University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Leadership styles conducive to creative tension in decision making among principals, vice principals, and deans at K-12 school sites

(USC Thesis Other)

Leadership styles conducive to creative tension in decision making among principals, vice principals, and deans at K-12 school sites

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content RUNNING HEAD: LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 1

LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION IN DECISION MAKING
AMONG PRINCIPALS, VICE PRINCIPALS, AND DEANS AT K-12 SCHOOL SITES

By

Stefond Torrey Johnson

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2019

Copyright 2019 Stefond Johnson
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 2

DEDICATION
To my family:
To my father, Todd, thank you for allowing me to become the man I am today; and ALWAYS
being there for me, I love you Dad.
To my brother, Terance, thank you for checking on me EVERY DAY, asking me how my
writing was going; you kept me focused and steadfast, I needed that. I love you bro.
And finally,
To my mother, Stephanie, this is OUR accomplishment. Thank you for being my inspiration;
everything I do is to make you proud. Nine months no charge and I love you with all my heart
for it. I am your raisin in the sun, your dream deferred.

LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 3

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to acknowledge and thank my dissertation committee: Dr. Rudy Castruita
(dissertation chair), Dr. David Cash, and Dr. Rodney Swanson. Dr. C, since the fall of 2016 you
gave me inspiration and hope that this moment would happen. Thank you Dr. C, for always
being a lighthouse and guiding me in the right direction, I appreciate you welcoming me into
your dissertation group, after it was already filled. I could have not have accomplished this
without you. Dr. Swanson, thank you for everything you have done for me since I was 13 years
old. You truly exemplify Manhood, Scholarship, Perseverance, and Uplift. The work that you
have done for students’ lives through me and the thousands of other lives you have impacted. I
hope when you look at me you see the fruits of your labor in education.
I have to acknowledge USC and the friends I made along the way here at this university.
Thank you for welcoming me all the way from across the country and providing me with a
family and a home away from home. I will forever be grateful to be a Trojan. FIGHT ON,
BECAUSE WE MADE IT!
To all of the participants, thank you so much for aiding me in reaching this milestone.
Thank you being available and accommodating, understanding that you were an integral part to
the accomplishment of this feat. I am forever indebted to you all.

LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 4

Table of Contents
List of Tables 6
Abstract 7
Chapter One: Overview of the Study 9
Introduction 9
Statement of Problem 12
Purpose of Study 13
Research Questions 13
Significance of Study 14
Limitations and Delimitation 14
Definition of Terms 14
Organization of Study 15
Chapter Two: Literature Review 17
Origins of Leadership Research 17
20
th
Century Views of Leadership 19
Trait Leadership 20
Situational Leadership 20
Ethical Leadership 22
Leadership Research and its Application to Education 23
Leadership Styles and Educational Leadership 27
Distributed Leadership 27
Instructional Leadership 29
Teacher Leadership 31
Transformational Leadership 33
Creative Tension 35
Definitions of Creative Tension 35
Lack of Application of Creative to Educational Research 38
Chapter Three: Methodology 41
Research Design and Methods 42
Rationale for Qualitative Methods 43
Interviews 44
Observations 44
Sampling 45
Access/Entry 46
Protocols 47
Data Collection Approach 48
Ethical Considerations 48
Summary 49
Chapter Four: Analysis of Data 50
Introduction 50
Collection and Analysis of Data 50
Participant Characteristics 51
Research Question 1 52
Common Goal 52
Trust 54
Time 57
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 5

Clearly Defined Roles 59
Research Question 2 61
Distributed Leadership 61
Situational Leadership 63
Transformational Leadership 64
Research Question 3 67
The Role of the Principal 68
The Role of Vice Principals and Deans 71
Research Question 4 73
Summary 75
Chapter Five: Summary, Conclusions, and Implications 77
Introduction 77
Statement of the Problem 78
Purpose of the Study 78
Research Questions 79
Methodology 79
Key Findings 80
Implications for Practice 85
Recommendations for Future Research 86
Limitations 87
Conclusions 87
References 89

LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 6

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Demographics of Participants 53

LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 7

ABSTRACT
As a result of the United States’ international ranking on student performance in math and
reading there has been growing concern over how to improve American student achievement.
One school of thought focuses on school leadership and its influence on increasing student
achievement. The notion that school leadership can influence student performance is supported
in the literature, however, creative tension, its application to school-site leadership, and its
potential for aiding principals, vice principals, and deans in arriving at the best decision for
students still needs to be explored. This qualitative study utilized interviews and observations to
answer four research questions related to K-12 administrators including principals, vice
principals, and deans and the ways in which they foster and utilize creative tension. Data was
collected via ten interviews with principals, vice principals, and deans at three different school
sites. A common goal was found that trust, and clearly defined roles foster creative tension
among principals, vice principals, and deans. Furthermore this study found that distributed
leadership, situational leadership, and transformational leadership are leadership styles more
conducive to fostering creative tension. The role of the principal include being initially
responsible for creating an environment where creative tension can be utilized, being vulnerable,
and building consensus amongst the administration team. The role of vice principals and deans
include accepting and providing feedback, along with garnering trust from the principal through
previous success.

LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 8

LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 9

CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Introduction
The United States of America’s inability to compete against the scores of other
industrialized nations, in math, science, and reading has been well documented and publicized.
DeSilver (2017) noted that on the 2015 Program for International Studies Assessment, the United
States ranked 38
th
in math, 24
th
in science, and 24
th
in reading out of 71 countries. The United
States found itself behind countries such as Estonia and Slovenia in both categories and
performed below the mean test score in mathematics. According to the data, there are
opportunities for improvement and advancement.
There are a multitude of perspectives regarding how to make schools more effective.
Adjusting start times, having novice teachers instruct solely one subject and one grade level, and
influence from school leaders have all been presented in the research when considering ways to
increase student achievement (Jacob & Rockoff, 2012; Andrews & Soder, 1987). There is a wide
body of research which discusses the influence of school leadership on the effectiveness and
success of a school (Boonla & Treputtharat, 2014; Jacobson, 2011; Garza, Drysdale, Gurr,
Jacobson, & Merchant, 2014). Duke (1987), in his discussion of the influence of school
leadership on instructional improvement, said “What counts is output. A school leader’s
effectiveness is based on how well students achieve” (p. 23).
Most of the research, when discussing school leadership, focuses specifically on the
principal. Garza et al. (2014) researched the sustainment of school success, but the authors only
considered the leadership of the principal as the paramount factor for school success. Focusing
mainly on the principal, when discussing school-site level leadership, has been consistently
present in educational research for decades. Claye (1962) studied the leadership behaviors of
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 10

Negro principals and deduced that they served two entities; the superintendent and the teachers at
their schools. Catering to both entities often creates and internal dilemma for the principal.
Caldwell and Lutz (1978) investigated rule administration, the enforcement of rules and norms.
The study considered how principals enforce rules and norms at their schools and their influence
on school culture.
In the 1980s, Hallinger and Murphy (1985) assessed the instructional management styles
of principals. The study examined behaviors utilized by principals with regards to curriculum
and instruction at their respective schools. Beyer and Ruhl-Smith (1998) conducted a study,
which examined principals in the Detroit metropolitan area and their implementation of
recommended leadership styles. These leadership styles were utilized to potentially lead to
restructuring and reform to serve students in the 21
st
century. Dantley (2010) offered an
interesting perspective of African American principals’ spirituality and its influence on the
principals’ ability to be change agents in high-risk schools. Moreover, the research on
educational leadership at the school-site level has been overly saturated with research focusing
specifically on the principal.
While the principal role has gotten most if the focus in the literature, vice principals,
assistant principals, and deans also have active roles on the team. Each member of the
administration team plays an intricate role in the success of a school. One purpose of this study is
to provide a voice to subordinate school administration members, vice principals, assistant
principals, and deans. Further, one purpose is to broaden the focus of educational leadership
research, at the school site level, to include these administration team members. There has been
research focused on Vice Principals, Deans, and teachers as participants, but all were principal-
focused. The ultimate goal of this research was to inform the principal regarding how to improve
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 11

their leadership abilities (Caldwell & Lutz, 1978) or to correlate the principal’s leadership to
student outcomes (Boonla & Treputtharat, 2014; Nir & Hameri, 2013).
The use and benefit of tension and conflict in the work setting has been researched and
discussed throughout the literature (Lencioni, 2005; Tiffan, 2011). In The Five Dysfunctions of a
Team, Lencioni (2005) noted, “All great relationships, the ones that last over time, require
productive conflict in order to grow” (p. 202). He further stated “teams that engage in productive
conflict know that the only purpose is to produce the best possible solution…they emerge from
heated debates with no residual feelings or collateral damage” (p. 202-203). The key point from
Lencioni’s (2005) research was that team members keep the best solution at the center of the
debate and do not let their emotions or specific perspectives interfere. Team members ultimately
exit from this period of dissension (McClendon, 2013), with the best solution, as declared by the
team. .
The idea of productive conflict has often been employed when discussing teams within
the corporate sector (Katzenbach & Smith, 2008), but a different term has surfaced in
educational research. The term creative tension was used by Dobbs, Ippolito, and Charner-Laird
(2016) as the authors studied the relationship between administration and teachers in a high
school setting. The term was derived from tensions which arose and how they were navigated by
the administration and teachers as the implementation of a new reading curriculum began. This
was one of few articles found during this study which discussed creative tension within school
settings. Although creative tension has made headway into educational research, there is still
more to add to the literature. The concept of creative tension is novel and suggests that the best,
most informed decisions will only result from open, honest communication. This communication
needs to allow for combating and defending of ideas and positions without any residual negative
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 12

feelings and results from differing positions or beliefs. This has not been discussed with regards
to a school-level administration team. The current research study seeks to help fill this gap in the
research.
Leadership has been defined as, “a process whereby an individual influences a group of
individuals to achieve a common goal” (Northouse, 2016, p.3). The methods, techniques, and
manner in which a person executes their influence are considered leadership styles (Abu-
Hussain, 2014). Northouse, in his book Leadership, examines ten different theories and
approaches to leadership, notably trait approach, skills approach, situational approach, and
leader-member exchange theory. However, this book is not all encompassing of different
leadership styles. Servant leadership, authoritative, and authentic leadership are all styles not
mentioned in the book but have their own specific characteristics of leadership.
Currently, there is a plethora of knowledge about different styles of leadership, their
characteristics, their methods, and when to use them. However, this study seeks to examine the
specific styles of leadership which foster an environment for creative tension to flourish. By
juxtaposing different styles of leadership and their characteristics with the beliefs of school-site
level administrators regarding how creative tension is fostered, this study will identify which
specific leadership styles are more conducive to creative tension based on the data provided by
participants.
Statement of the Problem
This study will provide a broader scope of school-site leadership, focusing on more than
the principal when considering the decision making which fuels the success of a school. Multiple
articles have noted the importance of the role of the principal, how the principal influences
student achievement, and the importance of decision making by school leadership (Duke, 1897;
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 13

Andrews & Soder, 1987). However, understanding the ways in which each administrator, at a
school site, fosters an environment of open communication, respect, and community as well as
which leadership styles are most conducive to those ideals, is paramount.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to examine the ways in which creative tension is fostered
among school-site administrators. Additionally, the purpose is to understand which leadership
styles, among school-site administrators, are more conducive to the utilization of creative
tension. This study will also provide a voice to, and broaden the focus of school-site leadership
research, to include leadership positions other than the principal. Lastly, using grounded theory,
this study will define creative tension, provide strategies and methods to foster creative tension,
and inform administrators of which leadership styles are most conducive to its utilization.
By considering vice principals and deans in the research, this will allow for a broadening
of the scope of educational research, with regards to school-site administration. This study also
seeks to understand how creative tension is fostered among school-site administration teams and
which leadership styles are most conducive to the utilization of creative tension. Prior to this,
creative tension must be defined.
Research Questions
The following research questions guide this study:
1. How is creative tension fostered among Principals, Vice Principals and Deans at
elementary, middle, and high school settings?
2. What styles of leadership are more conducive to the utilization of creative tension among
Principals, Vice Principals, and Deans at the elementary, middle, and high school settings
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 14

3. What roles do Principals, Vice Principals, and Deans play in fostering an environment
conducive to the utilization of creative tension in decision making for their respective
schools?
4. How are Principals, Vice Principals, and Deans evaluating the success or failure of
utilizing creative tension in their decision making processes?
Significance of Study
This study contributes to the body of literature regarding leadership at the school-site
level. This study will provide administrators with strategies to foster creative tension among their
team, along with noting which leadership styles will allow for creative tension to take place, thus
leading to better decisions made for school success.
Limitations and Delimitations
This study was limited to school-site level administrators (principals, vice principals, and
deans). All participants were administrators who worked in school districts in Southern
California; both charter and public school administrators were interviewed. Since only school-
site level administrators, working in Southern California were interviewed, this limited the
generalizability of the results. The small sample size could also be considered a limitation.
The delimitations were geographical location (California) and the number of
administrators who were interviewed.
Definition of Terms
For the purpose of this study the following terms were defined:
Administrative Team Members: The positions, within a school site, including: Principal, Vice
Principal, or Dean
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 15

Change Agent: the leader’s disposition to change the status quo (Marzano, Waters, & McNulty,
2005)
Healthy Conflict: civil deliberation over concepts, ideas, and methods with the purpose of
producing the best possible solution, decision, or plan (Lencioni, 2005).
Heterarchy: “work relationships in which the relative power among team members shifts over
time as the resources of specific team members become more relevant (and the resources
of other members become less relevant) because of changes in the situation or task”
(Aime, Humphrey, DeRue, & Paul, 2014, p. 2).
Emotional Intelligence: awareness of soft skills that allow for leaders to be more effective in the
workplace; composed of 5 concepts (self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation,
empathy, and social skill) (Goleman, 2004)
Leadership Styles: behavior pattern of the person who is attempting to influence others
(Northouse, 2016)
Shared Decision-Making: utilizing the knowledge and wisdom of team members to solve
difficult problems (Kaner, 2014).
Organization of the Study
This study is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as the overview of the study.
This chapter encompasses the background and context of the problem examined in the study. In
addition to background and context, chapter one includes the purpose of the study. Chapter two
consists of a review of the literature pertaining to the research questions. Along with relevant
literature, chapter two addresses the dearth of literature which supports the purpose of the current
study and how it fills a gap. Chapter three contains the methodology of the study. Chapter four
addresses the analysis of the data collected during interviews. Lastly, chapter five includes a
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 16

discussion of the findings, along with implications and recommendations for future research
regarding creative tension.

LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 17

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
The following chapter is divided into two sections, both of which provide a context for
each purpose of the study. First, the history of leadership research is discussed. Next, a historical
timeline is presented regarding how leadership research has expanded and how the focus of
leadership research has broadened to encompass not only traits and characteristics of leaders, but
situations they may encounter, as well as, followers influence on leadership. In this first section,
leadership research specifically geared toward education is examined, which provides a context
for considering leadership through the lens of education. Lastly, chapter two discusses leadership
styles which have been demonstrated as the most effective among teams.
Following a review of the literature on leadership and educational leadership, creative
tension is defined and explained. After creative tension has been defined, the difference between
healthy conflict and creative tension is discussed. The gap in the literature regarding creative
tension’s application in educational research is also explored, providing a need for the current
study. The origin of healthy conflict, which provides a foundation for creative tension, is
discussed as well as the mention of tension among teams as a positive concept.
Origins of Leadership Research
Interest in leadership as a concept, defining leadership, and the traits and characteristics
of leaders are not novel undertakings (Bingham, 1927; Fiedler, 1967; Merton, 1969). The notion
that someone needs to guide or lead a group of people can be traced back to religious leaders
such as Jesus, Muhammad, or the Pope, and also to ancient civilizations such as the Greeks and
Romans. Aristotle, in his discussions on leadership, refers to the leader as having a skill which
must be learned by being a follower first. The best for the job should lead, but leadership should
change and leaders should operate within a constitutional framework (Keohane, 2014). Homer’s
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 18

Iliad provides four leadership traits that the ancient Greeks may have valued. From the four
leaders in the Iliad, Agamemnon, Nestor, Odysseus, and Achilles, one could discern that Homer
and the Greeks believed leadership was inherent with certain qualities that men possessed and
that these qualities were most beneficial for leadership. Saracheck (1969) noted each of the
different qualities the characters represented: judgement/decision-making (Agamemnon),
wisdom (Nestor), cunning/shrewdness (Odysseus) and valor/straightforward (Achilles).
Aristotle and Homer are not the only Greek writers to discuss leadership in their works.
Billsberry and Meisel (2009) noted that Sophocles and Aeschylus, both, examined leadership in
their plays from Ancient Greece. Saracheck (1969) discussed how in Ajax and Philoctetes by
Sophocles and in Prometheus Bound, by Aeschylus, both philosophers presented their characters
as representations of one of the four valued traits of leadership. What is interesting about the
characters in these ancient Greek plays is that their trait or quality is fixed. Prometheus is a
demonstrated example of where he could have been cunning, submitted to Zeus and identified
another way to conquer him, but as a representation of valor, he remained steadfast and endured
his punishment from Zeus.
In line with Homer, Machiavelli acknowledged the traits of courage, wisdom,
decisiveness, and shrewdness, but he added another trait to successful leadership; luck (Keohane,
2014). The first consideration of the situational factors influencing leadership is Machiavelli’s
acknowledgement that “it is necessary for a prince wishing to hold his own to know how to do
wrong, and to make use of it or not according to necessity”, (Machiavelli, Baker-Smith, &
Baker-Smith, 1992) which echoed the opinions of Plato who mentioned scenarios regarding why
a leader must lie or act immorally. Plato believed it was permissible to lie for the benefit of the
state, while Machiavelli believed these immoral actions must take place if a leader wants to
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 19

maintain his power. Unethical nature being permissible contradicts 21st century Western ways of
considering leadership (Knapp & Olsen, 1996).
20
th
Century Views of Leadership
The word leadership appeared in the English language in the early 1800s (Oxford English
Dictionary, 1989). Since the turn of the 20th century, there has been a plethora of research
regarding leadership. According to Stogdill, “there are as many different definitions of leadership
as there are persons who have attempted to define the concept (Stogdill, 1974, p.7) During the
20
th
century, there was movement away from the uniformity that was seen among discussions of
leadership in the past with Greeks and during the Renaissance. Early in the 20th century and
continuing to the present, there have been varying ways of defining and conceptualizing
leadership.
Mumford (1906) noted that, “[leadership] arises whenever there are interactions of
individuals or of groups, no matter what may be the purpose or aims of these interactions”
(p.218). Blackmar (1911), in his discussion reform regarding leadership noted, “The
centralization of efforts of the individual in one person as an expression of the power of all” (p.
626). Both of these definitions demonstrate how leadership was viewed in the early 20th century,
as the focus of group processes (Stogdill & Bass, 1981). However, viewing leadership as a
process which involved the group was not solely contained to the early 20th century. Merton
(1969) considered the directive influence involved with leadership and the collective action it
attempts to accomplish. Thus, it would be more beneficial to consider interactions and roles as
opposed to individual characteristics, alone. Hogg (2001) provided a more recent examination of
leadership as a group process, with an application of the social identity theory to leadership. The
author stated, “As group membership becomes more salient, and members identify more strongly
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 20

with the group, prototypicality becomes an increasingly influential basis for leadership
perceptions” (p.189). As joining the group becomes more important and members connect more
closely, the persons who epitomize the values and social identity of the group are more likely to
become leaders within that group. However, group processes was not the only lens through
which to view leadership. As the century progressed, there was an increase in both definitions
and theories about leadership.
Trait Leadership
Trait leadership progressed beyond the four traits posited by the ancient Greeks.
Stogdill’s (1948) first survey of the literature on leadership examined 124 different studies,
conducted between 1904 and 1947, and it identified 29 different leadership traits within these
studies. Stogdill’s findings report, “The average person who occupies a position of leadership
exceeds the average member of the group in the following respects: (1) intelligence, (2)
scholarship, (3) dependability in exercising responsibilities, (4) activity and social participation,
and (5) socio-economic status” (p.63). Stogdill (1948) also reported an interesting finding with
regards to situations and leadership. He reports, “the qualities, characteristics, and skills required
in a leader are determined to a large extent by the demands of the situation in which he is to
function as a leader”(p.63). This questions whether it is the possession or application of certain
traits used during certain situations which produce successful leadership.
Situational Leadership
The situational approach to leadership was developed by Hersey and Blanchard (1969,
1976) and it originated from the work of Reddin (1967) and his 3-D Management Style of
Leadership. In Reddin’s model, he posited “a twelve style typology of four less-effective types,
four latent types, and four more-effective types” (p.13). These 12 styles include: the leader most
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 21

concerned with relationships, the leader most concerned with the task, the leader who is
concerned with neither, and the leader who is able to balance both demands. Each of these four
categories also has a less-effective and more-effective component. The Life-Cycle Theory of
Leadership (Hersey & Blanchard, 1976), which was later known as the Situational Leadership
Theory, is a “curvilinear relationship based on the task, relationship, and “maturity” (p.193).
Maturity with regards to the Life-Cycle Theory of Leadership encompasses a follower’s “relative
independence, ability to take responsibility and achievement-motivation” (p. 193). As a
follower’s maturity increases, the leader should provide less structure (task orientation) and
decrease socio-emotional support (relationship orientation) as well (Vecchio, 1987). In later
editions of the Situational Leadership Theory, Hersey and Blanchard (1982) were able to depict
follower maturity to better inform leaders of which methods they should be using with regards to
the theory.

LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 22

Ethical Leadership
Considering the ethics of leadership, and judging the ethical and non-ethical behaviors
and decisions of leaders is a novel concept. Northouse (2007) noted, “one of the earliest writings
that specifically focused on leadership ethics appeared as recently as 1996” (p. 341). Although
research may not have been specifically geared toward ethical leadership, mentioning ethics and
morality in leadership research dates back two decades prior. Burns (1978), in his discussion of
transformational leadership, noted “transforming leadership ultimately becomes moral in that it
raises the level of human conduct and ethical aspiration of both leader and led, and thus it has a
transforming effect on both (emphasis in original)” (p. 20). However, there has been an
increasing amount of literature focused on ethical leadership since the beginning of the new
millennium. Den Hartog (2015) provided a rationale regarding an increase in research: “The
many scandals involving ethical lapses of high-level leaders that occurred over the past decade
and a half have placed the moral and ethical aspects of leadership at the forefront of public
attention” (p. 410). During the early 2000s to present day, considering the Enron scandal as well
as the Michigan State University’s mishandling of the Larry Nassar situation, ethical leadership
continues to be paramount. Brown, Trevino, and Harrison (2005) defined ethical leadership as,
“the demonstration of normatively appropriate conduct through personal actions and
interpersonal relationships, and the promotion of such conduct to followers through two-way
communication, reinforcement, and decision-making” (p. 120). Despite the vagueness of the
definition, it is purposeful to understand that the leader’s expected appropriate behavior will vary
given the circumstance. A leader should always conduct themselves appropriately and
encourage this behavior with their followers. The definition further explains how the promotion
of this behavior should be accomplished; through two-way communication, reinforcement, and
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 23

decision-making. Den Hoogh and Den Hartog (2009), when considering ethical leadership,
examined the methods of influencing the actions of followers to reinforce goal achievement and
determine if it was done in a socially responsible way.
Leadership Research and its Application to Education
Bush (2010) claimed that the increased interest in educational leadership is due to the
belief that the quality of leadership can significantly influence school and student achievement.
The perspective that that school leadership has an effect on student outcomes is longstanding
(Mullican & Ainsworth, 1978; Hawley, Rosenholtz, Goodstein, & Hasselbring, 1984; Hallinger,
Bickman, & Davis,1996). Hawley et. al (1984) noted, “it is possible to identify some leadership
behaviors that one could predict, with some certainty, results in higher student achievement (p.
54). The authors acknowledge that school leadership plays indirect role in affecting student
achievement. This occurs through processes such as: creating and implementing structures,
directing and guiding teacher behaviors, and negotiating for learning resources for their students.
Thus, these are some of the behaviors school leaders exhibit which affect student achievement.
Duignan (1986), in his review of the literature on effective schooling, discussed the role
of school leadership, as well. Duignan considered school climate and the influence it has on
student success. No one is more responsible for the climate and culture of a school than its
leadership. Despite the research which highlights the influence school leadership has on student
achievement, there is also research which combats this assertion. Brown (1967) presented the
idea of “the cognitive fallacy”, saying that it arises when “research...seeks to throw leadership
styles against the criteria of educational outputs” (p. 71). Brown believed that morale and teacher
satisfaction are outputs attributable to administration while “cognitive outputs are teacher
outputs” (p. 71).
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 24

Reviews of the literature on educational leadership note that during the first half of the
20th century most of the knowledge in this field was not garnered through empirically based
studies. Heck and Hallinger (2005) stated, “Prior to 1950...the knowledge base in administration
generally and educational administration, specifically, was not derived from empirical studies”.
The authors continue with, “The field’s disciplinary practices focused on stories told by former
administrators and their perceptions for practice based on personal experience” (p. 229).
Bredeson (2016) corroborated Heck and Hallinger’s perspective, agreeing with the use of
“detailed case studies of exemplary school leaders” in the infancy of educational leadership
research (p. 291). Researchers during the 1960s observed the oversaturation of the literature with
anecdotal accounts but lacked true empirical research. The Sixty-third Yearbook of the National
Society for the Study of Education highlighted the following; Griffiths et al., (1964), in the first
chapter of The Sixty-third Yearbook, spoke about the predecessor of the current book, Changing
Conceptions in Educational Administration which was published in 1946. “All of the authors
were educationists, men who devoted their lives to professional education. They appear to have
been little affected by the thoughts and work of scholars in philosophy, history, or in any of the
behavioral sciences”. Further, the authors noted, “Administration is susceptible to empirical
research.--Administration is not entirely a common-sense, fly-by-the-seat-of-the-pants art which
can only be passed down from practitioner to practitioner; it can be studied, using [...] concepts
and theories of human behavior, research designs, statistical insights, computers, and the logic of
these modes of inquiry” (p. 2-3). Bridges’s (1982) review of the literature on school
administrators from 1967-1980 demonstrated the previously noted shift from anecdotal reports to
empirically designed research. Of the 322 studies included in his review, more than 90% relied
on a survey research design, followed by an experimental design and, lastly, a case study design.
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 25

This increased use of surveys allows for reliability and validity to be prioritized, along with the
possibility of study replication to determine generalizability. Although there was an increased
attempt to make the field more empirically-based, the research conducted during this time
neglected to consider the issues faced by school administrators. Bridges noted, “only two
researchers studied the extent to which various administrative practices were effective in dealing
with a practical problem facing school administrators” (p. 16). Another one of the gaps in the
literature, identified by Bridges, was the impact of the educational leader. Which outcomes
should be used to measure the impact of an educational leader? Which ones are currently being
used? Are certain outcomes prioritized over others? The period following Bridges’ review was
characterized by, “significantly more empirical research in this domain than in previous years, as
well as evidence of progress toward higher levels of scientific quality” (Heck & Hallinger, 2005,
p. 231). Attempts were made to answer some of the questions Bridges presented in his review of
the literature. Hallinger and Heck (1996) undertook the challenge of conducting a review of the
literature regarding the role of the principal in school effectiveness. The review included articles
from 1980 (the final year of Bridges’ review) to 1995. The matriculation towards a more
scientific and empirical field can even be observed throughout this literature review. Hallinger
and Heck’s (1996) method considered including a modified version of Pitner’s (1998) range of
approaches to study administrator effectiveness to their own literature review. This was done to
categorize different articles and the underlying theoretical models regarding how principals’
influence school effectiveness. The conceptual frameworks employed during the 1990s also
increased. Griffiths (1988) noted that there was a lack of research which included theoretical
perspectives other than the rational, structural functionalist paradigm. This shortcoming of the
literature was addressed in the 1990s as the field observed research from multiple conceptual
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 26

frameworks and theoretical perspectives. Strachan (1999), in her study of educational leadership
at the school-site level, examined three female principals at secondary schools in New Zealand.
Using the lens of feminist educational leadership, which manifests itself from the feminist
conceptual framework, Strachan sought to determine if the leadership of the three female
principals was congruent with how female educational leadership is defined in the literature. The
author determined that all three women did incorporate some form of feminist educational
leadership into their practices. However, they were not passive reactors to the schools; their
value systems and the context in which their schools operated also influenced their leadership
decisions. This expansion of conceptual frameworks was corroborated by Begley (1996) and his
application of values theory to educational administration literature. Begley points to seven
reasons why there is merit to the study of values in administration. These reasons include but are
not limited to: the amount of decision making and problem-solving inherent with school
administration and the incorporation of values in those decisions. An additional reason considers
the variance between values articulated by the group and those of the leader. The latter point
mentioned is the basis of the study, “the interactive relationship between personal values and
social values becomes highlighted and questions arise; for example, to what extent are the
personal values held by individuals antecedent to social values?” (p.407). And potentially, a
more important question is: To what extent do leaders allow their personal values to outweigh
social values? The influx of empirically-supported research has not lead to a more concrete,
widely accepted conceptualization of what educational leadership is. Instead, the varying views
and perspectives have lead to an inability to integrate theories or concepts (Richmon & Allison,
2003). A consistency in the current literature has been a focus on outcomes, specifically student
achievement (Gumus et al., 2018). Breedson (2016), in his review of research on school
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 27

principals in the United States from 2003 to 2013 stated, “there has been a dramatic shift in
finding direct connections between principal leadership and student learning outcomes” (p. 294).
In addition to a focus on student achievement, there has been a focus on school-site and the
principal’s effect on student achievement. Bush (2007) noted, “there is recognition that schools
require effective leaders and managers if they are to provide the best possible education for their
learners.” He continued, saying “this is because of the widespread belief that the quality of
leadership makes a significant difference to school and student outcomes (p. 391).
Leadership Styles and Educational Leadership
Gumus et al.’s (2018) review of the literature on leadership styles in educational research
from 1980 to 2014 consisted of 743 articles. Ninety-two percent (684) of the articles within this
review either focused on Distributed Leadership (205), Instructional Leadership (181), Teacher
Leadership (151), or Transformational Leadership (147). After these four leadership styles, there
was a steep decline in the number of articles focused on other styles of leadership such as:
Curriculum Leadership (49), Ethical/Moral Leadership (38), and Servant Leadership (16). Thus,
for the purpose of this review, the four most research leadership styles, with regards to
educational leadership, is discussed in the following section.
Distributed Leadership
Distributed Leadership and its application to the educational sector is a recent phenomenon.
From 1980 to 2004, there were only 26 articles which focused on distributed leadership, with
regards to educational research (Gumus et. al, 2018). From 2005 to 2009, there were 61 articles,
and from 2010 to 2014 there were 118 articles which examined Distributed Leadership within
educational research. The recent increase in interest in Distributed Leadership has been said to be
caused by the “growing recognition that the old organizational structures of schooling simply do
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 28

not fit the requirements of learning in the twenty-first century” (Harris & Spillane, 2008, p. 31).
Spillane (2005), one of the forefront researchers on Distributed Leadership, when discussing the
leadership model noted that allowing leadership to be defined by the actions of one person is not
adequate and he provides three reasons why First, there are often multiple leaders, some with and
some without formal leadership roles or titles. He believes the idea of leadership needs to divert
from the belief that individual heroes “save the day”. Second, school leadership not done to
followers but rather involves them in the situation and decision-making process. Third, “it is not
the actions of individuals but the interactions among them that are critical in leadership practice”
(p. 145). Harris and Mujis (2005) provided the literature regarding characteristics of Distributed
Leadership such as: interdependency and noted “leadership function is stretched over the work of
a number of individuals and where the leadership task is accomplished through the interaction of
multiple leaders” (p. 31). An additional characteristic is guidance and direction from multiple
sources. The three components of Distributed Leadership are leaders, followers, and the
situation with no one component being more influential than any other. Leadership practice is
believed to be the byproduct of interactions involving school leaders, followers, and the situation
in which these components are involved. Leaders act and practice leadership in situations that are
defined and created by the actions of their followers (Spillane, 2005).
First, the leader-follower and follower-leader relationship should be taken into
consideration. The initial influence that a leader or leaders have on followers is the ability or
inability to cultivate an environment where Distributed Leadership is practiced. Bush and Glover
(2014) argued that, “it is evident that distribution can work successfully only if formal leaders
allow it to take root”. It was further noted that, “an appropriate climate is an essential pre-
condition to meaningful distributed leadership” (p. 560-561). Leaders can influence their
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 29

followers by creating an environment where the multiple skills and knowledge of the followers is
valued and used. The followers influence the leader using their knowledge and expertise of a
particular task or field (Spillane et al., 2004). From a Distributed Leadership perspective,
followers are involved in the leadership activity and, in certain instances, leaders themselves are
involved. The fluidity of responsibility between the leaders and the followers considers the
influence of the situation on both parties. The influence of the situation is extremely important in
Distributed Leadership. Spillane et. al, (2004) noted, “attending to the situation as something
more than a backdrop or container for leaders’ practices, we consider sociocultural context as a
constitutive element of leadership practices” (p. 11). In other words, the influence that the
situation or task has on leaders and followers has to be taken into consideration with Distributed
Leadership. Moreover, the situation constantly influences and is influenced by leaders and
followers.
Instructional Leadership
Unlike the recent catapult of interest in Distributed Leadership in the last decade, the use
of Instructional Leadership was at the forefront of the field from the 1980s through the mid-
1990s. It then lost its high influence in the field during the early 2000s. However, since 2010,
interest in the style rose again as instructional leadership adapted itself and its concepts (Gumus
et al., 2018; Hallinger, 2003). Hallinger and Murphy (1985) posited that the instructional
leadership role of the principal can be divided into three components: defining the mission,
managing the instructional program, and promoting a positive learning environment. Each of
these three components are comprised of various leadership functions. Defining the school
mission includes two leadership functions: framing school goals and communicating school
goals. The principal is responsible for developing a vision of what the school is hopes to
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 30

accomplish, by identifying measurable goals and communicating these goals to the school
community. The use of data and taking into consideration previous performance is key when
identifying school goals. Also key is using multiple means of communication when informing
stakeholders of these goals. Managing the instructional program includes: supervising and
evaluating instruction, coordinating curriculum, and monitoring student progress. Hallinger and
Murphy (1985) noted that, “this dimension of instructional management involves working with
teachers in areas specifically related to curriculum and instruction” (p. 222). Supervising and
evaluating instruction ensures that students are provided the best instruction possible and
teachers are provided feedback regarding areas of growth. Coordinating the school curricular
objectives with the content taught in classes, along with standardized achievement tests, is a
strategy used in instructionally effective schools (Squires, 2012). Monitoring student progress is
the final leadership function of managing the instructional program. The use of summative and
formative testing to “diagnose programmatic and student weaknesses, to evaluate the results of
changes” defines this leadership function (p. 222). The final component of Instructional
Leadership which is Promoting a Positive School Culture includes six leadership functions:
protecting instructional time, promoting professional development, maintaining high visibility,
providing incentives for teachers, developing and enforcing academic standards, and providing
incentives for learning. The protection of instructional time means allowing instruction to be as
uninterrupted as possible so students may receive optimal instruction. Research has shown that
there is a positive relationship between instructional time and student achievement (Andersen,
Humlum, & Nandrup, 2016). Promoting professional development expressed that it is the role of
the principal to ensure that professional development opportunities are provided to teachers and
are relevant to their practices. Maintaining high visibility is another leadership function of
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 31

promoting positive school culture. Hallinger and Murphy (1985) mentioned, “visibility on the
campus and in the classrooms increases interactions between the principal and students, as well
as with teachers.” They continued, “it also affords the principal the opportunity to communicate
the priorities of the school” (p. 223). With a high level of visibility, the principal can be in tune
with the happenings of the school and not be isolated in an office, inundated with managerial
tasks. Providing incentives for teachers is another leadership function of Promoting a Positive
School Culture. Hallinger and Murphy (1985) defined this function as, “setting up a work
structure that rewards and recognizes teachers for their efforts” (p. 224). The notion of incentives
for teaching has been heavily researched and is often related to monetary rewards (Valsan &
Druica, 2014; Sclafani, 2010). However, research has shown that incentives, other than money,
are almost as effective as monetary incentives (Latham & Wexley, 1981; Kimball, 1974). These
incentives, both monetary and non-monetary can be used to hire more effective teachers and
could potentially lead to increased student achievement. The next leadership function mentioned
in Promoting a Positive School Culture is: developing and enforcing academic standards. This
entails defining high standards and expectations for student learning and holding students and
teachers accountable for meeting these standards (Hallinger, 2003). Lastly, providing incentives
for learning, is the final leadership function of Promoting a Positive School Culture. By
frequently rewarding and recognizing student achievement, this can lead to increased motivation
for students to perform well, and thus, increase student achievement. Hallinger and Murphy
(1985) noted that, “the principal is a key factor in linking classrooms and school reward systems,
ensuring that they are mutually supportive” (p. 224).
Teacher Leadership
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 32

Defining Teacher Leadership has proven to be a difficult task for researchers in the
literature. York-Barr and Duke (2004) attributed this difficulty to “the expansive territory
encompassed under the umbrella term ‘teacher leadership’” (p. 260). Although identifying a
definition for teacher leadership has been elusive, researchers have attempted to posit a definition
broad enough to encompass all of its qualities. Crowther, Kaagen, Ferguson, and Hann (2002)
described teacher leadership as, “action that transforms teaching and learning in a school, that
ties school and community together on behalf of learning, and that advances social sustainability
and quality of life for a community” (p. xvii). The inclusion of teachers’ input and opinions with
regards to professional development, shared vision for schools, and opportunities to share
expertise with colleagues have also been said to characterize teacher leadership (Leithwood &
Jantzi, 2000). York-Barr and Duke (2004) examined the literature on teacher leadership from
1980 through 2001 and provided this definition of teacher leadership based on the research,
“after reflecting on the literature as a whole we suggest that teacher leadership is the process by
which teachers, individually or collectively, influence their colleagues, principals, and other
members of school communities to improve teaching and learning practices with the aim of
increased student learning and achievement” (p. 288). Common denominators such as:
collaboration with colleagues (Darling-Hammond et al., 1995; LeBlanc & Shelton, 1997) and
high levels of teaching expertise (Snell & Swanson, 2000; Katzenmeyer & Moller, 2001)
characterize teacher leaders as well. Teacher leadership and the variations in its definition are
due to its evolution over time and the transformation of the role of the teacher (Harris, 2015).
Silva, Gimbert, and Nolan (2000) considered the evolution of teacher leadership noting the three
“waves” of teacher leadership. The first wave is characterized by teachers serving in roles such
as department heads, head teachers, and union representatives. The focus during this first wave
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 33

was the creation of efficiency as opposed to having instructional leaders. The second wave led to
mentor teachers and curriculum leaders. Silva et al. (2000) noted that it was during the second
wave that the potential for instructional leadership from teachers emerged and became valued.
During the third and final wave of teacher leadership, teachers are viewed as integral
components for “reculturing” schools and they are known for their ability to build capacity and
influence their colleagues. Similar to the difficulties of defining teacher leadership, there has also
been difficulty determining the effects of teacher leadership on student achievement. York-Barr
and Duke (2004), in their review of the literature on teacher leadership, only found five studies
which examined the effect of teachers on student achievement. Of those five, four were
quantitative studies and none of the studies found a significant impact of teacher leadership on
student achievement (Marks & Louis, 1997; Taylor & Bogotch, 1994; Leithwood & Jantzi, 1999,
2000). While the impact of teacher leadership on students may be negligible, the impact it has
had on teachers has been thoroughly researched and shown to have quite an impact. Ross and her
colleagues (2011) in their study of the effects of teacher leadership programs interviewed
teachers to explore the effects that teacher leadership programs and positions may have on
teachers; the authors found that teacher leadership programs allowed for teachers to, “see
themselves as leaders and [act] on these perceptions” (p. 1218). Teachers who participated in the
study and received the teacher leader professional development sought more leadership positions
within their schools. The principals of these teachers also noted the transformation in their
teachers.
Transformational Leadership
The term Transformational Leadership was first coined by Burns (1978) in his book
titled Leadership. Prior to being deemed “transformational leadership”, Roberts (1985) noted
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 34

that this style of leadership was referred to as “charismatic leadership” by House (1976). Prior to
that, transformational leadership was referred to as “organizational excitement” by Berlew
(1974). All three of the authors, Berlew, House, and Burns, share commonalities in their
characterizations of this style of leadership, which include: charisma, shared vision, and the
empowerment of others. Burns’ version also juxtaposes transformational behaviors of inspiration
and shared involvement with transactional behaviors. Transactional behaviors are characterized
by a more custodial approach to leadership and maintaining the status quo. Roberts (1985)
defined transformational leadership as: Leadership [that] offers a vision of what could be and
gives a sense of purpose and meaning to those who share that vision...The collective action that
[it] generates, empowers those who participate in the process...In essence [it] is a leadership that
facilitates the redefinition of a people’s mission and vision, a renewal of their commitment, and
the restructuring of their systems for goal accomplishment” (p. 1024). Bass (1985) in his text,
Leadership and Performance: Beyond Expectation, furthered Burns’ research on
transformational leadership and his creation of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ)
now utilized for the “measurement” of transformational leadership in leaders. The MLQ takes
into consideration the transformational and transactional behaviors which leaders may exhibit.
Anderson (2017), in his review of the literature on transformational leadership research in
education, outlined the four factors Bass’ MLQ utilizes to measure transformational leadership:
individualized consideration, intellectual stimulation, inspirational motivation, and idealized
influence. Individualized consideration is characterized by the amount of coaching or mentoring
a leader is able to provide to followers, with consideration of the follower’s needs. Intellectual
stimulation entails challenging followers and pushing them to think in new ways, while
encouraging their creativity. Inspirational motivation involves communicating the vision in a
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 35

way that motivates followers, allows them to understand the goals, and provides meaning to the
tasks at hand. Lastly, idealized influence is “leadership providing vision and a sense of mission
while displaying total commitment to the vision and mission” (p. 4). The first applications of
transformational leadership to the educational setting can be attributed to Kenneth Leithwood
and his empirical research in the early 1990s. Leithwood (1994) noted, “transformational
approaches to school leadership are especially appropriate to the challenges facing schools now
and through the remainder of this decade” (p. 499). While Leithwood claimed transformational
leadership would be appropriate for the future of research, he along with his colleagues,
acknowledged that there is a dearth in the literature and more research needs to be conducted
(Sun & Leithwood, 2012). The literature is mixed on the effects of transformational leadership
on student achievement. In a review of the literature on transformational leadership, from 1996-
2005, Leithwood and Jantzi (2005) found nine studies which examined the effects of
transformational leadership on academic achievement. The authors noted, “studies are mixed, but
lean toward the conclusion that transformational school leadership has significant effects on
student achievement” (p. 192). Shatzer et al. (2014), in their study comparing the effects of
instructional leadership with transformational leadership, found transformational leadership to
not have a significant effect on student achievement while instructional leadership had a greater
impact.
Creative Tension
Definitions of Creative Tension
Peter Senge (1990) is credited for discovering the concept of creative tension and
applying it to organizational leadership literature. His concept of creative tension states, “creative
tension comes from seeing where we want to be, our “vision”, and telling the truth about where
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 36

we are, our “reality” (p. 9). This difference in reality and vision is what leads to a natural tension
being formed. This tension, in turn, should produce an energy that propels individuals, groups,
and the organization to work to make their reality the vision. Senge (1990) further posited, “the
natural energy for changing reality comes from holding a picture of what might be that is more
important to people than what is” (p.9). As the literature on creative tension continued to build,
and with influences from the literature on healthy conflict (Montague, 2007), ideological conflict
(Lencioni, 2002), functional conflict (Kudonoo, Schroeder, & Boysen-Rotelli, 2012) and other
related concepts, the definition of creative tension began to include these influences and manifest
itself differently. This change was observed in Stuart’s (1999) definition of creative tension,
“Creative tension implies respect for different visions and taking steps to accomplish them. It
implies stability and change--a negotiation of viewpoints, a moving forward with purpose in
negotiation.” Creative tension in this discussion focuses on relationships and is, thus,
distinguished from the definition of creative tension in the context of vision and current reality
used by Peter Senge (p. 67). For the purposes of this study, the Stuart (1999) definition of
creative tension is more appropriate than Senge’s (1990) and, thus, was used as the definition of
creative tension for this study. Stuart’s definition of creative tension more closely aligns with
various types of positive conflict literature mentioned previously. Why is creative tension or
conflict (the right kind) beneficial to organizations? Gen. George S. Patton of the U.S. Army is
quoted as saying, “If everyone is thinking alike, then someone is not thinking.” The purpose of
creative tension is to have open discourse about views and opinions. By discussing and vetting
these views and opinions, creativity and innovation can flourish, leading to better decisions and
outcomes for organizations (Kudonoo et al., 2012). The concept that tension produces ideas and
can lead to better solutions has been noted throughout the literature. Raymond (2011) posited
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 37

that the encouragement of tension among a group by a leader is smart and could potentially lead
to valuable ideas. However, Raymond distinguished the type of conflict that is beneficial for an
organization stating, “We’re not talking about infighting and politics but rather civil deliberation
over concepts, ideas, and methods aimed at producing the best possible solution, decision, or
plan” (p. 24). The focus of tension and where it is directed has been reported throughout the
literature on organizational conflict. Isaksen and Ekvall (2010) attested that there are two “faces”
of tension, debate and conflict. The debate face coincides with characteristics representative of
creative tension earlier in this section; the generation of diverse ides, the exchange and
discussion of these ideas, and an arrival at a solution that took into account all ideas. The conflict
face is characterized by personal and emotional tensions, which can lead to gossip and infighting.
The authors warned that, “too much debate [can lead to] more talk and discussion than
implementation, creating a productive avoidance situation” (p. 82). Understanding the
perspectives of others and reaching a decision of action needs to be a priority, rather than simply
voicing ideas and opinions. This duality of conflict has been mentioned in other research as well.
Menon, Bharadwj, and Howell (1996), in their study which examined market executives and
their views on conflict, sought to identify antecedents and consequences of both functional and
dysfunctional conflict. The authors claimed this study was the first, in marketing research, to
consider both functional and dysfunctional conflict. The examination of creative tension and
conflict within an organization lent itself to business organizations. In their book, Joni and Beyer
(2010), expounded upon how great leaders utilize healthy conflict to encourage performance,
innovation, and demonstrate value. Throughout the entirety of the book, organizations such as
P&G, General Electric, and Lehman Bros., as well as multiple other Fortune 500 companies are
mentioned and used as examples of how creative tension benefitted the organization or how its
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 38

lack of use led to the organization’s demise. The book never mentions an educational
organization or whether the concept of creative tension has been applied in the field. In the next
section, the application of creative tension to the educational sector is examined. Also, the lack
of research on creative tension and its use among school-site level administration teams is
exposed.
Lack of Application of Creative Tension to Educational Research
As previously mentioned, the literature on the application of creative tension and healthy
conflict in the business sector is robust. How creative tension can benefit general councils of
business organizations (Harrison, 2013); opinions of marketing executives in the electronics
industry on how creative tension benefits new product development (Dyer & Song 2003); and
how small businesses, especially, can benefit from healthy conflict (Levitt, 2015) among other
topics have all been researched. However, the vast majority of the research has have focused on
the business sector.
While most of the discussion regarding creative tension references the business sector,
there have been some studies, within the educational literature, that mention creative tension.
Clinard and Foster’s (1998) work exemplifies one of the few articles related to education which
mentions the term creative tension. They examined a new 5-step accreditation system in which
teachers and school sites, as opposed to the state, are more involved with the accreditation
process. The authors conducted the study in Montana and interviewed principals and inquired
their opinions of the Montana Improving Schools through Accreditation (MISTA) program.
Creative tension is mentioned in the article when they discussed the necessity to include
community members in the process of characterizing the needs of the school. Clinard and Foster
(1998) stated, “these steps were extremely time-consuming, but without them, the schools could
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 39

not have generated the ‘accurate picture of reality and compelling picture of the future’ that Peter
Senge (1990) deems essential to building creative tension and effecting change” (p. 54).
Additionally, there is another article which mentions creative tension. Molnar (1996), in
his article, discussed the current climate in the U.S. with regards to charter school “reform”. The
author discussed different entities that start charter schools, the variance in the laws that govern
charter schools among the nation’s states, and the lack of funding these schools incur. The
mention of creative tension is used when the author discussed the various types of charter school
advocates: zealots, entrepreneurs, and reformers. When describing the reformers, Molnar states,
“reformers (child-, parent-, and teacher-centered) who want to expand public school options and
provide the sort of creative tension they believe will help improve all schools” (p. 10). The type
of creative tension mentioned by Molnar aligns with the Senge (1990) definition. Reformers
want to create a vision of possibility and juxtapose it with the current public-school reality to,
ultimately, improve all schools.
While perusing the literature, an article entitled “Creative Tension: Turn The Challenges
of Learning Together into Opportunities” was discovered. Dobbs, Ippolito, and Charner-Laird’s
(2016) study examined the implementation of “communities of practice” instructional system at
a comprehensive high school. The article discussed more of the tensions encountered by
specified teams of teachers who participated in the study. Although the study included creative
tension in its title, there was no mention of Peter Senge in the article or the references. These
were the only articles which could be found, within the educational literature, which mentioned
creative tension. In addition to these articles, there were two chapters in The Changing
Relationship Between Principal and Superintendent: Shifting Roles in Educational Reform that
mention creative tension. D’Alessandro (1999), in her chapter, discussed the relationship
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 40

between the principal and superintendent and how it must function where teaching and learning
occurs on both sides. In the chapter, the author discussed the duplicity of the relationship
between a principal and a superintendent. The article mentioned that there are multiple roles
played by each party, but what must be defined is the role being played at any particular time.
With regards to creative tension, she uses Senge’s (1990) entire quote to support the need for
creative tension and focused more on the vision. However, prior to mentioning of Senge (1990),
D’Alessandro (1999) stated, “Freedom for individuals to ‘tell it like it is’ is imperative for the
relationship to grow and develop positively” (p. 76). Although she uses Senge’s (1990)
definition, her perspective more closely aligns with Stuart’s (1990) form of creative tension.
While the aforementioned literature does not fully and directly discuss creative tension in
the manner in which the current study did, two components of said literature did discuss creative
tension in a way which coincides with the current study. Aguilar (2016) discussed the need for
healthy conflict amongst educational teams and stated, “This kind of conflict can lead to deep
discussion that positively impacts students” (p.80). Stuart’s (1999) discussion of creative tension
last mentioned the concept that was found in the educational literature. Stuart stated, “Creative
tension implies respect for different visions and taking steps to accomplish them. It implies
stability and change--a negotiation of viewpoints, a moving forward with purpose in negotiation.
Creative tension in this discussion focuses on the relationships and is thus distinguished from the
definition of creative tension in the context of vision and current reality that is used by Peter
Senge” (p. 67). It is apparent that there is a dearth of knowledge regarding creative tension in the
educational sector.

LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 41

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Chapter 2 provided a historical background of leadership, ranging from Ancient Greek
views of leadership to current research conducted about leadership. As time progressed, a change
in the way leadership is viewed arose. The idea of the “great” leader or “born” leader gave way
to a view of leadership which does consider character traits, but it also places high importance on
the circumstance of the leader to determine their capacity.
Creative tension has been researched extensively in the business sector, but there is
minimal research within the educational leadership literature regarding the application of
creative tension. Articles which mentioned creative tension in educational research were
identified, but only one article and one book chapter discussed creative tension in the manner
that the current study plans to. This gap in the literature about creative tension’s application to
educational leadership was the rationale for this study.
The purpose of this study was to address the dearth of literature regarding creative
tension and its application to k-12 administration teams. A foundation, however, needed to be
provided for an awareness of the definitions of creative tension and to be familiar with the
concept. Senge’s (1990) initial definition of creative tension was discussed, and the difference
between healthy conflict and Senge’s (1990) definition was established, as well. A definition of
creative tension, which better suited the current study, was posited by Stuart (1999) and
mentioned in this section as well. This study examined creative tension and its application to K-
12 administration teams. The term administration team refers to the principal, vice principal(s)
and dean(s) at a school site. For the purpose of this study, any position not previously mentioned
was not included when the term “administration team” is mentioned. This term is used
throughout this chapter to refer to these positions, collectively.
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 42

The following research questions guided the research:
1. How is creative tension fostered among Principals, Vice Principals and Deans at
elementary, middle, and high school settings?
2. What styles of leadership are more conducive to the utilization of creative tension among
Principals, Vice Principals, and Deans at the elementary, middle, and high school
settings?
3. What roles do Principals, Vice Principals, and Deans play in fostering an environment
conducive to the utilization of creative tension in decision making for their respective
schools?
4. How are Principals, Vice Principals, and Deans evaluating the success or failure of
utilizing creative tension in their decision making processes?
Research Design and Methods
This study utilized both observations of and interviews with members of K-12 school site
level administration teams (Principal, Vice Principal, Dean of Academics, and Dean of
Students). Participants were chosen from both charter and public schools, in southern California,
to determine how creative tension is fostered, which leadership styles are more conducive to the
utilization of creative tension, the roles that each member of an administration team play in
creating an environment where creative tension can be used, and how these administration team
members evaluate their utilization of creative tension. The researcher sought to understand
creative tension and how it can be fostered and used among administration teams, therefore,
qualitative data collection methods were used; interviews and observations. Using a quantitative
survey for data collection would not have provided the necessary data to answer the research
questions for this study. Merriam and Tisdale (2016) noted, “collection and analysis should be a
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 43

simultaneous process in qualitative research” (p. 195). Therefore, as the data was being
collected, the analysis of the data took place, concurrently. The analysis consisted of coding the
data, or identifying pieces of data that may have led to further findings. After coding the data,
themes were deduced from the data, discussed in the findings, and were used to answer the
research questions.
Rationale for Qualitative Methods
The purpose of this study was to understand creative tension, not quantify it. Van Maanen
(1979) mentioned how qualitative researchers are more concerned with, “the meaning, not
frequency, of certain more or less naturally occurring phenomena” (p. 520). Merriam and Tisdale
(2016), in their book Qualitative Research, used an example involving retirees. As opposed to
determining the percentage of retirees who have a part-time job once they retire, which could be
determined using a quantitative survey, a researcher may be more interested in how retirees
adjust to this new phase of their lives. Further, the researcher is not concerned with the
percentage of principals, vice principals, and deans in a district who feel creative tension is
utilized at their specific school site. This study sought to provide administration teams composed
of principals, vice principals, and deans, with techniques that will help foster creative tension
within the team at their school site, identify which leadership styles are most conducive to the
utilization of creative tension, specify the roles that each member of an administration team at an
elementary, middle, or high school setting play in creating an environment where creative
tension can occur, and explore participants’ evaluation of their use of creative tension. Interviews
and observations are the primary methods of data collection for qualitative data (Weiss, 1994;
Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). These methods and their use in the current study are discussed in the
following paragraphs.
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 44

Interviews
Patton (2002) mentioned that interviews are the only way in which researchers can
collect data about past events, internal beliefs or feelings, or the perspective of another person.
How creative tension is fostered among principals, vice principals, and deans lies in the
perspectives and beliefs of the participants. The similarities and differences in perspectives were
collected and analyzed by the researcher. The similarities in participants’ responses regarding the
leadership styles more conducive to creative tension were analyzed by the researcher. Weiss
(1994) provided a list of reasons to conduct qualitative interviews; integrating multiple
perspectives and describing process, are both included in the current study. The multiple
perspectives of an administration team confirmed the use of qualitative methods. Also,
examining the use of creative tension corroborated the notion that this study sought to describe a
process as well. When discussing the integration of multiple perspectives, Weiss (1994) noted,
“interviews are necessary, standardized questions won’t work, because every respondent will
have different observations to contribute” (p. 9). Each participant formed their own perspective
of creative tension. Each participant was a contributing member when discussing whether
creative tension is utilized. Considering Weiss’(1994) point, no one researcher would be able to
observe every nuance in a meeting between administration team members, therefore, interviews
aid in this process. When describing the process, Weiss (1994) stated, “qualitative interviews can
elicit the processes antecedent to an outcome of interest” (p.9-10). Determining the leadership
styles which allowed for creative tension to occur, as well as identifying the roles that each
member of the administration play, both attempt to address the antecedent of creative tension to
allow for its utilization.
Observations
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 45

Observations allow for a firsthand perspective which, for the current study, was desired
by the researcher, in addition to the secondhand accounts provided by interviews. Observations
can also be utilized to corroborate (or contradict) data gleaned from interviews with participants.
Along with providing firsthand accounts, Merriam and Tisdale (2016) noted that observations
allow for “reference points for subsequent interviews” (p. 139). Therefore, observation data can
be used to inform future interview questions or protocols. For the current study, observations
provided data regarding the methods utilized by administration teams in elementary, middle, and
high school sites to evaluate their utilization of creative tension. The researcher’s observations
also provided data regarding the roles each member of the administration team at a school site
plays in creating an environment conducive to creative tension. Observations were utilized to
triangulate the interview data. Observations allowed for the researcher to, “gain information
about different aspect of the phenomenon” (Maxwell, 2013, p. 102).
Sampling
The research questions which guided this study were qualitative in nature. Thus, of the
two types of sampling, probability and non-probability, the latter, which is more applicable to
qualitative study (Merriam & Tisdale, 2016), was employed. This study utilized purposeful
sampling, or as Merriam and Tisdale (2016) noted, “sampling…based on the assumption that the
investigator wants to discover, understand, and gain insight and therefore must select a sample
from which the most can be learned” (p. 96). The researcher was interested in a specific
population which included: principals, vice principals, and deans, therefore, a specific sample
was necessary. Maxwell (2013) stated, “particular settings, persons, or activities are selected
deliberately to provide information that is particularly relevant to your questions and goals” (p.
97). Purposeful sampling allowed the researcher to identify participants who would help best
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 46

answer the research questions. The form of purposeful sampling utilized was snowball sampling.
With snowball sampling, participants refer researchers to additional participants who fit the
sample criteria (Merriam & Tisdale, 2016). The ten participants selected for this study were all
current administrators at a K-12 school-site in southern California who served in educational
administration for at least a year. The participants provided insight into the perspective from a
school site administrator and their utilization of creative tension.
The settings for the observations consisted of administration meetings involving
principals, vice principals, and deans at respective schools, faculty meetings, and meetings
between members of an administrative team and community stakeholders at respective schools.
The purpose of the observations was to triangulate the interview data and inform the interview
questions. The rationale behind the selection of administration meetings, faculty meetings, and
meetings with stakeholders was to observe the utilization (or lack thereof) of creative tension in
real-world settings in which the phenomenon would occur. These venues were also selected
because all administration members, from their respective schools, were in attendance at these
events. Firsthand data was collected which examined the utilization of creative tension. The
researcher focused on the different roles that principals, vice principals, and deans played in
fostering creative tension, along with different leadership styles or characteristics displayed by
each participant.
Access/Entry
The Internal Review Board (IRB) at any institution prioritizes the receipt of informed
consent from participants prior to participating in any study (Rubin & Rubin, 2005). Participants
are required to be informed of the nature of the research and any potential risks they may face.
Also, participants cannot be coerced or forced to participate in the study. Initially, the principal at
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 47

each school site was contacted about the study. The principal was informed about the purpose of
the study as well as the research questions to be answered. The principal was informed that
participation in the study would require both interviews of the principal, all vice principals and
deans at the school site and three separate observations (a faculty/staff meeting, a closed
administration meeting, and a meeting between the administration team and community
stakeholders). Once the principal of a school site agreed to participate in the study, the other
members of the administration team (vice principals and deans) were contacted, informed of the
purpose of the study, and asked if they would be willing to participate in the study as well. If any
member of the administration team, at a school site, was unwilling to participate in the study then
no administration team members from that school site were permitted to participate in the study.
For example, if the Vice Principal of Instruction at Redan High School refused to participate in
the study, then the principal, all other vice principals and deans at Redan High School would be
ineligible to participate. If all members were willing to participate, observations and interviews
were scheduled with participants.
Protocols
For the current study, multiple interview structures were used. During the interview
process, semi-structured, unstructured, and standardized methods were utilized. Merriam &
Tisdale (2016) provided characteristics for these different type of interview methods. Semi-
structured interviews allow for flexibility during the interview process. While specific data is
required from all participants, the interview is mostly directed by a set of questions or topics to
be examined. Unstructured interviews, which utilize open-ended questions, are more
conversational in nature and are not structured or rigid. During standard interviews, the questions
are asked in a predetermined order and the wording of the questions are consistent with each
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 48

participant. There was a specific order in which the interview questions needed to be asked, but
there was to the researcher also ventured deeper specific topics when rich data was being
collected and asked questions not listed in the protocol.
Merriam and Tisdale (2016) mentioned four stances that a researcher can take as an
observer: complete participant, participant as observer, observer as participant, and complete
observer. The observer as participant stance was used during this study. Thus, the researcher
gained membership to certain events (ie. closed administration meeting) but was not an active
participant in the events. Observations allowed for the researcher to examine the context in
which creative tension was fostered by the administration teams at the respective school sites,
along with determining if and how administration team members evaluated their use of creative
tension.
Data Collection Approach
Interviews with the principals, vice principals, and deans were conducted one-on-one at
the participants’ respective school sites. All interviews were less than 45 minutes in length, were
audio recorded, and transcribed. Observational data was collected at three different settings for
each school site: a faculty meeting, a closed administration meeting, and an event in which the
principal and all vice principals and deans were in attendance.
Ethical Considerations
The researcher adhered to the guidelines of USC’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) to
ensure the data for the study was collected in an ethical manner. Prior to participation in the
study, principals, vice principals, and deans were informed of the purpose of the study, the
procedures, and the potential risks involved with participation. All participants provided
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 49

informed consent to be interviewed and observed. Pseudonyms were used to protect the identities
of participants in the study, and participants were allowed to leave the study at any time.
Summary
This chapter discussed the research methods used to determine how creative tension is
fostered and which leadership styles are most conducive to the utilization of creative tension.
Also, this chapter discussed the roles that various members of the administration team at school
sites, including the principal, vice principals, and deans, play in fostering creative tension.
Lastly, the chapter discussed how the utilization of creative tension is evaluated among
administration teams.

LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 50

CHAPTER FOUR: ANALYSIS OF DATA
Introduction
This chapter presents an analysis of the data collected from the current study which
sought to identify the ways in which creative tension is fostered among K-12 administration
teams. In addition to identifying how creative tension is fostered, this study examined styles of
leadership most conducive to the utilization of creative tension among K-12 administration
teams. Further, this study examined the different roles that different positions play in creating an
environment where creative tension can exist. Lastly, the data collected identified how K-12
administration teams evaluated their use of creative tension.
Collection and Analysis of Data
The data collected during this study, along with the analysis of said data, is presented in
this chapter. This chapter encompasses four sections. Each section responds to a specific
research question and is accompanied by an analysis of collected data which addresses a specific
research question. The current study was guided by the following research questions:
1. How is creative tension fostered among Principals, Vice Principals and Deans at
elementary, middle, and high school settings?
2. What styles of leadership are more conducive to the utilization of creative tension
among Principals, Vice Principals, and Deans at the elementary, middle, and high
school settings?
3. What roles do Principals, Vice Principals, and Deans play in fostering an environment
conducive to the utilization of creative tension in decision making for their respective
schools?
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 51

4. How are Principals, Vice Principals, and Deans evaluating the success or failure of
utilizing creative tension in their decision-making processes?
Qualitative data was collected using interviews and observations. Participants were asked
a series of fourteen questions and their responses contributed to answering the research
questions. Observations were also utilized to answer the research questions. Further, the
interview data was triangulated to determine the accuracy of the participants’ performance
mentioned during their interviews.
Participant Characteristics
The purpose of this study was to examine creative tension among K-12 administration
teams, including principals, vice principals, and deans. Purposeful sampling was employed to
identify participants for this study. Administration teams from three schools in three different
southern California school districts, participated in the study. The three participating schools
consisted of a 6
th
-8
th
grade charter school, a TK-3
rd
elementary school, and a 9
th
-12
th
grade high
school. The 6
th
-8
th
grade charter school consisted of a Principal, a Dean of Academics, and a
Dean of Students. The TK-3rd elementary school consisted of a Principal, and 2 Vice Principals.
The 9
th
-12
th
grade high school consisted of a Principal and 3 Vice Principals. Interviews and
observations were conducted at these schools and involved the respective administration teams at
each school. These interviews and observations were conducted to glean data which would
respond to the research questions of this study.

LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 52

Table 1
Demographics of Participants
Administrator School Position
A 6
th
-8
th
Charter Middle School Principal
B 6
th
-8
th
Charter Middle School Dean of Students
C 6
th
-8
th
Charter Middle School Dean of Academics
D TK-3
rd
Elementary School Principal
E TK-3
rd
Elementary School Vice Principal
F TK-3
rd
Elementary School Special Education Program
G 9
th
-12
th
High School Principal
H 9
th
-12
th
High School Assistant Principal of
Attendance & Discipline
I 9
th
-12
th
High School Assistant Principal of Testing,
Facilities & Athletics
J 9
th
-12
th
High School Assistant Principal of
Counseling & Curriculum

RESEARCH QUESTION 1
How is creative tension fostered among Principals, Vice Principals and Deans at
elementary, middle, and high school settings? The following section provides data from the
study participants which answers this research question.
Common Goal
When considering the data, all participating administration teams mentioned having a
common goal which led to the fostering of creative tension within their teams. This common
goal was expressed by administrators included in this study as “having the best interest of the
kids in mind” or “[we] are very similar in terms of what we value for kids”. This common goal
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 53

can be a driving force which allows for the open expression of varying ideas, respect for those
varying ideas, and how the team will uphold whichever decision is made. When asked about the
avoidance of negative team dynamics and having difficult conversations regarding their
administrative team, Administrator B stated, “I think it comes down to that mutual goal we have,
and at the end of the day, it’s being able to shake it off.” Administrator C discussed the
importance of having a common goal and how it allowed for their specific team to combat
differing visions and decisions:
“I think that is why I’m very comfortable expressing my frustration. Because I don’t have
to hold it in. I just have to say what’s happening. I think from what I observed we have
the best interest of the kids in mind. So, at the end of the day, I feel like it’s entirely up to
us to make it happen. So, we’re comfortable being open with each other and saying, ‘I
don’t like that you’re allowing this to happen.’”
The notion that a common goal can provide an arena for creative tension to be fostered
was further corroborated by Administrator F:
“We have a very close relationship where I can tell [them], ‘You know this is crazy. Let
me explain to you why.’ [They’re] not offended. [They] can tell me, [Administrator F],
‘we can’t do that, let me tell you why,’ we have that kind of relationship where we’re
direct and very honest with each other. Then there’s resolution. We decide what we are
going to do, how we are going to attack it, and we move on. I feel like that’s why we
have grown so close as a leadership team, because there’s 100 percent trust. Our goal is
the success of all of our students [and] we all work closely for this same purpose.”
The common goal that seemed to be expressed by Administrator B, Administrator C, and
Administrator F during interviews and on different school sites, centered around doing what was
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 54

best for students, being “in it for the kids”, or “wanting the best for the school”. However, this
goal is not specific and it should be the intent of anyone working at a school. As opposed to a
common goal, which was mentioned by administrators at all school sites involved with the study,
common values may have been a more appropriate term. Doing what is best for students or
keeping the kids first is more of a value, rather than a goal. It is a guiding principle the
administration teams could rally around. This collaboration can help create an environment
where differing ideas and opinions can be expressed openly without the fear of negative residual
feelings. Hence, all members of the team are unified by the value of doing what is best for the
students.
The idea of a unified value trickling down into goals was an idea expressed by one
participant. The participant expressed, “It’s all like, ‘Hey we’re in it for the kids. Now, how do
we make this place better for the kids and how do we work together to make that happen?’” A
common goal, however, is not the only factor required to foster creative tension among K-12
administration teams. The remaining factors mentioned that foster creative tension are discussed
in the sections to follow.
Trust
Throughout all the interview processes, every participant in this study mentioned trust as
a way creative tension could be and had been fostered among their administration teams. Trust
was defined as, “a psychological state comprising the intention to accept vulnerability based
upon positive expectations of the intentions or behavior of another” (Rousseau et al., 1998,
p.395). The notion that trust is needed for there to be open, honest communication is not novel.
According to a study conducted by Cai et al., (2013), which examined knowledge sharing among
supply-chains and how trust and power interacted with this knowledge sharing, it was
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 55

determined that trust was a key determinant of knowledge-sharing (p. 2072). The need for trust
to foster creative tension was mentioned throughout the interviews and was observed during
administration meetings. Administrator E stated:
“That is the bottom line, to me. If you have something that you want to say and you’re
uneasy about it, you have to trust the person that you’re going to say it to. For sure,
Administrator D is that. I feel that I am that. Administrator F is definitely that. And you
have to be able to agree to disagree. I might not always agree with everything you’re
going to say, but let’s talk it through. You know and see if we can somehow find a
common ground. So, I think it’s trust.”
The trust which fosters creative tension requires that all participants contribute to the
process of engaging in trust. Both principals and other leaders must exhibit trust between one
another. The trust cannot be one-sided. Administrator G stated:
“There has to be some trust with that because if you’re going to –there are going to be
times when I’m going to throw out a stupid idea, but I want people to tell me it’s stupid
before I go forward with it. And they have to be comfortable telling me it’s stupid.”
Candidly communicating with a principal requires trust from the other members of the
administration team. Vice principals and deans must also trust the principal and each other when
attempting to have open, honest conversations about varying opinions. This trust is established
differently amongst administration teams and between each individual. Administrator F, during
their interview noted how their principal seeks input from the administration team and utilizes
their input so they feel valued and affirmed:
“I’ve worked with other principals that [say] ‘This is what I say. This is how we’re doing
it.’ I think that stops creativity. Why am I going to bother? We’re going to do it their way
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 56

any way. So it doesn’t open you up. I know that I can come to my principal with any idea
I have, or anything I want to try, even if I think it sounds crazy, but there’s some part of it
maybe we can work on. [They’re] going to be open to listening, and seeing how we can
make it work.”
Vice principals and deans in the study mentioned how, by valuing their input, principals
could increase the trust between themselves and their subordinate administrators. However, how
do vice principals and deans increase the trust principals have in them? Principals, during their
interviews, mentioned being able to accept feedback and consider their teams’ previous
successes as a means to establish trust. With regards to accepting feedback, Administrator G
stated:
“What’s been nice is they’re willing to accept- criticism is the wrong word, accept
feedback, coaching, if you will. And so working with that person on those types of
things, it’s like, ‘Hey, here’s this, here’s this. How about if we did it this way, and this is
one of those deals.’ But they’re very open to that feedback. So it’s not even a difficult
conversation.”
Previous success was also noted as a method to increase the trust that principals have in
other members of the administration team. Administrator A mentioned, “I have confidence in the
training they’ve got [and] the decisions they’ve made. If it’s a major decision, they’ll come ask
me for my input about it, but for the most part, I let them do their thing”. In addition to accepting
feedback and previous successes, time was mentioned as a means to establish trust and foster
creative tension by the participants. However, there were varying opinions on time and its
necessity in fostering creative tension; the next section discusses time further.

LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 57

Time
The data gleaned from participants when discussing time and the role it plays in fostering
creative tension among a K-12 administration team varied. Administrator A, Administrator B,
Administrator C, and Administrator D believed that increases in time spent with other members
of the administration team led to higher capacity for fostering creative tension among their team.
Administrator G and Administrator J, however, believed that, while time spent with other
members of their administration team may benefit the fostering of creative tension, it was not
necessary for creative tension to be fostered. Administrator C, in the interview, noted, “The first
year I was more apprehensive because I had to first get a gauge of everyone’s’ personalities… in
my second year [now]…originally I kind of felt like I was looking for directives, now it’s bring
your idea and just roll it out.” Further corroborating the notion that time can foster creative
tension, Administrator B said:
“I think it’s the time we’ve been working here as a team. Our team has been around for a
while. I think the beginning of this year was a lot better… Yeah, I think probably this
year after we started figuring some things out and the positions and felt a little more
comfortable…For me, the first year was a lot more listening, ‘Hey what’s going on?
‘How do we do this?’ It was learning time, and now I feel a little more comfortable
handling things.”
According to participant responses, fostering creative tension between principals, vice
principals, and deans does not always happen in a professional setting. Administrator D
discussed an example of how time spent outside of the normal work setting led to increased trust
between themselves and a member of their administration team:
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 58

“[They] are actually very shy. But, once you get to know [them] [they’re] very open. And
we always have these administrator get-togethers and socials…I would drag [them] there
with us. So I think that, being vulnerable to say, ‘I’m not good at the social part.’ And I
am. And so when we first started, we’d stay side by side, and I think that helped build the
trust. And then we go to these things and, as we’ve gone to them now for five years, now
I can kind of separate myself away.
The researcher found that participants in this study had varying opinions about the
correlation between time and the fostering of creative tension. Administrator G and
Administrator J did not believe this was the case. Administrator G stated:
“We actually don’t do a lot of socializing outside of here, which is actually interesting,
because we do tend to laugh and smile, but outside of here we don’t see each other that
often [but] we have to be able to be honest with people, and we have to be able to not
worry that somebody’s going to take it personally, or that it’s some kind of backhanded
remark or anything like that.”
Interestingly, the researcher found that all administrators at any given school site had
similar opinions regarding time and whether it was necessary to foster creative tension. The idea
that time was not required for open, honest conversation to occur was corroborated by
Administrator J who was from the same school and said;
“We go to happy hour, maybe once a quarter. But we don’t hang out with each other on
the weekends. I don’t hang out with any of them. I don’t think that’s a bad thing. I mean,
it’s like we’re professionals, we get along… I definitely feel [they] valued my
experience, [my] opinions. I mean I’ll tell [them] if [they’re] doing something stupid and
[they] know it.”
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 59

Unlike a common goal or trust that was mentioned by this researcher throughout
participants of this study as a necessary component for the fostering of creative tension time, and
its role, in fostering creative tension varied, among participants; participants at a specific school
all felt similarly about time and its role in fostering creative tension. In addition to these three
factors, clearly defined roles were mentioned by participants and will be discussed in the
following section.
Clearly Defined Roles
At school sites, titles denote power. All study participants had a specific role or position
at their respective school sites and a recurring theme in the data was how these roles aided in
fostering creative tension. Clearly defined roles were mentioned as a means of fostering creative
tension by participants at all three of the participating school sites. It was found by this
researcher that these roles provide autonomy for administrators to make decisions, but they also
encourage administrators to have open conversations about decisions at a school site.
Administrator B, discussed clearly defined roles and stated:
“I have my role as Dean of Students here, so when it comes down to behavior… when it
comes down to a student, student services, when it comes down to our campus aide, when
it comes down to MTSS team, lot of it falls back onto me, and most of the time, I’m
always open for conversation in regards to this…”
Understanding one’s responsibility within the school and creating an environment where
administrators in this study feel comfortable communicating candidly with one another about
their responsibilities and decisions was mentioned throughout interviews by participants.
Administrator J mentioned:
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 60

“I’m going to call them slices of responsibility. I do very little discipline and
[Administrator H] does most of it. I do counseling [but] I don’t do it in a vacuum. I’ll sit
down with those guys and say, ‘Okay here’s when we’re going to do grade level
meetings. Does this work?’”
Participants felt that clearly defined roles fostered honest and open communication
between administrators. Interestingly, the lack of clearly defined roles and how this lack did not
allow for the fostering of creative tension was also mentioned during interviews was
acknowledged by this researcher Administrator C noted that they felt their role was not clearly
defined and this led to confusion about their duties. Though they were apprehensive about
addressing it, the participant stated, “I think I need some clear understanding of what my role
is…is it part of my job description to be able to address what I’m observing?”
The researcher found, through the interviews with participants, that clearly defined roles
encourage the utilization of creative tension. It enables administrators to communicate varying
opinions about topics without feelings of encroachment or negativity. The ultimate task,
decision, or choice is in the hands of the administrator, but clearly defined roles develop different
ideas to accomplish the tasks. Administrator G discussed how clearly defined roles can prevent
these negatives feelings:
“I do think we’ve clearly defined roles pretty quickly. I’ve been part of teams where
those weren’t defined very well. And so then you have people stepping over people and
maybe not on purpose but that creates some issues. And so [it’s discussed that] ‘if you
have any questions, you can talk to me...but it’s your thing.’”
Participants were interviewed and observed to determine what fosters creative tension
among K-12 administration teams. The comments from the participants noted that a common
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 61

goal, trust, and clearly defined roles all fostered creative tension among K-12 administration
teams. It was found by this researcher that time, was not considered a necessity by all
participants to foster creative tension.
RESEARCH QUESTION 2
What Styles of Leadership are more Conducive to the Utilization of Creative Tension
among Principals, Vice Principals, and Deans at the Elementary, Middle, and High School
Settings?
Distributed Leadership
Distributed leadership is defined as, “the distribution of leadership functions among the
leadership team, which is a group of people with formal leadership roles” (Hulpa & Devos, 2010,
p. 2). As educational leadership research has transformed from a singular heroic figure of
leadership to understanding that leading a school takes multiple individuals, it has become one of
the most researched leadership styles in educational leadership literature. The notion that
“leadership function is stretched over the work of a number of individuals and where the
leadership task is accomplished through the interaction of multiple leaders” (Harris & Mujis,
2005, p. 31) speaks directly to the use of creative tension.
The presence of Distributed leadership is a significant predictor of trust being present
within an organization (Adigüzelli, 2016). Distributed leadership requires faith from the
principal in their staff. Principals are aware that school leadership rests on the shoulders of
multiple individuals who are responsible for different tasks. Administrator A noted, “There’s so
many things that have to get done at a school site, each administrator helps me to fulfill the
ultimate goal, which is to run a successful school.” Administrator A’s opinion was further
corroborated by Administrator G during who said, “I am not the king of this campus. We’re all
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 62

part of this deal. We all make this thing work or not work.” Understanding that one person
cannot solely be responsible for a school’s success is the initial step for distributed leadership to
take place. Further, trust is required among members to offer assurance that all necessary tasks
are completed. The researcher found that distributed leadership requires the presence of trust.
Once the trust is fostered, creative tension can occur. As mentioned in the previous section, trust
allows for the fostering of creative tension among a K-12 administration team. Once that trust is
built, leadership responsibilities can be distributed among administration team members and
open, honest conversations can be had. During their interview, Administrator I discussed how the
trust exhibited through distributed leadership allows for creative tension to be fostered:
“I think [they] expect that you’re going to do a good job, and [they’re] there if you have
an idea that you want to bounce off of [them]. They give you the ability to make
decisions about certain things. It’s an expectation that you’re going to get it done.”
In other words, in the above quote, Administrator I stated that their principal having
expectations of them exhibits a level of trust. If administrators feel comfortable enough to bring
forth an idea to the principal, this shows that there is trust on behalf of the administrator. This
interaction between administrators is an example of distributed leadership (Spillane, 2005), more
specifically defined by the administrator’s responsibility for some part of the school while
presenting ideas to the principal. The researcher found that this mutual trust between the
principal and administrator foster the creative tension conversations mentioned by the
participant, wherein the principal is determining the feasibility of an idea.
The researcher found that the lack of distributed leadership was also shown to be a
deterrent for creative tension.
Administrator F discussed a situation in which the leadership was not distributed mentioned:
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 63

“I’ve worked with other principals that did not have the…that were the principal. This is
what I say. This is how we’re doing it. I think that stops the creativity. That stops—Why
am I going to bother, we’re going to do it her way anyway. So it doesn’t open you up.”
While Administrator F did not mention whether they believed the principal trusted them,
they did mention the decreased activity which accompanied a leadership style which specifically
focused on one person. This is the opposite of distributed leadership.
Situational Leadership
Situational leadership is based on the interaction between three factors: (1) the amount of
direction (task behavior) a leader provides, (2) the amount of socio-emotional support
(relationship behavior) the leader provides, and (3) the level of maturity exhibited by followers
for a specific task (Gates, Blanchard, and Hersey, 1976). Maturity, according to this definition, is
specifically addressing job maturity, a follower’s ability to complete a task (Johansen, 1990). As
the follower’s maturity level increases, the need for task behavior decreases, along with the need
for relationship behavior from the leader. Situational leadership demonstrates a leader’s belief
and trust in the follower, and the leaders and followers will change depending on the task.
Administrators are privy to this fluidity of leadership and followership. They understand that, at
times, they will be leaders and at other times they will be followers. Situational leadership
considers the familiarity that the different administration team members have with one another,
along with the different amount of support each member of the administration team requires
based on the task (Hersey & Blanchard, 1976).
Administrator D stated different tasks assigned by different levels of support from their
administration team:
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 64

“So there are times where I have to have more power than them, and there are other times
when I don’t. There are times when Administrator E takes the lead on something and she
has the power. We have our strengths [and we] play on our strengths. We also know each
other weaknesses. We’re complimentary in that way.”
The familiarity characteristic of situational leadership and understanding the amount of
support and direction each administration team member needs demonstrates affective, open, and
honest communication. When the leader expresses a need for additional support from the
follower, this exhibits a level of trust (Northfield, 2014). Administrator A discussed the
knowledge of their administration team members and explained how they interact with each of
them:
“Administrator B is going on his third year in their role. So, they’ve really taken
ownership of theirs, because they’ve gotten the experience. Administrator B, I’m able to
leave alone. They’re like on their own island. Administrator C, is entering their second
year in this role, and this one’s a difficult role for them because they come from the world
of special ed. So, they can tell you the special ed law, like the back of their hand, but…I
know that a lot of this is new to them. They know a lot of this is new to them, so I know
with them, I’ve got to give them a lot of support in that area.”
Transformational Leadership
Berlew (1974), House (1976), and Burns (1978), in their respective descriptions of
Transformational leadership, all include charisma, shared vision and the empowerment of others
as characteristics. Transformational leadership is employed by charismatic leaders, centers
around a shared vision or goal, and requires that followers’ capacity to perform a task or lead
themselves increases. Considering these characteristics of Transformational leadership, they
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 65

were mentioned repeatedly throughout the different participant interviews. The researcher found
that incorporating these characteristics into a leadership setting provides an arena where creative
tension can be exercised.
Participants noted how each component of transformational leadership allows for the
fostering of creative tension. Charisma, shared vision, and building capacity in others all create
an environment conducive to creative tension (Northouse, 2016). Administrator J spoke about
their principal’s charismatic personality and how it has an impact on their administrative team
and the entire school:
“I would say they’re a great presence. When they walk in a room, I mean…They’re very
charismatic in a lot of ways and I appreciate that about them. At graduation last year, they
got to speak and…all the kids…[chanted] his name. It was like [the kids] really liked
them. They just have that intangible and people like that. People like that about them.”
The charismatic personality of Administrator G allows for both their administration team
and multiple stakeholders to be comfortable with them. It was found by the researcher that this
charisma could potentially lead to increased levels of comfort and communication between the
principal and their K-12 administration team.
The researcher found that the concept of shared vision, as part of transformational
leadership, was mentioned throughout interviews with participants as a way to manifest an
environment where creative tension can be utilized. The researcher found that with a shared
vision, all members of the administration team can speak openly and share opinions which are
supported through the shared vision of the group. Administrator C noted how shared vision
allows for open communication among their administration team:
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 66

“I think, from what I have observed, we have the best interest of the kids in mind. So at
the end of the day, I feel like it is entirely up to us to make it happen. So we’re
comfortable being open with each other and saying, “I don’t like that you’re allowing this
to happen.” I think that that’s one of the reasons, because we can be up late at night at
midnight and still be texting and still be on the phone and still be thinking of ideas. And
because we are so invested, I think that we can…I think because we share a common
goal.”
The notion that shared vision allows for creative tension to be utilized was mentioned
during Administrator F’s interview. They discussed how shared vision allows for honest
communication:
“Our principal here…wants to be inclusive [and] feels that all the students are our
students. I think from the top down that attitude has trickled… We all work closely for
the same purpose. Our goal is the success of our students.”
These two excerpts from the research findings explain how having a common goal or
shared vision fosters transparent, open communication between K-12 administration team
members.
Characteristics of transformational leadership include charisma, shared vision, and
empowerment of others (Northouse, 2016). . Administrator A noted how, when they were a Dean
of Students, their principal role modeled capacity building and empowerment to his subordinates.
As a result, the participant tries to do the same for their current administration team.
“I should be able to leave this site and have assistant principals that are able to fill in the
role without me having to be here. They should be able to come in and fill this position
and know what to do. That came from my experience when I was a Dean of Students, and
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 67

we had a principal who moved to home office, and they were doing both roles. I really
appreciated the process because…it gave me ownership of something…It helped build
my capacity as a leader…[Now] I tell my deans I’m going to empower [them] with the
ability to take over my position.”
It was found by this research that this empowerment helps facilitate an environment
where creative tension can be utilized. This empowerment, leading to the utilization of creative
tension was discussed by Administrator F:
“I think the attitude is I want to support you and I want to make you better than I am.
[Their] goal is not just recognition for her school or herself, but to get the team
recognized. Like, this is what we’re doing. This is what we’ve accomplished. Then you
really respect someone like that because they’re out to support you , and your
professional growth, your personal growth. There’s just that level of support and
openness.”
Transformational leadership is characterized by charisma, shared vision, and the
empowerment of others (Northouse,, 2016). It is through the utilization of these components that
transformational leadership is executed. These components of transformational leadership also
lead to trust built among the members of the administration team. As pointed out by the findings
these components of transformational leadership create an environment rich in trust and
transparency which leads to the utilization of creative tension.
RESEARCH QUESTION 3
What roles do Principals, Vice Principals, and Deans play in fostering an environment
conducive to the utilization of creative tension in decision making for their respective schools?

LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 68

The Role of the Principal
During data collection, both principals and other administrators, identified in the study,
refer to the role principals play when fostering an environment which is conducive to the
fostering of creative tension. The idea that the principal is initially responsible for the creation of
the environment where open, honest conversations can take place was mentioned by both
principals and subordinate administrators during interviews. Administrator F mentioned:
“I think it comes from the top down. I’ve worked in other situations, where it didn’t feel
like that.Our principal here…wants to be inclusive, wants to be a part of the program.
We’re vulnerable with each other. We’re very honest. I think because we acknowledge
our areas of weakness, and we’re open to learning from each other, [we thrive].
The researcher found that the principal is responsible for setting the tone. Participants, in
the study noted, the principal, initially, can determine whether creative tension will be something
employed by the team, through the principal’s actions and the ways by which they interact with
their teams. The data collected by the researcher demonstrated that principals are aware of the
responsibility of establishing an environment where creative tension will or will not be utilized.
Administrator G noted:
“I’m not the king of this campus. We’re all part of this deal. We all make this thing work
or not work. Before, this might get me in trouble, but before it was very much, this was
the face of the school and the matriarch and we’d sit in meetings and talk about her for 45
minutes, and it was like this is stupid. And so like I don’t try to take myself too seriously.
I consciously try to create just a more collaborative, relaxed environment up here
because, and you know, I mean if you’ve seen some of the research out there in terms of
new administrators and the lack of training. This is one of the most stressful jobs out
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 69

there, you know what they say, it’s like duty. How do we make it not that? And so there
is some conscious effort in that.”
The researcher found that the principal creates an environment where the team
understands the importance of collaboration and that each member has something valuable to
add to the group. Ultimately, the school is run by the team and not just the principal (Spillane,
2005). Administrator F, mentioned how once the principal creates this environment, the attitudes
and beliefs trickle down throughout the administration team. Fostering an environment which is
conducive to creative tension is initially the responsibility of the principal. Further, the principal
creates an atmosphere where open, honest communication is the norm, without any residual
negative feelings.” After the stage has been set for creative tension to be utilized, how do
principals maintain this environment so it becomes a part of the K-12 administration team
culture?
A certain level of vulnerability is required by the principal to foster an environment
where creative tension can be utilized (Stuart, 1999). A principal who is transparent with their
administration team, expects honesty, and creates an atmosphere which encourages honesty
should be more common than not. This honesty establishes trust among the administration team.
This trust then allows for creative tension to be utilized among the administration team (Calahan,
2013). This concept of transparency was supported by Administrator G during their interview:
“…transparency I think has helped build some trust. When I came from that office to this
office, people knew that I’m not running anything under the table, I’m not doing anything
under my backhand or anything like that. What you see is what you get. Got questions for
me? I’ll give you the answer. I’ll be honest with you. So transparency equals honesty.”
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 70

The research found that the principal is often the main facilitator of consensus building
among the group which was mentioned by both principals and other administrators.
Administrator I discussed how their principal generates consensus:
“[The principal] calls you in to get you on board They’ll do that with teachers. They’ll
ask me, and they’ll call on [other administrators], and they’ll say kind of independently,
‘What do you think about this?’ And then, they’ll let us think about it. They make us a
stakeholder because we’re helping them now, come up with ideas to roll that initiative, or
whatever that might be.”
The research found that principals are aware of the importance of involving their
administration team in decision-making processes and how this involvement leads to the
fostering of an environment of creative tension. When discussing building consensus,
Administrator G noted, “I feel like I’m fairly good at generating consensus. A consensus builder.
I try to get as many voices in the room to basically come up with the shared vision...and that’s
the way to create a shared vision…it’s a way of getting people to buy in.”
The researcher found that principals who want to create an environment conducive to the
utilization of creative tension must first understand that they are initially responsible for the
creation of this environment. Principals set the precedent and initially establish the culture. The
research also showed, once they establish the arena conducive to creative tension being fostered
among the administration team, principals have to be honest. The findings show that principals
need to exhibit vulnerability and this can be accomplished through transparency. Lastly,
participants in the study noted generating consensus fostered creative tension. The researcher
found, by allowing the other administrators to provide feedback and make decisions, the
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 71

principal places value on the other members of the administration team and creates an
environment that is conducive to the fostering of creative tension.
The Role of Vice Principals and Deans
According to educational leadership research, often at school sites the focus is solely on
the principal (Breedson, 2016; Strachan, 1999; Pitner, 1998). The primary purpose of this study
was to give voice to administrators and highlight their roles and opinions alongside their
principals. The principals were aware that their vice principals and deans are integral to the
success of their schools. The researcher explored that vice principals and deans are key to the
success of a school, the roles that they play in fostering creative tension necessitates
examination.
The researcher found that accepting and providing feedback was mentioned by both
principal and non-principal administrators. The researcher found that the ability to provide open,
honest communication is required for the fostering of creative tension. Administrator G spoke to
how they need the open, honest communication from their administrators which leads to the
fostering of creative tension.
Administrator G addressed the importance of the provision of feedback by administrators
other than the principal and noted it as the importance of having a team; to foster discourse about
a topic openly and candidly. With regards to accepting feedback, the researcher found that
principals noted that the ability for vice principals and deans to be able to accept feedback
fostered an environment that was conducive to creative tension. Administrator G mentioned:
“What’s been nice is they’re very willing to accept, criticism is the wrong word, accept
feedback, coaching, if you will. And so working with that person on those types of
things, it’s like, ‘Hey, here’s this, here’s this. How about if we did it this way, and this is
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 72

one of those deals.’ But they’re open to that feedback. So it’s not even a difficult
conversation.”
The researcher found that accepting feedback and criticism requires that vice principals
and deans be open-minded to receiving it. The willingness to accept this feedback allows for
easier, more honest conversations between administration team members. To have these
conversations, vice principals and deans must remain open-minded to the ideas and opinions of
others which can ultimately foster an environment of creative tension.
Administrator B, during their interview stated, “I’m very open-minded about things. So,
for me it’s about just reasoning, fairness, if the team is on board, I’m definitely a team player.”
The notion that vice principals and deans must be open to the ideas of others for creative tension
to be fostered was further corroborated by Administrator H:
“I think openness…is probably one of the big components that you need to have in order
for an admin team to function properly…the openness to say, “This is the situation, this is
the way I’m thinking about it, let me hear some other thoughts in terms of am I missing
something that I’m not thinking about. So being open to the idea of others…It may just
reaffirm what you already were thinking. Correct? But then at least this way you know
that you’re thinking in the right direction. But there’s times that we’ve had conversations,
where you never thought about it from that perspective. And having somebody bring that
to light now kind of makes you think about it from a different perspective. Always be
open to that possibility.”
The researcher found that a vice principal’s or dean’s role in fostering an environment
where creative tension can be utilized requires that they be able to provide and accept feedback.
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 73

This requires a level of open-mindedness that they must possess for the environment to flourish
that is conducive for creative tension to be fostered.
RESEARCH QUESTION 4
How are Principals, Vice Principals, and Deans evaluating the success or failure of
utilizing creative tension in their decision making processes?
The study examined whether K-12 administration teams were evaluating the success or
failure of creative tension used during decision-making processes. Through interviews and
observations it was determined by this researcher that K-12 administration teams are not
evaluating the success or failure of utilizing creative tension in decision-making processes.
During the observations conducted during administration meetings, the researcher found that
administration teams utilized creative tension, but they did not evaluate how creative tension, or
its utilization, led to the success or failure of a particular decision. This lack of reflection was
supported in interviews as well. Responses to questions that demonstrated a reflection on the
decision making processes yielded responses which ranged from ‘not at all’ to participants “yes”.
Also, examples were provided in which the outcome caused a reflection. Further, whether
creative tension and its utilization led to this outcome was not discussed. As previously
mentioned, when evaluating the success or failure of utilizing creative tension in decision-
making processes, administrators noted that they felt their administration team did not evaluate
the success or failure of creative tension in their processes of making decisions. Administrator C,
during their interview, spoke to how the utilization of creative tension is not evaluated among
their administration team, “No I don’t think we think of the process…We do reflect, and we do
switch it, but not so much the process. The outcome is what leads more to the reflection than the
process, or whether creative tension was successfully utilized in the decision–making process.”
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 74

The researcher found that outcomes of the decisions that are made are what are reflected upon by
administration teams, as opposed to the utilization of creative tension. Administrators are aware
that this is what they are reflecting upon. Administrator H and Administrator G noted that the
outcome is what leads to reflection. Administrator H said.
“I mainly think it’s just the outcome. Because the process is very intuitive, involving
everybody. We’ll look at the different perspectives and we’ll talk about it and then we’ll
come to an agreement that okay, this is the best laid out plan that we have and then we’ll
talk about it…So then the debrief for the reflection is more on the actual outcome.”
The notion that evaluation lends itself more to the outcome of a decision, rather than the
manner in which the decision was delivered was further corroborated by Administrator G:
“Well, I don’t think we’ve reflected on how the decision was made. I don’t know if we
ever have. I do all the time [though]. It’s one of those deals I think through the process,
the process of how we came to various decisions, all the time. We [then] come back and
we reflect on different things that we’ve done.”
The researcher found that participants did not vary in their evaluation of the success or
failure of utilizing creative tension in the decision-making process. Participants did not evaluate
their use of creative tension, or reflect on whether they used it or not, but rather the outcome of
the decisions made is what led to reflection and evaluation. This was confirmed during
observations by the researcher. Participants, in the study, did believe that they evaluated their
process. However, as they explained their evaluation, it appeared that the administrator allowed
for the outcome to lead to the evaluation. The component being evaluated at this point was the
successful or unsuccessful utilization of creative tension, not the outcomes.

LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 75

Summary
This chapter presented the analysis of data and findings from interviews and observation
designed to answer four research questions. Multiple themes emerged that were supported by
previous research and literature. The findings add to the current body of literature surrounding
creative tension and its application to administration teams including principals, vice principals,
and deans at elementary, middle, and high school settings.
Research question one examined how is creative tension fostered among principals, vice
principals, and deans at elementary, middle, and high school settings. The findings revealed that
principals, vice principals, and deans believe that a common goal, trust, and clearly defined roles
foster creative tension. Common goals centered around a shared vision or guiding principal that
allowed for open communication among administration teams. Trust was established by vice
principals and deans by having previous successes. Principals established through allowing vice
principals and deans to be stakeholders in the decision-making process. The findings also
revealed that trust cannot be one-sided if creative tension was to be fostered. Clearly defined
roles allowed for open, honest communication about a topic without feelings of encroachment
due the understood division of responsibility. Administrators, however, varied in their beliefs of
where time was a necessary component for the fostering of creative tension. Research question
two discussed which styles of leadership were more conducive to the utilization of creative
tension among principals, vice principals, and deans at the elementary, middle, and high school
settings. The findings showed Distributed, Situational, and Transformational leadership were the
leadership styles that were more conducive to the utilization of creative tension among
administration teams. The interaction that is required for creative tension is present in Distributed
leadership. Principals are aware that it requires multiple leaders to lead a successful school and
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 76

multiple leaders is another component of Distributed leadership. Situational leadership allows for
the demonstration of trust from a leader to a follower, along with, allowing for the leader to
change. Both of these characteristics of Situational leadership allow for creative tension to be
fostered. The characteristics of Transformational leadership, charismatic leaders, centers around
a shared vision or goal, and requires that followers’ capacity to perform a task or lead themselves
increases, were mentioned by participants as means to foster creative tension. Research question
three addressed the roles principals, vice principals, and deans play in fostering an environment
that is conducive to the utilization of creative tension at their respective schools. The findings
supported that the principal is initially responsible for the establishment of the environment of
creative tension and this is done through being vulnerable among the other administrators. Vice
principals and deans roles require that they can accept and provide feedback to the other
members of the administration team. The final research question examined how principals, vice
principals, and deans evaluated the success of utilizing creative tension in their decision-making
process. The findings indicate that principals, vice principals, and deans evaluate the outcome of
the decision rather than whether creative tension was utilized during the decision-making
process.
Chapter five will further discuss the implications of these findings, limitations of the
research, and recommendations for future research around the topic of creative tension and its
application to administration teams including principals, vice principals, and deans at
elementary, middle, and high school settings.

LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 77

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND IMPLICATIONS
Introduction
The United States found itself performing lower than countries such as Estonia and
Slovenia in math, science, and reading on the 2015 Program for International Studies
Assessment (DeSilver, 2017). This study found that the United States was ranked 38
th
out of 71
countries in math. The country’s ranking has led to multiple perspectives on how to improve
student performance in American schools. Encompassed within these perspectives is the
influence of school leadership on student achievement. The study examined administration teams
at the school-site level and sought to determine if fostering and utilizing creative tension could
potentially correlate with positive outcomes. The literature, with regards to school leadership at
the school site, often focuses on the principal and does not include other administrators,
including vice principals and deans, within the school (Garza et al., 2014). The study sought to
widen the lens of educational leadership research at the school site, thus vice principals and
deans were included. Creative tension, while it had been studied in the business sector, had
barely been researched in the educational leadership literature. The lack of application of creative
tension to educational leadership, along with lack of focus on vice principals and deans,
compounded with the increased focus on school leadership and its influence on student
achievement make it imperative to understand how creative tension can be applied to K-12
administration teams.
This chapter provides a review of the purpose of the study, the research questions, the
methodology of the study, and significant findings related to the research questions. This chapter
will also present suggestions for future research and implications for future practice. The
following section will reexamine the statement of the problem.
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 78

Statement of the Problem
There are a multitude of perspectives regarding how schools can be more effective. There
is an increasing body of research which examines the influence of school leadership on the
effectiveness and success of a school (Boonla & Treputtharat, 2014; Jacobson, 2011; Garza,
Drysdale, Gurr, Jacobson, & Merchant, 2014). Most of the literature, however, focuses on the
principal as the target personnel and their role in the success of a school. Thus, there has been no
exploration of other K-12 administrative members and their roles in school success. Further, the
opinions of both vice principals and deans has also not been addressed in the literature.
The use and benefit of tension and conflict in a professional setting has been researched
and discussed throughout literature (Lencioni, 2005; Tiffan, 2011). However, tension and
conflict has not been extensively explored in educational research. McClendon (2013) noted that
there are many benefits of creative tension in the work place, as it can lead to optimal solutions,
as declared by a team. There has been immense pressure placed on school leadership given their
responsibility to improve standardized test performance and the success of their students (Pyo,
2013). Considering the pressure faced by school leaders, creative tension could provide a
platform for determining the best solutions for student success and, therefore, should be
explored.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine the ways in which creative tension is fostered
among school-site administrators including principals, vice principals and deans. Additionally,
the purpose was to understand which leadership styles are more conducive to the utilization of
creative tension. This study further provided a voice for and broadened the focus of school-site
leadership research, to expand and include leadership positions other than the principal. Lastly,
using a grounded theory approach, this study defined creative tension, provided strategies and
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 79

methods to foster creative tension, and informed administrators of the leadership styles most
conducive to utilizing creative tension.
By considering vice principals and deans in the research exploration, this study will allow
for a more broadened scope of educational research, with regards to school-site administration.
This study also sought to understand how creative tension is fostered among school-site
administration teams and which leadership styles are most conducive to the utilization of creative
tension.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided this study:
5. How is creative tension fostered among Principals, Vice Principals and Deans at
elementary, middle, and high school settings?
6. What styles of leadership are more conducive to the utilization of creative tension among
Principals, Vice Principals, and Deans at the elementary, middle, and high school settings
7. What roles do Principals, Vice Principals, and Deans play in fostering an environment
conducive to the utilization of creative tension in decision making for their respective
schools?
8. How are Principals, Vice Principals, and Deans evaluating the success or failure of
utilizing creative tension in their decision-making processes?

Methodology
This study utilized a qualitative approach and data was collected using both interviews
and observations to collect data. Interviews were conducted with ten administrators at three
different school sites ranging from grades TK (Transitional Kindergarten; students who turn five
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 80

between September 2
nd
and December 2
nd
) to twelfth. Interviews were utilized to answer specific
research questions which focused on describing the process (Weiss, 1994) of fostering creative
tension. Researcher-designed questions were used during the interviews with participants.
Additionally, observations were utilized to corroborate or contradict data which was collected
during interviews. Observations ensured there was triangulation of the data to increase reliability.
Key Findings
This study sought to answer four research questions regarding the use of creative tension
among K-12 administrative teams. This study explored how creative tension is fostered, which
leadership styles were more conducive to the utilization of creative tension, the roles played by
various administrators when creating environments which focus on creative tension, and how the
use of creative tension is evaluated among K-12 administration teams.
Regarding research question one, how is creative tension fostered among principals, vice
principals, deans at elementary, middle, and high school settings, four themes emerged from the
research when exploring how creative tension was fostered among K-12 administrative teams. A
common goal, trust, and clearly defined roles were found to be critical for the K-12
administration teams to foster creative tension among themselves. Time was a concept which
emerged from the data, but there were varying opinions about the role time plays in fostering
creative tension among K-12 administration teams. Two of the administration teams felt that
time was beneficial to the fostering of creative tension among their team. However, the high
school administration team did not place much value on time spent together with regards to
fostering creative tension among their administration team
Having a common goal was mentioned by all participating administrators as a way in
which creative tension is fostered. Participants mentioned that having a common goal aided in
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 81

avoiding negative team dynamics. The common goal which united the administrators at a school
site and fostered creative tension was often non-specific. Rather, administrators discussed
common ideals such as “doing what’s best for the kids”. Having a common goal helped create
an environment where varying opinions could be discussed honestly and openly without fear of
lingering negativity.
This study found that trust among K-12 administration teams also helped to foster
creative tension. Every participant mentioned the importance of trust, during their interview.
Participants attested that trust for one another was required by all administrators, both principals
and other leaders for creative tension to be fostered. By valuing the input and suggestions of vice
principals and deans, principals were able to increase their trust from their teams. This study also
found that vice principals and deans were able to increase the trust their principals had in them
by willingly accepting feedback and exhibiting continual success.
Clearly defined roles also emerged from the study as a method to foster creative tension
among K-12 administration teams. It was found that clearly defined roles provided autonomy for
administrators which allowed them to make decisions independently. Having these roles also
encouraged open conversations about the decisions made by administrators. Interestingly, it was
also mentioned by participants how the lack of clearly defined roles deterred the fostering of
creative tension. Feelings of encroachment or negativity were not experienced by participants
due to their clearly defined role.
Participants varied in their opinions of the role of time in fostering creative tension. Some
participants believed that increased time spent together as an administration team led to
increased utilization of creative tension, while other participants disagreed. Participants’ views of
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 82

time may be influenced by the culture of the school in which they work. Participants at the same
school site felt similarly about time and whether or not it aided in fostering creative tension.
Research question two, what styles of leadership are more conducive to the utilization of
creative tension among principals, vice principals, and deans at the elementary, middle, and high
school settings, study sought to determine which leadership styles were more conducive to the
utilization of creative tension among K-12 administration teams. The study found that
Distributed leadership, Situational leadership, and Transformational leadership styles most
conducive to the utilization of creative tension.
Distributed leadership requires that leadership tasks are accomplished through
interactions between multiple leaders (Harris & Mujis, 2005). This study found that principals
were aware that successfully leading a school requires the commitment of multiple individuals
with varying responsibilities. Inherent within the principles of distributed leadership is the
importance of interactions between multiple individuals. These interactions between individuals
foster creative tension among the administration team by allowing for communication between
individuals to occur. The study also found that the lack of distributed leadership hindered
creative tension. Participants noted that the use of distributed leadership helped establish a level
of trust. This trust allowed encouraged honest communication and, without it, there was a lack of
open communication between administration teams.
In addition to distributed leadership, situational leadership emerged as a style conducive
to the utilization of creative tension. Situational leadership, which allows for leaders and
followers to change their approach depending on the situation, was mentioned by administrators
in the study. The familiarity of the members and understanding the strengths of various members
of the administration team was also found to be conducive to the promotion of creative tension.
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 83

Transformational leadership was the final leadership style found to be conducive to the
utilization of creative tension. Components of transformational leadership include charisma,
shared vision, and the empowerment of others. All of these characteristics were mentioned by
participants as ways to foster creative tension. Charisma, on behalf of the principal, was found to
increase levels of comfort and communication among the administration team. Shared vision,
similar to a common goal, manifested an environment where creative tension could be utilized.
Shared vision allowed for the open expression of ideas among administration team members.
The empowerment of others led to the utilization of creative tension. It was found that through
the empowerment of others, trust was established. This trust, in turn, led to the utilization of
creative tension.
Research question three, what roles do principals, vice principals, and deans play in
fostering an environment conducive to the utilization of creative tension in decision making for
their respective schools, examined the roles that principals, vice principals, and deans play in
fostering an environment that is conducive to the utilization of creative tension. The study found
that principals’ roles in fostering an environment conducive to the utilization of creative tension
included: understanding they are initially responsible for facilitating an environment where
creative tension can be utilized, exhibiting vulnerability, and generating consensus among their
respective administration teams. Accepting and providing feedback emerged, from the study, as
the role of vice principals and deans when fostering an environment conducive to the utilization
of creative tension.
Principals are initially responsible for the creation of an environment that fosters creative
tension. Principals, ultimately, determine if their respective administration teams will utilize
creative tension based on the actions of the principal and how they interact with their team. The
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 84

role of the principal stresses the importance of collaboration and values the input of the other
administrative members to foster the utilization of creative tension.
In addition to stressing collaboration and valuing the input of others, exhibiting
vulnerability was found as one of the roles of the principal when fostering creative tension
among administration teams. When the principal exhibits vulnerability, it establishes an
environment which encourages honesty and open communication. This vulnerability, on behalf
of the principal, sets a precedent for how the team will interact with each other. Subsequently,
when the principal expressed their vulnerability, vice principals and deans mirrored the behavior.
Consensus building emerged from the study as part of the role of the principal in
fostering an environment that is conducive to the utilization of creative tension. Principals who
were able to generate consensus amongst their administration team were able to reduce negative
feelings in members of the administration team who may have disagreed with a decision.
Principals in the study were aware of the importance of consensus building and involving
multiple individuals in a decision.
The study found that accepting and providing feedback was encompassed in the role of
vice principals and deans when fostering an environment conducive to creative tension. The
willingness to provide feedback exhibited a level of trust required for the utilization of creative
tension. The willingness to accept feedback allows for honest and open conversations to take
place among administration teams without resulting negative feelings.
Research question four, how are principals, vice principals, and deans evaluating the
success or failure of utilizing creative tension in their decision-making process, researched how
principals, vice principals, and deans evaluated the success or failure of utilizing creative tension.
The study found that K-12 administration teams were not evaluating the success or failure of
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 85

utilizing creative tension in the decision-making process. This was observed throughout all of the
participating administration teams. The outcome of the decision that made was evaluated,
opposed to whether the utilization of creative tension led to success or failure of the decision.
Implications for Practice
The following section addresses how the study informs practice and professionals in K-
12 principals, vice principals, and deans who seek to foster an environment that is conducive to
the utilization of creative tension.
1. Trust is paramount for the utilization of creative tension among administrative teams.
Most of the themes which emerged from the data focused on the importance of trust.
Trust was deemed essential when considering how creative tension was fostered, which
leadership styles were more conducive to fostering creative tension, and the roles that
various administration positions played in fostering creative tension. Trust was
mentioned by all participants as a means to establish open and honest lines of
communication. The leadership styles which emerged from this study include:
distributed, situational, and transformational. All of these styles encompass a component
of trust, and they all emerged as leadership styles that were conducive to the utilization of
creative tension. Vulnerability, which emerged from the data as essential to the role of the
principal in fostering an environment that is conducive to the utilization of creative
tension, requires trust from the principal in their other administration team members. The
roles of vice principals and deans required both accepting and providing feedback. Trust
in a principal from a vice principal or dean is essential, particularly when these
administrators provide feedback which may be negative or contrary to the beliefs of the
principal. Without trust, it is impossible to facilitate creative tension.
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 86

2. Principals will, ultimately, determine if creative tension will be utilized amongst an
administration team. Principals who do not value the input or contributions of their vice
principals and deans will deter future honest and open communication. Without open and
honest communication, creative tension cannot exist. Conversely, principals who
encourage input and collaboration from vice principals and deans promote an
environment which is conducive to the utilization of creative tension. Principals must
decide if they desire an environment where creative tension is utilized. If so, they must
act in a manner that positively fosters this type of environment.
3. Vice principals and deans are integral components when utilizing creative tension among
K-12 administration teams. The data from this study demonstrated that increased trust
from principals was garnered by vice principals and deans given previous successes and
the administrators’ abilities to accept and provide feedback. Therefore, when
opportunities are available for vice principals and deans to contribute their input or they
are tasked with accomplishing a goal or making a decision, these responsibilities should
not be taken lightly. Vice principals and deans should attribute due diligence to these
moments to ensure positive outcomes. Doing so may increase trust from the principal,
thus manifesting an environment where creative tension can be utilized.
Recommendations for Future Research
1. Creative tension and its correlation to successful outcomes should be further explored and
more light still should be shed on the role and influence of subordinate administration
members when fostering creative tension.
2. Pursue the inclusion of more administration teams when examining creative tension.

LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 87

Limitations
. The researcher was previously acquainted with at least one member of each
administration team prior to conducting this study. These prior relationships could have
influenced the information participants provided in their interviews despite them being informed
that their identities would remain confidential.
Conclusion
This study sought to explore how creative tension was used among K-12 administration
teams. This study sought to determine how creative tension was fostered among principals, vice
principals, and deans. The study further sought to discover the types of leadership styles which
were more conducive to the utilization of creation tension among K-12 administration teams.
This study also aimed to uncover the different roles that principals, vice principals, and deans
play when fostering an environment which is conducive to the utilization of creative tension.
Lastly, this study examined how K-12 administration teams were evaluating the success or
failure of utilizing creative tension. A review of the literature demonstrated that minimal research
had been conducted with regards to creative tension and its application to educational leadership.
This study contributed to the literature regarding creative tension and its application to K-
12 administration teams. Data was presented regarding how principals, vice principals and deans
foster environments conducive to the utilization of creative tension. Data was also presented
regarding the leadership styles which were more conducive to the utilization of creative tension
among K-12 administration teams. Further, data was presented regarding the various roles that
principals, vice principals, and deans play in fostering an environment conducive to the
utilization of creative tension. Data was presented regarding how principals, vice principals, and
deans evaluate the success or failure of utilizing creative tension. This study contributed to the
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 88

current literature which exists regarding creative tension and its application to educational
leadership. The current study can be utilized by school-site level administrators to foster creative
tension among their administration teams and potentially improve team dynamics and their
decision-making processes.

LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 89

References
Abu-Hussain, J. (2014). Leadership styles and value systems of school principals. American
Journal of Educational Research, 2014, Vol. 2, No. 12, 1267-1276
Adigüzelli, Y. (2016). Examining the relationship between distributed leadership and
organizational trust according to opinions of teachers. Egitim Ve Bilim, 41(185), 269–
280. https://doi.org/10.15390/EB.2016.6218
Aguilar, E. (2016). Managing conflict in school leadership teams: Identifying healthy and
unhealthy behaviors is key to collaboration. District Administration, 52(5), 80.
Andersen, S., Humlum, M., & Nandrup, A. (2016). Increasing instruction time in school does
increase learning. Proceedings Of The National Academy Of Sciences Of The United
States Of Ame, 113(27), 7481-7484.
Anderson, M. (2017). Transformational Leadership in Education: A Review of Existing
Literature. International Social Science Review, 93(1), C1.
Bass, B. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations / Bernard M. Bass. New York
: London: Free Press ; Collier Macmillan.
Begley, P. (1996). Cognitive Perspectives on Values in Administration: A Quest for Coherence
and Relevance. Educational Administration Quarterly, 32(3), 403-426.
Berlew, D. (1974). Leadership and Organizational Excitement. California Management Review,
17(2), 21-30.
Beyer, Bonnie M., & Ruhl-Smith, Connie. (1998). The principal's role in school restructuring
and reform: An examination of self-perceived leadership styles.(Statistical Data
Included). Journal of Leadership Studies, 5(2), 116.
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 90

Billsberry, J., & Meisel, S. (2009). Leadership is in the eye of the beholder. Organization
Management Journal, 6(2), 67-68.
Blackmar, F. (1911). Leadership in Reform. American Journal of Sociology, 16(5), 626-644
Bogdan, R., & Biklen, S. (2007). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to theories
and methods (5th ed.). Boston, Mass.: Pearson A & B.
Boonla, D., & Treputtharat, S. (2014). The relationship between the leadership style and school
effectiveness in school under the office of secondary education area 20. Procedia - Social
and Behavioral Sciences, 112, 991-996.
Bredeson P.V. (2016) Research on School Principals in the United States (2003–2013). In:
Ärlestig H., Day C., Johansson O. (eds) A Decade of Research on School Principals.
Studies in Educational Leadership, vol 21. Springer, Cham.
Bridges, E. (1982). Research on the School Administrator: The State of the Art, 1967-19801.
Educational Administration Quarterly, 18(3), 12-33.
Brown, A. (1967). Reactions to Leadership. Educational Administration Quarterly, 3(1), 62-73.
Brown, M., Treviño, L., & Harrison, D. (2005). Ethical leadership: A social learning perspective
for construct development and testing. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision
Processes, 97(2), 117-134.
Burns, J. (1978). Leadership (1st ed.). New York: Harper & Row.
Bush, T. (2007). Educational leadership and management: Theory, policy and practice. South
African journal of education, 27(3), 391-406
Bush, T., & Glover, D. (2014). School leadership models: What do we know? School Leadership
& Management, 1-19.
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 91

Cai, S., Goh, M., de Souza, R., & Li, G. (2013). Knowledge sharing in collaborative supply
chains: twin effects of trust and power. International Journal of Production
Research, 51(7), 2060–2076. https://doi-
org.libproxy2.usc.edu/10.1080/00207543.2012.701780
Calahan, L. (2013). Trust me, I’m your principal: building trust between administrators and
teachers through transparency, clear expectations, compassion, and flexibility establishes
a foundation for improved teaching and learning. Principal Leadership, 14(4).
Caldwell, W., & Lutz, F. (1978). The Measurement of Principal Rule Administration Behavior
and its Relationship to Educational Leadership. Educational Administration
Quarterly, 14(2), 63-79.
Claye, C. (1962). Leadership behavior among negro school principals. The Journal of Negro
Education, 31(4), 521-526.
Clinard, Janice, & Foster, Lenoar. (1998). Leadership in a Fishbowl: A New Accreditation
Process. Educational Leadership, 55(7), 53-56.
D’Alessandro, B. (1999). Taking turns at teaching and learning: The superintendent-principal
partnership. In R. Van Der Bogert & S. Boris-Schacter (Eds.) The Changing relationship
between principal and superintendent : Shifting roles in an era of educational reform
(New directions for school leadership, no. 10) (p. 73-80). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Dantley, M. (2010). Successful leadership in urban schools: Principals and critical spirituality, a
new approach to reform. The Journal of Negro Education, 79(3), 214-219,438.
Darling-Hammond, L., Bullmaster, M., & Cobb, V. (1995). Rethinking Teacher Leadership
Through Professional Development Schools. The Elementary School Journal, 96(1), 87-
106
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 92

De Hoogh, A., Den Hartog, D. (2009). Ethical leadership: The positive and responsible use of
power. In Power and Interdependence in Organizations, ed. D Tjosvold, B Wisse, pp.
338–54. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
Den Hartog, D. (2015). Ethical Leadership. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and
Organizational Behavior, 2(1), 409-434.
Duke, D. (1987). School leadership and instructional improvement. New York: Random House.
Duignan, P. (1986). RESEARCH ON EFFECTIVE SCHOOLING: SOME IMPLICATIONS
FOR SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT. Journal of Educational Administration, 24(1), 59-73.
Dobbs, C., Ippolito, J., & Charner-Laird, M. (2016). Creative tension. Journal of Staff
Development, 37(6), 28-31,67.
Dyer, B., & Song, X. (1998). Innovation Strategy and Sanctioned Conflict: A New Edge in
Innovation? Journal of Product Innovation Management, 15(6), 505-519.
Garza, E., Drysdale, L., Gurr, D., Jacobson, S., & Merchant, B. (2014). Leadership for school
success: Lessons from effective principals. International Journal of Educational
Management,28(7), International Journal of Educational Management, 19 August 2014,
Vol.28(7).
Gates, P., Blanchard, K., & Hersey, P. (1976). Diagnosing Educational Leadership Problems: A
Situational Approach. Educational Leadership, 33(5). Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/docview/1290237215/
Goleman, Daniel. (2004). What makes a leader?(Best of HBR)(Reprint). Harvard Business
Review, 82(1), 82-91.
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 93

Griffiths, D.E. (1988) ‘Administrative Theory’, in N. Boyan (ed.) Handbook of research on
educational administration : A project of the American Educational Research
Association / Norman J. Boyan, editor. New York: Longman.
Griffiths, D.E.,Carlson, R.O., Culbertson, J., and Lonsdale, R.C. (1964) ‘The Theme’, in D.E.
Griffiths (ed.) Behavioral Science and Educational Administration: The Sixty-Third
Yearbook of The National Society for the Study of Education, part 2, 1-7. Chicago: NSSE.
Gumus, S., Bellibas, M. S., Esen, M., & Gumus, E. (2018). A systematic review of studies on
leadership models in educational research from 1980 to 2014. Educational Management
Administration & Leadership, 46(1), 25-48.
Hallinger, P. (2003). Leading Educational Change: Reflections on the practice of instructional
and transformational leadership. Cambridge Journal of Education,33(3), 329-352.
Hallinger, P., Bickman, L., & Davis, K. (1996). School Context, Principal Leadership, and
Student Reading Achievement. The Elementary School Journal, 96(5), 527-549.
Hallinger, P., & Heck, R. (1996). Reassessing the Principal's Role in School Effectiveness: A
Review of Empirical Research, 1980-1995. Educational Administration Quarterly, 32(1),
5-44.
Hallinger, P., & Murphy, J. (1985). Assessing the instructional management behavior of
principals. The Elementary School Journal, 86(2), 217-247.
Harris, A., & Muijs, D. (2004). Improving schools through teacher leadership [electronic
resource] / Alma Harris and Daniel Muijs. (Professional learning). Berkshire, England ;
New York, N.Y.: Open University Press.
Harris, A., & Spillane, J. (2008). Distributed leadership through the looking glass. Management
in Education, 22(1), 31-34.
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 94

Harrison, E. (2013). Achieving trust & transparency in the boardroom. Inside Counsel, N/a.
Hawley, W., Rosenholtz, S., Goodstein, H., & Hasselbring, T. (1984). Good Schools: What
Research Says about Improving Student Achievement. Peabody Journal of Education,
61(4), Iii-178. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.libproxy1.usc.edu/stable/1491494.
Heck, Ronald H., & Hallinger, Philip. (2005). The Study of Educational Leadership and
Management: Where Does the Field Stand Today? Educational Management
Administration & Leadership, 33(2), 229-244.
Hersey, P., & Blanchard, K. H. (1976). Life cycle theory of leadership. Multidisciplinary
readings in educational leadership, 23(5), 188-199.
Hogg, M. A. (2001). A social identity theory of leadership. Personality and social psychology
review, 5(3), 184-200.
House, R. J. (1976). A 1976 Theory of Charismatic Leadership. Working Paper Series 76-06.
Hulpia, H., & Devos, G. (2010). How Distributed Leadership Can Make a Difference in
Teachers’ Organizational Commitment? A Qualitative Study. Teaching and Teacher
Education: An International Journal of Research and Studies, 26(3), 565–575.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2009.08.006
Isaksen, S., & Ekvall, G. (2010). Managing for Innovation: The Two Faces of Tension in
Creative Climates. Creativity and Innovation Management, 19(2), 73-88.
Jacobson, S. (2011). Leadership effects on student achievement and sustained school
success. International Journal of Educational Management, 25(1), 33-44.
Johansen, B. (1990). Situational leadership: A review of the research. Human Resource
Development Quarterly, 1(1), 73–85. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrdq.3920010109
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 95

Joni, S., & Beyer, D. (2010). The right fight: How great leaders use healthy conflict to drive
performance, innovation, and value / Saj-nicole Joni and Damon Beyer. (1st ed.). New
York: Harper Business.
Kaner, S., Doyle, S., Kerney, M., Berger, K., Lind, D., Doyle, Michael, . . . Lind, Lenny.
(2014). Facilitator's guide to participatory decision-making(3rd ed.).
Katzenmeyer, M., & Moller, G. (2001). Awakening the sleeping giant : Helping teachers develop
as leaders / Marilyn Katzenmeyer, Gayle Moller. (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, Calif.:
Corwin Press.
Keohane, N. O. (2014). Western political thought. The Oxford Handbook of Political
Leadership, 25.
Kimball, R. (1974). A Study of Rewards and Incentives for Teachers. The Phi Delta Kappan,
55(9), 637-638.
Knapp, J., & Olson, S. (1996). Ethical Leadership. Journal of Leadership Studies, 3(4), 84-86.
Kudonoo, E., Schroeder, K., & Boysen-Rotelli, S. (2012). An Olympic Transformation: Creating
an Organizational Culture that Promotes Healthy Conflict. Organization Development
Journal, 30(2), 51-65.
Leblanc, P., & Shelton, M. (1997). Teacher Leadership: The Needs of Teachers. Action in
Teacher Education, 19(3), 32-48.
Leithwood, K. (1994). Leadership for School Restructuring. Educational Administration
Quarterly, 30(4), 498-518.
Leithwood, K., & Jantzi, D. (1999). The relative effects of principal and teacher sources of
leadership on student engagement with school. Educational Administration Quarterly,
35, 679-706.
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 96

Leithwood, K., & Jantzi, D. (2000). Principal and Teacher Leadership Effects: A Replication.
School Leadership & Management, 20(4), 415-34.
Leithwood, K., & Jantzi, D. (2005). A Review of Transformational School Leadership Research
1996–2005. Leadership and Policy in Schools, 4(3), 177-199.
Lencioni, P. (2002). The five dysfunctions of a team : A leadership fable / Patrick Lencioni. (1st
ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Lencioni, P. (2005). Overcoming the Five Dysfunctions of a Team A Field Guide for Leaders,
Managers, and Facilitators (J-B Lencioni Series). Hoboken: Wiley.
Levitt, S. (2015, March). The power of healthy conflict: robust disagreement fuels innovation,
growth and problem-solving. Success, 58+. Retrieved from
http://link.galegroup.com.libproxy2.usc.edu/apps/doc/A427891942/AONE?u=usocal_ma
in&sid=AONE&xid=12f09e51
Machiavelli, N., Baker-Smith, N., & Baker-Smith, Dominic. (1992). The prince / Niccolò
Machiavelli ; translated by W.K. Marriott ; with an introduction by Dominic Baker-
Smith. (Everyman's library). New York: Knopf.
Marks, H., & Louis, K. (1997). Does Teacher Empowerment Affect the Classroom? The
Implications of Teacher Empowerment for Instructional Practice and Student Academic
Performance. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 19(3), 245-275.
Marzano, R., Waters, T., & McNulty, B. (2005). School leadership that works: From research to
results. Alexandria, Va.: Aurora, Col.: Mid-continent Research for Education and
Learning: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Maxwell, J. (2013). Qualitative research design : An interactive approach (3rd ed., Applied
social research methods series ; v. 41). Thousand Oaks, Calif.: SAGE Publications.
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 97

Merriam, S., & Tisdell, E. (2016). Qualitative research : A guide to design and
implementation (Fourth ed., Jossey-Bass higher and adult education series). Hoboken:
Wiley.
Merton, R. K. (1969). The social nature of leadership. The American Journal of Nursing, 2614-
2618.
Menon, A., Bharadwaj, S., & Howell, G. (1996). The quality and effectiveness of marketing
strategy: Effects of functional and dysfunctional conflict in intraorganizational
relationships. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science,24(4), 299-313.
Molnar, Alex. (1996). Charter Schools: The Smiling Face of Disinvestment. Educational
Leadership, 54(2), 9-15.
Montague, S. (2007). When Carefully Managed, Conflict is Healthy. Nation's Cities Weekly,
30(39), 10.
Mullican, F., & Ainsworth, L. (1979). The principal as instructional leader. Theory Into Practice,
18(1), 33-38.
Mumford, E. (1906). The Origins of Leadership. American Journal of Sociology, 12(2), 216-240
Nir, A. E., & Hameiri, L. (2014). School principals’ leadership style and school
outcomes. Journal of Educational Administration, 52(2), 210-227.
Northfield, S. (2014). Multi-Dimensional Trust: How Beginning Principals Build Trust with
Their Staff during Leader Succession. International Journal of Leadership in
Education, 17(4), 410–441. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603124.2013.825011
Northouse, P. (2016). Leadership: Theory and practice (Seventh ed.).
Oxford University Press. (1989). Oxford English dictionary [electronic resource]. Oxford ; New
York, N.Y.]: Oxford University Press.
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 98

Patton, M. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks,
Calif.: Sage Publications.
Pitner, N. (1988). The study of administrator effects and effectiveness. Handbook of research in
educational administration, 99-122.
Plato , Cairns, Cooper, Hamilton, Cairns, Huntington, Cooper, Lane, & Hamilton, Edith.
(1961). The Collected Dialogues of Plato / Plato; Huntington Cairns, Edith
Hamilton. (Bollingen Series (General)).
Pyo, M. (2013). The path to math: leadership matters: effective practices of principals that
improve student achievement in secondary mathematics. Los Angeles, California [Place
of publication (of the original version)]
Raymond, A. (2011). Healthy conflict encourages ideas. CabinetMaker FDM,25(10), 24-25.
Reddin, W.J. (1967). The 3-D management style theory. Training and development journal. 21,
8-17.
Richmon, Malcolm J., & Allison, Derek J. (2003). Toward a Conceptual Framework for
Leadership Inquiry. Educational Management & Administration, 31(1), 31-50.
Roberts, N. (1985). Transforming Leadership: A Process of Collective Action. Human Relations,
38(11), 1023-1046.
Ross, Dorene, Adams, Alyson, Bondy, Elizabeth, Dana, Nancy, Dodman, Stephanie, & Swain,
Colleen. (2011). Preparing Teacher Leaders: Perceptions of the Impact of a Cohort-
Based, Job Embedded, Blended Teacher Leadership Program. Teaching and Teacher
Education: An International Journal of Research and Studies, 27(8), 1213-1222.
Rousseau, D., Sitkin, S., Burt, R., & Camerer, C. (1998). Introduction to Special Topic Forum:
Not so Different after All: A Cross-Discipline View of Trust. The Academy of
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION 99

Management Review, 23(3), 393-404. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org.libproxy2.usc.edu/stable/259285
Rubin, H., & Rubin, I. S. (2004). Qualitative Interviewing The Art of Hearing Data(2nd ed.). Los
Angeles: SAGE Publications.
Sarachek, B. (1968). Greek Concepts of Leadership. The Academy of Management Journal,
11(1), 39-48. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.libproxy1.usc.edu/stable/255195.
Sclafani, Susan. (2010). Teacher compensation around the globe: From England to Kenya,
nations are exploring ways to use salary incentives to recruit and retain teachers, fill
vacancies in key areas, and improve student learning.(PERFORMANCE PAY). Phi
Delta Kappan, 91(8), 38-43.
Senge, Peter M. (1990). The leader's new work: Building learning organizations. (includes
related exercise and article). Sloan Management Review, 32(1), 7.
Shatzer, R., Caldarella, P., Hallam, P., & Brown, B. (2014). Comparing the effects of
instructional and transformational leadership on student achievement. Educational
Management Administration & Leadership, 42(4), 445-459.
Snell, J., Swanson, J., & Educational Resources Information Center. (2000). The essential
knowledge and skills of teacher leaders [microform] : A search for a conceptual
framework / Jean Snell and Judy Swanson. Washington, DC]: U.S. Dept. of Education,
Office of Educational Research and Improvement, Educational Resources Information
Center
Spillane, J. (2005). Distributed leadership. The Educational Forum, 69(2), 143-150.
Spillane, J., Halverson, R., & Diamond, J. (2004). Towards a theory of leadership practice: A
distributed perspective. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 36(1), 3-34.
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION
100

Squires, David. (2012). Curriculum Alignment Research Suggests that Alignment Can Improve
Student Achievement. Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and
Ideas, 85(4), 129-135.
Stogdill, R. M. (1974). Handbook of leadership: A survey of theory and research. New York,
NY, US: Free Press.
Stogdill, R. (1948). Personal factors associated with leadership; a survey of the literature. The
Journal of Psychology, 25, 35-71.
Stogdill, R, & Bass, Bernard M. (1981). Stogdill's handbook of leadership : A survey of theory
and research. (Rev. and expanded ed. / Bernard M. Bass.. ed.). New York: Free Press.
Strachan, J. (1999). Feminist Educational Leadership: Locating the concepts in practice. Gender
and Education, 11(3), 309-322.
Stuart, L. (1999). Crossing boundaries: Principals and superintendents assume multiple roles and
collaborate in a culture of creative tension. In R. Van Der Bogert & S. Boris-Schacter
(Eds.) The Changing relationship between principal and superintendent : Shifting roles
in an era of educational reform (New directions for school leadership, no. 10) (p. 61-71).
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Sun, J., & Leithwood, K. (2012). Transformational School Leadership Effects on Student
Achievement. Leadership and Policy in Schools, 11(4), 418-451.
Taylor, D., & Bogotch, I. (1994). School-Level Effects of Teachers' Participation in Decision
Making. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 16(3), 302-319.
Valsan, C., & Druica, E. (2014). Of academics and professionals: The difference is in the pay.
Manager, (20), 103-109.
LEADERSHIP STYLES CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE TENSION
101

Van Maanen, J. (1979). Reclaiming qualitative methods for organizational research: A
preface. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24, 520-526.
Vecchio, R. P. (1987). Situational leadership theory: An examination of a prescriptive theory.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 72(3), 444-451.
http://dx.doi.org.libproxy1.usc.edu/10.1037/0021-9010.72.3.444.
Weiss, R. (1994). Learning from strangers : The art and method of qualitative interview studies.
New York : Toronto : New York: Free Press ; Maxwell Macmillan Canada ; Maxwell
Macmillan International.
York-Barr, Jennifer, & Duke, Karen. (2004). What Do We Know about Teacher Leadership?
Findings from Two Decades of Scholarship. Review of Educational Research, 74(3), 255-
316.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract As a result of the United States’ international ranking on student performance in math and reading there has been growing concern over how to improve American student achievement. One school of thought focuses on school leadership and its influence on increasing student achievement. The notion that school leadership can influence student performance is supported in the literature, however, creative tension, its application to school-site leadership, and its potential for aiding principals, vice principals, and deans in arriving at the best decision for students still needs to be explored. This qualitative study utilized interviews and observations to answer four research questions related to K-12 administrators including principals, vice principals, and deans and the ways in which they foster and utilize creative tension. Data was collected via ten interviews with principals, vice principals, and deans at three different school sites. A common goal was found that trust, and clearly defined roles foster creative tension among principals, vice principals, and deans. Furthermore this study found that distributed leadership, situational leadership, and transformational leadership are leadership styles more conducive to fostering creative tension. The role of the principal include being initially responsible for creating an environment where creative tension can be utilized, being vulnerable, and building consensus amongst the administration team. The role of vice principals and deans include accepting and providing feedback, along with garnering trust from the principal through previous success.

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

The role of the principal in schools that effectively implement restorative practices

PDF

Effective transformational and transactional qualities of 7-8 intermediate school principals who create and sustain change in an urban school setting

PDF

Professional learning communities: the role of site and district leaders in developing collective efficacy in public secondary schools in southern California

PDF

Elementary principals attitudes, perceptions, and their ability to support students with autism and emotional behavioral disturbances in inclusive settings

PDF

A study of the leadership strategies of urban elementary school principals with effective inclusion programs for autistic students in the general education setting for a majority of the school day

PDF

Role of a principal supervisor in fostering principal development to support instructional improvement and a positive school climate

PDF

Professional learning communities: the role of school principals, district directors, assistant superintendents, and superintendents in developing collective efficacy in public secondary school...

PDF

Future ready schools: how middle and high school principals support personalized and digital learning for teachers and students at a mid-sized urban middle/high school

PDF

Principal leadership -- skill demands in a global context

PDF

Professional learning communities: secondary site and district leaders’ role in developing collective efficacy in public schools in southern California

PDF

Schoolwide structures, systems, and practices that are closing the achievement gap at a Southern California high-performing, high-poverty urban public elementary school: a case study

PDF

School leadership: preparation, recruitment, and retention of principals

PDF

School integration as a reform strategy: the principal’s role, an evaluation study

PDF

Female elementary school principals and building capacity for teacher leaders

PDF

K-12 public school district principals in California: strategies for preparation, recruitment, and retention

PDF

Understanding the decision making process of California urban schools superintendents through Bolman and Deal's four leadership frames

PDF

Future Ready Schools: how middle school principals support personalized and digital learning for teachers and students at mid-sized urban middle schools

PDF

The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on K-12 public school districts in southern California: responses of superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals

PDF

Middle school principals’ impact on effective professional learning communities in public schools in California

PDF

Uncovered leaders in hidden schools: effective leadership practices in California Model Continuation High School principals

Asset Metadata

Creator Johnson, Stefond Torrey (author)

Core Title Leadership styles conducive to creative tension in decision making among principals, vice principals, and deans at K-12 school sites

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/26/2019

Defense Date 03/18/2019

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag creative tension,deans,education,leadership,OAI-PMH Harvest,principals, vice principals

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Castruita, Rudy (committee chair), Cash, David (committee member), Swanson, Rodney (committee member)

Creator Email stefond.johnson7@gmail.com,stefondj@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-146610

Unique identifier UC11660835

Identifier etd-JohnsonSte-7273.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-146610 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-JohnsonSte-7273.pdf

Dmrecord 146610

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Johnson, Stefond Torrey

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA