably declared that they have a specific professional learning community team, but they haven’t been able to meet consistently due to other circumstances and responsibilities. Trischa commented, CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 174 We spend a significant amount of time as a staff, but we now have about an hour left to work with our content area or department…we haven’t really had an opportunity to collaborate much with our content areas, but I imagine that’ll happen. The survey responses demonstrate a common perspective in that nearly 50% felt they had somewhat sufficient time, while more than one third felt that do not have sufficient time at all. Figure 27. Collaboration time within content. Professional development agendas indicated there are district level supports for increasing teacher professional capacity, such as a director of professional learning, instructional coaches, and teacher release days wherein teachers report to the district office or an identified school site to learn more about how to improve instruction. The majority of teachers indicated that they feel they are released from their classes too frequently, which impacts the growth of their students. This influence was validated because teachers almost unanimously pointed to the lack of time and space their professional community must plan and prepare together, let alone for dual language learning and culturally relevant pedagogy. A rational and ubiquitous constraint, time and space remain limited in perspective of developing curriculum and planning pedagogy. This influence will be addressed through interventions. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 175 Schools need to provide language teachers and core content area teachers (science, social science, and mathematics) time and space to collaborate. This influence was validated. Time and space to collaborate through professional learning and growth was indicative of somewhat to not at all meeting the needs of teachers, and language and content collaboration was no different. Nearly 60% of teachers surveyed positively collaborated among core content and language teachers. Through interviews, Sofia revealed that she partners with a language teacher specialist because of the demographic makeup of her classroom. Nikola and Simon do not have a language collaborating teacher, but they each have an assistant that supports the acquisition of English. It does not appear to be a practice at any of the sites for content area teachers to collaborate with language teachers. One site has inter-departmental projects which lead to cross- disciplinary collaboration, but it was not specifically explained by any of the interviewed teachers that they collaborate about explicitly teaching, reinforcing, or generated student-led opportunities to further develop proficiency in two or more languages. Figure 28. Collaboration with world language teachers. This influence was validated because over half of the teachers indicated they have no interdisciplinary contact whatsoever. Teachers did not reference any collaboration across disciplines with language teachers unless they provided instruction in a collaborative way, such CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 176 as team teaching. Trischa, Jessica, and Ray described some integrated projects completed by students annually, which would require cross-content collaboration. The interventions will incorporate solutions to this influence. Organizational Training and Professional Growth Tools and training for implementation of culturally relevant pedagogy for bilingualism inversely reflects the belief and value that teachers indicated. Dual language training was absent from the discussion of teachers, but every teacher referenced participating in training surrounding strategies to support English learners, all of whom are learning a second language or more. Schools need to provide teachers with ongoing professional development in dual language instruction and culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy. This influence was partially validated. Ray, Trischa, and Jessica, who worked at the same school site, all described a one-time training during the 2016-2017 school year about culturally responsive teaching. Trischa described a focus on providing professional development for English learners, “A few years ago, there was a real focus on professional development through the district that focused on ELLs, vocabulary development…culturally relevant instruction…that’s starting to be a focus here.” Several teachers mentioned an “EEI” training, which signifies the Essential Elements of Instruction, a training required of all district teachers and administrators. Jessica articulated of these trainings, “I believe [they had] some of these kinds of training embedded in it,” referring to culturally relevant pedagogy. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 177 Table 22 Survey Mean Score Results: Training Organization: Training Mean Score (0-3) I have received or attended training that pertains to dual language learning across core content areas. 0.72 I have received training that pertains to culturally relevant or sustaining pedagogy within my core content area. 1.08 The mean score in survey results for dual language training was low to non-existent at 0.72, while training pertaining to culturally relevant pedagogy was only slightly more present at 1.08, likely because of the one unique training that was held at one of the school sites the previous school year. Another prevalent training referenced by Sofia was the culturally relevant pedagogy strand at the AVID summer institute, of which she indicated that at least one teacher participated. This influence was partially validated because though there were several teachers who engaged in a one-time training about culturally relevant pedagogy, it was not systematic or consistent across all school sites. Additionally, there was little to no reference about dual language training, so that influence continues to be prevalent and essential for promoting bilingualism and biliteracy district-wide. Schools need to commit to providing a range of tools for teachers to achieve the standards for meeting their stakeholder goal and the organizational mission. This influence was validated. Teacher surveys indicated that there is somewhat to no training or tools provided in the areas of dual language learning and culturally relevant pedagogy. Jessica pointed out that the district could improve upon developing a more strategic and systematic approach to professional development, yet she, Trischa, Ray, and Elise insisted that the district already offers a lot of professional growth opportunities, especially if a teacher seeks them out. Ray expressed, CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 178 “There haven’t been a tremendous amount of opportunities that have been brought to us. I’m sure if I went out of my way, they’d be entirely supportive, but it’s just nothing.” All teachers referenced the notion that they must have English learner authorization, aligned with the board policy and state requirements. While they agreed that the district has also offered English learner training in the past, they verbalized that there does not continue to be continuous coordinated professional development. Simon described the segmented disconnect between the training a teacher receives as the transformational impact in the classroom, stating, “one of the problems of some of the workshops I’ve been to is, they stick closely to tactics…how really innovative are those tactics?” Figure 29. Training for dual language acquisition and culturally relevant pedagogy. Though board policy indicates that “instructional materials, as a whole, present a broad spectrum of knowledge and viewpoints, reflect society’s diversity, and enhance the use of multiple teaching strategies and technologies,” (BP 6161.1), there is no specific plan or language in the policies about the integration of world language and core content teachers. The absence of specific guidelines about how to plan for how to reflect society’s diversity implies that it is up to the curriculum designers and teachers about how to include these culturally relevant notions. Dual language learning is not mentioned in the essentials of diverse learning, but the board 18 14 6 3 8 18 11 4 NOT AT ALL SOMEWHAT WELL EXTREMELY WELL Number of Teachers Training - I have received or attended training that pertains to dual language learning across core content areas Training - I have received training that pertains to culturally relevant or sustaining pedagogy within my core content area CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 179 policy does reference that the district should identify “specific actions and services to enhance student engagement, academic achievement, and other outcomes for English learners,” (BP 6174). This influence was validated because it remains to be a poignant area of growth for the district, especially as it relates to promoting furtherance of bilingualism and biliteracy across academic content and having a strategic and systematic approach to professional development that supports all learners. The interventions will address this influence to progress to goal achievement. Organizational Policies and Procedures The organizational policies and procedures, though not having direct impact on student achievement in the proximal sense, portray mixed results. Most teachers indicated that policy and procedure do not help teachers provide student-centered culturally relevant pedagogy. The district abides by systems and processes for adopting new curriculum and materials, such that, “Recommendations for the adoption and/or withdrawal of instructional materials shall be presented to the Board by the Superintendent or designee,” (BP 6161.1 cf. 9720). Table 23 Survey Mean Score Results: Policies and Procedures Organization: Policies and Procedures Mean Score (0-3) Policies and procedures help me to provide student-centered culturally relevant pedagogy. 0.92 Our policies align with the California bilingual education laws. 1.17 Schools need to communicate policies and procedures for scheduling student 4-year plans to ensure maximum completion of SSB requirements. This influence was partially validated. Teachers de-emphasized the merit of policies and procedures to support the CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 180 attainment of student-centered culturally relevant pedagogy or bilingualism. With a mean of 1.17, teachers surveyed expressed a low average belief that the school and district policies align with the current state bilingual education laws. According to the district course catalog, throughout the district, students have the opportunity to earn the seal of biliteracy in Spanish or French through a 4-year course of study. English learners who possess fluency in another home language have an opportunity to produce evidence of biliteracy through the World Language AP Exam or SAT-II Language Subject Test, but those tests are limited in language options. Figure 30. Policies that support dual language acquisition and culturally relevant pedagogy. Document analysis included review of board policies, which included Curriculum Development and Design (BP 6141), Selection and Evaluation of Instructional Materials (BP 6161.1), Courses of Study (BP 6143), Education for ELLs (BP 6174), Multicultural Education (6141.6), and International Exchange (6145.6). These board policies were developed before the state adoption of Proposition 58, which will enable districts to have more local autonomy regarding multilingualism than ever before. The board policies that clearly and pointedly address English learners provide residual evidence that teacher credentialing for English learner 7 23 10 1 6 18 16 1 NOT AT ALL SOMEWHAT WELL EXTREMELY WELL Number of Teachers Policies and Procedures - Policies and procedures help me to provide student- centered culturally relevant pedagogy Policies and Procedures - Our policies align with the California bilingual education laws CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 181 authorization was pervasive to support ELD and SDAIE, but there is no reference to pedagogy that supports bilingualism or biliteracy specifically. This influence was partially validated because there remains room for strategic systematic growth in communicating policies and district goals regarding bilingualism. This influence will be implicitly addressed through the interventions, but it will not be explicitly addressed. Additionally, the notion that bilingualism and biliteracy infrastructure is yet to be built remains the impetus for this study. Key Insights Resources and materials, time and space for collaboration among and across content areas, and a systematic plan for professional development rose to the surface of teachers’ essential needs regarding the promotion of bilingualism, culturally relevant pedagogy, and higher academic achievement overall. Despite the plethora of intellectual, linguistic, and cultural capital within and throughout the district, there appears to persist a need for more continuity and communication about the district priorities and professional learning. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 182 Figure 31. Organization summary findings. 14 20 20 2 16 26 17 8 7 5 20 17 17 22 20 10 14 21 22 18 5 2 3 12 4 1 6 6 10 15 1 1 0 4 0 3 3 5 1 1 I HAVE SUFFICIENT MATERIALS AND SUPPLIES TO PROVIDE CULTURALLY RELEVANT AND SUSTAINING PEDAGOGY (R). I HAVE SUFFICIENT TIME AND SPACE TO PLAN LESSONS THAT INCLUDE DUAL LANGUAGE LEARNING AND THAT ARE CULTURALLY RELEVANT (CS). I HAVE SUFFICIENT MATERIALS AND SUPPLIES FOR TEACHING DUAL LANGUAGES WITHIN MY CONTENT AREA (R). OUR SCHOOL CULTURE EMBRACES AND CELEBRATES BILINGUALISM OR MULTILINGUALISM (CM). MY PROFESSIONAL LEARNING COMMUNITY HAS SUFFICIENT TIME AND SPACE TO COLLABORATE ABOUT IMPROVING CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR DUAL LANGUAGE LEARNING AND CULTURALLY RELEVANT … LANGUAGE TEACHERS (ENGLISH, SPANISH, FRENCH, ASL) COLLABORATE WITH CORE CONTENT TEACHERS TO DISCUSS STRATEGIES FOR SUPPORTING BILINGUALISM AND BILITERACY WITHIN EACH CONTENT AREA (CS). I HAVE RECEIVED OR ATTENDED TRAINING THAT PERTAINS TO DUAL LANGUAGE LEARNING ACROSS CORE CONTENT AREAS (T). I HAVE RECEIVED TRAINING THAT PERTAINS TO CULTURALLY RELEVANT OR SUSTAINING PEDAGOGY WITHIN MY CORE CONTENT AREA (T). POLICIES AND PROCEDURES HELP ME TO PROVIDE STUDENT-CENTERED CULTURALLY RELEVANT COURSES THAT LEAD TO EARNING THE SEAL OF BILITERACY (PP). OUR POLICIES ALIGN WITH THE CALIFORNIA BILINGUAL EDUCATION LAWS (PP). Organization Not at all Somewhat Well Extremely well CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 183 Key Findings There are four consistent themes represented throughout the data that are noteworthy. The first theme is the notion that there are strong positive beliefs about and value in bilingualism and biliteracy concurrent with a lack of coordinated plan for training for and delivery of instruction that supports and promotes the furtherance of bilingualism and biliteracy. The second theme is the focus on emerging English language acquisition for students whose primary language is not English, but there appears to be a lack of any concentration or investment in the furtherance of bilingualism and biliteracy among all learners. The third theme identified in the data is the need for a coordinated plan for professional learning pertaining to the district priorities and teacher needs, despite the plethora of opportunities for professional development opportunities. The fourth theme is overarching theme that the district is primed for a comprehensive plan for promoting and expanding bilingualism and biliteracy broadly, so the district could take advantage of its natural resources, students with language assets to develop a coordinated plan for promoting bilingualism and biliteracy. Belief and Value Over Self-Efficacy The belief and value in bilingualism and heritage languages and cultures within the school community was prevalent, but the inability to deliver instruction that supports it was . Belief and values toward heritage languages and cultures and the furtherance of bilingualism and biliteracy abounds. The self-efficacy and training of teachers in the area of culturally relevant pedagogy was favorable compared to that which was evident for dual language learning. Improving self-efficacy can be attained by providing a schematic plan for professional development, which would also improve teachers’ responses to their ability to engage dual language learning in their content areas. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 184 Focus on English Learners Over Bilingualism The focus on English learners has traversed the district language learning landscape for decades but has offered little other than world language optional courses for students to attain, refine, or build vocabulary in another language other than English. Given the legislative obligations to instruct English learners for attainment in English as quickly as possible since the 1997 legislative endorsement known as Proposition 227, it is not surprising that teachers are less equipped for promoting dual language learning in their content areas and less inclined to discuss ways to build in etymology or student-led linguistic development for languages other than English. Coordinate Professional Learning Collaboration There has been a plethora of professional development opportunities, but a thematic coordination or structure for professional learning was evidenced throughout the data. Teachers stated that significant and expansive professional development opportunities inside and outside the district exist, and no one was disappointed with their opportunities. Time and space for professional growth is a constant across teachers, which is inherently limited due to the nature of calendars, schedules, and contracts. The school calendar is 180 instructional days, and teachers are required to attend four professional development days beyond the requisite instructional days. All curriculum professional development occurs via pull-out days throughout the school year. There are select trainings and curriculum planning sessions that occur during the summer, such as AP and integrated mathematics. Each school site has professional learning communities by content area that meet ranging from two times per month to daily. Considering the change to the Common Core State Standards and other revised standards per content area, teachers expressed the need to have much more time to collaborate with intra and interdisciplinary CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 185 colleagues, especially as it relates to the types of strategies and pedagogies that support all learners across content areas. Systematic Plan to Develop Bilingualism and Biliteracy for All Students The need for an aligned and coordinated systematic plan to promote bilingualism and biliteracy among all students threaded through all required educational plans resounds. Shortly after California redesigned its funding formula and accountability to county offices of education and LEAs, ushering an era of local control through the LCFF and each district’s responsibility to create a LCAP, Proposition 58 was passed through a statewide vote. Proposition 58 was named as the Education for a Global Economy Initiative (EdGE), which would allow each LEA to decide if and to what degree to provide bilingual and multilingual instruction, incorporating native and heritage languages into the mainstream education programs. The current board policies address English acquisition in alignment with the previously reigning Proposition 227, which outlawed the use of native and heritage languages in primary instruction. The BP for CPHSD have not yet incorporated language and alignment of Proposition 58 and the LCAP plan, so there remains a need to develop alignment and language around the degree and type of inclusion of native and heritage language instruction will be provided in schools. The plans and goals developed through the LCAP should align with school improvement plans, site and teacher instructional goals, and the California Standards for the Teaching Profession (CSTP). CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 186 CHAPTER FIVE: IMPLEMENTATION PLAN AND EVALUATION The purpose of this study was to identify and validate the knowledge and motivation influences for teachers impacting the CPHSD’s ability to reach the stated LCAP goal of students achieving the California SSB upon graduation, the implication that the student has achieved bilingualism and biliteracy status. The study took an innovative approach because attaining the seal had a limited number of pathways. The study sought to identify teachers’ present knowledge and motivation attributes toward furthering bilingualism through culturally relevant pedagogy. Additionally, the study sought to reveal how teachers perceive the way the organization supports them via a systematic approach to reinforcing dual language learning through a student-centered culturally relevant pedagogy. Closing the Gap: Solutions for Implementation With the conclusion of the following validated needs for knowledge, motivation, and organization, solutions and action items will be proposed for implementing the innovation. Solutions were developed based on innovative ideas, best practices of successful organizations, and some existing literature. Table 24 Validated Needs Summary Table Gap Analysis Dimension Validated Needs Knowledge Factual Teachers need to understand what bilingualism and biliteracy is. Conceptual Teachers need to understand how to include students’ primary and target languages into core content area instruction. Procedural Teachers need to deliver best instructional practices through student-led and student-centered pedagogy that elicits native and target languages. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 187 CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 188 Table 24, continued Gap Analysis Dimension Validated Needs Knowledge Metacognitive Teachers need to reflect on lesson and unit development and how students are progressing in two or more languages. Motivation Self-Efficacy Teachers need to demonstrate confidence and self-efficacy in planning and facilitating dual language instruction and culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy within their content area. Organization Resources Schools need to provide teachers with instructional materials and curricula in all content areas that support dual language learning and culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy. Cultural Models Schools need to embrace and support all teachers in progressing toward the LCAP goals and organizational mission. Cultural Settings Schools need to provide teachers with professional learning and growth opportunities and collaborative time within each content area. Cultural Settings Schools need to provide language teachers and core content area teachers time and space to collaborate. Training Schools need to commit to providing a range of tools for teachers to achieve the standards for meeting their stakeholder goal and the organizational mission. Solutions for Validated Needs The following sections highlight the validated needs within the study and propose solutions that align with creating maximum impact for developing the innovation and improving the outcomes for dual language learning among all students. Most notably through the research findings, factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge related to dual language learning was validated and prioritized. Self-efficacy for dual language learning arose as a significant motivational influence in meeting the established goal of the organization, and CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 189 therefore, it is validated. Organizational resources and training surfaced as validated needs alongside cultural models and cultural settings influences to achieve the bilingualism and biliteracy goals within the organization. Figure 32. Validated needs diagram. Knowledge and skills. The knowledge and skill validated needs were factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive surrounding dual language learning and acquisition. Teachers demonstrated a greater propensity for knowing, planning for, delivering, and reflecting for culturally relevant pedagogy, which is fundamental to eliciting a student-centered pedagogy for promoting bilingualism and biliteracy. Therefore, elevating the current knowledge assets that teachers possess to encourage a curriculum that is inclusive of the development of two or more languages simultaneously will be essential. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 190 Table 25 Knowledge Validated Needs and Solutions Knowledge Category Validated Need Solutions Factual Teachers need to understand what bilingualism and biliteracy is. • Pre-service teacher preparation with emphasis on dual language development, a reform to the English authorization requirement • In-service teaching professional development that embeds dual language learning and student- centered pedagogy within all content areas, which includes job aids and training • Integration of Writing, Inquiry, Collaboration, Organization, and Reading (WICOR), Common Core Standards, English Learner (EL) Roadmap, and multilingualism within the curriculum Conceptual Teachers need to understand how to include students’ primary and target languages into core content area instruction. Procedural Teachers need to deliver best instructional practices through student-led and student-centered pedagogy that elicits native and target languages. Metacognitive Teachers need to reflect on lesson and unit development and how students are progressing in two or more languages. • Structured reflection within pre- service and in-service teacher training wherein teachers learn how to participate in a continuous cycle of reflection and lead students into a continuous cycle of reflection Pre-service teacher preparation with emphasis on dual language development, an extension of the English authorization requirement, which includes information and education. Though pre-service education and training is a priority for ensuring teachers are equipped with dual language pedagogy across writing, inquiry, collaboration, organization, and reading within the curriculum, 21 st -century skills, and capabilities of advancing bilingualism and biliteracy, it will be supplemental to the recommendations provided in this chapter given the organization’s inability to directly and immediately influence pre-service programs through California universities. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 191 In-service teaching professional development that embeds dual or multiple language learning and student-centered pedagogy within all content areas, which includes job aids and training. Professional development needs to include job-embedded learning that incorporates and furthers teachers’ capacity in language pedagogy. Language is the foundation to all instruction, so building teacher capacity in identifying and capitalizing on dual or multiple language learning opportunities, as well as creating student-centered learning through all content areas is essential to achieving the identified district goals for academic achievement and bilingualism and biliteracy attainment. Providing teachers with language supplements that coordinate with their curriculum and instruction will assist in the implementation of these new ideologies. Structured reflection within pre-service and in-service teacher professional development wherein teachers learn how to participate in a continuous cycle of reflection and lead students into a continuous cycle of reflection. Reflection seems self-evident, but teachers will require structured and intentional reflection cycles for improving their own pedagogical practices to further dual language learning. The metacognitive notions of thinking deeply about their own thinking about bilingualism and biliteracy within their content areas will be fundamental to prioritizing language learning. Teachers will engage in cycles of reflection that directly correlates to how language is highlighted, and dual language is provoked throughout course vocabulary and etymology (Fandiño Parra, 2008). Motivation. Teachers exhibited strong beliefs, values, and goal-orientation for mastery, but they demonstrated an expressed need for improving self-efficacy in planning and facilitating dual language instruction through culturally relevant pedagogy within all content areas. Teachers will need to expand their literacy inclusion to consider more than just English learners, CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 192 but rather develop a whole language approach and highlight dual language learning opportunities extensively throughout the content. Table 26 Motivation Validated Needs and Solutions Motivation Category Validated Need Solutions Self-Efficacy Teachers need to demonstrate confidence and self- efficacy in planning and facilitating dual language instruction and culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy within their content area. • Structured reflection and systems of teacher feedback that develop and grow teacher efficacy in the areas of dual language learning and culturally relevant pedagogy built within the professional learning for dual language acquisition. • Professional development plan that incorporates and emphasizes 21 st -century standards and skills as a transformative process within curriculum and instruction. Structured reflection and teacher feedback. Building confidence in others is daunting, but some proven strategies for increasing work performance of employees is to provide them with models and feedback (Sweigart, Collins, Evanovich, & Cook, 2016). Whether through colleagues or supervisors, structured systems of providing usable feedback for improving practice proves critical to increasing student achievement. The organization has an abundance of talent, especially as it pertains to language learning expertise, such as through world language, English, and English Learner teachers. Therefore, the ability to instill systems of teachers providing feedback to one another regarding the acquisition of two or more languages is relevant and extant. 21 st -century professional development. Creating a professional development plan for teachers that builds in 21 st -century learning across all content areas will support teachers in attaining higher levels of student-centered culturally relevant and bilingual pedagogy. Because CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 193 few current teachers possess bilingual certification in one or more languages indicates that a systematic plan around student-centered learning is critical. Through professional learning, teachers will need to gain skills in elevating student assets and enabling more student-centered discourse, create options for students to pursue high interest 21 st -century topics, and utilize 21 st - century technologies, resources, and pedagogies that lead toward bilingualism and biliteracy. Leadership for reinforcing 21 st -century skills. District and site leadership’s vision for the curriculum and instruction and needed infrastructure for ensuring high achievement is essential. Through a comprehensive review of 21 st -century learning standards and resources, including an assessment of the alignment among seemingly competing initiatives, will allow the district to streamline professional learning and lead for improving practices. It is essential to elevate the priorities of continuing to develop excellent opportunities for students to engage in a global marketplace by increasing 21 st -century skill development. Leadership must conduct curriculum review and revision which incorporates 21 st -century standards, AVID quintessential components of writing, inquiry, collaboration, organization, and critical reading (WICOR) and International Baccalaureate’s curricular components of global citizenry within the Diploma Programme, through courses such as Cultural Anthropology, Information Technology in a Global World, and Languages (AVID Center, 2018; International Baccalaureate Organization, 2018). Organization. The organizational validated needs persist in the areas of resources and materials for dual language learning and culturally relevant pedagogy, cultural models of embracing and supporting teachers in progressing toward LCAP goals, cultural settings of providing teachers with professional learning and collaboration time within and across content areas, and training and tools for attaining the organizational goals of bilingualism and biliteracy. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 194 Solutions are proposed for the validated needs in order to move the organization toward higher degrees of bilingualism and biliteracy across all content areas. The organizational solutions intersect with the knowledge and motivation solutions because they are either interdependent (e.g. knowledge, professional learning and collaboration, and structures) or they are complementary (i.e. structures for policy implementation and curriculum and instruction revision). CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 195 Table 27 Organization Validated Needs and Solutions Organization Category Validated Need Solutions Resources Schools need to provide teachers with instructional materials and curricula in all content areas that support dual language learning and culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy. • Language specialist to coordinate the following implementation plan • District to reevaluate organizational priorities considering current outcomes, capitalizing on student assets and building toward a 21 st -century curriculum that is culturally relevant and promotes expansion of their given assets • International Baccalaureate, AVID, Common Core Standards, Global Competence, and EL Roadmap integration resource development and training • CLIL courses in a language other than English • District to communicate consistently and effectively regarding the priorities once stakeholder information has been gathered • Redesign the school schedules to incorporate and require up to 3 hours per week of collaboration among and across content areas with consistency • Begin to deconstruct content area silos and build a system of inter-departmental collaboration, primarily between language and content teachers • Search for and secure instructional materials that further dual language learning • Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) for content area courses in languages other than English • Adjust California Standards for the Teaching Profession (CSTPs) to include developing bilingualism and student- centeredness • Language learning courses for teachers available during and after school Cultural Models Schools need to embrace and support all teachers in progressing toward the LCAP goals and organizational mission. Cultural Settings Schools need to provide teachers with professional learning and growth opportunities and collaborative time within each content area. Cultural Settings Schools need to provide language teachers and core content area teachers (science, social science, and mathematics) time and space to collaborate. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 196 Table 27, continued Organization Category Validated Need Solutions Training Schools need to commit to providing a range of tools for teachers to achieve the standards for meeting their stakeholder goal and the organizational mission. • Primary language content instruction for students who are speakers of other languages (up to 5 hours per week) • Language buddy system wherein all students have a target language buddy who is more proficient or a native speaker of another language with targeted meeting goals. District priorities. The LCAP process requires the district to solicit input from stakeholders, therefore the consolidation of priorities among management is imperative for furthering students’ ability to progress in a bilingual or multilingual community. Given the abundance of existing talent and assets among teachers and staff, the district will need to reevaluate the capitalization of the assets against the needs for moving the district toward higher student achievement. Based on the research about the benefits of bilingualism and biliteracy for improving cognitive and academic performance overall, the elevating the native languages of students and furthering the development of bilingualism and biliteracy has potential to increase overall student achievement. Communicating goals and policy implementation priorities. Communication the goals and policy implementation priorities are imperative for furthering the bilingualism through student-centeredness and cultural relevance. Since teachers are the policy implementers in the case of curriculum, instruction, and pedagogy, they should have clear communication and expectations from district administration regarding the nature of the priorities or policy goals. Scheduling for optimum and consistent collaboration. The school and professional development calendar and schedule can unpack or restrict a teacher team’s ability to progress toward achieving high performance in new initiatives, such as promoting dual language learning CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 197 in core content area courses. Collaboration was an imperative for teachers, and as the area of greatest need through the data findings, it should be prioritized and be systematically allocated with the goals of enabling discussion, planning, and reflection on student progress, especially regarding elevating opportunities to develop bilingualism and biliteracy through a culturally relevant pedagogy. Instructional materials that enhance dual language learning. Textbook and novel publishers have significant stake in the achievement of curricula that is culturally relevant and multilingual. However, teachers cannot wait for all publishers to produce material that is adequate for furthering students’ linguistic potential. Teachers may need to explore resources or strategies for incorporating student-centered learning wherein students are able to utilize and capitalize on their own strengths and further their linguistic potential. Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL). With the adoption of the Education for a Global Economy (EdGE) Initiative, California, inaugural opportunities surface to provide instruction in languages other than English for core content, which is especially notable at the secondary level. Having content courses in a language other than English will afford students who are native and non-native speakers to participate in advancing their linguistic repertoire in various content areas, hence building their vocabularic knowledge in two languages rather than just one. The current world language offerings of AP Spanish or French language and culture and Spanish literature leave much room for growth in course content in a target language to further enhance biliteracy and bilingualism. Strategies and Action Items The following section summarizes the overall solutions and implementation action items that the district can employ to advance the furtherance of attaining the LCAP academic goals, CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 198 predominantly the goal for more students to achieve bilingualism and biliteracy by earning the California SSB. The solutions were categorized into five segments, including policy and partnerships, systematic planning, professional learning and growth, curriculum and instruction, and reflection and progress monitoring. Each category contains solution action items to progress toward achieving the stakeholder goals. Table 28 Solutions and Solution Categories Solution Categories Solutions Implementation Action Items Policy and Partnerships Propose adjustment to California Standards for the Teaching Profession (CSTPs) to the California Department of Education to include developing bilingualism and student-centeredness (O) Pre-service teacher preparation with emphasis on dual language development, a reform to the English authorization requirement (K) Systematic Planning Language specialist to coordinate the professional learning and growth, curriculum and instruction, and reflection implementation plan District to reevaluate organizational priorities considering current outcomes, capitalizing on student assets and building toward a 21 st -century curriculum that is culturally relevant and promotes expansion of their given assets (O) District to communicate consistently and effectively regarding the priorities once stakeholder information has been gathered (O) Redesign the school schedules to incorporate and require up to 3 hours per week of collaboration among and across content areas with consistency (O) Language learning courses for teachers available during and after school (O) Professional Learning and Growth In-service teaching professional development that embeds dual language learning and student-centered pedagogy within all content areas, which includes job aids and training (K) Begin to deconstruct content area silos and build a system of inter-departmental collaboration, primarily between language and content teachers (O) Professional development plan that incorporates and emphasizes 21 st -century standards and skills as a transformative process within curriculum and instruction (M) CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 199 Table 28, continued Curriculum and Instruction Integration of WICOR, Common Core Standards, EL Roadmap, and multilingualism (K) Multilingual embedded curriculum emphasized student-centeredness (How do you grow your own vocabulary in two or more languages in this content area simultaneously?) (K) International Baccalaureate, AVID, Common Core Standards, Global Competence, and EL Roadmap integration resource development and training (O) Search for and secure instructional materials that further dual language learning (O) Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) for content area courses in languages other than English (O) Primary language content instruction for students who are speakers of other languages up to 5 hours per week (O) Language buddy system wherein all students have a target language buddy who is more proficient or a native speaker of another language with targeted meeting goals. (O) Reflection and Progress Monitoring Structured reflection and systems of teacher feedback that develop and grow teacher efficacy in the areas of dual language learning and culturally relevant pedagogy (M) Structured reflection within pre-service and in-service teacher training wherein teachers learn how to participate in a continuous cycle of reflection and lead students into a continuous cycle of reflection (K) Resource Requirements To implement the strategic plan for innovation within the district, tangible and intangible resources are essential. A district-wide strategic plan must be developed to outline all professional learning and personnel needs, the collective bargaining contract needs to be reviewed and revised to incorporate language surrounding components of the plan, and instructional materials and textbooks must be sought throughout all content areas so as to include other languages and etymologies. Systematic Professional Learning Plan The need for a systematic approach to comprehensively provoking, developing, and enhancing dual language learning through culturally relevant pedagogy hangs in the balance CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 200 regarding the priorities of the district leadership and its adherence to the ripe sentiment of the stakeholders to take hold of the assets students possess. The recent adoption of the EdGE legislature in California initiated the development of a new English Learner Roadmap (California Department of Education, 2018). The English Learner Roadmap is the state’s response to the omission of the diverse heritage languages of students across the state who have been historically marginalized. Though the English Learner Roadmap is the state’s response to omitting the diverse heritage languages of students across the state who have been historically marginalized. Thought the legislature is entitled with a global citizenship focus, the plan specifically targets English learners, who were the targeted population to remediate during the previous reign of Proposition 227. The English Learner Roadmap includes four principles, which are, (a) assets oriented and needs responsive schools, (b) intellectual quality of instruction and meaningful access, (c) system conditions that support effectiveness, and (d) articulation within and across systems (California Department of Education, 2018). The district must respond by incorporating these principles, therefore enhancing the educational experience of students who are learning in two or more languages. Collective Bargaining Contract Revisions The collective bargaining agreement is the cornerstone for outlining teacher responsibilities and obligations. The contract does not currently incorporate up to three hours per week of collaborative time nor interdisciplinary collaboration. To enhance teachers’ ability to effectively collaborate about and develop the essential tools for promoting bilingualism and biliteracy, they must have more time each week within their paid contract to intentionally meet with their colleagues to further this work. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 201 Instructional Materials and Textbooks Materials and textbooks, important as they are, depend largely on publishers and district funding within a textbook’s life cycle. Textbook purchases encapsulate a significant portion of the budget per student, and they lack language learning and strategic dual language supports for provoking student-centered language development or etymology. Given this constraint, teachers will likely need to develop their own materials and resources to address multilingualism and cultural relevance. Timeline for Implementation An efficient and coordinated timeline will maintain focus on achieving and attaining the goals of the district to produce more students who are validly bilingual and biliterate as evidenced by their attainment of the California SSB. The timeline considers the remaining time left on the LCAP planning cycle. The LCAP is fully funded after 3 years, and it is currently in its second year within the three-year cycle. The timeline expressed in Table 29 is reflective of the remaining year into the planning of the next LCAP. The next LCAP will take effect as of July 2019. Table 29 Solutions and Implementation Action Timeline Timeline Solutions Implementation Action Items July 2018 Language specialist to coordinate the following implementation plan July 2018 Redesign the school schedules to incorporate and require up to one hour per week of collaboration among and across content areas with consistency (O) July 2018 Redesign the school schedules to incorporate and require up to 3 hours per week of collaboration among and across content areas with consistency (O) July 2018 Professional development plan that incorporates and emphasizes 21 st -century standards and skills as a transformative process within curriculum and instruction (M) CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 202 August 2018 Propose adjustment to California Standards for the Teaching Profession (CSTPs) to the California Department of Education to include developing bilingualism and student-centeredness (O) August 2018 Propose pre-service teacher preparation reform within BCLAD to include Content and Language Integrated Learning (K) August 2018 Language buddy system wherein all students have a target language buddy who is more proficient or a native speaker of another language with targeted meeting goals. (O) August 2018 Structured reflection and systems of teacher feedback that develop and grow teacher efficacy in the areas of dual language learning and culturally relevant pedagogy (M) August 2018 Integration of WICOR, Common Core Standards, EL Roadmap, and multilingualism (K) August 2018 to June 2019 District to communicate consistently and effectively regarding the priorities once stakeholder information has been gathered (O) August 2018 to June 2019 Structured reflection within pre-service and in-service teacher training wherein teachers learn how to participate in a continuous cycle of reflection and lead students into a continuous cycle of reflection (K) August 2018 to June 2019 In-service teaching professional development that embeds dual language learning and student-centered pedagogy within all content areas, which includes job aids and training (K) August 2018 to December 2018 District to reevaluate organizational priorities considering current outcomes, capitalizing on student assets and building toward a 21 st -century curriculum that is culturally relevant and promotes expansion of their given assets (O) December 2018 Search for and secure instructional materials that further dual language learning (O) January 2019 Begin to deconstruct content area silos and build a system of inter-departmental collaboration, primarily between language and content teachers (O) February 2019 Propose extending professional learning to three hours per week (O) January 2019 to March 2019 Language learning courses for teachers available during and after school (O) March 2019 Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) for content area courses in languages other than English (O) March 2019 Primary language content instruction for students who are speakers of other languages up to 5 hours per week (O) June 2019 Multilingual embedded curriculum emphasized student-centeredness (K) June 2019 to July 2019 International Baccalaureate, AVID, Common Core Standards, Global Competence, and EL Roadmap integration resource development and training (O) CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 203 Implementation Constraints and Challenges Every implementation plan has realistic constraints due to zero sum resources, unaccounted for external and internal variables or influences, and unforeseen, unpredicted, or unintended consequences. There are three notable systemic constraints for making recommended changes to increase SSB earners. There are three notable constraints for making drastic changes to increase SSB earners. The first constraint is the nature of LCAP prioritization and decision-making given the advent of the EdGE reform. The second constraint is the overall library of current textbook publications contained and approved within the district. The final constraint is the current small number of teachers who possess the bilingual certification through the BCLAD relative to the entire workforce. Decision-Making and District Priorities The plan is dependent on the value attributed to the linguistic assets of students and the desire to make all students in CPHSD proficient bilingual and biliterate young adults. If the stakeholders and district continue to value bilingualism and biliteracy, resources can be allocated to the furtherance of developing bilingualism and biliteracy among all students. Despite the EdGE legislation and adopted policy, parents and other stakeholders are not fully aware of the repercussions and potential opportunities available for developing dual language learning opportunities within LEAs, especially at the secondary school level and because the matriculating schools are not part of the CPHSD. Education for the broader public, including the imperative stakeholders within the district will enable greater success. Textbook Publishers Districts are often dependent on the textbooks and materials provided by publishers for an adopted schema to provide to teachers. The state has transitioned to common core standards CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 204 within the past six years, and therefore, teachers have either had to align their curriculum to the new standards or await district professional collaboration and planning for curriculum that aligns with the new standards. Though teachers could and sometimes do develop their own materials and resources, it is incredibly time consuming to include more than one language within all core content courses. With feedback from district, publishers may adjust their content and expand their supplemental materials, but the process is labored due to publication timelines and the life cycle of most textbooks. The district is unlikely to be able to make mass textbook purchases when books are still in good condition. Publishers are moving toward more digital footprints and cloud-contained resources, they are still in process of connecting the schematics of scaffolded instruction within their comprehensive materials. Alignment of all available technologies and textbooks is labor intensive. Teacher Credentialing Teacher credentialing programs are vast in contents and quality despite their reliance on abiding by state credentialing minimum obligations. Though the district can and does collaborate with local universities for securing teacher candidates for vacancies or partnering to identify best practices in pedagogy, they are not directly involved in determining the requirements of credential candidates or graduates. The pathway and exams exist for teachers to earn a bilingual credential through the BCLAD by demonstrating their bilingual proficiency, but alignment with single subject secondary teachers is unknown. Through continued partnership with state and county education agencies and the colleges of education at universities, the district can express their desirable candidate qualities, but credentialing program modifications or alignment are unique to the university. However, the district can be intentional about hiring content area teachers who also possess other language proficiencies. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 205 Evaluation Plan The evaluation plan is essential for the strategic collection of feedback from stakeholders regarding the effectiveness of the interventions proposed. Based on the work of Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2006) regarding the evaluation of professional development, the levels of evaluation to utilize include reaction or satisfaction level, the attainment of learning, behavior change or application of the learned knowledge, and impact on performance outcomes. The interventions proposed will each have a plan of evaluating their effectiveness on improving organizational performance toward achieving higher rates of bilingualism and biliteracy. Table 30 Evaluation Plan (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006) Intervention Proposed Reaction or Satisfaction (Level 1) Learning (Level 2) Behavior or Application (Level 3) Impact (Level 4) Language Specialist to coordinate professional learning and growth, curriculum and instruction, and reflection implementation plan Changing in teaching pedagogy based on training and coaching Metrics from students proving proficiency in both language Increase in seal of biliteracy earners In-service teaching professional development that embeds dual language learning and student-centered pedagogy within all content areas, which includes job aids and training (K) Use rating sheets at the end of each training session with space for qualitative responses Monitor attendance and completion rates Self-rating before, during, and after training to measure change in learning Survey of participants and supervisors within six months and 12 months from training Metrics from students proving proficiency in another language increase CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 206 Table 30, continued Intervention Proposed Reaction or Satisfaction (Level 1) Learning (Level 2) Behavior or Application (Level 3) Impact (Level 4) Professional development plan that incorporates and emphasizes 21 st - century standards and skills as a transformative process within curriculum and instruction (M) Begin to deconstruct content area silos and build a system of inter-departmental collaboration, primarily between language and content teachers (O) Survey to check on how teachers feel interdisciplinary collaboration is working or not working Professional learning community visits from administration to check on discourse and notes Observation of department conversations; evidence that interdisciplinary projects are planned within the curriculum Interdisciplinary projects are evident in at least two departments Collaboration occurs with fidelity and discusses student-centered language learning in all content areas Use of and integration among International Baccalaureate, AVID strategies, Common Core Standards, Global Competence, and EL Roadmap (K and O) Search for and secure instructional materials that further dual language learning (O) Use rating sheets at the end of each training session with space for qualitative responses Self-rating before, during, and after training to measure change in learning Teachers confidently express the integration of bilingual instruction and demonstrate student-centered learning using instructional materials that are bilingual and culturally relevant Students are engaged in a college preparatory 21 st - century curriculum and are performing at high levels for state, national, and international assessments All students are able to attain the seal of biliteracy upon graduation CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 207 Table 30, continued Intervention Proposed Reaction or Satisfaction (Level 1) Learning (Level 2) Behavior or Application (Level 3) Impact (Level 4) Structured reflection within pre-service and in-service teacher training wherein teachers learn how to participate in a continuous cycle of reflection and lead students into a continuous cycle of reflection (K) More embedded student-centered reflection for autonomy and ownership of learning Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) for content area courses in languages other than English (O) Survey to teachers upon proposal to add courses with primary language other than English Select teachers demonstrate proficiency in a language other than English Select teachers are able to provide curriculum and instruction within a core content area in a language other than English Students achieve higher proficiencies in two or more languages as evidenced by performance on language assessments More students earn the seal of biliteracy within a 4-year cohort Primary language content instruction for students who are speakers of other languages up to five hours per week (O) Survey to teachers about their reaction to heritage language instruction Select teachers learn how to deliver instruction to heritage speakers so as to bridge with second language Minority language teachers are recruited and serve students up to five hours per week Minority language speakers develop second language more quickly Minority language speakers earn the seal of biliteracy at higher rates than before CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 208 Table 30, continued Intervention Proposed Reaction or Satisfaction (Level 1) Learning (Level 2) Behavior or Application (Level 3) Impact (Level 4) Language buddy system wherein all students have a target language buddy who is more proficient or a native speaker of another language with targeted meeting goals. (O) Survey to students about how they perceive and engage in the buddy program Students learn higher level vocabulary Survey to students regarding the impact on their own second language learning Students meet with buddies frequently and gain more autonomy of their language learning Students speak more confidently in their target language Increase in students who earn the seal of biliteracy Higher performance on language assessments More practical applications and usages of bilingual and biliteracy skills in the local and global community Level 1 Reactions or Satisfaction Level one reactions are critical for determining immediate feedback regarding the initial responses and reactions to a training or intervention. Level one reactions will be gathered through the use rating sheets at the end of each training session with space for qualitative responses. The surveying of how teachers feel interdisciplinary collaboration is positive impacting their pedagogical and planning practice will help inform the value of the time. Teachers’ reactions to heritage language instruction, how they perceive the buddy program, the monitoring of attendance and completion rates, and reflection sheet completion rates will illuminate the ongoing beliefs and efficacy about the interventions. The ratings, surveys, and reflections will illuminate teachers’ reactions or satisfaction with the interventions. Level 2 Learning Level two learning metrics are gathered through self-rating before, during, and after training to measure changes or attainment of new learning. Surveys can be provided to students CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 209 to gather the noticeable impact on their second language learning and assessment results that indicate students are increasing in language proficiency is tangible evidence. Reflection sheets that address how teachers respond to data to improve outcomes will enable evidence of reflection and gather meaningful data about their conceptual understanding of the incorporation of languages and etymology within content areas. Professional learning community visits from administration with anecdotal notes about discourse and notes collected through their meeting will provide qualitative data to capture teachers’ immediate collaborative engagement around these topics. Identifying select teachers who demonstrate increased proficiency in a language other than English and utilizing the heritage languages of students will gauge the growing cultural and linguistic proficiency of teachers. Level 3 Behavior Transfer or Application Level three embodies the opportunity for a significant transition to changes in individual and organizational behavior for improving outcomes. At this stage, evaluation will include the evidence of increased usage of student-centered pedagogy with more dual language supports in class; teachers confidently express the integration of bilingual instruction and demonstrate student-centered learning using instructional materials that are bilingual and culturally relevant; survey of participants and supervisors within six months and 12 months from training; informal observation of department conversations and evidence that interdisciplinary projects are planned within the curriculum; that students meet with language buddies frequently and gain more autonomy of their language learning and students speak more confidently in their target language; select teachers are able to provide curriculum and instruction within a core content area in a language other than English; reflection results in continuous cycle of improvement and CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 210 adjustment within instruction that supports student achievement; and minority language teachers are recruited and serve students up to five hours per week. Level 4 Results or Impact Level four impact is the impetus for all of the knowledge, motivation, and organizational change efforts to address the validated influences. The theme for measuring the impact of the interventions includes the concrete exemplary increase in student achievement as measured by state, national, and international assessments, the increase in Seal of Biliteracy earners, the thorough and threaded 21 st -century curriculum and instruction to prepare students for a global marketplace, and the advent of interdisciplinary projects to further develop students’ usage of multilingualism in context. Additionally, the organizational mechanisms of collaboration, planning, and reflection for student-centeredness should be evident as a sustainable feature in the organizations improvement. Finally, there should be a direct and substantial relationship to the practical applications and usages of bilingual and biliteracy skills in the local and global community. Future Research The field of bilingualism and multilingualism, biliteracy, and the maintenance of heritage languages and cultures pervades global sustainable development goals, demands of employment essentials in a global marketplace, and historical and cultural realms of human interaction. To further advance the study of and refine the supports afforded to developing bilingualism and biliteracy, the following aspects of future research will inform best practices. Seal of Biliteracy Impact with Employers Davin and Heineke (2017) are generating some initial research findings on the benefits to employers of students having the seal of biliteracy. Given that the seal of biliteracy CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 211 authentication ranges across state lines, it is to be explored among employers if the stated benchmarks for proficiency are enough for what they need in the marketplace. Promising Practices in Multilingualism The type of research that can discover and extrapolate the best practices in advancing multilingualism among their school populations will enhance the field and contribute to a diverse spectrum of students advancing toward multilingualism. The United States, though an expansive and diverse nation has few models for multiliteracy spanning the school-aged life cycle from preschool to secondary, so further research to validate the promising practices of the few high quality models for advancing students toward proficiency in three or more languages like many European nations is worth exploring. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 212 Alternative Pathways to Bilingualism Besides Coursework There are off-the-shelf exams that may meet the minimum requirements for demonstrating proficiency in one or more language other than English. The efficacy and validity of these assessments as useful measures for demonstrating proficiency are still being explored. Additionally, given the adoption of Spanish Common Core standards at the primary school level, further study on the requisites for secondary schools to develop matriculation programs could use further study. The expanse of dual immersion programs in early grades is opening the door to reformed secondary language delivery models within content courses, rather than the usual but short trajectory of taking the highest AP language and culture or literature course. Conclusion The innovative gap analysis study focused on exploring the present levels of knowledge, motivation, and organization in the area of bilingualism and biliteracy instruction within the context of student-centered culturally relevant pedagogy in a setting wherein few teachers possessed credentials for bilingual education (Clark & Estes, 2008). Quantitative and qualitative data was collected to reveal validations of various knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences to teachers’ ability to promote bilingualism and biliteracy through a culturally relevant pedagogy in their core content classes across the curriculum. Factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge influences were validated in the area of dual language instruction, but for culturally relevant pedagogy, the influences were either partially or not validated. Motivation and organizational influences related to dual language learning were validated, while those addressing culturally relevant pedagogy were either partially or not validated. Therefore, given the change in legislation from EO to more inclusive of other native or heritage languages was not yet evident and in need of innovative remediation in the next wave of 21 st -century CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 213 learning. 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Journal of Teacher Education, 61(3), 248-260. 10.1177/0022487109359775 CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 229 APPENDIX A Summary of Assumed Knowledge Causes and Validation Methods Table A1 Summary of Assumed Knowledge Validation Methods Assumed Cause or Influence Survey Interview Document Analysis Teachers need to understand what is bilingualism and biliteracy. (F) X Teachers need to know what is culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy. (F) X X Teachers need to understand how to include students’ primary and target languages into core content area instruction. (C) X X Teachers need to understand how culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy influences curriculum and instruction. (C) X X Teachers need to deliver best instructional practices through student-led and student- centered pedagogy that elicits native and target languages. (P) X X Teachers need to demonstrate an ability to plan and deliver lessons in their content area that are inclusive of culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy. (P) X X Teachers need to reflect on lesson and unit development and how students are progressing in two or more languages. (M) X X Teachers need to reflect on how the curriculum and pedagogy are culturally relevant. (M) X (F) Factual; (C) Conceptual; (P) Procedural; (M) Metacognitive CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 230 Table A2 Summary of Assumed Motivation Validation Methods Assumed Cause or Influence Survey Interview Document Analysis Teachers need to believe that bilingualism and biliteracy is an asset for students’ cognitive development and academic achievement. (B) X X Teachers need to value students’ heritage languages and cultures in order to incorporate them into student-led instruction. (V) X X Teachers need to demonstrate confidence and self-efficacy in planning and facilitating dual language instruction and culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy within their content area. (SE) X X Teachers need to provide instruction that is student-centered for achievement in alignment with 21 st -century standards, which include bilingualism and culturally relevant pedagogy. (GO) X X (B) Belief; (V) Value; (SE) Self-Efficacy; (GO) Goal-Orientation CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 231 Table A3 Summary of Assumed Organization Validation Methods Assumed Cause or Influence Survey Interview Document Analysis Schools need to provide teachers with instructional materials and curricula in all content areas that support dual language learning and culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy. (R) X Schools need to embrace and support all teachers in progressing toward the LCAP goals and organizational mission. (CM) X X X Schools need to celebrate growth in dual language acquisition. (CM) X Schools need to provide teachers with professional learning and growth opportunities and collaborative time within each content area. (CS) X X X Schools need to provide language teachers and core content area teachers (science, social science, and math) time and space to collaborate. (CS) X X X Schools need to provide teachers with ongoing professional development in dual language instruction and culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy. (T) X X X Schools need to commit to providing a range of tools for teachers to achieve the standards for meeting their stakeholder goal and the organizational mission. (T) X X X Schools need to communicate policies and procedures for scheduling student 4- year plans to ensure maximum completion of State Seal of Biliteracy requirements. (PP) X X (R) Resources; (CM) Cultural Model; (CS) Cultural Setting; (T) Training; (PP) Policies and Procedures CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 232 Table A4 Summary of Assumed Knowledge Causes and Validation Methods with Questions Assumed Cause or Influence Instrument Question or Method Teachers need to understand what is bilingualism and biliteracy and the seal of biliteracy. (F) Survey Survey I know methods for students to earn the California State Seal of Biliteracy. I know what dual language acquisition pedagogy is. Teachers need to know what is culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy. (F) Interview Survey Describe your understanding of culturally relevant pedagogy. I know what culturally relevant or sustaining pedagogy is. Teachers need to understand dual language acquisition models and understand their implementation within their core content area. (C) Interview Survey All teachers are required to have completed English learner authorization with their single subject credential. Please describe your understanding and implementation of second language acquisition strategies. My curriculum and materials address dual language learning. Teachers need to understand how culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy influences curriculum and instruction. (C) Interview Interview Survey Describe your understanding of culturally relevant pedagogy. In addition to your content standards, what other factors do you take into consideration when planning lessons? My curriculum and materials address culturally relevant instructional materials. Teachers need to deliver best instructional practices through student-led and student-centered pedagogy that elicits native and target languages. (P) Interview Interview Survey Survey In addition to your content standards, what other factors do you take into consideration when planning lessons? Describe how you approach language (English or another) instruction within your curriculum. I know how to plan lessons and units incorporating dual languages. I know how to deliver and facilitate student-led and student-centered dual language experiences. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 233 Table A4, continued. Teachers need to demonstrate an ability to plan and deliver lessons in their content area that are inclusive of culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy. (P) Interview Survey In addition to your content standards, what other factors do you take into consideration when planning lessons? I know how to plan lessons and units incorporating culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy. Teachers need to reflect on lesson and unit development and how students are progressing in dual languages. (M) Interview Interview Survey What barriers have experienced in lesson planning for dual language acquisition or culturally relevant pedagogy? During and after you meet with your content area professional learning teams, what aspects of language learning do you reflect on? I regularly reflect on improving my teaching practice related to dual language learning. Teachers need to reflect on how the curriculum and pedagogy are culturally relevant. (M) Survey Survey I regularly reflect on improving curriculum and instruction that is culturally relevant and sustaining toward building students’ capacities in value-added cultural learning. I am conscious of my biases of other ethnicities, languages, and cultures. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 234 Table A5 Summary of Assumed Motivation Causes and Validation Methods with Questions Assumed Cause or Influence Instrument Question or Method Teachers need to believe that bilingualism and biliteracy is an asset for students’ cognitive development and academic achievement. (B) Interview Survey Survey Survey How do you acknowledge or capitalize on the assets or unique characteristics of your students within your instruction? I believe that bilingualism and biliteracy is an asset for students' cognitive development and academic achievement. I believe bilingualism and biliteracy are a priority for our students. I believe that students' native language is an asset for them and should be utilized in learning. Teachers need to value students’ heritage languages and cultures in order to incorporate them into student-led instruction. (V) Interview Interview Survey Survey Describe how you approach language (English or another) instruction within your curriculum. How do you acknowledge or capitalize on the assets or unique characteristics of your students within your instruction? Students' native language is an asset for them and should be utilized in learning. Teachers need to value students’ heritage languages and cultures in order to incorporate them into student-led instruction. Teachers need to demonstrate confidence and self-efficacy in planning and facilitating dual language instruction and culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy within their content area. (SE) Interview Survey Survey Survey Do you feel equipped to meet the language and cultural learning instructional needs of your students within your content area? Why or why not? I feel confident in planning dual language instruction within my content classes. I feel confident with incorporating culturally relevant strategies into my content area curriculum. I feel confident with student-led language learning. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 235 Table A5, continued. Teachers need to provide instruction that is student-centered for achievement in alignment with 21 st - century standards, which include bilingualism and culturally relevant pedagogy. (GO) Interview Interview Survey Survey Describe how you approach language (English or another) instruction within your curriculum. During and after you meet with your content area professional learning teams, what aspects of language learning do you reflect on? My lesson plans and pedagogy encourage mastery- based learning over performance. Teachers need to align their instructional goals with the organizational goal and 21 st -century standards, which includes dual language learning and culturally relevant pedagogy. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 236 Table A6 Summary of Assumed Organization Causes and Validation Methods with Questions Assumed Cause or Influence Instrument Question or Method Schools need to provide teachers with instructional materials and curricula in all content areas that support dual language learning and culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy. (R) Interview Interview Survey Survey Do you feel equipped to meet the language and cultural learning instructional needs of students within your content area? What barriers have you experienced in lesson planning for dual language acquisition or culturally relevant pedagogy? I have sufficient materials and supplies for teaching dual languages within my content area. I have sufficient materials and supplies to provide culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy. Schools need to embrace and support all teachers in progressing toward the LCAP goals and organizational mission. (CM) Interview Survey Document Analysis What barriers have you experienced in lesson planning for dual language acquisition or culturally relevant pedagogy? Our school culture embraces and celebrates bilingualism or multilingualism. LCAP goals and professional development calendar and agendas. Schools need to celebrate growth in dual language acquisition. (CM) Interview How do you acknowledge or capitalize on the assets or unique of students within your instruction? Schools need to provide language teachers and core content area teachers (science, social science, and math) time and space to collaborate. (CS) Interview Interview Survey During and after you meet with your content area professional learning teams, what aspects of language learning do you reflect on? How can the organization better equip you for the language and learning instructional needs for the students you serve? Language teachers (English, Spanish, French, ASL) collaborate with core content teachers to discuss CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 237 Document Analysis strategies for supporting bilingualism and biliteracy within each content area. Professional development calendar and agendas and Board of Education policies. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 238 Table A6, continued. Schools need to provide teachers with time for professional learning and growth opportunities and collaborative time within each content area. (CS) Interview Interview Interview Survey Survey Document Analysis Do you feel equipped to meet the language and cultural learning instructional needs of students within your content area? What barriers have you experienced in lesson planning for dual language acquisition or culturally relevant pedagogy? How can the organization better equip you for the language and learning instructional needs for the students you serve? I have sufficient time and space to plan lessons that include dual language learning and that are culturally relevant. My professional learning community has sufficient time and space to collaborate about improving curriculum and instruction for dual language learning and culturally relevant pedagogy. Professional development calendar and agendas and Board of Education policies. Schools need to provide teachers with ongoing professional development in dual language instruction and culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy. (T) Interview Interview Interview Survey Survey Document analysis What training have you received in second language learning, dual language learning, or culturally relevant pedagogy? What barriers have you experienced in lesson planning for dual language acquisition or culturally relevant pedagogy? How can the organization better equip you for the language and learning instructional needs for the students you serve? I have received training that pertains to dual language learning across core content areas. I have received training that pertains to culturally relevant or sustaining pedagogy within my core content area. Professional development calendar and agendas and Board of Education policies. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 239 Table A6, continued. Schools need to commit to providing a range of tools for teachers to achieve the standards for meeting their stakeholder goal and the organizational mission. (T) Interview Interview Document analysis What training have you received in second language learning, dual language learning, or culturally relevant pedagogy? How can the organization better equip you for the language and learning instructional needs for the students you serve? Professional development calendar and agendas. Schools need to communicate policies and procedures for scheduling student 4- year plans to ensure maximum completion of State Seal of Biliteracy requirements. (PP) Survey Survey Document analysis Policies and procedures help me to provide student- centered culturally relevant courses that lead to earning the seal of biliteracy. Our policies align with the California bilingual education laws. Board policies reviewed for evidence of teacher expectations regarding pedagogy or dual language learning. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 240 APPENDIX B Data Collection Instruments Section A: Secondary Bilingualism and Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Survey Protocol Email Subject: VOLUNTARY RESPONSE REQUESTED: Bilingual and Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Dear CPHSD Educator, You have been selected to participate in a research study about Bilingual Education and Culturally Relevant Pedagogy at the secondary level because you teach at one of the comprehensive high schools in the College Prep HSD in Math, English, Science, Social Science, VAPA, or Special Education. Your participation is very much appreciated and desired in order to provide a reliable study about bilingual and culturally relevant pedagogy. Your identity will not be collected and will remain anonymous, and your name will never be used in association with your responses. Your expertise as an educator in secondary schools will help contribute to the body of knowledge in this field. Please follow the link below to complete the survey. The survey should take approximately 15 minutes. Follow this link to the Survey: Take the Survey Use Password: Bilingual Or copy and paste the URL below into your internet browser: https://usc.qualtrics.com/jfe/form/SV_1BbT3iWvmcQtkGN?Q_DL=42SdrpKJcKGOOB7_1BbT 3iWvmcQtkGN_MLRP_4NNT7olUC1NWm6F&Q_CHL=email Follow the link to opt out of future emails: Click here to unsubscribe CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 241 EXPANDING BILINGUALISM AND BILITERACY WITH STUDENT-CENTERED CULTURALLY RELEVANT PEDAGOGY IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS: AN INNOVATION GAP ANALYSIS You are invited to participate in a voluntary research study conducted by Jamie Lee* at the University of Southern California in the Global Executive Doctor of Education program. Please read through this form and ask any questions you might have before participating. If you have questions that need clarification about before deciding whether you want to participate, please feel free to ask before getting started. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY This research study aims to understand the degree to which students’ primary and secondary languages are developed within a pedagogy that is culturally relevant. The study incorporates an innovative gap analysis. An innovation study infers an area that is not currently employed, and it explores the present levels of understanding within the knowledge and motivation of stakeholders and organizational structures that impact the area of study. This study aims to discover knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that would positively implement best practices in dual language acquisition at the secondary school level, enabling students to graduate ready to participate in a global economy and bilingual and bi-literate. From the data collected in this study, we hope to help improve bilingual and culturally relevant experiences for all students. PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT Your involvement is completely voluntary and is much appreciated about this area of study. If you do not want to answer a question or do not feel like you can adequately answer a question fully, you are invited to give as much information as you are able or are welcome to bypass the question. The survey should take approximately 15 minutes. INCENTIVE FOR PARTICIPATION By participating in the study, you are able to have your unique voice heard, which presents an opportunity for contribution to a significant body of knowledge in education locally, nationally, and internationally regarding these topics. CONFIDENTIALITY There will be no identifiable information used or shared in connection with this study, so your identity will remain anonymous. All data will be collected, transcribed, and secured on a secure password-protected computer program. At the completion of the study, the anonymous data may be used for future research studies regarding bilingual education, culturally relevant pedagogy, or a combination of the two. If you do not want your data used in future studies, you may elect not CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 242 to participate. Data collected will not be divulged to the district, nor will they receive any information about who participated or individual data collected. The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects. Sincerely, Jamie Lee* USC Researcher and Doctor of Education Candidate Please complete the survey below. Q1 At which school do you currently work?  Antimony High School (1)  Indium High School (2)  Titanium High School (3)  Berkelium High School (4)  Valley High School (5) Q2 What is your current teaching assignment (Department, Course, Grade Level)? List the title of your department and course Department (1) Course (2) Current (1) Previous (2) Previous (3) Q3 How many years have you taught in total?  0-2 (1)  3-5 (2)  6-8 (3)  9-11 (4)  12-14 (5)  15-17 (6)  18-20 (7)  21+ (8) CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 243 Q4 How many years have you been teaching at this site?  0-2 (1)  3-5 (2)  6-8 (3)  9-11 (4)  12-14 (5)  15-17 (6)  18-20 (7)  21+ (8) Q5 Please self-identify your language proficiency in each language. None (1) Beginne r Convers ational (2) Beginne r Interme diate (3) Interme diate (4) Interme diate Advanc ed (5) Advanc ed (6) Native Speaker (7) Spanish (1)        French (2)        Portuguese (3)        Tagolog (4)        Mandarin Chinese (5)        Russian (6)        Arabic (7)        German (8)        Japanese (9)        Italian (10)        English (11)        Q6 Have you ever engaged in informal language learning? Please check which tools you have used. ❑ Duolingo (1) ❑ Rosetta Stone (2) ❑ Pimsleur (3) ❑ Dictionaries and Books (4) ❑ Picked it up from travel (5) ❑ Picked it up from family (6) ❑ Picked it up from co-workers (7) ❑ TV , Movies, and Music (8) ❑ Other _______________________ CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 244 Q7 Have you ever received formal language instruction in a language other than English? Formal Language Instruction? What was the formal learning? Yes (1) No (2) Highest Course Taken (1) Program (i.e. High School, College, Adult School) (2) Spanish (1)   French (2)   Portuguese (3)   Tagolog (4)   Mandarin Chinese (5)   Russian (6)   Arabic (7)   German (8)   Japanese (9)   Italian (10)   English (11)   Q8 I know methods for students to earn the California State Seal of Biliteracy (F). 0 Not at all 1 Somewhat 2 Well 3 Extremely well Q9 I know what dual language acquisition pedagogy is (F). 0 Not at all 1 Somewhat 2 Well 3 Extremely well Q10 I know what culturally relevant or sustaining pedagogy is (F). 0 Not at all 1 Somewhat 2 Well 3 Extremely well Q11 My curriculum and materials address dual language learning (C). 0 Not at all 1 Somewhat 2 Well 3 Extremely well Q12 My curriculum and materials address culturally relevant instructional materials (C). 0 Not at all 1 Somewhat 2 Well 3 Extremely well CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 245 Q13 I know how to plan lessons and units incorporating dual languages (P). 0 Not at all 1 Somewhat 2 Well 3 Extremely well Q14 I know how to plan lessons and units incorporating culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy (P). 0 Not at all 1 Somewhat 2 Well 3 Extremely well Q15 I know how to deliver and facilitate student-led and student-centered dual language experiences (P). 0 Not at all 1 Somewhat 2 Well 3 Extremely well Q16 I regularly reflect on improving my teaching practice related to dual language learning (M). 0 Not at all 1 Somewhat 2 Well 3 Extremely well Q17 I regularly reflect on improving curriculum and instruction that is culturally relevant and sustaining toward building students’ capacities in value-added cultural learning (M). 0 Not at all 1 Somewhat 2 Well 3 Extremely well Q18 I am conscious of my biases of other ethnicities, languages, and cultures (M). 0 Not at all 1 Somewhat 2 Well 3 Extremely well Q19 I believe that bilingualism and biliteracy is an asset for students' cognitive development and academic achievement (B). 0 Not at all 1 Somewhat 2 Well 3 Extremely well Q20 I believe bilingualism and biliteracy are a priority for our students (B). 0 Not at all 1 Somewhat 2 Well 3 Extremely well CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 246 Q21 I believe that students' native language is an asset for them and should be utilized in learning (B). 0 Not at all 1 Somewhat 2 Well 3 Extremely well Q22 Students' native language is an asset for them and should be utilized in learning (V). 0 Not at all 1 Somewhat 2 Well 3 Extremely well Q23 Teachers need to value students’ heritage languages and cultures in order to incorporate them into student-led instruction. (V) 0 Not at all 1 Somewhat 2 Well 3 Extremely well Q24 I feel confident in planning dual language instruction within my content classes (SE). 0 Not at all 1 Somewhat 2 Well 3 Extremely well Q25 I feel confident with incorporating culturally relevant strategies into my content area curriculum (SE). 0 Not at all 1 Somewhat 2 Well 3 Extremely well Q26 I feel confident with student-led language learning (SE). 0 Not at all 1 Somewhat 2 Well 3 Extremely well Q27 My lesson plans and pedagogy encourage mastery-based learning over performance (GO). 0 Not at all 1 Somewhat 2 Well 3 Extremely well Q28 Teachers need to align their instructional goals with the organizational goal and 21st century standards, which includes dual language learning and culturally relevant pedagogy (GO). 0 Not at all 1 Somewhat 2 Well 3 Extremely well Q29 I have sufficient materials and supplies for teaching dual languages within my content area (R). 0 Not at all 1 Somewhat 2 Well 3 Extremely well CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 247 Q30 I have sufficient materials and supplies to provide culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogy (R). 0 Not at all 1 Somewhat 2 Well 3 Extremely well Q31 Our school culture embraces and celebrates bilingualism or multilingualism (CM). 0 Not at all 1 Somewhat 2 Well 3 Extremely well Q32 I have sufficient time and space to plan lessons that include dual language learning and that are culturally relevant (CS). 0 Not at all 1 Somewhat 2 Well 3 Extremely well Q33 My professional learning community has sufficient time and space to collaborate about improving curriculum and instruction for dual language learning and culturally relevant pedagogy (CS). 0 Not at all 1 Somewhat 2 Well 3 Extremely well Q34 Language teachers (English, Spanish, French, ASL) collaborate with core content teachers to discuss strategies for supporting bilingualism and biliteracy within each content area (CS). 0 Not at all 1 Somewhat 2 Well 3 Extremely well Q35 I have received or attended training that pertains to dual language learning across core content areas (T). 0 Not at all 1 Somewhat 2 Well 3 Extremely well Q36 I have received training that pertains to culturally relevant or sustaining pedagogy within my core content area (T). 0 Not at all 1 Somewhat 2 Well 3 Extremely well Q37 Policies and procedures help me to provide student-centered culturally relevant courses that lead to earning the Seal of Biliteracy (PP). 0 Not at all 1 Somewhat 2 Well 3 Extremely well Q38 Our policies align with the California bilingual education laws (PP). 0 Not at all 1 Somewhat 2 Well 3 Extremely well CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 248 Thank you for participating in the survey! INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact Jamie Lee* at jamiemle@usc.edu* or (630) 202-4597*. The dissertation chairperson is Dr. Monique Datta of the University of Southern California; she can be reached at mdatta@usc.edu. IRB CONTACT INFORMATION If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research participant or the research in general and are unable to contact the research team, or if you want to talk to someone independent of the research team, please contact the University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu. *The name, email address, and phone number were replaced with Cathy Atwell, catwell@usc.edu, and (818) 723-3114 for Indium High School distribution because principal investigator is an administrator and supervisor at the site. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 249 Section B: Secondary Bilingualism and Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Interview Protocol Hi <Teacher>, My name is Jamie Lee*, and I am a doctoral candidate in the Global Education Executive Doctoral Program at the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern California in Los Angeles, California, USA. You have been randomly selected among teachers in your content area within CPHSD to respond to a short interview and observation. Your participation is voluntary, and if you choose to participate, I would like to set up a time to conduct an interview with you regarding bilingualism, biliteracy, and culturally relevant pedagogy. Your feedback through this interview will help to illuminate and develop understanding about language and culture in the classroom, shape potential future policies, support, or training, and provide insight for secondary schools domestically, in California and the United States, and internationally. Please answer the questions to the best of your knowledge, recollection, or feeling at the moment. Your identity will remain anonymous and pseudonyms will be used to protect identity. The survey should take approximately 30 minutes. To thank you for participating in the interview, you will be rewarded with a $10 gift card for a select retail location. Please provide an address where the card can be mailed. Attached is a Consent Form** for this process for your review. I will have a copy for you to sign at our interview. Please confirm your participation by replying via email or phone. Email: jamiemle@usc.edu* Phone: 630-202-4597* Thank you! *The name, email address, and phone number were replaced with Cathy Atwell, catwell@usc.edu, and (818) 723-3114 for Indium High School distribution because principal investigator is an administrator and supervisor at the site. **Consent Form attached is included as Appendix C. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 250 Demographics School __________________________________________________________________ Department __________________________________________________________________ Course(s) __________________________________________________________________ Credential __________________________________________________________________ Q1-Q12 1. Describe your understanding of culturally relevant pedagogy. (Factual, Conceptual) 2. All teachers are required to have completed English learner authorization with their single subject credential. Please describe your understanding of second language acquisition strategies. (Conceptual, Procedural) 3. What training have you received in second language learning, dual language learning, or culturally relevant pedagogy? (Training) 4. Do you feel equipped to meet the language and cultural learning instructional needs of your students within your content area? (Self-Efficacy, Cultural Setting, Resources) 5. In addition to your content standards, what other factors do you take into consideration when planning lessons? (Conceptual, Procedural) CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 251 6. Describe how you approach language (English or another) instruction within your curriculum. (Procedural, Beliefs, Values) 7. How do you acknowledge or capitalize on the assets or unique characteristics of your students within your instruction? (Procedural, Beliefs, Values, Cultural Model) 8. What barriers have you experienced in lesson planning for dual language acquisition or culturally relevant pedagogy? (Metacognitive, Cultural Setting, Resources, Training) 9. During and after you meet with your content area professional learning teams, what aspects of language learning do you reflect on? (Metacognitive, Goal-orientation, Cultural Model) 10. How can the organization better equip you for the language and learning instructional needs for the students you serve? (Cultural Setting, Training) CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 252 Section C: Secondary Bilingualism and Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Protocol Instructions: After interview is complete, analyze the teachers’ responses regarding dual language and culturally relevant pedagogy. Dual or Second Language Acquisition: Teaching Methodologies (Kathryn Lindholm-Leary, 2015) Evident Yes or No Explicit vocabulary instruction Students use native language Teacher facilitates or invites students to introduce native or heritage language Etymology explicitly taught Curriculum and materials provided in English and another language(s) There is balanced equity between languages used for instruction Culturally Relevant Pedagogy: Academic Achievement (Powell, 2014) Evident Yes or No Academic language used in instruction Academic language explicitly taught Student-led instruction used Student collaboration used Culturally Relevant Pedagogy: Cultural competence (Powell, 2014) Evident Yes or No Cultural references of students represented Content contextualized to students Teacher shared control of the classroom with students Culturally Relevant Pedagogy: Sociopolitical consciousness (Powell, 2014) Evident Yes or No References to elevate status of minority culture or language around the room Students question the status quo Students engage in real-world activity Texts are deconstructed regarding ideologies and biases CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 253 Section D: Secondary Bilingualism and Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Document Analysis District Professional Development Calendar and Agendas 1. What in-service professional development events address culturally relevant pedagogy? 2. What in-service professional development events address advancement of bilingualism or biliteracy? 3. Who participates in the in-service professional developments regarding culturally relevant pedagogy and bilingualism and biliteracy? Board Policies 1. What Board Policies address inclusion of bilingualism or biliteracy? 2. How do the Board Policies address curriculum and instruction, if at all, regarding what is expected of teachers in regard to culturally relevant pedagogy or second language acquisition? Student Performance Data 1. What themes emerge from the existing student performance data: CAASPP? 2. What themes emerge from the existing student performance data: AP language exams? 3. What themes emerge from the existing student performance data: ELPAC or CELDT scores? CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 254 APPENDIX C University of Southern California Information Sheet for Research EXPANDING BILINGUALISM AND BILITERACY WITH STUDENT-CENTERED CULTURALLY RELEVANT PEDAGOGY IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS: AN INNOVATION GAP ANALYSIS You are invited to voluntarily participate in a research study interview conducted by Jamie Lee* at the University of Southern California. Please read through this form and ask any questions you might have before participating. If you have questions that need clarification before deciding whether you want to participate, please feel free to ask before getting started. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY This research study aims to understand the degree to which students’ primary and secondary languages are developed within a pedagogy that is culturally relevant. The study incorporates an innovative gap analysis. An innovation study infers an area that is not currently employed, and it explores the present levels of understanding within the knowledge and motivation of stakeholders and organizational structures that impact the area of study. This study aims to discover knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that would positively implement best practices in dual language acquisition at the secondary school level, enabling students to graduate ready to participate in a global economy as bilingual and biliterate. From the data collected in this study, we hope to help improve bilingual and culturally relevant experiences for all students. PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT Your involvement is completely voluntary and is much appreciated about this area of study. If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in a 10-question interview and a 10 to 20-minute observation within your own classroom. If you do not want to answer a question or do not feel like you can adequately answer a question fully, you are invited to give as much information as you are able or are welcome to bypass the question. By participating in the study, you are able to have your unique voice heard, which presents an opportunity for contribution to a significant body of knowledge in education locally, nationally, and internationally regarding these topics. COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION You will receive a gift card immediately upon completion of participation in the interview and observation sequence. We know your time is valuable, and your assistance in my research is invaluable, which is why you will be compensated with a gift card. CONFIDENTIALITY There will be no identifiable information used or shared in connection with this study, so your identity will remain anonymous. All data will be collected, transcribed, and secured on a secure password-protected computer program. At the completion of the study, the anonymous data may CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 255 be used for future research studies regarding bilingual education, culturally relevant pedagogy, or a combination of the two. If you do not want your data used in future studies, you may elect not to participate. Data collected will not be divulged to the district, nor will they receive any information about who participated or individual data collected. The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects. INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact Jamie Lee at jamiemle@usc.edu* or (630) 202-4597*. The dissertation chairperson is Dr. Monique Datta of the University of Southern California; she can be reached at mdatta@usc.edu. IRB CONTACT INFORMATION If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research participant or the research in general and are unable to contact the research team, or if you want to talk to someone independent of the research team, please contact the University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu. *The name, email address, and phone number were replaced with Cathy Atwell, catwell@usc.edu, and (818) 723-3114 for Indium High School distribution because principal investigator is an administrator and supervisor at the site. CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 256 APPENDIX D Interview Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Matrix The following matrix was utilized to ensure the interview questions were addressing each element of the knowledge, motivation, and organization framework. Responses to the questions were categorized based on how they were addressed by the teachers. Some questions illuminated multiple layers of how a teacher possesses knowledge, motivation, or organization according to the topic of bilingualism, biliteracy, and culturally relevant pedagogy. Table D Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization within Interview Questions Knowledge Motivation Organization Interview Questions F C P M B V GO SE CM CS PP R T 1 x x 2 x x 3 x 4 x x x 5 x x 6 x x x 7 x x x x 8 x x x x 9 x x x 10 x x (F) Factual; (C) Conceptual; (P) Procedural; (M) Metacognitive; (B) Beliefs; (V) Values; (G) Goal-Orientation; (SE) Self-Efficacy; (CM) Cultural Models; (CS) Cultural Setting; (PP) Policies and Procedures; (R) Resources; (T) Training CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 257 APPENDIX E Table E Table E Countries Where English is the Primary Language (Sousa, 2017) Countries Where English is the Primary Language Total Population Anguilla 13,452 Antigua and Barbuda 91,295 Australia 24,128,500 Bahamas 321,834 Barbados 277,821 Belize 368,310 British Indian Ocean Territory 3,000 British Virgin Islands 28,054 Canada 36,155,487 Cayman Islands 56,732 Dominica 72,324 Falkland Islands 2,932 Gibraltar 32,194 Grenada 109,590 Guam 161,785 Guernsey 65,849 Guyana 735,554 Ireland 4,635,400 Isle of Man 84,497 Jamaica 2,950,210 Jersey 100,080 Montserrat 4,900 Nauru 10,084 New Zealand 4,696,810 Philippines 102,635,000 Pitcairn 56 Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha 7,729 Saint Kitts and Nevis 54,961 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 103,000 Singapore 5,535,000 South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands No Permanent Residents Trinidad and Tobago 1,349,667 Turks and Caicos 49,000 United Kingdom 65,102,385 United States 323,625,762 CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 258 APPENDIX F Table F Table F Description of Teachers’ Language Learning Experiences Survey Measure Item Frequency Percentage of Participants Language Proficiency: Spanish Beginner Conversational Beginner Intermediate Intermediate Intermediate Advanced Advanced Native Speaker 17 3 4 5 1 2 40.5 7.1 9.5 11.9 2.4 4.8 Language Proficiency: French Beginner Conversational Beginner Intermediate Intermediate Intermediate Advanced Advanced Native Speaker 4 2 2 0 2 0 9.5 4.8 4.8 0 4.8 0 Language Proficiency: Portuguese Beginner Conversational Beginner Intermediate Intermediate Intermediate Advanced Advanced Native Speaker 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 2.4 0 0 0 0 Language Proficiency: Tagalog Beginner Conversational Beginner Intermediate Intermediate Intermediate Advanced Advanced Native Speaker 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Language Proficiency: Mandarin Chinese Beginner Conversational Beginner Intermediate Intermediate Intermediate Advanced Advanced Native Speaker 2 0 0 1 0 0 4.8 0 0 2.4 0 0 Language Proficiency: Russian Beginner Conversational Beginner Intermediate Intermediate Intermediate Advanced Advanced Native Speaker 2 0 0 0 0 0 4.8 0 0 0 0 0 Language Proficiency: Beginner Conversational 0 0 CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 259 Arabic Beginner Intermediate Intermediate Intermediate Advanced Advanced Native Speaker 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Language Proficiency: German Beginner Conversational Beginner Intermediate Intermediate Intermediate Advanced Advanced Native Speaker 2 0 3 1 0 0 4.8 0 7.1 2.4 0 0 Language Proficiency: Japanese Beginner Conversational Beginner Intermediate Intermediate Intermediate Advanced Advanced Native Speaker 2 0 0 0 0 0 4.8 0 0 0 0 0 Language Proficiency: Italian Beginner Conversational Beginner Intermediate Intermediate Intermediate Advanced Advanced Native Speaker 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 2.4 0 Language Proficiency: English Beginner Conversational Beginner Intermediate Intermediate Intermediate Advanced Advanced Native Speaker 0 0 0 0 4 38 0 0 0 0 9.5 90.5 CULTURALLY RELEVANT BILINGUAL SECONDARY EDUCATION 260 APPENDIX G Kirkpatrick Four Levels of Change Table G Evaluation Instruments and Framework Assessing Knowledge and Skills Assessing Learning Outcomes Survey Interview Interview Document Analysis Kirkpatrick Four Levels of Change Close-ended Likert scale Semi-structured interviews Pedagogy Protocol from interviews Professional development calendar and agendas Level 1: Reaction X Level 2: Knowledge X X X Level 3: Transfer X Level 4: Impact X X

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Bilingualism and multilingualism prove efficacious for learners through a range of cognitive and academic benefits and affords an expansive breadth of economic opportunities. California pioneered recognizing students for attaining proficiency in two or more languages by awarding a State Seal of Biliteracy to secondary school graduates. The seal of biliteracy has since been established in 43 states, including the District of Columbia. Since 1997, teachers in California have been required to earn credentials to enhance English language acquisition. In 2017, California passed Proposition 58, the Education for a Global Economy Initiative, which is an impetus for igniting the value of and actionable efforts to incorporating dual and multilingual learning programs across California at increasing rates. Promoting the furtherance of bilingualism among all students entails a thorough analysis of knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs, which illuminate a trajectory for increasing a school's capacity to develop students as bilinguals and biliterates. Study findings are consistent with teachers’ need for factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge about dual language acquisition and their self-efficacy in delivering a pedagogy that incorporated dual language learning. Additionally, along with resources, training, and policies, cultural models and settings are a demonstrated need among the district to further systematically develop dual language acquisition.

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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Asset Metadata

Creator Lee, Jamie Michelle Gebhard (author)

Core Title Expanding bilingualism and biliteracy through a student-centered culturally relevant pedagogy in secondary schools: An innovation gap analysis

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Global Executive

Publication Date 07/18/2018

Defense Date 05/07/2018

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag 21st-century,bilingualism,biliteracy,cultural relevance,culturally relevant,culture,dual language learning,global economy,global education,High School,Language,language pedagogy,linguistic assets,multilingual,OAI-PMH Harvest,Secondary School,student-centered

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Datta, Monique (committee chair), Maddox, Anthony (committee member), Tambascia, Tracy (committee member)

Creator Email jamielee103@gmail.com,jamiemle@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-18604

Unique identifier UC11671848

Identifier etd-LeeJamieMi-6413.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-18604 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-LeeJamieMi-6413.pdf

Dmrecord 18604

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Lee, Jamie Michelle Gebhard

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA